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REPORT

OF THE

SEVENTY-THIRD MEETING

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

HELD AT

SOUTHPORT IN SEPTEMBER 1903.

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LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1904.

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W.

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CONTENTS.

——

Page
Ossects and Rules of the Association ........s.0008 iicanteies« i salbaSae Sos ap tama Xxvii
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local

Secretaries from commencement ........scsersessesesceescersenceseeseeeeeessserees XXXVili
Trustees and General Officers, from 1831 .............0000e HEA fidence nc rid ates lit
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832 ... lili
Mawt Of Byening Discourses. cciieicccesvvicdslccatsctecdeladesstededidevevvateentansoe | LRRT
Lectures to the Operative Classes ..s.cccsessescssestscncestessesecsseeeneenseesens . Ixxvi
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Southport Meeting ......... Ixxvil
Committee of Recommendations at the Southport Meeting ......... Seraaier Ixxix
ecncmeer s AMCCOUTE iiiseh <steihs wees Uiaehe débeloncii edndadssobusndesMase daweere ben saWa Ixxx
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxxii
Officers and Council, 1903-1904 ..... a ere ho seas iaeonieareds a Say eiueeai a: DERE
Report of the Council to the General Committee ...........0008 situa ae Beatealeus lxxxv
Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Southport Meet-

Pee ABI oe LRU NET LIU cade ccy aco ceeppiinns oyas esas endo pes cgucsundvdersudate: pave ates <n UL
Communication ordered to be printed 27 ertenso .......cseseaveceneeeneeeenes citi cyl
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if desirable evi
Synopsis of Grants of Money ....ccccsereseeees Sogn a MERIT sauna ncn ede aesljabasinss eviii
meinces on Mectine ime LOO nstd, 1O0G.. ssadevscasiinsteeQviwi drew ed douersaeseeatedneds cix
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for

BITS EUING MURDONES: © aravccacdihin: tha asa vacivad Nanna sexy ones A poendnandaneieaae Sotese cx
General Meetings ..... Rt DAC ORL Saeeaee Fie aliacneleate tes breve Aedeslep wont bie dca SXCWLLL

Addrese by the President, Sir Norman Locxygr, K,C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.... 3
A2

iv REPORT—1903.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark + indicates the same,
but with a reference to the Journal or Newspaper in which it is published in extenso. ]

Page
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites in co-operation
with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Second Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. Saaw (Chairman), Mr. W. H.
Drxes (Secretary), Mr. D. AncuipaLp, Mr. C. Vuernon Boys, Dr. ; As
Bucuan, Dr. R. T. Grazeproox, Dr. H. R. Mitt, and Professor A.
ScrusteR. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ....ceccessessecverseeeeeeeeerseeraeees 3l

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir W. H. Prezc (Chairman), Dr. R. T. Grazeproox (Secretary), Pro-
fessor W. G. Avams, Captain Creax, Mr. W. L. Fox, Professor <A.
Scuuster, and Sir A. W. Ricker, appointed to co-operate with the Com-
mittee of the Falmouth Observatory in their Magnetic Observations ......... 32

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
RAYLEIGH (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GuazEsRoox (Secretary), Lord Ketvin,
Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, and G. Carry Foster,

Sir Orrver J. Loper, Dr. A. Murruean, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors

J. D. Everert, A. Scuusrer, J. A. Fremine and J. J. THomson, Dr.

W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromiry, Rev. T. C. Firzparricx, Dr. G.

Jounsronn Stoney, Professor S. P. Tompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Dr. E. H.

Grirritus, Sir A. W. RicKer, Professor H. L. Cattenpar, and Mr.
GoRGE MAPTTHHY .....c.cescserdiseresss+e+ccscscoeceuseseacsseesorinlan cel chtelagel(sl sme 33

Apprnpix 1,—On the Values of the Resistance of certain Standard
Coils of the British Association. By F, E. Smire. 38

+ II.—On some new Mercury Standards of Resistance. By

Bags PS MOLE 6.5 g's aed orgetaesled aa pleb «cad fone bet ee ae 44
” T1I.—On the Platinum Thermometers of the British Asso-
ciation. By J. A. HARKER, D.Se.........c0ceseesenees 45
x 1V.—Table of the Resistance found for Pure Annealed
COPPers mremnminwannnn a» JsVbtse leah RAS Ath onic bine a1
On the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics. By Professor O. HEnRICI,
PH.D., FURS, ...ccsccsecscconseesvscecceecesseaancusssevsscsessecsoes congeesssenuesSemeuans 51

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord M‘Laren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary), Sir JoHn
Murray, Frofessor Coprtann, and Dr, ALEXANDER Bucuan. (Drawn
up by Dr. BUCHAN.) .....scceeeeeeeceseeeneeseveeeeeennaneeeeseeeeeeeueuaneensseerees .- =56

Report on the Theory of Point-groups, Parr II, By Frances Harpoastie, 65

CONTENTS, Vv

Page
Seismological Investigations.—Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr, J. Mritnn (Secretary), Lord
Ketvin, Professor T. G. Bonnny, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewrna,
Dr, R. T. Guazesroox, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R, MEnpona,
Mr. R. D. OLpuam, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. Prummaur, Professor
J. H. Poynttne, Mr, Crmment Re, Mr. Netson Ricwarpson, and

Professor H. H. Turner. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 2... cesesseeeeeveees WW
I. General Notes on Stations and Registers ........:6. sesneceeneeneeees vi

II. The Origin of large Earthquakes recorded in 1902 and since 1899 78

ILI. Earthquakes and Changes in Latitude ....,.......c:ecsceeeeeneeeenenes 78

JV. Comparison of Records from three Milne Pendulums at Shide.., 81

V. Comparison of Registersfrom Shide, Kew, Bidston, and Edinburgh 81
VI. Earthquake Commencements as recorded at Strassburg and in

Brifainges ¥, apazastivs sh <tc tuaddesionsse wo ncebbieeeecteh echt ee cesounas 82

Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene.—Fourth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. A. Mrers (Chairman), Dr. H. E, Arn-
STRONG (Secretary), Professor W. P. Wxnne, and Professor W. J. Pore.
(iitavt Wpaby ie SOcretarya)y tcratedeasessaccere un copgessdeesmtenaetouscnads | ascrs og 85

Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscon (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockysr, Professor J. Dewar, Pro-
fessor G. D, Livetne, Professor A. ScHusteR, Professor W. N. HAR ey, .
Professor Woxcott Gripss, and Captain Sir W. DE W. ABNEY ......s.eeeeees 87

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—
Fifth Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Norn
Harriey (Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp, Professor J. J.
Dozsig, and Mr. ALEXANDER LAUDER, appointed to investigate the Rela-
tion between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic
SSABBEANCOS os desscopesr scene recopeees>ad eWeRES yeanedo tad de aisle eis fee igh dp ong hh Eee 126

On the Possibility of Making Special Reports more available than at present.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. A. SHenstonn (Chairman),
Dr, M. O. Forsrer (Secretary), Professors E. Divers and W. J. Pore,
AU DrecARI NY AC HGssiey eee Lob NS. MLL ote dod. EERE 169

Duty-free Alcohol for Scientific Research.Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir H. E. Roscoz (Chairman), Professor H. B. Dixon (Secretary),
Sir Micnart Foster, Sir A. W. Ricxer, Dr. T. E. THorpn, Professor
W. H. Perkin, and Professor W. D. HALLIBURTON ........ssceceeceeeeeeecees 170

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. T1rpEn (Chairman) and Dr. H. E. Arnmsrrone (Secretary).
(Drawh-tp, by che Seenebarye)\ cases aaereanended xe yeadth poten saves § oflaree «caeptepycaanyle 174

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances.—Report of the Committee, con-
__- sisting of Dr. E, Divers (Chairman), Dr. A. W. Cross~ny (Secretary),
| Professor W. H. Perkin, and Drs. M. O. Forster and Le Svrur ......... 179

Recent Work on Hydro-aromatic Substances. By Dr. A. W. Crosstry 179
On Dihydrobenzenes and on Aromatic Compounds derived from Hydro-
aromatic Substances. By Dr. A. W. CROSSLEY ........cccecceceeeeeeeeees 182

Edenvale Caves, co, Clare.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. R. F.
SowaRrFF (Chairman), Mr. R. Liuoyp Pranenr (Secretary), Mr. G. Corrry,
Professor G. A. J. Coun, Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Mr. G. W. Lamp-
LueHs Mr, A. McHenry, and Mr. R. J. Ussuer, appointed to explore Irish

Caves, (Drawn up by Mr. R. J. Usswer.) ......... Rieescherdanddarwt ences vets . 183

Wi REPORT—1908.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. KE. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHErEe.ton Hinp (Secretary),
Dr. F. A. Barner, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G, J. Hinpr, Professor P. F. Kenpatn, Mr,
R. Kinston, Mr. G. W. LAmpiueu, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. B. N,
Peracu, Mr. A. Srranan, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

COOP eee eer ee meee eee EO HEHEHE THEE EEE EEE HOES HEH HEHEHE HEHE ESI SHOES HHH HERE EOD

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire.—Fourth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Warts (Chair-
man), Mr. A. R. DweRryHovse (Secretary), Professor A. SMITHELLS, Rey.
E. Jonzs, Mr, Watrer Morrison, Mr. Grorer Bray, Rev. W. Lowrr
Carter, Mr. T. Farruny, Mr. Percy F. Kenpatz, and Mr. J, E, Marr.
(Drawn. up thy dhe Bectetary,)),. watsear athe sans sae. suns) dee vsessongsbacss hse eee

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Fourteenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor James GErKIE (Chair-
man), Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Pro-
fessor E. J. GARwoop, Professor S. H. Rrynotps, Dr. Trupest ANDERSON,
Mr. Goprrey Binerny, Mr. H. Coates, Mr. A. K. CoomAraswAmy,
Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. J. G. Goopcutip, Mr. Wittiam Gray, Mr. Ropert
Kipston, Mr. J. St. J. Puizires, Mr. A. S. Rem, Mr. J. J. H. Teawt,
Mr. R. Wetcu, and Mr. H. B. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Estuarine Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire.—Preliminary Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. Lampruen (Chairman), Mr. J. W.
SraTHeR (Secretary), Mr. F. W. Harmer, Mr. P. F. Kenpatn, Mr.
CreMENT REID, and Mr. THomas SHEPPARD, appointed to investigate the
Estuarine deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, and to consider its position
with regard to the Glacial Deposits. (Drawn up by the Secretary.).........

Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. H»rpMan
(Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W. Warts, and
Messrs. P, F. Kenpatt, E. T. Newron, A. C. Spwarp, and W. A. E,
Usenzr, (Drawn up by tho Seeretary.) © .......2.:5:ssseasaesevacehsseesvereruee

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—Eighth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Kenpatt (Secretary), Professor
T. G, Bonney, Mr. C. E. DE Rancg, Professor W. J. Sortas, Mr. R. H.
Trppeman, Rey. 8. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horns, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerrynouse, Mr. J. W. Starner, Mr. W. T.
Tucker, and Mr, F. W. Haraer, appointed to investigate the Erratic
Blocks of the British Isles, and to take measures for their preservation,
(Drawn' up by the Settotarysy: a..-..-»1---:+-.0;njerssomsageh>penaetanuncsemegeaee

Observations on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir ARcHIBALD Gurxiz, Captain E. W.
Crea, Mr. L. F. Vernon-Harcovrt, Mr. A. ‘I. Watmistey, Mr. W.
WHITAKER, and the GunERAL Orricers, appointed by the Council .........

Report to the Committee by JoHN PARKINSON ...........00602- doe stl aaeties :

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor G. B. Howzs (Chairman), Mr.
J. E. S. Moors (Secretary), Dr. E. Ray LAnKeEstER, Professor W. F. R.
WELDON, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A. Sepewrck, and Professor W, C.
PECTIN TORHE < o o case no ses sstieeemamee a Bore Ba ot. b<7 5... « <cheGsenmateees telat Bern Bec ec

The Oocyte of Tomopteris. By WitLtam WALLACE, B.Sc. ..........0000

Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F, A. BaTHer (Secretary),
Dr. W. E. Horne, Mr. R. McLacutan, Dr. P. L. Sctater, and the

Page

197

218

231

eareee afta si Ly., STHBBINGS, .ovan.8teeeeeictestassteod eens RA er heute werecnic .. 288

CONTENTS,

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Sixth and Final Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Rev. E. P.
Knusiey (Secretary), Mr. Joun A, Harvis-Brown, Mr. R. M. Barrine-
ton, Mr, A. H. Evans, and Dr. H. O. Forpes, appointed to work out the
details of the Observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightships, 1880-1887 .........cssseseseeeeneneneeenseeseenreceesaeesseseneeeeeeeseuers

The State of Solution of Proteids.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Hattrsurton (Chairman), Professor E. Waymourm Rep
(Secretary), and Professor E. A. ScHArer, appointed to investigate the
state of Solution of Proteids.............:scsecsecccecesrecsesenens «see ceteoneveeeeecs

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Thirteenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newton (Chairman), Mr. Davip SHARP (Secretary),
Dr. W. T. Branrorp, Professor S. J. Hickson, Dr. P. L. Scrarer, Dr. I’.
Du Canr Gopman, and Mr. EDGAR A. SMITH .....c.eeececeeeeneeeeteeeeeeenenens

Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—Fourth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. A, Sepewrck (Chairman), Mr. J. Stantey GARDINER (Secre-
tary), Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lisrer, Mr. Francis Darwin,
Dr. S. F. Harmer, Professor A. MacaisTER, Professor W. A. Hurpmay,
Professor 8. J. Hicxson, Professor G. B. Howes, and Professor J. GRAHAM
NSRP Pe Pas Aoi c sake lee toe Monks ctlae th cteisaale seit hav qalelses setsmiaalenselteinenanjalteinee ae

Investigations in the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of the
West of Scotland at Millport.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
Joun Murray (Chairman), Dr. J. F. Gumuizn (Secretary), Professors
Bower, Cossar Ewart, W. A. Herpman, and M. Laurie, and Messrs.
ALEX. SOMERVILLE and J. A. TODD oo. ...ccceeeeceeneeeeneenee nen encase seeeeeceees

Report on the Crustacea collected during the Dredging Cruise of the
Millport Marine Biological Association's Steamer ‘Mermaid’ since
May 1902. By ALEXANDER PATIENCE ........ccseeeeeeceenesee ners ners ences

The Micro-chemistry of Cells—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor EK. A. ScHarer (Chairman), Professor A. B. Macattum (Secre-
tary), Professor E. Ray LanxrsTer, Professor W. D. Harripurton, Dr.
G. C.-Bournz, and Professor J. J. Mackenzie. (Drawn up by the

Vil

Page

289

304

305

308

Secretary.) .....scccecceccssscsessaseceesauseesedseeseeaeecuessessaectseenecraeeganeasenses 310
Terrestrial Surface Waves.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J.
Scorr Kerrie (Chairman), Dr. VavcHan Cornism (Secretary), Colonel F.
Bartey, Mr. E. A. Froyer, Professor J. Mrzyz, and Mr. W. H. WHEELER.

(Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...c...scssecsseeecsseeseereeeeeensnneceneesesaueescenes 312
Women’s Labour.—Third and Final Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. A. L, Bowrey (Secretary), Miss
A. M. Anperson, Miss Buacxsurn, Mr. C. Boorn, Professor 8. J.
Cuarman, Miss OC. E. Cotzet, Professor F. Y. Epceworru, Mrs. J. R.
MacDonatp, Mr. L. L. Price, Professor W. Smart, Dr. G. ADAM SMITH,
and Mrs. H, J. Tennanv, appointed to investigate the Economic Effect of

Legislation regulating Women’s Labour. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ... 315

Section I.—Effect on Hours Worked by Women ........:0.--seeeeeeeees 318

* II,.—Effect on Hours Worked by Others .......-ssseeseeeeeeeees 322

., IIL.—Effect on Size of Workshops and Factories ............++ 322
» 1V.—Effect on Employment of Women and Methods of Pro-

UMECEIOM coe ee cect cca eter eters cede cttueaeetstianesaeinseates'sieae 82
(General Statistics, p. 8328; Statistics e Bleaching and
Clothing, p. 382)

+ V.—Effect on Wages and Earnings ........sssseeeeeeeeeeeeeenees 337

A VI.—Effect on Efficiency of Women ........sceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eee 339

» YJI.—Effect on Efficiency of Industrial Processes ...........++++ 339

Conclusion) sescss. ocean scdecetbecdeesscaneecb@eccecevecesoosecss 340

Note to Report. By Miss HBATHER-BIGG......+s:e++rs: 342

viii REPORT—1908.

Page

Apprunpix J.—Reports of Investigators ..........000 Scbrhs BECREP Ean. 342
:5 II.—Special Report on Laundries. By Miss ANDERSON... 350

- III.—The Factory Acts and Infant Mortality.................. 361

3 1V.—Recent Legislation Abroad. By E. W. Brasroox... 364

The Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir J. I. Taornycrorr (Chairman), Professor H. 8. Hete-SHaw
(Secretary), Mr. T. Arrxen, Mr. T, C. Avurine (Treasurer), Professor T.
Hopson Bears, Mr. W. Worsy Beaumont, Mr. J. Brown, Colonel R. E. B.
Crompton, Mr. B. J. Drptock, Mr. A. Martocx, Professor J. Perry, Sir
D. Satomons, Mr. A. R. Sennerr, and Mr. E. SHRAPNELL Suite. (Drawn
up, at the request of the Committee, by the Secretary, assisted by Mr. J. F.

GILT BiSey)) VES achwaea st celadaue adale 0sl veda k dan oadeeenueh dette TERS 365

I. Results of Trials made with Committee’s Dynamometer............... 365

I. Surgestions by Mars JO rplock: .........ssce-se-nencsstscpr meee ase ear enearelileh
Ili. Papers read at the Second International Congress on Automobilism,

Pais rel G08 cr maeetteercacine sacs +1 senases 0s sts eneunaniinete neces > det hGeeeeeeeee 372

IV. Negotiations with theswar Office (.../:...-.cacesupsnscess+se-sepesspveee tie 377

Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
Preece (Chairman), Mr. W. A. Price (Secretary), Lord Krtnyin, Sir
F. J. Bramwett, Sir H. TRuremAn Woop, Major-General WrsBEr, Colonel
Warkin, Lieut.-Colonel Crompron, Messrs, A. Strou, A. Le Neva
Fostmr, C. J. Hewirt, G. K. B. Etpurstons, E, Riee, C. V. Boys, J.
MarsHatt Goruam, O. P. Crpments, W. Taytor, Dr. R. T. GrazE-
proox, and Mr. Marx Barr, appointed to consider means by which
Practical Effect can be given to the introduction of the Screw Gauge pro-
posed bythe A BsOCMMOMMMEI BOS... 8... nen phedsusceunttenodenceee acedartesmeceet 378

Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. CLntanp (Chairman), Mr. J. Gray
(Secretary), Dr. T. H. Brycn, Professor D. J. CunnineHam, Professor
A. F. Drxon, Mr. E. N. Fattaizz, Dr. A. C. Happon, Dr. D., Hepsurn,
and Mr, J. L. Myrzs. 389

Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Report of the Com-

mittee, consisting of Sir Jonn Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Mr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. Hocarrn, Professor A. Mac-

ATISTHR,Y and Professor, Wa RIDGEWAY + ivscodevsebadtewscsece «p deventesdasruceshe eke 402
(1) Mr. ArntHur Evans’s Excavations at Knossos ...........ccsceceeeeeeeees 402
(2) Report on Anthropological Workin Athens and in Crete by W. L. H.

ID TOR WORTHSIMMAR ok oc 0 cal, ..cideueteteceres ceneweseaeebeh seater seee aaa 404

Silchester Excavations.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. ARrHUR
J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary), and Mr. E. W. Bra-
BROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund
Committee in: their EIXcCAyabiONs 2 2...-....--+enctewossesarcucecogecneesesUeeetseseete 412

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp Dawxins (Secretary),
Sir Joun Evans, Mr. AntHuR J. Evans, Mr. Henry Batrour, Mr. C. H.
IREAD, and IVa ACS Umi aemearentce tose: ssc cn setcewcescarnainesSeeians res terceaeetee 414

Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. E. W. Brasroox (Chairman), Mr. J. Gray
(Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, Professor A. MacaistEer, Professor D. J.
CunnineHAm, Mr. J. F. Toor, and Dr. W. H. R. RIVERS. ..........00...008 415

The Psychology and Sociology of the Todas and other Tribes of Southern
India.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Rip¢EwAay
(Chairman), Dr. W. H. R. Rivers (Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, and
May WV OROOKD ills evedes Gavienchiavipedavieen ni) 4 BASS wenn cae esteem 415

—

ee eee
.

CONTENTS, 1x

Page
Botanical Photographs.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
L. C. Matt (Chairman), Professor F. E. Weiss (Secretary), Mr, FRANcts
Darwin, Mr. G. F. Scort-Ettior, and Mr. A. K. CoomMARAswAmy,
appointed to consider and report upon a Scheme for the Registration of
Negatives of Botanical Photographs ......,.ssseeseseveeeueeees seenaaeesemnneene coins 416

Investigation of the Cyanophycere.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Dr. F. F, Buackman (Secretary), Pro-
fessor MARSHALL WaRD, Mr. WALTER GARDINER, and Dr. D. H. Scorr.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...... eae GaSe ee eieuibils sinuins dewe's dele pats ve BraaeNete ne 419

The Teaching of Botany in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor L. C. Mratt (Chairman), Mr. Harotp WAGER (Secretary), Pro-
fessor J. R. Green, Mr. A. C. Srwarp, Professors H. MARsHALL WARD,

J. B. Farmer, and T. Jonnson, Miss Linian Crarxe, and Dr. C. W.
KOIMMINS ........004. eee cee vee sce aeetienee cats ectacuecvenaachcsssssnstcnelsaisy ale 420

The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Lord AVEBURY,
Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Grorcr Gtapstonn, Sir Pxinie
Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscor, Professor A. SmirHEtts, and Professor 8. P.
PRTEO MESON Gece ones .ceecee trate seiss da steaessvesoceaceccdeccccatcceencrerecsare-sadde+ishes 429

Influence of Examinations.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of
the Bishop or Hererorp, Sir MicHaut Foster, Sir P. Maents, Sir A. W.
Ricker, Sir O. J. Lope, Mr. H. W. Evz, Mr. W. A. SHENsTONE, Mr.
W. D. Eeear, Professor MarsHatn Warp, Mr. F. H. Nevirte, Mrs.
W. N. Suaw, Dr. C. W. Kuatins, Dr. H. E. Armstrone (Chairman),
and Mr, R. A. Grecory (Secretary), appointed to consider and report upon
the Influence exercised by Universities and Examining Bodies on Secondary
School Curricula; also of the Schools on University Requirements. (Drawn
up by the Chairman.)............ Sashes Mc suaee stew eecnnigtien ac ace meters oe bs a 454

The Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying-on of the Work of
Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
C. S. SHerrineton (Chairman), Mr. E. Wairs Wattis (Secretary), Mr.
E. W. Brasroox, Dr. ©. W. Kimuins, Professor L. C. Mratt, and Miss

PRU PUA LEIAINT) She vrcn sosceirscediacc cared coe wath eence cues asoccssaeeavlogesdebatcsbetes 455
Aprenpix. I.—Notes on the Essentials of School Buildings ......... 456

7 Il.— Eyesight in School Children ..............sesseeeeeeees ».. 460

s III.—Need for Appointment of Women-inspectors ......... 462

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W. Wuiraxker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rupter (Secretary), Sir Joun
Evans, Rev. J. O, Bevan, Dr. Horacs T. Brown, Dr. VauGHAN CoRNISH,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. T. V. Hommes, Mr. J. Hopxinson, Professor R.
Metpora, Dr, H. R. Mitt, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsine, and

Professor W. W. Warts. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........seeseeeee0es 465
Report of the Conferences of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at
Southport, September 1903 ............... ss seeeeee eee ee 467
The Methods and Results of a Botanical Survey of Counties. By W.
IVINS NPEUAIN REL ERGs (MUONUS)\n.0 0% Sreensccesaneuaecscceato. ones eentle onsen 477

Note on Maps of the Ordnance Survey. By T. V. Hormes, F.GS. ...... 481

A Suggestion with respect to Exploration and Registration Work for
County Local Societies. By Wrtt1am Core, F.L.S., Hon. Sec, Essex
MN Scene erect eee yaa ese ease viag on van teeta cnagent ont sepa icasrpkaues® 482

x REPORT—1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section AA—~MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

Address by CuAartes Vernon Boxs, F.R.S., President of the Section

1, On the Electro-ethereal Theory of the Velocity of Light in Gases, Liquids,
and Solids. By Lord KEzvin, O.M., G.C.V.O........seseeeeseeeen eee eeene ... 585

2. *Discussion on the Nature of the Emanations from Radium. Opened by

Professor HE. RUTHERFORD. ........cssseeeeceescneecneereeceseueseeseeerstsesecenas 35
Contribution by Lord KELVIN, O.M., G.C.V.O..........-sseseneeseneeeennees 535

3. Uber die in der Atmosphiire und im Erdboden enthaltene radioaktive
Emanation. Von T. ELstper u. H. GEITED ......c::esecseseeseeneneceseeeetons 537

. Cosmical Radio-activity. By Professor ARTHUR ScuusTER, F.R.S, ...... 538

, Intensification of Chemical Action by the Emanations from Gold and
Platinum, By G. T. BBIuBy .......:cecececeeeseeeeeeeenneeeeneeeeeneeesoeeeunnes 539

Se FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
Sun-sECcTION—ASTRONOMY AND MErroroLoecy,

Address by W. N. Suaw, Sc.D., F.R.S., Chairman (Methods of Meteorological
INVESCIPATION))— sn 6>snnwmncersinedsteosaseonsbencbreassremies py cuesteasesas ter. (ei 541

1. tOn Simultaneous Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena. By Sir NorMAN
TO ORVBR, KGOsB. URIS. .Seacccte.uteebont bh bnwe trccdes coeteneta tae dahtset saan 549

2. *On the Relation of the Rainfall of Scotland to the Sun-spot Periods,
1855-98. By A. Bucuay, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. .......:0ceeeeeeee

3. Etudes sur les Dépressions Barométriques 4 Diverses Hauteurs. Par
Li, TRISSERENC' DH BORT .61..s.c00.eeenescsartevecssespperacecorspanuaee chan sngagry. Oe

4, The Origin and Forms of Hoar Frost. By Kart Grossmann, M.D.,
F.R.C.S., F.G.S., and Josrpa Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.GLS, .....csesessereeseees OOO

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS.

1. +Discussion on the Treatment of Irreversible Processes in Thermo-
dynamics. Opened by J. Swinburne, M.Inst.C.9, ...........0ceeeseeeeeeeees 556

2. Note on the Rate of Combustion and Explosive Pressure of Cordite. By
J. E. PETAVEL

Hw Co bo

1. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards (p. 33
. Note on Carbon and Iron Arc Spectra at High Gaseous Pressures. By

. On Spherical Curves. By Haroip Hitrton, M.A.
. The Use of Tangential Co-ordinates. By R. W. H. T. Hupson
. *The Determination of Successive High Primes, By Lieut.-Colonel A.

CONTENTS.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS,

. On the Differential Invariants of Surfaces and of Space. By Professor

A. R. Forsyta, F.R.S.

POO eee eee ew eee HH eH ee HEE HEHEHE HEE EE ERED EHEC HESS
eee eREERETOOCEEOCE CEES

eee een enne

OuNNENG HAR SRB, tandEEy ). NWWOODADIM igiSigatel lc. bo0 dh ocd deccaneeestetece

Algebraic Curves on Kummer’s 16-nodal Quartic Surface. By R. W. H.
PRES DBON esto. 2. .J4frsa. ere ten Gee sev wbesee Pome ede actee eetveedess -adeetadtemests

SuB-SECTION—ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

. *Emploie de l'Hygrométre & Cheveu au lieu du Psychrométre. By

Hofrath J. M. PERNTER

CORR eee eee EERO ERE H EEE HEE EEE E HEHE EEE H EHH EOE EES

. Was the ‘ New’ Star in Gemini shining previously as a very Faint Star?

By Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S.

. Sur la Circulation générale de l'Atmosphére. Par H. H. Hivpe-

BRANDSSON

eee eCTee reer Tee eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee ee eee eee) Beret eee eee er aeeeeneee

. Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites

SETI STA RECA Aa Cota Mk ee RL 1

. Results of the Exploration of the Air with Kites at Blue Hill Observatory,

Mass., U.S.A., during 1900-2, and the Use of this Method on the
Tropical Oceans. By A. Lawrence Rortcn, B.S., M.A. ....... cece eeee eee

. Work of the International Aéronautical Committee. By Professor H.

HERGESELL

PRP R eee eee ee Hee HEHEHE HEHE E RHEE HEHE SHEE REET RHEE HEE HEE EOR TEES ES

Photographs of the Orion Nebula. By W. E. Witson, F.RS. ...........

. Lightning and its Spectra. By W.J.S. Locrysr, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.ALS.
. On the Phenomena accompanying the Volcanic Hruptions in the West

Purdie.) By DAVID: ByUENS cccccseyeveros seg san goes esap vewernrnane mgr’ fe is apietia»

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND PuHysics,

R. 8S. Hurton and J. E., PETAVEL

Pre eee eeeeCeeO ST Eee eee eerer eee e reece ree Ly

. How to Exhibit in Optical Instruments the Resolution of Light into its

Component Undulations of Flat Wavelets, and how to Employ this
Resolution as our Guide in Making and in Interpreting Experiments.
By G. Jounstonr Stonry, M.A., Hon.Se.D., FABRS. oo. eeceee cece ee

. On the Form of Lagrange’s Equations for Non-Holonomic Systems.

By Professor Lupwie BotrazMann

Bee eee eee De ee eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eeeeeeeeee

. *Wave-propagation in a Dispersive Medium. By Professor A. SCHUSTER,
F.R.S.

eee eee eee eee rr eee eee eee eee errr Cee rere Cee errr Terre eee eee eee)

. Discussion on the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics. Opened by

Professor: Op Hen Rrery BBS. (ps S1) 2 cccesscicek ees ledi deere ied iodo nes

Contribution to the Discussion on Vectors. By James SWINBURNE,
MEIN SOE ecastendesie a oteol ders RP ravenacedontdoadavadeeneotates Pree Shoko

Msi
te

Page

559
560

565

Xil REPORT—1903.

Page

7. Consideration of some Points in the Design and Working of Ballistic
Galvanometers. By P. H. Powstt, B.Sc. ......., poise cles's ef eee ee 570

8. On the Use of Capacities as Multipliers for Electrostatic Voltmeters in

Alternating Current Circuits. By Professor E. W. MarcHant, DSte
and G. W. WoRRALL, B,Sc.......... sopnbuvensecenee ade Beverages cane ieahtanmre O(a

Sun-sectron or AsTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

1. Report of the Seismological Committee (p. 77) :90tnns syacnnn noses 573

2. *Exhibition of Photographs made with the Spectro-Heliograph of the
Yerkes Observatory, By A. R. Hinks, M.A. ...2:......:00sscenschacenugspie. 573

3. Radiation through a Foggy EHRDEDDETE. By Professor ARTHUR
SOBMUSTER; BR iSs, sn scneanses ceteeenciessiec sieve siesecsbanerectegecastaicsss sete ae 573

4. *Eclipse Observations of Jupiter’s Satellites: a Study of the Ordinary

Observations in Comparison with the Photometric Observations of
Harvard. By Professor R. A. SAMPSON ...........0ssecsscensssaecscseseesanes 574

5. Solar Prominences and Terrestrial Magnetism. By the Rev. A. L.
COHRIMMS cE: RAs. o..0eeebcmacbececnrercsccsceauaresepo agmatine 574

6. Comparison of the Spectrum of Nitrogen and of the Aurora, By Dr. A.
IPINULSEN 2 sivcnscdrssetccse spi eeenenteceresrrcecsdugcanceseset«reservcer snc schema 575
7, *Discussion on Kite Observations continued ............csesseseseeeseecssewsene 578

8. Diurnal Range of the Summer Temperature of the Levant. By
ATEXANDER: BUCHAN, Jos, HORS, ERS... osossscansseneescccnees scene 578
9. Progress of the Magnetic Survey of the United States. By L. A. Bauer 579
10. +The Warth’s Total Magnetic Energy. By L, A. BAvER ...... cea 580

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. A Probable Relationship between the Solar Prominences and Corona,
By Wii1iaM J. 'S. Lockyer, MA.; Ph.D), FRACS So... ae.c snc 580
2. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis (p. 56) .........0000e+ 581

3. *Electrical Self-recording Instruments. By Professor H. L, CaLLEenpDaR,

J Oras, cpandenoaceqgoooudueds-, codons snagacouassuoboassceiosdasspaaseegsawadsorRtCen 581

. Effect of Meteorological Conditions upon Audibility. By A. LAWRENCE

IRGRCH S.A. | sor scence meses cas supaplesesecotecsimscastescma as citde scot tama 581
On some Rainfall Problems, By Huen Roserr Mitt, D.Sc., LL.D, ... 581

Section B.— CHEMISTRY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

Address by Professor Watrrr Nort Harriey, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,

PresidentionmhensechiOns suas: aseecsratecdeesscascensuse-bs boar aaeemmeee aie PaaS 583
Apparatus for determining Latent Heat of Evaporation. By Professor
i), CAMPBELTE TSROWN DD A5C «vas. teens nck shusieasidaides seeds seahpuaenceiaey ese 602
*On some Derivatives of Fluorene. By Miss IDA SMEDLEY...............06 603
Action of Diastase on the Starch Granules of Raw and Malted Barley.
By, ARTaUR BR. LING) FTC. ...scced-ecensdasceuseqniaseeeneeeencnnane weit ctidees 603

. Action of Malt Diastase on Potato-starch Paste. By ArTHur R. Line,
FE oo ae Wok sia sinnisas CARIES 42 A.edess/eysmsinindesden sateen asl dfn 604

]

fon
§

CONTENTS. xiii

Page

. Action of Malt Diastase on Potato-starch Paste. By Burwarp I’, Davis.

BSc., and ARTHUR R. LING, F.L.C. oo. ccseseeeeeeeeeeesteseraneeeseone soreness 604

. The Chemical and Physical Characters of the so-called ‘Mad-stone,’

By Dr. H.C. WHITE.......:cccssceeeseessssereeeeesesteessnnnceesannrernensanesenecns 605

. On the Reduction of Nitrates by Sewage. By Professor E. A. Lurrs,
606

D,Se., Ph.D., R. F. Boake, F.1.C., and J. 8, Torron, BeA...seeseeeeeereees

_ On a Method for the Separation of Cobalt from Nickel, and the

Volumetric Determination of Cobalt. By R. L. Taytor, F.LC. ......... 608

. Report of the Committee on Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of

Benzene (p. 85) ....cccsscsescscsennscesssccaseceesenenseceesasesssscaweeesceseee sans 609
Report of the Committee on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives (p. 174) 609

. Report of the Committee on the Possibility of making Special Reports
609

more available than at present (p. 169) .....cccscsseeessneeeenneesenneesenennnees

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

«Investigations at Low Temperatures :—(a) Densities of Solid Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, and Oxygen; (6) Methods of producing Solid Hydrogen and
Nitrogen; (c) Latent Heats, Specific Heats, and Coeflicient of Expansion

of Liquid Hydrogen. By Professor Jamus Dewar, LL.D, EIEN Sates es 609
2. The Application of Low Temperatures to the Study of Biological Pro-
blems. By ALLAN MACFADYEN, M.D. .....seeseeesseeeeseeeeneeeee rece eeeeeees 609
8. Report of the Committee on securing Duty-free Alcohol for Scientific
Research (p. 170) siscsssccscsccessseeeescceseecseeeesesueesenaneecuerseceenssegeaesss 612
4. The Cause of the Lustre produced on Mercerising Cotton under Tension.
By Jutius Hiisyer, F.C.8., and Witriam J. Pork, PRS. ..... eee G12
5. Stead’s recent Researches as to the Causes and Prevention of Brittleness
in Steel. By Professor T. TURNER, M.SC....:sssssesseseeeteeereeeeeeeaeeneneres 613
6. The Colours of Iodides. By Wintiam AcKRoyD, EO) cava cusauenoetue tee 614
7, On Essential Oils. By Dr. O. SIDBERRAD ..sssesseeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeaneeeaeeeeene 614
8. The Cholesterol Group. By R. H. Pickard, D.Sc. ......+ adcaibal kab ates as 616
9. On Acridines. By Professor A. SHNIER, Ph.D...cccccceseeeeesens eae peavainn 616
10. Sur le Spectre de ‘Self-induction’ du Silicium et ses comparaisons
Astronomiques. Par le Comte A, DE GRAMONT .....ss.sesteeseeeerseneseness 620
11. The Theory of Dyeing. By Professor G. VON GHORGIRVICS.......seeersees 62
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
1, The Slow Combustion of Methane and Ethane. By Witr1aM A. Bonz,

LD HSI casol od 7) 0 Reaeabence SUMEENM NANT sacnNee nso nc cee aes Me a eeecawasnpen atten thy ns Jap tts 624

. Fluorescence as related to the Constitution of Organic Substances. By

JOHN THEODORE HEWITT siscssssvccsceceseeveeeees iat huoud anaes Se cdeestmenratare: 628

. Preliminary Note on some Electric Furnace Reactions under High

Gaseous Pressures. By J. E. Puravur and R. 8, HUTTON .........00-++0 630

. The Atomic Latent Heats of Fusion of the Metals considered from the

Kinetic Standpoint. By HortaNnD CROMPTON ..sssessseeeceeeeseneeseeeeenens 631

. The Influence of Small Quantities of Water in bringing about Chemical

Reaction between Salts. By Epaar Pairip PHRMAN, D.Sc. ...ssseeeeeeess 631

Report of the Committee on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra
and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances (p. 126) vicccceceneeseee 632

Xiv REPORT —1903.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
Page
1, Freezing-point Curves for Binary Systems. By James C. Purrir, M.A,,
PRD oR hocan Soot ect on dak Saath ode oes Meroe va ced tecan one Sana Nene soe eae 632
2, A Contribution to the Constitution of Disaccharides. By TxHos. Purprs,
F.R.S., and James C. Irvine, Ph.D., D.Sc. ......... sbuaspocnncatect aa temeeeee 30

3. Mutarotation in relation to the Lactonic Structure of Glucose. By E.

FRANKLAND ARMSTRONG, PHU) 10.. oe A ios fecvectevacsectuapeeetsecemaeneane 635
4, Synthesis of Glucosides. By W. SLOAN MIzts, M.A, ............eccneeeeeees 635
5, Preparation of Oximido-compounds. By W. Stoan Mitts, M.A. ........ . 636
6. The Action of Oxides of Nitrogen on Oximido-compounds. By W. Stoan

MULE MAU Mii sdsscestnasapdetdrer iti tesccetesnce vous sas tveateess ee htt eeaaa ies, ODT.

7. Further Investigation on the Approximate Estimation of Minute Quan-
tities of Arsenic in Food. By Wittram Tuomson, F.1.C., F.R.S.E. ... 638

8. Report of the Committee on the Study of Hydro-Aromatic Substances

DY EPO) sive dteneetiee pocthpwrd cen entacS tes batten tte bith dans ss««inayecdhnet mann 639

9. Report of the Committee on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Elements and Compounds. (p. 87).0.cicecessessedsesecoceetedseedsducteveeeenaenmene 639

10, Experiments and Observations with Radium Compounds. By WiLtiam
AOKROYD, EeliGi shed net oreseteneees eas aces se Laer? du cesaishageenen serves OOO

Section C.~-GEOLOGY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
Address by Professor W. W. Warrs, M.Sc., Sec.G.S., President of the

Section............ be dSU LANL deeaee aed Sddbts Paap eeetes oecees tke. eae Ra 641
1. The Geology of the Country round Southport. By J. Lomas, A.R.C.S,,

BG By lendessncvavann sti sh abd arin deal made Oe de Giausbertcay feevedse cdot yan 654
2. Martin Mere. By Haroun BRopRIck, M.A. .........csesecccessseeerseeseceeeae 656
3. *Report of the Committee on the Registration of Type Specimens of Fossils 656
4, *Report of the Committee on the Structure of Crystals .....cccccccsseeees ... 656

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 1.

1. On the Lakes of the Upper Engadine. By Anpri DELEBECQUE ........... 667
2. On a Preglacial or Early Glacial Raised Beach in County Cork. By

H. B. Murr, B.A., F.G.8., and W. B. Wright, B.A. .....ccc-cse-s.<c0nne 657
8. Land Shells in the Infra-Glacial Chalk-rubble at Sewerby, near Bridlington.

By GW: pre AN GES) sot esc doe ar 659
4, Preliminary Report of the Committee on the Estuarine Deposits at

Kirmington, dineolnvhire (ps 218)" icici i..sc pe ccorteeoanette dence 659
5. Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks (p. 281) .......:c0006 REDO oc” 659
6, Report of the Committee appointed to explore Irish Caves (p. 183)....... . 6b9
7. Report of the Committee on Underground Waters of North-west York-

BIRRE (DLE eben teenie! tetanis amp ess0-s iancac’ ss aroaed pee 660
8. Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs (p. 197) ....:.sss1+s0e 660

“, "On the Practical Value of certain Species of Molluscs in the Coal Measures. _
By Waertroy Hinp, M.D., F\R.CS., F.G.S. ...

]

CONTENTS. XV

Page

. Report of the Committee on Life Zones in the British Carboniferous

BUM Mee EL LOIN) cesesiasiu tis saakintdnisles + duimsdas ca ves acccdeat safc doth sa dnedh oe SeRaEtea. 660

. On some Igneous Rocks near Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire. By

[Wines BOULTON, b.9c., AVR. Oi, BUGIS. oo ccvcceccesccescececceccesveucesbeeake 660

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. On Dedolomitisation. By J. J. H. Thatt, M.A,, FURS, .....cccccssceesceees 660
. Fossil Floras of South Africa. By A. C. SEWARD, F.RAS, .....cccccesseees 661
. On a Carboniferous Acanthodian Fish, Gyracanthides. By A. Surra

WOOT WARD eels TD), pHs varias, soit acsag selec cle cuhcd tas alec sav cece ane seeseeeee 662

. On some Dinosaurian Bones from South Brazil. By A. Smirm Woop-

May atin ip yey, Seater ee icl d dat xO eAly Maleate dl Maret se. 668

. On Polyzoa as Rock-cementing Organisms, By J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.G.S. 663
. On the Igneous Rocks of the Berwyns, By T. H. Corr and J. Lomas ... 664
. The Llanvirn Beds in Carnarvonshire. By W. G. FEarnsIDms ............ 665
. On the Fossil Flora of the Ardwick Series of Manchester. By E. A,

NEWELL ARBER, M.A., F.LS., F.GiS..........cassccscececcececsscecetectsrwesesce 665
. Report of the Committee on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the

ets BIEN (Dr ALO)! selgiaccdyeatngath rcaceseacciseccsencstactsntaee te en 665
. On the Base of the Keuper in South Devon. By AtEx. SoMpRVAIL...... 665

TUESDAY, SHPTEMBER 15.

1, On the Disturbance of Junction Beds from Differential Shrinkage and

similar Local Causes during Consolidation. By G@. W. Lampivan, F.G.S. 666

. *On some Contorted Strata occurring on the Coast of Northumberland.

By DG: GOODOHILD vii viesveescnvesavantin vesiennislech bscite Me duatoneueddt Rael 667
. Some Facts bearing on the Origin of Eruptive Rocks. By J. G. Goop-
OHUUTED Ptr acae sles lacie oenia a aaatdeie Able aie daapion dab ae deGhiiadda'n agg sanlenmpiot teaatae Meisels snare 667

. On a Possible Cause of the Lethal Effects produced by the Dust emitted

during the Recent Volcanic Eruptions in the West Indies. By J. G.

Bae EUU DO ote Mecha se et etn doen do can sp yunsen An44 cosas tue slacsaga sausage’ ta dianer 668

. “Notes on the Metalliferous Deposits of the South of Scotland. By J. G.
GooDcHILD and WILBERT GOODCHILD, M.B. .........0.ccseceesceccececseeeceuss 668

. “Notes on the Glacial Drainage of the Forest of Rossendale. By
PMR RNMEMEE Na a Ain oii an saie nea cnt eondu use sold ona ccan tr aasia dh deta dy ae Seal vole 668

A Theory of the Origin of Continents and Ocean Basins. By Witt1am
Mackte, M.A., M.D. ........cccseceneeees eRe Mio akmrecieabe gases age hone edcaden 668

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,

. Report of the Committee on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United King-

dom (p. 258) .......... SUEDC TONG: BIDE MCHOGn bootie uooo-osrepcnoocunenanedre ne coosee ce 669

. Notes on the Sarsen Stones of the Bagshot District. By Hoxracn

Woo rraston MoncxTon, F.LLS., F.G.S......0..0.ccccscseconsseccstevetecseeeeens 669

» On the Occui'rence of Stone Implements in the Thames Valley between

Reading and Maidenhead. By Luewertyn Treacuer, F.GS............. 670

4, On the Origin of certain Quartz Dykes in the Isle of Man. By J. Lomas,

A.R.G.S., E.G.S, CUCOO Orr eee eeeeeneteeeeeeennes Conde betacvar Deeeonns debe enee Pabetoede 671

xvi REPORT—1903.

Page

5. Supplementaty List ot Minerals occurring in Ireland. By Henry J.
SEYMOUR, BiA.y F.GAS. ....ccccecseccesenescceeceecsecseceevsncneceecsteneces ay eae 671

6. The Average Composition of the Igneous Rocks. By F. P. MEnNeELL,
EGS. .ccasccreese sveeeniteounteecamnens ea? Diih sa dav ed ub odoe qetlttee ohh beaen cota 671

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

Address by Professor Sypney J. Hicxsoy, M.A, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of
the Section. <i)... ..vomdunwa.. ai sh. nao Te alls ah cd Lara id. at B72

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1, Some Results on the Morphology and Development of Recent and Fossil
Corals. By J. E. Duzrpen, Ph.D., A.R.O.Sc. (Lond.) ....sconsesereenseees 684

2, The Coral Formations of Zanzibar and Hast Africa. By Cyrit CrosstaNnpD 685
3. *Notes on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean. By J. Stantey

GARDINER, M.A ........cscsosccscsscnsseorersessessensasenssperses0es6srosssnsiansea sien 687

4, Septal Sequence in the Coral Siderastreea. By J. E. Durrpry, Ph.D.,
ROR CSG; (0nd, joisesencyenaeannesea oe Beets eaerstaatacdtrecnsocacenee eee sein le¥e

5. Polymorphism in the Pennatulida. By Professor Sypnzy J, Hickson,
ene nce cencucasa cs ccnpmotanes testa cucneescacauiecs ees tases acesnt Een aan aman 688

6. The Assimilation and Distribution of Nutriment in Aleyonium digitatum.
By Eprrt M. PRAtr, M.Sc. ..c..cceeeeeseeeeeeseeesesesseesneeeeeeeeeeeeseseeeeeens 688

7. On the Origin of the Epiphysis in Amphibia as a Bilateral Structure. By
JOHN CAMERON, MIB oveseus<acanes <csiesia acpsencnsineee Spcenoraedonenc: sadder occ 689
8, Final Report of the Committee on the Migration of Birds (p. 289)......... 690

9. Report of the Committee on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples (p. 282) ,ss.ssssnrsssrersensceressnprespascnebtabM beady dexele) ete 690
10. Report of the Committee on the Index Animalium (p. 288) ......+ssseeees 690

11. Report of the Committee on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands (p.305) 690
12, Fourth Report of the Committee on Coral Reefs of the Indian Region

(P. BOS) -.....ccsceeecceressnectaeesesaceueccapsecetaususeeenssecetenvtetsonneses ote saeee 690
13. *Interim Report of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory Committee ......... 690
14, Report of the Millport Marine Laboratory Committee (p. 308) ......... ... 690

DEPARTMENT OF PHysroLoay,

1. Report of the Committee on the Microchemistry of Cells (p. 310).....s4.... 690
2. Report of the Committee on the State of Solution of Proteids (p. 804) ... 690
8. *Interim Report of the Committee on the Physiological Effects of Peptone 690
4, *Interim Report of the Committee on the Functions of Visual Purple on

Le PUCCINI eae vate Sanday sasinpeattnle cman as gine nar dies cunt gids nil i puis exe nena . 690
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 1. :
Address by the President ......... caegeelageetaa vets? caydcieYs eect esvsasnayceuee canis
1, The Bionomies of Convoluta roscoffensis, with special reference to its Green
Cells. By Frepprick Krrsre, M.A., and F. W. Gamste, D.Sce.......... 691

2, Note on the Skull of Grampus griseus found on the Coast near Galway. By
Professor RIcHARD J. ANDERSON, M.D? ..0...cs.teccseecenca veer waoee est haan G91

CONTENTS, xvil

Page

8, Note on the Peritoneum in Meles taxus. By Professor Ricuarp J.

ANDERSON, M.D. ....... eee SPOS ERB NGRAURA Sa shitra Se ahaee Tee beh oe eee eme Mcrae ees 692

4, The Skull of Ursus ornatus. By Professor Ricuarp J. AnpERson, M.D. 692

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

1. *On the Significance of Progamic Nuclear Divisions. By Professor

WEE RES ELARTOCS. .« <tbde mba an atv att ch das cj de dy hgenedaccds guess sasasensuouvsoncstasia 693
2. *Nuclear Changes in the Egg of Alcyontum. By M. D. Hit, M.A....... 693
8. *The Function of Chromatin in Cell Division (Part I. Heterotype). By

Professor MARCUS. HARTOG c...cc..0sccssienncssdecooes OB 96 06 SHEET AGUS eB SOnOION Sc > 693
PRISE TISSOTY OF HOLNSBEION, | sis sane, qsiqnnansinnnincoanainradguens onadatnadaeadk tect 693
5. +On the Tentacles of Suctoria. By Professor Marcus Harro@............ 693
6. *Demonstration of Slides showing Conjugation in Dendrocometes. By

Professor S. J. Hickson, F.R.S. .....ccsesceeeeeeeee Fae sc assdunroatisesstecese cote 693
7. The Effect of Solutions of Salt and other Substances on the Development

of the Frog.) By J. W. JBNKINSON, M.A. .............cececcececnnccncnconedors 693
8, Some recent Observations on British Reptiles. By Grratp Lzienron,

Pome EE SU Me tit ssc dasa cniiesicnaicnsecotveecdonsesthcedeedsme cuatanmeadantbions 694
9. +Notes on the Coloration of Malayan Reptiles. By N. Annanpatz, B.A. 694

10.
11,

+Note on the Walking Fish of the Malay Peninsula. By H.C. Ropmnson 694

+Exhibition of Convergent Series of Malayan Butterflies. By H. C.
RoBINSON........ Soangooaveny Geen Si atien\ ssc) SonGabasse ssn Waasuaibigep tastes Waetacuatasts 694

TUESDAY, SEPTIMBER 15.

1. Note on Pearl-formation in the Ceylon Pearl Oyster. By Professor
W. A. Herpman, D.Sce., F.R.S., and JAMES HORNELL...........0.:.ceceeee ee 695

2, On a Phosphorescence Phenomenon in the Indian Ocean. By Professor
NV-AS ELERD MAN, 1),.5¢,, HR. Sotiadacats tates dau catbectscshha dideasaesnconen ceded 695

3. Note on Birds now rare in the British Isles. By G. P. Hueuss, F.R.G.S. 696

4. Demonstration of Visual Combination of Complementary Colours, By
OnAc Greaves, M.B., LEB cosiee asedh ceca asec ek conse. see Renee 696

5. The Epithelial Islets of the Pancreas in Teleostei. By Jonn Rennie,
Ea vasiccctenass #y. 3,5 qactipeadthadd Beh Eda vaddld Mater cabin tthad unt oe tds 696

6. On the Echinodermata of the Firth of Clyde and Variation in Ophiocoma
nigra. By D.C. Mclyrosu, M.A. ............048 a senistleteaase voaeleaejepieceitge siete! 696

7, Note on the Eggs of the Shanny (Blennius pholis, L.). By Professor
IW Ce DUGINTOSH:, MiDD):. HRS. csacanspestess emma atnnhedasesssccsitvasceeuveusmers FAL O9G

DEPARTMENT OF PiysioLoGy.

1, A Physiological Theory to Explain the Winter-whitening of Birds and
Mammals in Snowy Countries, and the most Striking Points in the
Distribution of White in Vertebrates generally. By Captain G. E. H.
BARREDT-HAMILTON wic..cssseeeeeeees 1B Binh Denint dency Sn eaagty gah ead s Sagan nay 698

2, A New Form of Osmometer for Direct Determinations of Osmotic
Pressure of Colloids. By Professor Bensamin Moors, M.A., D.Sc....... 699

. Experiments on the Permeability of Lipoid Membranes, By Professor

Bensamin Moore, M.A., D.Sc. «...... ber BURIOCEOC OR RIOEtOe PROCES EIS 700
1903, a

XVI REPORT—1903.

Page
+The Cerebrum of Apes. By Professor SHERRINGTON, F.R.S., and A. 8.
GRUNBAUM, MDD) ec... ccepssccressareccssesss¢oecatcenenss speaduahtnde-c etait nnaeT 700

The Origin of Water in Saliva. By JosrrpH Barcrort, M.A., B.Sc, ...... 700

Section E—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

Address by Captain Errrick W. Crear, C.B., R.N., F.R.S., President of the

ise)

. Botanical Survey of the Basins of the Rivers Eden, Tees, Tyne, and

Sections siesicieescacas eset ae deen ed etunateccdats ulti). J Bee 701

+The Recent West Indian Eruptions. By Trmprst AnpERson, M.D.,
BSC, Reet metcieremicaeciet ahi liseiainscaeedosoeacaeensin acldcedtenaet dent Alte sn tt team 711

The Economie Development of West Africa. By E. D. Moret............ 711

FRIDAY, SEPTHEMBER 11.

. The Influence of Ice-melting upon Oceanic Circulation, By Professor

O. PErrersson

. An Experiment on the Melting of Ice in Salt Water. By J. W. Sanp-

RUSE RA Me ree tec fas otrtcs's Si wae Pane GRRE MERCER SAR oe SSO roosae ACETONE ence sheem 715

. Report of the Committee on Terrestrial Surface Waves (p. 812).........06 716
. *The British Antarctic Expedition. By Lieut. E. SHAckLnron ............ 716
. Explorations and Economic Conditions in Western China. By Lieut.-

Colonel*CrC MAINED Hise... scwccsavesadddctacivaseviedeedecsebeessntee et eee 716

. The Afforestation of Waterworks Catchment Areas, By JosnpH Parry,

WE TinsteO Hiya cunectccesacswereendecte ecorce beaebosebtha Praha esbeasey hinge teeneeeeannan 717

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. Notes and Suggestions on Geographical Surveying suited to present re-

guirements,. By E..A. REEVES, FOR ASS ces sivecscteccktsse conse sancueeii ELMAN)

. *On Map Projections suited to general purposes. By G. J. Morrison ... 719
. Henricus Glareanus (Sixteenth Century Geographer) and his recently

discovered Maps. By Epwarp HEawo0D, M.A, ........:.....csseeeecseeseons AS)

. The Results of the Expedition to Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri by Mr. W. O.
Grant and Dr, H. O. Forbes. By H. O. Foraus, LL.D............0....0008 720

. On the Origin of Adam’s Bridge. By J, Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.G.S.......... 721

. Geographical Education. By H. J. MACKINDER .........secesceseeees sous 722

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

. On the Relation and Importance of Botany to Geographical Science. By

Dr Onto SVs, HDARBISHMTRE 2, a cacisseccicoesessedsws ove selec sec onc eere eee 725

. The Observation of Features of Vegetation in Geographical Exploration.

By Dr, W. G. Sarre 726

Wear. By Francis J. Lewis, F.L.S

~
bo
fon)

FOO m ee eee eee eee ee ee aera ree nesses eeeees

. The Peat Moors of the Southern Pennines: their Age and Origin. By

C. E. Moss, B.Sc.

OT
3) \ais neu: =/0/njn wie uipj0 € (6 G\einio(0{0)¢ 4100 0\p s\sleje.s ¢/e sie \eleini¢ioleinieiuulolel(se cine He Uisie ae saweia 123

. Queensland. By J. P, THomson ............ seen bee unchottec meee mica 728

CONTENTS. x1x

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

Page

Address by Epwarp W. Brixroor, C.B., President of the Section ........... 729

1, The Growth of Rates. By Brnzpicr W. Ginspure, M.A., LL.D.......... 740
2. Depreciation and Sinking Funds in Municipal Undertakings. By

MUNA Ye HORSRAEL TURNER. WEA... Mtvessucesremcenceancesttenssctswttcoestcuat se 741

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1, The Wealth of the Empire, and how it should be used. By Sir Rozrrr

ACOMIBIN KG, Ge 000 watson stat colin Corumig tay EY= oP tar emt oh ay 3 cE sass n rag dase ee aaah TAL
2. Report of the Committee on the Economic Effect of Legislation regu-
eine GMeG s LaApOWE (Pp: DLO): ssacsccnthwaasasentasuadascevects+sapaceuia sy cet 745
3. On the Rating of Land Values... By J. D., CHORLTON .....,..0.ceeenerees sens 748
4, The New. Labour Party in its Economic Aspect. By H, 5B. Lees
SMT VE AS ceases El spate wena “a fl~-> “dena chicacenid-h-saickasacde sete Ane inpehedam a. 744
5. A Contribution to the Statistics of Production and Consumption of the
United Kingdom. By S, Rosrnsaum, B.Sc.............c.00s Saienstot Sanaange 744

| MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
1. The Potentialities of Applied Science in a Garden City,, By A, R.

SENNETT, A.M.Inst.O.B, ..e.eeeeseeeecgessseeesenssseeeseneneceeesnnersessneeneneaes 745
2. The First Garden City: its Economic Results. By Haroxp E. Moors,
MMU Ig eccdset-cevbstacnsscd-uradee diese suecdicere bdsetvededer (du. aedonmemrenizendss 746

3. Physical Degeneration and the Poverty Line. By Mrs. H. Bosanquer... 747
4. A Comparison of Exports to the United States, European Protective
\)

States, and our Colonies.. By B. ELLINGER. .......:.cceccsecseenesbeeracectnene 747
5. The Commercial Relations between Canada and the United Kingdom.
Be Bip BRADSHAW. «000rctonwnrvow MeL dh oll gth.. vl ash sebepeld, doe 748
6. Some Economic Aspects of the English Colour Industries, By F. Evmr-
Baa bagt]. seth. <p oh ieRasmairadt-- vydgdicsl- etait sua ratincate “walbeel 749

WeMl TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
1, Statistical Methods and the Fiscal. Controversy. By A. L. Bowzey,

MIAN A) daha AW. nthe. walal. vid... adazaoeadd sp appebh fac plade. Hara 750
2.. The Failure of Free Traders to Attain their Ideals. By W. Cunniye-
ETM as el Do ais igskepanenneviecerebrieuercaterspcrrce cer derreenencrrieress ¢tlncdid coe: 750

8. What is Success in Foreign Trade? By Epwin Oannan, M.A., LL.D... 751

nel Section G._.ENGINEERING.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10,

Address by CHARLES Hawxstxy, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section. ...... 752
1. *King Edward VII. Bridge over the River Thames between Brentford

and, Kew. By Curupert A. BRERETON, M.Inst.C.B. ..........cceeeeeeeeeeee 773
2. *Illustrations of Graphical Analysis, By J, HARRISON w..icceuseeeeeee ees 773

REPORT—1903.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
Page

. *The Equipment of the Manchester Municipal Technical Institute. By

Dp Es TREXNOLDS gcccce secassaaciniaadcn iss ddseuscteadvecess'sdenenieene Jew daidosauneumeeee 773

. Report of the Committee on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction

Was OB) ienkesock tees other, tives oe clea ceva sdie ven osesak ert ee e 778

. *Improvements in Locomobile Design. By T. Ciuarxson, A.M.Inst.C.E. 773

The Problem of Modern Street Traffic. By Lieut.-Colonel Crompton, C.B. 773

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. *Lhe Nature and Quality of some Potable Waters in South-west Lanca-

shire. By Professor J. CAMPBELL BROWN...........sccseecseeeeees ihcateaes 775

. Protective Devices for High-tension Electrical Systems. By W. B.

WOODHOUSE: G1 aststcctocccs sect rebcel seach beosebecrand te ateeeeen tect. Steeneran eT 7b

. Aluminium as an Electrical Conductor. By J. B. C. Kursuaw, F.LC... 776
. The Electrical Conductivity of certain Aluminium Alloys as affected by

exposure to the London Atmosphere. By Ernest WItSON ............... eg

A Method for finding the Efficiency of Series Motors. By Ernust
“WAVES gnaasaapaacee nee cacac Gus enesticuR coy sangee aoa Eeee iotetcc RS At seid 777

. Parallel Working of Alternators, By B. HOPKINSON .4....-cesccscsscesseeees 778

On Electrical Propulsion as the General Means of Transport. By Jamus
N. Saoorsrep, B.A., M.Inst.C.E.............. Peeve Sai a 779

Report of the Committee on the Small Screw Gauge (p. 378) .......00:44.. 780

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

1. *I'wenty-five Years’ Progress in Final and Sanitary Refuse Disposal. By
SWE GOODRICH «. ssecsinosiadanosisdesvales dase sod sdetury otis Seideved vena hita ae abe . 780
2. High Speed Electrical Monorails and the oe Manchester and Liver-
pool Express Railway. By F. B, Brur........... manabnike avcthadtevl Anam . 780
3. Oil Fuel. By A.-M. BBL... ..ccccccessccscsceeee ah daband nena Wee G 780
4, Further Experiences with the Infantry Range-finder. By Professor

GEORGH LEORBES, EVENS; wescovsctsccccsveseeres seibsaslivstasastes sees cele aeenann 782

. *Water-supply in South-west Lancashire. By JoserH Parry, M.Inst.C.E. 783

Rainfall on the River Bann, County Down, Ireland, at Banbridge, and at
Lough Island Reavy Reservoir. By JoHNn Saurvre, M.A., M.Inst.C.E.1. 783

. On the Rate of Fall of Rain at Seatlwaite. By Huan Roserr Mit,

ID iGo Tabs Dees terntcderehyercrsctcivenescentntns ek. 783

. On the Tidal Régime of the River Mersey. By James N. SHOOLBRED,

IBV Ag, MEST rist CO PHE Seescantn ave, caxctcnostessts ove sae sca nite iaaiete sone cc seneeheeeeeages 784

. History of the Discovery of Natural Gas in Sussex, Heathfield District.

By RICHARD PHARSON ........seccsseesoeeee Pere ero ee

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

. The Effect of Traffic and Weather on Macadamised Roads, and the

Prevention of Dust. By T. Arreun, Assoc.M.Inst.C. BE. ......cceccecseeeeeee 787

Pendulum Apparatus for Testing Steel as regards Brittleness. By —
Ev Ge IZOD ciesscccessecsvansevecsecnes Ueeeeaseceese sesdanadatetdtensdesatedsedertese 44d COP

CONTENTS. Xxi

Page
8. Permanent Set in Cast Tron due to Small Stresses, and its Bearing on
the Design of Piston Rings and Springs. By C. H. WINGFIELD ......... 788

4, A further Note on Gas-engine Explosions, By H. E. Wimperis ......... 789
5. Preliminary Experiments on Air Friction. By Wu. Opztt, A.R.C.Sc.... 789
6. On Monophase Induction Repulsion Motors. By Wiutt1am Cramp,

2), NILTCTBEISE GsdBundoseder geri Oe eg CUROL CeIn LOnaGeC ane aoaO BOG ER peic enn so Sblaceonndatatee 780
7. On the Ventilation of Tube Railways. By J. W. THomas, F.L.C., F.C.S. 790
8. *Experiments in Gas Explosion, By L. Barrsrow and A. D, ALEXANDER 791
9, A new Form of Mirror Extensometer, By Jonn Morrow, M.Sc....,.,... 791

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10,
Address by Professor Jounson Symineton, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., President

OMUAE SECUOMeceescuteacscsecsessecec anc ce secancectecteraeracseecescaensecoecuetiecores 792
1. Skulls from Round Barrows in East Yorkshire. By Witt1am Wrieut,

1S Sipaies DASeig Oel 140 3S Tipe hein aa preety Bn PRR RPP Bene Sheahstocp gnc wuatabsancr An 801
2. Some Observations on the Pads and Papillary Ridges on the Palm of the

Teleya@l, “)ehy load Il Dy eBags doocon sacacboneannend wemnoeccdcsocene sess cenasteneebe 802
8. Some Recent Excavations at Hastings, and the Human Remains found.

By J. G. Garson, M.D., and W. J. Lewis ABBOTT ..............ceceeceeeeees 802
4, Remarks on a Collection of Skulls from the Malay Peninsula. By Netson

DASIENANTPATIBs MES ArS i iils. toes cov sodececducnes sete yeh acstheeeeneecong ant ob cReeee bok be ne 802
5. *Grattan’s Craniometer and Craniometric Methods. By Professor J.

SSMMMLNGRON, MID. DEUS. wali nthaed Sdctdee saaseelad ts econ « athena Manion saute obit « 803
6. Anthropometric Measurements in Crete and other parts of the Aigean

Area. By W. L. H. Duckworrn, M.A. (p. 404)........ neath Me thes tele. 803
7. Report of the Committee on Anthropometric Investigation in Great

Britainand Ireland: (p. 389)).1 v. ...3-.:-s0 sche ede Peonstt «ube sanded becepcamantas's 803
8. Report of the Committee on a Pigmentation Survey of the School Children

Pee ee AMEND SUE Wore nacere se ca esenenc Suetetsavtes Saunknesatamten tee avs Ooi 803

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Paleolithic Implements from the Shelly Gravel Pit at Swanscombe, Kent.

By AMES) CH STOPES i ssiwien. coddeccentetyeeesieans devebenttaeccueeeedusbaniegteaeeceecss 803
2. Saw-edged Palzeoliths. By Mrs. C. STOPES ............ccceeeecneeeeeceveeeees 804
3. The Survival of Primitive Implements in the Faroes and Iceland. By
SEONEESONCAWNANDALH, BA em seosteacaue spss stiphbane8s suey dwar cocedatacsavs sieves same 805
4, Coldrum, Kent, and its relation to Stonehenge. By Grorer Cruincn ... 805
5. Excavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshire, 1899-1908. By T. Asusy,

SR UOINGS PM tats tie Cadi nalc Lai aa tsa oe odsphid elo csnaeee swash udednns<-Shaegeat 806
G. Ribchester: the Roman Fortress Bremettenacum. By Joun Garstane,

PaO Gate tire daneitan tas as tedgae De oarccaig vax eetcst's gaisaaupinadsaagtenh tases snasdtect: 807
7. The Roman Fort at Brough. By Joun Garstane, B.Litt. ...........002000- 808
8. Report of the Committee on the Silchester Excavations (p. 412) ......... 808
9. Ona Prehistoric Drinking-vessel found near Burnley. By TarrersaLn

RY PEMA MACE A.W ae cae roaeteee Sul ooe sae eet tet ecnd Ree Medbed. 808

10. Antiquities near Kharga, in the Great Oasis. By CHartesS. Myers, M.D. 809
11. Egyptian Burial Customs. By JoHN GARSTANG, B.Litt. .,,..ccseccsesereners 809

XXll REPORT—19058.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

Page

1. Report of the Committee on the Psychology and Sociology of the Todas
(Pp. 415) ceeces ecceeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeesnaeeeeeeesseseesecsseeeeenseeaeesseens 810
2, Toda Kinship and Marriage. By W. H. R. Rivers, M.D. ...........e seen 810
3. The Toda Dairy. By W. H. R. Rivers, M.D. ......s00esseeeeeee stb areata 811

4, The Ancient Monuments of Northern Honduras and the adjacent parts of
Yucatan and Guatemala, with some Account of the Former Civilisation
of these regions and the Characteristics of the Races now inhabiting

them. By TC i 812
5. The Progress of Islam in India. By Witrtam Crooks, B.A....... ... 5S onotag ot 3
6. The Ethnology of Early Italy and its Linguistic Relations to that of

Britain. By Professor R. SEYMOUR ConWAY, Litt.D. .....s.cceceeeserenevers 814
7. The Origin of Jewellery. By Professor W. RIDGEWAY «secre oeaetaiies 815

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

1. Report of the Committee on Archeological and Fthnological Researches

PROTEGE (Pi 402) oni sncs.ccgeaseceseonss ae EERE EE er 816
2, Excavations at Knossos in Crete. By A. J. Evans, M.A., D.Litt., PRS.

(P- 402) co .cecsceccccssssescevnnssccesecscvarccanseseseccsnsesecswonosevnsecssasaqeN egies 817
8. Exploration in the East of Crete. By R. C. Bosanquer, MAS i sacesaeueee 817
4, An Early Purple-fishery. By R. C. Bosanaquet, M.A. «...... desis foe 817
5. On a pre-Mycenzean Sanctuary with Votive Terracottas at pho acess

in Eastern Crete. By Jomn L. MYRES, M.A. ........ceccevseeseeneeees Ale 818
6. The Temples of Abydos. By Professor W. M. FLinpers Pama D.C.L.,

MAD BRAS vancwevecoadsece sede cdscomtneae oloeaine st elec sera als athens sel canteen teeta 818
7. The Beginning of the Egyptian Kitgtiom, By Professor W. M. FiinpERs

Teanyas} ashy 1D) OI Deb) UR De che iamneneanoadoonioce cvdphaledh one nis mean dese acemeng 819

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.

1. On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in the Thames Valley between

Reading and Maidenhead. By Lr. TREACHER (p. 670) ........seeeeeerene . 820
2, The Rapid Evolution of the Jamaica Black. By Miss Putten-Burry ... 820
8. Mongoloid Europeans. By Davip MACRITCHIE ......-..seeeeeceepeneeeeeee 821
4, Some Points about Crosses, chiefly Celtic. By Miss A. A. Bunty ...... 822
5. Some Suggestions as to the Origin of the Brooch, and the probable Use

of certain Rings at present called ¢ Armlets.’ By "Epwarp Lover ...... 822
6. tOn the Ethnology of the Siciut] Indians of British Columbia. By C. Hin

ANT Op uRM ey shag- Sod oec nen orb atnna SeCOROPAC ROD OOCON CUE SED REE RIIG Ia saa eco fossou cs 823
7. +On the Canadian Indians as they are. By DAvip BOYLE ...........0..e00e 823
8, tOn the Legends of the Dieri and Kindred Tribes of Australia. By

A. W. Howrrr and Orro SIEBERT .....c..c.ccscssescsseeecosesscsscesseacecenene 823

9. A West Indian Aboriginal Wooden Image. By J. E. DurrpEen, Ph.D. 823
10. *On a Model of the Arbor Low Stone Circle. By H, Batrour, M.A. ,.. 823

CONTENTS, XX

Srecrion K.—BOTANY,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

Page
Address by A. C. Sewarp, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Section..............+ $24
1. Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Botany in Schools (p. 420) 848
2. Report of the Committee on the Investigation of the Cyanophycese
MPS LO) cian sacay eStats uae, ai sows vases soicsy oss snp tay scat naececpueeplereeaey 849
3. Report of the Committee on Botanical Photographs (p. 416) ..,.,.......4 849
4, *Report of the Committee on the Respiration of Plants ..........:::.::0000 849
5. The Development of the Ascocarp in Ryparobius. By B. T. P. BarKer,
NIL /NS Rasa Seaeonbeanad nodcocO Sse AAR ESRACHr Eten cae Sc aACHaar GaNeR mnPBE AER Crane naEicnone 849
6. Culture Experiments with Biologic Forms of the Zrysiphacee. By
BEES OATMON Gs cetiouec sense scenes in cch ema ct ceases eatoagu atone ay pestate ta sccitrsarecemts 850
7. Willow-canker. By Professor T; Jonson, D.Sc., FAL S. ........sceeeeeees 850
8. On the Occurrence of Ulva latissima and Enteromorpha compressa in

Sewage Effluents, and on Variations in the Composition of the Tissues
of these and Allied Seaweeds. By Professor Lrtrs, D.Sc., Ph.D., and

MS MLOMTONG USWA. bossa Stes Sisko e eee h ie decrees sua eac tate heidete teenie ena eteaat ces 851
9. On the Colonisation of a Dried River-bed. By Miss M. C. Srorzs. ...... 852
i the Botany of Upper Peru. By A. W. Hint, M.A. ....sconsoccoaoois~nape 853
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. *New Discoveries in Heredity. By W. Bateson, F.R.S...........00cceeceeee 853
2. *Results of some Cross-breeding Experimerts with Plants. By Miss
TUTE SAN SBR 7th fon, dednaaawsnaans vensiseguniadcinns dsWs'e heats aranebancouateg 853
3. Recent Experiments in the Hybridisation of Grenade: By Crarwes C
PEMA. Wc co snumhroues aueanonrecktee ena oa cnashwat en sedvnonss teaater Petes Pak gudnnlag rea iewns 853
4, *La fleur des Gnetacées. By Professor LIGNIBR ........:ccceeeeeeee eeeeen ene 854
5. *Parthenogenesis in Gnetum ula. By Dr. LOTSY ....0... cccceeceseeneeeeeeees 854
G6. The Sandhill Vegetation of Birkdale. By Orro V. DARBISHIRE ......... 854
7. The Histology of the Sieve Tubes of Angiosperms. By Artuur W,

USI Jl [28 as da AR ea Re RR ea gi epi ratt an RU NAC CIN 854

. The Structure of Leaves of the Bracken from different habitats. By

Lives 5 21070 0G a ee a Rs MR Pr ga NS oid OL a A ee 855

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

. Discussion on the Evolution of Monocotyledons.......... OEE pep nerseconae occ 855
i. The Evolution of Monocotyledons. By Eruet SARGANT .............55 855

ii. A Consideration of the Bearing of Fertilisation Phenomena and

Embryo Sac Structure on the Origin of Monocotyledons. By Eruen
PGMA: nix scusancep tek daseenssacesqdt note ceS APNE cod. ote EPEE. EEE: od, 857

. “On Stimulus and Mechanism as Factors of Organisation. By Professor

HVAT MUTI EY EU. st aitenicads-aniaacpiactucitds sat ncwabedtacices oe Fauatuin nen docesbcats tole 858

. Alternation of Generations in the Dictyotacee and the Cytology of the

Asexual Generation, By J. LLOYD WILLTAMS.,......,ccessrepereneveceescse- 858

Xxlv REPORT—1903,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
Page
1. *Modern Views on the Phylogeny of the Alga. By Dr. F.F. Buackman 858

2. *The new Botanical Laboratory at Cambridge. By Professor H. Mar-
SHALL WARD, F.R.S.......... sas dicts cask 'ssiehin Ue'0g digas s ce see ee eee eae ee 859

8. *The Seed of Lyginodendron. By Dr. D. H. Scorrt, F.R.S., and Pro-
fessor BLA VASOGLVER esses cnn cedesttes swore ccucee srelicucessanitts se een se ae te mea 859

4, Fruit-dispersal in Adenostemma viscosum, Forst. By R. H. Yarp, M.A. 859

5. On Homceomorphy among Fossil Plants. By I. A. Nrwrtt ARser,
Mi Ass «secede EEE aR eet ecant os dent eee oe wobebee ote oo ste toe tte seed ee teens 859

6. *Methods of Mapping Plant Distribution, By T. W. Woopunap ......... 860

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,

1, On some Anatomical Features of the Scutellum in Zea Mais. By

ETHEL SARGANT and AGNES ROBERTSON ...........sccescssscenecenevecssensees 860
2. Experiments with the Staminal Hairs of Tradescantia. By Haroup
IWAN eins erseatoa-cusossogs «ne sGcparcenemesscbastie0 04 osha reat eee 860

3. On the Localisation of Anvhoeyan (red-cell sap) in Foliage Leaves. By

Uo ERATERING MAS swansnisoeisijeam odes eaiiclei cess osticpeines%3s..c0 spans esas mee meant 862

4, The Forest Resources of eeene available for British Counts By
i CARNE istoptenateccvebaaaes sco dcnetetcesiesscsineen< se tcenesceee seen teme mean 862

5. On the Preservation, Seasoning, and Strengthening of Timber by the
Powell Process. By Wx. Bopginien tk kare eee PP CbAdA A 863

6. *Plants on the Serpentine Rocks in the North-East of Scotland. By W.
WUUSQN ci aspeart SSA PPcantc ean ener an dots eebhoapubakete ames as VéiT adh eae Oe

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE,
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER. 0,

Address by Sir WittiAm pE W, Axswney, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S,
President Of, the SCCWUON) 5 ..ocsceesric- «me aaeeaee ncsisasieecpevasisseigssias eect sma 865
Ui OnrSchoolM@urricule, ..ccccacecs seneere ester saaens sneceedseman ccna eee nm 876
i, By Professor MicHaEt E. Saptpr, M.A., LL.D. ..............seeeneeees 876
u,, By,-Professor, J. ADAMS, MA.) BSGssssissisnsonisresasss>acceteeeh en eeeeeaen 878
Ll ws Yael BeAGH, OM cA. cewegieeebcr re ccesse rele cess ciiaessssb ene aee eee een 879
iv. By Gi Bie DAN Tatty Bae i iioiige de ostas as eae ecters bi ecineisy'holdaes spate Met ee .. 880

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

On CurricularotGinlsgSehoolsy ..e.sciesic.tb aeaesrspois icp tera meneeentete Ao eee 882
1. By Miss 8. A. BURSTALL, B.A, .........s00005 sececnsnineremeeehetehls MeReGw ate a 882
ii. By Professor H. E, Armsrrone, Ph.D., LL.D., FVBAS. ...........0000 es 883
2. On School Curricula with Special Reference to Commercial Education ... 885
Ig Sty Une bys 1 BAO is Lo Gin fippnnany BROSBARRABBE ne Tyaden Socbonte cS dec SsARcorCRObAGRE sa 885

Te BY AW fC PE LETCHER, MIA ssn ynascces evi suvsessee Lisanne eos Deoehswectee 886

CONTENTS. XXV

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

Page
1, Discussion on the Teaching of Geography. Opened by H. J. Mackrnper,
UM Rl Val iN ceteers aaeasavcrtroet teed Gh cadcev cues daeysueps dag ace cu seebeeabien ache » 888
2. Ieport on the Teaching of Botany (p. 420)..........sssseccsescovecnseaessaereces 888
8, Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the
Werk of Instruction in Schools (p. 455). 2..,...:ssecaveasssxeveseseavouns cabeceas 888
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15,
1, Report on the Influence of Examinations (p. 434)...........0..ccccccee caeeeee 888
2. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools (p, 429)......... 888
WDM year cat aes sata eeinre sis teoae sa yikuva satigen dose: Ssabiduvi@usvartend.waison enters 889

LIST OF PLATES.

Prats I,

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigations,

Prates IT, and ITI.

lustrating the Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North-west
Yorkshire,

Piates IV, to VIII. .
Illustrating the Report on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.
Puate IX,

Illustrating the Report on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom,

PLATE X,
Illustrating the Report on Terrestrial Surface Waves.

Puate XI,
Illustrating the Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.

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OBJECTS AND RULES

THE ASSOCIATION.

aoe ft

OBJECTS.

Tus Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, inthe British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association,

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Mempers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

ANNUAL Supscrizers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePonnd. They shall receiye

XXVIIL REPORT—1903.

gratwitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Associates for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz, :—

1. Gratis——Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Pounds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition,
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale at £10 the set.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xx1X

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. Permanent MrmBers.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. Temporary MemsBers.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Olaims wnder this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.*

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to exercise the func-
tions of Sectional Committees until their names are submitted to the
General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,* and of preparing Reports

1 Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.

3 Passed, Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

4 Notice to Contributors of Memovirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which

XxX REPORT—1903.

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ew officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.!

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
2 p.M., to appoint members of the Sectional Committee.?

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.3

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section, who will be appointed by the
General Committee at 4 p.m., and those previous Presidents and Vice-
Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 P.M.,
in their Committee Rooms, and appoint the Sectional Committees by
selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. Any
Member who has intimated the intention of attending the Meeting, and
who has already served upon a Committee of a Section, is eligible for
election as a Member of the Committee of that Section at its first
meeting.4 The Sectional Committees thus constituted shall have power
to add to their number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday,° Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Saturday.°

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.

they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
CLOT Et vss cvoecteenseananmenee ..., addressed to the General Secretaries, at the oftice of
the Association. ‘For Section......... > If it should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1 Sheffield, 1879. 2 Swansea, 1880, revised, Dover, 1899.

8 Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899. ‘ Glasgow, 1901.

5 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883. ° Nottingham, 1893.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xxxi

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed.? At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer; who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal, It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
cf Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxxi), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
_ be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and

1 Plymouth, 1877. 2 Edinburgh, 1871,

XXxXll REPORT—1903,

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have ‘notified per.
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman to
have the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has
been made) and securing the presentation of the report in due time ; and,
further, it is expedient that one of the members should be appointed to
act as Secretary, for ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on
a Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommenda-
tion of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the
several Sections, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the
several Committees appointed on the recommendation of their respective
Sections had presented their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointment of a Committee
for a special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional
Committee, the number of Members of such Committee be then fixed,
but that the Members to serve on such Committee be nominated and
selected by the Sectional Committee at a subsequent meeting.!

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.?

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. Ifthe work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Hach Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
2 Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxili

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers, The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
further grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9. The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of
the Council.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
may have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing
the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12, All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association.

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of eath Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto
can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the
Association.

At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.

Sections may, by the desite of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Seotion is empowered to arrange the hours
of meeting of the Section and of the Sectional Committee, except for Saturday.

XXX1V REPORT—1903.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant General Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted

to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Official Programme, p. 1.

Duties of the Messengers.

Toe remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed cn
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
thev would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

The ex officio members of the Committee of Recommendations are the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting, the General and Assistant-
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents
of the Association in former years.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.!

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.”

1 Passed by the General Coiamittee at Birmingham, 1865,
* Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION: XXXV

Corresponding Societies.'

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the
List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the 1st of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Societyshall return each year, on or before the
Ist of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which will
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.

6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.

8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10.2 The Organising Committees of each Section shall be instructed to

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884.
* Revised by the General Committee, 1903.

XxXXV1 REPORT—1905.

transmit to the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any
recommendations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation
of Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will bethe duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of pubiishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

1. The Trustees.

2. The past Presidents.

5. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

4, The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

5. The past and present General Treasurers, General and

Assistant General Secretaries.

6. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
_ Meeting.

7. Ordinary Members.

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

) Passed by the General Committee at Belfast, 1874.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXVI

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—Ist, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council.

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

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1903.

REPORT

xlviii

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REPORT

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rEPOoRT—1903.

TRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1851-1903.

1832-70

1832-62
1832-39
1839-44
1844-58
1858-82
1862-81

1831
1832-62
1862-74

1832-35
1835-36

1836-37

1837-39
1839-45

1845-50
1850-52

1852-53
1853-59
1859-61
1861-62
1862-63

1863-65

1865-66
1866-68

1831
1832
1832-62
1862-78
1878-80

188]

TRUSTEES.

(Sir) R. I. Murcuison (Bart.), |
F.R.S

JOHN TAYLOR, Hsq., F.R.S.
C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S,
F. BAIy, Esq., F.R.S.

Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S. |
General E. SABINE, F.B.S. |
Sir P. Ecerton, Bart., F.R.S. |

1872 Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart. (now Lord
AVEBURY), F.R.S.
1881-83 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., Pres.
RS.
1883 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards Lord)
PLAYFAIB, F.R.S.

1898 Prof, (Sir) A. W. Ricxur, F.RS.

GENERAL TREASURERS.

JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., ¥'.R.S.
W. SPOTTISWOODEH, Esq., F.R.S, |

1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S,

| 1891-98 Prof. A. W. Ricker, F.R.S,

1898 Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S8.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.RS.

Rev. W. VERNON HARcoURT,
F.R.S., and F, Batty, Esq.,
F.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARcouRT,
F.R.S., and R. I. MurcuHrson,
Esq., F.R.S.

R, I. MuRcHISON, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S.,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.

Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.

General E. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J. ¥. Roy.e, Esq., F.R.S.

J. F. ROYLE, Esq., ¥.B.S.

General E. SABINE, F.R.S. |

Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.

W. HopKIns, Esq., F.R.S.

W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and |
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and |
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.

F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S. |

F, GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T, A. Hirst, F.R.S.

| 1872-76

1868-71 Dr. T. A. H1Rst, F.R.S., and Dr,
T. THOMSON, F.R.S.

Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL Fostnmr, F.R.S.

Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.RB.S.

Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Prof. F, M. BALFourR, F.R.S.

1871-72

1876-81
1881-82

1882-83 Capt. DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.

1883-95 Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,
Esq., F.R.S.

1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
F-R:S.,, sand... serot, laa.
ScHAPFER, F.R:S.

1897—- Prof. ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir

1900
1900-02

W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S,
Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
¥F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scorr,
Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., and
Major P. A.MAcMAHON, F.R.S.
Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,
F.R.S.

1902-03
1903

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary. |

Prof. J. D. Forsus, Acting |
Secretary. |

Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A,

J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.

G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary,

1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,

Secretary.

1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A,
Secretary.

1890 G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq,, M.A.
1902 J. G, Garson, Esq., M.D,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

liu

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

— cae nanan AEE

Date and Place

1832.
1833.
1834,

1835.
1836.
_ 1837.
1838.

Presidents

Secretaries

|
|
|

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. H. Coddington.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......| Prof. Forbes.

Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh

Dublin

Bristol......

Liverpool...

Newcastle

1839, Birmingham

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844,
1845.
1846.
1847,

1848.

Glasgow ...

Plymouth
Manchester

eeesesees

Swansea ...

1849, Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856,
1857,

Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......
ol ewavesc
Liverpool...
Glasgow Pe
Cheltenham

Dublin......

Rev. W. Whewell, F.RB.S.

Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Rev. Dr. Robinson

‘Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.

Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.RB.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Prof. Forbes, F.R.S......0.0008

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S.......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.I.A. ...

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

The Very Rey. the Dean of
Ely.

Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Powell,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.R.S.......

M.A.,

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,

W. Whewell,
F.RS.

Prof. W. Thomson, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.B.S.E.

Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.S.

D.D.,

Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA.

Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. S. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

.|Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,

Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
|S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,

| Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.

Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.

B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.

J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.

Tyndall.
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull,
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof, Stevelly.

liv

Date and Place |

1858. Leeds

1859. Aberdeen... |
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchestey|
1862. Cambridge
1862. Newcastle

1864. Bath

1865, Birmingham |

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee

'Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.RB.S....

‘Prof. G. G. Stokes,

REPORT—1908,
Presidents Secretaries
| Mo:
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,| Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
V.P.R | Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.

| Tyndall.
The Earlof Rosse, M.A., K.P., J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
F.R.S. J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
| Prof, Stevelly.
G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L., | Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S.
F.R.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
of. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

A, Pr

F.RB.S. |

‘Prof.W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Rev.N.Ferrers,Prof.Fuller, F. Jenkin,

C.E., F.R.S. | Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S., Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
F.R.A.S Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

iW. Spottiswoode,M. A.,F.B.S., | Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G

F.R.A.S. | §. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
| _ J. M. Wilson.
Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L., | Fleeming J: enkin,Prof.H.J.S.Smith,
FE.R.S. | Rev. 8. N. Swann.

1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter

weneee

1870. Liverpool...
1871, Edinburgh

1872. Brighton ..
1873. Bradford ..
1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1678. Dublin.....
1879. Sheffield ...

1880, Swansea ... |

1881. York,.

1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport

1884. Montreal .

) Prof.

J. Clerk Maxwell,

Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...|

.|Prof., H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S.

| Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,

../ Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A..

... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,| Rev. G. Buckle, Prof, G. C. Foster,

F.R.S. | Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
LL.D., Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,

R. B. Hayward.

J. Tyndall,
F.R.S

\Prof, J. de Sylvester, LL.D., Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,

F.R.S. | W.K. Clifford.
M.A., Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
| rof, G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof, W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

.|W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S. ‘Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,

| Prof. A. 8, Herschel, G.F. Rodwell.

.| Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,/ J.W.L.Glaisher, Prof.Herschel, Ran-
M.R.LA. | dal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F, Rodwell.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A., Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
LL.D., F.R.S. C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,| Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T, Bottomley.
D.C.L., F.R.S. | Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.

LL.D., F.R.S.

Pres. Physical Soc.

Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,'Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
D.C.L., F.B.S. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O, J. Lodge.
George Johnstone Stoney,|A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

M.A., F.R.S. 0. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
‘Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. 0. J. Lodge

| D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.
W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.
'W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,
| D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
son, O. J. Lodge, D, MacAlister.

Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M. A,
F.R.S

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. 0. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.

LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Secretaries

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.
R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.

J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw.

R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.
|R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,

W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.

R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.

I. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

W.T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof, A. Lodge,
J. Walker.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,
G. T. Walker, W. Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W.
Watson.

Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. C.Glashan, J.
L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.

.|A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard, C. H.

Lees, W. Watson, E. T. Whittaker.

J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Wat-
son, E. T. Whittaker.

P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees,
C. J. L. Wagstaffe, W. Watson,
E. T. Whittaker.

H.S.Carslaw, C.H. Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.

H. §S. Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.
Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof. W. B.
Morton, A. W. Porter.

D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees, J.
Loton, A. W. Porter.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.

Date and Place Presidents

1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A,,
F.RB.S.E.

1886. Birmingham|Prof. G. H. Darwin, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1887. Manchester |Prof. Sir R. S. Ball, M.A.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

1888. Bath......... Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, M.A.,
E.R.S.

1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,

upon-Tyne| R.E., F.R.S.

1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,
F.RB.S., V.P.R.A.S.

1891. Cardiff...... Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,
F.RB.S., F.R.A.S.

1893. Nottingham| R. T. Glazebrook, M.A., F.R.S.

1894. Oxford...... Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A.,F.B.S. |

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks, M.A.,
F.R.S.

1896. Liverpool...|Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,
D.Sc.,. F.2.8.

1897. Toronto ...|Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

1898. Bristol...... Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S...

1899. Dover ...... Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.

1900. Bradford ...|Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Astronomy, Dr. A. A.
Common, F.R.S.

1901. Glasgow ...|Major P.A. MacMahon, F.R.S.

—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

1902, Belfast...... Prof, J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.1.A.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.
A. Schuster, F.R.S.

1903. Southport |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Astronomy and Meteor-
ology, Dr. W. N. Shaw,
F.RB.S.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.

1832. Oxford......|John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

1834. Edinburgh | Dr. Hope......cecsssssccocsseceeees

1835,
1836.

Dublin......
Bristol

1837. Liverpool...

Mr. Johnston, Dr, Christison,

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
Rey. Prof, Cumming

Michael Faraday, F.R.S,

Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.

Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr,
Reynolds,

lvi

REPORT—1903.

Date and Place

1838

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842,
1843.
1844.
1845.
1846.
1847.
1848.
1849.
1850.
1851.
1852,
1853.
1854,

1855.
1856,

1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.

186].
1862.

1863.
1864.
1865. Birmingham | Prof. W. A. Miller,
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872,

Newcastle

Birmingham
Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge
Southamp-

Swansea .
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ...
Belfast......

Liverpool

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

aeeeee

Aberdeen...
Oxford

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool..

Edinburgh

Brighton ...

- Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......

'H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
.| Prof.

- Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,

Presidents

Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S.
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F., R. s,

Dr. Danbeny, Jae EN Shp ecepaerear
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof, Apjohn, M.R.1A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......

sv. Prof. Cumming .........

Michael Faraday,
F.R.S.

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
E.R.S.

D.C.L.,

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... |
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. |

Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ..

Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S,

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S...

Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.H. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
E.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......

M.D.,
V.P.BS.

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.

M.D.,

Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S. ......

F.R.S.
Prof, T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Secretaries

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.

.| Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

Dr. L. Playfair, H. Solly, T. H.
Barker.

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,

a. Solly,

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.

|B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly,

T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams,
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

|Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.

Ronalds.

H. 8S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T, J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
.|J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley,

Prof,
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

..|A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,

A. B. Northcote.

A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D, Liveing.

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof, Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof.
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A. Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-
sell, IF’, Sutton.

.|Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.

Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J. Y. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T, Wood.

Date and Place

1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878,
1879.
1880.

1881.
1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.

1886. Birmingham

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894,

1895.

1896.
1897,

1898,
1899.
1900.
1901,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Presidents

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin ......
Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

Southamp-
ton.

Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen...

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne|
Leeds

Edinburgh

Nottingham |

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

Oxford....../

Ipswich

Liverpool...
Toronto
Bristol

Dover ......

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...

.| Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......

.| Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......

'Horace T. Brown, F.R.S.......

Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S....

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. .........

FWy-A, Abel; EUR.S:.crsscsecces os

Prof, Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
‘B.S.

Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.

|Prof. G. D, Liveing, M.A.,

F.R.S.
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

|W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Prof. W. A. Tilden, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Sir J. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.B.S.

Prof. T. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,
Ph.D., F.BR.S., Treas. C.S.
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,

C.B., F.RB.S.
Prof. H. McLeod, F.B.S.......

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds, :

M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof, H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

Ivii

Secretaries

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. EK. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.

H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, W. R. E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.
Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.
Prof, P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor-
ley, W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H, Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,
W. W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (continwed).—-CHEMISTRY.

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S8.

Prof. F. R. Japp, F.RB.S. ......

Prof, W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ...

Prof. Percy F. Frankland,
E.RB.S.

E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
Kohn, J. W. Rodger.

Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn.

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
Kohn, Prof. R. F. Ruttan.

C. A. Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
Rose.

A. D. Hall, C. A. Kobn, T. K. Rose,
Prof. W. P. Wynne.

W. M. Gardner, F. 8. Kipping, W.
J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

W.C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,
W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

lviii REPORT—1903,

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1902. Belfast...... Prof, E. Divers, F.B.S..........|R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.

G, G. Henderson, Prof. W.J. Pope.

Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc.,;Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
F.RB.S,

1903, Southport
’| derson, J. Ohm, Prof, W. J. Pope.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE,
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1332: Oxford ds: R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......| John Taylor.

1833. Cambridge.|/G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. .. |W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

1834. Edinburgh .| Prof, Jameson ......cecrersenees |J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1835. Dublin...... [ive MOULD Ny csecpercscseessemenss | Captain Portlock, T, J. Torrie.

1836. Bristol...... ‘Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,

Gcog.,R.I.Murchison,F.R.S.| TT. J. Torrie.

1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—| Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—G@eo-
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.8.| graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham,R.N.
1838. Newcastle..|C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—|W. C. Trevelyan, Capt, Portlock.—
Geography, Lord Prudhoe.) Geography, Capt. Washington.
1839. Birmingham! Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—|George Lloyd, M.D., H, E, Strick-
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.| land, Charles Darwin.

1840. Glasgow ...| Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geoq.,| W. J. Hamilton,D. Milne, H. Murray,

G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. H. E. Strickland, J. Scoular.
1841. Plymouth... H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...| W.J.Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
| RK, Hutton.
1842, Manchester R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......,E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

1843. Cork......... Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S....|F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland,
BEA gv OL a. cree 37 Henry Warburton, Pres. G. S.| Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

1845. Cambridge./Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A, | Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C, Ramsay,

| ERS. Rev. W. Thorp.
1846. Southamp- | Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......; Robert A. Austen, Dr, J. H. Norton,
ton. | Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.

1847. Oxford...... Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.| Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A, C,
| Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
1848. Swansea ...| Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.|S.Benson,Prof.Oldham, Prof,Ramsay

1849,Birmingham Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S....... J. B. Jukes, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay.
1850. Edinburgh! |Sir Roderick I. Murchison,|A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
F.R.S. Prof, Nicol,

SECTION © (continwed),.—GEOLOGY.

1851. Ipswich ...| WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.|C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,|James Bryce, James MacAdam,
F.R.S. Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
1853, Hull......... Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S......... Prof, Harkness, William Lawton.

1854. Liverpool..|Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.|John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
1855. Glasgow .../Sir R. I, Murchison, F.R.S8....|J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.

1Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page Ixv.

y
4

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

lix

Date and Place

1856, Cheltenham

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864.
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...

1869, Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...

1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin......
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.........
1882., Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884, Montreal ...

1885. Aberdeen...

Presidents

Prof, A. C. Ramsay; F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.8.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rey. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,

F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,

K.C.B., F.R.S8.
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

-| Archibald Geikie, F.RB.S.......

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G,S.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S. ......

Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Dr. T. Wright, F.B.S.E., F.G.S.

Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.

Prof, P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.8.

R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prot. Wea...
LL.D., F.R.S.
W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
s

Williamson,

G.S.
Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S

1886. Birmingham|Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Secretaries

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, G. Sanders, R. H.
Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw,

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, E,. Hull, J. W.
Woodall.

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert

Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,

Rev. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L.C.Miall,R.H.Tiddeman,W.Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B, Tawney, W. Topley.

J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O'Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

1887. Manchester |Henry Woodward, LL.D.,|J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-

E.R.S., F.G.S.

ley, W. W. Watts,

REPORT— 1903.

Date and Place

1888

1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

1896.
1897.

1898.
1899.
1900.

1901.
1902.

1903.

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds

seenee

Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford

Ipswich

Liverpool
Toronto

Bradford ...

Glasgow ...
Belfast

Southport

Presidents Secretaries

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,|Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W.
F.R.S., F.G.S. W. Watts, H. B. Woodwdrd.
Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,| Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.

F.R.S., F.G.S. W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.
Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,|J. E. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
F.R.S., F.G.S. E. Marr, W. W. Watts.
Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,|W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
F.G.S. Reid, W. W. Watts.
Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,|H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
F.R.S., F.G.S. Reid, W. W. Watts.
J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,|J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
F.G.S. Reid, W. W. Watts.
L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S. ...|/F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement
' Reid, W. W. Watts.
W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S. ...|F. A. Bather, G@. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. E. Marr, M.A., F.R.S.......|J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

...|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,|Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-

F.R.S. lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.
W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......|G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.
Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. |J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,
Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers.
..-|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
G. W. Lamplugh, H. W. Monckton.
John Horne, FBS. ......0s000. H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton.
Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon,|H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton,
F.R.S. J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour.
Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A.,|H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton.

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.

1832.

1833
1834

1835
1836

1837
1838

1839
1840,

1841
1842

1843

; Cambridge!
. Edinburgh,

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...
. Newcastle

. Birmingham
. Glasgow ...

. Plymouth...
. Manchester

SP OOLK vores vate

|Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ... | Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
| Rev. W.L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.'C. C. Babington, D. Don.
| Prof. Grabam W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.

ene were were reeeeeeee

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

Dr 'Allman:<....5.. Siasraacs oe J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
Rev. Prof. Henslow ........+00s J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, $8.
Rootsey.
W.S. MacLeay..,.......0 see.» |C. C, Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
| Swainson.

Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ........./J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.

sseeeeeee |. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
D.......| Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson. :

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. | J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her- Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.

Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ...
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.

bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner,
William Thompson, F.L.S.....G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.

1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p, Ixiv.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

OF THE SECTIONS. lxi

Date and Place Presidents
1844, York......... | Very Rev. the Dean of Man-
chester.

1845. Cambridge
1846, Southamp-

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
|Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,
F.RB.S.

ton.
1847. Oxford......|H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.

Secretaries

Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr, King,
Dr. Lankester.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
Wooldridge.

Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. lxiv.]

1848. Swansea ...|L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........

_ 1849, Birmingham| William Spence, F.R.S. ......
| 1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

1851. Ipswich

...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,
E.R.S.
1852. Belfast......|W. Ogilby

1853. Hull...... ..|C. C, Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
1854. Liverpool...| Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
1856. Cheltenham | Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.

1857. Dublin......| Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,

F.R.S.
1868. Leeds ....../C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.

. Aberdeen...|Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
. Oxford......|Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.

. Cambridge |Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. .........
Newcastle |Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....

oe John HE, Gray, F.R.S.

1865. Birming-

[2 Thomson, M.D., F.B.S. ...
ham!

SECTION D (continued)

Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.
of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.

Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

1866. Nottingham

867. Dundee

868. Norwich ...

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester,

| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

| Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.

Prof. Allman, F’. W. Johnston, Dr. E,
Lankester.

Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr, E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E: Steele.

Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.

W.S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr,

| P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

| Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.

B, Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

..|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.

Stainton, Dr. EH. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.

»— BIOLOGY.

Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B,
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.

M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rev. Dr. H, B, Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

1 The title of Sectiqgn D was changed to Biology.

lxil

Date and Place

1869, Exeter...... |

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh.

1872. Brighton ...

1873. Bradford ...

1874, Belfast.....,

1875, Bristol ......

1876, Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...

1878, Dublin......

1879, Sheffield ...

1880, Swansea ...

1881. York......0

RrEPortT—1903.

Presidents Secretaries

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.) HE, Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.— H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram.

Prof, G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
F.R.S., F.L.S8.— Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| TT. Stainton, Rev. H. B,. Tristram,
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,|Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| KE. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol., Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,| Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, EH. Ray
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.8.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W. R. Wilde,
M.D.

P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.
Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S.

A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—
Dep. of Zool. and Bot.
Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. J. G. McKendrick.

J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of
Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. BR.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

A.C. L, Giinther, F.R.8.—Dep.
of Anat. 5 Physiol., F. M.
Balfour, F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., KF. W. Rudler.

R. Owen, F.R.S.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Prof. W.H. Flower,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon
Sanderson, F.R.8.

Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey. .

W.T.Thiselton-Dyer, R. 0. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son,

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler,

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F, W. Rudler, Prof.
Schafer,

GW. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. ©. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H, EH. Spencer.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxili

Date and Place |

1882. Southamp-
ton.

1883. Southport!
1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...
1886. Eirmingham
1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889, Newcastle -
upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds ......

1891. Cardiff......

1892. Edinburgh

Presidents

Secretaries

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.
— Dep. of. Zool. and Bot.,
Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.
—Dep.of Anthropol., Prof.
W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.RB.S.

Prof. W. C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.RB.S., F.R.S.E.

W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. Newton, M.A., F.R.S.,
SAS Hy Wad ARS 6

W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.RB.S., F.L.S.

Prof, J. S. Burdon Sanderson,
M.A., M.D., F.RB.S.

Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
F.RBS., F.L.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D.,
E.RB.S., F.R.S.E.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.

Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,
Prof. H. Marshall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E, Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

S. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
8S. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

F. E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.

1893. Nottingham*|Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,|G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.

1894, Oxford*® ...

1895. Ipswich ...
1896. Liverpool...
1897, Toronto ..,
1898. Bristol......

1901. Glasgow ...

M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
FE.R.S.

W. A. Herdman, §8. J. Hickson,
W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.
W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. S. J.
| Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater,

SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLOGY,

Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...
Prof, L. ©. Miall, F.R.S. ......

Prof. W. F, R. Weldon, F.R.S.!

Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......
Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.RB.S. ...

Prof. J. Oossar Ewart, F.R.S.

G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E,
Hoyle, W. L. Sciater.

H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.

| Hoyle.

|W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.
E. E. Prince.

Prof, R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle.

|W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

W. Garstang, J. G. Kerr, T. H.
Taylor, Swale Vincent.

J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.

1 Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxi.
? Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixxii.
8 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology

Ixiv REPORT—1903.

at <a

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries

1902
1903

. Belfast...... | Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S, ...! Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.

Simpson.

. Southport | Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S....|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft, A.
Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson, Dr.

H. W. M. Tims.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VY.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge | Dr. J. Haviland.................. Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget.
1834, Edinburgh \Dr. Abercrombie .....-.... ...-.|Dr, Roget, Dr. William Thomson,
SECTION E (UNTIL 1847),—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin...... Dra. CPnitonare n.cc.sescess Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart,

1836. Bristol ...... Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Symonds.

1837. Liverpool,..|Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,

Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.

1839. Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.

1840. Glasgow ...;|James Watson, M.D. ......... Dr.J. Brown, Prof, Couper, Prof. Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

1841. Plymouth...'P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |J. Butter, J. Fuge, R. 8. Sargent.

1842, Manchester , Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,

1843. Cork ...... +. Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. ..., Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,

1844. York......... J.C. Pritchard, Mii. ..t.+-. I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.

1845, Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. ...... Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. | gent.

1847. Oxford’ .,.| Prof. Ogle, M.D,, F.R.S. ....... 1. K. Chambers, W. P, Ormerod,

1850.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. |

1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers,

1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... | Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.

1858. Leeds ...... Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S. | C. G. Wheelhouse.

1859. Aberdeen...|Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.| Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith.

1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S..........| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith

1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D................ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.

1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.| Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.

1864. Bath.........| Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S. |J. 8, Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner,

1865. Birming- Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,|Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop,
ham ? F.R.S. Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.

1
and

Sections D and E were incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology
Botany, including Physiology’ (see yp. lxi). Section UW, being then vacant,

was assigned in 1861 to Geography,

Vide note on page 1xi,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SHCTIONS. Ixy

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
|

GHOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geogtaphy previous to 1851, see Section C,
p. lviii.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D,

1846.Southampton| Dr. J. C. Pritchard ............ Dr. King.

1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
1848. Swansea ...|.cscessseeeeceeeere haneen ns etias sytem G. Grant Francis.
PAO DITOUID EVAN «ioccecvecaucsecscevvcsiaessnssesacaes Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,)R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr,

Pies. R.G.S. | Norton Shaw.

1852. Belfast...... Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S Shaws

1853, Hull......... R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S, |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

1864, Liverpool...) Sir R. I, Murchison, D,C.L.,|Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
| SRERS: Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1855. Glasgow ... Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr,

| F.RB.S. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham;Col. Sir H, C. Rawlinson,|R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
|. K.C.B: Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857, Dublin...... |Rev, Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres. RIA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1858, Leeds ...... Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.8,,|R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan,
F.R.S. Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

1859. Aberdeen...; Rear - Admiral Sir James| Richard Cull, Prof.Geddes, Dr. Nor-
| Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
1860. Oxford......)Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,]Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C,

| F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1861. Manchester John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
| ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode,
1862. Cambridge Francis Galton, F.RB.S.......... J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,

Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.
1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,

F.B.S. C. R. Markham, R. §. Watson.
1864. oe his choos Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt,
| ERS. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

1865, micpaihe hath, |Major-General Sir H. Raw-|H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
linson, M.P., K.0,B., F.R.S.| OC. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

1866, Nottingham! Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
LL.D. H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
' D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

1867, Dundee ...!Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. |H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, S. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.
1868, Norwich ;..|Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,)/T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.

E.R.S. Markham, T. Wright.

SECTION E (continwed),—GEOGRAPHY.

1869, Exeter ...... Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,|H. W. Bates, Clements R, Markham
LL.D., F.R.G.S. | J. H. Thomas.
1870. Liverpool.,. SirR.I. Murchison, Bt.,K,C.B.,,H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
tan (Tie. 2. DO.1., B.S, E.G.S.| Mott, Clements R. haa s
3.

Ixvi

REPORT—1908.

Date and Place

. Edinburgh
2. Brighton ...

3. Bradford ...

enneee

. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth...
peDub lias...

. Sheffield ...

. Swansea ..

. Southamp-
ton.

. Southport

. Montreal ...

. Aberdeen...

. Birmingham

. Manchester

see enenee

. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
. Leeds

- GATCLET se.
. Edinburgh

. Nottingham
OXLOT care.
. Ipswich
3. Liverpool...
. Toronto
. Bristol......

. Bradford ...

. Glasgow ...

Al jisl

.|J. Scott Keltie, LL.D.

Presidents

Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.8.
Francis Galton, F.R.S..........
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,!
¥.R.G.S. |

Lieut. - General Strachey,
R.E.,C.S.1., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,

Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.RB.S., Sec. B.G.S.

.| Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,

CYB, RuC.Ol. Gs, BALERS.

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.1,
CE: Hobe,

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L.,
F.R.G.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G., F.B.S.,V.P.2.G.8.

Gen, J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,
K.G.S.L, C.B., F.B,G.8.

Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K.C.B., F.B.S., F.B.G.S.

Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.S8.

Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert
Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.

Secretaries

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

Ii. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
Thomas.

H.,, W. Bates, E. C., Rye,, F.-¥.
Tuckett.

H. W. Bates, Ei. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, KH, C. Rye.

John Coles, E. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.
H. W. Bates, EH. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates,
E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C.
Rye.

Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S, O'Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.

J.S. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.

Ravenstein, Rev. G. A. Smith.
T. S. Houghton, J. S. Keltie.

E. G. Ravenstein.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E.G.
Ravenstein.

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White.

A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White.

Pr.

E. G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S.,
E.S.8.

Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.B.S.,
V.P.R.Scot.G.s.

H. Seebohm, Sec. B.8., F.L.8.,
¥.Z.8.

Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,

¥F.R.S.

. J. Mackinder,

F.R.G.S.

Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.

M.A.,

Col, G. Earl Church, F.R.G.8.
Sir John Murray, F.R.S8.

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, W. S. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.
R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.

H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
Trapnell.

H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,

Sir George
K.C.8.1.
Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G.8.

Dr. H. R. Mill.

S. Robertson,}H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, E. R.

Wethey.
H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.
Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

———————— ee Sh rm

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS lxvit

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries

|
| peer es ees 2s fae
1902. Belfast ...|Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...;G. G. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr.
| A.J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay.
1903. Seuthport (Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,|E. sgl Dr. A. J. Herberstson.~
|) ERS. H, A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under-
| wood.
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Catubridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. ..........J. E, Drinkwater.
1834. Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... | Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS,
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. . W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., ¥ ‘RS. Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
| James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... |W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr, W. C.
Tayler.
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839. Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
| ‘Tayler.
1840. Glasgow ...|Lord Sandon, M.P., F.R.S. |C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
| Rawson.
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... 'Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
| W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...| Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
| W.C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. .... Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S., J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
ELS. | cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam |J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ........... J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.
ton. | C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F, G.
| P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ... J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849 Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. P. G.
| Neison.
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,| Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.R.S.E. |. Stark.
1851. Ipswich ...)/Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...| J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James
Dublin. | MacAdam, jun.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.| Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
1854. Liverpool.../ Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. . . E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
) | Duncan, W. Newmarch.
1855. Glasgow ... R. Monckton Milnes, M,P. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
| march, Prof. R. H. Walsh,
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856. Cheltenham| Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. | Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
1857. Dublin...... |His Grace the Archbishop of| Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
- Dublin, M.R.LA. Newmarch.
1858, Leeds .......; Edward Baines....... Vobedeeneas T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, §. Brown, -

Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
dz

Ixviii

REPORtT—1908

Date and Place

|
i

Presidents

1859. Aberdeen... | Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. «++.
|

1860

. Oxford

‘Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......

|
1861. Manchester William Newmarch, F.R.S....

1862
1863

1864
1865

1866
1867

1868
1869,

1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877

1878
1879

1880.
1881.

1882
1883
1884
1885
1886

1887. Manchester

1888,

1889
1890

1891

. Cambridge Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........
. Newcastle .| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

DAE age sane W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.
. Birmingham Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,

. Nottingham Prof. J. E. T. Rogers

. Dundee .....

. Norwich....

. Exeter

. Liverpool...

. Edinburgh

. Brighton...|
. Bradford ...

. Belfast

. Bristol

. Glasgow ..

seeeee

» Plymouth...

. Dublin

. Sheffield ...

Swansea ...

. Southamp-

ton.

- Southport

. Montreal ..,

. Aberdeen...

. Birmingham

. Newcastle-

upon-Tyte

. Leeds

. Cardiff

M.P.

M. KH. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

Samuel Brown
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
| cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof, W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon, Lord Neaves
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
Lord O’Hagan

see eweeee

James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,
Pres, 8.8.

. Sir George Campbell, K.C.8.L,

M.P.
Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D. ...
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
5.5.
G. W. Hastings, M.P...........
Rt. Hon. M. KE. Grant-Duff, |
M.A., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth, |
M.P., F.R.S. |
Rh. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S.

Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,
G.C.S.1L., C.LE., F.R.G.S.
Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,

Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.58.5.

Rt. Hon, Lord Bramwell,
LL.D., F.RS.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.8.8,

Prof. A. Marshall, M.A., F.S.S.

|Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,

DSce., E.S.S.

Secretaries

Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M;
Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch;
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers,

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie;
K. Macrory, Prof. J. KE. T. Rogers:

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory;
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

E. Macrory, E. ‘I’, Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G: J. Jolinston;
EK. Macrory,

|R. Birkin, jun., Prof, Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden:

Rey. W: Ci Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.

E. Mattory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland,

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Milés Moss.

J. G. Fitch; James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
Mac Mordie.

F, P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.

A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.
W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim..

W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim..

Prof. Adamson, R. HE. Leader, C.
Molloy.

N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
Moss.

G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. VFox-
well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. 8.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy..

Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan,
Prof. J. Watson.

|Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F’. Moss.

¥. F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,.
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

/Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Bdge-
worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes,.
J. E. C. Munro, G. H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T, H. Elliott,
H. 8. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rey. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,.
¥F. B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,.
T. H. Elliott, Prof, J. HK. C. Munro,
L. L. F. R. Price.

|Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.

EK. C. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,.

Prof, W. R. Sorley.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

lxix

Presidents

Secretaries

1892, Edinburgh |Hon. Sir C. W. Bromantlo; Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof,

1893.

1894,
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899,
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.

1836.
1837.
1838.

Nottingham

Ipswich
Liverpool...

Toronto
Bristol...

Bradford ...
Glasgow ...
Belfast

Southport

.|L. L. Price, M.A. ......

.| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.
..|J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D.

.|E. Cannan, M.A., LL.D.

K.C.B.

Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,
F.S.S.

Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,
F.S.S.

ae eeeeeee

Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P....

See

H. Higgs, LL.B.
Major P. G. Craigie, V.P-.S.S.
Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S.

K. W. Brabrook, C.B. .........

../A. L. Bowley, Prof.

EK. C. K. Gonner,
L. L. F. R. Price.
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.
Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
L. L. F. R. Price.

EK. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
W. A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.

E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.

EK. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H,
Higgs, W. E. Tanner.
A. L. Bowley, E, Cannan, Prof, A.
W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.
A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan,
Chapman, I’, Hooper.

W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
Cannan, 8. J. roel

. J. Chapman,

H. Higgs,

8. J.

Dr. A. Duffin,
A. L. Bowley, Prof. 8. J. Chapman,
Dr. B, W. Ginsburg, G, Lloyd.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bristol
Liverpool...
Newcastle

seneee

| Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.B.S. |

Rev. Dr. Robinson ............
| Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......

1839, Birmingham Prof, Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.

1840.

1841,
1842.

1843,
1844.
1845.

Glasgow ....

Plymouth

| Stephenson,
(‘Sir John Robinson

Penn eereeenes

'John Taylor, F.R.S. ......s000

Manchester’ Rev. Prof. Willis, FORE, cans a

se ereenee

Cambridge

Prof, J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....
John Taylor, F.R.S. ..........0.
George Rennie, F.R.S..........

1846, Southamp- | Rev, Prof. Willis, M.A, F.B.S.

1847.
1848.
1849,
185€.

1851.
1852.

1853.

—«*1854.

1855.
1856,
1857.

1858,

1859,

Swansea
Birmingham |
Edinburgh
Tpswich ..
Belfast......

15 (ULE ere
Liverpool...
Glasgow .
Cheltenham

Dublin.....,

Leeds ......
Aberdeen...

.|W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S.

| ‘Rev. Prof, Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.

... | Rey. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.8.

| Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S.
Rey. EB Hobinson

Pe or ry

ser eeeee

a ae Walken, o Ki. ie EE, D.,
F.R.S.

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.

John Scott Russell, F.R,S. ...

|George Rennie, F.R.S. .........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.

J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,
C. Vignoles.

Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.

J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster,

Rey. W. T. Kingsley.

William Betts, jun., Charles Manby,

J. Glynn, R, A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.

Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.

Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.

,|John Head, Charles Manby.

John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.

J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.

J. Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson.

...|L, Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.

C. Atherton, B. Jones, H. M, Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. ‘Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.

| William Fairbairn, F.R.S. .
| Rev. Prof, Willis, M, A, F.R. s.

(

. J. GC. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
_R, Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright,

ikxx

Date and Place

REPORT— 1908.

Presidents Secretaries

1860. Oxford

Prof.W.J.Macquorn Rankine, | P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison,
LL.D., F.B.S. Henry Wright.

1861. Manchester |J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....|P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
1862, Cambridge. | William Fairbairn, F.R.S. W. M. Faweett, P. Le Neve Foster.
1863. Newcastle . | Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.|P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
1864. Bath......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........]P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
1865, Birmingham | Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,|P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
F.R.S. W. P. Marshall, Walter May.
1866. Nottingham | Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
C.K., F.G.S. O. Tarbotton.
1867. Dundee...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
LL.D., F.RB.S. W. W. Urquhart.
1868. Norwich ...|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S. |P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C,
Manby, W. Smith.
1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
1870. Liverpool...| Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T,
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.|H.Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith,
1872. Brighton ...|F. J. Bramwell, C.K, .......,. H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
1873. Bradford ...|W. H. Barlow, F.R,S, ......... C. Barlow, H. Pauerman.E.H.Carbutt,
J. C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred,
1874. Belfast...... Prof, James Thomson, LL.D.,| A. T, Atchison, J. N, Shoolbred, John
C.E., F.B.S.E. Smyth, jun,
L875. Bristol x... W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.|W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
1876. Glasgow .,./C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......|W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J, N, Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
1877. Plymouth...) Edward Woods, C.E. ......... A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
| Shoolbred.
1878. Dublin ...... Edward Easton, C.E. .........,A. I. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood,
1879. Sheffield ...'J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech. | A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
Eng. | H.T. Wood.
1880. Swansea ..,|J.Abernethy, F.R.S.E.......... |A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.
VSSh Work 08.. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,!A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,

. Leeds

. Southamp-

ton.

. Southport .
. Montreal ...

. Aberdeen...
. Birmingham
. Manchester
» Bath wwii.

. Newcastle-

upon-Tyne

ween

. Cardiff ......
. Edinbyrgh

| LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.
|John Fowler, C.N., F.G.S.
|

H. T. Wood.

«A. T. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T.
Wood,

A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

_A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.

| Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst..C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B.

J. Brunlees, Pres.Inst.C.E.
‘Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.RB.S.,
| V.P.Inst.C.E.
‘B. Baker, M.Inst.C.B. .........

C.E | Marshall, E. Rigg.
Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,|C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
| LL.D., F.B.S. E. Rige.
W. 4H. Preece, F.RS.,'C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
M.Inst.C.E. | Rigg, P. K, Stothert.

|W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ...'!C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
| ©. A. Parsons, E. Rigg.

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S., E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.

E.R.A.S. | Marshall, E. Rigg.

T. Forster Brown, M.Inst.C.E.|C. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C. Elliott,
| W. B. Marshall, E. Rige.

|Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.,|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C.

| M,Inst,C,B, | Popplewell, E, Rigg.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxxj

Date and Place

Presidents

Secretaries

1893. Nottingham|Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,

1894, Oxford

1895. Ipswich

1896. Liverpool...| Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E.

1897. Toronto
1898. Bristol

1899. Dover ...... Sir W. White, K,C.B., F.R.S.
1900. Bradford ...|Sir Alex, R. Binnie, M.Inst. |

1901. Glasgow ...|R. E, Crompton, M.Inst.C., |
«| Prof. J. Pétry) WBS.....R..0

1902. Belfast
1903. Southport

1884. Montreal...) E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... |

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

* 1887. Manchester

1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff.,..,.

1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham

1894. Oxford

1895. Ipswich ...
1896. Liverpool... |
1897. Toronto

1898. Bristol
1899. Dover

1900. Bradford ...
1901. Glasgow ...
1902. Belfast

...|Prof. L, F, Vernon-Harcourt,

...|G. F. Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

Sir W. Turner, F.R.S. .........

|C. H. Read, F.S.A. |

.|Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.

1903. Sonthport

F.C.S.
Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,|
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.

M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,
F.RBS,

C.K.

C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.E,

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E.
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith,

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney,

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munrc,
H. W. Pearson, W. A, Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H.
E. Stilgoe.

Prof. T, H. Beare, GC. F. Charnock,
Prof. S. Dunkerley, W. A. Price.

H. Bamford, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price.

| M. Barr, W, A. Price, J. Wylie.
...| Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T,. Maccall,

W. A. Price.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY,

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W

Sir G. Campbell, K.C.S,L,
M.P., D.C.L., F,R.G.S.

Prof, A. H, Sayce, M.A. ......

Lieut.-General
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
LL,D., F.R.S.

Dr. J. Evans, Treas, R.8.,
FS.A., F.LS., F.G.8.

Prof. F. Max Miiller, M.A. ,.,

Pitt-Rivers,

Prof. A, Macalister,
M.D., F.R.8.
Dr. R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E, |

M.A.,

Sir W. H. Flower,
E.R.S.

Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,
D.C.L.

Arthur J. Evans, F.S.A. ......|

K.C.B.,|

KK. W. Brabrook, C.B. .... ....

Prof. John. Rhys, M.A..........

Prof. D. J. Cunningham,
E.R.S.

Prof. J. Symjngton, F.R,S. ...

Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R. Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.

_ Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W, Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H.
Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof,
R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies,
Prof, R. Howden, F. B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling
Roth.

J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, He
Ling Roth.

Prof. A. GC. Haddon, J. L. Myres,
Prof. A. M. Paterson.

‘A. F. Chamberlain, H. O. Forbes,

Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres.
H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.
H. Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C.

Had ion, J. L. Myres.

Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W.

Crooke, J. L. Myres.

W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.

Gemmill, J. L. Myres.

.|R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,

J. L. Myres.
E, N. Fallaize, H. S$. Kingsford,
E. M, Littler, J, L. Myres,

}xxii

REPORT—1908.

Date and Place |

| Presidents

Secretaries

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprRmentray
PaTHoLoGy AND EXPERIMENTAL PsycHonoey).

Prof. F. Gotch, Dr. J. 5, Haldane,
M.S. Pembrey.

Prof. R. Boyce, Prof.C.S. Sherrington.

Prof, R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8. Sherring-

| ton, Dr. L, E. Shore.

Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E.

| H. Starling.

.W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osbarne, Prof.
W. H. Thompson.

J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A, Osharne, Dr,
C. Shaw.

|A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

| Prof. mee Gibson, A. C. Seward,

| Prof. PF. K. Weiss.

'Prof. J. B. 5 ee E. C. Jeffrey,
A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

... A.C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.

\G, Dowker, A. C, Seward, H. Wager,
A. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West.
D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.
A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
| H. Wager, R. H. Yapp.
'H. Ball, A. G. ‘Tansley, H. Wager,
| R.H. Yapp.

..|R. A. Gregory, W, M. Heller, R. Y.

| Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
| H. L. Withers.

|Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
| R.M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,

| Prof. H. L. Withers.

1894. Oxford....,.|Praf. E. A. Schifer, F.R.S.,
M.R.C.S.

1896. Liverpoal... | Dr, W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.
1897. Toronto ...| Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S.
1899. Dover ...... |J. N. Langley, F.R.S.

|
1901. Glasgow ... | Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ...
1902. Belfast .|Prof.. W. OD. Haliburton |

F.R.S.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.

1895, Ipswich .,.|W. J, Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.
1896. Liverpool.../ Dr. D. H. Scott, FLR.S. ......

|
1897. Toronto ,..! Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.

|
1898. Bristol.,.,,.! Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S8.
1899. Dover ...,..|/Sir George King, F.R.S. ......
1900. Bradford ...| Prof. 8, H. Vines, F.R.S.......
1901. Glasgow ...! Prof, I. B. Balfour, F.H.S. ...
1902, Belfast... Prof. J. R, Green, F.RS........
1903, Southport |A. ©. Seward, FARS. j...0.

SECTION L—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

1v01. Glasgow ...|Sir John E, Gorst, F.R.S.
1902. Belfast .| Prof. H. E, Armstrong, F.R.S.
1903. Sputhport |Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,

F.R.S.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. L.
PRE

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Sybject of Discourse

1842. Mancheste

1843, Cork

eereeee

t |Charles Vignoles, F.R.S......
Sir M.\I, Brunel ........esccsee
|R. I. Murchison,,....ccsccssreerer
| Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......

| Prof, E. Forbes, F. [ig Shpecrn Si

| DpeHobipson), sh s.ersaseontine ©

The Panes i Gh aametncn of
Atmospheric Railways.

The Thames Tunnel,

The Geology of Russia.

|The Dinornis of New Zealand.

The Distribution of Animal Life ip
the Aigean Sea.

The Eayl of Rosse’s Telescope,

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES,

xxiii

Date and Place

Lecturer |

Subject of Discourse

1844. York

eo eeceree

1845. Cambridge

1846. Southamp-
ton,

1847. Oxford......

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich .,.

1852. Belfast......

1853, Hull..,......,

1854. Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ...

1856. Cheltenham

1857, Dublin......
1858, Leeds ......
1859, Aberdeen...

1860, Oxfoyd......

‘Charles Lyell, F.R.S. see)
Dr, Falconer, F.R.S.......60006+

G.B, Airy, F.R.S.,Astron,Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......)
|Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...|
Charles Lyell, F.R.S, ...
W. R. Grove, F.RB.S. ....ccccee0e

Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S.
Prof, M. Faraday, F.R.S.......

Hugh KE. Strickland, F.G.S....
‘John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......

W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.RB.S. ...........
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

Dr. Mantell, F.R.S. .........00.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

|G.B. Airy, F.R.S.,Astron, Royal

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.G.S,

Robert Hunt, F.R.S.............
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......

Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ..,

Col, Sir H. Rawlinson .........

W. R. Grove, F.RB.S..........008
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
Prof, J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rev. Dr, Robinson, F.R.S. ...

Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N,°

Geology of North America,

The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik
Hills in India,

Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

Geology of Russia.

Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles,

Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.

Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.

Shooting Stars.

Magnetic and Diamagnetie Pheno-
mena.

The Todo (Didus ineptus).

Metallurgical Operationsof Swansea
and its Neighbourhood.

Recent Microscopical Discoveries,

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.

Transit of different Weights with
varying Velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-

nection with Nutrition.

Extinct Birds of New Zealand,

Distinction between Plants and
Animals, and their changes of
Form.

Total Solar Eclipse of July 28,
1851.

Recent Discoveries in the properties
of Light.

Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.

Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.

The present state of Photography.

Anthropomorphous Apes,

Progress of Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.

Characters of Species.

Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.

Correlation of Physical Forces.

The Atlantic Telegraph.

Recent Discoveries in Africa,

The Ironstones of Yorkshire.

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.

Geology of the Northern Highlands,

Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.

Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery,

Ixxiv

Dat

e and Place

REPORT— 1908.

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1861. Manchester | Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

1862.
1863.

1864.
1865.

1866,

1867.

1868.

1849.

1870.

1871.

Cambridge
|
Neweastle

Bathy.3s. <4. .1)

Birmingham
|

|
Nottingham

Dundee,....,

Norwich

soe

Exeter ......|
Liverpool...

Edinburgh

. Brighton ..,

. Bradford ..,

Belfast ......

. Bristol Hitt,

. Glasgow ..,

Plymouth...

Dublin

Sheffield ...

| Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ...

G. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron,
Royal.

Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof, Odling, WiBi8.....50cc0ees

| Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......

James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Profs Roscoe, WRG. .......0000-
J. Beete Jukes, BS. aces i

William Huggins, F.R.S.......

Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.......

Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson; WSR.S..,cccsss.cs

Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..........

Brot SoAPhillips,, LL. D;,
F.B.S.

J. Norman Lockyer, F.R,S....

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof.W. J. Maequorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
AWA eL MIA Sie, ceect csco sees

BH, B. Tylor, FUR Sa cetiseversks

Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. K. Clifford ..../..2....

Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.

Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.

Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,

F.R.S.
Prof Huxley /WR.S. ccc

W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
K. J: Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Proks Tait CRs! Bivvsssccssasec
Sir Wyville Thomson, F.R.S.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.BS.
Prof. Odling, F.R.S.............
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
Prof! Dewar, PER.S... cte.4.;..

W. Crookes, F.R.S. ......c00ce.
| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S.

Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eelipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water,

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

.| Recent Travels in Africa,

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

Insular Floras.

The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

Reverse Chemical Actions,

Vesuvius.

The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

The Scientific Use of the Imagina-
tion.

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some Recent Investigations and Ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.

The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.

Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

Coal and Coal Plants,

Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.

The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

Force.

The ‘ Challenger’ Expedition.

Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwall and Devon,

The New Element, Gallium,

Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Radiant Matter.

Degeneration.

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES,

lxxv

Date and Place

1880. Swansea ...
298);| York:.:......

1882.
1883.

Southamp-
ton.
Southport

1884. Montreal...

1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

1887. Manchester

1888. Bath.........

1889. Newcastle-

upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds

eemeee

Cardiff ......

1891.

1892. Edinburgh

1893, Nottingham

1894. Oxford

1895. Ipswich

1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto ...

1898. Bristol

1899. Dover ......

1900. Bradford ...
1901. Glasgow ...

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

Francis Galton, F.RB.S..........
Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S. ......

W. Spottiswoode, Pres, R.S....

Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsca, F.R.S.
Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.

Prof. R.iSa ball, BRS. |. ..-<
Prof. J. G. McKendrick. .....
Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rev. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S.

Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.5....

John Murray, F.R.5.E.. :
A. W. Riicker, M.A., ERS.
Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D..
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F'.R.5.
Col. Sir F. de Winton
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.8c.,
FE.RS.
Prof. W.
F.R.S. ‘
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

C. Roberts-Austen,

E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.5.
Prof. L. C. Miall, ¥.L.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.B.S.
Prof. J.A, Ewing, M.A., F.R.S,
Prof, A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.

Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.

.| Prof. §. P. Thompson, F.R.8.

Prof. Perey F. Frankland,
F.R.S.

Dr. F. Elgar, FBS. .........06

Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
E.RB.S.

dep Milney BReSs.s...cs'scde eden’

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

Herbert Jackson

Prof, Charles Richet............

Prof, J. Fleming, F.R.S. .

Prof. W. Stroud. ........e......
Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R. 3.

F. Darwin, F.RB.S.,..

Pr sniaval Man,

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Palzon-
tology.

The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

.|Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

.|The Great Ocean Basins.

Soap Bubbles.
.|The Sense of Hearing.

..|The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry,

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some Difficulties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees,

Maenetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-
cialism,

Maenetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

Safety in Ships.

Man before Writing.

Canada’s Metals,

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

.| Funafuti: the Study of aCoral Island,

Phosphorescence.
La vibration nerveuse.

.....|'TheCentenary of the ElectricCurrent,
| Prof. Ha Goteh, HERS. ..:.05..-

Animal Electricity.

Range Finders.

|The Inert Constituents
Atmosphere.

of the

..-| The Movements of Plants.

lxxvi

REPORT—~1908.

Date and Place

1902.

1903.

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Belfast

Southport

...| Prof. J. J, Thomson, F.R.S....

Prof. W. F. R. Weidon, I'.R.8.
Dr. R, Munro

Dr. A. Rowe

eee renee seeeeeeneene

Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.

Inheritance.

Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
Paleolithic Period.

The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.

1887,
1888.
1889.

1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898,

1900.
1901.

1902,
1903,

Dundee.....

Norwich ...

Exeter .....

Liverpool...
Brighton ...
Bradford ...

Belfast .....
Bristol

weeee

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

Sheffield ..
Swansea
Work) .oscecss
Southamp-
ton.

Southport

Montreal ..
Aberdeen ..

Birmingham

Manchester

seen eeee

Newcastle-

upon-Tyne

Leeds
Cardih ae
Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford

...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ........0006

Ipswich ...

Liverpool..
Toronto
Bristol

Bradford .,
Glasgow

Belfast
Southport

TIDY i. OF BOTUES oe. sescs ses. s. |

.| Prof. L. C. Miall, F.B.S.......

Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |
Prof, Miller, M.D., F.R.S. ...

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.|
ProrsOdline WR Si: ...01s.cees
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

Commander Cameron, C.B....
W. H. Preece
W. E. Ayrton

eee CeCe eee erry

Prof. Osborne
E.R.S.
John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.

Reynolds,

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...|
Prof, RYSM Balls WRSALS ss
BS BY Dison MEAL socscecsese
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.R.S.
Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S._ ......
SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.
B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. ........

Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.S. |
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. Vivian B. Lewes
Prof, W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
Dr AH Wisonls, ..cdccvesees tse
Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.5....)

Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. |

Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
H. J. Mackinder, M.A..........

Dr. J. 8. Flett

eee e eee ew eeee

| Eruptions of 1902.

Teachings.

Subject of Discourse

Matter and Force.

A Piece of Chalk.

The modes of detecting the Com-
position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum,

Savages,

Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.

Fuel.

The Discovery of Oxygen,

A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage,

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricity —Telephones,

Comets.

The Nature of Explosions.

The Colours of Metals and their
Alloys.

Electric Lighting.

The Customs of Savage Races.

.|The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs,
Spontaneous Combustion.

...|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour,

The Harth a Great Magnet.

New Guinea.

The ways in which Animals Warn
their enemies and Signal to their
friends.

Electricity in the Industries.

The Movements of Men by Land
and Sea.

Gnats and Mosquitoes.

Martinique and St. Vincent: the

Ixxvii

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE SOUTHPORT MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

President.—Charles Vernon Boys, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. L. Boltzmann ; Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S.; Prin-
cipal Griffiths, F.R.S. ; Prof. E. Mascart ; Prof. Simon Newcomb ;
Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

Secretaries—D. E. Benson; A. R. Hinks, M.A.; R. W. H. T. Hudson,
M.A.; C. H. Lees, D.Sc. (Recorder); J. Loton, M.A.; A. W.
Porter, B.Sc.

SECTION B,—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof. Walter Noel Hartley, D.Sc., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. Campbell Brown, D.Sc. ; Prof. E. Divers, F.R.S.;
Prof. F. Stanley Kipping, F.R.S. ; Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S8.

' Secretaries.—M. O. Forster, Ph.D. ; Prof. G.G. Henderson,D.Sc. ; James

Ohm, M.A. ; Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S. (Recorder).

SECTION C.— GEOLOGY.

President.—Prof, W. W. Watts, M.A., M.Sc.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. ; G. W. Lamplugh ;
Clement Reid, F.R.S. ; A. 8. Woodward, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—H. L. Bowman, M.A.; Rev. W. L. Carter, M.A. ; J. Lomas ;
H. W. Monckton (Recorder).

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.8.

Vice-Presidents.—F. E. Beddard, F.R.S. ; J. Stanley Gardiner, M.A. ;
Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ; D. Sharp, F.R.S.

Secretaries—_J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc.; J. Barcroft, M.A., B.Sc. ; Alfred
Quayle ; J. Y. Simpson, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; H. W. Marett Tims, M.D.

SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Capt. Ettrick W. Creak, R.N., C.B., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Tempest Anderson, M.D.; H.-R. Mill, D.Sc. ; Com-
_ mander D. Wilson-Barker, R.N.R., F.R.S.E.
Secretaries.—Edward Heawood, M.A. (Recorder); A. J. Herbertson ;
E. A. Reeves ; Capt. J. C. Underwood.

Ixxvill REPORT—19035.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Edward W. Brabrook, C.B.
Vice-Presidents.—E. Cannan, LL.D. ; Sir Robert Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S. ;
Sir Bosdin T. Leech.

‘Secretaries.—A. L. Bowley, M.A. (Recorder) ; Prof. 8. J. Chapman, M.A. ;
B. W. Ginsburg, M.A., LL.D. ; George Lloyd.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. ; Capt. H. Riall Sankey, R.A. ;
Sir J. I. Thorneycroft, F.R.8.

Secretaries—Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A.; W. T. Maccall, M.Sc. ; W. A.
Price, M.A. (Recorder).

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.,

President.—Prof. Johnson Symington, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Vice-Presidents.—H. Balfour, M.A.; E. Sydney Hartland ; Prof. W.
Ridgeway, M.A.

Secretaries.—E. N. Fallaize, M.A.; H. 8. Kingsford, B.A.; R. M
Littler, F.R.C.S. ; J. L. Myres, M.A. (Recorder).

SECTION K,—BOTANY.

President.— Albert Charles Seward, M.A., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson, M.A. ; Prof. J. R. Green,
F.R.S. ; Prof. H. Marshall Ward, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Henry Ball; A. G. Tansley, M.A.; Harold Wager (Re-
corder) ; R. H. Yapp, M.A.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Sir William de W. Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; H. W. Eve, M.A. ;
J. L. Holland, B.A. ; Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Prof. R. A. Gregory; W. M. Heller, B.Sc. (Recorder) ;
C. W. Kimmins, D.Sc. ; H. Lloyd Snape, D.Sc.

titi ne aii

COMMITTEE O# RECOMMENDATIONS. lxxix

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting; the Presidents of
_ former years; the Trustees; the General and Assistant General
Secretaries ; the General Treasurer ; the Presidents of the Sections ;
Prof. A. R. Forsyth; Prof. Schuster; Prof. H. B. Dixon ; Prof.
Pope; G. W. Lamplugh ; J. J. H. Teall; Dr. D. Sharp ; Dr. J. Y.
Simpson ; Dr. H. R. Mill; E. Heawood ; Sir R. Giffen ; A. L.
Bowley ; Prof. J. Perry ; W. A. Price; H. Balfour; J. L. Myres ;
H. Wager; Prof. Marshall Ward; Prof. H. E. Armstrong ;
W. M. Heller; W. Whitaker ; Prof. Sherrington ; J. Barcroft.

Ixxx REPORT—19093,

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1902-1903, RECEIPTS.
5 ie tc.
Balance brought forward ........sssccssccoasscusseoseccssserassonesss 1565 19 11
Life Compositions (including Transfers) .........ssee00 onde 351 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ....... ee aseianal cease user 202 0 0
Amn Val SOPSCTIPLLONS meds acstl «sve chspasvibsn odeencecehcceoal bec ssayees 586 0 0
Sale of Associates’ Tickets........... SCor Gon Neto puicationanst ieeese aes 6385 0 0
Salejof MadiestWMCKets 2..cccs- esse ccevssesenessoeseveaoeevoneetceeaee 305 0 0
Sale of Publications .........scsecesseeeees Gvaae titeaie os ste Sppecodsn 1441 07
Dividend on Consols .......ssccceee00 eR baternd ot eereon eee naib 167 12 4
Dividend on India 3 per Cents............0.--ssscrssseecenveceoonvees 101 5 O
Inberesh OM IDeNositi cesssnckssvccsesoessevecsovsevscusicavcasveavseunenece 37 11 = 6
Unexpended Balance of Grant returned by Committee on
the Zoology and Botany of the West India Islands......... 25 0 0
ye
vs
oe é
Sah ~
ro
i
Yi
us :
Ne
es
»
y Pe Sat
£4117 9 4
Investments.

£ 8. d.

WGOSOIS We insncsa tases cerca tescatvs oniscac: teseseoeeese 6501 10 5

India 3 per CONS) cacisscthensesess beebiedbivteceseee 3600 6G O

£10,101 10 6

G. CAREY FostErR, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Ixxyxi

—

from July 1, 1902, to June 30, 1903. Or.

1902-1903. EXPENDITURE.

Expenses of Belfast Meeting (including Printing, Adver-
tising, Payment of Clerks, &C., &C.) ...ccecesssessesesesecveeeeeee 148 11 6

Rent and Office Expenses ......csccsscesssesevseneeeeneesens corseosesenl Oly) da pO
Halavies; KCNA Hav cdceersr ees ee rstes delle tavasdacsecesdanseesechesesaehh DOOR TOES
Printing Binding eer voccvs saree carseos wore Eee dewey aes onhlOTe ae
Contribution to Antarctic Expedition........ Pacidcianeasianesle Se sll) 10e 1(0)
Payment of Grants made at Belfast:
Sas de
Electrical Standards...........seececeeeeees avesscveve a0 0 0
Seismological Observations... ...5.....ccecccscccccceccs 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by means of Kites 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Falmouth 40 0 0
Study of Hydroaromatic Substances ser 01:0
Erratic Blocks............. Ravers ate) LOT? 00
£xploration of Irish Caves. one 40 0 0
Underground Waters of North- “Ww est Yorkshire~........ 40 0 0
Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks ..........+ 5 0 0
Geological Photographs .........seeeeceenes pesissivienieeeetoM OG) O
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples aisjatd eis\aiuceyad efoiaieta 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium AGanie pisiaiaeiel «-. 100 0 O
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and Beaches ..... nee omar PHSG' 0
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition......... cassette, 50" 0 10
Legislation affecting Women’s Labour ........ 0 0
Researches in Orete ........000 eine 0 0
. Age of Stone Circles ..... ceissvisis« . OS ial Ie See
Anthropometric Investigation : uv 0
Anthropometry of the Todas and other §
DOUMMMSr ny TIE a vtarats cinlela sia cle oo wislelavelsie(aisia\ejelaraietehtelsione 0 0
The State of Solution of Proteids Spine ae -in)s\eis'sj<'n naletatataiete 20 0 U0
Investigation of the Oyanophycer .........eceeeeseeees 25 0 OU
RespirationGh Plants c)etas cote states otc « dicdelsiaisivve vials see's 12 0 0
-Conditions of Health essential for School 1 Instruction ages OF 2G
Corresponding Societies Oommittee,.........e0+eee00+. 20 0 0
845 15 2
3468 7 9
Balance at Bank of England (Western Branch) £698 7 3
Less Cheque not presented .........sscscseceseneee 5210 O
,
645 17 3
Cash i NANA. isecuieehestanenasas cee sscecssseenateettite ae Ea
649 1 7

£4117 9 4

I have examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa-
tion, and certify the same to be correct, I have also verified the balance at the
Bankers’, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of the Trustees.

Approved— W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
L. L. PRICE. 1 eae a 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C.
E.W Braproox, | * “4'078- July 23, 1903.

1903. e

Ixxxii

. : Old Life | New Life
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Mea Tense len bara
eS = | é
1831, Sept. OF nised | WOTK \... .| The Harl Fitzwilliam, D.O.L.. F.R.S. = =
1832, June 19......| Oxford ..... .| The Rey. W. Buckland, I’.R.8. =a =
1833, June 25......) Cambridge | The Rey. A. Sedgwick, I.R.S. . = =
1834, Sept. 8 ...... Edinburgh _..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L., F.B.S. ... — =
1835, Aug. 10 Dublin ..... .| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D., F.R.S8. — —
1836, Aug. 22......] Bristol ... The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.. ost =
1837, Sept. 11...... Liverpool .. ..| The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S... = =
1838, Aug. 10......| Neweastle-on- Tyne... The Duke of Northumberland, ERS. — —
1839, Aug. 26 ......| Birmingham The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.RS. — —
1840, Sept. 17......| Glasgow........ The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.5. es a
1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth .. ...| Lhe Rey. W..Whewell, F.R.S.. ......... 169 65
1842, June 23,...... Manchester .... The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S 303 169
1843, Aug. 17......) Cork ........ .... The Earl of Rosse, F.RS Si > 109 28
1844, Sept.26....... York . .| The Rey. G. Peacock, D. a0) TRS... 226 150
1845, June 19 Cambridge | ue Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. ,F.R.S. 313 36
1846, Sept. 10.. ...| Southampton — 3 Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10
1847, June 23...... Oxford. | ...c.05 .... Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ... 314 18
1848, Aug.9 ......) Swansea....... . TheMarquis of Northampton, Pres.R.S. 149 3
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D.. F.R.S. 227 12
1850, July 21 ...... Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9
1b uly 2:. 2... Ipswich ..... G. B, Airy, Astronomer Roy. al, F.R.S. 172 8
1852, Sept.1 ...... Belfast ., .| Lient.-General Sabine, F.R.S. 2.0.2... 164 10
1853, Sept.3 ...... Bll 54652 . William Hopkins, P.R.S........ 141 13
1854, Sept. 20...... Liverpool ... The Marl of Harrowby, F.R.5, 238 23
1855, Sept. 12...... Glasgow,...... .... The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. . waa 194 33
1856, Aug.6 ...... | Cheltenham . .. Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.... 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 ...... Dublin .... | The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.RAS. ...... 236 15
1858, Sept. 22 ......] Leeds..... | Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.R.S.... 222 42
1859, Sept. 14......) Aberdeen H.R.H. The Prince Consort .... 184 27
1860, June 27 . | Oxford ..... . The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. .., 286 21
1861, Sept. 4 ......) Manchester William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... | 321 113
1862, Oct. 1 ...... Cambridge ............. The Rey. Professor Willis,M.A.,F.R.S. 239 15
| 1863, Aug. 26 ......| Neweastle-on-Tyne... SirWilliam G, Armstrong.C.B., F.R.S. 203 36
1864, Sept. 13...... Bath ..... .... Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.| 287 40
1865, Sept. 6 Birminghe Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., Tile D., F.R.S. 292 44
1866, Aug. 22 Nottingham. . William R. Grove, Q. rae BRIS. et. 207 31
1867, Sept. | Dundee ..,.... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.,F.R.S. 167 25
1868, Aug. Norwich .| Dr. Jose sph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ......44. 196 18
1869, Aug. .| Exeter . Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.O.1., F.R.S....... 204 2
1870, Sept. Liverpool . .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, Lh. Dd. F.R.S. 314 39
1871, Aug. | Edinburgh .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, ni D., F. RS. 246 28
1872, Aug. ...| Brighton .... | Dr, W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. 245 36
1873, Sept. .| Bradford . Prof. A. W. Williamson, F. 212 27
1874, Aug. .| Belfast .... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162 13
1875, Aug. 25. Bristol .... _.| Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. . 239 36
1876, Sept. 6 Glasgow ....| Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 221 35
1877, Aug. Plymouth , .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.8. 173 19
1875, Aug. | Dublin .... | W. Spottiswoode, M.A., PRS. 201 18
1879, Aug. 2 Sheffield... Prof. G. J. Allman, M. D. BB Sannt 184 16
1880, Aug. 2 | Swansea, A. G. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. ............ 144 11
1881, Aug. WHT. sees Sir John Lubbock, Bart., FERS hee 272 28
1882, Aug. Southampton Dr. 0. W. Siemens. F.R. g. », Beas 178 17
1883, Sept. , Southport ........ .| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., PRS. 203 60
1884, Aug. 2 Montreal ... Prof. Lord Rayleigh, y RS. oe 235 20
1885, Sept. Aberdeen ...... Sir Lyon Playfair. K.C.B., F.R.S 225 18
1886, Sept. Birmingham Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S... 314 25
1887, Aug. Manchester ... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F. R.S. 428 86
1888, Sept. A atihay seeeen cs peepee saa Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S. ........ 266 36
1889, Sept. Newcastle-on-Tyne..,| Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., F.R.S 277
1890, Sept. ¢ LBINGROS |, tector eeaeence e's | Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S. 259
1891, Aue: ....| Cardiff _.| Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S. ...... 189
1892, Aug. ¢ . Edinburgh ..| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D.,F.RS. ............ 280
1893, Sept. | Nottingham .. _| Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 201
1894, Aug. Oxford .., _.| The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,F.R.S. 327
| 1895, Sept. Tpswich ... _.| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., P.R.S. 214
1896, Sept. ' Liverpool _.| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. B.S. . 330
1897, Aug. Toronto ... _.| Sir John Evans, K.O.B., ERS. 120
1898, Sept. 7 .. Bristol ..| Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S. .............. es 281
1899, Sept. | DOVED ....<0 | Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S.... Does ag
1900, Sept. .| Bradford Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. ... 267
1901, Sept. Glasgow... | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Se., Sec.R.8. ... 310
1902, Sept. Belfast ... | Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... 243
1903, Sept. 9 ......) Southport .. 0 ......... Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 250

REPORT—1903.

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS,

Ixxxili

Old
Annual
Members

Amount
New | j
Annual corsa Ladies Foreigners Total Baie
Members | uring the
| | Meeting
_ = — — 353
— _— —_ — | 900 | -——
= — _ — 1298 a
— = — — 1350 —
— _— = — 1840 a
— — 1100* —_ 2400 | —
— — a 34 1438 —:
= — — 40 | 1353 =
317 —_ 60* | _ | 891 =
376 33 331* | 98 | | 1315 =
185 _— 160 — | = —=
190 9 260. — | — —
22 407 M25 |} 35 | 1079 —
39 270 196, | 36 | 857 —_—
40 495 203 53 1320 | =
25 376 LVF 15 819 |£707 0 0
33. | 447 DST imsi lias 22 1071 | 963 0 0
42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0
47 244 141 | 37 710 620 0 0
60 510 292 9 1108 ‘108 0 0
57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0
121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0
101 1094 543 DGn | ieeedisgin (2311s 00 0
48 412 346 97 le dbo 110984 0) 46
120 900 569 26 2022 2015 U 0
91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0
179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0
59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 O
125 | 1589 791 15 | 3138 3944 0 0
57 433 242 25 | 1161 1089 0 O
209 1704 1004 25 3335 | 3640 0 0
103 1119 1058 13 | 2802 2965 0 0
149 766 508 23 | 1997 2227 0 0
105 960 771 11 23038 2469 0 0
118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 O
117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0
107 678 600 17 1856 1931.0 0
195 1103 910 14 2878 38096 0 0
127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0
80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0
99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0
85 817 630 12 1951 Ta70.
93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0
185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0
59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0
93 1285 674 | 17 2578 2615 0 0
74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0
41 389 147 12 915 s99 0 0
176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0
79 516 1897 |e 22 1253 1286 0 0
323 952 841, | 5 2714 3369 0 0
219 826 74 26 & 60H. 1777 1855 0 0
122 1053 447 | 6 2203 2256 0 0
179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0
244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0
100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0
113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0
92 680 334 12 1775 =| 1776 0 0
152 G72 107° |. 285 1497 | 1664 0 0
141 73: 439,,.,|... 50 2070 2007 0 0
57 773 OA nj hae bye 166L 1658 0 0
69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0
31 493 261 22 1824 | 1286-0 0)
139 1384 $73 41 3181 3228 0 0
125 682 100 41 1362 | 1398 0 0
96 1051 639 83° || -B4i6 2209 0 0
68 548 120 27° | 1408 | :1328 : <0 0
45 801 482 9 1915 | 1801 0 0
131 794 246 20 1912 «| 2016 0 O
86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0
90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 OU

Grants |
for Scientific,
Purposes

on
woce

ood
come
Sor
Roe
wo
a

=
i]

SASSSCHaMPNERORNONNOADROOCMNDARRONWROOO

data
o ~~
e ao
ovuo
i
won

i
=
on
e
J

=
IAOOCHORKMHANHANNSOOCOCOAaASCSCOON

=
=
an
—
a

1083
| 1173
| 1385
| 995
1186
1D1L 0
1417 01
789
1029
| 864
|

i
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2
be
SOR BSHONRADRORAOCONCOCOR

=
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=
o

9u7
5838 15
977 15
| Wot §
| 1059
| 1212 0
| 1430
1072

womrraan

to)

a
woc

Year

1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842

1843

1844
1845
1846
1847
1848 |
1843
1850
1851
1852
1853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
1859
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889!
1890

1891

1892 |
1893
1804
1895
1896 |
1807
1898
1899
1900
1901
1962
1903

: + Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1903-1904.

PRESIDENT.
Sm NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., LL.D., F,.R.S., Correspondant de l'Institut de France,

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon, the Kant or Dersy, K.G., G.O.B.

The Rigbt Hon. the EARL OF CRAWFORD AND
BatcaRaers, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the EARL SPENCER, K.G., LL.D.,
Chancellor of the Victoria University.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF SEFTON,

The Right Hon. the EARL or LATHOM.

Sir Henry Roscor, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L.,
EBR.S.

Sir GrorGE A, PILKINGTON,

Sir CHARLES SCARISBRICK, J.P.

ALFRED Hopkinson, Esq., LL.D, K.O., Vice-
Ohancellor of the Victoria University.

T. T. L, Scarisprick, Esq., Mayor of Southport.

E. MARSHALL HALL, Esq., K .0., M.P. for South-
port.

CHARLES H, B. HESKETH, Esq.

CHARLES WELD-BLUNDELL, Esq.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
The Right Hon, A. J. BALFour, D.C.L,, M.P., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,

His Grace the DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Oam-
bridge.

ALEXANDER PECKOVER, Esq., LL.D., Lord Lieu-
tenant of Cambridgeshire.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BIsHoP or ELy, D.D.

The Right Hon, LoRD WALSINGHAM, LL.D.,
F.RS., High Steward of the University of
Oambridge,

The Right Hon, and Rey, LoRD BRAYBROOKE,
Master of Magdalene,

The Right Hon, Lorp RayLer@en, D.C.L., LL.D.,

The Right Hon. Lorp Ketvin, G.0.V.0., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S,

The Rev. I’. H. CHASE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Cambridge.

The Right Rev. H. MonraGu Butier, D.D.,

| Master of Trinity.

| J, H. CHESSHYRE DALTON, Esq., M.D, Mayor of

| Cambridge.

| Roeert STEPHENSON, Esq , Chairman of the Cam-

| bridgeshire Oounty Council.

JosEPH MARTIN, Esq., Chairman of the Isle of Ely
County Council.

P. Tf, YounG, Esq., Deputy Mayor of Cambridge.

GENERAL TREASURER.

Professor G, CaAnfy Foster, LL,D., D.Se.,

F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,

Major P. A, MACMAHON, R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

| Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S,

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
J. G, GARSON, M.D., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDGE.

E. H, Parker, Esq., M.A.

| A. E, SHIPLEY, Esq., M.A.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDGE,

S. R. Gun, Esq.
A. O. SEWARD, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.

S. SkInNER, Esq., M.A.
J. E, L. WHITEHEAD, Esq., M.A

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABNky, Sir W., K.O.B., F.R.S,
ARMSTRONG, Professor H, E., F.R.S,
Bonak, J., Esq., LL.D.

Bourne, G. C., Esq., M.A.

Bower, Professor F, O., F.R.S.
BraBsrook, H. W., Esq,, C.B.
CALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S,
CUNNINGHAM, Professor D. J., F.R,S,
DARWIN, Major L., Sec. R.G.S.
Goren, Professor F., F.R,S,
Hanppon, Dr, A. O., F.R.S,
HAWKESLEY, O,, Esq., M.Inst.C.B.
Howks, Professor G. B., F.R.S.

Kettin, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D.
MACALISTER, Professor A., F.R.S.
McKENDRICK, Professor J. G., F.R.S,
NOBLE, Sir A., Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S,
PERKIN, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Perry, Professor JOHN, F, R.8.

Prick, L. L., Esq., M.A.

Sewanp, A. C., Esq., F.R.S.

TILDEN, Professor W. A,, F.R.S,
Warts, Professor W. W., M.A.

Wo .re-Barry, Sir JOHN, K.C.B., F.R.S,
Woopwarp, Dr, A, SMITH, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice- Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for

. the ensuing Meeting,
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon, Lord AvEgury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. Lord RAyLricH, M.A., DC. L., LL.D.,
Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A, i} Se., F, RS,

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir Wm. Huggins,K.O.B.,Pres.B.S, | Sir William Orookes, F.R.S.
Sir Archibald Geikie, Sec.R.8. Sir Michael Foster, K.O. B., F.R.S,
Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson, Bart., | Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S.

,F.LS.
F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Sir Joseph D. Flooker, G.C.S.I.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S,

Lord Avebury, D.C.L., FR. Ss. F.R.S. Sir A, W. Riicker, D.Sc., F.R.S,
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S. Prof. J. Dewar, LL,D,, F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S, Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S,

GENERAL OFFIOERS OF FORMER YEARS.

F, Galton, Esq., D C.L., F.R.S. Prof, T.G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Sir A. W. Riicker, D.Se., F.R S,
sur Michael Foster, K.C,B., F.R.S, | Prof, A. W. Williamson, F.R.S, Prof. E. A. Schifer, F.R.S.
P. L, Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S, | Dr. D, H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S,

AUDITORS,
E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B. |

L. L. Price, Esq., M.A.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxv

Report of the Council for the Year 1902-1903, presented to the General
Committee at Southport on Wednesday, September 9, 1903.

The following resolutions were referred to the Council by the General
Committee for consideration, and action if desirable :—

I. ‘That the Council be requested to impress upon His Majesty’s
Government the desirability of appointing an Inspector of Ancient
Monuments under the Ancient Monuments Act in the place of the
late Lieut.-General Pitt-Rivers.’

) II. ‘That the Council be requested to call the attention of His
Majesty’s Government to the destruction of Ancient Monuments,
especially on Dartmoor, which is authorised under the terms of the
Highway Act, 5 & 6 Wm. IV., c. 50, the provisions of which are
unrepealed by later Acts ; and to urge the repeal of this section of
the Act.’

: III. ‘That the attention of the Royal Irish Academy be drawn

‘ to the importance of organising and carrying out a Pigmentation

Survey of School Children in Ireland.’

A Committee, consisting of the General Officers and Dr. A. C.
Haddon, was appointed to draw up a Memorandum to give effect to these
resolutions, and with the approval of the Council the following letter was
_ addressed to the First Commissioner of Works and Public Buildings :—

‘ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
‘ Burlington House, London, W.,
‘March 31, 1903.

*Sir,—I am desired by the Council of the British Association for
the Advancement of Science to inform you that in their opinion it is
very desirable that an Inspector under the Ancient Monuments Act be
appointed in succession to the late General Pitt-Rivers.

‘Since the death of the late Inspector of Ancient Monuments there
is no one with scientific knowledge of the subject whose business it is to
superintend the operations of the Act.

‘The ancient monuments of Great Britain as a whole are not subject
to any regular official inspection, and this lack of a personal interest in
the monuments generally results in their neglect by their owners and by
local authorities. The Council feel confident if an active and enthusiastic
scientific Inspector of Ancient Monuments were appointed many more
monuments would be placed under the Act, and would thereby be
preserved for and by the nation.

‘T have the honour to be your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘James Dewar, President.’

To this letter the following reply was received :—

°H.M. Office of Works, April 8, 1903.

‘Sir,— With reference to your letter of the 31st ultimo I am directed
by the First Commissioner of His Majesty’s Works, &c., to acquaint you,

Ixxxvi REPORT—1903.

for the information of the Council of the British Association, that
the question of the appointment of an Inspector under the Ancient
Monuments Act is now engaging the attention of the Board.
‘T am, Sir, your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘ScHomBerG K. McDonnett.’

On the Resolution II. the following letter was, with the approval of the
Council, addressed to the President of the Local Government Board :—

‘ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
‘Burlington House, London, W.,
‘March 31, 1903.

‘Srr,—I am desired by the Council of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science to cal] your attention to the fact that in different
parts of the country, and especially on Dartmoor, much damage has been
and is still being done to Ancient Monuments by the materials of which
they are constructed being taken for mending roads in the vicinity under
cover of the Highway Act, 5 & 6 Wm. IV., c, 50, ss. li.—liv.

‘As the surface stones near to the highways become used up, and
road-mending material has to be brought from greater distances, the
destruction of Ancient Monuments, particularly those in the vicinity of
the highways, has proceeded apace by the hands of the contractors’
employes.

‘The Council desire in the name of this Association to express their
opinion that the Act above mentioned should be amended, or other means
taken to secure as speedily as possible the protection of Ancient Monu-
ments of all kinds from further destruction in the manner indicated.

‘Tam, Sir,
‘Your obedient Servant,

(Signed) ‘James Dwar.
*To the Rt. Hon.

‘President of the Local Government Board.’

To the above letter the following replies have been received :—

‘Local Government Board,
‘ Whitehall, $.W., April 22, 1903.

‘Sik,—I am ditected by the Local Government Board to advert to
your letter of the 31st ultimo with respect to the protection of Ancient
Monuments ahd to state that the amendment of the Highway Act sug-
gested in your letter will be noted by the Board.

‘Tam to add that, having regard to the provisions of the Ancient
Monuments Protection Acts, the Board have sent a copy of your letter to
the Commissioners of Works.

‘T am also to suggest that, looking to the terms of the Ancient Monu-
inents. Protection Act of 1900, the Association might bring the matter
under the notice of the respective County Councils.

‘Tam, Si,
‘Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘H.C. Howss,

‘Assistant Secretary.
‘ Professor Dewar, F.R.S.’

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. ixxxvil

‘H.M., Office of Works,

‘ April 30, 1903.
‘Sir,—A copy of your letter of the 31st ultimo to the President of the
Local Government Board having been forwarded to this Department, Tam
directed by the First Commissioner of His Majesty's Works, &c., to state
that it appears to this Board that the prevention of the damage to Ancient
Monunients, to which you-invite attention, is a matter in which the
County Councils could most effectively take action, certain powers being
conferred on those bodies by the Ancient Monuments Act 1900 (63 & 64

Vic., c. 34).
‘T am, Sir,
‘Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘Scuomperc K, McDonneLt.
‘Professor Dewar, F.R.S.’

On the Resolution III. the following letter was addressed, with the
approval of the Council, to the President of the Royal Irish Academy :—

‘ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
‘ Burlington House, London, W.,
‘March 31, 1903.

‘Drar S1r,—I am desired by the Council to inform you that at the
meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science held
last year at Belfast the question of the desirability of organising 4
Pigmentation Survey of the School Children in Ireland was discussed on
the reading of a paper on that subject by Mr. J. F. Tocher, a copy of
which is herewith inclosed.

‘The Council venture to hope that the Royal Irish Academy, having
for many years interested itself practically in the investigation of the
Ethnography of Ireland, will carefully consider the scheme outlined in
the paper, and may be induced to take up the work.

‘The Council are of opinion that as a Pigmentation Survey of the
School Children in Scotland is at present being conducted, a correspond-
ing survey of the School Children in Iveland would be of considerable
scientific value, and could not be carried out under better auspices than
those of the Royal Irish Academy.

‘J am, Sir,
‘Yours faithfully,
(Signed) ‘James Dewar, President.
‘To the President of the
‘ Royal Irish Academy, Dublin,’

The following letter was received from the Colonial Secretary for

Bermuda :—
‘Colonial Secretary’s Office, Hamilton, Bermuda,
‘ October 17, 1902.

‘Sir,—I am directed by His Excellency the Governor of Bermuda to
request you to be good enough to submit the following matter for the
consideration of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

‘A Committee of the Legislature of this Colony, appointed to consider
and report what steps it would be desirable to take locally with a view
to the establishment and maintenance of a Marine Biological Station in
these islands, has reported in favour of the establishment of such a station,
and has recommended that the Legislature should make provision for its

XxXxvill REPORT—1903.

erection and ordinary equipment. This report has been adopted by the
House of Assembly.

‘The Committee has in its report further recommended that before
the Legislature decides to take any definite action in the matter steps
should be taken to endeavour to ascertain whether certain eminent
scientific bodies and institutions both in the United Kingdom and in
the United States of Aimerica would view with approval the establish-
ment of such a station in these islands for purposes of scientific research,
and to inquire also to what extent such institutions would be prepared
to co-operate with this Colony in the matter, and to assist in making the
station one of an international character and suitable for the prosecu-
tion of advanced scientific research.

‘Tt is possible that the British Association might consider it desirable
to encourage the establishment and maintenance of the proposed Biological
Station, and I am requested to invite you to be good enough to submit
this communication to that body for their information and consideration.

‘T have the honour to be, Sir,
‘Your obedient Servant,
(Signed) ‘Eyre Hutson,
‘Colonial Secretary.’

The letter was referred to a Committee consisting of Professor Howes,
Dr. Ray Lankester, Professor Herdman, Mr. G. Murray, and the General
Officers, from whom the following report was received :—

‘The Committee have to report that in their opinion the establish-
ment of a Marine Biological Laboratory at Bermuda is very desirable,
the island being most favourably situated for the purpose, inasmuch as
it permits of the study of coral reefs and the many other interesting
forms and problems of marine life associated therewith under climatic
conditions excellently adapted for European workers.

‘It appears from the letter of the Colonial Secretary of Bermuda that
the Legislature of the Colony has resolved to erect and equip the labora-
tory, and that the support asked for is a contribution in the form of a
grant or grants towards its maintenance.

‘The Committee consider it desirable that the attention of the Com-
mittees of Sections concerned in marine problems of research be directed
to the matter for the purpose of determining whether any definite re-
searches could be usefully engaged in at the laboratory under the auspices
of the Association, and to what degree these may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of the funds of the Association.

‘The Committee are of opinion that in return for any subsidy given
arrangements should be made with the Colonial Government to give
accommodation and special facilities in the laboratory to workers ap-
pointed by the British Association.’

The report was adopted by the Council and has been referred to the
Organising Committees of Sections for the consideration of those Sections
interested in marine problems of research at the Southport Meeting.

A considerable number of notifications of alterations in coast outline
having been received from the coastguard stations of the United King-
dom, the Committee on Coast Erosion, consisting of Sir Archibald Geikie,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxix

Captain Creak, Professor L. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Whitaker, Mr. A. T.
Walmisley, and the General Officers, were reappointed.

On the recommendation of the Committee, the Council asked Mr. John
Parkinson, F.G.8., of Cambridge, to undertake tho tabulation of the
returns at a fee of ten guineas, and a further sum of 5/. was placed at the
disposal of the Committee for expenses in connection with the work.

A valuable report and map have been prepared by Mr. Parkinson,
which the Committee have incorporated in their report to the Council.
The Council recommend that the report be read in the Geological Section
at Southport, and published in the Report of the Association, and that the
Lords of the Admiralty be apprised of the valuable information which
has been collected with their assistance and co-operation.

The following letter was received from the then Secretary of the
Corresponding Societies Committee :—

‘ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
‘ Burlington House, London, W.,
‘July 4, 1902.

‘Dear Sirs,—The Corresponding Societies Committee are of opinion
that some improved means of giving information to the Societies as to
how they can aid by local investigations the work of Committees is very
desirable.

‘By the present arrangements the Societies are little more than
placed in a position to communicate with those from whom they can
obtain information regarding the work they could undertake.

‘My Committee therefore desire to suggest that each of the Organ-
ising Committees of Sections be asked to consider what local work could
be usefully undertaken by Corresponding Societies, and draw up a pro-
gramme of that work, with directions as tothe method of doing it, which
in course would come before the Sectional Committee, and be forwarded
for communication to the Conference of Delegates. The schemes of the
several Sections would then be incorporated in the Report of the Con-
ference sent to the Societies after the Meeting, and so come directly to
their notice.

‘If this suggestion be approved of by the Council, my Committee
desire to further suggest that it could be best given effect to by direct
communication from the Council to the Organising Committees of
Sections.

‘I am, yours faithfully,
‘The General Secretaries, J. G. Garson.
‘ British Association.’

The letter was referred to a Committee, consisting of the President,
President-elect, the General Officers, Professor Armstrong, Professor
Meldola, and Professor Perry, to consider, and to report thereon to the
Council.

The Committee recommended —

‘1. That the work at present intrusted to the Secretaries of the
Sectional Committees under Rule X. should devolve upon the
Organising Committees.

xe REPORT—1903.

©2. That an official invitation on behalf of the Council be addressed
to the Societies, through the Corresponding Societies Committee,
asking them to appoint standing British Association Sub-Com-
mittees to be elected by themselves with the object of dealing with
all those subjects of investigation common to their Societies and to
the British Association Committees, and to look after the general
interests of science and scientific education throughout the provinces
and provincial centres.

‘They appended the following remarks to their recommendation :—
y app g

‘The Committee have considered the communication from the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee referred to them by the Council, and have
examined into the general character of the work carried on by the Cor-
responding Societies, and the nature of the subjects discussed at the
Conferences of Delegates held annually under the auspices of the British
Association since the year 1885. They are of opinion that the range of
subjects very fairly covers most of the branches of scientific investigation
in which local Societies might be expected to bear a part. New subjects
are added from time to time, and means have been taken by the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee to give publicity to suggestions for any
suitable line of investigation instigated by the Corresponding Societies
themselves. Of the numerous branches of inquiry being carried on by
British Association Committees in which the Corresponding Societies are
invited year by year to take a part, some have been materially assisted by
the Corresponding Societies or their individual members. The subjects
suitable for investigation by local Societies are necessarily governed in
their scope by local conditions, but among those already brought under
the notice of the Corresponding Societies there are some of a general
character which might very well be taken up systematically all over the
country. The Committee do not consider it necessary to furnish the
Council with a complete list of such specific subjects, as these are already
included in the various Reports of the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee. They desire, however, to call the attention of the Council to the
necessity for systematic co-operation among the local Societies for the
carrying out of investigations of such general importance as the various
surveys, archeological, ethnographic, photographic, and botanical, which
have on several occasions been brought under the notice of the Corre-
sponding Societies at the Conference of their Delegates. These and other
investigations of a similarly wide range which may from time to time
be suggested furnish ample work for the Corresponding Societies, and the
Committee find that in certain districts considerable progress has been
already made, or that steps are now being taken to organise the work
already suggested.

‘The Committee have further considered the nature of the organisa-
tion at present in existence for bringing the ofticial representative of the
Corresponding Societies into communication with each other and with the
Sectional Committees at the meetings of the Association, and they are of
opinion that it would tend to bring about a more systematic co-ordination
of the general investigations which are now being carried on, or which it
is desirable should be carried on, by the Corresponding Societies if
strenuous efforts were made to bring the Delegates into more intimate
personal relationship with the expert organisers of these various subjects

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XCL

of general interest to all local Societies. The Rules at present provide!
for such co-operation between the Sectional Committees (through their
Secretaries) and the Conference of Delegates ; but your Committee are of
opinion that, owing to the stress of work thrown upon the Sectional
Secretaries at the meetings of the Association, the Delegates cannot
derive the full benefit of such expert assistance as they may require in
connection with particular lines of work in which their Societies are
engaged. For the same reason the Secretaries of the Sections are unable
to give full effect to any new schemes suitable for local investigation
which may originate in their Section, and which, if duly considered
beforehand and brought under the notice of the Delegates, might be of
use both to the Corresponding Societies and to the Association. Your
Committee recommend, therefore, that the work at present entrusted to
the Secretaries of the Sectional Committees under Rule X. should devolve
upon the Organising Committees. These Committees already comprise
the Sectional Secretaries by virtue of their constitution,’ so that no
additional work would be thrown upon these Secretaries, but the gentle-
men undertaking this office would be enabled to give more deliberate
consideration to the work of the Corresponding Societies and to ensure
before the meeting of the Association that their various Sectional Com-
mittees, as well as the originators of investigations requiring the co-opera-
tion of the Corresponding Societies, shall be fully and authoritatively
represented at the Conference of Delegates. Your Committee propose,
in order to give practical effect to this suggestion, that the opening clause
of Rule 10 relating to Corresponding Societies be modified so as to
read :—

‘«The Organising Committees of each Section shall be instructed
to transmit to the Secretaries of the Sections, and through these to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates, copies of any recom-
mendation, &e.” ’

‘Notice of this modification, if approved by the Council as recom-
mended by your Committee, must be brought before the General Com-
mittee at the next meeting.

‘In view of the increasing importance of science to the nation at large,
your Committee desire to call the attention of the Council to the fact
that in the Corresponding Societies the British Association has gathered
in the various centres represented by these Societies practically all the
scientific activity of the provinces. The number of members and
Associates at present on the list of the Corresponding Societies
approaches 25,000, and no organisation is in existence anywhere in the
country better adapted than the British Association for stimulating, en-
couraging, and co-ordinating all the work being carried on by the seventy
Societies at present enrolled. Your Committee are of opinion that further
encouragement should be given to these Societies and their individual
working members by every means within the power of the Association,
and with the object of keeping the Corresponding Societies in more
permanent touch with the Association they suggest that an official
invitation on behalf of the Council be addressed to the Societies through
the Corresponding Societies Committee asking them to appoint stand-

1 Rule 10, Corresponding Societies. 2 Rule XC.

Xai REPORT—1903.

ing British Association Sub-Committees to be elected by themselves
with the object of dealing with all those subjects of investigation
common to their Societies and to the British Association Committees,
and to look after the general interests of science and scientific education
throughout the provinces and provincial centres. Your Committee may
point out that the only permanent bodies carrying out systematic
scientific work under the auspices of the Association are the various
Committees appointed by the Sections to undertake particular investiga-
tions and to report thereon to their respective Sections. The proposal
now submitted is equivalent to a request that the Corresponding Societies
should themselves appoint such Standing Committees for stimulating
every branch of inquiry in which these Societies are co-operating with
the Association. It is believed that the active workers in every Society
would by this means be brought to realise more fully that their labours
are contributing to the general advancement of science ; and since the
subjects at present brought under the notice of the Corresponding
Societies cover practically every department of science represented by the
Sections of the Association, it is hoped that these new British Association
Sub-Committees of the Corresponding Societies may serve as nuclei for
creating and maintaining locally public interest in every branch of scien-
tific knowledge.

‘Your Committee desire to lay special emphasis on the necessity for
the extension of the scientific activity of the Corresponding Societies and
the expert knowledge of many of their members in the direction of
scientific education. They are of opinion that immense benefit would
accrue to the country if the Corresponding Societies would keep this
requirement especially in view with the object of securing adequate
representation for scientific education on the Education Committees now
being appointed under the new Act. The Educational Section of the
Association having been but recently added, the Corresponding Societies
have as yet not had much opportunity for taking part in this branch of
the Association’s work, and in view of the reorganisation in education
now going on all over the country your Committee are of opinion that no
more opportune time is likely to occur for the influence of scientific
organisations to make itself felt as a real factor in national education.
They do not at the present juncture think it desirable to formulate any
definite scheme detailing precise methods by which the Corresponding
Societies might be of service to the cause of scientific education. Some
Societies might prefer to unite to form Educational Consultative Com-
mittees of their own, and to place their services at the disposal of the
Education Authority of their County or Borough. Others might prefer that
individual members of their Societies should be added to the Education
Committee, and others again might prefer to act indirectly by helping to
foster public opinion in favour of that kind of education which it is the
chief function of a scientific corporation such as the British Association
to promote. In view of the importance which your Committee attach to
this branch of the work now proposed for the Corresponding Societies, it
is suggested that the circular issued by the Council in accordance with
the recommendation in this Report should invite special expressions of
opinion from the Societies through their Delegates at the next Conference
at Southport, sc that if it is considered desirable that local effort in the
cause not only of Science but also of scientific education would be
strengthened if backed up by the authority of the Association, the

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Xcill

necessary steps may be taken by the Council to bring pressure to bear
upon the Educational Committees through the Board of Education.

‘The standing British Association Sub-Committees of and appointed
by the Corresponding Societies, whether for educational or any other
branch of work, would, through the Corresponding Societies Committee,
be in touch with the Association, and it would always be open for these
Sub-Committees to forward to the Corresponding Societies Committee
suggested subjects for investigation or for discussion at the Conference.
Your Committee are also of opinion that it would help to reassure the
Corresponding Societies that the Association has a real interest in their
welfare if the General Officers of the Association were made members ex
officio of the Corresponding Societies Committee, so that they might keep in
touch with the work of this Committee and also take part in the Conference
of Delegates, and they recommend that in future the Council in nominating
the members of this Committee add the General Officers to the list,’

The Council recommend that the opening clause of Rule 10, relating
to Corresponding Societies, be modified so as to read :—

‘ « The Organising Committees of each Section shall be instructed
to transmit to the Secretaries of the Sections, and through these to
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates, copies of any recom-
mendations, &c.” ’

On the invitation of the Organising Committee of the International
Congress for Applied Chemistry, to be held in June 1903 at Berlin, the
Council appointed the President (Professor James Dewar), Sir Henry
Roscoe, and Professor Meldola to represent the British Association as
Delegates.

The Council have nominated the Right Hon. the Earl Spencer,
K.G., LL,D., Chancellor of the Victoria University, the Right Hon. the
Earl of Sefton, Sir George Pilkington, Alfred Hopkinson, LL.D., K.C.,
Vice-Chancellor of the Victoria University, and Mr. E. Marshall Hall,
K.C., M.P., Vice-Presidents of the Association for the Meeting at
Southport.

The Council nominate Mr. W. Whitaker B,A., F.R.S., Chairman ; the
Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., Vice-Chairman; and Mr. F. W. Rudler,
Secretary, to the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies,
to be held during the Meeting at Southport.

A Report from the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending May 31, 1903, has been received.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. W.
Whitaker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rudler (Secretary), Professor R.
Meldola, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Sir John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W.
Watts, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. C. H. Read, Dr. Vaughan Cornish,
and the General Officers of the Association, are hereby nominated for
reappointment by the General Committee.

The Council nominate the Right Honourable Arthur James Balfour,
D.C.L., F.R.S., as President for the Cambridge meeting in 1904.

xciv REPORT—1908.

An invitation for the Meeting of 1905 will be presented from Cape
Town. After very full consideration of the matter the Council recom-
mend that the invitation to hold the Annual Meeting of the Association
in South Africa in 1905 be accepted.

The President having approached Sir Donald Currie with the object of
ascertaining how far transit rates to South Africa might be reduced on
behalf of the Association and its Members, received the following letter
in reply ;—

‘4 Hyde Park Place, London, W.,
‘June 11, 1903.

‘DEAR Proressor Dewar,— With reference to the call with which you
favoured me the other day and to our interview of this morning, I write
to let you know that, as I have to leave for Scotland to-morrow, TI shall
now put in writing the arrangement which I propose in order to carry out
your wishes on behalf of the Association.

‘T understand from you that the Association contemplate a visit to
South Africa the year after next, and that you have to some extent made
the necessary preparations, but that you have been very anxious to have
the assurance from me that the terms for the conveyance of the Members
of the Council and their friends shall be such as can have your entire
approval, and enable you to have a successful visit to South Africa of a
representative character.

‘Further, I understand from you that it is possible that other friends
will be prepared to assist the funds which will be required to make the
visit successful and not onerous to those who may engage in it.

‘You have suggested that you will call the Council together and that
I may be invited to meet them at Burlington House, but owing to the
bereavement we have suffered I am hardly likely to be able to get back
to London for the time you have suggested, hence the desire which I had
to let you know in writing and without delay what I have to say in order
to assist you in the proposed visit of the Association to South Africa, In
the first place, in regard to the terms, I propose to you that our Mail
Company shall make a reduction of 30 per cent. upon the ordinary return
fares which we charge to the public, this reduction to be in favour of the
official Delegates. In addition, ordinary Members of the Association and
members of their families may wish to accompany them, and for their
passage I propose that the price shall be reduced 25 per cent.

‘Tt is very gratifying to me to be in a position to assist. I am well
aware of the immense impetus that has been given to scientific investiga-
tion in the United Kingdom by the annual meetings of this Association ;
and it is thoroughly in accord with the spirit of Imperialism that the
Mother Country should encourage Colonial scientific effort by a visit of
the British Association to South Africa. There is another reason I am
happy to be of service to that body of vigorous workers who by their investi-
gations advance their respective sciences, and by their lectures and teaching
keep us in touch with the progress made in this country and in others.

‘ The efforts of such intelligent workers as yourselves are not prompted
by a love of gain and a spirit of commercial enterprise, and I venture to
say that all who have received practical advantages and benefits from such
researches, studies, and developments should be ready to acknowledge
gratefully your successes in every way in their power.

‘I can lay no claim personally to having taken any part in such
scientific research ; but it has fallen to my lot during the many years I
have been connected with steamship enterprise and Colonial mining work,

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XCV

in which I am largely interested, to take advantage, as I have said, of the
lessons in practical science which the exertions of scientists have de-
veloped. In regard to the material for the construction of ships, whether
of steel or of iron, to the advance in naval architecture, to the adaptation
of power to produce suitable results, to the inquiry into the means of
securing the maximum advantage in the consumption of fuel, to the
application of electricity as a motive and illuminative power, and to the
utilisation of telegraphy in all its forms, men like myself who have been
benefited by the practical application of such discoveries are really bound
to do all we can to assist you in any scheme such as you now contemplate
to enlarge the scope of your aims and operations.

‘Tn addition to the terms for the conveyance of yourselves and friends
of the deputation to and from South Africa, which you will approve of as
favourable, I shall be glad to subscribe 500/. to any fund which you will,
I think, find it desirable to collect in order that all the expenses of your
visit to South Africa may be fully covered.

‘ Believe me, yours very truly,

‘DonaLp CuRRIE,
‘Professor Dewar,
¢ President of the British Association.’

To this letter the following reply was sent :—

‘ British Association for the Advancement of Science,
‘Burlington House, London, W., June 12, 1903.
‘Dear Sir Donatp Curriz,—I am in receipt of your most noble
response to my appeal for aid and support on behalf of the project of a
visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science to South
Africa in the year 1905, and will forthwith communicate the same to the
Council. May I at once, as the President, express on behalf of the
Council and the Association the profound gratitude which T am sure they
would desire me to convey for your generous appreciation of the work of
Science, and the helpful and fatherly way in which you have responded
to pecuniary difficulties.
‘ Yours very faithfully,
‘James Dewar.

The Council have received the following important letter from Sir
Frederick Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S., which they desire to record in their
Report :—

‘5 Great George Street, Westminster, S.W.,
‘July 2, 1903.

‘My pear PresIDENT,—It may, perhaps, be in the recollection of a
few of the older Members of Section G that, at the Jubilee Meeting,
York, 1881, I said (in a “communication” ordered to be printed in
extenso), speaking of the Steam Engine, that “a change in the production
of power from fuel appears to be impending, if not in the immediate
future, at all events in a time not very far remote ; and however much
the Mechanical Section of the British Association may to day contemplate
with regret even the mere distant prospect of the Steam Engine becoming
a thing of the past, I very much doubt whether those who meet here fifty
years hence will then speak of that motor except in the character of a
curiosity to be found in a museum. ” !

* British Association Proceedings, 1881 Volume, page 505.

xevi REPORT—1903.

‘In saying this, I no doubt then thought I was speaking somewhat
hyperbolically, but from the close attention I have paid to the subject of
internal-combustion engines, and from the way in which that attention
has revealed a continuous and, year by year, a largely increasing develop-
ment of such engines, I feel assured that although there may still be steam
engines remaining in work in 1931, the output of steam engines in that
year will be but small as compared with the output of internal-combustion
engines.

‘I wish to keep alive the interest of the Association in this subject,
and for this purpose I should be glad to be allowed to Dy; present to the
Association 50/., which I suggest should be invested in 23 per cent. Self-
accumulative Consols, amounting in 1931 to about 1002., which sum, or
whatever other sum may be to the credit of the account at that time, I
should like to be paid as an honorarium to a gentleman to be selected by
the Council to prepare a Paper having my utterances in 1881 as a sort of
text, and dealing with the whole question of the prime movers of 193],
and especially with the then relation between steam engines and internal-
combustion engines.

‘T enclose a cheque drawn in your favour for 50.

‘ Believe me to be, yours very truly,
‘ FREDERICK BRAMWELL.

‘Professor James Dewar, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., &e., &e.,
‘ President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.’

The Council, having been informed by Dr. D. H. Scott that he does
not intend to offer himself for re-election as General Secretary after the
Southport Meeting, desire to record their sense of the valuable services
he has rendered to the Association during the years he has held that
office.

The Council recommend that Professor W. A. Herdman, D.Sc., F.R.S.,
be appointed General Secretary in succession to Dr. D. H. Scott.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—
By Seniority. | By least Attendance.
Captain E. W. Creak. Sir Oliver Lodge.
Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle. | Professor Sollas.
Professor W. D. Halliburton. |

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following ist :-—

Abney, Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S. Keltie, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D.
Armstrong, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Macalister, Professor A., F.R.S
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D. *McKendrick, Professor J. G., F.R.S.
*Bourne, G. C., Esq., M.A. *Noble, Sir A., Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S. Perkin, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
*Brabrook, E. W., Esq., C.B. Perry, Professor John, F.R.S.
Callendar, Professor H. L., F.R.S. Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.
Cunningham, Professor D. J., F.R.S. Seward, A. C., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Major L., Sec. R.G.S. | Tilden, Professor W. A., F.RB.S.
Gotch, Professor F., F.R.S. | Watts, Professor W. W., F.G.S.
Haddon, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. Wolfe-Barry, Sir John, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Hawksley, C., Esq., M.Inst.C.B. *Woodward, Dr. A. 8., F.R.S,

Howes, Professor G. B., F,R.S.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

xcvil

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Soutarort MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1903,

1, Receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Grants

Section AA—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements

Seismological Observations.

To co-operate with the Royal
Meteorological Society in ini-
tiating an Investigation of the
Upper Atmosphere by means
of Kites.

To co-operate with the Committee
of the Falmouth Observatory
in their Magnetic Observations.

1903.

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

Secretary.—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors’ W. E.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
and G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver
Lodge, Dr. A. Muirhead,
Sir W. H. Preece, Profes-
sors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professor J. J. Thomson, Dr.
W. N. Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bot-
tomley, Rev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Pro-
fessor §. P. Thompson, Mr. J.
Rennie, Principal K. H. Griffiths,
Sir A. W. Riicker, Professor H.
L. Callendar, and Mr. QG.
Matthey.

Chairman.—Professor J. W. Judd,

Seerctary.—Mr, J. Milne.

Lord Kelvin, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor
C. G. Knott, Professor R.
Meldola, Mr. R. D. Oldham,
Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E.
Plummer, Professor J. H.
Poynting, Mr. Clement Reid,
Mr. Nelson Richardson, and
Professor H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—Dr. W. N. Shaw.

Secretary.—Mr. W. H. Dines.

Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. Ver-
non Boys, Dr. A. Buchan, Dr,
R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. R. Mill,
and Dr. A. Schuster.

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secretary.— Dr. R. T. Glazebrook.

Professor W. G. Adams, Captain
Creak, Mr. W. F. Fox, Professor
A. Schuster, and Sir A, W.
Riicker.

Sis;
Balance
in hand.

40 00

50 00
and bal-
ance in

hand.

60 00

xevlli

REPORT—1903,

1. Keceiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Grants

“Sucrion B.—CHEMISTRY.

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements,

The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub- |
stances,

SECTION

To investigate the Erratic Blocks |

of the British Isles, and to take |
measures for their preservation,

|
|
|

To explore Irish Caves. (Collec-
tions to be placed in the Science
and Art Museum, Dublin.)

Waters of North-west York-

/
|
The movements of Underground |
shire. |

To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dyr. Marshall Watts.

Sir Norman Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A. Schus-
ter, W. N. Hartley, and Wol-
cott Gibbs, Sir W. de W. Abney,
and Dr. W. E. Adeney.

Chairman.—Professor E. Divers.

| Seeretary.—Dr. A. W. Crossley.

Professor W. H. Perkin, Dr. M. O.
Forster, and Dr. Le Sueur.

C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Mr. J. E. Marr.

Seeretary.—My. P. F. Kendall.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. 8. N.
Harrison, Mr.
F. M. Burton, Mr, J. Lomas,
Mr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Mr.
J.W.Stather, Mr. W. T. Tucker,
and Mr. F. W. Harmer.

Chairman.—Dr. R. F. Scharff.
Secretayy.—Mr. R, Lloyd Praeger.

| Mr. G. Coffey, Professor Grenville

Cole, Dr. Cunningham, Mr. G.
W. Lamplugh, Mr. A. McHenry,
and Mr. R. J. Ussher.

Chairman.—Professor W.W.Watts.
Secretary.—Mr. A. R. Dwerry-

house.
Professor A. Smithells, Rev. E.
Jones, Mr. Walter Morrison,

Mr. G. Bray, Rev. W. Lower

Carter, Mr. T. Fairley, Professor |

P. F. Kendall, and Mr. J. E.
Marr.

Chairman.—My. J. E. Marr.

Seeretary.—Dr. Wheelton Hind.

Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr, A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,

Professor E. J. Garwood, Dr.G.J.

Hinde, Professor P. F'. Kendall,
Mr. R. Kidston, Mr. G. W. Lam-

plugh, Professor G. A. Lebour, |

Mr. B. N. Peach, Mr. J.T. Stobbs,
Mr.
Woodward.

J. Horne, Mr.

A. Strahan, and Dr. H. |

00)

00.

and bal-
ance in
hand.

Balance
in hand.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose |

Members of the Committee

| To report upon the Fauna and
Flora of the Trias of the British
Isles.

| To investigate the Fossiliferous
Drift Deposits at Kirmington,
Lincolnshire, and at various

localities in the Hast Riding of |

Yorkshire.

SECTION

| To aid competent Investigators

selected by the Committee to |
!

carry on definite pieces of work
at the Zoological Station at

Naples.

Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium.

Influence of
Solutions on the Development

of the Frog.

Physiology of Higher Crustacea.

The Accuracy and Comparability

of British and Foreign Statistics
of International Trade.

To enable Mr. J. W. Jenkinson to
continue his Researches on the |
Salt and other |

Toenable Dr. F. W. Gamble to con- |
duct Researches on the Colour |

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herd-
man.
Seeretary.—Myr. J. Lomas.

Professors W. W. Watts and P. F. |

Kendall, and Messrs H.

C..)

Beasley, E. T. Newton, A. C. +

Seward, and W. A. E. Ussher.

Chairman.—Mr.G.W, Lamplugh. |

Seerctary.—Mr. J. W. Stather.

Dr. Tempest Anderson, Professor |
J. W. Carr, Rev. W. Lower |
Carter, Messrs. A. R. Dwerry- |

house, F. W, Harmer, and J. H.

Howarth, Rev. W. Johnson,and |

Messrs. P.

F. Kendall, E. T. |

Newton, H. M. Platnauer, Cle- |

ment Reid, and T. Sheppard.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.— Professor 8. J. Hick-
son.

Secretary.—Mr. J. E. 8. Moore.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor G. B. Howes, Mr. A.

Sedgwick, and Professor W. C. |

McIntosh.

Chairman.—Dr, H. Woodward.

| Seeretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather.

Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.

Stebbing, Mr. R. McLachlan, |

and Mr. W. EK. Hoyle.

Chairman.—Professor Weldon.
Secretary.—Mr. J. W. Jenkinson.
Professor §. J. Hickson.

Chaivman.—Professor S, J. Hick-
son.

Secretary.—Dr. F. W. Gamble.

Dr. Hoyle and Dr. F. W. Keeble.

Chairman.—Dr. E. Cannan.

Secretary.—Dr. B. Ginsbure.

Mr. A. L. Bowley, Professor S. J.
Chapman, Sir R. Giffen, and
Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave.

| Grants
~ ns |
£8 a
| 10 0
50 00
|
100 00
60 00
|
|
i te OO]
:
b 15...0 0

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS,

xcix

£2

REPORT—1903.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

To investigate the Resistance of
Road Vehicles to Traction.

Chairman.— Sir J. 1. Thornycroft. |

Secretary.—Professor H. 8. Hele-
Shaw.

Mr. T. Aitken, Mr. T. C. Aveling,
Professor T. Hudson Beare, Mr.
W. W. Beaumont, Mr. J. Brown,
Colcnel R, E. Crompton, Mr. B,.
J. Diplock, Mr. A. Mallock, Pro-
fessor J. Perry, Sir D. Salomons,
Mr. A. R. Sennett, Mr. BE. Shrap-

nell Smith, and Professor W, C. |

Unwin,

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.,

To conduct Archeological and
Ethnological Researches in
Crete.

To investigete the Lake Village
at Glastonbury, and to report
on the best method of publica-
tion of the result.

To conduct Anthropometric In-
vestigations among the Native
Troops of the Egyptian Army.

To co-operate with Local Com-
mittees in Excavations on
Roman Sites in Britain.

To organise Anthropometric In-
vestigation in Great Britain and
Treland.

Chaivman,—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres,

Mr. R. C. Bosanquet, Mr. A. J.
Evans, Mr. D. G. Hogarth, Pro-
fessor A. Macalister, and Pro-
fessor W. Ridgeway.

Chairman,—Dr. R. Munro.

Seeretary.— Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins.

Sir John Evans and Messrs.
Arthur J. Evans, C. H. Read,
H. Balfour, and A. Bulleid.

Chairman.—FProfessor A. Mac-
alister.

Seeretary.—Dr. C. 8S. Myers.

Sir John Evans and Professor
D. J. Cunningham.

Chairman.—Dr. A. J. Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Professor Boyd Dawkins, Mr. E.
W. Brabrook, and Mr. T. Ashby.

Chairman.—Professor D, J. Cun-
ningham.

Secretary.—Myr. J. Gray.

Mr. Annandale, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Dr. C. 8. Myers, Mr. J. L. Myres,
Professor A. F. Dixon, Mr. E.
N. Fallaize, Mr. Randall Mac-
Iver, Professor J. Symington,
and Dr. Waterston.

Grants
ea Sef
90 00
100 00
25 00
10 00
25 00
Balance
| in hand.

EEE —eeEEeeeeEEEeEeEE

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY 'THE GENERAL COMMITIEE. ci
1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
| Subject for Investigation or Purpose | Members of the Committee | Grants
Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
| £8. d.
The State of Solution of Proteids. | Chairman.—Professor W. D. Halli- 20 00}
| burton.
| Secretary.—Professor EH. Way-
| mouth Reid.
Professor E. A. Schifer.
|
| To enable Professor Starling, Pro- - Chairman.—Professor Gotch, 40 00
fessor Brodie, Dr. Hopkins, Mr. | Seeretary.—Mr. J. Barcroft.
| Fletcher, Mr. Barcroft, and = Sir Michael Foster and Professor
| others to determine the ‘ Meta- Starling.
bolic Balance Sheet’ of the |
Individual Tissues. |
Section K.—BOTANY.
To carry out the scheme for the | Chairman.—-Professor L. C. Miall.{ 5 00 |
Registration of Negatives of | Secretary.—Professor F. HK. Weiss.
Botanical Photographs. Mr. Francis Darwin, Dr. W. G.
Smith, and Mr. A. G. Tansley.
The Respiration of Plants. Chairman.—Professor H.Marshall | 15 00
Ward.
Secretary.—My. H. Wager.
Mr. Francis Darwin and Professor
| J. B. Farmer.
To assist Mr. Alfred Fryer in the | Chairman—Professor 8S. H. Vines. | 10 00
completion of a Monograph on | Seeretary.—Dr. D. H. Scott.
the genus Potamogeton. Professor H. Marshall Ward and
Professor I. Bayley Balfour.
Experimental Studiesinthe Physi- | Chairman.—Professor H. Marshall | 35 00
ology of Heredity. Ward.
Secretary.—Myr. A. C. Seward.
Professor J. B. Farmer and Dr.
D. Sharp.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. |
Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker. 20 00
|

mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

| Seeretary.—Mr. F. W. Rudler.
| Sir John Evans, Rev. J. O. Bevan,

Dr. H. T. Brown, Dr. Vaughan
Cornish, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Mel-
dola, Dr. H. R. Mill, Mr. C. H.
Read, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,
Prof. W. W. Watts, and the
General Officers. —

cil

REPORT= 1903.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

Section AA-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of Dry Land and under
Water.

Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation,

The Consideration of the Teaching of
Elementary Mechanics, and the Im-

in such ‘leaching.

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to
continue her Report on the present
state of the Theory of Point-groups.

| ‘he Nature of Alloys.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

The Study of Isomorphous Sulphonic
Derivatives of Benzene.

provement which might be effected ,

Chairman.—Lord MeLaren.

Secretary.— Professor Crum Brown.

Sir John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, Pro- |
fessor R. Copeland, and Mr. Omond.

Chairman and Sceretary.—Professor J. D.
Tiverett.

Lord Keivin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Pro-
fessor Kdward Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve
Foster, Professor A. §. Herschel, Pro-
fessor G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
Mr, W. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson,
Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. Edward Wethe-
red, Mr. A. Strahan, Professor Michie
Smith, Professor H. L. Callendar, and
Mr. B. H. Brough.

Chairman.—Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney.
Sccretary.—Yrofessor H. McLeod.
Professor A. Schuster, Sir H. E. Roscoe,
Captain Sir W. de W. Abney, Dr. C.
Chree, Professor H. L. Callendar, Mr.
W. KE. Wilson, and Professor A. A.
Rambaut,

Chairman.—Professor Horace Lamb.

Secretary.—Professor J. Perry.

Mr. U. Vernon Boys, Professors Chrystal,
Ewing, G, A. Gibson, and Greenhill,
Princinal Griffiths, Professor Henrici,
Dr. E. W. Hobson, Mr. C, 8. Jackson,
Sir Oliver Lodge, Professors Love,
Minchin, and Schuster, and Mr, A.
W. Siddons.

Srerion B.—CHEMISTRY.
| Chairman and Secretary. Mr. F, H.

Neville

| Mr. C. 'T. Heycock and Principal E. H.

Griffiths.

|
| Chairman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
_ Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.
Secretary.—Professor H. E. Armstrong,
Dr. W. P. Wynne and Mr. W. J. Pope.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money— continued.

re
cut

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

| Members of the Committee

Spectra and Chemical Constitution of
Organic Substances.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

To report upon the present state of
our Knowledge of the Structure of
Crystals.

To promote the Registration of Type
Specimens of Fossils in the British
Isles.

To investigate the structure, formation,
and growth of the Coral Reefs of the
Indian Region, with special observa-
tions on the inter-relationship of the
reef organisms, the depths at which
they grow, the food of corals, effects

| ofcurrents and character of the ocean

bottom, &c. The land flora and fauna
will be collected, and it is intended
that observations shall be made on the
manners, &c., of the natives in the
different parts of the Maldive group.

To enable Miss Igesna Sollas, of Newn-

ham College, Cambridge, to study |

certain points in the development of
Ophiusoidgs, and to enable other com-
petent naturalists to perform definite
pieces of work at the Marine Labora-
tory, Plymouth,

| The Relation between the Absorption .

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor W.
Noel Hartley.

Professor F. R. Japp, Professor J. J.
Dobbie, and Mr. Alexander Lauder.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Seeretary.—Professor W. W. Watts.
| Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. Anderson,
Professors E. J. Garwood and 8. H.
Reynolds, and Messrs. A. 5. Reid, W.
Gray, H. B. Woodward, K. Kidston,
J. J. H. Teall, J. G@. Goodchild, H.
| Coates, C. V. Crook, G. Bingley, R.
| Welch, A. K. Coomaraswamy, and
| W. J. Harrison.

| Chairman.—Professor N. Story Maske-
lyne.

| Seeretary.—Professor H. A. Miers.

| Mr. L. Fletcher, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. G. F. H. Smith,
the Earl of Berkeley, and Mr. H. L.
Bowman.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

pce ee Dr. A. Smith Woodward.
ev. G. F. Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston,

+ Professor H.G. Seeley, Mr. H. Weods,
and Rev. J. F. Blake.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.—Mr. A. Sedgwick.

Secretary.—Mr, J. Stanley Gardiner.

Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J. Lister,
Mr. Francis Darwin. Dr. S. F. Harmer,
and Professors A. Macalister, W. A.
Herdman, and 8. J. Hickson.

| Chairman and Seeretary.—Mr. W. Gar-
stang.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. A. Sedg-
wick, Professor Sydney H. Vines, and
Professor W. F. R. Weldon.

Civ

REPORT—1903.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee

To continue the investigation of the | Chaisman.—Professor A. Newton.
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, | Seeretary.—Dr. David Sharp.
with power to co-operate with the | Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor 8, J.
Committee appointed for the purpose Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. F.
by the Royal Society, and to avail Du Cane Godman, and Mr. Edgar
themselves of such assistance in their A. Smith.
investigations as may be offered by
the Hawaiian Government or the
Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu.
The Committee to have power to dis-
pose of specimens where advisable.

| To conduct an Investigation into the | Chairman.—Professor S. J. Hickson.
Madreporaria of the Bermuda Islands. | Secretary.—Dr. W. KE. Hoyle.

To obtain Information respecting the | Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.
present Tidal Régime of the River Secretary.—Mr. J. N. Shoolbred.
Mersey, with the object of submitting | Professors G. H. Darwin, H. S. Hele-
the data so obtained to Harmonic Shaw, Osborne Reynolds, and W. C.

To conduct Explorations with the ob- | Chairman.—Mr. ©. H. Read.
ject of ascertaining the Age of Stone | Seerctary.—Mr. H. Balfour.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys- | Chairman.—Mr. CG. H. Read.
tematic Registration of Photographs | Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.
of Anthropological Interest. Dr. J.G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth, Mr. H.

Dr. F. F. Blackman, Mr. J. 8. Gardiner,
Professor W. A. Herdman, Mr. A. C.
Seward, Professor C. 8. Sherrington,
and Mr, A, G. Tansley.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

Terrestrial Surface Waves. Chairman.—Dr. J. Scott Keltie.

Secretary.—Dr. Vaughan Cornish.

Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey, Mr, E. A. Floyer,
Mr. John Milne, and Mr. W. H.
Wheeler.

The Geography of the Antarctic Regions | Chairman.—Sir T. H. Holdich.
in the area to be explored by the | Seeretary.—Lieut.-Col. F. Bailey.
Scottish National Antarctic Expedi- | Mr. W. 8. Bruce.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Unwin.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

| Sir John Evans, Dr. J. G. Garson, Pro-
fessor Meldola, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R.
Munro, Professor Boyd Dawkins, and
Mr. A, L. Lewis.

Balfour, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. E. 8.
Hartland, Mr. E. Heawood, Mr. H. 8.
Kingsford, and Professor Flinders
Petrie.

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTER,

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The present state of Anthropological

Teaching in the United Kingdom and
elsewhere.

To organise an Ethnological Survey of
Canada.

To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Ethnography, Folklore,
and Languages of the Peoples of the
Pacific.

Chairman.—Professor HK. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Professor A. Macalister, Dr. A. C. Had-
don, Mr. C. H. Read, Mr. H. Balfour,
Mr. F, W. Rudler, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
fessor Flinders Petrie, Mr. H. Ling
Roth, and Professor D, J. Cunningham.

Chairman.—Professor D. P. Penhallow.

Secretary.—Mr. C. Hill-Tout.

Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Dr. A. C. Haddon,
Mr. E. 8. Hartland, Mr. B. Sulte, Mr.
David Boyle, Mr. C. N. Bell, Professor
EK. B. Tylor, Professor J. Mavor, Mr.A. F.
Hunter, Dr. W. I’. Ganong, Rev. Father
Monies, Rev. Father A. G. Morice,
Mr. W. Crooke, and Mr. J. L. Myres.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Mr. H. Balfour and Mr. J. Stanley Gar-
diner.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

The Physiological Effects of Peptone
and its Precursors when introduced
into the circulation,

To investigate the Functions of the
Rods and Cones in the Mammalian
Retina with reference to the Visual
Purple.

Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schafer.

Seeretary.—Professor W. H. Thompson.

Professors R. Boyce and C. 8. Sherring-
ton.

Chairman.—Professor J. G. McKendrick.

Secretary.—Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green.

Professors E. H. Starling and A. D.
Waller.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

The conditions of Health essential to
the carrying on of the work of in-
struction in schools,

To consider and report upon the influ-
ence exercised by Universities and
Examining Bodies on secondary school
curricula, and also of the schools on
university requirements.

Chairman.—Frofessor Sherrington.

Secretary.—Mt. E,. White Wallis.

Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Professor L. C.
Miall, Miss Findlay, Miss Alice Raven-
hill, Miss Maitland, Dr. Clement Dukes,
Dr. Rivers, Mr. J. Russell, Dr. Sydney
Stephenson, Dr. C. Childs, Dr. C.
Shelley, and Mr. E. W. Brabrook,

Chairman.— Dr. H. E. Armstrong.

Seeretary.— Mr. R. A. Gregory.

The Bishop of Hereford, Sir Michael
Foster, Sir P. Magnus, Sir A. W.
Riicker, Sir O. J. Lodge, Mr. H. W. Eve,
Mr. W. A. Shenstone, Mr. W. D. Eggar,
Professor Marshall Ward, Mr. F. H.
Neville, Mrs. W. N. Shaw, and Dr. C.
W. Kimmins.

evi REPORT—1908.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose Members of the Committee |
!

The Teaching of Botany in Schools. Chairman.—Professor L. C. Miall.
| Secretary.—Mr. Harold Wager.
Professor J. R. Green, Mr. A. C. Seward,
Professors H. M. Ward, J. B. Farmer,
and T. Jobnson, Miss Lilian Clarke, |
and Dr. C. W. Kimmins.
|
To report upon the Course of Experi- | Chairman.—Sir Philip Magnus.
mental, Observational, and Practical , Secrctary.—Mr. W. M. Heller.
Studies most suitable for Hlementary | Sir W. de W. Abney, Mr. R. H. Adie,
Schools, Professor H. E. Armstrong, Miss A. J.
Cooper, Miss L. J. Clarke, Mr. George
Fletcher, Professor R. A. Gregory,
Principal Grifiths, Mr. A. D. Hall, Mr.
A. J. Herbertson, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,
Professor J. Perry, Mrs. W. N. Shaw,
Professor A. Smithells, Dr. Lloyd
Snape, Principal Reichel, Mr. H.
Richardson, Mr. Harold Wager, and
Professor W. W. Watts.

Communication ordered to be printed in extenso.
On the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics. By Professor Henrici, F.R.S.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
if desirable.

(i.) ‘That, as urged by the President in his Address, it is desirable that Scientific
workers, and persons interested in Science, be so organised that they may exert per-
manent influence on public opinion, in order more effectively to carry out the third
object of this Association originally laid down by the Founders, viz., “to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvantages
of a public kind which impede its progress,” and that the Council be recommended
to take steps to promote such organisation.’

(ii.) ‘That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of urging upon
the Government, by a deputation to the First Lord of the Treasury or otherwise, the
importance of increased national provision being made for University Education.’

_ (iii.) ‘The Committee of Section A, having received a communication from the
International Meteorological Committee, is of opinion that the introduction of inter-
national uniformity in the units adopted for the records of meteorological observa-
tions would be of great practical advantage to Science, and that the Council be re-
quested to take such steps as they may think fit toward giving effect to the resolu-
tion.’

[Translation of Extract from the Procés Verbal of the International Meteoro-
logical Committee at their Meeting on September 11, 1903, referred to above :—

‘Section 6.—Dr. Shaw moved that the attention of Section A of the British
Association be called by the International Meteorological Committee to the utility
which would result from obtaining more uniformity in the units adopted in Meteoro-
logy, and to inquire if the Section did not consider that the moment had come for
bringing about this uniformity.’

‘ After discussion, the Committee decided to call the attention of Section A of
the British Association to the inconveniences which arise from the lack of uniformity
in the units adopted in Meteorological observations, and to ask it to consider if the
time has not come for bringing abont this uniformity.’]

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTER. cVil

(iv.) ‘ The Committee of Section A desire to express their opinion that the system-
atic investigation of the upper currents of the atmosphere by means of kites or
balloons is of great importance to Meteorology; and ask the Council to take such
steps as they may think fit to urge upon the Treasury the importance of providing the
Meteorological Council with the funds necessary for the purpose.’

(v.) ‘That the Council be asked to consider the desirability of permitting the
publication of the whole of the Sectional programmes in the ‘ Daily Journal’ at as
early a date as possible.’

(vi.) ‘ That it is desirable that further steps should be taken to make the Reports
of Committees (as distinguished from papers) communicated to the Association more
accessible to the general public by the provision of Indices to the published volumes
and otherwise ; and that the Council be asked to consider the conditions upon which
Reports of Committees and Proceedings of Sections might be published separately if
required,’

(vii.) ‘That the Sectional Committees be continued in existence until the new
Sectional Committees are appointed, and be authorised to bring to the notice of the
Council in the interval between the Annual Meetings of the Association any matter
on which the action of the Council may be desired in the interests of the several
Sections, and that a Committee may be summoned at, any time by the President of
the Section or by the Council.’

cviil REPORT—1908.

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the

General Commuttee at the Southport Meeting, September 1908.

The

Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

for the respective Grants are prefixed.

Mathematics and Physics.

£ 3.
*Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards (Unexpended balance) —
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations ,...... 40 0
*Shaw, Dr. W. N.— Upper Atmosphere Investigations (Wn.
expended balance and) . ss 50 0
*Preece, Sir W. H. —Magnetic Observations: EAE rey iis 60 0
Chemistry.
*Roscoe, Sir H.—Wave-length Tables of Spectra ............... 10 0
*Divers, Prof. E.—-Study of Hydro-Aromatics .............6604- 25 0
Geology.
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Erratic Biocks (Balance in hand and)...... 107 0
*Scharff, Dr. R. F.—-To Explore Irish Caves (Balance in hand) —
*Watts, Professor W.—Movements of Underground Waters
(Balance i in hand) ..<..-5 serene a=
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in viiacbanikarcns "Roc ks ts Billet ey 55 (0
*Herdman, Professor—Fauna and Flora of British Trias ...... 10 0
Lamplugh, Mr. G. W.—To investigate Fossiliferous Drifts... 50 0
Zoology.
*Hickson, Professor 8. J.—Zoological Table at Naples ......... 100 O
* Woodward, Dr. H.—Index Animalium .............:.cceeseeeeeee 60 O
Weldon, Professor—Investigations in Development in the
POTN ash aos begs aVnnerteds Ak A aa Maia aNe td ok eo eu eee 15 0
Hickson, Professor 8. J.—Researches on the Higher Crustacea 15 0
Economic Science and Statistics.
Cannan, Dr. E.—British and Foreign Statistics of Interna-
dona)! Tne gsi: tir Oisaais ve wv eotidw cenwene dane deetin 25 0
Engineering.
*Thornycroft, Sir J. J.—Resistance of Road Vehicles to Trac-
Pen Je eat Peayvaatee sh oo, Oe ee

Carried ho aide pais awa we duldeta deanie eee Sw

* Reappointed.

oo Gone —S

Sits}

oo oo

oi OS

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY, cix

Bilt ge as
OSH EOP WANG. cus udp ombee'abinges neu’ asees*n/tisks aR OOOS LO
Anthropology.
*Evans, Sir John—Archeological and Ethnological Researches

in Crete ..... vie LOO AON 19
*Munro, Dr. R. Researches in | Glastonbury Lake ‘Village Lest ee OO
*Macalister, Professor 2) 2a ene Investigation on

Egyptian Troops .. i a OS ODIO

Evans, Dr. A. J. —Excay: rations ¢ on 1 Roman Sites i in Britain... 25 0 0
Physiology.
* Halliburton, Professor—The State of Solution of Proteids... 20 0 0O
Gotch, Professor-—Metabolism of Individual Tissues ......... 40 0 0
Botany.
Vines, Professor 8. H.— Completion of Monograph on Pota-

PROUOT ey criisin yh claire sds iteesitP oo ee dod s oe as wewrnmdmnaisi pine 1OynOin G
*Miall, Professor L, C.—Botanical Photographs................. 5 0 0
*Ward, Professor Marshall—Respiration of Plants ............ to: Oe

Ward, Professor M.—Experimental Studies in Heredity ... 35 0 0
Corresponding Societies.

*Whitaker, Mr. W,—Preparing Report, dc. ......:s.scecececees 20 0 0

£900 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting mm 1904.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1904 will be held at
Cambridge, commencing August 17.
The Annual Meeting in 1905.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1905 will be held in
South Africa.

REPORT—19083.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes

1834,
£8. d.
Tide Discussions ...... heen 20 0 0
1835
Tide Discussions ...........0655 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
slog OO 10
1836
Tide Discussions .......... cr kbp ‘0. *O
3ritish Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,

DCE a erea ewes deste crouse senses 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued. Heater tke 17 1 0
BAINSTAULES <c.resecencncsserere cages lee
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0
Jrunar Niwtation.....0cc0cccseacss 60 0 0
PHETMOMELETS "5.0 ceeesnseper 15 6 O

£435 0 0

1837

Tide Discussions ..... easenits ee . 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 24 13 6
Thonay NeUtahiOn «......0.0.2000 0s. 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 O
ides at IBTIStOl .ccssecacteus sores 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ Dai iol)
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
BAaLOMBLETS hice sees anes ome ohidty LAW LB ee

£922 12 6
1838.
de DISCUSSIONS: .scses.cspeapn 29.9 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

LOM!) Mian castes eMeee aclare voeeecerer 100 0 0
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... GO 0m 10
Anima] and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol ides... cvascscsee Sasane BOe sO) 0
Growth of Plants’ fesissess«<cr fo O70
Mud in Rivers ............. teasswauee) (Ol GG
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O
Heart Nxperiments ....... antes gO) id WO
Land and Sea Level....... eee ON Ot,
Steam-Vessels........000scscseces 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee ... 31 9 5

£932 2 -2

—————

1839.

Sg td.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at. Plymouth, &c. ........... - 68310 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol Tides ....... peaches bso 35.18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103° 7027
Railway Constants ......... os (2B) #110
Land and Sea Level............ QT A fh. 92
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 17118 0
Stars in Lacaille ............. a EL O86:
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0
Animal Secretions............. - 1010" 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...........068 ) JIG EEO
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3 0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 O

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
IXINOVSSIC “Fasc asoamqs dcoee meee 1 Si on
Fossil Reptiles .......... ERS Abe 118 2 9
Mining Statistics! ..oi.ssc...+<. ya CUETO) 0)
£1595 11 O

1840.

BTIStOl Wid OS: cswsecesncuconceccsae 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ........... + SISn19 0
Lungs Experiments .......... «/ 8/13 0
PHA™S DISCUSSIONS, senor espaanes ». 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level....... Beer: oils tomer!
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaitle) .........ccc00 « ) 4 150
Stars (Catalogue) .,.....eccse.ee 264 0 O
Atmospheric Aur ....22 0 15 15 O
Waiter onron! <5....5..05.adeee 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... i 0.0
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population ............ 100 0 O
School Statistics .........0.006. 50 0 O
Forms of Vessels ......... poccen 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
DOMENS) sc succcereaeeeesn eres - 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .......... re eke Oa!
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
—————

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1841.
£ 8. d.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature .........+. 8 8 0
ActinoMmeters ..........e.eeeees vse WO On O
Earthquake Shocks ........... 17 7 0
Acrid Poisons...........sccesseers 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ........ peot@nyQ» 10
BING MMAR IVETS ,.0.s-000se0cnetes 5 0 0
Marine Zoology ...... essecedsoevs (4D 12) 8
Skeleton Maps .......-sscseseees 20 0 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)...........000+ eae ID. Be 10
Stars (Nomenclature of)....... 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of) ..........4. 40 0 0
Water onIron ....... obo nbiaes 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations

at Inverness etd dente stokes ot 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

(reduction of) ............ 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........se0s000 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ ss... 62 0 6
Railway Sections ...... Spi . 38 1 0
Forms of Vessels ..... wadiehs dit 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

at Plymouth ..... Be ekteais re . 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

EMEA Dl edgectddaicneis ccivaciesesis zveons LOO) (OO
Pides ap Leith ............02000 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
‘abulating Observations...... 9 6 3
Races of Men....... sorddonoceo | f O @
Radiate Animals ............005 2 0 0

£1235 10 11

1842,

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol ................. 59 8 O
Gases on Light ...............0. . 80°14 7
Chronometers........ eas sobeks ae 26 'G
Marine Zoology.............06065 15 0
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

PMOL. .bsbteeeeGiads uceteeees 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 0
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. Ca - 110 0 0
Railway Sections ..,............ 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 O
Fossil Reptiles (publication

of Report) ..... penises ehettace 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ....... suetteete 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

Rocks ....... Reeectonrestsc caress 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments

at)Plymouth. ........lice..080. 68 0 0
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

mometrie Instruments ...... 90 0 0

ex1
£ -3,.. d.
Force of Wind ...... dckathedeene © 210.10 £0
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O
Vital Statistics ............005 coc b SOLED * 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
£1449 17 8
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
CiaSbansecscdncsccpacwer semeeane 2— 0) 40
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
HOrtiy Steet ecsetseoe sees 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
IAVEPRESS ever siedesedene ss 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth eb cannnobecBUBoks: 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth seas 1 OO
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
mouth ..... messpsncasars traaenees 20 QO
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations te. .c2: chee. 30 0 O
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ........ Suidcae 39 6 «+O
Construction of Anemometer
ap Inverness yt sce .ccse eet 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation.,........ 10 8 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory ....... cope Weel
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 183 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
TOONS cars cee ee eee 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of
Railway Sttece.stccccosatitee 20 0 0
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles ............... 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way SeCtiONS »........ecccecece 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks CB] Sond dot CuAn eRe HEE 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
Clabure. cw setceseet ce 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester ..,... 4 4 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0
Marine Zoology ....... Beescces 10 0 O
Marine Zoology ..........sse0eee ramen Wy: gai
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 O
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal ane areas = 20 °O" 6
Vital Statistics .......ccccccceses 36 5 8

rePorT—-1903.

exli
618.8
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on

the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Morin’s Instrument and Con-

stant Indicator .......0..++... 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength

Of Materials ....sssccsecaseere 60 0 0

£1565 10 2
1844,
Meteorological Observations

at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

Plymouth ....sseceeseseeeee see jab, 0. 10
Magnetic and Meteorological

Co-operation ......sereerrerers 25 8 4
Publication of the ‘British

Association Catalogue of

StALS .csscnssieoasesserrsionrsinn 35 0 0
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland 100 0 O
Revision of the Nomenclature

OF Stars ..sccccocsesserees 1842 2 9 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-

LOTY sesseceeecencescerecescaeeees 117 17 3
Instruments for Kew Obser-

VALOLY cevcessseerenenerneeeeeses 5G) dae
Influence of Light on Plants | 10 0 0
Subterraneous ‘Temperature

in Ireland ....... serpin ees ene Be omen Ue, 6)
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

Way Sections .......eeseerereee 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes .........++. 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

#igean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and

Cornwall... .....ccesese+sopiace 100; 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

of Seeds ..... Sa ee sepont acanee 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

Of SEEMS ......sseseecseere 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura .....ssceeseeee 165 0 O
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 O
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... 10 0 0
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals...... 50 0 O
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 O

£981 12 8

1845.
£ 8, d.
Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6
Meteorological Observations
at Inverness ......csssseeceees 30 18 11
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation ...... coven sere 1616 8
Meteorological Instruments
at Edinburgh....... een eseieeee Sd 3
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory .......... 43.17 8
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 149 15 0
For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0O
The Actinograph ..... eiccsbeneer LD tO mO
Microscopic Structure of
Shells ...... Fos aubioo tog 3002300 20 0 0
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ....,.,..1843 2 0 7
Vitality of Seeds .........1844 7 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall. 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-
CIES! Gs vavcisteedvercheas cies 20 0 0
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York.. ......... 20 0 0
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8
£831 9 9
1846,
British Association Catalogue
OLAS UALS Saves. savanassseses 1844 211 15 0O
Fossil Fishes of the London
(Claiyiecetescasessannentesecss vesose OO ONG
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 O
Maintaining the KEstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 0
Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 O
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 215 10
Vitality of Seeds .........1846 712 3
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0O
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 0
Expenses attending Anemo-
IMECUCTS.cs0-c-s-sbaense) Waeeteets 11 7 6
Anemometers’ Repairs... ..... 2 3 6
Atmospheric Waves .......-.+6+ 313
Captive Balloons ......... 1844 819 8
Varieties of the Human Race
1844 7 6 3
| Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............ 12 0 0
£685 16 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1847,
£2 3s. d
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829.........666 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

Ollatel She + Rdo acco eeet EL ee pene 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ..........+6 6 9 3
Vitality of Seeds ...........000 Dy arg
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4

1848,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 1)

Atmospheric Waves ............ 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 915 0

Completion of Catalogue of
“SET yentocaie? Bqa dgunee PapBbe ace 70 0 0
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8

1849.

Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Citto.......ccesseeeee 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds ............... er Sujal
On Growth of Plants ...,..... 5 0 0

Registration of Periodical
Phenomena............ceceeeeee 10 0 0

Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 13 9 0
£159 19 6

1850.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Karthquake Waves 50 0
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 O
Meteorological Instruments,

NOLEN Sh otc sdcsseidseenensh sees o 25 O

£345 18
1851.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at ‘Kew Observatory

(includes part of grant in

2 ESS ai 309 2 2
Theory of Heat ........c..ceceeee 20 1 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants............00 56 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ........0...... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0

£391 9 7
1903.

SO OS O'S

1852.
£8. ad.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

CGneluding balance of grant

for 1850) vos.c06: bess deateoee 233.17 8
Expetiments on the Conduc-

tion of Heat ............sc000e 7 eek)
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

LGU mente coeds asecceeeernees 10 0 0
Vitality of Sceds ...........000e 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 O

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the WHstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 O
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British

ATINGMOR: sacdsutgenethecedactess 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast

Of Scotland, cies. scesewscasceo 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at ‘Kew Observatory

(including balance of

former grant).\......ccceceeses 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Iron...............00. 10 0 O
Registration of Periodical

Phenomena,........secseeceeee - 10 0 0
British Annelida ..........0.c0 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .0.........c6.. 56 2 3
Conduction of Heat ............ 4.2 0

£380 19 7
1855,
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ...0.........0. 10 7 il
Map of the World............... 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ....,.... 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0.0

£480 16 4.
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew. Observa-

tory :—

W854......008 £75 0 0 ,
PSOBL 0: £500 0 oP 948) /.0).q

CX1V
£ 3. a.
Strickland’s Ornithological
SYHONVHS) fb heeaqeees+segerm= 100 0 0
Dtedging and Dredging
HOLS). . s-dasnepas dee seo ereeaee PIG
Ghetnical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Stretigth of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Hevistration of Periodical
Phenomena..scessscsssesseeees 10)50;, 40
Propagation of Salmon........ 10 0 0
£734 138 9
1857.
Maintaitiihg the Establish-
thent at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Karthquake Wave Expeti-
MY] EWS ys ss niie eat tcaw awe toes =e 40 0 0
' Dredging near Belfast...:...... 10 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
of Scotland ....sccieceeeesene 10 0 0
tuvestigations into the Mol-
ltista of California ........ 10 0 0
Expetithents on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Natural History of Mata-
PASCAL | se cesdesannsncnasscesese 20 0 0
Hesearches on Btitish Anne-
IAC newCigE S is es sins. cs eas 25 0 0
Repott oh Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0 |
Attificial Propagation of Sal-
NOD... ..ceccenedateeeesectiieense 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines......... it nBint0
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations........-++- Bandit
Dike POAGS. <..rsaccocieive dace soe 5 0 0
£507 15 «4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
POEUN ns uknar deareousrhesonsene 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
DIS COMANG! ccjsreseceercsecnass 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seed ........sese0ee 5 56 O
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 2
Report on the British Anne-
PICS: oon ie eet. siecebine epsnivcieen dae 25.0 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
TUS alerts. one oe uep's sete 20 0 0
Report on the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
andes ess cncte ss asaAAssdascagg0c% KOO (0)
£618 18 2
i eee need
1859,

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 O
| Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
| Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Petforthance

of Steam-vessels ............ 124 0 O

| Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 O
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25) 0™@
Researches on the Growth of

Planits . cvcsevsscssetresenatneas 100." 10
Researches on the Solubility

OL ESAS) <escsssevadsen sn steerer 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents

Of Manures: .icrsc2deocaseeetees 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNTS, .s.-x2000 waseededinse ot 113' 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the KEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 500 0 O
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and Kast

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0
1861 ..o:5:£22 Dus laniedie
| Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 O
Solubility of Salts ............ 20..0./0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 O O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 16 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys .........000. Sah ee cd) 0
Classified Index to the Trans-

DCHONS: «vom sestec aseee tee eeeee 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and

DEE RIN a sans esis atte >» ADALOEIO
Dip. Circle: .....cn.sampscireseene 0/130) Om
Photoheliographic Observa-

LIGHS:, Geek scienisewente vajeieiatsletidars . 50 0 0
Phison Diet ..ses.csesen ieee tise ZOMORIO
Gauging of Water............0.. 10 0 0
Alpine Ascents .......ssceee 6 5 10
Constituents of Manures...... 26 0 0O

£1111 5 10

REPORT—1903.

6 3. a.
Osteology of Bitds .........6+ 50 0 0
Irish Tiunicataecersctpect Ra iga:s 5 0 Q
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 O
British Meduside ............ azete SORE 0
Dredging Committee ......... 50 0
Steam: vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fatna of South and
West of Iteland........ aa (0 A eae
Photographic Chemistry ...:., 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ....:;...:: 20 0 1
Balloon Astents.......s.ccccces 39 11, O

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1862.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
Patent Laws
Mollusca of N.-W.- of America
Natural History by Mercantile

Marine
Tidal Observations
Photoheliometer at Kew ......
Photographic Pictures of the

‘

Rocks of Donegal..
Dredging Durham and North-

umberland Coasts ............
Connection of Storms .........
Dredging North-east Coast

of Scotland
Ravages of Teredo
Standards of Electrical Re-

sistance
Railway Accidents
Balloon Committee
Dredging Dublin Bay
Dredging the Mersey .
Prison Diet

err rrr rrr ry

rte reer eee eee rer
acer eeennene

Steamships’ Performance......
Thermo-electric Currents

500
21
10

5
25

150
25

25
20

Soo coo &

oo°o°o on co oo

£1293 16 6

1863.

Maintaining the LEstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory...
Balloon Committee deficiency
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

penses)
Entozoa
Coal Fossils
BAOMUN ES espa saadsemcieonce poet ess
Granites of Donegal secoesoSnees
Prison Diet
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

ments
Dredging Shetiand
Dredging North-east Coast of

Perec eee rece ee ee eee?

Tenement meee eantens

PIraVERCUG es cts con -cs Sescseacs ergs
Dredging Northumberland
iva) [Dah 2 ha ee ee

Dredging Committee superin-

terdence
Steamship Performance ......
Balloon Committee ...... pa ee
Carbon under pressure .........
Volcanic Temperature
Bromide of Ammonium
Electrical Standards............
Electrical Construction and

Distribution ...........sse.00e
Luminous Meteors
Kew Additional ert for

Photoheliograph ........0008

eee eee eee res

100

SS) (=) oo oo°oocsS oo

=) oS oo 000 S'S

S oo ooococo oo

i
oO

oO co ooo ocoo

CXV
£ 8s. d.
Thermo-electricity ......0..05 1b 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ......... He pon Oe Ae.
Hydroidas.... svmazevaasaaett) ances 10 0 0
£1608 3 10
et
1864.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal MOsBIS,......05..2.sstees he 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

MEDES }.i atten Artes aieeetetmed: 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ (Cig (ty (9)
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0

| Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
| Standards of Electric Re-

SISTANCE RUM sacetar. «acta! 100 0 0
Anallysis of Rocks. »........002 LO fOn 0
Hydtoid® Jeadkasbleeaelix vie LO OarG

| Asishamms Gath Mei eeleiastae 50 0 0
Nitgitedof Amiyle .:.y:s.2288¢.42 10 0 0

| Nomenclature Committee 50 9
Waitt PANO CSi\.ssccccessnesqsoccaue 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0
Tidal Observations in the

EMMI OD satmocdsaddec dees ocas 8 50 0 O
MPECtrAlRAYS cescccscos-cosentees 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ ZOS6O1i0

#1289 15. 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 O
Elty (OI ass <5 <7 cades canwesoeeetar tes TSeLOn tO
RAIN-PANCES so cinccacnnndncconast 30 0 O

| Tidal Observations in the

Hig Mm eriie. s-acsc0reecernenevers 6) 18— 0
Hexylic Compounds ..,......... 20 0 0
Amyl Compounds ............... 20 0 O
Trashy WlOnal.sccesssesccse cd vanes 25 0 0
American Mollueca .....,...... Bee)
OTERNICIA CIOS) - a1. cheaper 205.0. 0
Lingula Flags Excavation... 10 0 0
HUryPUCHUS) sncacaceas sede aeatte dean 50 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50 0 O
Oyster breeding yoo a. aace sen SORE TORO ler
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 O
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 0
Mamine WANA0g veces cusp enseenses 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25. 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies

IR WLET sc atc cscs tepees<sse 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10
Luminous Meteors ......... cae Ow

£1591 7 10
= +e

éXV1 REPORT —1903.

1866.

£3.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0

Lunar Committee .......0....... 64 13
Balloon Committee ........... 50 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0
British Rainfall,...........s0.0 = D0 40
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15 0
Luminous Meteors ........066 7 mb0).0
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0
Chemical Constitution . of

Gast eON vex enmenenseeet baeesss 501, D
Amy] Compounds .........0.006 25 0
Klectrical Standards............ 100 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon

BMG) COMMWallssa.cdesssusevees. 25 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0
tesistance of Floating Bodies

IESMAN Vedi Draiaiataig ealsliniclpisciselotaielyeis 50 0
Polyeyanides of Organic Radi-

GALS amesiccetiaas sees SeeWeedie pee29 0,
BPICOT NIG aaalescncsaalaecncs ie 10 0
Trish Annelida ......2seccessers 15 0
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 (0
Didine Birds of Mascarene

SIAC Sievenieallensaeoixies vices nou De 0)
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0

oooo. o..cooc0 eoocoo coooocooor]

0 |

0
0

£1750 13 4

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Meteorological Instruments,

IPANECSUINEG ceccceessraacsecermece Bey art ee
Lunar Committee .......ss0ss00e 120 0
Metrical Committee............ 30 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 100 0
Palestine Exploiations......... 50 0
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 0
British varnitall st vcecsccse ess ree, DOO
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 0

Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25 0
Luminous Meteors ........... 50 0
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf- beds 30. 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0
Steamship Reports Condensa-

HILOM corpesersrbsetses reson saheessts 100 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25. 0
Fossil Crustacea ...2c....0css0e 25 0
Sound under Water ............ 24 4
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75 O

Do. Plant Beds 100 0
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 0O
PA ENUASAW S|. eat etecsesvere 3 ccc 30 0

£1739 4

ooocoooocoocoe eococececooceo (=)

1868.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ............. at 1D)
| Metrical Committee............ 50
| Zoological Record............606 100
| Kent’s Hole Explorations ,., 150
Steamship Performances. .. 100
British Rainfall ...........c000 eeo0)
| Luminous Meteors............... 50
Organic ACIADS ....cercrsessesnss 60
Fossil Crustacea.........-.secsees 25
Methyl Series........... Soricng io 25
Mercury and Bile .,..........00 25

Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks: «.......+.. Seay 21)
Scottish Earthquakes ....... “320
| Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ........ /~4b0
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-.... 50
| Greenland Explorations ...... 100
| Hossil Hora; <....ccwscthenenetes . 25
| Tidal Observations ........... . 100
_ Underground Temperature... 50

Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30

British Marine Invertebrate
MAUNA sweetesweedscseeve ants tenes 100
£1940

1869.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ........0..06 » 50
Metrical Committee ...... Mea Ci,
Zoological Record ..........000+. 100

Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water ....cc.sssss00s coosesl 2D
British Rainfalliz: s2-:.2c0,.0s000 DO

Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
Cros nsphinneedeereeseneee steers pred ail]
Kent’s Hole Explorations... . 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30

Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron....ccs-.sa0s accossecemseOul
Tron and Steel Manufacture 100
Methyl Series:...c...c-essscsesnive 30

Organic Remains in Lime-
stone ROCKS......s.ssesesesereee 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... .. 30
Wossil Moran enscsacpscem ste ved 25
Tidal Observations ........... - 100
Underground Temperature... 30

Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic Acids .......... oor eee 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ......... aba 20

ow
.

o co coceocececo cooocecece|ecoe

ecoooscoo ®&

=
—

o co ooocooooooo coco

Sao ooo. Sao aCe oS 0.0 3:6

OC, "Sirocco. oc. OGG ses) SoS >

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ 8. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

HOMINIS es ieetisnscehence os dance wae toe 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 10 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0

£1622 0 0
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 60
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............. ». 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Bara in) Fishes: ....:..c.ccsssesee 10
Chemical Nature of Cast

TOW tre oo. oveehack fled eves wees daeeahe SO.
Luminous Meteors ........... . 380
Heat in the Blood....... titeuses iG
British Rainfall.................. 100
Thermal Conductivity of

PEOIIROUC teens poccecatceseseecnc: 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150

Scottish Earthquakes .......... 4

Bagshot Leaf-beds_ ............ 15
Fossil Flora ..........06 rer 2%)
Tidal Observations ..,......... 100
Underground Temperature . «. =50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20

Mountain Limestone Fossils 25

Utilisation of Sewage ..,..... 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3
Mechanical Equivalent of
HEAD ens... stele soa deielaten sates - 50

£1572

1871,

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

in Chemistry ............cs0006 100
Metrical Committee....... Mecar IO
Zoological Record.......... veeee 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ........ . 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Fossil Flora .......... pactetesce » 25
Luminous Meteors ......... ww. =6—B0
British Fossil Corals ........ « 25
Heat in the Blood..,.. caecne: ae ha |
British Rainfall......, hetnes deere 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea .............. . | 26
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects ...... noone res . 20

ooooowooqcooco coo oO

coooocscooooo ooo i=)

|
}

CxXVl1l
eT Bah,

Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing ........00...0. 20 0 0
| Bagshot Leaf-beds ..,........ 20 0 Q
| Moab Explorations .,.......... 100 0 O
| Gaussian Constants .........++ 2 40°..05..0
£1472 2 6
—

1872,

| Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0 0
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0

| Tidal Committee .....,......0.- 200 0 0

| Carboniferous Corals ..,...... 25 0 O
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

MVER apie dases eas senerneattsasseeceTs 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 QO
Heat in the Blood............. éy sda, OF 40
Fossil Crustacea .............05 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
Jinan 'ObjECtS: vi.ctssteces seen. 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall......... Seaeests 100 0 O
Poisonous Substances Anta-

POMS cevecerscrdedcsse cater 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

Stitmtion, A&C. ..2...ccessssceess 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0O
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

DALSP west sess nengactonre COE 25 0° 0

£1285 0 O
1873.

Zoological Record..........4++ » 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............0+8 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ............665 400 0 O
Sewage Committee ......... PET US SOR
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ........ ~ 22d, 10. 30
| Fossil Elephants ............... 25; 0 40
Weave-lenotb sey. scssieesrtasecehs 150 0 O
BUibIsh Bauitall se sass. tenes -- L000; 0
Hssential Ors:, scoc0cessehneseeess 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables .,....... 100 0 O
Gaussian Constants ......... sate LOM. 07.0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0

Timber Denudation and Rain-

FAM ets cacecnes toeeas HAG ee HeSbnc 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors............++. 30 0 0

£1685 0

1874.

£
Zoological Record....... saearens LOU
Chemistry Hecord ..,.......00+06 100
Mathematical Tables ......... 100
Elliptic Functions............606 100
Lightning Conductors ......... 10

Thermal Conductivity of
HOC Kw teeta cireniessinansagssi eels 10

Anthropological Instructions

Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 15
Tuminous Meteors ..........4+ 30
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15
IS TIipiS habla cs. eceorsnsis vase 100
PisSential OUS sce swiswendeesee ess 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20
Marine Organisms..........+.++. aC
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
Teva | asi, se goes aOR Oboe ac aaE 2

Physiological Action of Light 20
Trades Unions
Mountain Limestone-corals
Erratie Blocks
Dredging, Durham and York-

ococ]o oocoocoocococc coococcse

0 |

BUUEECOASUS) sacvasppersccbaces 28 5
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 36
Yabyrinthodonts of Coal-

MIGASULESS cer ecsnaseanessyieese- 7 15

£ 1 1 Bl 1 16 ¢ 0

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 0
Maguetisation of Iron ......... AO On 30
Britishy Rainfall .....ccoc.cs-e0 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 100 0 O
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid............... TOO! 0
Isometric *Cresols)itiser.cosec,e6 Ow sl
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 O
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland ...... TD) iO) 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid

TRUS Shai qtareopcoceeeeecaaROCcnn 20 0 0
Zoological iecord............... 100 0 O
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 O
Intestinal Secretions ........ 5 FEV tad)

_ Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 O
£960 0 O

1876.

Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British jRaintall’s vcs. scctescsoes 100 0 O
QMS cases sacs nceetece sens Delon 10
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... zp 0) Q

COO SoSoo00 SocooceseosSesooO ocoooo®

Be Ssh
Tsomeric Cresols .....sseeseeee 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACETATE... 0ciccdvetsovssereaveses 5 0 0

| Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..........+.++ 13.0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0

| Geological Record............. 700.0) 0
| Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS icra sconces seneces ts aeenae 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Seotland...... 110 0

| Zoological Record............... 100 0 0
| Close TAMe «00. s0nemeorsnseknee 5 0 0
| Physiological Action of

SOUNG.... Misty ye dees etewtewnes 25. 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions bie e bias 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 O
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .........+6. 5 0 0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Minerals). ckceenssscovoncareesst 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS? ...ccuss PEASE PELs 1d %

| Zoological Record............+6 . 100 0 0
Kentis'@avern., ....-aectetsecsasst 100 0 0
Zoologica] Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 O
Elasticity of Wires ........... - 100 0 06
Dipterocarpee, Report on ... 20 0 O

| Mechanical Equivalent of

ERE Altec saeareseees eto Caer 35 0 O

| Double Compounds of Cobalt

BNGUINTCKE lige wriy.dois sacs canes 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0

| Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 8 G
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone’ 1.0.7.2... GOO
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl] Sodaceto-

ACCLALC sei atitkeesnenssancces rye Oat aC)
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

de SHEA IOS cso Sepia bist acne 15 0 0
Development of Light from

COdal-pas 2:35:32: igeearsteeceeeous 20 0 0

| Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..............- 118 70

| Geological Record............ wee LOOe nett
Anthropometric Committee o4..0 0
Physiological Action ot Phos-

phorieTAGids (ers tssccssseenee 15 0 O

£1128 9 7

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1878.
SUss de
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record......... cassie LOU O. oO
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
IREGOROCT 250000. suoe.secorcooes « O00
Zoological Station at Naples 75 O O
Inyestigation of Underground
RVTGES te waaat qawasessacenstapees 15 0 O
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
SELUCEUTE........,cecscerersenes 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ........ eater wi)
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...., . 2 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record..... pases .. 100 0 O
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
BIR TMR piel ec eaiace Vala oifaiecdncie caistdy sie 15 0 0
Therma] Conductivity of
ROCKS scence esecs pices deateae wey aye te 6
Luminous Meteors..,.... seor gee 10 0 O
Ancient Earthworks ..... scion 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
‘Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ 17 0 O
Reeord of Zoological Litera-
REIL GDRs wisindicuce sess uanecsetowtetch 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Caves in
BSOUNEO \iomcasecterstasts.teucate 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
GFEOLODY tcetie ha. dasscbeseastece 100 0 0
Fermanagh CayvesExploration 5 0 O
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............65 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10.0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
MICA CLOCKS.....odesstcosecsscs 30 0 O
Marine Zoology of South
DEVON! voncdtivddeniecyscccce vs 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent Of Heat ...00.5. 1215 6

£ 3. da.
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum...... -- 40 0 0
Tables ‘of Sun-heat Co-

EMIGIENOS). evsancisenedscdedeneeee 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

BSULVCY socccswsevcvoscdetedntentds 101,00 10
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring .

the Speed of Ships ......... Wiel 4“8
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 0

£1080 11 u
Se
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

IRIGY oc <vete somaceecaveard dn cokeee 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 O
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

FGaE, J .sttosses tase secascehe cite Seo 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50 0 O
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8 5 0
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and ‘Paraffines! ...:.<s2..cesie 417 7
Report on Carboniferous

POLYZ08 Vecssinssesecsseet seoties LOMO 0
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

SAMTUS. < sbiccecsassscececasetortes 10 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 O
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ..,......... 5 0 O
Record of Zoological Litera-

HULTG wacaddedecdsindddadee oer LOOPO! (0
Table at Zoological Station

ALUN ALES Reeves. aeeeceareee TEU OEPO
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 9 O
Anthropometry ...........668 sassy DOP) 6
Pabent Laws srrrevecvmaereseccecs 56 0 0

tial 7%

CXxX
1881.

£
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20
Electrical Standards............ 25
High Insulation Key........... 5
Tidal ObservationS ........se0 10
Specific Refractions ............ o
Fossil Polyzoa ........ bathe dt 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Japan ....,.... 25
Tertiary Flora .......+....++. pool)
Scottish Zoological Station . 50
Naples Zoological Station 75
Natural History of Socotra... 50

Anthropological Notes and
QUEYIES ....eeceseevere Cuwieed 4d
Zoological Record........+...++ 100

Weights and Heights of
Human Beings .......0.60+5. 30
£476

1882,

Exploration of Central Africa 100
Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms .,..,.... 76
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ........eseee0e 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
WOMELETS <,...ccccsneeneserees 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Blements.:...s...se000 50
Photographing —_ Ultra- violet
Spark Spectra .....sseeeeeeee 25
Geological Record....... meuno pare 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
VAAN are’ oepicseh sbeporoeesir sss 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
ROCKS ee s.cssecuss uneuce seep one 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
VIEW eS eo spmpcachcedandaoanbacornd 15
Tertiary Flora of North of
ireland) Mpeshtereenceese aes Hod 240)
BribishyPolyZOa cic. 2.cceweceessss 10
Exploration of Caves of South
of Ireland ..... Abodueeacsacce 10
Explorationof Raygill Fissure 20
Naples Zoological Station .,. 80
Albuminoid Substances of
ENUM Secaceactedccussmebegassees 10
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise,..........0065 50
Migration of Birds ............ 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-lant 100
Record of Zoological Litera-
LE LInTEY rn Segoonosactierudesca saden ..-. 100
Authrapometric Committee... 50
£1126

3. da.
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 #1
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
00
ay i
0 0
a lye lal
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 O
0 0
0 O
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
Oo O
0 6
00

c_
_

REPORT—1903.

1883.
iS Tete
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NevVis........:.+02..5 50 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES. sscuieies te onoiontecntnete 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of
GAPAD. Gi.ccescucanseasnsaddeuan 50 0 O
Fossil Plants of Halifax apa mea Ue OLUR)
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-
ZOIC ROCKS ....ccsceeeennes 25 0 0
Erosion of Sea- “coast of Eng-
land and Wales...... eens 10 0 0
Circulation of Underground
Waters........0+ See Sana to 15 0 0
Geological Record.........++++++ 50 0.0
Exploration of Caves in South
of Ireland ....... SHEL oee 10 0 0
| Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise..... sosae ee 38 3 3
Exploration of Mount Kili.
MAsUJALO. csesaaeeoncesvuse see . 500 0 0
Investigation of Loughton
CAMP foie sccencsseseeusccwanssee 10 0 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0
Screw Gauges.....e00s a ssseesss ie O nO EO
£1083 3 3
a
1884,
Meteorological Observations
on Ben NeViS 4......0s00.sses00 50 0 O
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust...........0.008 - 20 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstow.....ssscoreeesees see 20! 0.0
Tidal Observations............0+5 10 0 O
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8 4 O
Earthquake Phenomena of
JAPAN steve teaeamessecthee otmatio, HOGTO
Fossil Plants of Halifax ..... » 1 0 0
Mossi Polyz0ais. ss. peceyccem osees 10 0 0
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palio-
ZOIC ROCKS: ...005. ssssnesen essen 15 0 0
| Circulation of Underground
Waters .oc;..«stestsessebices vonetae 5 0
| International Geological Map 20 O
Bibliography of Groups of
Invertebrata .....c.ciseasvsene 50 0
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 Q
Exploration of Mount Kili-
ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0
Migration of Birds...........0+ 5 (20000
Coagulation of Blood............ 100 0
Zoological Literature Record 100 0
Anthrqpometric Committee... 10 0
#1173 4

SSS

Heoomee Com. CS

GENERAL STATEMENT,

1885,
£ 8. d.
Synoptic Chart of Indian

OCA co deicssccnccevcnseovaneves 50 0 O
Reduction of ‘Tidal Observa-

MOU Biers chang super es cae ance pian 10; 0; 70
Calculating Tables in Theory

GENAEWUDET Sin osyecsceroncenasaes 100 0 0

“Meteorological Observations |

on Ben Nevis ..... pores es eae OntO%410
Meteoric Dust ........scseeeeeee 70 0 0
Vapour Pressures, &e., of Salt

BMMUIOHSicpcseccccisceceuses ceeded 25 0 0
Physical Constants of Solu-

DIODS,....cssaccapscencmecresevocas 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

MPN VOIISS «5. dashirclbelarche eleeeb a eta 20) Os 410
Raygill Fissure ......cecccsessees 15 0-0
Earthquake Phenomena of

ADAM cada casvaredeawennbecds 79 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzozoic

HROOKS) -icbdcetasnicp asthewenes te 25 0 0
Fossil Plants of ‘British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 50 0 O
Geological Record ...........++6. 50 0 0
Circulation of Underground

SRGES css 0cratelsvcesee oeanl 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Zoological Literature Record, 100 0 0
Migration Ol Birds” seccsccsee 30 0 O
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

PIHEOR ae <p-dapasscbacasecece soar eo OY 0
Recent Polyzoa ...........+ woe GLO ONO
Granton Biological Station... 100 0 O
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom ......... 150 0 0
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0 0
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100 0 0

£1385 0 0

1886.

Electrical Standards.......... - 40 0 0
Solar Radiation..............008 SSO
Tidal Observations .......... vom Oma O
Magnetic Observations......... 10 10 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 100 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Electrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...,... 5 0 0
Yossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ........ =) 2DEeO) 0
Vo}canic Phenomena of Vesu-

VOILE CAGE ER SORT cP tp Hteb: Cear ater 30 0 0
Geological Record SCORE SOROCEE 100 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 O
Researches in F'ood-Fishes and

IpvertebrataatSt. Andrews 75 0 0

CXX1
£ 3d,
Migration of Birds .......... 5 EO OE)
Secretion of Urine......... power OL O10
fxploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales ..... FqpeCoO 10 0 O
Prehistoric Race in Greek
HSIAO jas.0. wasadecpseamesnuees 20 0-0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
HAGA; cs cvodesite cece setesia acer 50 0- 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .......0...0.... 18 10 O
PIEGHOLY SIS racaesesieesccenassas sess 30 0 O
3en Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 O
Standards of Light (1886
PTAND) .seccccscccrernasnésecss ses 20 0 0
Standards of Light (1887
TANG) iadecasdecsinsossasceree sue 10 0 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations ......secseeeeeees 15 0 O
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards .,.......... 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra .........0 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WU Sgre We cose socteecisneseananecpa 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of J apan
(1886 grant) ............ assnis 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1887 arant) ..0..sceescmy ane 50 0 0
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales ... 20 0 O
BRAGG ABLOCKS! isan aneintenadesn st 10, O20
Fossil Phyllopoda ............+5+ 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax........- 25 0 O
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 O
Provincial Museums Reports 5 O 0
Lymphatic System ....... sagen), 2000. O
Naples Biological Station ... 100 0 0
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 O
Zoological Record ...... Eoupanica tO Eec Ou @
Blora OF Ching ....6.c.cccccees <snLDE OO
Flora and Fauna of the
@AMETOONS) icrccenececses scenes nto Om O
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles .........sseee+e- 5S IG,
Regulation of Wages ......... 10 0 9
Prehistoric Race of Greek
NSIARIGSs sracuaesventecs score see es >» 20). 0.0
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20 0 O
£1186 18 O

REPORT—1908.

CXXli
1888,

£ os. d.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 2 6 4
Magnetic Observations......... 15700
Standards of Light ............ 79 2-3
HMLECHROLYSIS | eere=> deseemene tees 30 0 0
Uniform Nomenclature in

MECHANICS csaeceseenscresss ess 10 0 0
Silent Discharge of Klec-

UO WE nee sseanqoqhacdnesauan Ce BG
Properties of Solutions ...... 2b 0" 10
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20 0 O
Methods of Teaching Chemis-

TRIS igspanocoocanatiocdncasosa5 ap 10 0 O
TIsomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

UTES Pao gtscane qurieadesacnSecHeen 25°00
Action of Light on Hydracids 20 0 0
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20 0 O
Geological Record ............... 50 0 O
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10 0 O
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10 0N0
Underground Waters ......... Teel 8)
Palzontographical Society ... 50 0 O
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,, 50 0 O
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-

cashire and West Yorkshire 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIE 2 paca SROnOOTOUEE aeenge 20 0° 0
Zoology and Botany of West

CIES cckuestancetecs rete s/s 100 0 O
Flora of Bahamas ...... “open 100 0 O
Development of Fishes—St.

ATIGUE WE ue. pa aceseeseess sests =e 50’ 0 .0
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100 O O
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Wlora QE GHINA ~~. yss7--soesesepes gy 0)
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25° 0 O
Biological Station at Granton 50 0 0
Peradeniya Botanical Station 560 0 0
Development of Teleostei fore 0
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar

IRECIONS: “Ss. cveeeesseaseeanepesse b 0
Precious Metals in Circulation 20 0 0
Value of Monetary Standard 10 0 O
Effect of Occupations on Phy-

sical Development............ 20.0)
North-Western ‘Tribes of

(CANIRO a Vcc sswrpcuccseneransan TOO 70.70
Prehistoric Race in Greek

Tien ete Eh epcapccodgaconnanonee eee 20 0 0

£1511 0 6
1889.

Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ fie) OKO)
BLESULOLYSIS: 15.00 cessae tenance sess 20°°0 0
Surface Water Temperature... 30 0 0

Silent Discharge of Electricity
BRMORYGEN Vo .ccgscyesescecerese” G, 4°88

£ os. d.
Methods of benching Chemis-

EDLY canesseeuddysecedtty eeveeegae 10 0 0
Action of Light ¢ on Hydracids 10 0 0
Geological Record.. atetleykenoe . 80 0 0
Voleanic Phenomena ofJapan 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- :

VIUS {tb :..tesckcuereppeneeeenees ~ 20 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllonoda ....... 20 0 0
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wight cov Rb RS SORORR ESRC RSE Te fee LOW 1010
West Indian Explorations ... 100 0 O
Kilora Of China, .<...c--<casecnccah 25 0 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Physiology of Lymphatic

System. “Wei f.ct deceeteaeceaes 25 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 516 3
Natural History of Friendly

Islands. J23.;, Soy: hesewaetieee as ae 100 0 -0
Geology and Geography of

Atlas Range™).to:f.csttseneese 100 0 O

| Action of Waves and Currents

Gn) HWSbuaries jie k-th. ded eeetd 100 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

Canada, .....saccwarasestteectess 150 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 380 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20.0 0
Marine Biological Association 200 0 O
* Baths Committee,’ Bath.. ... 100 0 O

£1417 O11
1890.
Electrical Standards.,.......... 12:17 0
Mlectrolysis . <..ihsch. dent. wens, 5 0 0
Hlectro-optics:. 5.5.2 .isrete.ss vo» 50.40 40
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Voleanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 1 ROMO
Properties of Solutions ...... 10: 10 40
International Standard forthe

Analysis of Iron and Steel 10 0 O
Influence of the Silent Dis-

charge of Hlectricity on

[asx yoen tise teencnnescsnteseen 5 0 0
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10 0 90
Recording Results of Water

ANALYSIS /<743coe.0 eee eeesseeeeae 4 1 0
Oxidation of Hydracids in

UND ORG.: cesere cece sacar eee 1b" 070
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VITUS Suess vee metas eceee cote 20 0-0
Palzeozoic Phyllopoda ......... LOO EO
Circulation of Underground

Watbers..ccinpenetiersssesssy 5 00
Excavations at Oldbury Ell “ab OF 20
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ LOE "O50
Geological Photographs ...... 7 14 11
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25 0 0O
Botanical Station at Perade-

Hy Aiea pig eecenegecy ys eee seovsee) SUE OMG

GENERAL
tae Se De
Experiments with a Tow-

QU Wey. sidvcisiesssdvoves ses Nahe LeAirSinl a
Naples Zoological Station .. 100 0 O
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100 0 O
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

PHOBIA UATIGS MF. J: Jeseet easiatlee 150 0 O
Graphie Methods in Mechani-

BAINSCLONCE nls, eieeeds seins. sacs Diep On 0
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0

20 0 0

Corresponding Societies ...,..

£799 16

1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 50 0
Electrical Standards.,........... 100 0
IEG REOLY SIS 5 cen seeoayesengrees 5 0
Seismological Phenomena of

MAN seco iisissiie dence sence aie 10 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 0
Photographs of Meteorological

EBENGMEMNG,...0c0csercsececnsese 5 0
Discharge of. Electricity from

SPIE cy Cosicnvianisie's asisionsia salen 10 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar

BACCRNIIN — 0.0501 0cescioee ene 50 0
International Standard’ for

Analysis of Iron and Steel... 10 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

PMR wots this sae fu og thcljeclaneS} «4 25 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 25, 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 17 10
Geological Record............... 100 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

PIES A ost cs sine ste a Zdeeinpiais 10 0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0
Photographs of Geological

ABRES oe Pris nae che repens «<i 9 5
Lias of Northamptonshire 25 0
Registration of ‘Type-Speci-

mens of British Fossils...... 5. 6
Investigationof ElboltonCave 25 0
Botanical Station at Pera-

SIMO chains dnaneyucied go$ a5: 50 O
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0
Marine Biological Association 12 10
Disappearance of Native

RATES scissaesins 6 cine SGnees dose one 5 O
Action of Waves and Currents

SAPEISHMIATICS — ...s.asnesmepiter os 125 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’ 50 O
North - Westen Tribes of

PR EMIAND a ones couwcyececostinten ss 200 O
Corresponding Societies Eediat 25 0

£1,029 10

Ue =) (a= ex) >) iS o So co.> oo oo oo ooco (= (= fo) >) oo ooo

STATEMENT, exXilll
1892.
£ s. d.
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0O
Photographs of Meteorological

Phenomenaiiisss. dctcenterneee TS £0hnO
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 O
Discharge of Electricity from

DEI i4x0scheaci one Soseusbis 50 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of

DapPaMy i.e het tans soredensasd 10 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 1290p 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
Action of Light on Dyed

COlGUEEG ncn. REMeetSL ead 10 0 0
Hirrabic: BloGks SH bi cc0sdhih 15 0 O
Photographs of Geological

UMTCRESD 4 ccan dovtcobe scee< sees 20 0 0

' Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Investigation of Elbolton

WAN Ores cecdenid« sasncaceseweeceey 25 0 O
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 6 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ........... 10 0 O
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net....,........ 40 0 O
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

Indiaelslands specccsncs aeaeesse 100 0 O
Climatology and Hy drography

of Tropical NETICArsncsc tela 50 0 O

| Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 O O
Anthropological Notes and

QWETIES «Fc cach stcs cates ces ta 20 0 0
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-

shonalang een vacecnedaetss -- 50 0 O
North - Western Tribes of

Canad aye gaomeesacneesc-snccqeta 100 0 O
Corresponding Societies ...... 25,0 0

£864 10 0
1893.
Electrical Standards............ 250-0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 15 0 0
| Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Fal-

mouth Observatory ......... 25 0 O

| Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

VADIVES) “ser sereananras costes pat OO)
Havatic IBIOGKS! ..esesersswcrpt ees 10) as “0
Fossil Phyllopoda............... yl 10)
Underground Waters ......... Ow On a0)
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, Chapelhall, &c. ...... 20° 0° 0
Kurypterids of the Pentland

UNL SF her wees ckeere recep ec (OO 50
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands...,..... setirace ss DOM OU O

CXX1V

REPORT—1908,

SoS mls
Exploration of Irish Sea...... 30 0 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0 0
Index of Genera and Species

OF Animal sys. snusstereds-thavess 20 0 O
Exploration of Karakoram

MD UMGAITISH cc aces acesialanece 50 0 0
Scottish Place-names .,,...... 7 0 O
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0 O
Economic Training ............ 3 7 0
Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

Canada, ineseccceseabos«t6 bee LOO MONO
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0 0

£907 15 6
1894,
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Photographs of Meteorological

PhHenOMena........sceersereeers 10 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

HOUSE Vesvsg aeske sacs sss soact tee se 15 0 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5 6
Wave-length Tables............ 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

(COlOUES Me ncmcsessscspa.coates - §5°0O 0
Erratic Blocks ............ aasess POL. O) 20
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

CIAVATSC Li ie ccastedee cstieseens 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

EMM see ceases encase senses. 5 0 0
New Sections of Stonestield

late: tn. castecc-wuarssoneeeccstne 14 0 0
Observations on LEarth-tre-

IRLOUS Mstninde sc ets cassie nesses se 50 0 0
Exploration of Calf- Hole

CWAVereenscrescticeresccnesnsease 2 0140
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0 O
Zoology of the Sandwich

TSVAMGS Foie emncew cree tock tase 100 0 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0 O
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0 0
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0 0
Economic Training ........... 910 0
Anthropometric Laboratory

SEAUISHICS ce cnctecsss laces aobusneel 5 0 0
Ethnographical Survey. ess 10 0 O
The Lake Village at Glaston-

DUTY ievosaseace saguptsrsashahcecs 40 0 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ 5 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

1895.
Electrical Standards.... AAG
Photographs of Meteorological
Phenomena..........2-..eecees 5

Earth Tremors . ......... reldvane
Abstracts of Physical Papers
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-

vations made at Falmouth

Observatory ...ciseecsenrevere
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-
GATGS, ...cvctcesssssecqenenasbate

Meteorological Observations

on Ben NeVis ....cecseceeees apie

| Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements ...
Action of Light upon Dyed
COlOUTS) caaeeenisenten Aieteraeanite
Formation of Haloids from
Pure Materials .............
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VEIL VEN Jen aniacecetentiteaet eee
Electrolytic Quantitative An-
BLYSIS. ccsnwedersueecensmnr corte
Erratic Blocks
Palzeozoic Phyllopoda ........
Photographs of Geological In-
terest
Shell-bearing Rade
Clava, ke,

eee e eee sees ereneeee

Hills asnoagnatsoc SRR sons
New Sections of Stonesfield
SIBte” ..clcssmanesp nestecnenean
Exploration of Calf Hole Cave
Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts ......
Tableatthe Zoological Station

Oo1o7 o7**
coo o®

o
Oo AOE HO 77-O
(an = — ae =)

~
ies
—

=
or

Oe S626: >- 0 OSS. 8 6. 6 5 eo Oo. Oo. S;y-o¢60: oO, ©

So re6oree Gas 2. Reo Soro. oo 2.6 Oo US 26:0 Of On 6

at Naples ..0.55.5 Heanarscc: 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea............ 35
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ....... -« 50
Index of Genera and Species
of Animals); sicacycactessese one 50
Climatology of Tropical Africa 5
Exploration of Hadramut 50
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments ... 25
Anthropometric Measure-
ments in Schools ......... On feat
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30
Exploration of a Kitchen-
midden at Hastings ..... sxe tel
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph........... rego, 243) 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0
£977 15 5
ee — ol

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1896.
£
Photographs of Meteorologi-
cal Phenomena. ............+6+ 15
Seismological Observations... 80
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100
Calculation of certain Inte-
PEASE aaenedcecseccsuduaeschsintnices 10
Uniformity of Size of Pages of
Transactions, &C. .....s...0ee 5
Wave-length Tables of the
Spectra of the Elements... 10
Action of Light upon Dyed
SEIIDUUS bi sceesies qecsceansseran ee 2
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
IIWISTSIbgn ode cance poo sean ior erac 10
The Carbohydrates of Barley
PIREME Ese enceenec«<carcedcancdees 50
Reprinting Discussion on the
Relation of Agriculture to
PIGIOCUICE ceswcsedoesecsevecedeste 5
Erratic Blocks .........seseseeee 10
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5
Shell-bearing Deposits at
AVA Celta ste cnaccedevscseesse 10
Eurypterids of the Pentland
EERIE epadBcracbper babdbecpsoceere 2
Investigation of a Coral Reef
by Boring and Sounding... 10
Examination of Locality where
the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-
ford Museum was found... 26
Palzolithic Deposits at Hoxne 25
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40
Age and Relation of Rocks
near Moreseat, Aberdeen 19
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples .........:...0 100
Table at the Biological Labo-
ratory, Plymouth ............ 15
Zoology, Botany, and Geology
of the Irish Sea ............... 50
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-
7010) ap debnansoboandegpoanaeticnn 100
African Lake Fauna............ 100
Oysters under Normal and
Abnormal Environment ... 40
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10
Calibration and Comparison of
Measuring Instruments...... 20
Small Screw Gauge ...........- 10
North-Western Tribes of
Canada ....... BERK Gea ee 100
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 3
Ethnographical Survey......... 40
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 10
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph.............55 25
Corresponding Societies Com-
PREULCC ies atts arcitadcatsadacast «2 30
£1,104

oO Oo (=) ooo

So i=) So ooo

lake. Of Cu.coie..2Oo oc of Gone & 6

f=) i=) o ooo

So foo) o ooo

ooo

CXXV
1897.
Biavsd,
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of certain In-
COL VAIS, . hoes sn cdecvasedessecstla 10 0 O
Electrolysis and Electro-
CHCIMISHLY ys csascasecdsnesseeess 50 0 O
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-
VY SISK) sacasienseisuedestcnastasnee 10 0 O
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALIVES.ccssseeeeseee sesetass Sochic 50 0 O
Erratic Blocks .........cceseeeee 10 <0720
Photographs of Geological
IMterestr sid. scsesidgecsnnslemsde 145 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in
the Isle of Man............... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
TION, Naples". tevctececceccs oes 100 0 O
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
| Zoological Bibliography and
PUDLCAtION.. wr ccudersesecos 5 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
AMDUTALITL aiaiceecnieo to celeen tae 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the
West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-
tions on the Migration of
BINS iasn set esatiesonctiehcaieg 40 0.0
Climatology of Tropical
ATIC «a, zaccaghonens eth cdenicle 20 0 O
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0.0
Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children............... 10 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-
sociated with the Func-
tional Activity of Nerve
Cells and their Peripheral
DXLENSIONS) s.2.cccsscetessuccets LOR OR 10
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 0
Physiological Applications of
the Phonograph...........+.+. 15 0 0
Physiological Etfects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors...... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MILLE’ evaidaen. canencneeseona se 25 0 0
£1,059 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards............ ton 0n 0
| Seismological Observations... 75 0 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of certain In-
GEPTAIS'.s ccc screcteaps sacetes 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-chem-
SLUR BRM ADE He bic PaCCINaME ICON aCe 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at
IMPOTEETEH ec ancorercereschetsene 50 0 0

REPORT—1903.

CXxvV1
ee Sk
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectta of the Hlements ... 20 0 0
Action of Light Bren Dyed

COlOUTS! coiseeesbivecnaecssvenes 8 0 0
Birratic BIGGS eaeatareaas = seks 50/0
Investigation of a Cotal Reef 40 0 0
Photographs of Geological

TINGS ees iacunentipardonnnasoac 10 0 0
Life-zones in British Carbon-

iferous Rocks.........c.ese+e+ 15 0 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora

ir Cattad a owcnosnseeareereuseess 20 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion, Naples oscleetets ocdea.-ee 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth EBs aides 14 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Arrival iamaysen. santos sia ss «a= 100 0 O
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-

EELS) cee badedwe sdsse averse dein dst 30 0 0
Climatology of ‘Tropical Africa 10 0 O
State Monopolies in other

(Cfo mlrat fetes) SepSeeecoer seemeeiaa Loh LO'F "0
Small Screw Gauge ............ 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

Wander tates saekes daapeecttes | 5 75 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 37 10 0
Silchester Excavation ......... @ 10:10
EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0 0
Anthropology and Natural

History of Torres Straits... 125 0 O
Investigation of Changes asso-

ciated with the Functional

Activity of Nerve Cells and

their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophyceew 15 0 O
Corresponding Societies Com-

PULSE ce aekbitdsewe natnalonts Meise 25 0 0

£1, 212 0 0
1899.
Electrical Standards............ 225 0
Seismological Observations... 65 14 8
Science Abstracts ............... 100 O
Heat of Combination of Metals

TMA OVS secre sk ve cepatnoeence 20 0
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50 0
Calculation of certain In-

LEST ARSE. deccree seer ssenmarin ns LO ONO
Action of Light upon Dyed

(Glall@BES) Godesesna ppaepgoece oc 419 6
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of

Organic Substances ......... 50 0 O
Birratic! BIOCKS) .cs.u...c0.ctdeer ISCO Le)
Photographs of Geological

MIGETEStiaccae pet bslesee nwa caie 10, 0.0
Remains of Irish Elk in the

TEN SQ? WHE Has Sarde oogdecadberee TOMO ue 0.
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna

TNACANACA Jacviersoeniestrecesaess 30 0 0

eS. Gs
Records of Disappearing Drift
Section at Moel Tryfaen ... 5 0 O
Ty Newydd Caves........-...0 40 0 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill... 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
fion, Naples pnncceepecest onan 100 0 O
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20.0 0
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium........eseee0s Pace LOO 010
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Apparatus for Keeping Aqua-
‘ tic Organisms under Definite
Physical Conditions ......... tb) 0.10
Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English Chan-
are hro bi bubelee M5 acyaonac secaeN 100 0 0
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 35 0 O
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0 O
Silchester Excavation ......, « 10. 02.0
EthnologicalSurvey ofCanada 35 0 O
New Edition of ‘ Anthropolo-
gical Notes and Queries’... 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles........... 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-
PQNC 4s 5 0105 s'scoumnccmeseeeneess 20 0 0
Electrical Changes accom-
panying Discharge of Res-
piratory Centres............... 20) 5,0) 0)
Influence of Drugs upon the
Vascular Nervous System... 10 0 O
| Histological Changes in Nerve
Cell s.st..-...;..nsceiaten neces a 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells eles 40 0 0
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-
SUES: | Veh inn decesereceen beeline 20 0 0
Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex ..........0+++- 10 0 0
Fertilisation in Phyeophycee 20 0 O
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-
ication’ )i3-%. -febbespuadeeenndee 5, ./0),0
Corresponding Societies Com-
TOUCHED Fonte cane ieesbaae ests 25 0 0
£1,430 14 2
1900.
Electrical Standards...........+ 25° 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 O
Radiationin a Magnetic Field 25 O O
Meteorological Observatory at
Montreal...) asus cenesssensen= 205 (0G
| Tables of Mathematical Func-
THOUS)". svete tenet eeetneinnte st 75 0 0
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Bodies.........+ Ne POUR)
' Wave-length Tables............ OE
Electrolytic Quantitative
AMALYSIBKcacecssccscasecesese veo OO

GENERAL STATEMENT,

Be a We

Isomorphous Sulphonic Deri-
vatives of Benzene ......... 20 0

The Nature of Alloys ......... 30 0

Photographs of Be eee
IMVOLESD ceveseeeveasecssnsssivas 10 0

Remains of Elk in “the Isle of
Man...... epee eieansiecuaes tbe O.

Pleistocene Fauna and Flora
ANIC ANAGA i sAi.s cedea vate. 0 10 0

Movements of Underground
Waters of Craven ..,......... 40 0

Table at the Zoological Sta-

HIGH, NADIE. cierivecsvnaedoeieds 100 0

Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ...:..... 20 0

Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium.......... eraaadadee 50 0

Migration of Birds ............ 15 0

Plankton and Physical Con-
ditions of the English
HANG]: ces eisecedoceeweinsitease 40 0 0

Zoology of the patel 2
PSII, | caccosccvaveittieddbac.t 100 0 O

Coral Reefs of the Indian
Region ...... AT Serotec ey pick 6; 30 0 0

Physical and Chemical Con-
stants of Sea-Water ......... 100 0 O

Future Dealings in Raw
IETUGUCE .esccccersosssceaess novo tie. LOO

Silchester Excavation ........ 10 0 O

Ethnological Survey of
Canada ..... mddedeateucinckebe 50 0 0

New Edition of ‘Anthropo-
logical Notes and Queries’ 40 0 0

Photographs of Anthropo-
logical Interest ............... 10 0 O

Mental and Physical Condi-
tion of Children in Schools 5 0 O

Ethnography of the Malay
PRCMAMSULA, . svinenosssssscassenese 25 0 0

Physiological Effects of Pep-

BUH ERacldds ised sqckravdes ste ccs tt 20 0 0

Comparative Histology of
Suprarenal Capsules...... in) 120,00

Comparative Histology of
Cerebral Cortex.............. Ei olDin) 9K0,

Electrical Changes in Mam-

Malian Nerves ...s.......0008 20 0 0

Vascular Supply of Secreting
Uni Sab ea eee on 1ODOn 0

Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0

Corresponding SocietiesCom. 20 0 0

£1, 072 “10 0
1901.

Electrical Standards ........ 45 0 0
eismological Observations... 75 O 0O
ave-length Tables............ 414 0
somorphous Sulphonic Deri-
vatives of Benzene ...... 35 0 0

oo Sy 1S) o o (=) i} oo

CXXV11
| Lrg Ae
Life-zones in British Carbo-

miferous Rocks, ,,..+...0«5,s0« 20.0, 0
Underground Water of North-

west Yorkshire ...,... weston 50 0 O
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tions Naplesiatsirst:iaeet.. 100 O O
Table at the Biological La-

boratory; Plymouth ......... 20 0 0
Index Ceneruth et Specierum

ATA MATIN 5» onan aBapevad ede dpe 0) 0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0 0
Terrestrial Strface Waves ... 5 OU O
Changes of Land-level in the

| _ Phlegreean Vields............ 50 0 O
Legislation regtilating Wo-

Men SwuAabOvE,. estedessmcsae! 15-000
Small Screw Gauge .z........... 45 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

to) Trdctionisase!s, datd.ss.. 75 0 0

| Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 O
Ethnological Survey of

} OCamadey. <7 .5..,ambaaudsie dee 30. 0 0
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 0

| Exploration in Ctete ......... 145 0 O
Physiological Effects of Pep-

LOWE, Hida. «satan. debhteesnaas «sls 30 0 0
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11
Suprarenal Capsules in the

Hab tsseseasaste. tieescosddoeers 5 0 O
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and

Taxonomy of Podoste-

MACHT, a daasrerecatsn: mete tnae 20 0 0

| Corresponding Societies Com-

TAILGEC s,s aceeeanete Nate oat 15.0 0

£920 9 11
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 O
Seismological Observations... 35 0 O
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

Kiitest ii sascecareaseoces ocaenin 75 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOUGIN vet fs once wenn sence 80 0 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Organic Sub-

STANCES: Pe iadess ts oc fee 20 110? (0
Wave-length Tables ............ 5 OF 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 O
Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 O
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples ............... 100 0 O
Index Generum et Specierum

ALIN decison a ddenek es 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 15.0. 0
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Ocean.......... Jago ode 50 0 0

cxxvill
£ 8. @
Compound Ascidians of the
Clyde Area .....s60++. aateaeee 2D) (On0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 O
Legislation regulating Wo-
men’s LaAbOUL......s.sseseeeee 30 0 O
Small Screw Gauge .........0+ 20 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles
to TractiOn.......ssscceesersee 50 0 0
Ethnological Survey of
Canada) c.ccastscssuunsiencasese 15 0 0
Age of Stone Circles........46+ 30 0 O
Exploration in Crete..........+. 100 O O
Anthropometric Investigation
of Native Egyptian Soldiers 15 0 0
Excavations on the Roman
Site at Gelligaer ..........0. 5) 10 40
Changes in Hemoglobin ...... 15 0 0
Work of Mammalian Heart
under Influence of Drugs... 20 0 0
Investigation of the Cyano-
PDYCCR .cesececneeeeeesereenes 10 0 0
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-
versities and Schools ...... SOO

Conditions of Health essen-_
tial to carrying on Work in
SCHOO]S visccecseseceeseneeeees 2 0 0

Corresponding Societies Com. 15 0 0
£947 0 O
1903.
Electrical Standards.........++ sob A) tO
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Kites

MsiN iis cncceadune amvilanaees 75 0 0

General Meetings.

REPORT—1908.

£ 8. a.
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

TTLOTLEMD gee «eunneen Shea shatehe pane 40 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

stances) | .assseass sophia en sheet 20 Oho
Erratic Blocks ........... eee 10 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 40 0 0
Underground Waters of North-

west Yorkshire .......0.-. 40 0 0
Life-zones in British Carbon-

iferous ROCKS.........+eseseene b. A086
Geological Photographs ...... 10; JOR70
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ........ Apeepor 100 0 O
Index Generum et Specierum

ADIMANTOIM 32s cigs esas 100 O O
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and

Beaches \.cusiwecadessananeeenee tlo70: 20
Scottish National Antarctic

Expedition .......secsessaceeers 50 0 0
Legislation affecting Women’s

Labour ...... SPR H NG GADIRCER Se 25 0-0
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 3813 2
Anthropometric Investigation 5 0 O
Anthropometry of the Todas

and other Tribes of Southern

Tio RRs Assanehicne occoe sshindsane$ia 50 0 0
The State of Solution of Pro-

LENA Sages serenwawerineae sa guceaean 20 0 0
Investigation of the Cyano-

PHYCOLE .reccscscceweecevscecees 25 0.0
Respiration of Plants ......... 12,.0°0
Conditions of Health essential

for School Instruction ...... 5 10.10
Corresponding Societies Com. 20 0 0

£845 13 2

On Wednesday, September 9, at 8.30 P.M., in the Opera House, South-
port, Professor James Dewar, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., resigned the
office of President to Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., who
took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which see page 3.

On Thursday, September 10, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in the

Town Hall.

On Friday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m, in the Cambridge Hall, Dr.
R. Munro delivered a Discourse on ‘Man as Artist and Sportsman in the

Paleolithic Period.’

On Monday, September 14, at 8.30 p.m., in the Cambridge Hall, Dr,
A. W. Rowe delivered a Discourse on ‘The Old Chalk Sea, and some

of its Teachings.’

On Tuesday, September 15, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place at the

Town Hall.

On Wednesday, September 16, at 2.30 p.m., in the Cambridge Hall,
the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were

explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Cambridge.
appointed to commence on Wednesday, August 17, 1904.

‘sip Meeting is

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

1903,

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ADDRESS

Siz NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., LL.D., F.BS.,
CORRESPONDANT DE LINSTITUT DE FRANCE,

PRESIDENT.

The Influence of Brain-power on History.

My first duty to-night is a sad one. I have to refer to a great loss which
this nation and this Association have sustained. By the death of the
great Englishman and great statesman who has just passed away we
members of the British Association are deprived of one of the most
illustrious of our Past-Presidents. We have to mourn the loss of an
enthusiastic student of science. We recognise that as Prime Minister
he was mindful of the interests of science, and that to him we owe a more
general recognition on the part of the State of the value to the nation of
the work of scientific men. On all these grounds you will join in the
expression of respectful sympathy with Lord Salisbury’s family in their
great personal loss which your Council has embodied this morning ina
resolution of condolence.

Last year, when this friend of science ceased to be Prime
Minister, he was succeeded by another statesman who also has given
many proofs of his devotion to philosophical studies, and has shown
in many utterances that he has a clear understanding of the real place
of science in modern civilisation. We, then, have good grounds for
hoping that the improvement in the position of science in this country
which we owe to the one will also be the care of his successor, who has
honoured the Association by accepting the unanimous nomination of your
Council to be your President next year, an acceptance which adds a new
lustre to this Chair.

On this we may congratulate ourselves all the more because I think,
although it is not generally recognised, that the century into which we
have now well entered may be more momentous than any which has
preceded it, and that the present history of the world is being so largely
moulded by the influence of brain-power, which in these modern days has *
to do with natural as well as human forces and laws, that statesmen and

A REPORT—1908.

politicians will have in the future to pay more regard to education and
science as empire-builders and empire-guarders than they have paid in
the past.

The nineteenth century will ever be known as the one in which the
influences of science were first fully realised in civilised communities ;
the scientific progress was so gigantic that it seems rash to predict that
any of its successors can be more important in the life of any nation.

Disraeli, in 1873, referring to the progress up to that year, spoke as
follows: ‘How much has happened in these fifty years—a period more
remarkable than any, I will venture to say, in the annals of mankind.
T am not thinking of the rise and fall of Empires, the change of dynasties,
the establishment of Governments. I am thinking of those revolutions
of science which have had much more effect than any political causes,
which have changed the position and prospects of mankind more than all
the conquests and all the codes and all the legislators that ever lived.’ !

The progress of science, indeed, brings in many considerations which
are momentous in relation to the life of any limited community—any one
nation. One of these considerations to which attention is now being
greatly drawn is that a relative decline in national wealth derived from
industries wust follow a relative neglect of scientific education,

It was the late Prince Consort who first emphasised this when. he
came here fresh from the University of Bonn. Hence the ‘ Prince
Corsort’s Committee, which led to the foundation of the College of
Chemistry, and afterwards of the Science and Art Department. From
that time to this the warnings of our men of science have become louder
and more urgent in each succeeding year, But this is not all; the com-
mercial output of one country in one century as compared with another is
not alone in question; the acquirement of the scientific spirit and
a knowledge and utilisation of the forces of Nature are very much further
reaching in their effects on the progress and decline of nations than is
generally imagined.

Britain in the middle of the last century was certainly the country
which gained most by the advent of science, for she was then in full
possession of those material gifts of Nature, coal and iron, the combined
winning and utilisation of which, in the production of machinery and in
other ways, soon made her the richest country in the world, the seat and
throne of invention and manufacture, as Mr. Carnegie has called her,
Being the great producers and exporters of all kinds of manufactured
goods, we became eventually, with our iron ships, the great carriers, and
hence the supremacy of our mercantile marine and our present command
of the sea.

The most fundamental change wrought by the early applications of
gsience was in relation to producing and carrying power. With the
winning of mineral wealth and the production of machinery in other

! Nature, November 27, 1873, vol. ix. p. 71,

ADDRESS, 5

countries, and cheap and rapid transit between nations, out superiority
as depending upon our first use of vast material resources was reduced.
Science, which is above all things cosmopolitan —planetary, not national
—internationalises such resources at once. In every market of the

world
‘things of beauty, things of use,

Which one fair planet can produce,
Brought from under every star,’

were soon to be found.

Hence the first great effect of the general progress of science was
relatively to diminish the initial supremacy of Britain due to the first use
of material resources, which indeed was the real source of our national
wealth and place among the nations.

The unfortunate thing was that, while the foundations of our
superiority depending upon our material resources were being thus
sapped by a cause which was beyond owr control, our statesmen and our
Universities were blind leaders of the blind, and our other asset, our
mental resources, which was within our control, was culpably neglected.

So little did the bulk of our statesmen know of the part science was
playing in the modern world and of the real basis of the nation’s activities
that they imagined political and fiscal problems to be the only matters
of importance. Nor, indeed, are we very much better off to-day. In
the important discussions recently raised by Mr. Chamberlain next to
nothing has been said of the effect of the progress of science on prices.
The whole course of the modern world is attributed to the presence or
absence of taxes on certain commodities in certain countries. The fact
that the great fall in the price of food-stuffs in England did not come
till some thirty or forty years after the removal of the corn duty between
1847 and 1849 gives them no pause ; for them new inventions, railways,
and steamships are negligible quantities ; the vast increase in the world’s
wealth, in Free Trade and Protected countries alike, comes merely,
according to them, in response to some political shibboleth.

We now know, from what has occurred in other States, that if our
Ministers had been more wise and our Universities more numerous and
efficient our mental resources would have been developed by improvements
in educational method, by the introduction of science into schools, and,
more important than all the rest, by the teaching of science by experiment,
observation, and research, and not from books. It is because this was not
done that we have fallen behind other nations in properly applying
science to industry, so that our applications of science to industry are
relatively less important than they were. But this is by nomeans all ; we
have lacked the strengthening of the national life produced by fostering
the scientific spirit among all classes and along all lines of the nation’s
activity ; many of the responsible authorities know little and care less
about science ; we have not learned that it is the duty of a State to
organise its forces as carefully for peace as for war ; that Universities and

6 REPORT—1903.

other teaching centres are as important as battleships or big battalions ;
are, in fact, essential parts of a modern State’s machinery, and, as such,
to be equally aided and as efficiently organised to secure its future well-
being.

Now the objects of the British Association as laid down by its
founders seventy-two years ago are ‘To give a stronger impulse and
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate science in different parts of the British
Empire with one another and with foreign philosophers —to obtain a more
general attention to the objects of science and a removal of any dis-
advantages of a public kind which impede its progress.’

In the main, my predecessors in this Chair, to which you have done
me the honour to call me, have dealt, and with great benefit to science,
with the objects first named.

But at a critical time like the present I find it imperative to depart
from the course so generally followed by my predecessors and to deal
with the last object named, for unless by some means or other we ‘ obtain
a more general attention to the objects of science and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress,’ we shall suffer
in competition with other communities in which science is more generally
utilised for the purposes of the national life.

The Struggle for Eaistence in Modern Communities.

Some years ago, in discussing the relations of scientific instruction to
our industries, Huxley pointed out that we were in presence of a new
‘struggle for existence,’ a struggle which, once commenced, must go on
until only the fittest survives.

It is a struggle between organised species—nations—not between indi-
viduals or any class of individuals. It is, moreover, a struggle in which
science and brains take the place of swords and sinews, on which depended
the result of those conflicts which, up to the present, have determined the
history and fate of nations. The school, the University, the laboratory,
and the workshop are the battlefields of this new warfare.

But it is evident that if this, or anything like it, be true, our industries
cannot be involved alone ; the scientific spirit, brain-power, must not
be limited to the workshop, if other nations utilise it in all branches of
their administration and executive.

It is a question of an important change of front. It is a question of
finding a new basis of stability for the Empire in face of new conditions.
Iam certain that those familiar with the present state of things will
acknowledge that the Prince of Wales’s call, ‘Wake up,’ applies quite as
much to the members of the Government as it does to the leaders of
industry.

What is wanted is a complete organisation of the resources of the
nation, so as to enable it best to face all the new problems which the

ADDRESS. 7

progress of science, combined with the ebb and flow of population and other
factors in international competition, are ever bringing before us. Every
Minister, every public department, is involved ; and this being so, it is the
duty of the whole nation—King, Lords, and Commons—to do what is neces-
sary to place our scientific institutions on a proper footing in order to
enable us to ‘face the music,’ whatever the future may bring. The idea
that science is useful only to our industries comes from want of thought.
Tf anyone is under the impression that Britain is only suffering at present
from the want of the scientific spirit among our industrial classes, and
that those employed in the State service possess adequate brain-power
and grip of the conditions of the modern world into which science so
largely enters, let him read the Report of the Royal Commission on the
War in South Africa. There he will see how the whole ‘system’ employed
was, in Sir Henry Brackenbury’s words applied to a part of it, ‘wnsuited
to the requirements of an army which is maintained to enable us to make
war. Let him read also in the Address of the President of the Society
of Chemical Industry what drastic steps had to be taken by Chambers of
Commerce and ‘a quarter of a million of working-men’ to get the Patent
Law Amendment Act into proper shape in spite of all the advisers and
officials of the Board of Trade. Very few people realise the immense
number of scientific problems the solution of which is required for the
State service. The nation itself is a gigantic workshop ; and the more
our rulers and legislators, administrators and executive officers possess
the scientific spirit, the more the rule of thumb is replaced in the State
service by scientific methods, the more able shall we be, thus armed at all
points, to compete successfully with other countries along all lines of
national as well as of commercial activity.

It is obvious that the power of a nation for war, in men and arms and
ships, is one thing; its power in the peace struggles to which I have
referred is another. In the latter the source and standard of national
efficiency are entirely changed. To meet war conditions, there must be
equality or superiority in battleships and army corps. To meet the new
peace conditions, there must be equality or superiority in Universities,
scientific organisation, and everything which conduces to greater brain-
power.

Our Industries are suffering in the present International Competition.

The present condition of the nation, so far as its industries are con-
cerned, is as well known, not only to the Prime Minister, but to other
political leaders in and out of the Cabinet, as it isto you and tome. Let
me refer to two speeches delivered by Lord Rosebery and Mr, Chamberlain
on two successive daysin January 1901.

Lord Rosebery spoke as follows :—

‘. . . The war I regard with apprehension is the war of trade which
is unmistakably upon us. . . . When I look round me I cannot blind my

8 REPORT—1903.

eyes to the fact that, so far as we can predict anything of the twenticth
century on which we have now entered, it is that it will be one of acutest
international conflict in point of trade. We were the first nation of the
modern world to discover that trade was an absolute necessity. For that
we were nicknamed a nation of shopkeepers ; but now every nation
wishes to be a nation of shopkeepers too, and I am bound to say that
when we look at the character of some of these nations, and when we look
at the intelligence of their preparations, we may well feel that it behoves
us not to fear, but to gird up our loins in preparation for what is before us.’

Mr. Chamberlain’s views were stated in the following words :—

‘TI do not think it is necessary for me to say anything as to the urgency
and necessity of scientific training. ... It is not too much to say that
the existence of this country, as the great commercial nation, depends
upon it. ... It depends very much upon what we are doing now, at the
beginning of the twentieth century, whether at its end we shall continue
to maintain our supremacy or even equality with our great commercial
and manufacturing rivals.’

All this refers to our industries. We are suffering because trade no
longer follows the flag as in the old days, but because trade follows the -
brains, and our manufacturers are too apt to be careless in securing them.
In one chemical establishment in Germany 400 doctors of science, the
best the Universities there can turn out, have been employed at different
times in late years. In the United States the most successful students in
the higher teaching centres are snapped up the moment they have finished
their course of training, and put into charge of large concerns, so that the
idea has got abroad that youth is the password of success in American
industry. It has been forgotten that the latest product of the highest
scientific education must necessarily be young, and that it is the training
and not the age which determines his employment. In Britain, on the
other hand, apprentices who can pay high premiums are too often pre-
ferred to those who are well educated, and the old rule-of-thumb
processes are preferred to new developments—a conservatism too often
depending upon the master’s own want of knowledge.

T should not be doing my duty if I did not point out that the defeat of
our industries one after another, concerning which both Lord Rosebery
and Mr. Chamberlain express their anxiety, is by no means the only thing
we have to consider. The matter is not one which concerns our industrial
classes only, for knowledge must be pursued for its own sake ; and since
the full life of a nation with a constantly increasing complexity, not only
of industrial, but of high national aims, depends upon the universal
presence of the scientific spirit—in other words, brain-power—our whole
national life is involved.

— a a—=——<—— -—”™—~

ADDRESS. 9

The Necessity for a Body dealing with the Organisation of Science.

The present awakening in relation to the nation’s real needs is largely
due to the warnings of men of science. But Mr. Balfour’s terrible Man-
chester picture of our present educational condition |! shows that the
warning, which has been going on now for more than fifty years, has not
been forcible enough ; but if my contention that other reorganisations
besides that of our education are needed is well founded, and if men of
science are to act the part of good citizens in taking their share in
endeavouring to bring about a better state of things, the question arises,
Has the neglect of their warnings so far been due to the way in which
these have been given ?

Lord Rosebery, in the address to a Chamber of, Commerce from which
I have already quoted, expressed his opinion that such bodies do not
exercise so much influence as might be expected of them. But if com-
mercial men do not use all the power their organisation provides, do they
not by having built up such an organisation put us students of science to
shame, who are still the most disorganised members of the community ?

Here, in my opinion, we have the real reason why the scientific needs
of the nation fail to command the attention either of the public or of
successive Governments. At present, appeals on this or on that behalf
are the appeals of individuals; science has no collective voice on the
larger national questions ; there is no organised body which formulates
her demands.

During many years it has been part of my duty to consider such
matters, and I have been driven to the conclusion that our great crying
need is to bring about an organisation of men of science and all interested
in science similar to those which prove so effective in other branches of
human activity. For the last few years I have dreamt of a Chamber,
Guild, League, call it what you will, with a wide and large membership,
which should give us what, in my opinion, is so urgently needed. Quite
recently I sketched out such an organisation, but what was my astonish-
ment to find that I had been forestalled, and by the founders of the British
Association !

The British Association such a Body.

At the commencement of this Address I pointed out that one of the
objects of the Association, as stated by its founders, was ‘to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of science and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.’

Everyone connected with the British Association from its beginning

' « The existing educational system of this country is chaotic, is ineffectual, is
utterly behind the age, makes us the laughing-stock of every advanced nation in
Europe and America, puts us behind, not only our American cousins, but the German
and the Frenchman and the Italian.’—Zimes, October 15, 1902.

10 REPORT—1903

may be congratulated upon the magnificent way in which the other objects
of the Association have been carried out ; but as one familiar with the
Association for the last forty years I cannot but think that the object to
which I have specially referred has been too much overshadowed by the
work done in connection with the others.

A careful study of the early history of the Association leads me to the
belief that the function I am now dwelling on was strongly in the minds
of the founders ; but be this as it may, let me point out how admirably
the organisation is framed to enable men of science to influence public
opinion and so to bring pressure to bear upon Governments which follow
public opinion. (1) Unlike all the other chief metropolitan societies, its
outlook is not limited to any branch or branches of science. (2) We haye
a wide and numerous fellowship, including both the leaders and the lovers
of science, in which afl branches of science are and always have been
included with the utmost catholicity—a condition which renders strong
committees possible on any subject. (3) An annual meeting at a time
when people can pay attention to the deliberations, and when the news-
papers can print reports. (4) The possibility of beating up recruits and
establishing local committees in different localities, even in the King’s
dominions beyond the seas, since the place of meeting changes from year
to year, and is not limited to these islands.

We not only, then, have a scientific Parliament competent to deal
with all matters, including those of national importance, relating to science,
but machinery for influencing all new councils and committees dealing
with local matters, the functions of which are daily becoming more
important.

The machinery might consist of our corresponding societies. We
already have affiliated to us seventy societies with a membership of 25,000.
Were this number increased so as to include every scientific society in the
Empire, metropolitan and provincial, we might eventually hope for a
membership of half a million.

Tam glad to know that the Council is fully alive to the importance of
giving a greater impetus to the work of the corresponding societies.
During this year a committee was appointed to deal with the question ;
and later still, after this committee had reported, a conference was held
between this committee and the corresponding societies committee to
consider the suggestions made, some of which will be gathered from the
following extract :—

‘In view of the increasing importance of science to the nation at large,
your committee desire to call the attention of the Council to the fact that
in the corresponding societies the British Association has gathered in the
various centres represented by these societies practically all the scientific
activity of the provinces. The number of members and associates at
present on the list of the corresponding societies approaches 25,000, and
no organisation is in existence anywhere in the country better adapted

ADDRESS. 11

than the British Association for stimulating, encouraging, and co-ordinating
all the work being carried on by the seventy societies at present enrolled,
Your committee are of opinion that further encouragement should be
given to these societies and their individual working members by every
means within the power of the Association ; and with the object of keeping
the corresponding societies in more permanent touch with the Association
they suggest that an official invitation on behalf of the Council be
addressed to the societies, through the corresponding societies committee,
asking them to appoint standing British Association sub-committees, to
be elected by themselves, with the object of dealing with all those subjects
of investigation common to their societies and to the British Association
committees, and to look after the general interests of science and scientific
education throughout the provinces and provincial centres. . . .

‘Your committee desire to lay special emphasis on the necessity for
the extension of the scientific activity of the corresponding societies and
the expert knowledge of many of their members in the direction of
scientific education. They are of opinion that immense benefit would
accrue to the country if the corresponding societies would keep this
requirement especially in view with the object of securing adequate
representation for scientific education on the Education Committees now
being appointed under the new Act. The educational section of the
Association having been but recently added, the corresponding societies
have as yet not had much opportunity for taking part in this branch of
the Association’s work ; and in view of the reorganisation in education
now going on all over the country your committee are of opinion that no
more opportune time is likely to occur for the influence of scientific
organisations to make itself felt as a real factor in national education. .. .’

I believe that if these suggestions or anything like them—for some
better way may be found on inquiry—are accepted, great good to science
throughout the Empire will come. Rest assured that sooner or later such
a Guild will be formed because it is needed. It is for you to say whether
it shall be, or form part of, the British Association. We in this Empire
certainly need to organise science as much as in Germany they find the
need to organise a navy. The German Navy League, which has branches
even in our Colonies, already has a membership of 630,000, and its
income is nearly 20,0007. a year. A British Science League of 500,000
with a sixpenny subscription would give us 12,0007. a year, quite enough
to begin with.

I for one believe that the British Association would be a vast gainer
by such an expansion of one of its existing functions. Increased authority
and prestige would follow its increased utility. The meetings would possess
a new interest ; there would be new subjects for reports ; missionary
work less needed than formerly would be replaced by efforts much more
suited to the real wants of the time. This magnificent, strong, and com-
plicated organisation would become a living force, working throughout the

12 REPORT—19038.

year instead of practically lying idle, useless, and rusting for fifty-one
weeks out of the fifty-two so far as its close association with its members
is concerned.

Tf this suggestion in any way commends itself to you, then when you
begin your work in your sections or General Committee see to it that a
body is appointed to inquire how the thing can be done. Remember that
the British Association will be as much weakened by the. creation of a
new body to do the work I have shown to have been in the minds of its
founders as I believe it will be strengthened by becoming completely
effective in every one of the directions they indicated, and for which
effectiveness we, their successors, are indeed responsible. The time is
appropriate for such a reinforcement of one of the wings of our organisa-
tion, for we have recently included Education among our sections.

There is another matter I should like to see referred to the committee
I have spoken of, if it please you to appoint it. The British Association—
which, as I have already pointed out, is now the chief body in the Empire
which deals with the totality of science—is, I believe, the only organisa-
tion of any consequence which is without a charter, and which has not
his Majesty the King as patron.

The First Work of such an Organisation.

I suppose it is my duty, after I have suggested the need of organisation,
to tell you my personal opinion as to the matters where we suffer most
in consequence of our lack of organisation at the present time.

Our position as a nation, our success as merchants, are in peril
chiefly—dealing with preventable causes—because of our lack of com-
pletely efficient Universities and our neglect of research. This research
has a double end. A professor who is not learning cannot teach properly
or arouse enthusiasm in his students ; while a student of anything who
is unfamiliar with research methods, and without that training which
research brings, will not be in the best position to apply his knowledge in
after-life. From neglect of research comes imperfect education and a
small output of new applications and new knowledge to reinvigorate our
industries. From imperfect education comes the unconcern touching
scientific matters and the too frequent absence of the scientific spirit in
the nation generally, from the Court to the Parish Council.

TI propose to deal as briefly as I can with each of these points.

Universities.

I have shown that, so far as our industries are concerned, the cause
of our failure has been run to earth ; it is fully recognised that it arises
from the insufficiency of our Universities both in numbers and efficiency,
so that not only our captains of industry, but those employed in the
nation’s work generally, do not secure a training similar to that afforded
by other nations. No additional endowment of primary, secondary, or

ADDRESS. 13

technical instruction will mend matters. This is not merely the opinion
of men of science ; our great towns know it, our Ministers know it,
Tt is sufficient for me to quote Mr. Chamberlain :—

‘It is not everyone who can, by any possibility, go forward into the

higher spheres of education ; but it is from those who do that we have to

look for the men who in the future will carry high the flag of this country

in commercial, scientific, and economic competition with other nations.

At the present moment I believe there is nothing more important than to
supply the deficiencies which separate us from those with whom we are in

the closest competition, In Germany, in America, in our own colony of

Canada, and in Australia, the higher education of the people has more
support from the Government, is carried further, than it is herein the Old
Country ; and the result is that in every profession, in every industry,
you find the places taken by men and by women who have had a Univer-
sity education. And I would like to see the time in this country when
no man should have a chance for any occupation of the better kind, either
in our factories, our workshops, or our coun‘ting-houses, who could not

show proof that in the course of his University career he had deserved the

position that was offered to him. What is it that makes a country? Of
course you may say, and you would be quite right, ‘“‘ The general qualities
of the people, their resolution, their intelligence, their pertinacity, and
many other good qualities.” Yes; but that is not all, and it is not the
main creative feature of a great nation. The greatness of a nation is
made by its greatest men. It is those we want to educate. It is to
those who are able to go, it may be, from the very lowest steps in the
ladder, to men who are able to devote their time to higher education, that
we have to look to continue the position which we now occupy as at all
events one of the greatest nations on the face of the earth. And,
feeling as I do on these subjects, you will not be surprised if I say
that I think the time is coming when Governments will give more
attention to this matter, and perhaps find a little more money to forward
its interests.’ !

Our conception of a University has changed. University education is
no longer regarded as the luxury of the rich, which concerns only those
who can afford to pay heavily for it. The Prime Minister in a recent
speech, while properly pointing out that the collective effect of our public
and secondary schools upon British character cannot be overrated, frankly
acknowledged that the boys of seventeen or eighteen who have to be
educated in them ‘do not care a farthing about the world they live in
except in so far as it concerns the cricket-field or the football-tield or the
river.’ On this ground they are not to be taught science ; and hence,
when they proceed to the University, their curriculum is limited to subjects
which were better taught before the modern world existed, or even Galileo

1 Times, November 6, 1902.

14 REPORT—1903.

was born. But the science which these young gentlemen neglect, with
the full approval of their teachers, on their way through the school and
the University to politics, the Civil Service, or the management of com-
mercial concerns, is now one of the great necessities of a nation ; and our
Universities must become as much the insurers of the future progress
as battleships are the insurers of the present power of States. In other
words, University competition between States is now as potent as compe-
tition in building battleships ; and it is on this ground that our University
conditions become of the highest naticnal concern, and therefore have to be
referred to here, and all the more because our industries are not alone in
question.

Why we have not more Universities.

Chief among the causes which have brought us to the terrible condition
of inferiority as compared with other nations in which we find ourselves
are our carelessness in the matter of education and our false notions of
the limitations of State functions in relation to the conditions of modern
civilisation.

Time was when the Navy was largely a matter of private and local
effort. William the Conqueror gave privileges to the Cinque Ports on the
condition that they furnished fifty-two ships when wanted. In the time
of Edward III., of 730 sail engaged in the siege of Calais 705 were
‘people’s ships.’ All this has passed away ; for our first line of defence
we no longer depend on private and local effort.

Time was when not a penny was spent by the State on elementary
education. Again, we no longer depend upon private and local effort,
The Navy and primary education are now recognised as properly calling
upon the public for the necessary financial support. But when we pass
from primary to University education, instead of State endowment we find
State neglect ; we are in a region where it is nobody’s business to see that
anything is done.

We in Great Britain have thirteen Universities competing with 134
State and privately endowed in the United States and twenty-two State-
endowed inGermany. I leave other countries out of consideration for lack
of time, and I omit all reference to higher institutions for technical training,
of which Germany alone possesses nine of University rank, because they
are less important ; they instruct rather than educate, and our want is
education. The German State gives to one University more than
the British Government allows to all the Universities and University
Colleges in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales put together. These
are the conditions which regulate the production of brain-power in the
United States, Germany, and Britain respectively, and the excuse of the
Government is that this is a matter for private effort. Do not our
Ministers of State know that other civilised countries grant efficient State
aid, and, further, that private effort has provided in Great Britain less
than 10 per cent. of the sum thus furnished in the United States in

ADDRESS, 15

addition to State aid? Are they content that we should go under in
the great struggle of the modern world because the Ministries of other
States are wiser, and because the individual citizens of another country
are more generous, than our own ?

If we grant that there was some excuse for the State’s neglect so long
as the higher teaching dealt only with words, and books alone had to be
provided (for the streets of London and Paris have been used as class-
rooms at a pinch), it must not be forgotten that during the last hundred
years not only has knowledge been enormously increased, but things have
replaced words, and fully equipped laboratories must take the place of
books and class-rooms if University training worthy of the name is to be
provided. There is much more difference in size and kind between an old
and a new University than there is between the old caravel and a modern
battleship, and the endowments must follow suit.

What are the facts relating to private endowment in this country ?
In spite of the munificence displayed by a small number of individuals in
some localities, the truth must be spoken. In depending in our country
upon this form of endowment we are trusting to a broken reed. If we
take the twelve English University Colleges, the forerunners of Universities
unless we are to perish from lack of knowledge, we find that private effort
during sixty years has found less than 4,000,000/. ; that is, 2,000,000/. for
buildings, and 40,000/, a year income. This gives us an average of
166,000/. for buildings, and 3,300/. for yearly income.

What is the scale of private effort we have to compete with in regard
to the American Universities ?

In the United States, during the last few years, Universities and
colleges have received more than 40,000,000/. from this source alone 2
private effort supplied nearly 7,000,000. in the years 1898-1900.

Next consider the amount of State aid to Universities afforded in
Germany. The buildings of the new University of Strassburg have
already cost nearly a million ; that is, about as muchas has yet been found
by private effort for buildings in Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham,
Bristol, Newcastle, and Sheffield. The Government annual endowment
of the same German University is more than 49,000/.

This is what private endowment does for us in England, against State
endowment in Germany.

But the State does really concede the principle ; its present contribu-
tion to our Universities and colleges amounts to 155,600/. a year. No
capital sum, however, is taken for buildings. The State endowment of
the University of Berlin in 1891-92 amounted to 168,777/.

When, then, we consider the large endowments of University educa-
tion both in the United States and Germany, it is obvious that State aid
only can make any valid competition possible with either. The more we
study the facts, the more statistics are gone into, the more do we find
that we, to a large extent, lack both of the sources of endowment upon
one or other, or both, of which other nations depend. We are between

16 REPORT—1908.

two stools, and the prospect is hopeless without some drastic changes.
And first among these, if we intend to get out of the present Slough of
Despond, must be the giving up of the idea of relying upon private
effort.

That we lose most where the State does least is known to Mr. Cham-
berlain, for in his speech, to which I have referred, on the University of
Birmingham, he said ; ‘ As the importance of the aim we are pursuing
becomes more and more impressed upon the minds of the people, we may
find that we shall be more generously treated by the State.’

Later still, on the occasion of a visit to University College School,
Mr, Chamberlain spoke as follows :—

‘When we are spending, as we are, many millions—I think it is
13,000,000/.—a year on primary education, it certainly seems as if we
might add a little more, even a few tens of thousands; to what we give to
University and secondary education.’?

To compete on equal grounds with other nations we must have more
Universities. But this is not all—we want a far better endowment of all
the existing ones, not forgetting better opportunities for research on the
part of both professors and students. Another crying need is that of
more professors and better pay. Another is the reduction of fees ; they
should be reduced to the level existing in those countries which are
competing with us—to, say, one-fifth of their present rates, so as to enable
more students in the secondary and technical schools to complete their
education.

In all these ways facilities would be afforded for providing the highest
instruction to a much greater number of students. At present there are
almost as many professors and instructors in the Universities and colleges
of the United States as there are day students in the Universities and
colleges of the United Kingdom.

Men of science, our leaders of industry, and the chiefs of our political
parties all agree that our present want of higher education—in other
words, properly equipped Universities—is heavily handicapping us in the
present race for commercial supremacy, because it provides a relatively
inferior brain-power, which is leading to a relatively reduced national
income.

The facts show that in this country we cannot depend upon private
effort to put matters right. How about local effort ?

Anyone who studies the statistics of modern municipalities will see
that it is impossible for them to raise rates for the building and upkeep
of Universities.

The buildings of the most modern University in Germany have cost
a million. For upkeep the yearly sums found, chiefly by the State, for

1 Times, Novemter 6, 1902.

ADDRESS. 17

German Universities of different grades, taking the incomes of seven out
of the twenty-two Universities as examples, are :—

£
First Class . ; : Berlin , 3 ‘ . 130,000
if
Second Class. noe \ 56,000
; ; Konigsberg
aphindl Olasa 02 ceecbe Po "48,000
Fourth Class. ‘ ; fone 2 "Ss | 37,000

Thus, if Leeds, which is to have a University, is content with the
fourth class German standard, a rate must be levied of 7d. in the pound
for yearly expenses, independent of all buildings. But the facts are that
our towns are already at the breaking strain. During the last fifty
years, in spite of enormous increases in rateable values, the rates have
gone up from about 2s. to about 7s. in the pound for real local purposes.
But no University can be a merely local institution.

How to get more Universities,

What, then, is to be done? Fortunately, we have a precedent
admirably in point, the consideration of which may help us to answer
this question.

I have pointed out that in old days our Navy was chiefly provided
by local and private effort. Fortunately for us those days have passed
away ; but some twenty years ago, in spite of a large expenditure, it
began to be felt by those who knew, that in consequence of the increase
of foreign navies our sea power was threatened, as now, in consequence
of the increase of foreign Universities, cur brain-power is threatened.

The nation slowly woke up to find that its enormous commerce was
no longer insured at sea, that in relation to foreign navies our own had
been suffered to dwindle to such an extent that it was no longer capable
of doing the duty which the nation expected of it even in times of peace.
At first this revelation was received with a shrug of incredulity, and
the peace-at-any- price party denied that anything was needed ; buta great
teacher arose ;' as the facts were inquired into, the suspicion changed
into an alarm ; men of all parties saw. that something must be done.
Later the nation was thoroughly aroused, and with an universal agree-
ment the principle was laid down that, cost what it might to enforce
our sea-power, our Navy must be made and maintained of a strength
greater than those of any two possibly contending Powers. After esta-
blishing this principle, the next thing to do was to give effect to it,
What did the nation do after full discussion and inquiry? <A Bill was
brought in in 1888, and a sum of 21,500,000/. was voted in order,
during the next five years, to inaugurate a large ship-building programme,

1 Captain Mahan, of the U.8. Navy, whose book, ‘On the Influence of Sea-power
On History,’ has suggested the title of my address,

1903, c

18 REPORT—1903.

so that Britain and Britain’s commerce might be guarded on the high seas
in any event.

Since then we have spent 120,000,000/. on new ships, and this year
we spend still more millions on still more new ships. If these prove
insufficient to safeguard our sea-power, there is no doubt that the nation
will increase them, and I have not heard that anybody has suggested an
appeal to private effort.

How, then, do we stand with regard to Universities, recognising them
as the chief producers of brain-power and therefore the equivalents of
battleships in relation to sea-power? Do their numbers come up to the
standard established by the Admiralty principle to which I have referred ?
Let us attempt to get a rough-and-ready estimate of our educational
position by counting Universities as the Admiralty counts battleships.
I say rough-and-ready, because we have other helps to greater brain-
power to consider besides Universities, as the Admiralty has other ships
to consider besides ironclads,

In the first place, let us inquire if they are equal in number to those
of any two nations commercially competing with us.

In the United Kingdom we had until quite recently thirteen.! Of
these, one is only three years old as a teaching University, and another
is still merely an examining board.

In Germany there are twenty-two Universities ; in France, under
recent legislation, fifteen ; in Italy, twenty-one. It is difficult to give the
number in the United States, because it is clear, from the tables given in
the Report of the Commissioner of Education, that some colleges are more
important than some Universities, and both give the degree of Ph.D, But
of Universities in title we have 134. Among these, there are forty-six
with more than fifty professors and instructors, and thirteen with more
than 150. I will take that figure.

Suppose we consider the United States and Germany, our chief com-
mercial competitors, and apply the Admiralty principle. We should
require, allowing for population, eight additional Universities at the very
lowest estimate.

We see, then, that instead of having Universities equalling in number
those of two of our chief competitors together, they are by no means equal
to those of either of them singly.

After this statement of the facts, anyone who has belief in the impor-
tance of higher education will have no difficulty in understanding the
origin of the present condition of British industry and its constant
decline, first in one direction and then in another, since the tremendous
efforts made in the United States and Germany began to take effect.

Tf, indeed, there be anything wrong about the comparison, the error
can only arise from one of two sources—either the Admiralty is thought-

1 These are Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, Victoria, Wales, Birmingham, London,
St, Andrews, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Royal University.

ADDRESS. 19

lessly and wastefully spending money, or there is no connection what-
ever between the higher intelligence and the prosperity of a nation.
I have already referred to the views of Mr. Chamberjain and Lord
Rosebery on this point ; we know what Mr. Chamberlain has done at
Birmingham ; we know the strenuous efforts made by the commercial
leaders of Manchester and Liverpool] ; we know, also, the opinion of men
of science.

If while we spend so freely to maintain our sea-power our export of
manufactured articles is relatively reduced because our competitors beat
us in the markets of the world, what is the end of the vista thus opened
up tous? A Navy growing stronger every year and requiring larger votes
to guard our commerce and communications, and a vanishing quantity of
commerce to guard—a reduced national income to meet an increasing
taxation !

The pity is that our Government has considered sea-power alone ; that
while so completely guarding our commerce it has given no thought to
one of the main conditions on which its production and increase depend.
A glance could have shown that other countries were building Universities
even faster than they were building battleships ; were, in fact, considering
brain-power first and sea-power afterwards.

Surely it is my duty as your President to point out the danger ahead,
if such ignoring of the true situation should be allowed to continue. May
I express a hope that at last, in Mr. Chamberlain’s words, ‘The time is
coming when Governments will give more attention to this matter’ ?

What will they cost ?

he comparison shows that we want eight new Universities, some of
which, of course, will be colleges promoted to University rank and fitted
to carry on University work. Three of them are already named : Man-
chester, Liverpool, Leeds.

Let us take this number and deal with it on the battleship condition,
although a modern University on American or German models will cost
more to build than a battleship.

If our present University shortage be dealt with on battleship con-
ditions, to correct it we should expend aé least 8,000,000/. for new con-
struction, and for the pay-sheet we should have to provide (S x 50,000/.)
400,000/. yearly for personne! and up-keep ; for it is of no use to build
either ships or Universities without manning them. Let us say, roughly,
capitalising the yearly payment at 2} per cent., 24,000,000/.

At this stage it is important to inquire whether this sum, arrived at
by analogy merely, has any relation to our real University needs.

I have spent a year in making inquiries, as full as I could make them,
of friends conversant with the real present needs of each of the Univer-
sities, old and new. I have obtained statistics which would fill a volume,

and personally I believe that this sum at least is required to bring our
c2

20 REPORT—19038.

University system up to anything like the level which is insisted upon
both in the United States and in Germany. Even Oxford, our oldest
University, will still continue to be a mere bundle of colleges unless three
millions are provided to enable the University, properly so called, to take
her place among her sisters of the modern world ; and Sir Oliver Lodge,
the Principal of our very youngest University, Birmingham, has shown
in detail how five millions can be usefully and properly applied in that
one locality to utilise for the good of the nation the enthusiasm and
scientific capacity which are only waiting for adequate opportunity of
development.

How is this money to be raised? I reply, without hesitation,
Duplicate the Navy Bill of 1888-9 ; do at once for brain-power what we
so successfully did then for sea-power.

Let 24,000,000/. be set apart from one asset, our national wealth, to
increase the other, brain-power. Let it be assigned and borrowed as it is
wanted ; there will be a capital sum for new buildings to be erected in
the next five or ten years, the interest of the remainder to go towards
increased annual endowments.

There need be no difficulty about allocating money to the various
institutions. Let each University make up its mind as to which rank of
the German Universities it wishes to emulate. When this claim has been
agreed to, the sums necessary to provide the buildings and teaching staff
of that class of University should be granted without demur.

It is the case of battleships over again, and money need not be spent
more freely in one case than in the other.

Let me at once say that this sum is not to be regarded as practically
gone when spent, as in the case of a short-lived ironclad. Jt is a loan
which will bear a high rate of interest. This is not my opinion merely ;
it is the opinion of those concerned in great industrial enterprises and
fully alive to the origin and effects of the present condition of things.

I have been careful to point out that the statement that our industries
are suffering from our relative neglect of science does not rest on my
authority. But if this be true, then if our annual production is less by only
two millions than it might have been, having two millions less to divide
would be equivalent to our having forty or fifty millions less capital than
we should have had if we had been more scientific.

Sir John Brunner, in a speech connected with the Liverpool School of
Tropical Medicine, stated recently that if we as a nation were now to
borrow ten millions of money in order to help science by putting up
buildings and endowing professors, we should get the money back in the
course of a generation a hundredfold. He added that there was no better
investment for a business man than the encouragement of science, and
that every penny he possessed had come from the application of science
to commerce.

According to Sir Robert Giffen, the United Kingdom as a going
concern was in 1901 worth 16,000,000,0002,

ADDRESS. 21

Were we to put aside 24,000,000/. for gradually organising, building,
and endowing new Universities, and making the existing ones more
efficient, we should still be worth 15,976,000,000/.—a property well worth
defending by all the means, and chief among these brain-power, we can
command,

If it be held that this, or anything like it, is too great a price to pay
for correcting past carelessness or stupidity, the reply is that the
120,000,0007. recently spent on the Navy, a sum five times greater, has
been spent to correct a sleepy blunder, not one whit more inimical to the
future welfare of our country than that which has brought about our
present educational position. We had not sufficiently recognised what
other nations had done in the way of ship-building, just as until now we
have not recognised what they have been doing in University building.

Further, I am told that the sum of 24,000,000/. is less than half the
amount by which Germany is yearly enriched by having improved upon our
chemical industries, owing to our lack of scientific training. Many other
industries have been attacked in the same way since ; but taking this one
instance alone, if we had spent this money fifty years ago, when the
Prince Consort first called attention to our backwardness, the nation
would now be much richer than it is, and would have much less to fear
from competition.

Suppose we were to set about putting our educational house in order,
go as to secure a higher quality and greater quantity of brain-power, it
would not be the first time in history that this has been done, Both
Prussia after Jena and France after Sedan acted on tlie view ;—

‘ When land is gone and money spent,
Then learning is most excellent.’

After Jena, which left Prussia a ‘ bleeding and lacerated mass,’ the King
and his wise counsellors, among them men who had gained knowledge
from Kant, determined, as they put it, ‘to supply the loss of territory by
intellectual effort.’

What did they do? In spite of universal poverty, three Universities,
to say nothing of observatories and other institutions, were at once
founded, secondary education was developed, and in a few years the
mental resources were so well looked after that Lord Palmerston defined
the kingdom in question as ‘a country of damned professors.’

After Sedan—a battle, as Moltke told us, ‘won by the schoolmaster ’—
France made even more strenuous efforts. The old University of France,
with its ‘academies’ in various places, was replaced by fifteen independent
Universities, in all of which are faculties of letters, sciences, law and
medicine.

The development of the University of Paris has been truly marvellous.
In 1897-8 there were 12,000 students, and the cost was 200,000/. a year.

But even more wonderful than these examples is the ‘intellectual
effort’ made by Japan, not after a war, but to prepare for one,

22, REPORT—19038.

The question is, Shall we wait for a disaster and then imitate Prussia
and France; or shall we follow Japan and thoroughly prepare by
‘intellectual effort’ for the industrial struggle which lies before us ?

Such an effort seems to me to be the first thing any national or
imperial scientific organisation should endeavour to bring about,

Research.

When dealing with our Universities I referred to the importance of
research, as it is now generally acknowledged to be the most powerful
engine of education that we possess. But education, after all, is but a
means to the end, which, from the national point of view, is the application
of old and the production of new knowledge.

Its national importance apart from education is now so generally
recognised that in all civilised nations except our own means of research
are being daily more amply provided for all students after they have
passed through their University career ; and, more than this, for all who
can increase the country’s renown or prosperity by the making of new
knowledge, upon which not only commercial progress, but all intellectual
advance must depend.

IT am so anxious that my statement of our pressing, and indeed im-
perative, needs in this direction should not be considered as resting upon
the possibly interested opinion of a student of science merely that I must
trouble you with still more quotations.

Listen to Mr. Balfour :—

‘T do not believe that any man who looks round the equipment of our
Universities or medical schools or other places of education can honestly
say in his heart that we have done enough to equip research with all the
costly armoury which research must have in these modern days. We,
the richest country in the world, lag behind Germany, France, Switzer-
land, and Italy. Is it not disgraceful? Are we too poor or are we too
stupid ?’!

It is imagined by rnany who have given no thought to the matter
that this research should be closely allied with some application of science
being utilised at the time. Nothing could be further from the truth ;
nothing could be more unwise than such a limitation.

Surely all the laws of Nature will be ultimately of service, and there-
fore there is much more future help to be got from a study of the
unknown and the unused than we can hope to obtain by continuing the
study of that which is pretty well known and utilised already. It was a
King of France, Louis XIV., who first commended the study of the
méme inutile, The history of modern science shows us more and more as
the years roll on the necessity and advantage of such studies, and there-
fore the importance of properly endowing them ; for the production of new
knowledge is a costly and unremunerative pursuit.

1 Nature, May 30, 1901,

ADDRESS, 23

Years ago we had Faraday apparently wasting his energies and
time in playing with needles ; electricity now fills the world. To-day
men of science in all lands are studying the emanations of radium ;
no research could be more abstract; but who knows what advance
in human thought may follow or what gigantic world-transforming
superstructure may eventually be raised on the minute foundation they
are laying ?

If we so organise our teaching forces that we can use them at all
stages, from the gutter to the University, to sift out for us potential Fara-
days—to utilise the mental products which otherwise would be wasted—
it is only by enabling such men to continue their learning after their
teaching is over that we shall be able to secure the greatest advantage
which any educational system can afford.

It is now more than thirty years ago that my attention was specially
drawn to this question of the endowment of research—first, by conversa-
tions with M. Dumas, the permanent secretary of the Academy of
Sciences, who honoured me by his friendship ; and, secondly, by my
association with Sir Benjamin Brodie and Dr. Appleton in their en-
deavours to call attention to the matter in this country. At that time
a general scheme of endowment suggested by Dumas was being carried
out by Duruy. This took the form of the ‘Ecole spéciale des Hautes
Etudes’; it was what our fellowship system was meant to be—an
endowment of the research of post-graduate students in each seat of
learning. The French effort did not begin then.

I may here tell, as it was told me by Dumas, the story of Léon
Foucault, whose many discoveries shed a glory on France and revived
French industry in many directions.1_ In 1851, when Prince Napoleon
was President of the Republic, he sent for Dumas and some of his
colleagues, and told them that during his stay in England, and after-
wards in his ‘study of the Great Exhibition of that year, he had found
there a greater industrial development than in France, and more applica-
tions of science, adding that he wished to know how such a state of things
could’ be at once remedied. The answer was that new appiications
depended upon new knowledge, and that therefore the most direct and
immediate way was to find and encourage men who were likely by
research in pure science to produce this new knowledge. The Prince-
President at once asked for names; that of Léon Foucault was the only
one mentioned during the first interview.

Some time afterwards—to be exact, at about eleven in the morn-
ing of December 2—Dumas’s servant informed him that there was
a gentleman in the hall named Foucault, who wished to see him, and he
added that he appeared to be very ill. When shown into the study,
Foucault was too agitated to speak, and was blind with tears. His reply
to Dumas’s soothing questions was to take from his pockets two rolls of

1 See Proc, &, S., vol, xvii, p. [xxxiii,

94 REPORT—1903.

banknotes, amounting to 200,000 francs, and place them on the table.
Finally, he was able to say that he had been with the Prince-President
since eight o’clock that morning, discussing the possible improvement of
French science and industry ; and that Napoleon had finally given him
the money, requesting him to do all in his power to aid the State,
Foucault ended by saying that, on realising the greatness of the task thus
imposed upon him, his fears and feelings had got the better of him, for
the responsibility seemed more than he could bear.!

The movement in England to which I have referred began in 1872,
when a society for the organisation of academical study was formed in
connection with the inquiry into the revenues of Oxford and Cambridge,
and there was a famous meeting at the Freemasons’ Tavern, Mark
Pattison being in the chair. Brodie, Rolleston, Carpenter, Burdon-
Sanderson, were among the speakers, and the first resolution carried was,
‘That to have a class of men whose lives are devoted to research is
a national object.’ The movement died in consequence of the want of
sympathy of the University authorities.’

In the year 1874 the subject was inquired into by the late Duke of
Devonshire’s Commission ; and after taking much remarkable evidence,
including that of Lord Salisbury, the Commission recommended to the
Government that the then grant of 1,000/., which was expended, by a
committee appointed by the Royal Society, on instruments needed in
researches carried on by private individuals, should be increased, so that
personal grants should be made. This recommendation was accepted and
acted on; the grant was increased to 4,000/., and finally other societies
were associated with the Royal Society in its administration. The
committee, however, was timorous, possibly owing to the apathy of the
Universities and the general carelessness on such matters, and only one
personal grant was made ; the whole conception fell through.

Meantime, however, opinion has become more educated and alive to the
extreme importance of research to the nation, and in 1891 a suggestion was
made to the Royal Commission which administers the proceeds of the 1851
Exhibition that a sum of about 6,000/. a year available for scholarships
should be employed in encouraging post-graduate research throughout the
whole Empire. As what happened is told in the Memoirs of Lord Play-
fair, it is not indiscreet in me to state that when I proposed this new form
of the endowment of research it would not have surprised me if the
suggestion had been declined. It was carried through by Lord Playfair’s

1 In order to show how history is written, what actually happened on a fateful
morning may be compared with the account given by Kinglake: * Prince Louis rode
home and went in out of sight. Then for the most part he remained close shut up
in the Elysée. There, in an inner room, still decked in red trousers, but with his
back to the daylight, they say he sat bent over a fireplace for hours and hours
together, resting his elbows on his knees, and burying his face in his hands,’ —
Crimean War, vol. i. p. 248.

% See Nature, November and December, 1872,

ADDRESS. 25

enthusiastic support. This system has been at work ever since, and the
good that has been done by it is now generally conceded.

It is a supreme satisfaction to me to know that in this present year of
grace the national importance of the study of the méme inutile is more
generally recognised than it was during the times to which I have referred
in my brief survey ; and, indeed, we students are fortunate in having on
our side in this matter two members of His Majesty’s Government, who
two years ago spoke with no uncertain sound upon this matter :—

‘Do we lack the imagination required to show what these apparently
remote and abstract studies do for the happiness of mankind? We can
appreciate that which obviously and directly ministers to human advance-
ment and felicity, but seem, somehow or another, to be deficient in that
higher form of imagination, in that longer sight, which sees in studies
which have no obvious, necessary, or immediate result the foundation of
the knowledge which shall give far greater happiness to mankind than
any immediate, material, industrial advancement can possibly do ; and I
fear, and greatly fear, that, lacking that imagination, we have allowed
ourselves to lag in the glorious race run now by civilised countries in
pursuit of knowledge, and we have permitted ourselves so far to too
large an extent to depend upon others for those additions to our know-
ledge which surely we might have made for ourselves.’ !

‘I would remind you that all history shows that progress—national
progress of every kind—depends upon certain individuals rather than
upon the mass. Whether you take religion, or literature, or political
government, or art, or commerce, the new ideas, the great steps, have
been made by individuals of superior quality and genius, who have, as it
were, dragged the mass of the nation up one step to ahigher level. So it
must be in regard to material progress. The position of the nation
to-day is due to the efforts of men like Watt and Arkwright, or, in our
own time, to the Armstrongs, the Whitworths, the Kelvins, and the
Siemenses. These are the men who, by their discoveries, by their
remarkable genius, have produced the ideas upon which others have acted
and which have permeated the whole mass of the nation and affected the
whole of its proceedings. Therefore what we have to do, and this is our
special task and object, is to produce more of these great men.’ 2

I finally come to the political importance of research. A country’s
research is as important in the long run as its battleships. The most
eloquent teaching as to its national value we owe to Mr. Carnegie, for he
has given the sum of 2,000,000/. to found a system of endowments, his
chief purpose being, in his own words, ‘to secure if possible for the United
States of America leadership in the domain of discovery and the utilisation
of new forces for the benefit of man,’

1 Mr. Balfour, Nature, May 30, 1901.
+ Mr. Chamberlain, Times, January 18, 1901.

26 REPORT—1908.

Here is a distinct challenge to Britain. Judging by experience in
this country, in spite of the magnificent endowment of research by Mond
and Lord Iveagh, the only source of possible competition in the British
interest is the State, which certainly could not put the 1/8,000th part
of the accumulated wealth of the country to better use ; for without such
help both our Universities and our battleships will become of rapidly
dwindling importance.

It is on this ground that I have included the importance of endowing
research among the chief points to which I have been anxious to draw
your attention.

The Need of a Scientific National Council.

In referring to the new struggle for existence among civilised com-
munities I pointed out that the solution of a large number of scientific
problems is now daily required for the State service, and that in this and
other ways the source and standard of national efficiency have been
greatly changed.

Much evidence bearing upon the amount of scientific knowledge
required for the proper administration of the public departments, and the
amount of scientific work done by and for the nation, was brought before
the Royal Commission on Science presided over by the late Duke of
Devonshire now more than a quarter of a century ago.

The Commission unanimously recommended that the State should be
aided by a scientific council in facing the new problems constantly
arising.

But while the home Government has apparently made up its mind to
neglect the advice so seriously given, it should be a source of gratification
to us all to know that the application of the resources of modern science
to the economic, industrial, and agricultural development of India has for
many years engaged the earnest attention of the Government of that
country. The Famine Commissioners of 1878 laid much stress on the
institution of scientific inquiry and experiment designed to lead to the
gradual increase of the food-supply and to the greater stability of agri-
cultural outturn, while the experience of recent years has indicated the
increasing importance of the study of the economic products and mineral-
bearing tracts.

Lord Curzon has recently ordered the heads of the various scientific
departments to form a board, which shall meet twice annually, to begin
with, to formulate a programme and to review past work. The board is
also to act as an advisory committee to the Government,' providing
among other matters for the proper co-ordination of all matters of scientific
inquiry affecting India’s welfare.

Lord Curzon is to be warmly congratulated upon the step he has
taken, which is certain to bring benefit to our great Dependency,

1 Nature, September 4, 1902,

ADDRESS, 27

The importance of such a board is many times greater at home, with
s0 many external as well as internal interests to look after—problems
common to peace and war, problems requiring the help of the economic
as well as of the physical sciences.

It may be asked, What is done in Germany, where science is fostered
and utilised far more than here ?

The answer is, There is such a council. . I fancy, very much like what
our Privy Council once was. It consists of representatives of the Ministry,
the Universities, the industries, and agriculture. It is small, consisting of
about a dozen members, consultative, and it reports direct to the Emperor.
It does for industrial war what military and so-called defence councils do
for national armaments ; it considers everything relating to the use of
brain-power in peace—from alterations in school regulations and the
organisation of the Universities, to railway rates and fiscal schemes,
including the adjustment of duties. I am informed that what this
council advises, generally becomes law.

It should be pretty obvious that a nation so provided must have
enormous chances in its favour. It is a question of drilled battalions
against an undisciplined army, of the use of the scientific spirit as opposed
to the hope of ‘ muddling through.’

Mr. Haldane has recently reminded us that ‘the weapons which
science places in the hands of those who engage in great rivalries of
commerce leave those who are without them, however brave, as badly
off as were the dervishes of Omdurman against the maxims of Lord
Kitchener.’

Without such a machinery as this, how can our Ministers and our rulers
be kept completely informed on a thousand things of vital importance ?
Why should our position and requirements as an industrial and thinking
nation receive less attention from the authorities than the headdress of
the Guards? How, in the words of Lord Curzon,! can ‘the life and
vigour of a nation be summed up before the world in the person of its
sovereign’ if the national organisation is so defective that it has no
means of keeping the head of the State informed on things touching the
most vital and lasting interests of the country? We seem to be still in
the Paleolithic Age in such matters, the chief difference being that the
sword has replaced the flint implement.

Some may say that it is contrary to our habit to expect the
Government to interest itself too much or to spend money on matters
relating to peace ; that war dangers are the only ones to be met or to be
studied.

But this view leaves science and the progress of science out of the
question. Every scientific advance is now, and will in the future be
more and more, applied to war. It is no longer a question of an armed
force with scientific corps ; it is a question of an armed force scientific

Times, September 30, 1902.

28 REPORT—1903.

from top to bottom. Thank God the Navy has already found this out.
Science will ultimately rule all the operations both of peace and war, and
therefore the industrial and the fighting population must both have a
large common ground of education. Already it is not looking too far
ahead to see that in a perfect State there will be a double use of each
citizen—a peace use and a war use ; and the more science advances, the
more the old difference between the peaceful citizen and the man at arms
will disappear. The barrack, if it still exists, and the workshop will be
assimilated ; the land unit, like the battleship, will become a school of
applied science, self-contained, in which the officers will be the efficient
teachers.

I do not think it is yet recognised how much the problem of national
defence has thus become associated with that with which we are now
chiefly concerned.

These, then, are some of the reasons which compel me to point out
that a scientific council, which might be a scientific committee of the Privy
Council, in dealing primarily with the national needs in times of peace,
would be a source of strength to the nation.

To sum up, then. My earnest appeal to you is to gird up your loins
and see to it that the science of the British Empire shall no longer remain
unorganised. I have endeavoured to point out to you how the nation at
present suffers from the absence of a powerful, continuous, reasoned expres-
sion of scientific opinion, urging in season and out of season that we shall
be armed as other nations are, with efficient Universities and facilities
for research to uphold the flag of Britain in the domain of learning and
discovery, and what they alone can bring.

I have also endeavoured to show how, when this is done, the nation
will still be less strong than it need be if there be not added to our many
existing councils another, to secure that even during peace the benefits
which a proper co-ordination of scientific effort in the nation’s interest can
bring shall not be neglected as they are at present.

Lest some of you may think that the scientific organisation which I
trust you will determine to found would risk success in working on such
large lines, let me remind you that in 1859, when the late Prince
Consort occupied this Chair, he referred to ‘impediments’ to scientific
progress, and said, ‘they are often such as can only be successfully dealt
with by the powerful arm of the State or the long purse of the nation.’

If the Prince Consort had lived to continue his advocacy of science,
our position to-day would have been very different. His early death was
as bad for Britain as the loss of a great campaign. If we cannot make
up what we have lost, matters cannot mend.

I have done what I feel to be my duty in bringing the present condition
of things before you. It is now your duty, if you agree with me, to see
that it be put right, You can if you will,

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

THOT

Uitte,

ate) AIS LO e

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites in co-opera-
tion with a Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society.—Second
Report of the Commnuttee, consisting of Dr. W. N. SHaw (Chairman),
Mr. W. H. Dives (Secretary), Mr. D. Ancuipaup, Mr. C. Vernon
Boys, Dr. A. Bucuay, Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK, Dr. H. R. MILL,
and Professor A, SCHUSTER. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE results of last year’s work have been published ; a description of the
apparatus and methods employed being given in the ‘ Quarterly Journal
ot the Royal Meteorological Society,’ vol. xxix., No. 126, p. 65; and a
discussion of the results obtained, in a paper by Dr. Shaw and Mr. W. H.
Dines, which appears in the ‘Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society,’ series a, vol. ccii., 1903.

The apparatus used at Crinan last year was erected at Oxshott in the
autumn, and it was hoped that to a limited extent the observations might
be continued there ; but before the end of October the wire was accident-
ally dropped across ‘the main road leading from Esher to Leatherhead.
Fortunately the wire rested on trees on both sides of the road ; but before
it could be removed many carriages and bicyclists had passed under it.
This accident convinced us that it would be unwise to continue the work
at Oxshott, excepting for winds between south and north-west. The
winter has been devoted to an endeavour to improve the apparatus. This
has been accomplished : a new winding-gear has been constructed, which
so far has given every satisfaction, and the details of the construction of
the kites have been altered, so that they exert a more uniform pull and
seem to be more reliable. The apparatus was brought to Crinan at the
beginning of August, and in view of the uncertainty about obtaining a
vessel, was erected on the same island as last year. The apparatus in the
possession of the Committee now consists of—

I. Engine, boiler, and winding-gear used last year.

II. New winding-gear.

III. About 14 miles of wire, six of which have been purchased this
year.

IV. Ten kites 7 feet 6 inches high ; three kites 9 feet high ; materials
of a kite 12 feet high,

32 REPORT—1903.

V. Two self-recording instruments made by Mons. Tesserénc de Bort.!
VI. Spare bamboo sticks, &c., for repairs.

The old winding-gear is hardly reliable, but many of the parts will be
available for making another.

Application was made to the Government Grant Committee of the
Royal Society for a grant of 250/. for the hire of a vessel. On the
suggestion of this Committee the Admiralty were asked to lend a vessel
for the purpose, and they kindly consented to do so; but unfortu-
nately the vessel they proposed to place at the disposal of the Kite
Committee has met with an accident and is unavailable. The Royal
Society have, however, made a grant of 200/., and the Committee are now
endeavouring to hire a suitable vessel.

Addendum to the Report of the Kite Committee.

Great difficulty has been experienced in obtaining a suitable vessel
owing to the lateness of the time at which inquiries about one were
instituted and to the fact that July and August are the yachting season.
A steam tug, the ‘Renown,’ has been hired for a month, and reached
Crinan on August 13. The apparatus was fitted on board by the evening
of the 14th, and since then daily ascents have been made. No great
height (over 6,000 feet) has been reached, for the weather has been of the
most unfavourable description for kite flying ; but one very interesting
trace has been obtained—namely, that of August 20, when the kite was
drawn in from a height of 4,500 feet during a sudden and unexpected

thunderstorm which was accompanied by extremely violent rain and
hail.

Magnetic Observations at Falmouth.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. Prerce (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK
(Secretary), Professor W. G. Apams, Captain Creak, Mr. W. L.
Fox, Professor A. ScHusTER, and Sir A. W. RUCKER, appointed
to co-operate with the Committee of the Falmouth Observatory in
their Magnetic Observations.

Tue Committee report that the grant voted at the last meeting has been
used in support of the ordinary magnetic work of the Falmouth Observa-
tory, and that records of the horizontal force, the declination, and the
vertical force have been kept during the year. The curves up to
December 31, 1902, have been examined at Kew, and, specially in view of
the disturbed state of the Kew instruments and the uncertainty as to
the future magnetic observatory to replace Kew, have a real value.

The results for the quiet days are published in the Report of the
Falmouth Observatory, and will be reprinted in the Proceedings of the
Royal Society.

The vertical force instrument to which reference was made in the
last report has worked in a fairly satisfactory manner during the year.

In conclusion the Committee ask for reappointment with a further

! A third is promised by him and expected shortly.

MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS AT FALMOUTH. 33

grant of 60/. The reasons for this request are in the main the same
as last year. It has not yet been found possible to establish the new
magnetic observatory and to remove the recording instruments from Kew,
though the Committee are informed that progress has been made in the
arrangements for this; at the same time electric traction has increased
greatly in the neighbourhood of Kew, and the records are in consequence
very seriously disturbed. Thus the Falmouth records are of special im-
portance to science just now.

Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
Electrical Measwrements.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord Ra¥YLeicH (Chairman), Dr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary),
Lord Ketvin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G.
Apams, and G. Carey Foster, Sir OLIver J. Lopae, Dr. A.
Murruead, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors J. D. Everett, A.
Scuuster, J. A. FLEMING, and J. J. Tomson, Dr. W. N. Suaw,
Dr. J. T. Borromuey, Rey. T. C. Firzpatricx, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
Stoney, Professor 8. P. THompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Dr. E. H.
GrirritHs, Sir A. W. Ricker, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR,
and Mr. GEorGE MarrHey.

APPENDICES . PAGE
I. On the Values of the Resistance of certain Standard Coils of the British

Association. By ¥. Hi. Smita. (From the National Physical Labora-

tory). : 3 : : ; c “ : 7 : : . 38

Il. On some new Mercury Standards of Resistance. By F.E. SMITH. (From
the National Physical Laboratory) . : f : : : ‘ » 44

Ill. On the Platinum Thermometers of the British Association. By J. A.
HARKER, D.Sc. (From the National Physical Laboratory) : » 45
IV. Zable of the Resistance found for Pure Annealed Copper . ; - Pal

Durine the year a very complete comparison of the resistance standards
belonging to the Association has been carried out, and the standards have
been compared with those of the Reichsanstalt and of the Board of Trade.

The various units discussed in the report are: (1) The ‘ ohn,’
10° C.G.S. units of resistance ; (2) the international ohm—viz., the resist-
ance at 0°C. of a column of mercury of uniform section 106°3 cm. in length
and 14°4521 grammes in mass; (3) the original B.A. unit; (4) the
Board of Trade unit, supposed to represent the international ohm, but
constructed in 1891 so as to be equal to 1:01358 B.A. units ; (5) the
N.P.L. unit defined as No. 4, as deduced from the wire standards of the
Association ; (6) the Reichsanstalt unit, constructed at the Reichsanstalt
to represent the international ohm ; (7) the mercury tubes, constructed

~at the National Physical Laboratory to represent the international ohm.

A full account of this comparison is given in Appendix I. to the report,
by Mr. F, E. Smith, of the National Physical Laboratory. It appears
from this that changes have shown themselves in all the original platinum-
silver coils. The relative values of these coils are discussed in the Reports
of the Committee for 1888, 1890, and 1892. The 1888 report contains a
very complete comparison of all the coils, not merely those of platinym-
“ee i oe it is there shown that they then agreed with the values

. D

34 REPORT—1908.

assigned to them by Fleming in 1881. The conclusion is also drawn in the
same report that, with the exception of the platinum-iridium coils A and
B, no really certain variations could be traced in the other coils between
the results of Matthiessen and Hockins’s comparisons in 1864 and 1867,
those of Chrystal in 1876, Fleming in 1881, and the present Secretary ! in
1888. A postcript to the Report for 1888 recorded, however, an appre-
ciable change in the coil F in the autumn of that year.

In Appendix I. Mr. Smith starts with the values given in the 1888
Report, which are, as nearly as we can tell, the original values of the
coils.

Changes in the three standards F, G, H have already been recorded
in previous Reports (1890 and 1892). The standard coil Flat remained
unchanged in value until 1901-1902. Between the observations recorded
in these years it increased in resistance by 17 x 10~-° B.A.U., and has not
varied since.

The alterations in the other coils since the comparisons in 1888 have
been as follows :—

F.+97x1l0° BAU.
G.133 x10 +5;
H.+18x10-> ,,

Tt should however be noted that, while between 1888 and 1890 the
change in F was +64x10~ B.A.U., that in G was —27 x10, and
in H —13x10. Since 1890 the same coils changed by +33x10%
+54x10~, and +31 x10~° B.A.U. respectively, while between 1901 and
1902 Flat, as has already been stated, rose by 17 x 10° B.A.U.

It is not easy to trace the causes of these changes. In the case of Flat
the observations in 1901 were made at Kew, those in 1902 at Bushy
House, and the change may in some way be connected with the removal
of the coils. The changes in F, G, H first showed themselves after the
coils had been subject to a very low temperature, and may have been
started by strains due to this.

Appendix I. gives the details on which these various statements are
based. It appears also from the same Appendix that the new platinum-
silver ohm standards of the Association have retained their values since
1898 practically unchanged. ;

The comparison between the standards of the Association and those
of the Reichsanstalt leads to the result that the unit of the Association
(No. 5 of those defined above) is less than that of the Reichsanstalt
(No. 6) by 000105 ohm, This result is deduced (Table IX. of Appendix I.)
from a series of extremely concordant measures on coils of value 0:1, 1,
10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 ohms; thus both the unit and the multiple
coils agree in giving the same difference between the Reichsanstalt and
ourselves.

By the kindness of Mr. Trotter a comparison has been made between
the Board of Trade unit and those of the Association, with the result
that, as deduced from the unit coils, the Board of Trade unit is less than
that of the Association by ‘00006 ohm. This result, however, is not
confirmed by a comparison of a 1,000-ohm coil belonging to the Associa-

1 It is possible that coil F is an exception to this statement.

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 35

tion with one of those of the Board of Trade;! these coils show no
difference.

The above statements are made on the assumption that the various
changes in the coils which have undoubtedly occurred have been rightly
interpreted, so that we can now recover the absolute C.G.S. value of the
coil Flat, and hence of the standard ohm as originally determined at the
Cavendish Laboratory, and defined by the Committee in the Edinburgh
Report, 1892.

That this is the case is borne out by the results of the experiments on
the specific resistance of mercury, a summary of which is given in
Appendix II. These are not yet complete. Mr. Smith has, however,
constructed and calibrated eleven mercury tubes. The mean cross-
section of each of these has been determined by at least four different
sets of measurements. In nine cases the greatest difference between any
measurement and the mean is not more than ‘001 per cent.

The values found for the resistance of each tube do not differ by
more than ‘001 per cent.

If we assume as above that the values of the wire standards of resist-
ance of the Association are known in terms of the absolute C.G S. unit,
then it follows that the length of the column of mercury, one square
millimetre in section, which would have a resistance of 10° C.G.S. units,
would be 106:291 centimetres. The value found for this same quantity
by the Secretary (Mr. Glazebrook) and Mr. Fitzpatrick in 1888,? was
106:29 centimetres. We infer then that we still can recover from our
standard coils the absolute C.G.S. unit of resistance.

Again, the length of the mercury column constituting the international
ohm has been defined as 106°3 cm.

But we have seen that the absolute C.G.S. unit as deduced from the
wire coils of the Association has a resistance equal to that of 106-291 em.
Thus the absolute unit * is smaller than the international ohm by -009 per
cent. Again, it has been stated above that the unit deduced from the
standards of the Association is smaller than that of the Reichsanstalt by
010, per cent.

Thus the mercury standards of the Reichsanstalt, constructed to repre-
sent the international ohm, exceed those just made for the Association
by Mr. Smith by ‘001, per cent., or 1-5 parts in 100,000.

Again, if these results be accepted, since the Board of Trade unit, as
derived from the wire standards, is less than that of the Association by
‘006 per cent., and the Association unit is too small by -009 per cent., it
follows that the Board of Trade unit is too small by ‘015 per cent. This
difference arises in part from the fact that the standards of the Association,
from which the Board of Trade standard was copied by the Secretary in
1891, are too low ; in part from the fact that the Board of Trade standard
has diverged slightly from that of the Association since 1891,

‘ If the view be accepted that the laboratory unit is the same as in 1891, the
Board of Trade standard has fallen since that date by ‘00006 ohm,

? Phil. Trans. 1888.

* The resistance taken for a column of mercury 1 square mm. in section, 100 cm.
in length at 0° C. at the Edinburgh Meeting in 1892, was -9407 x 10° C.G.S. units. Mr.
Smith’s experiments give, assuming the values of the wire coils known, the result
“9408 x 10° C.G.S, units,

36 REPoRT—i903.

Thus, to stint up this part of the Report, it may ba stated that :—

(a) The original B.A. unit and the standard ohm based on it (Nos.
3 and 5 of the units concerned) can be recovered from the wire coils
of the Association.

(6) The Board of Trade unit (No. 4) is now less than the Laboratory
unit (No. 5) by 006 per cent.

(d) The Board of Trade unit is less than the international ohm by
‘O15 per cent.

(e) The mercury tubes made at the National Physical Laboratory to
represent the international ohm are less than those made at the Reichs-
anstalt by °0015 per cent.

This last result must be considered as provisional pending the comple-
tion of Mr. Smith’s work, but it is clearly highly satisfactory.

Mr. Smith has also made progress during the year with his investiga-
tions into certain of the anomalies shown by Clark cells, but the results of
that inquiry are not yet ready for publication.

The standard condensers of the Association have been frequently in
use during the year ; about fifteen condensers have been compared with
them. They retain their value in a satisfactory manner, and are conve-
iient to work with, though possibly some improvement in the insulation
niight be desirable.

A chronograph, purchased with part of the grant made last year, will
enable the time measurements required in the measurement of capacity
to be made with greater accuracy, and hence will permit of greater rigidity
in the inquiry as to the permanence of the standards.

The platinum thermometers made from the stock of wire purchased
from Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, which at the time of the last Report
were in course of construction, have been completed, and the behaviour of
some of them investigated throughout the past year. The resistance-box
available was the old Callendar-Griffiths box used in the work of Dr.
Chree at Kew Observatory, having coils of platinum-silver on the binary
system. The contacts are an old form of the Cambridge Instrument
Company’s type of plug-contact, the cheeks being made of a special white
alloy held in round Doulton-ware cups. In measurements with this box
not much significance attaches to the third figure of decimals representing
hundred-thousandths of an ohm, though the settings could be made to this
amount at the lower temperatures. The box resistance-coils were intended
for use with platinum thermometers of 1 ohm fundamental interval] only,
and therefore the two high-resistance thermometers, of 5 ohms funda-
mental interval, could not be measured at the sulphur-point ; their
systematic investigation has therefore been temporarily postponed. The
want of a better box for this work is seriously felt.

Of the original six thermometers made in August 1902, Nos. 1 to 4
are of 1 ohm fundamental interval, Nos. 1 and 2 being in porcelain and
3 and 4 in specially thin Jena glass tubes of internal diameter 8 to 9 mm.
and 38 to 40 cm. long. Nos. 5and6 are of 5 ohms fundamental interval,

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 37

and in somewhat wider tubes of specially thin glass, through which the
four leads are hermetically sealed. The heads of all these thermometers
are of the design used hy Chappuis and Harker, the contacts to the solid
ends of the copper flexibles being made by fusible metal cups. With
reasonable care these contacts prove very satisfactory, both as regards the
constancy of their resistance and their mechanical strength.

In the construction of all these thermometers special care was devoted
to adjusting their fundamental intervals to be very close to their nominal
values, and after completing this adjustment all were subjected to repeated
annealing in air at a bright-red heat, thermometers Nos. 3 and 4 being
temporarily placed in porcelain tubes for the purpose.

The remaining four constructed last summer, and one of later date, all
of 1 ohm fundamental interval, have had their constants determined from
time to time during the year. One of them—B.A.,—was selected as a repre-
sentative platinum thermometer for use in an investigation made to deter-
mine the relation between the platinum scale and that of the gas thermo-
meter of the National Physical Laboratory at temperatures up to 1000° C
During the time occupied by two sets of experiments with this instrument,
extending over about three months in all, its constants altered by an
amount only just greater than their probable error, showing that it is quite
possible to use properly constructed platinum thermometers up to tem-
peratures. slightly over 1000° C. for long periods without fear of serious
changes.

The summary of the life history of the different thermometers is
given in Appendix III. The chief fact apparent is that there seems to
be a small but real difference between the 6 of thermometers 1 and 3 on
the one hand, and 2, 4, and 7 on the other, the maximnm divergence
being about -02.

Prolonged electrical heating in air of the wire of one of the thermo-
meters was not found to sensibly change the value of the 6. The cause
of the small differences found is not obvious, and further investigation is
being made on this point.

A change in 6 from 1°50 to 1:51 would make at the sulphur-point a
difference of 0°:153 C., and at 1000° C. one of 0°:9.

The question of the resistance of copper has been raised lately by the
work of one of the sub-Committees of the Engineering Standards Com-
mittee. For commercial purposes the resistance of copper is defined at a
temperature of 60° Fahr. (15°55 C.). A table in Appendix IV. gives
the values that have been found by various experimenters.

It is clear that copper is now prepared of a higher degree of purity
than in the time of Matthiessen. Taking the mean of the figures
in the table for modern electrolytic copper, we have as the value of the
resistance of 1 metre of copper wire weighing 1 gramme at 15°'55 C. the
value 0°1485, ohm, but the figures of which this is a mean range from
1475 to 1492. The value found by Matthiessen, as deduced from his paper
in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ for 1860, is 0°1500 ohm. Thus the conductivity of
modern pure electrolytic copper is 1 per cent. better than Matthiessen’s.

The Committee on copper conductors, which investigated the question
in 1899, adopted the number 0°1508 ohm as the resistance of a metre-
gramme of commercial annealed high-conductivity copper. This figure

‘has been accepted by the Engineering Standards Committee.

Mr. H, A. Taylor has recently placed in the hands of the Secretary

88 REPORT—19038.

two resistances of gold-silver wire made by Matthiessen himself, to repre-
sent the resistance at 15°-5 C. of 100 inches of pure annealed copper,
having the weight of 100 grains. The resistances of these coils have been
determined by Mr, Smith, and the results are given in the following
table :—

— Coil No. 1 Coil No. 2
Resistance of 100 inches of copper weigh- 1516 1514
ing 100 grains,as given by Matthiessen
in B.A. units at 15°°5 C.
Resistance found in 1903 in B.A. units at 1513, 1513,
15°°5.C.
Resistance found reduced to ohms at 15°5 C. 1493, "1492,
Resistance deduced of a metregramme in 1499, 1499,
ohms at 15°'5 C,

Thus Matthiessen’s value for the resistance of annealed copper at
15°55 ©. (60° Fahr.) as deduced from these coils, agrees very closely with
the value calculated by the Secretary from the figures in his 1860 paper.

The Committee have had under consideration the drawings and speci-
fications for the ampere balance as designed by the late Principal
Viriamu Jones and Professor Ayrton. ‘The electrical parts of the
instrument need construction under skilled supervision. Tests of various
kinds have to be made continually, and the Committee have come to the
conclusion that this supervision can best be secured by having the
instrument constructed in the workshop of the National Physical
Laboratory, under the care of Professor Ayrton and the Secretary, who,
as Director, will be able, with the assistance of the staff of the Laboratory,
to control the work in an efficient manner.

The Committee are of opinion that further expenditure will be required
in completing the set of platinum thermometers, in particular in providing
a satisfactory resistance-box and in carrying out the researches on the
Clark cell. They consider that it is of great importance that these
researches should be brought to a satisfactory conclusion,

For these reasons they recommend that they be reappointed, with a

grant of 60/., that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman, and Mr. R, T. Glazebrook
Secretary,

APPENDIX I.

On the Values of the Resistance of certain Standard Coils of the British
Association. By ¥. E. Smita.

(From the National Physical Laboratory.)
[The Report covers the period 1888-1903 inclusive. ]

Changes of very considerable magnitude have taken place since
1892 in the old B.A. standards. The removal of the coils, first to
Liverpool, then to Kew, and finally to Teddington, has resulted in the
comparisons being incomplete in some years. In consequence the difficulty
of locating differences has correspondingly increased,

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 59

The observations recorded are in terms of B.A. Flat. Owing to a
change in Flat taking place, however, the 1903 comparisons were made
chiefly with Nalder 3715.

In Table I. the approximate difference in B.A.U. between Flat and
the B.A. unit coils F, G, H of the Association are given.

Table IT. gives the difference in ohms between ! (1:01358 x Flat) and
other platinum-silver coils. Temperature of observations, 16° C.

TABLE I, TABLE II.
Flat (1:01358 x Flat)
ia Nald 1
alder Elliott Elliott Elliott
F G H 3715 264 269 270

1888 +47x10-° | +91x10-* | +77x10-5 =
1890 -17 +112 +90 =

1891 _ _ +13x10-* —
1892 —18 +108 +92 _ _— —- —
1894 _ _ _ —17x10-* = —37x10°* | +27x10-5
1897 — = — — = — --
1898 | —36 +99 +69 -17 +9 —46 +27

1900 —47 +92 +63 -17 +23 —59 +27

1901 —42 +92 +70 -17 +23 —54 +27

1902 —33 +90 +76 | 0 +38 —39 +44

/ 1908 —33 +75 +76 } 0 — —39 +44 |

Table IIT. shows the percentage difference between (1:01358 x Flat)
and the unit of two 10-ohm platinum-silver coils of the Association
at 16° C,

TABLE III.
(1-01858 x Flat)
pie Elliott | Elliott
988 289
1897 27x 10° +7x10-5
1898 97 +7
1902-8 —10 +24

The coils F, G, and H are similarly constituted : they are the old
B.A. coils made by Matthiessen, No. 3715 is by Nalder Bros., and the
remainder of the coils by Messrs. Elliott Bros, No. 264 is a coil belonging
to the Board of Trade, and has been returned to Whitehall ; hence there
are no observations for 1903.

Tables J., II., and III. assume Flat to be constant. It will be observed
that the differences of Flat and 3715, 270, 288, and 289 are constant from
1897 to 1901. From 1901 to 1903 a change of about ‘017 per cent.
is evident between Flat and the coils 3715, 264, 269, 270, and again
between Flat and the units of the coils 288 and 289. This suggests a
change in the value of Flat from 1901.

Since 1901 comparisons between Flat and the manganin standards of
the Association have been made. Table IV. gives the observed values in

ohms.
' 1 B.O.T, ohm =1:01358 B.A.U,

40 REPORT—- 1908.

Tante LV.—Values at 16° C. in terms of (1:01358 x Flat), assuming
Flat unchanged.

‘ | Wolff Wolff Wolff Wolff
aut 1690 780 381 147

1901 1:00012 1:00002 1:00014 -99790
1902 99995 “99987 99999 ‘99783
1903 “99995 ‘99987 99999 ‘99783

The values of 1690, 780, 381, and 147 diminish by 17, 15, 15, and
7 times 10~* ohms respectively in the interval 1901-1902. No. 147 is known
to be a variable coil of very low insulation-resistance, and may be
disregarded for the purpose of estimating the change in Flat. It is of
interest as being a coil brought to Cambridge by Dr. Lindeck in 1892 and
left with the Secretary.

Thus the apparent falls in value of 3715, 264, 269, 270, 288, 289,
1690, 780, and 381 are respectively -017, 015, -020, -017, 017, ‘017, 017,
‘015, and -015 per cent., giving a mean of -017 per cent.

This justifies the assumption of a rise in resistance of B.A, Flat of
‘017 per cent. in the period 1901-1902,

The following tables, V. and VI., are I. and II. revised. They take
the change in Flat into account by means of corrections applied to the
observations of the years 1902 and 1903. The values given are for 16° C.

TABLE V. (I. Revised). TABLE VI. (II. Revised).
B.A.U. Ohms,
i : — ae
Constant Flat Constant (1'01358 x Flat)
| Year
| Nalder Elliott Elliott Elliott
= = H 3715 264 269 270
1888 +47x10-*| +91x10-5) +77x10-° _ _ _ _—
1890 -—l7 +112 +90 | — _ _ —_—
1891 — — — _ +13 x 10-5 _ —
1892 —18 +108 +92 _ — = —
1894 -- — — | —17x10-* — —37x10-§ | +27x10-S
1897 — -- = —- | = - —
1898 —36 +99 +69 | —17 |} +9 —46 +27
' 1900 —47 +92 +63 —-17 +23 —59 +27
| 1901 —42 +92 +70 —17 +23 —54 +27
1902 —50 ; +73 +59 —17 +21 —56 +27
1903 —50 +58 +59 17 _ —56 +27

Tables VIJ. and VIII. being III. and IV., similarly revised, show no
marked change in any of the coils in those tables excepting 147.

Taste VII. (III. Revised).
Values at 16° @.

(1:01358 x Flat) |
Year hae ae ‘ . She ei ae * ‘i 7 %
Elliott | Elliott
288 | 289 |
1897 ~-27x 1075 | +7x 1075
1898 —-27 47
1902-3 27 +H

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 41

Taste VIII. (LV. Revised),

% | Wolff Wolff | Wolff | Woltt
ae | 1690 780 381 147 /

| |

1901 | 1-00012 100002 16001 ‘99790 |
1902 1-00012 100004 100016 ‘99800 |
1903 “99800 |

100012 1:00004 | 100016

With reference to Tables V. and VI. the data for 1901-1903 show a rise
of 008 per cent. for F, ‘034 per cent. for G, and -011 per cent. for H,
indicating that they are certainly changing coils, the resistance for this
period increasing with time.

From the values recorded 3715 and 270 we have evidence that Flat
has probably remained constant for the period 1894-1901. Also we infer
that 264 is not a coil showing very great changes.

Between the years 1892 and 1898 the ditferences between Flat and
the coils F, G, and H alter by the amounts ‘018 per cent., -009 per cent.,
and ‘023 per cent. respectively. The dissimilarity of these percentage-
differences is further evidence that the coils have changed amongst them-
selves in this period. Comparing the amounts with those of the period
1901-1903, they represent quite normal increments of resistance. The
balance of evidence in consequence is in favour of the constancy of Flat
over the period 1892-1898, and this constancy has therefore been assumed,

A summarised statement of the platinum-silver coils of the Associa-
tion will now be as follows :—

TABLE IX.—Showing the Percentage-increase in Resistance of B.A. Platinum-
silver Coils from 1888.

Coil | 1888] 1890 1891 1892 1894. | 1897 1898 1900 1901 1902 | 1903
elie esl he Lah LIM Sd.
Flat | — — — — — _— — _— — “017 | “O17
r = 064 — “065 —_— — “083 “094 “089 “097 “097
G } — |--021 —_ —017 — _ —'008 }|—001 | —-001 “018 | -033
H — |--013 _— — 015 _- | _ 008 “O14 “007 ‘018 | 018
is A) pel obs. |) |
3715 a 1 commence f ~~ o a W B | 0
ee ets ile wots Whips | : : : 1 |
264 { Beata | = 004 }—-010 |—-010 |—-o08 | —
a obs. | 4 F “017 F 4
269 | zs = ‘ileseke tech b = 009 022 017 v19 | -o19
bs | obs,
BIOs | h— a aap a { ‘commence se 0 0 0 0 0
ba ae pu if ot taf obs. oat
ane | commence } Re pg kad %
ty 2 A, es obs. | )
ae9 oa | a mi J 0 ar va fa 0

It will be observed that a number of the coils are steadily rising in
value. The insulation remains good.

Temperature Coefficients of B.A. Coils.

Some .special observations have been made in order to obtain the
temperature coefficients of the coils, These were carried out by keeping
the standard coil constant and subjecting the tested coil to various
temperatures for twelve or more hours so ag to ensure no lag, It is

492 REPORT—1908,

interesting to note that the temperature coefficients of some of the coils
are appreciably different from the old values of 1892,

TaBLe X.—Showing the old and new values of the Temperature Coefficients
of various Coils.

Temperature Coefficient Temperature Coefficient =|
Coil Old value, per 1° C. New value, per 1° C. |
Flat 000277 B.A.U, 000271 B.A.U,
F 286.5, 268,
G 274 yy 274s,
H Pf ie 5 280,
8715 000260? ohm 000307 ohm
264 olZF,; 288 /,,
269 | ~- 285 4,
270 | — S156 ef |
| |

Comparison of the Unit of Resistance employed at the Reichsanstalt
and that of the N.P.L.

By the N.P.L. unit is meant the unit of resistance as obtained from
the old B.A. coils.!. Assuming that all the changes have been successfully
interpreted, the unit at present employed in the Laboratory should be the
same as that employed in the Cavendish Laboratory in 1898 and at
Edinburgh in 1892.

A comparison of the two units was rendered possible in the spring.
Two Wolff coils, Nos. 780 and 738, of nominal values 1 ohm and 10 ohms
respectively, were despatched to Germany last winter. Their values were
determined in Reichsanstalt units (termed international ohms) in March,
and the coils immediately returned to the Laboratory. Unfortunately
both coils fell in value two or three parts in the hundred-thousandth figure
during their journeyings. The values given in the table are those deter-
mined on their return.

In addition, five new coils were received varying in value from +th
to 10,000 ohms. These enabled a more complete comparison to be made,
The Laboratory value was deduced by building up from the unit, and also
by direct comparison with coils of similar value.

Taste XI.—Results of Measurements of various coils at the Retchsanstalt
and at the Laboratory, March 1903.

}1N.P,L, unit=1:01358 B,A,U

Value Deduced Laboratory Value —

Coil No. Lahore alge from Reichsanstalt Reichaunaiale Value.

‘ Certificate at 17° C. Percentage Difference

2352 -100007 099996 ‘011 per cent.

2351 1:00011 1:00001 ‘010 Ms
780 1:00001 “99991 010 a
738 9-9994, 9:9985 009, rs
2450 100:004 99:993 “O11 .
2449 1600°06 999°96 ‘010 “=
2448 10000°9 9999°8 ‘O11 %

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 43

It is evident from these observations that a difference of :010, per
cent. exists, or that—

Resistance of Reichsanstalt unit— Resistance of Laboratory unit

='00010; ohm , : : (A)
Comparison of the Unit of Resistance employed at the Board of Trade
and that of the Laboratory.
The comparison of these two units is not so complete. Two platinum-

silver units and one of manganin have been determined at both labora-
tories. The measurements taken at Teddington indicate that no change
resulted during the journeyings of the coils. In addition one 1,000-ohm
coil (Nalder 6863) has been determined.

TaBLe XII.—Results of Measurements of various coils at the Board of Trade
Offices and at the Laboratory, February and March 1903.

: sis Be Laboratory Deduced Laboratory
Somes || Lemperabita Value B.O.T. Value | Value—B.0.T.
Elliott, 270 16°0C. 1:00006 1:00010, | — ‘004, per cent.
Elliott, 264 16°-0C. 1-00008 ile 00014, | — 006, i
Wolff, 381 16°-0C. 100015 Ty 00021, _ 006, 5
Nalder, 6863 15°84 C, 999-13 999°1, |

The exact relationship between the B.O.T. unit and that of the
Laboratory is therefore still incomplete. It seems fairly certain however
that—

Resistance of Laboratory unit— Resistance of B.O.T. unit

='00006 ohm, a difference of ‘006 per cent. : (B)

From the two relationships—

Resistance of Reichsanstalt unit— Resistance of N.P.L. unit
='00010,; ohm
Resistance of Laboratory unit— Resistance of B.O,T, unit
='00006 ohm

we have

Resistance of Reichsanstalt unit— Resistance of B.O.T. unit
=00016,; ohm, a difference of ‘016; per cent. . alwXC)

The present values of the B.A. coils are as follows :—

TABLE XIII.

Coil Temperature Resistance tas A gaint
Flat 16°:0 C. 1:00050 B.A.U. ‘000271 B.A.U.

F “f 1:00083 __,, ‘000268 sé,

G 4 SOOT. ‘000274 ,,

H # ‘99976 .,, ‘000280 _—sé=,,
3715 a 1:00050 ohm ‘000307 ohm

269 of 100089. .,, ‘000285 _,,

270 +5 1:00006__,, ‘000315 _,,

288 4s 10-0060 "4 0031, 5

289 1 10°0026 * 0026, =f

44, . REPORT—19038.

The Wolff manganin coils of the Association are also given at 16° C.,
with a temperature coefficient to be applied for small ranges of tempera-
ture only, since it is by no means a linear function.

TABLE XIV.
Coil Temperature Resistance Tee /
1696 16°0 C. 1-00012 ohm -00001 ohm |
780 " 1:00002 ,, 00001 ,, |
381! i 100016 ,, 00002,
147 ‘ | 99800, 00001, 5, |

As has already been explained, the values are given in terms of the
Laboratory unit which represents 10° C.G.S. units of resistance as deter-
mined by Lord Rayleigh and Mr. Glazebrook at Cambridge ; it has been
assumed that the inter-comparison of the coils enables that unit to be
recovered.

Appendices I. and II. of the present Report afford the means of con-
necting this unit with those of the Board of Trade, derived from it in
1891, and of the Reichsanstalt, and also with the ohm or international
ohm—the resistance, that is, of a certain column of mercury.

APPENDIX II.

The relation between the international ohm (106:300 cm. Hg. weighing
14-4521 gms. at 0° C.) and the unit of resistance employed at the N.P.L,
Preliminary Note, by F. E. Suiru.

(From the National Physical Laboratory.)

The following measurements of six mercury tubes indicate the progress
made in this inquiry, and also the relation obtained :—

Conical
L Correc- a b
tion
Theoretical ghee’ i Zg
Tube Hf papery Calculated Mean b—a
Length at (u—1) Resistance Measured
0° C. x 10° of Tube. Resistance.

Int. Ohm Lab. Unit
U 62-0731 5, 62°1319 “99905 “99913 ‘00008
Vv 73°5000 18 734759 1:00033 1:00041 “00008
G 116°507 4) 116°478 1:00025 1:00035 “00010
x 656338 25 65:°635-4 0:99997 1:00007 ‘00010
Y 62°1867 15 62°2382 “99917 “99926 “00009
Z 685199 8 68°5057 1:00021 1:00029 “00008

Thus, Laboratory Unit of Resistance= 99991 Int. ohm.
106 291
~ 106°300
[The above figures are intended as merely provisional. ]

Int. ohm,

} No. 381 is a manganin cojl belonging to the Board of Trade,

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 45

With respect to the measurements of the cross-sections the uniformity
of the results show that an accuracy of -001 per cent. may be relied upon.
Four methods of measuring the resistance will be employed. At present
only two of these are completed. The values in each horizontal line refer
to different fillings ; they are quite concordant, as the values given in the
following table show :—

Resistance in Laboratory (N.P.L.) Units of Mercury Tubes.

Tube Resistance at 0° C. Resistance at 0° C.
Potentiometer Kelvin Double Bridge
U ‘99913 ‘99913
“99912 *y9912
“99914 | “99914
rome sme nen SUNIL) DINGS $a 2 AMO E LN NONE |
V 100041 | 1:00041
1:00044 1:00044
1:00040 1:00039,
G 1-00034 | 1:00035
1:00036 | 1:00036
1:00035 1:00035
| x 1:00007 1:00007
} 1:00006 ‘ 1:00006
| 1:00007 | 1:00006
Y 99926 “99926
“99927 99926
| ‘99925 “99925
Z 1:00030 1:00030
1:00029 1:00029
1:00029 1:00029

APPENDIX III.

On the Platinum Thermometers of the British Association.
By J. A. Harker, D.Sc.

(From the National Physical Laboratory.)

The four platinum thermometers numbered BA, to BA,, with which
this Appendix chiefly deals, were constructed at the National Physical
Laboratory in August 1902. The wire used for the ‘bulbs’ is approxi-
mately ‘006 in. (15 mm.) diameter, and for the leads ‘020 in. (‘5 mm.).

After ascertaining approximately the length of wire necessary to give
a fundamental interval of 1 ohm, the proper amount for the four
thermometers was cut off from the stock reel, and heated in one piece to
moderate redness (800° C.) electrically when supported approximately
horizontal. The platinum ‘lead’ wires, which were of the same quality of
pure metal as the finer ‘ bulb’ wire, were then measured off and the pairs
assigned to each thermometer accurately matched. After a preliminary
anneal in an oxidising atmosphere at a bright red heat, one of each of

A6 REPORT—1903.

these pairs was looped upon itself to form the compensator, and the other
cut in half for attachment to the ends of the ‘bulb’ wire. Several kinds
of mica from different sources were tested as to their suitability for use as
insulating material for the frame and washers to support the wires, and
it was found that considerable discrimination was necessary in the selec-
tion of the mica for this purpose. Certain qualities which were colourless
before heating became on exposure to only 800° to 850° of a marked
brown tint, and it was found in one case this was due to organic material
having been used to fasten together several sheets to build up the neces-
sary thickness, the carbonaceous matter leading to a fall in insulating
power several hundred degrees below the temperature at which good mica
begins to appreciably conduct, which ought not to be lower than 1150° C.
In another case, a specimen which showed the characteristic silvery white
lustre after several hours’ exposure to 1100° C., had lost so much of its
mechanical strength as to be almost unusable. A specimen which before
heating was of slightly green tint was finally selected, and of this the
whole of the mica frames and washers were constructed. The copper wires
connecting the platinum leads to the fusible -metal caps were silver-
soldered to the platinum, and for extra safety against possible strain the
wires were screwed into the caps as well as hard soldered. In order to be
protected as far as possible from unsymmetrical heating, which often gives
rise to thermo-electric effects in certain types of thermometer, these joints
between platinum and copper are arranged so as to be well inside the brass
- tube into which the glass or porcelain protection tube is fastened. The
thermometer heads are of ebonite, and are of the design described by
Harker and Chappuis in ‘ Phil. Trans.’ 194, p. 52. They are practically
airtight, and will stand vacuum or pressure for a considerable time. By a
small tap, which is generally kept closed, communication can be made with
a convenient apparatus for exhausting and letting in dry air while the
thermometer is suitably heated. The effect of electric leakage in lowering
the apparent resistance of a platinum thermometer when damp is much
more easily traced on thermometers of 5 or 10 ohms FI than on the usual
1 ohm pattern used for high temperatures. With the thermometers here
described, having the enclosed form of head, none of the determinations of
fixed points have been found to be vitiated by moisture, care having been
taken not to expose any portion of the interior to prolonged contact with
the outside air, after once being thoroughly dried out at a high tempera-
ture.

The mica cross, having serrated edges with teeth of 1 mm. pitch, being
attached to the leads and compensator, the joints between the ‘bulb’
wire are made in the strongly oxidising flame of a very small oxy-coal-gas
blowpipe without admixture of foreign material of any description. Auto-
genous soldering of this kind is not very difficult, even for very fine wires,
and is essential if the thermometers are intended for use to the highest
temperatures safely measurable, namely, 1150° C., as the copper and
silver contained in any solder which might be employed give off vapour
sufficient to injuriously affect the platinum on prolonged exposure to a
temperature considerably below this. The ‘bulb’ wire when fastened to
the leads is then wound, not too tightly, upon the mica frame, and the
thermometer is then inserted into its protecting tube of very thin glass or
of porcelain, which must be glazed on the exterior, and if the thermometer
is not intended for use above about 1000° C., may with advantage be
glazed both inside and out. A measurement is then taken of the funda-

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 47

mental interval, with a view to ascertain the change on annealing, which
is then carried out by heating two or three times to about 1000° for
several hours, with slow cooling, the thermometers with glass tubes being
temporarily placed in porcelain ones for this purpose. The fundamental
interval is then taken again, and if this is not considered sufficiently near
the desired value, it can be lowered by cutting out the required amount
from the looped end of the wire and re-fusing, or raised by stretching
judiciously with platinum-tipped pliers the lowest few inches of the wire,
which is unwound for the purpose. Care must be taken after each re-
adjustment to remove any possible new strains introduced by a thorough
re-anneal before measurement. In the absence of definite evidence in its
favour, it was not deemed desirable for this first set of thermometers to
heat the wire for some hours electrically to 1400° or 1500° C., as is usual
in careful work with wires of platinum and the allied metals employed for
thermo-junctions,

After the final adjustment of the FI and final anneal, systematic obser-
vations of the zero, steam, and sulphur points of the four thermometers
were made from time to time with the resistance-box described in the
text. A new calibration of the box-coils and bridge wire was made in

February 1903, and the values of the relation = and of the & found

0
since that date are tabulated for each thermometer. From this summary
it will be seen that there appears to be a small but systematic difference
between thermometers 1 and 3 on the one hand, and 2 and 4 on the other,

this being noticeable both on the values of a and of ¢é,
0

The values of wn vary from 1:38709 in BA, to

Ro
1:38881 in BA,
_ the mean of the four being 1:38786, which is a little higher than the
mean value found by Chreefor the group of seven thermometers studied
by him, namely, 1°38702.
The mean values of the 6 are :

ee 3 Departure from Mean
DA, . é A : 15124 +°0110
BA, . ; 2 ‘ 15085 +0069
BA, . , : F 1:4935 —'0079
BAL ay : A Rs 1:4912 —'0192
Meané= , “ 15014 eek

The mean ¢ of the six thermometers observed in sulphur in Chree’s
experiments was 1:503, the maximum being 1:509 and the minimum
1-498. The mean values of the Ro, R,, and FI for the period from
February 12 to August 31 arealso given. In view of the uncertainties
in the measurement of the temperature of the box-coils, which are of
platinum silver not immersed in a liquid, and also of small irregularities
in the behaviour of the plug-contacts, the experiments afford no certain
evidence of systematic change in any of the thermometers, unless it

be a small rise in the fundamental coefficient and corresponding fall in
the 6 of BA).

48 rEePORtT—1908.

Thermomete# BA,, which was heated about fifty times during Novem
ber 1902 in electric furnaces up to 1050°, and again during April and
May 1903 to similar temperatures for prolonged periods, appears to be
hardly perceptibly affected by it, no certain change of FI occurring during
the period February 12 to August 18 covered by the later experiments,
and certainly no variation of the zero of :1° C.

To see if the small lack of homogeneity of the wire as shown by the
properties of the different thermometers was due to the treatment it had
received during the successive adjustments of FI, a new thermometer,
named BA., was made up of wire taken from the inner end of the same
reel as the other six. No attempt was made at adjustment of its FI,
which was found after thorough annealing to be 100°022 box units.

The 8 was found to be 1°506, an intermediate value. The wire was
then unwound from the mica frame and suspended freely in air between
the ends of the leads, anda current of 24 ampéres, which was sufficient to
maintain it at about 1400° C., was passed for about 2 hours.

Owing to the volatilisation of a considerable quantity of platinum
from the wire, a large increase in the FI was found, as was expected, but

‘ ‘agarnid Lat :
the § remained unchanged, though a rise in R- was recorded amounting to

0
1 part in 1000.

In order to make certain that the differences observed were not due
to defective insulation in the thermometers, the insulation resistance be-
tween the thermometer and compensator leads of each of the thermometers
was measured by a direct deflection method, and found to be in no case
less than 700,000 ohms at any temperature between 0° and 1000° for BA,
and BA, and 0° and 500° for BA; and BA,. Some experiments were
also made on an imitation platinum thermometer having its coil wound
on mica of standard quality, but cut at the lower end into two parts.

Although the insulation from one part to another was practically infi-
nite at all temperatures, when only platinum and mica were present in
the heated part of the porcelain tube, the introduction of a small piece of
clean copper wire into the hot space near the bulb was sutticient after
some time to lower the insulation, even at only about 800° C., to a few
thousand ohms. The cause of the differences between the individual
thermometers does not, therefore, appear to be leakage.

Neither does the cause of the small differences in values of 8 found lie
in the method of taking the sulphur point, as the same apparatus was
used in the same way for all the experiments. The sulphur is now boiled
in an arrangement similar to Callendar and Griffiths’s well-known pattern,
except that, to avoid the necessity of removing the tube at each reheat
after the sulphur has crystallised, the glass boiling-tube is replaced by
one of thin weldless steel, brazed with spelter into a rather wider end-
piece of thick iron tubing, which is exposed to the direct flame of the
large bunsen used for heating. The level of the liquid sulphur is always
maintained at least 2 inches above the bottom plate of the apparatus,
and the upper level of the vapour to a definite position, which can be seen
through mica windows in the upper part of the neck. Under these con-
ditions no measurable superheating of the vapour has ever been observed,
and a comparison of the sulphur points obtained with this form of ap-
paratus with those got in the older one, with glass boiling-tube, reveals no
measurable systematic difference.

For the boiling-point of sulphur under normal pressure in latitude 45!

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS.

Callendar and Griffiths’s old value, 444°-53 C., has been retained, as

was also the figure deduced by them froin Regnault’s experiments for

for sulphur, namely, ‘082° C. per mm., although it has been shown inde-
pendently, by Chree and by Harker and Chappuis, that this value for the

variation is considerably too small.

It is hoped that a redetermination

of this constant for pressures between 700 and 800 mm. will shortly be
undertaken in the thermometric laboratory.

p 1903.

50 REPORT—1903.
BA,
one 5 3 Difference of fe
0% from Mean
Feb. 9, 1903 1511 138740 | + 00010
Ret 2B) 5 1511 1°38730 | + ‘00000
Aug. 10 ,, 1°509 138714 | — ‘00016
2 else a 1-522 1:38732 | + 00002
Shy BAY 1511 1:38724 —-00008
mi Tae 1515 138736 + 00006
Aone 1:510 1:38731 + 00001
‘cme. 1510 1'38738 | +:00008
ee |
Mean 1°5124 1:38730 |
Mean Value of Constants
Ry | R, FI | 5 7
258°367 358°434 100:067 1:5124 | 138730
BA,.
\
Ry, Difference of RL
Date 5 R 0
0 from Mean
Feb. 11, 1903 1:485 1°38816 —00009
Bee 82 Ea 1°499 1°38833 +°00008
ra. Opie & 1:500 138826 + 00001
Aug. 10 ,, 1°497 1°38835 + 00010
| Lp eeialllS vain s 1473? | -= —
fal Bat 1-497 | 1:38825 +-00000
ene One 1494 1°38812 —'00013
co tgoiote; 1°503 1:38826 +:00001
1°4935 1:38825
Mean Value of Constants
Bo R, FI 5 | =
257-627 357-616 a a 2 | 1:38825
BA...
R R FI 3 | Ry
‘0 l | Ry
257°749 357771 100-022 1506 | 138806
Thermometer electrically heated to 1400° for 2 hours
270°036 105°177 1°506 1:38949

| 375213

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, ol

APPENDIX IV

The following table gives the resistance at a temperature of 60° Fahr,
(15°-55 C.) of a wire of pure annealed copper 1 metre in length, having a
mass of 1 gramme, as deduced from the most recent determinations.

In making the reductions, the values for the temperature coefficient
and for the density given by the author, have been used,

Table giving Resistance at 60 Fahr. of a Wire of Pure Annealed Copper,
such that 1 metre weighs 1 gramme.

Authority Source of Copper Reference by eae!
Fitzpatrick . ; 3 Electrolytic ‘B. A. Report,’ 1890 | 0:1475
Swan and Rhodin : Swan’s Copper ‘Proc. R. §.,’ 1894 0-1493

Do. (Second sample) 5 33 99 9 01486
Fleming! . : ; Swan’s Copper ‘Phil. Mag.,’ 189% | 0:1487
Lagarde. C . | Grammont Electrolytic | ‘ Hospitalier,’ 1894 071488

Mean value - 5 01486 |

On the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics,
By Professor O. Henrict, Ph.D., F.L.S.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. |

Havina been engaged for over thirty years in teaching mathematics,
chiefly to engineering students, I have always had much sympathy with
them. They have to consider mathematics as a tool to help them in their

‘work ; abstract reasoning is in many cases a horror to them. At school

they have most likely been treated as duffers, unable to learn mathe-
matics ; but if the subject is led up to through concrete examples, every-
thing becomes alive and full of interest to them. It is for such men as
these that I speak primarily, not for mathematicians. It is for them that
T advocate the more general use of vectors and their introduction into the
school curriculum ; because vectors give the most natural mathematical
expressions for many quantities in dynamics and physics, and their intro-
duction helps in the study of these subjects and in obtaining clear views
of the quantities dealt with.

The very invention of vectors is due to the needs of dynamics, and_he
who first represented a force by a directed line is their inventor. Who
this was seems to be unknown ; Newton was the first who clearly stated
the ‘Parallelogram of Forces.’ Since his time vectors have always been
used in dynamics, although the name ‘vector’ was only introduced by
Hamilton.

That this representation of a force by a vector is natural no one will
dispute, but only the addition of vectors (composition and decomposition
of forces) was in use until Hamilton and Grassmann almost simultaneously,

1In reducing Professor Fleming’s result, the density has-been taken as

8:91 grammes per ¢,Cc.
E2

52 REPORT—19038.

and from very different points of view, developed a calculus of vectors by
defining their products. The applications of this new calculus to physics
(including dynamics) remained long restricted to a few of their followers.
It was, however, before their time that Faraday by his ‘Lines of Force’
and ‘Fields of Forces’ gave a purely geometrical representation of the
phenomena of electricity and magnetism. Their analytical expression
requires vectors. The first who recognised this was Clark Maxwell, and
there can be little doubt that his success in putting Faraday’s ideas into
analytical form was greatly due to his knowledge of quaternions. His
statements in the preface to, and in the preliminary chapter of, his ‘ Elec-
tricity and Magnetism’ are in this respect of great interest. I quote
from the latter: ‘But for many purposes in physical reasoning, as dis-
tinguished from calculation, it is desirable to avoid explicitly introducing
the Cartesian co-ordinates, and to fix the mind at once on a point of space
instead of its three co-ordinates, and on the magnitude and direction of a
force instead of its three components. ‘This mode of contemplating geo-
metrical and physical quantities is more primitive and more natural than
the other, although the ideas connected with it did not receive their full
development till Hamilton made the next great step in dealing with space
by the invention of his calculus of quaternions.

‘ As the methods of Descartes are still the most familiar to students of
science, and as they are really the most useful for purposes of calculation,
we shall express all our results in the Cartesian form. JI am convinced,
however, that the introduction of the ideas, as distinguished from the
operations and methods of quaternions, will be of great use to us in the
study of all parts of our subject, and especially in electro-dynamics,
where we have to deal with a number of physical quantities, the relations
of which to each other can be expressed far more simply by a few words
of Hamilton’s than by the ordinary equations.’

He goes on: ‘One of the most important features of Hamilton’s
method is the division of quantities of scalars and vectors.’

I have heard these words quoted as a proof that Maxwell was alto-
gether in favour of Cartesian methods, and against quaternions and
vectors. But this is wrong so far as vectors are concerned. In fact, the
ideas which he took from Hamilton are chiefly two—/irst, vectors ; and
second, the classification of physical quantities into scalars and vectors.
It is well known that he attached very great importance to the latter in
connection with the theory of ‘ Dimensions.’ !

This classification has been carried further by Clifford. Certain
vector-quantities require position for their full specification ; Clifford says
such a quantity is ‘localised,’ and calls a localised vector a ‘ rotor.’ ?
Forces, spins, momentum, are examples. There are also localised scalars
like mass and energy.

In connection with this subject the enforced absence, due to ill-health,
of Mr. Williams is much to be regretted. He has continued his valuable
work of the Theory of Dimensions, and has lately taken ‘ position’ into
account. It was hoped that he would communicate some of his recently
obtained results at this meeting, and thus bear witness to the importance
of vectors in this direction.

1 See his paper, ‘Classification of Physical Quantities,’ Proc. Lond. Math. Soc.,
vol. ili. p. 224.

* Professor Joly has pointed out to me that Hamilton has also considered these,
In his unpublished papers he calls them ‘tractors.’

ON THE USE OF VECTORIAL METHODS IN PHYSICS. 53

With regard to vectors as entering into the study of the relations
between physical quantities, Maxwell speaks against quaternionic opera-
tions, but he has no word against vectors. He never makes use of
quaternions in his great work, but in the second volume constantly uses
vectors, and gives at the end his final results in the form of vector
equations.'! In the passage quoted he states clearly why he uses Cartesian
methods, and I cannot help thinking that he would have used vector
methods throughout if he had found ready to hand a vector analysis
instead of a theory of quaternions, and if such analysis had been common
property.

At present every electrician expresses himself in terms of Faraday’s
lines of force ; all elementary text-books use them, and by their aid the
elements of electricity and magnetism have been made extremely simple.
Theorems which formerly could be proved only by the aid of a consider-
able amount of analytical work are now proved in a few lines of reason-
ing, and often in a much more convincing manner. But when a certain
point is reached there is an hiatus. The more advanced parts of the science
are still only accessible by aid of the old methods of the differential or
integral calculus, using co-ordinates of points and components of forces.
These results are therefore inaccessible to all who have not been able to
spend years on pure mathematics. Most physicists and electricians have
neither inclination nor time to do this. To bridge over the hiatus and to
introduce continuity in treatment requires vector analysis.

The subject itself is not difficult, and would become very easy if the
first elements of vector algebra (which are very simple):were introduced
into the school curriculum.

Vector addition is already known from the composition of forces. There
come next two products of two vectors each—the scalar-product and the
vector-product. The former is simple enough, as it follows all laws of
common algebra with the exception of one which, although the law which
distinguishes it from all other algebras, is generally not even mentioned
in English text-books. It is the law that a product can vanish only if
one factor vanishes. The second, the vector-product, requires more care
in manipulation in so far as the commutative law does not hold. In addi-
tion to these, two products of three factors have to be considered, and the
whole algebra is complete.

We have next to consider variable quantities. If u is a scalar-function
of the position of a point, hence of the position-vector p, then w = const.
represents a surface which may be called a w-surface. If wu is one-valued,
through every point one such surface can in general be drawn. Thus
space becomes filled with these surfaces, which are constantly used under
the name of equipotential, isothermal, &c., surfaces. Similarly if 7
denotes a vector, varying from point to point, lines which may be called
n lines are formed by drawing at any point the vector », going along it
through an infinitesimal distance, and drawing here the new vector.
These are Faraday’s lines of force in their purely geometrical aspect.
They give the direction of » at every point, but not the magnitude.
_ This Faraday introduced also in the well-known manner by drawing only
some of these lines so that the number of the lines which cross a given
area represents the magnitude of 7.

See also his little book Matler and Motion.

54 REPORT—1903.

Tf now dr denotes an element of a surface, as a vector normal to the
surface, then

ndr=(ndr)

gives the number of 7-lines crossing the element and

Judz

extended over a finite area, the number which cross this area.

The differentiation of a vector with regard to a scalar, say, the time,
is very simple and offers nothing new, although some results are striking.
The variation of a function of p due to a displacement of the point or a
change of p requires Hamilton’s operator y.

This operator is of the nature of a vector and can operate on a scalar
or a vector function, and on the latter in two ways. The three results
thus obtained are of such physical importance that Maxwell has given
them special names. From a scalar w we get the vector yw, which is
a vector existing in general at every point where w exists and is normal
to the w-surface through the point considered. Maxwell calls it the
slope of u.

If the operand is a vector » the two results are, in Hamilton’s notation
with Maxwell’s name,

Sv n = convergence of n,
Vig 7= curl Ub

Instead of the former we have in vector analysis (vn) = yn = -— Syn,
which has been called by Clifford the divergence of », is written by Heavi-
side Div. 7. I have found it convenient to introduce for Vy or ‘curl’ a
special symbol, a y with an arrow-head rising from the top.

A y-calculus has been worked out in connection with quaternions by
Tait, and recently by Professor Joly. The same can be done in vector
analysis, and a good deal has been done (by Heaviside, Gibbs, and others).
Tt deserves to be established as a purely mathematical theory.

Various applications, partly physical, partly relating to pure mathe-
matics, were given at the meeting which are here omitted.

A few words about the teaching of vectors at school. My idea is
that they should be introduced before trigonometry is begun, soon after,
and in connection with the use of squared paper, by plotting points from
given position-vectors, and curves from simple vector-equations.

The decomposition of a position-vector gives the co-ordinates of a
point together with their sense, and then the equations

x=r cos 9, y=r sin 0

lead to general definitions of the trigonometrical functions holding for all
four quadrants.

In the discussion which followed, and in which the President of the
Section, Professor Bolzmann, Professor Larmor, Sir Oliver Lodge, Dr.
Sumpner and others, and Professor Joly and Mr. Swinburne by letter,
took part, no voice was raised against the extended use of vectors, but
nearly everyone expressed the wish that an agreement should be come

ON THE USE OF VECTORIAL METHODS 1N PHYSICS. 55

to about the notation used, and I have been asked to give a short account
of those now in use.

Hamilton denotes vectors by smal] Greek letters. Maxwell changed
these to German capitals, and Heaviside these again to block letters.
Gibbs and likewise German authors use heavy type, the same letter in
ordinary type standing for the tensors.

With regard to the notation of products greater divergency exists,
and besides the scalar-product of Hamilton differs in sign from that of
vector analysis. Keeping this in mind the following table will explain
itself :—

I have used brackets for years and found them convenient. I was led
to them because I often found it confusing to decide at a glance how far
Hamilton’s symbols S and V extended, and had to introduce brackets
to make this clear.!' Professor Lorentz has adopted the same notation.
Gibbs uses brackets [A B C] for the scalar-product of three vectors, which
otherwise would appear as A. BxC.

There is a further product in quaternions which we may call the
quaternion-product. Hamilton denotes it by a with

afpiz=Sap+VafB,
or, in my notation,
a B = —(aB)+ [a fp].

This gives rise to a product af} y for which the associative law holds,
and is a chief point in the theory of quaternions, the product being a
quaternion,

Professor Joly in his letter shows that the theory of quaternions can
be based directly on this product by investigating the laws which make
the associative law true for a [3 y.

In this way a quaternion becomes defined by the product of two
_ vectors instead of by their quotient, and thus the theory of quaternions
can be much: simplified.

But if vector algebra has been studied independently of quaternions
then anyone who still wishes to study the latter can do so at once by aid
of the above equation as definition of a /3, which is a quaternion,

Nore.—-I learn from the January number of the ‘Jahresbericht d.
Deutsch. Mathematiker-Vereinigung’ that on September 24, 1903, at

1 Hankel must have felt the same, for he writes Hamilton's products thus:
S(ab), V(ab), V[aVocl, kc.

56 REPORT-—1908.

the Naturforscherversammlung in Kassel, L. Prandtl in Hanover read a

paper about a uniform notation in vector algebra. He recommends the
notation of Gibbs.

A Committee was appointed to consider the whole question.

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Keport of the Committee,
consisting of Lord M‘LareN, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Sir Joun Murray, Professor Copenanp, and Dr. ALEXANDER
Bucuan. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucwan.)

Tur Committee was appointed as formerly for the purpose of co-operating
with the Scottish, Meteorological Society in making meteorological obser-
vations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye-observations have been made at the High Level Obser-
vatory by Mr. Rankin and his assistants, by day and night without interrup-
tion. At the Low Level Observatory in Fort William the self-registering
instruments have been in continuous use throughout the year,

The health of the observers has been good. The Directors cordially
thank Messrs. Robert Aitken, W. Gentle, and H. D. Robb for their valuable
services as volunteer observers, thus rendering it possible to give the mem-
bers of the regular staff vacation and rest during the summer.

The principal results of the observations made at the two Observatories
during 1902 are detailed in Table I.

TABLE J.

: 1902 Jan, Feb. | 5 | April | May Tune | July | Aug. Sept.| Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year
A — |Mareh| ’ a}

Mean Pressure in Inches.

Ben Nevis Ob- 25°316) 25-199) 25°080) 25°295) 25°350) 25°426) 25°426| 25°365) 25°476)| 25°351| 25°186) 25°252) 25°310
servatory

Fort Wiliiam | 29:959

Differences .| 4'643

29°841
4°642

29°650) 29°894

29958) 29°924/ 29-945) 29-863) 29°990) 29°904) 29°752) 29°874| 29°879
4570) 4599

4°608| 4°498| 4°519| 4°498| 4°514| 4°553| 4°566| 4622) 4°569

Mean Temperatures.

° o °

) BenlevisOb-| 2£0 | 221 | 258 | 271 | 276 | a6 | 3f7 | 39 | ado | 323} o99| 260] 307
servatory

Fort William | 38:6 | 36:0 | 419 | 44-4) 452 | 545] 540 | 540] 5a4| 471 | 471] 41-0 | 46:4

Differences . | 14°6 | 13:9 | 16-1 | 17-3 | 176 | 149 | 163] 161 | 15-0 | 148 | 17:2 | 15°0 | 15-7

Extremes of Temperature: Maxima.
Ben NevisOb-} 36°5 | 37:1) 35:5 | 37:6’) 46-9 | 66-4) 531 | 47°9 ) 50°0 | 45:5 | 40°3 | 45:0 | 664

servatory | |
Fort William} 51:0 | 523 | 51:0 | 61°6 | 59-4 | 80:0 | 66-9) 65-4 | €@7°9 | 58:7 | 596 | 55:2! 80°0
Differences. | 14°5 | 15:2 | 15°5 | 240 | 125 | 136 | 138 | 17-5 | 17:9 | 13-2 | 19°3 | 10:2 | 240

Extremes of Temperature: Minima.

| Ben NevisOb-| 6°6 81} 12°38 | 16°3 | 161 | 23:8 | 281) 281) 23:1 | 24:9) 20:3) 132) 66
| servatory | |

Fort William | 124 | 14:9 | 26:2 | 28:0] 30:6 | 39:9 41°5 | 41:2 | 36:1 | B12 | 35°6 | 24-4 | 124
Differences . 58 68 | 134 | 117 | 145 | 161 | 13-4 | 13:1 | 13°0 63 | 153 | 11l2 | 58

Rainfall in Inches.

Ben NevisOb-| 24:75 3:36) 18:73| 9:87) 15°84} 2-91} 12°22) 9:37) 12°45) 16°31| 7°86 23:43 157°1
servatory

Fort William | 10°03/ 1:07} 7:58| 3:38] 4:63] 1:62
Differences .| 14°72} 2:29] 11:15| 6-49| 11:21| 1:29

365| 4:95) 5:49! 9:05) 3:73) 914| 648
| 957| 442} 696] 7:26! 4°13| 1429| 92-7

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 5Y

TABLE I.—continued.

1902 | Jan. | Feb. |March) April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov.| Dec. | Year |

Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
Ben Nevis Ob-

12 Gray Tain fiee co 2 0 2 | 2 4 6 Sra eng 49

servatory | } |
Fort William 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 | 1 2 2 0 1 9
Differences . | 11 0 | 6 | 2 1 0 2 aa 4 8 | 40

Number of Days 0:01 in. ov more fell.

BenNevisOb-| 26 ) 13 | 28 } 19 ; 28 | 14 1 23, 25 | 26 1 Q1 | 24 | 22 | 269
servatory | |

Fort William) 24 | 14 | 29 | 20 | 22 | 14 | 19 | 22 | 22 | 20 | 21 | 21 | 248
Differences .| 2 | —1 | —1 | —1 6 0 4 3 eh ooy |) cee le ee a

Mean Rainband (Scale 0-8).

Ben NevisOb-| 2:2 13 08 |) 21 2:9 2:3 35 | 20 | 21 | 27 28° | 291 2:2
servatory | |

Fort William | 3°6 3:0 3:8 3-4 38 38 3-9 40 | 40 | 36 | 34 | 36 | 37

Differences . 14 Zi 3-0 13 0-9 15 Or4 20) | 1:9 09 | O6 | 15 | 15

Numben of Hours of Bright Sunshine.

BenNevisOb-; 31 64 29 82 | 45 | 131 55 | 34 | 40 50 | 19 21 | 601
servatory |
Fort William | 28 | 62 65 | 162 | 126 | 165 | 112 | 101 co | 388 40 21 |1,030
Differences .| +3 2 36 80 81 34 57 | 67 20 38 21 {| Oo } 429

Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind in Miles.

Ben NevisQOb-| 13 19 | 138 | 16 | 10 | 11 9 8 12 14 | 28 20 | 14
servatory | |

Percentage of Cloud.

Ben NevisOb-| 85 17 92 76 93 76 92 93 86 82 | 92 o4 86
servatory

Fort William | 80 66 81 64 84 73 84 83 82 69 7L 76 76

Differences . 5 11 1L 12 9 3 8 10 4 13 21 18 10

The above table shows for 1902 the mean monthly and extreme
temperature and pressure ; the amounts of rainfall ; the number of days
of rainfall, and the days on which it equalled or exceeded 1 inch ; the
hours of sunshine ; the mean rainband ; the mean velocity in miles per
hour of the wind at the top of the mountain ; and the mean cloud
amount. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William are reduced to
32° and sea-level ; but those at Ben Nevis Observatory to 32° only.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure was 29°879 inches,
or 0-022 inch above the average, whilst the mean at the top was 25°310
inches, or 0:004 inch above the average. The mean difference for the
two Observatories was 4°569 inches, the mean monthly difference varying
from 4:498 inches in June and August to 4°643 inches in January. At
the top the absolutely highest pressure for the year was 26°258 inches at
11 pm. on January 81, and at Fort William 31:103 inches an hour
earlier on the same day. These are the highest barometric readings
hitherto recorded at the Observatories, though they were closely approached
in January 1896. They occurred while the British Isles lay under an
anti-cyclone of extraordinary intensity, and on the top of the mountain
the barometer remained above 26 inches from 6 p.m. on January 30 till
3 p.M. on February 2; whilst at Fort William the sea-level pressure
exceeded 31 inches from 5 p.m. on January 31 till 1 p.m. on February 1.
At the top, the lowest pressure for the year was 24-000 inches on
December 29, and at Fort William 28°412 inches on the same day. The
difference of the extremes at top and bottom were, therefore, 2258 inches
and 2°68] inches respectively,

58 REPORT—1903.

The deviations of the mean temperatures of the months from their
averages are shown in Table II. :—

Tasie II.

Fort Top of [ Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis. | William. Ben Nevis,
oO ° °
January . % - 05 —02 | July. $ : - Sole —3'3
February . Beg el = 195 | August . ; 5 Ssh —27
March . 5 - +155 +418 | September 5 - +03 +05
April : : + = 056 —07 | October . : . —0°5 +0°9
May : : » —4:7 —54 | November 4 . +50 +0°9
June ‘s 5 . —13 —02 | December . i ae 0) +0°7

The most remarkable feature of the year as regards temperature was
the continued deficiency from April to August. At both Observatories
the mean temperature of May was only fractionally above that of April,
whilst at the top the mean of the month was fully 10° below that of
May 1901. The differences for Novemberarecurious. At Fort William,
as over Scotland generally, the mean of the month was greatly above the
average, whilst at the top there was a comparatively small excess, the
main features of the weather there being a very low rainfall, little sun-
shine, and an atmosphere almost continuously saturated. The month
was characterised by a great excess of strong winds from E. and 8.E., and
the weather was chiefly of the cyclonic type. The absolutely highest
temperature for the year at Fort William was 80°:0 on June 29, and at
the top 66°-4 on June 28 ; the lowest at Fort William being 12°:4 on
January 30, and at the top 6°°6 on January 26.

In Table III. are given for each month the lowest observed hygro-
metric readings at the top of Ben Nevis (reduced by means of Glaisher’s
Tables) :—

Taste IIT.
= SLi. aoe a
| 1902 Jan, | Feb. | Mar. April | May | June July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. Nov. | Dec.
| | i] | |
9° ail hGh enone! ° axel ° | ° ° | ° sa a 9
Dry Bulb 23:2 | 231 | 95-0 | 26:0 | 269 | 65:0 | 46-0 | 385 | 48:3 | 43-5 | 23-0 | 123°
Wet Bulb . | 161 | 161 | 17:0 | 16:0 | 23°0 | 50°0:} 32°38 | 33°56 | 33:0 | 35-5 | 19:81)" 17°0 |
Dew-point . | -23:8 |-233 |-97-2 -124 | 5:1 | 37-7 | 223) 268| 184 | 259 | -O-4 | -20°8
Elastie Force . . | 013 | °014 | “O11 | -024] +054 | -226 | 119 | “146 |'-100 | -140 | -043 | ‘016
Relative Humidity UL epee dale | 8 22 37 36 48 | 62 32.1)1) 49 35 13
[Sat.= 100] | | | |
DayofMonth .) 381] 1. 28 Sate oNpogst| an ag 8 | erent) cay
Hour of Day . ea [4 1 | 1 10 | 5}, 16 | 10 | 24 10 10 1 16
| |

Of these relative humidities, the lowest, 8 per cent., occurred on
March 28, with a dew-point of —27°:2, that being the lowest dew-point for
the year. The minimum humidity for August is unusually high. During
that month the atmosphere was continuously saturated on fifteen days,
rainfall and sunshine being both deficient. November was a remarkable
month, from the Ist to the 13th and from the 23rd to the 30th being
periods of uninterrupted saturation, whilst on only five days was the
Observatory not continuously enveloped in mist.

The rainfall for the year at the top was 157:10 inches, or 0°57 inch
below the mean of 18 years ; whilst the annual amount at Fort William
was 64°32 inches, or 12°35 inches below the average for the same period.
Thus, at the foot of the mountain, as over Scotland generally, the year

METEOROLOGICAL. OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 59

was a very dry one, whilst at the top the amount of precipitation was
practically equal to the average. The monthly amounts at the top,
however, showed some notable irregularities. Thus January was a very
wet month, with a rainfall about 8 inches above the mean, whilst the
following month had a deficiency of about 9 inches, and was the second
driest February on record. Again, the rainfall of May was more than
twice the normal, being the largest total for that month during the
series of observations; whilst, on the other hand, the rainfall for
November was the smallest amount yet recorded for that month, being
only a little more than half the average. At the top of the mountain,
the greatest fall recorded in a single day was 5°92 inches on May 27, the
corresponding fall at Fort William being 1°83 inch ; whilst the maximum
daily amount at Fort William was 1:99 inch, on January 19, the fall at
the top on that day being 2°12 inches.

At the top of Ben Nevis the number of rainy days was 269, and at

-Fort William 248, the corresponding numbers for 1901 being 259 and
235. A feature of the weather of the year over the country generally was
that, though the rainfall was much below the normal, there were more
than the average number of rainy days. Thus, at Fort William the rain-
fall for the year was 16 per cent. below the normal, and yet there were
15 more than the average number of days of rain. At the top the
number of rainy days was 8 above the average. In each of the months
of February, March, and April, the number of rainy days was one more
at the foot than at the top of the mountain, the greatest number of rainy
days in a month at either station being 29 in March at Fort William,
and the least, 13, in February on Ben Nevis. During the year the num-
ber of days on which 1 inch or more fell at the top was 49, whereas at
Fort William the number of such days was only 9, The corresponding
numbers for 1901 were 54 and 10.

The sunshine recorder on Ben Nevis registered 601 hours out of a
possible of 4,473 hours, or 13:5 per cent. of the possible sunshine, being
146 hours below the average of 19 years. So little sunshine has not been
recorded since 1890, when the annual amount was 590 hours. June was
the sunniest month of the year, with 131 hours, being 4 more than the
average and 25 per cent. of the possible. The amount for May was only
45 hours, being no less than 75 hours below the mean and the least re-
corded in that month since 1885. At Fort William the annual amount
was 1,030 hours, being the smallest total in 12 years and 103 hours below
the average for that period. May and November differed most from their
averages, being respectively 40 and 43 hours below the normal for these
months.

At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud was 86,
and at Fort William 76, both a little above the average. At the top, May
and August were the cloudiest months, each with 93 per cent. No month
at either place had a very low cloud amount, whereas in May 1901 the
amounts at top and bottom respectively were 56 and 52 per cent.

Auroras were observed on February 7 ; December 22, 23.

St. Elmo’s Fire:—March 12; April 13; May 4, 5; October 30;
December 25, 28.

Zodiacal Light :—Not observed during the year.

Thunder and Lightning :—June 25 ; December 28,

Lightning only :—January 3, 4.

Solar Halos :—February 18; March 16, 24; April 29 (with Mock
Suns) ; May 10, 16, 21 ; July 21 ; September 19 ; October 12, 28,

60 REPORT—1903.

Lunar Halos :—January 20, 26, 27; February 17, 18; March 28;
September 19 ; December 11, 14.

The question of the advisability of continuing the work at the Ben Nevis
Observatories has lately been under consideration, and your Committee
consider it advisable to state here briefly the past history of the Observa-
tories and their present position, especially in relation to the value of the
Observatories in forecasting weather.

The Meteorological Council, in 1887, when supplying information for a
reply to a question put in the House of Commons about the Ben Nevis
Observatory, stated that certain telegrams which had been sent from Ben
Nevis Observatory at their request were useless for forecasting purposes.
This statement was understood by the public to mean that the whole work
at Ben Nevis Observatory was useless for forecasting. This view of the
matter was corrected (1) in a letter to ‘The Times’ by Mr. Omond, and
(2) ina Report to the meeting of the British Association from their Ben
Nevis Committee in 1887.

The Low Level Observatory at Fort William, built by the Scottish
Meteorological Society, and equipped with the necessary instruments by
the Meteorological Council, was opened in July 1890. The full and
complete equipment of this Low Level Observatory at Fort William by
the Meteorological Council constitutes a feature of the first importance in
the history of the two connected Observatories. During the period of the
last thirteen years the High and Low Level Observatories have been in
complete working order, furnishing in combination the simultaneous
hourly observations which, in the opinion of your Committee, were
essential in the inquiries instituted at these Observatories into weather
changes and general meteorology.

As regards the seven years previous to 1890, when there were no
hourly observations at the Low Level Observatory, what happened in
relation to forecasting—that is, to efforts to use high level observations
in forecasting—is told in the following extract from the Report of this
Committee to the British Association in 1887 :—

Extract from Report of Ben Nevis Committee of British Association, 1887.

‘On the evening of August 23, 1887, there was a discussion in
Parliament on the Vote for the Learned Societies, and in that discussion
the next-morning newspapers reported that Mr. Jackson, of the Treasury,
Sir John Lubbock, Sir E. Birkbeck, and others, argued against any grant
to the Observatory, on the ground that the Meteorological Council,
composed of men of the very highest scientific standing, had given it
as their opinion that the practical results to be obtained from the
Ben Nevis Observatory did not warrant the grant asked for from the
Treasury.

‘A word as to this opinion. The Meteorological Council recently
printed a memorandum “On Occasional Telegrams from Ben Nevis,”
signed Frederick Gaster, which was forwarded to the Treasury some time
before the discussion came on in Parliament. A copy was also sent to
the Directors of the Observatory by instructions from General Strachey.
The memorandum concludes thus : “In their existing form the telegrams
(from Ben Nevis) are absolutely useless.”

‘The whole question turns on the meaning of the phrase “their
existing form,” which a few sentences will explain.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 61

‘When, in December 1883, the offer of the Directors to send daily
telegrams from the top and bottom of the mountain was declined, the
Meteorological Office asked instead for occasional telegrams in these
words : ‘* We wish Mr. Omond to use his own discretion, and telegraph
to us whenever any very striking change of conditions or a special
phenomenon of great interest is recorded.” It will be noted that the
Meteorological Office made no mention whatever of storms. Since
December 1883 Mr. Omond has sent such telegrams as appeared to him to
be wished, and no application has been made for upwards of three years
for more frequent telegrams or any other information, only that some
time ago a request was forwarded that every effort be made that the
telegrams do not exceed the sixpenny charge.

‘The request, it will be noticed, was for telegrams whenever any very
striking change of conditions was recorded. Now, as a matter of fact,
no telegram has been sent with reference to all those storms, forming
the immense majority of storms, which have not been preceded or
accompanied by a very striking change of conditions. But, further,
several telegrams were sent because it seemed to Mr. Omond that the
very striking change of conditions which occurred prognosticated settled
weather. Now, in drawing up the memorandum for the Treasury all
these, as well as the other telegrams sent, were classed together by the
Meteorological Office, and treated as if they had been intended by
Mr. Omond to be prognostic of storms, and the nineteen telegrams sent
were assumed to be all the warnings.of storms which the Observatory
could send to the office in London. From these data, so arranged for and
collected and interpreted, the decision was come to that “in their existing
form the telegrams from Ben Nevis are absolutely useless.” It might have
been predicted before a single telegram was received that no other than
such a decision could possibly have been arrived at.

‘While the statement that “in their existing form the telegrams are
absolutely useless” is thus unquestionably correct, it is, nevertheless, void
of ail meaning as respects the matter in hand. What has been done is
not an investigation, and it is not science. But the statement underwent
a transforming process in its passage to the House of Commons, appearing
in this form, viz.: ‘‘ The Ben Nevis observations are absolutely useless in
forecasting weather ”—a statement of which it is enough to say that it is
incorrect. The Meteorological Office has yet to take the first step towards
commencing an investigation into the utility of the Ben Nevis observa-
tions for forecasting purposes.

‘On the other hand, the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society,
strengthened as regards the direction of the Observatory by representatives
of the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh and the Philosophical
Society of Glasgow, includes men of equal scientific merit with any other
Meteorological Council in the country ; and after some years’ investigation,
their opinion is that the Ben Nevis observations are of the highest utility
in the development of meteorology and in framing forecasts of storms
and weather for the British islands.’

Since 1890, when the High and Low Observatories came into operation,
no weather telegrams have been asked by or been sent to the Meteoro-
logical Council, either from the High or Low Level Observatories, for
forecasting purposes. Further, so far as your Committee are aware, the
Meteorological Council have, officially, neither expressed an opinion as to

62 REPORT—1903.
the value of these observations in forecasting, nor instituted any examina-
tion of the records of the Ben Nevis Observatories with the view of
testing their possible value in forecasting.

As regards the future of the Observatories, it may be stated that last
summer the Directors resolved that the two Observatories should be closed
in October last year. They issued a memorandum which stated that the
Observatory on the top of Ben Nevis had been in existence for nearly
nineteen years, that it had been built, equipped, and very largely supported
during the whole of that time by voluntary subscriptions, and that they
considered the time had come when it should either be closed or continued
as a State-supported institution.

Shortly after the publication of this memorandum, however, a Com-
mittee of Inquiry into the expenditure of the annual Parliamentary grant
of 15,3007. for meteorology was appointed, and representations were
made to the Directors from various quarters that it would be well if the
work at the two Observatories was continued without interruption till
the Committee had reported. Your Committee are, with much satis-
faction, able to report that within a few weeks sufficient funds were
obtained to meet the expenses incurred in maintaining the Ben Nevis
and Fort William Observatories till October 1904. These Observatories
will therefore continue in operation under the charge of the Directors
as heretofore till October 1904.

The Observatories have thus been in operation long enough to yield,
from a discussion of the work done at them, conclusions of great value.
Their records supply a complete set of simultaneous hourly observations
(1) at the summit of Ben Nevis for close on twenty years, and (2) at
sea-level in Fort William for a period of thirteen years—times long enough
to obtain averages of value and to embrace, it may be added, fully a sun-
spot period. The Directors have acquired these facts under conditions
which are exceptionally favourable—the Observatory at sea-level being
less than five miles distant in a straight line from the Observatory on the
summit, and yet placed close to the sea and in a fairly open situation.
Moreover, it is not a valley station. There are no other two associated
Observatories or stations in the world, one at a high and the other at
a low level, where such favourable conditions exist.

The geographical position of Ben Nevis is also favourable. In winter
the British islands have a higher mean temperature than any other part
of the land surface of the world equally far north, and consequently it
is easier to live and work in winter at great altitudes in those islands
than anywhere else in similar latitudes. All the other mountain stations
are either in the Tropics or in the belt of high barometric pressure
which occupies the southern part of the Temperate Zone. Ben Nevis,
however, is clear of this high-pressure region, and lies on the edge of the
great barometric depression in the North Atlantic which dominates the
weather of North-Western Europe. From Ben Nevis, therefore, we get
data of observation which no other high-level station yet established is in
a position to furnish to forecasters of the weather of North-Western
Europe.

The discussions of the double Ben Nevis and Fort William observa-
tions all go to confirm the opinion as to the value of these observations
expressed by the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society in 1887
and quoted in this report. Your Committee, however, desire to point out
that the full value of the observations for forecasting purposes can only

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVis, 63

be tested by persons engaged in the practical work of forecasting day by
day ; your Committee or any other body of scientific men can only
indicate the lines on which results of value in forecasting may be looked
for.

The first work the Directors of the Observatories set themselves to do
was to prepare the meteorological ‘constants’ for the positions on the
summit and at the base of Ben Nevis. This has been done, based on
twenty years’ observations on the summit and thirteen years’ at Fort
William. The constants for these periods will appear in vol. iii. of the
Ben Nevis observations, now in the press, and to be published during the
coming winter.

In your Committee’s previous Reports other lines of investigation
have been frequently referred to and reported on, along which researches
connected with the Ben Nevis observations are being carried on by
Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond. Some of the results have a special bearing
on forecasting. One or two illustrative cases may be here added.

1. The occurrence of small differences of temperature between Ben
Nevis and Fort William, associated with very low humidities at Ben
Nevis and great dampness at Fort William, and the relations of this
state of things to the stability and continuance of an anti-cyclone, and
also to thunderstorms and those heavy local rains commonly denoted as
thunder-showers, have been reported on.

2. The occurrence of long-continued periods of saturation of the air at
the top of Ben Nevis, as indicative of a condition of the atmosphere
favourable to the development and continuance of stormy weather.

3. A marked difference in the direction of the wind on the summit
from that at surrounding low-level stations. Such a difference most
commonly occurs when Ben Nevis lies between a cyclone and an anti-
cyclone, and may be indicative of the direction of movement either of
the cyclone or the anti-cyclone.

4, The predictive aspects of very strong winds on the summit of
Ben Nevis accompanied, notwithstanding their great force, with very low
temperatures there and great differences of temperature between the
summit and Fort William, and the intimate connection of the whole with
cyclonic weather, have been pointed out. Recent kite observations have
made us tolerably familiar with this remarkable phase of the cyclone, and
to Ben Nevis we may look for important contributions of illustrative
data.

5. The difference between tiie Ben Nevis and Fort William barometers
when both are reduced to sea-level. This difference, when it amounts to
several hundredths of an inch, clearly points to an abnormal condition of
the air between the summit and Fort William in respect to the vertical
gradient of temperature or humidity, or both.

The investigation of some of the points raised in this discussion has
been a chief subject of inquiry during the past eighteen months. The
inquiry is a discussion of the hourly observations of pressure, temperature,
humidity, sunshine, winds and rainfall at the two Observatories in their
inter-relations, more especially as regards the bearings ofthe results on
weather changes

The principal point to be kept in view is the relation of the differences
of temperature at the two Observatories to the differences of their sea-
level pressure at the time. An illustration will explain this. During
the last three days of September 1895, the sky over Scotland was clear,

64 REPORT—1908.

sunshine strong, humidity high, night temperatures unusually high, and
dews heavy, with calms or light winds. On these days while at the top
temperature was very high and the air clear and very dry, at Fort William,
under a sky equally clear and temperature high, the air showed a large
humidity, and this state of moisture extended to a height of about 2,000
feet, or nearly halfway to the summit. Thus, then, while the barometer
at the top was under an atmosphere wholly anti-cyclonic, with its accom-
panying dry dense air, the barometer at Fort William was not so circum-
stanced. On the other hand, it was under the pressure of such dry dense
air, above the height of 2,000 feet only, whereas from this height down
to sea-level it was under the pressure of air whose humidity was large and
pressure therefore much reduced. The result was that the sea-level pres-
sure at Fort William was 0-050 inch lower than it would have been if the
dry dense air of the anti-cyclone had been continued down to Fort William.
This is confirmatory of what is to be expected, that the greater density of
dry air as shown in our laboratories prevails equally in the free atmosphere.

The first part of the discussion is virtually finished, the chief result of
which is this :—1. When the difference of mean temperature of the day
is only 12°-0 or less, then the sea-level pressure calculated for the top of
the mountain is markedly greater than at Fort William ; 2. When the
difference of temperature is 18°-0 or greater, then the sea-level pressure
for the summit is markedly lower than at Fort William. In the former
case the meteorological conditions are anti-cyclonic, the weather being
then clear, dry, and practically rainless ; and in the latter case the condi-
tions are cyclonic, the accompanying weather being dull, humid, and rainy.
In the course of this discussion it has been marked that the reduced hourly
values from day to day often indicate that the transition from the anti-
cyclonic to the cyclonic type of weather, and vice versa, is slow, sometimes
extending over several days, thus prolonging the time for the prediction
of the more important weather changes.

It may be remarked that the result here empirically arrived at is in
accordance with the principle laid down by Dalton, that ‘air charged with
vapour or vaporised air is specifically lighter than when without the
vapour ; or, in other words, the more vapour any given quantity of
atmospheric air has in it, the less is its specific gravity.’

The precursor and accompaniment of the heaviest and most wide-
spread rains is when the sea-level pressure for the summit is very greatly
lower than the sea-level pressure at Fort William. This indicates the
saturation of the atmosphere to a great height, while at Fort William, and,
say, 2,000 feet higher, the point of saturation due to the advancing cyclone
has not yet taken place.

On the other hand, when this point of saturation has been reached,
then the sea-level pressure for the summit shows less difference from the
sea-level pressure at Fort William. The changes of pressure which occur
at the two Observatories as a cyclone advances and passes on are particu-
larly interesting and instructive.

Tt is remarkable that comparatively few observations, when the differ-
ence of the temperature has exceeded 22°-0, could be utilised in this
inquiry, because in such cases high winds prevailed, resulting in ‘pumping’
of the barometer. These differences of temperature, rising even to 27°-0,
are, however, extremely valuable for weather prediction, inasmuch as they
often precede and accompany very severe storms of wind and rain. They
arise from an extraordinary lowering of the temperature at the summit,

METEOROLOGICAL ORSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 65

while at Fort William no such lowering of temperature occurs. This is a
peculiarity which kites and balloon ascents have recently familiarised us
with, and it forms a prime factor in all inquiries into the theory of the
cyclone, about which opinion at present is so much divided.

eport on the Theory of Point-groups..— Part III.
By Frances Harpcastie, Cambridge.

§ 9. 1818-1857. While Fermat and Descartes, by combining the processes
of Algebra and Geometry, were evolving the foundations of that system
of co-ordinates which rapidly became the common language of geometers,
a contemporary mathematician, Desargues of Lyons (1593-1662), and his
pupil Pascal (1623-1662) were occupied with the study of those properties
of figures, in space and in the plane, which persist under the operation
known as projection. And had it not been for the evil fate which
caused the publications of both master and pupil to be lost, and for the
oblivion into which even the memory of these writings sank for more than
180 years, it is probable that modern synthetic geometry would have been
developed from the beginning side by side with analytical geometry, instead
of coming into existence, as it did, a whole century and a half later than
its rival. The fundamental characteristic of each—that which most dis-
tinguished both systems from the geometry of the ancients—is the same,
the systematic use of the principle of projection. But it is noteworthy
that, although this was present from the beginning in the structure of
Cartesian co-ordinates (whereby every point of a curve is projected on to
the axis), it was only after the rise of descriptive geometry under Monge
(1746--1818) and Carnot (1753-1823) (who explicitly founded it upon
projection from ordinary space on to the plane), that Pliicker (1801-1858),
by the use of homogeneous co-ordinates,” really opened up the projective
possibilities inherent in analytical geometry. Throughout the period now
to be discussed, the projective standpoint is the one adopted by analytical
as well as by synthetic geometers; the transition to the wider point of

_ view afforded by bi-rational transformation was only effected after the

ideas of the theory of functions—at that time still in its infancy—had
permeated the whole domain of pure mathematics, and had influenced
the theory of higher plane curves to a degree which must have been
startling to the mathematicians of the early nineteenth century.

Among the numerous novel terms introduced by Desargues in his
‘ Brouillon projet d’une atteinte aux événements des rencontres d’un céne
avec un plan’ was that of involution,! and, unlike many of the others, it
has survived. Starting from the definition that six points on a straight
line are in involution if certain ratios can be established among the seg-
ments formed by them, Desargues proved his famous theorem that a conic
and the sides of an inscribed quadrilateral determine six points in invo-
lution on any transversal. He did not, however, investigate the still

1 Parts I. and II. appeared in the Brit. Assoc. Reports for 1900, 1902.
* Moebius’s Barycentrische Calcul was printed in 1827, and was actually the first

' publication in which homogeneous co-ordinates were brought forward ; Pliicker’s

red

paper in Crelle, vol. v.(1830), gave the first exposition of trilinear co-ordinates. Cf.
Clebsch, ‘Julius Pliicker zum Gedichtniss,’ Abhandlungen Gottingen, vol. xvi. (1872),
pp. 1-40.
* Discovered in De la Hire’s manuscript copy by Chasles in 1845, and printed in
Poudra, @uvres de Desargues (Paris, 1864), vol. i. pp. 97-230.
* Poudra, luc. cit., vol. i. p. 101, p. 109, p. 119; also vol. ii. p. 362.
1903. F

66 REPORT-——1903.

more significant fact that any conic through the four vertices of the
quadrilateral cuts the transversal in a pair of points belonging to the same
jnvolution. This theorem was first published by Sturm! (1803-1835) in
1826 ; his proof is algebraical, being derived from the equations which,
ten years previously,” had been shown by Lamé to be the necessary conse-
quence of the simultaneous existence of three equations of the second
order. He points out that the relations he thus obtains are those which
establish ‘cette liaison remarquable qui était nommée par Desargues invo-
lution de six points.’ He afterwards mentions that the two pairs of
opposite sides of a quadrilateral inscribed in a conic can be regarded as a
pair of degenerate conics, and that Desargues’s theorem is thus an imme-
diate deduction from his own more general one ; but he makes no state-
ment which would lead us to suppose he saw the importance of con-
sidering what we now call a range of points in involution, viz. an infinite
number of points on a straight line, such that if any two pairs are given
the correspondent to a fifth point is determined by the relation called in-
volution which holds for any six. Nor, again, is he really interested in
the fact that a whole system of conics passes through the points common
to two conics (although, of course, he is perfectly aware that a third conic
through these points has an equation involving one linear parameter) ; his
concern is with properties of the individual conic of the system, not with
the system itself. And the same remark must be made about Lamé,
although the idea of a pencil of curves is due to him *—that is to say, he
found for the first time the equation, E+mE’=0,' of what we now call
a pencil of curves; his primary interest was with the conditions which
must subsist among the coefficients of the equations of three curves, in
order that they may intersect in common points, and next, in the particu-
lar properties which follow for conics ; with regard to curves of higher
order, to which the greater interest, when looked at as a system, attaches
itself, he simply stated the equation.

Gergonne (1771-1859) seems to have been the first to derive any
property concerning the points of intersection of curves whose equation
is of Lamé’s form, as a direct consequence of this form. In 1827 he thus
found * that 7f p(p+4q) of the (p+q) points of intersection of two curves
of order (p+q) lie on a curve of order p, the remaining q(p+q) points lie
on a curve of order q : from which he obtained the corollary : Given two
systems of m lines in the plane, if among the m* points of intersection of
the lines of one system with the lines of the other there are 2m which le
on a conic, then the m(m—2) remaining points all lie on a curve of order
(m—2). Writing m=3, this is, as he points out, the theorem known as
Pascal’s. This proof of Pascal’s theorem also appears incidentally in a
long footnote to the last chapter of the first volume of Pliicker’s ‘ Ana-
lytisch-geometrische Entwicklungen,’ printed in 1828 ; the preface is dated
September 1827, later than the publication of Gergonne’s paper, and it is
possible that this footnote was added at the same time ; this would give
the priority in discovery of this particular proof to Gergonne, as well as

1 «Mémoire sur les lignes du second ordre,’ Gergonne’s Annales, vol. xvii. pp. 173—
198.

2 ‘Sur les intersections des lignes et des surfaces,’ Gerg. Ann., vol. vii. pp. 229-240.

3 Clebsch, oc. cit., p. 17.

4 In his Hxamen des différentes méthodes employées pour résoudre les problemes de
géometrie, 1818, p. 29. See Part II. of this Report, § 8 (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1902).

5 ‘Recherches sur quelques lois générales qui régissent les lignes et surfaces
algébriques de tous les ordres,’ Gerg. Ann., vol. xvii. (1827), pp. 214-252.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUTS. 67

the priority in publication which is undoubtedly his.! This, however, is
a very small matter : Gergonne’s contribution to the elucidation of pro-
blems connected with the intersections of curves is insignificant compared
with Plicker’s. It was Pliicker who derived from Lamé’s equation of a
system of curves the theorem which threw fresh light upon the so-called
Cramer Paradox, which had baffled mathematicians for more than a hun-
dred years. And it was Pliicker who, simultaneously with Jacobi (1804-
1851), first ventured upon a line of research which afterwards proved a
fruitful source of theorems in the theory of point-groups—the investiga-
tion, namely, of the conditions which must exist among the co-ordinates
of certain points if they are known to be the points of intersection of two
curves of given (differing) orders.

The problem which first led Pliicker to consider the paradox was that
of determining the highest degree of osculation possible between a curve
of order n and one of order m. This question is treated in a footnote to
an earlier chapter? of the work just mentioned, and its solution is made
to depend upon the establishment of a new theorem, viz. that all curves
of the nth order, which pass through* ((n))—2 given points intersect each
other also in the same n?—((n))+2=((n—3)) points. In this passage the
paradox is not explicitly mentioned ; but in a paper published in the
same year in Gergonne’s Annales‘ Pliicker speaks of it, describing it as
the fact that in certain cases two curves of the same order may cut each
other in at least as many points as are required to completely determine
one of them. ‘Cramer,’ he continues, ‘dans son “Introduction 3
analyse des courbes algébriques,” est le premier, je crois, qui ait signalé
cette espéce de paradoxe qui s’explique aisément en remarquant que,
lorsqu’il est question du nombre des points nécessaires et suffisants sur un
plan, pour déterminer complétement une courbe d’un degré déterminé, on
sous-entend toujours que ces points sont pris au hasard, et ne sont liés
entre eux par aucune relation particuliére.’ He establishes his new
theorem in almost the same words here as in the other passage; the
application is to the theory of the conjugate points of conics.

The second volume of the ‘ Analytisch-geometrische Entwicklungen’
was published in 1832: in this Pliicker returned to the subject of the
paradox,” and remarked that Cramer had indicated the analytical explana-
tion, viz. that the m? linear equations which correspond to the n? points
of intersection of two curves of order n must, if »>3, be such that one
or more, arbitrarily chosen from among them, are conditioned by those
which remain ; he adds that a geometrical interpretation of this explana-
tion is needed. His own new theorem affords this geometrical interpreta-
tion, and he therefore reproduces it once more, with a proof which, when
slightly elaborated, is substantially as follows :—

Assume (())—2 arbitrary points in the plane, take any two curves of
order 7 through them, U=0, V=0, which, in general, are completely
determined if we know one more point, not the same, on each. Suppose

1 See Kotter, ‘Die Entwickelung der synthetischen Geometrie von Monge bis
auf Staudt,’ Jahresber. d. deutsch. Math.-Verein., vol. v. (1901), p. 226. Clebsch
(Joe. cit., p. 19) ascribes the priority to Pliicker, without mentioning Gergonne.

2 Pp. 228.

* ((v)) is written throughout for 3 (n+1) (n+ 2).

* ‘Recherches sur les courbes algébriques de tous les degrés, Gerg. Ann.
vol. xix. (1828), pp. 97-106; also Works (Leipzig, 1895) pp. 76-82.

5 P, 242.

68 REPORT—1903.

U=0, V=0 so determined, then U +\V=0, where X is an undetermined
coefficient, is the equation of all those curves of order m which pass
through the n? points of intersection of the above two curves. It requires
one linear equation to determine \, and thus the knowledge of any new
point P on the locus U+AV=0, but not on U=0 nor on V=0, is suffi-
cient for this purpose, and the equation of the completely determined curve
U+A,V=0 which passes through an arbitrary point P can be obtained.
Moreover, this same curve can also be uniquely determined by adding
a point P to the ((m))—2 arbitrary points (since ((m))—1 points completely
determine a curve of order »), and it passes through the »? points of
intersection of U=0, V=0, 2.e. through certain n?—((n))+2=((n—3))
points common to U=0, V=0, as well as through the arbitrary points
and P. Now take another curve V’/=0 instead of V=O, and obtain in
the same manner the equation U+,, V’=0 of a curve completely deter-
mined by the (())—2 points, and the same point P as before ; this curve
is therefore identical with U+\A,V=0; and it passes through certain
((n—3)) points common to U=0, V’=0. It has thus been shown that
U=0, V=0, U+A, V=0all pass through certain ((7—3)) points as well as
through the arbitrary points, and also that U=0, V’=0, U+ p,V’=0 all
pass through certain ((7—3)) points as well as through the arbitrary points ;
moreover, these points are in each case common to U=0 and to the
particular curve determined by the addition of P to the arbitrary points,
whose equation may be written either as U+A,V=0 or as U+p,V'=0 ;
that is to say, they are the same ((n—3)) fixed points. By this argument
it can be shown that any curve which passes through ((z))—2 arbitrary
points cuts any other curve through these points in the same ((n—3))
fixed points.

The complete validity of this proof depends upon two assumptions :
that every curve of order ” through the points of intersection of two
given curves U=0, V=0 of the same order has an equation of the form
U+AV=0; and that a curve of order » is completely determined by
((n))—1 points. The first of these is a very special case of a much more
general theorem ! which, so long as the method of counting the constants
of an equation was considered to afford a sufficiently rigorous proof of in-
formation obtained by its means, was supposed to be intuitively true. The
difficulties of a rigorous proof of the general theorem, moreover, do not
appear unless cases are considered in which the points of intersection are
multiple points on U=0, V=0, and the minute investigation of higher
singularities of curves had not yet been attempted ; it is not surprising,
therefore, that throughout Pliicker’s lifetime the theorem in question was
taken for granted. With regard to the second assumption, the case is
different ; the paradox itself had arisen from a want of seeing exactly
how the element of indetermination could enter into the equation of a
curve drawn through ((m))—1 points ; and Pliicker, in the above proof,
expressly guards himself against exceptional cases by the use of the words
‘ arbitrary,’ ‘in general,’ etc.

This had not, however, prevented Pliicker from previously (in 1828)
falling into a mistake which he afterwards corrected (in 1836). At the
end of the footnote to the problem of osculation he had stated, namely,
that the infinitely many curves of order n, n>m, through ((z—2)) points

1 Usually known as ‘Noether’s theorem.’ See Math. Ann., vol. ii, pp. 293-316
(1869) and Math. Amn., vol. vi. pp. 351-359 (1872).

rogerr

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 69

on a curve of order m will all cut this curve again in the same mm— ((n))+2
points. This is a fallacy, for since, by hypothesis, the ((n))—2 arbitrary
points lie on a curve of order m, which, since ((”))—2>((m))—1 when
n> m, would not have been possible in the original theorem without further
conditions, it is now possible that the system of curves of order » should
consist of degenerate curves, viz. the given curve of order m together
with a system of curves of order x»—m which all pass through the addi-
tional arbitrary point, which point, therefore, taken in combination with
the ((n))—2 arbitrary points, fails to determine uniquely a curve of order
m, and the line of argument adopted in the original theorem falls to the
ground. (The correct statement in such a case is that the curves of order
m all cut the curve of order m again in an infinite number of points.) But
the exact number of arbitrary points which may be assumed upon the
curve of order m without invalidating the previous line of argument can
be found as follows : It is clear that, since n>m, the system will always
contain certain degenerate curves, each of which consists of the given
curve of order m, and some fixed curve of order n—m. Such a degenerate
curve can play the part assigned to U=0 in the original theorem, and
all the curves of order 7 through the ((z))—2 arbitrary points must pass
through ((n—3)) additional points on it ; it only remains to decide how
the arbitrary points are distributed between the two curves of which it is
composed, and what distribution of the additional points will then result.
Now the conditions of the problem require the degenerate curve to be
fixed, and this can only be effected by means of the assumption on the
curve of order n—m of a sufficient number of the arbitrary points to deter-
mine it completely, i.e. of ((w—m))—1; the remaining arbitrary points
which are ((m))—2—((m—m))+1 in number, lie upon the given curve of
order m ; and the difference between mm and the last-named number,
viz. ((m-3)), is the number of additional fixed points in which all the
curves of order m will cut the given curve of order m again.

Two equivalent algebraical statements of Pliicker’s original theorem
are given in a paper which he published in Crelle’s ‘ Journal’ in 1836.1

(I.) Si on donne & deux quantités variables successivement ((r))—2
couples de valeurs quelconques, et si Von suppose que ces valeurs satisfassent
a une equation quelconque du n“"’ degré entre les deux variables, il y aura
n?—((n))—2 = ((n—3)) couples de valeurs nouveaux qui satisfont & la méme
équation et qui dépendent uniquement des couples précédents.

(II.) Si Pon connait ((n))—2 couples de racines de deux equations du
n“™ degré entre deux inconnues, Von obtiendra les ((n—3)) couples de
racines restantes, sans avoir recours & ces équations.

In the same paper the new theorem is also stated in algebraical form :

Si Von connait nq—((q—3)) couples des racines de deux equations du
n° et du qi*™ degré entre deux inconnues, n étant plus grand que q et
q plus grand que 2, lon en déduira les ((q—3)) couples des racines restantes
sans recourir aux équations proposées, en fonction des racines connues et
par la résolution de deux équations du ((q—3))*" degré.

It is established as follows :

Let n=p-+gq, and let ((p))—1 of the ((m))—2 couples of values
which in the original theorem were all arbitrarily assumed, be now assumed
to satisfy an equation A,=0 of order p, which is then completely

1 «Théorémes généraux concernant les équations d’un degré quelconque entre un
nombre quelconque d’inconnues,’ Crelle, vol. xvi. pp. 47-57; Works, pp. 323-333.

70 REPORT—1903.

determined. If the rest, which are ng—((g—3)) in number, satisfy an equa-
tion C,=0 of order q, ee, ane A,C,=0 is one of the equations of order
n satisfied by the ((m)) — ((p))—1-+ng— —((q—3)) couples of values, it
follows from the first seal statement of the original theorem that
it will also be satisfied by ((n—3))=((¢—3)) +np—((p)) +1 other couples
of values ; but since every equation of order m has nq couples of values which
are common to it and to C,=0, it follows that the ng—((q—3)) above-
mentioned couples of values which satisfy C, = 0 must lead to ((g—3))
others, which also satisfy this equation of order gq.

Pliicker’s final utterance on the intersections of plane curves occurs in
the ‘Introductory Considerations,’ which form the first chapter of his
‘Theorie der algebraischen Curven,’ published in 1839. He there repeats
the geometrical formulation of the original theorem, and also formulates the
new “theorem, geometrically, thus: All curves of the nth order which pass
through nq— “(( q—3)) points arbitrarily assumed on a given curve of order
q cut this curve again in ((q—38)) more fixed points. He further considers
what possibilities exist for the distribution of the arbitrary points on two
fixed curves of orders p and q respectively, where p+q=, in order that all
curves of order through these arbitrary points may intersect each given
curve again in a certain number of fixed points. These considerations
lead him to state : Jf of the n? points of intersection of two curves of order n,
nq—((q—3)) lie on a curve of order q, then a curve of order n—q
passes through the remaining n(n—q) points. This, as he points out, is
an improvement on Gergonne’s theorem, inasmuch as it obtains the same
result with a smaller number of assigned points. The closing paragraph
of this chapter is devoted to historic considerations. In it Plicker refers
to the passages in his former book, and to his papers in Gergonne’s
Annales, and once more draws attention to Cramer as the originator of
the paradox.! He then goes on to explain that his paper in Crelle’s
Journal, although published in the sixteenth volume, was in the editor’s
hands at the same time as one of Javobi’s which appeared in the fifteenth
volume. He adds that his own had been intended for the first volume of
Liouville’s Journal (which replaced Gergonne’s Annales at about this date)
and that ‘a celebrated analyst had occasioned its preparation by a verbal
observation about the difficulty of extending the relations which connect
the roots of an equation in one variable to the case of the simultaneous
roots of a system of two or more equations among two or more variables.

. This is why it was written in French, and clothed in algebraic form.’

It was characteristic of Plicker’s genius that he consciously limited
the scope of his mathematical investigations to one particular domain—
that of analytical geometry—within which, indeed, he found ample room
for the employment of his rich imagination. This probably accounts for
the fact that his writings on the intersections of curves are completely
uninfluenced by the theory of functions, although his lifetime precisely
covers the years in which this new branch of pure mathematics was being
created. The account of the influence of the theory of functions on the
theory of higher plane curves will fall into a later division of this Report,
but it may be mentioned here that the interest which attaches itself to
the paper of Jacobi’s referred to by Plicker is partly due to its close

’ For this point, cf. Part II. of this Report, § 6, last paragraph, Brit. Assoc.
Report, 1902.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 71

connection with the algebraical theorem called by its author’s name,
a theorem which was afterwards destined to play an important part (at
the hands of Clebsch) in the interpretation of Abel’s theorem into the
language of analytical geometry.

Jacobi’s method is, in fact, the very reverse of Pliicker’s. The open-
ing paragraph of this memoir,! after a brief reference to Euler’s paper,
‘Sur une contradiction apparente dans la doctrine des lignes courbes,’ ”
and to the problem in the intersections of curves which is there dealt
with, states that those problems are of a/gebraical importance, and that it
appears advisable to investigate the equations of condition which exist
among the values of two variables which cause two integral functions to
vanish simultaneously. Throughout the course of this investigation the
arguments are strictly algebraical, although a geometrical equivalent of
each theorem is given, The following brief analysis of Jacobi’s memoir
will show wherein his geometrical theorems differ in enunciation from
Pliicker’s, although dealing with the same problems.

The two integral functions which vanish by hypothesis for simul-
taneous values of the variable are, in the first place, to be of the same
order n, and in order to arrive at the number of equations of condition
which must exist among the values of the variables in this case, Jacobi
begins by considering a function w of order m which vanishes for ((7))—2
given systems of values. Since a function of order » contains ((7))
coefficients (homogeneous), and since the given systems of values of the
variables provide ((m))—2 linear equations among the coefficients, it
follows that w can be written in the form a3a,,a°7° +b30,,~77°, where a, b
are the two coefficients which are not eliminated from the system of
((m))—2 equations linear in the coefficients, and a,,, 6.3 are the functions
of the ((n))—2 given values of the variables which, in solving for the
other coefficients, are the multiples of a and 6 respectively, a+ taking
all possible values from 0 to m. Any other function v of order 7 can
similarly be written as a/Sa,,u*y®+6'Sb,,x7y°, where a ,6,, are the same
functions as before. The common roots of %=0, v0 are seen to be
those of Sa,,0*y°=0, 3b,,7*y°=0 and are n? in number, ((v))—2 of them
are already known, therefore the remaining ((—3)) give rise to the
2((7—3)) ‘equations of condition’ among the m? values of x and the n?
corresponding values of y, which are obtained by substituting them suc-
cessively in the two equations 3Sa,,a*y°=0, Xb, a*y*=0. Hence the
theorem :

Of the n? systems of simultaneous values of x and y which satisfy two
equations of the ath order in x and y, ((n))—2 may be arbitrarily assumed
and the remaining ((n—3)) are determined by these ; or, among the 1?
values of x and the n? corresponding values of y there are 2((n—3))
equations of condition.

The geometrical equivalent of this is :

Of the n? points of intersection of two curves of order n, ((n—3)) are
determined by the rest.

In the next section of his memoir Jacobi discusses the more compli-
cated case in which the two integral functions are of differing orders,
m, 7. It is here that he makes use of certain ((m-+n—3)) equations upon

1 ‘De relationibus, que locum habere debent inter puncta intersectionis duarum
curvarum ... algebraicarum dati ordinis, simul eum enodatione paradoxi algebraici,’
Crelle, vol. xv. pp. 285-308 ; Works (Berlin, 1884), vol. iii. pp. 327-354.

* Acad. Berlin, 1748, pp. 219-233; of. § 8 of this Report (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1902).

72 REPORT—1903.

the existence of which he had based the theorem now known by his name,
which he had published in the previous volume of Crelle’s Journal.!
These equations are the following, in which 2, ...@n,) Y,.+-+Ymny are the
mn values of «, y which satisfy two given equations, JS (x, y)=90, $(@, y)=0
of orders m, n,and R,, is the value of 0 Og — of. g

x.dy dy. 0x

(A=1, 3. oan).

when 2=2,, Y=Yjy

(A) we’: —0, > 240 wy Ys =0,

m+n—3 7 m+n—4 M+n—3B
Sait y

He first points out that if m=mn, these equations are ((2v—3)) in

number, linear in 1 (k=1,... 7), from which by solving for R. from

n>—1 and substituting in the remaining ((2n—3)) —n?-+1=2((n— 3))
equations we obtain “this number of equations of condition among
Xe ++ nny Yy +++ Ymn» Which is the same number as was previously obtained.
But it inust be noticed that nothing is said in either case about the con-
ditions required to ensure the mutual independence of these 2((n—3))
equations. Their number, in both places, is found by a ‘method of
counting constants,’ and such a method affords no readily applicable means
for dealing with special cases.

In the next case, in which msn, Jacobi again finds the number of
equations of condition by counting the constants in equations. The argu-
ment is briefly as follows :—An equation of order x (where » <m) is com-
pletely determined by ((z))—1 systems of values of a, y, therefore there
must be mnu—((7))+1 equations of condition among mn pairs of quanti-
ties if, in accordance with a first hypothesis, mn pairs of values of x, y are
to satisfy some particular equation of order x. In accordance with a
second hypothesis, these mn pairs of values also satisfy some particular
equation of order m. As a consequence of these two hypotheses, more-
over, they can always satisfy any equation of order m formed of the sum
of this particular one, and of the particular equation of order m multiplied
by any arbitrary factor of order m—mn ; and such an equation of order m
will only have ((m))—((m—w)) arbitrary coefticients (homogeneous) in it,
since ((m—~*)) can be destroyed by means of the coefficients of the arbitrary
factor. Thus there must be an additional number mn —((m))+ ((m—n)) +1
of equations of condition among the mn quantities, since this consequence
of the two hypotheses must hold, after the first hypotheses has been satis-
fied. By addition, therefore, the total number of equations of condition
among the 2mn quantities which satisfy two equations of orders m and n

1 Theoremata nova algebraica circa systema duarum equationum inter duas
variabiles propositarum, Crelle, vol. xiv. pp. 281-288; Works, vol. iii. pp. 285-294.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 73
respectively, is mn—((n)) + 1+ mn — ((m)) + ((m—n)) + l=mn—3n + 1.
This result is expressed geometrically thus :

In order that mn points may lie on two algebraic curves of orders m, n
it is necessary that mn—3n+1 equations of condition should subsist
among their co-ordinates.

And by comparison with a previous theorem we see that if m=n the
number of the equations of condition is increased by one.

A geometrical application of the above-mentioned consequence of the
two hypotheses is :

Tf mn points are taken on a given curve of order n, n<m, there must
be mn—((m))+((m—n))+1=((n—3)) equations of condition among the
co-ordinates of these points in order that these points may lie on a curve of
order m. Or in other words,

The maximum number of points which can be assumed on a curve of
order n (n<m), wx order that a curve of order m may pass through them, is
mn—((n—3)), which (reversing m and m) is a slightly different version
of Plucker’s theorem, and is established by strictly algebraical reasoning.

Special instances of this theorem are :

If m points are assumed on a straight line, or 2m points on a conic, it
is possible to draw a curve of order m through them.

Tf 3m points are assumed on a cubic, where m> 3, one equation of con-
dition must hold among the co-ordinates of the points, in order that it may
be possible to draw a curve of order m through them. And so on.

When m=n Jacobi obtained, as has been said, directly from equa-
tions (A) a system of 2((n—3)) equations of condition among the 2n?
simultaneous roots of two equations of order n. When mn it becomes
a much more complicated matter to actually obtain the corresponding
mn—3n+1 equations of condition. The first step Jacobi makes towards
this end is interesting, as it brings into consideration (although only in
the special case of r=m-+n—3) the question of the number of arbitrary
constants in the equation of any curve of given order r through the points
of intersection of two other given curves of orders m, ”, a question which
is of fundamental importance for the theory of point-groups.

Given two equations, f(x, y)=0, ¢(x, y)=0, of orders m,n, Jacobi
takes, namely, any third equation of order m+n—3 such that it vanishes for
the mn simultaneous pairs of values of «, y which satisfy f=0, ¢=0. Let this
equation be denoted by Sp,, a*yS=0, a+ < m+n—3, and obtain from
it mn equations by substituting in it the values of the mn pairs of simul-

taneous roots ; multiply these equations in order by = hs tee a and
add, the result is 1 mn

a) yf") 9 Yo mn Yon) —
Pes ( R, ne Ry il arte, Bina zi

which is the sum of all equations (A) multiplied respectively by ps:
This proves that one of equations (A) is a consequence of the remainder.
But this is true for each and every linearly independent equation of order
m-+n—3, which can be formed in such a way as to be satisfied by the mn
pairs of simultaneous roots ; and the number of these is equal to the num-
ber of arbitrary constants (homogeneous) in the equation of any one. But
such an equation can be formed by multiplying the left-hand side of

_ f=0 by an arbitrary function of degree (n—3) and then adding it to the

7A, REPORT— 1903.

left-hand side of ¢=0 multiplied in its turn by an arbitrary function of
degree (m—3), and there are thus ((~—3))+((m—3)) arbitrary constants
(homogeneous) involved. It is thus seen that ((m—3))+((n—3)) of
equations (A) follow from the rest, and the number of independent
equations is therefore ((m-+”—3))—((m—35))—((n—3))=mn—1. And

since there are mn quantities they can be solved from these mn—1
ke

equations, and the results in terms of the simultaneous roots can be
substituted in the ((m—3))+((n—8)) remaining equations, which are
therefore the equations of condition among the 2mm simultaneous values
of «and y. But since it is possible that ((m—3)) + ((n—3)) may be > 2mn, it
is clear, says Jacobi, that this number of equations of condition is too many ;
and he then proceeds to show that ((m—n—3)) of these must follow from the
rest, and that, therefore, the real number of independent equations of condi-
tion is, as he found before, ((m—3)) + ((n—3))—((m—n—3))=mn—3n+1.

Into-this part of his discussion it is not worth while to enter here, as,
once more, no criterion is established of the independence of the equations
of condition when found in this manner.

The problem of determining the number of arbitrary constants at
disposal (7.e., non-homogeneous) in an equation of given order 7, which is
satisfied by the simultaneous roots of two other given equations of differing
orders m, n—or, as it may be more shortly expressed, the problem of deter-
mining the degrees of freedom of a C,—had been solved by Bézout (for
any number of variables) as early as 1774; but the ‘Théorie des équa-
tions algébriques,’ which is devoted to the general problem of the elimi-
nation of variables from a system of simultaneous equations, appears to
have fallen temporarily into oblivion, and is not referred to by any writer
of this period. As far as the equations of curves are concerned, Plicker
had only dealt with the case in which r=m=n, in which there is pre-
cisely one degree of freedom, as is at once apparent from the form of the
equation U+AV=0 ; for even the theorem which dealt with the inter-
sections of a C, and a C,, is based upon the discussion of a C.. through the
points of intersection of two other C,s, one of which is degenerate. In
dealing with surfaces Pliicker had come across the more general case, but
he gave it at first a wrong solution. Jacobi, besides the more obvious
case of r=m=n, had treated, as we have just seen, the case for curves in
which r=m-+n—3, and had shown that the degrees of freedom are then
((m—3))+((n—3))—1. In the case of surfaces he also found the correct
number, although the explicit problem before him there—as also before
Pliicker—was that of the number of equations of condition which
must hold among the common points of three surfaces of degree
m, n, 7, and only intermediately that of determining the degrees of
freedom of a surface through the curve of intersection of two others.
When curves are concerned, the problem of determining the degrees of
freedom of a curve through the intersections of two other curves and the
problem of determining the number of equations of condition which must
subsist among the co-ordinates of certain points in order that they may
be the points of intersection of two curves of given orders are directly
connected with one another, as will appear from an account of two papers
by Cayley (1821-1895), which fall within the period under discussion.

The first of these, entitled ‘On the Intersections of Curves,’ appeared
in 1843,' when its author was only twenty-two years of age. It is

' Cambridge Mathematical Journal, vol. iii. pp. 211-213; Works, vol. i. pp. 25-27.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 75

short, but bears the unmistakable impress of that prolific genius which,
upon the suggestion offered by any particular theorem, in no matter what
branch of pure mathematics, at once sought its appropriate generalisa-
tion. In Chasles’s ‘ Apereu historique’ (published in 1839) Cayley had
come across that demonstration of Pascal’s theorem which we have seen
already employed by both Gergonne and Pliicker. The demonstration of
the property of cubics involved is, he says, ‘one of extreme simplicity.
Let U=0, V=0 be the equations of two curves of the third order, the
curve of the same order which passes through eight of their points of
intersection (which may be considered as eight perfectly arbitrary
points), and a ninth arbitrary point will be perfectly determinate. Let
U,=0, V,=0 be the values of U, V when the co-ordinates of this last
point are written in the place of x, y. Then UV,—U,V=0 satisfies the
above conditions, or it is the equation to the curve required ; but it is an
equation which is satisfied by all the nine points of intersection of the
two curves, i.e, any curve that passes through eight of these points of
intersection passes also through the ninth.’ He then generalises the
form of equation used in the proof by forming U=w,_,,U,+v,-,V», Where
Um Vr—n are two polynomials of orders r—m, r—m with all their co-
efficients complete, and proceeds to consider how many arbitrary con-
stants are at disposal in this equation. At first sight it would appear
that there are ((r—m))+((r—”))—1, this being the number of arbitrary
constants in U,_», Vy», less one removed by division (and this was the
erroneous conclusion arrived at by Pliicker when dealing with surfaces in
which r>m-+n) ; but when we consider that, if r>m-+n, we may take
Uy m= Uy m—nV ny ANA V,_y=—U,_-m—, Un; and that then U=0, we see that
((r—m-—n)) conditions exist among the arbitrary constants of wn) UV,»
(viz. those obtained by equating to zero the coefticients of w,_,,_,,), and
that therefore there are only ((r—m))+((r—m))—1—((r—m—n)) inde-
pendent arbitrary constants at disposal. When r=m-+n—1, or m+n—2,
((r—m—n))=0, and it is therefore immaterial whether we consider these
cases as subject to the law affecting the cases in which r<m-+n, where
they really belong, or under that of r>m-+mn; the simplest plan is to
include them under the latter and to say that when r>m+n—3 the
degrees of freedom of a C, through the points of intersection of the given
C,, C, are ((r—m))+((r—n))—1—((r7 --m—n)) ; whereas if r<m+n—3
the degrees of freedom are ((r—m))+((r—n))—1, which agrees with
Jacobi’s result for r=m+n—3.

The above statement which is substantially Cayley’s own, deals only
with the degrees of freedom of the C, ; but the question may also be put
in other ways, for instance: How many conditions are imposed upon the
coefficients of any C, by constraining it to pass through the mm points of
intersection of a given C,, and a given C,? And; How many equations
of condition must subsist among the co-ordinates of mn points on a given
C,, if they are the points of intersection of the C,, with a C,,? Since, in
general, a C, has ((7))—1 degrees of freedom, and since we have shown
that, if r>m-+n—3, aC, under the given conditions has ((r—7)) + ((r—m))
—1—((r—m—n)) degrees of freedom, it follows that the number of con-
ditions imposed by the mn points must be the difference between these
numbers, 2.¢., exactly mn; but if r<m+n—3, the degrees of freedom of
the C,, were found to be ((r—m))—((r—m))—1, and therefore the number
of conditions imposed by the mn points on the constants of the C., is, in
that case, ((r))—1—((r—n))—((r—m)) +l=mn—((r-m—n)). Again,

76 REPORT—19038.

these results show that the number of equations of condition which must
subsist among the co-ordinates of mn points on a given C, in order that
they may also lie on a given C,, are ((r—m—n)), where r is the order of
another curve through these mn points such that r<m+n—3. And
this agrees with the theorems of Pliicker and Jacobi. For if r=m=n,
r<2r—3, provided r>2, and ((r—m—n))=((—n))=((n—3)) ; while if
r=m, m>n, r<7r+n—3, provided n> 2, and once more ((r—m—n))=
((—n))=(n=3). | |

ayley, however, did not, in this paper, express his results in terms
of the number of equations of condition ; the problem he was generalising
was geometrical, and in extending it he made the geometrical statement :
A curve of the rth order passing through the mu points of intersection of
two curves of the mth and uth orders respectively, may be made to pass
through ((r))—1—mn+((r—m—n)) arbitrary points if r<m+n—3 ; if
r be greater than this value, it may be made to pass through ((r))—l1—mn
points only. And he concludes : ‘ Suppose r<m+n—3, anda curve of the
rth order made to pass through ((r))—1—mn+((r—m—n)) arbitrary
points, and mn—((r—m—n)) of the mn points of intersection above.
Such a curve passes through ((r))—1 given points, and though the
mn—((r—m—n)) are not perfectly arbitrary, there appears to be no
reason why the relation between the positions of these points should be
such as to prevent the curve from being completely determined by these
conditions. But if this be so, then the curve must pass through the
remaining ((r—m—n)) points of intersection, or we have the theorem:
If a curve of the rth order (r>m or n, r<m+n—3) pass through
mn—((r—m—n)) of the points of intersection of two curves of the mth and
nth orders respectively, it passes through the remaining ((r—m—n)) points
of intersection.’

More than forty years later (in 1886), this last theorem was challenged
by a writer who had been influenced by Brill and Noether’s work ; the
account of this discussion belongs to another section.

We have seen that Sturm in 1826 extended Desargues’s theorem by
showing that all conics through four points cut a transversal in pairs of
points in involution. Since these conics have an equation of the form
U+dV=0, the obvious extension of the term involution is to the sets of
m points determined on a straight line by the curves U,,+AV,,=0 where
U,,V, are of order x. Cayley, to whom the first suggestion of an
extension of the term is due, went, however, much further than this in
his new definition. In his paper entitled ‘On the Theory of Involution in
Geometry’ published in 1847,! he thus defines the term: Jf U,V,...
be given functions of x, y, 2, .+., homogeneous of the degrees m,n, .. 4
and u,v, ... arbitrary functions of the degrees r—m,r—n, .. ., then
Y O=uU+vV+4+ ... ., 0 ts a function of degree r, which is in involution
with U, V,...3 but, asa matter of fact the questions affecting such
an equation as an involution are not discussed, and he at once states
that the question which immediately arises is to find the degree o
generality of ©, or the number of arbitrary constants which it con-
tains. It may be remarked here that the consideration of systems of
curves whose equations involve ¢wo independent parameters, although
such would come under the above general form for © by taking
6=U+AV+uW, where U, V, W are of the same degree and involve

1 Camb. and Dublin Math Journ., vol. ii. pp. 52-61; Works, vol. i. pp. 259-266.

ON THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. a

fwvo independent variables only, is foreign to Cayley’s purpose, as it was
to Pliicker’s and Jacobi’s ; the only application of the results in which
the additive combination of three functions is considered is to the
equations of surfaces which involve three independent variables.

For our present purpose it will be sufficient to note very briefly the
results of this paper so far as they apply to the case of two independent
variables. A formula is, in the first place, found for the number of
arbitrary constants in 0, when any number of variables are involved,
which is an extension of that found in the former paper for two indepen-
dent variables, and the fact is pointed out, once again, that, for curves,
when r<m+n—3, ((r—m—n)) more arbitrary constants exist than
would exist if 6 had passed through mn perfectly arbitrary points. The
following general question is then attacked: Jo find the number of
relations which exist between K(0+1) variables, forming K systems, each of
which satisfies simultaneously equations of the orders m,n, p, . . . respec-
tively ; the number of these equations being anything less than; or >
being equal to 0, provided at the same time K=mnp ... This question,
as Cayley points out, is that solved by Jacobi for the particular case in
which K=mn, ¢=2,0=2, the ‘relations’ being equivalent to Jacobi’s
‘equations of condition.’ Cayley’s general formula verifies Jacobi’s
result.

Seismological Investigations —Kighth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. J. MILNE
(Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. V.
Boys, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L.
Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewine, Dr. R. T. GLAzEBROOK, Professor
C. G. Kyort, Professor R. MELpoua, Mr. R. D. OLDHAM, Professor
J. Perry, Mr. W. E. PLumMer, Professor J. H. Poyntinc, Mr.
CLEMENT Rem, Mr. Netson Ricwarpson, and Professor H. H.
TuRNER. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATE I.]
CONTENTS.

I. General Notes on Stations and Registers. : : - : ; -
Il. The Origin of large Earthquakes recorded in 1902 and since 1899 s Abia}

Ill. Large Harthquakes and small Changes in Latitude . F é . 78
IV. Comparison of Records from three Milne Pendulums at Shid - : . $1
V. Comparison of Records from Shide, Ken, Bidston, and Edinburgh a ,. Sl
VI. Earthquake Commencements as recorded at Strassburg and in Britain . . 82

VII. The Speed of Earthquake Motion and Inferences based thereon relating to
the Interior of the World . : : 5 5 : : . 5 1 84:

I. General Notes on Stations and Registers.

Durine the past year the registers issued are Circulars Nos. 6 and 7.
These refer to Shide, Kew, Bidston, Edinburgh, Paisley, Toronto, Vic-
toria (B.C.), San Fernando, Cairo, Cape of Good Hope, Calcutta, Bombay,
Kodaikanal, Batavia, Baltimore, Mauritius, Trinidad, Irkutsk, Perth,
Wellington, Christchurch, Cordova (Argentina), Honolulu, and Tokio.
Mr. F. A. Chaves, Director of the Meteorological Service in the Azores,

78 REPORT—1903.

writes that the two seismographs referred to in the Report for 1902 are
now in working order, one at Ponta Delgada, 25° 41’ 15” (Lh. 42m. 45s.)
W. long., and the other at Horta, 28° 38’ 26” (1h. 54m. 34s.) W. long.

From Professor A. F. Griffiths, President of the Oahu College, and
Professor W. D. Alexander, also in Hawaii, I learn that the seismograph
sent to Honolulu in 1899 is at the U.S. Magnetic Observatory near Pearl
Harbour. Mr. Weinrich, who has charge of the instrument, has installed
it on a concrete pier rising from the bed rock. The instrument room
measures 8 feet by 12 feet. It has stone walls 16 inches thick, and is lined
and ceiled with boards. The room has ventilators, but the temperature
is almost uniform at 75° F.

Observers using or interested in the establishment of the British
Association type of instruments who have during the past year visited
Shide were Mr. W. J. Kenny, H.B.M. Consul, formerly of Hawaii ;
Professor H. F. Reid, of Baltimore ; Mr. C. Michie-Smith, of Kodaikanal ;
and Mr. E. Human, of Colombo. The latter gentleman, whose object was
to discuss observatory sites and the working of seismographs, came at the
suggestion of the Colonial Office.

As might be anticipated, now that experience has been gained in
working the instruments, correspondence with stations has considerably
decreased.

IL. The Origin of large Earthyuakes recorded in 1902 and since 1899.

On the accompanying map (Plate I.) the origins for 1902 are indicated
by small numerals which correspond to earthquake numbers in the Shide
registers. These are divided into districts marked alphabetically. The large
numerals give the number of large earthquakes which have originated in
each district since 1899. Maps corresponding to the one here given can
be found in the ‘ British Association Reports’ for 1900, p. 70, and 1902,
p. 64. The methods employed in determining origins are referred to in
the Report for 1900, pp. 79 and 80.

The chief feature in the map for 1902 as compared with those for
preceding years is the increase of activity shown for the Caucasian-
Himalayan district K and the decrease in the Alaskan and Andean regions
(A and D). If we omit districts E and A then, as pointed out by Pro-
fessor Libbey, a circle of about 70° radius and centre 180° E. or W. long.
and 60° N. latitude in Behring Straits passes through the seismic
regions of the world which are at the present time most active. On the
map this is indicated by a dotted line. The Pacific origins fall on a circle
about 75° in radius, with its centre 180° E. or W. long. and 30° S. lat.

Mr. J. H. Jeans, in his paper on ‘The Vibrations and Stability of a
Gravitating Planet,’! suggests that these regions lie on a great circle of
which England is the pole, this circle being the equator of the supposed
pear-shaped form of the world. The equator for the pear-shaped form,
according to Professor W. J. Sollas,? has its centre about 6° N. lat. and
30° E. long.

III. Earthquakes and Changes in Latitude.

In the ‘British Association Report’ for the year 1900, p. 107, the
wanderings of the pole from its mean position are compared for the years

1 Phil. Trans. Royal Soe., vol. cci. p. 183.
2 ‘The Figure of the Earth,’ Quart. Jow'n. Geol. Soc., vol. lix, Part 2.

r number
erving st

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport 1908.)

The Large Earthquakes of 1902,
Origins for 1902 are indicated by their B.A, Shide Register number, Earthquake districts are indicated A, B, ©, &c,, and the number of earthquakes which since 1899 have
from these is expressed in large numerals, Observing stations are named.

[Plate 1.
originated

| */rkursk
6656
| 6044

lear +)

ia I I
Sh % K3e~~_ y |
any pePeshhend | ral |
ns oF
San rerndnge 6355 62/4 631 584 f |
63 so eae 63 SS, 5e5,/|E3
| g 7

Koad al
e coleman Ae E |
i i Ni! 56 5850
= ae (T
tt || | Botavidvees 6: be. I
\/ =

p06 ? a

|
Biri ti

|
|
al = (903

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. vo

1895 to 1898 inclusive, with the registers of earthquakes which during
that period have disturbed the whole world, or, at least, continental
areas. A suggested conclusion was that when the pole displacements
were comparatively great large earthquakes were frequent, and vice
versa. The inference to be drawn from the following note is that this
same type of earthquake has been frequent when the change in direction
of the movement of the pole has been marked. In the following table
the years (1892 to 1899) have each been divided into ten parts, and the
large earthquakes which occurred during each of these intervals are
given by numerals.

The earthquake registers from which the latter figures have been
abstracted are as follows :—

1. March 14, 1892 to Aug. 7, 1893.—Strassburg and Nicolaiew (see ‘ Horizontalpendel-
Beobachtungen,’ &c., von Dr. EH, von Rebeur-Paschwitz. ‘Beitrige zur Geo-
physik,’ Band IL.),

2. Aug. 7, 1893, to Sept. 12, 1834.—Charkow (see ‘ Ergebnisse der auf der Charkower
Universititssteinwarte,’ mit den v. Rebeur’schen Horizontalpendel angestellten
Beobachtungen, v. Prof. G. Lewitzky).

3. Jan. 1, 1894, to Dec. 31, 1896.—Italian and other stations (see ‘ Bollettino della
Societa Sismologica Italiana,’ 1895.

4. Jan. 1, 1897, to Dec. 31, 1902.—Registers from stations widely spread over the
world, published by the Seismological Investigation Committee of the British
Association.

Although these registers are comparable so far as world-shaking
earthquakes are concerned, it is evident that in the last list very large
earthquakes are included which could not have reached stations in
Europe. For this ,reasov, so far as actual frequency is concerned,
Registers I., II., and III. are not comparable with No. IV.

| }

Periods | 1892 | 1893 | 1894 | 1895 | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899
0-1, Jan.1 to Feb. 5 . |noobs. Se ER! ltd 2 8! 4 9
1-2, Feb. 5 to Mar. 14. + 22 11 1 { 1 {7 4 1/9
2-3, Mar. 14 to April 19 a 16] 13 1 oF Paks 8 |110
3-4, April 19 to May 26 & | [32 } 19 0 4 |5or7 { 5 4
4-5, May 26 to July 1 . oO |\41 3 il 3 |7orl1l| 8 6
5-6, July l to Aug.7 . 8 24 14 { 1 0 5 i 16
6-7, Aug. 7 to Sept. 12 { 8 20 10 2 B} 9 (5 { 6
7-8, Sept. 12 to Oct. 19 12 12 no obs. 0 5 1/10 16 10
8-9, Oct. 19 to Nov. 24 | 7 Bg ne 2 { Be og 1 7
9-10, Nov. 24 to Dec. 31 10 if 9 *s 1 0 5 5 5

Earthquake figures connected by brackets refer to two periods, each
of 36°5 days, when the change in direction of pole movement was
marked. In the following table the total number of earthquakes which
occurred in each of these two periods is so far as possible compared with
the total number of earthquakes which were recorded in equal intervals
of time (73 days) before and after the deflection periods.

Earthquakes before deflection: noobs. 8 38 18 — 22 noobs. 1 3 38
Earthquakes during deflection: 22 20 73 21 24 24 2 3° 2 10
Earthquakes after deflection : 8 17 44 — 22 noobs, 1 Tey oa ae
Earthquakes before deflection : 3 14 68 15 14 10

‘Earthquakes during deflection: 10 WZ is" It 79 22
Earthquakes after deflection:120r18 9 15 6 10 17

80 REPORT—1908.

Out of sixteen deflections there are twelve instances where the
greater number of earthquakes have taken place during the deflection
period. In three instances the number for the deflection period, although
exceeded by number before or after that period, has been greater than
the average of the sum of the preceding and succeeding numbers. In
only one instance (February 5 to April 19, 1896) have the earthquakes
in the deflection period had a distinct minimum. The totals for before,

Fic. 2.

0:3 +0:2 +0"! 0:00 -O'! -0'2 -0'3

Th. Albrecht.
+0°3
40:3 +0:2 +0°1 0:00 -O"1 -O-2 -0:3

during, and after comparable deflection periods are respectively 117, 200,
and 153,

One inference from this investigation is not that the molar displace-
ments accompanying large earthquakes result in polar displacements, but
rather that changes in direction of these latter movements, particularly
when the rate of change has been rapid, have had an influence upon
earthquake frequency. From Albrecht’s figure of movements of the
North Pole (fig. 2), on which the numbers of large earthquakes correspond-
ing to different periods are given, the periods of rapid change can be seen.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 81

IV. On the Comparison of Records from three Milne Horizontal
Pendulums at Shide.

At Shide three Milne horizontal pendulums are installed on two
similar brick piers, 2 ft. 6 in. distant from each other. Each pier is
1 ft. 6 in. square, and rises 4 feet above its footings, which rest on
concrete. One pier was built in May 1897, and the other in November
1902. The instruments are described in the ‘ British Association Report’
for 1902, p. 60. The older of the two piers carries the type instrument,
which has a period of 16 seconds and records east and west movements.
This is referred to as pendulum A. Pendulum B has the same period,
and is oriented in the same direction as pendulum A. Pendulum OC,
which with B forms the Yarrow instrument, has a period of 20 seconds
and records north-south motion.

The following results refer to seismograms obtained between November
21, 1902, and March 24, 1903, or in the Shide register Nos. 659 to 693.

Times of Commencement.—Out of twenty-six cases the times of com-
mencement of A and B have in eleven instances never differed more
than one minute. When this limit has been exceeded the movements to
be measured have usually been slight thickenings or blurs. Comparing
C with A or B, out of nineteen cases there are ten instances falling within
the one-minute limit.

Times of Maxima.—The times at which maxima have occurred as
recorded by A and B have not differed more than two minutes in ten
instances out of fourteen records. When this limit has been exceeded
the records usually refer to slight thickenings in traces in which one out
of several points might be selected as a maximum.

The maxima for C agree within the two-minute limit with those of
A and B eight times.

Amplitudes.—The amplitudes recorded by A and B have in twenty-
five cases only once differed 1 mm. from each other. The records
obtained for C have not differed greatly (‘5 to 1:5 mm.) from those shown by
Aand B. Out of twenty instances the C records were eleven times larger,
three times smaller, and nine times equal to those shown by A and B.

Durations.—Out of twenty-one instances the records of C were three
times greater, six times smaller, and twelve times practically equal to
those obtained from A and B.

These comparisons are similar to comparisons of records from two
similar seismographs made by Dr. Charles Chree, F.R.S., at Kew.!

V. On the Comparison of Earthquake Registers from Shide, Kew,
Bidston, and Edinburgh.

In the ‘British Association Reports,’ 1901, pp. 44-50, and 1902,
pp. 73, 74, references are made to series of earthquake records obtained
at Kew, Shide, Bidston, and Edinburgh, stations which are respectively
situated on alluvium, chalk, sandstone, and volcanic rock.

The following notes chiefly refer to observations made between July 1
and December 31, 1902, during which period the instruments at the
different stations have been so adjusted that 1 mm. deflection of the
outer end of the boom corresponded to a tilt of the bed plate of 0/5,

1 See B.A, Report, 1901, p. 61.
1903. G

82 REPORT—1908.

Earthquake Frequency.—The number of earthquakes recorded were as
follows :—

July to December, 1902 . Bidston, 69 Shide, 40 Hdinburgh, 37 Kew, 30

During the year 1902 : Ad 134 . 78 ; 70 x 64
During 11 monthsin1901 . 4 94 3 90 - 85 iv 63
Total for two years 228 168 155° 127

Each of the earthquakes considered was recorded at more than one
station, and therefore it is extremely unlikely that artificially produced
disturbances have been included in the computations.

Earthquake Duration.—Between July and December there were ten
earthquakes, each of which was recorded at all four stations. The total
number of minutes which the instruments were caused to move by these
disturbances were :—Edinburgh, 691; Kew, 610; Shide, 606; and
Bidston, 545.

Amplitudes —The sum of the maximum amplitudes in millimetres for
ten earthquakes was as follows :—Shide, 19-4 ; Kew, 14:1 ; Edinburgh,
12:0; Bidston, 9-0.

These quantities regarded as angular displacements may be respectively
read as 9/°7, 7/2, 6/5, and 4:5. Add to these the corresponding
quantities for earthquakes recorded between January and June, then the
totals for the year 1902 are : Edinburgh, 21'5 ; Shide, 21/1 ; Kew, 20’9 ;
and Bidston, 13/’:2..

If in making these comparisons the large earthquakes are omitted,
then the amplitudes of motion as recorded at different stations are
practically identical.

Commencements.—Out of thirteen records (June to December 1902)
at Bidston the commencements have been the earliest—or not more than
two minutes later than those recorded at other stations—nine times, at
Shide seven times, at Edinburgh six times, and at Kew three times.

Conclusion.—For the present, at least, the conclusions arrived at are
as follows :—

1. Bidston records the greater number of earthquakes and obtains
earlier commencements for the preliminary tremors more frequently than
at other stations.

The durations and amplitudes recorded at Bidston are less than at
other stations.

2. Kew records the least number of disturbances, and commencements
are frequently late. Durations and amplitudes are similar to those
obtaining at Shide.

3.. At Edinburgh and Shide, frequency, time of commencement, and
amplitude are similar, but at the former station the duration is greater
than at the latter.

VI. Earthquake Commencements as recorded at Strassburg and
in Britain.

The records referred to in the' following note are those obtained in
1902 from the Rebeur-Ehlert pendulums at Strassburg or Hamburg!
and the Milne pendulums installed at Kew, Shide, Bidston, and Edin-
burgh. The multiplication of the Strassburg apparatus is about eight

1 See B.A. Report, 1898, p. 268.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 83

times that of the instruments employed at the stations in Britain, from
which it might be inferred that very minute preliminary tremors might
be recorded, and therefore earlier commencements of motion be calculated
for these Continental stations than would obtain in Britain.

With the assumption that the greatest difference in time that could
exist between the commencement of motion at these two groups of
stations is four minutes, the comparison of fifty-six records common to
Germany and Britain leads to the following :—

In twenty-four instances the difference in the times of commence-
ments does not exceed the four-minute limit. These in the Shide register
correspond to numbers 581, 584, 585, 586, 588, 590, 595, 606, 614, 616,
619. 619, 625, 627, 636, 641, 642c, 644, 653, 658, 661, 662, 663, 665.

The remaining thirty-two instances where this limit has been exceeded
refer to twenty-one mere thickenings of the trace and eleven to earthquakes
with moderate amplitudes. These thirty-two instances may be divided into
two groups, there being twenty-three cases where the British records are
late relatively to those noted in Germany, and nine when the German
records fall behind those obtained in Britain. The British records, which
are late, are numbers 578, 580, 588, 597, 598, 600, 6006, 6064, 611, 6138,
617, 618, 6220, 624, 633, 639, 640, which are all minute thickenings on the
trace, and 589, 592, 599, 609, 612, and 659, which are well-defined records.

The German records, which are late, are numbers 576, 582, 610,
which, as noted in Britain, are small, and numbers 572, 593, 601c, 607,
626, 642, which are large or fairly large disturbances. The number of
disturbances as recorded in Germany with too late commencements, oddly
enough, is exactly the same as recorded in Britain.

The conclusions to which these comparisons point are :—

1. For recording small tremors which do not extend over great areas
the Rebeur-Ehlert pendulum, as installed at Strassburg, possesses advan-
tages over the Milne horizontal pendulum as installed at stations
co-operating with the British Association.

2. For recording the commencements and, it may be added, other
phases of earthquake motion which affect the world as a whole the
accuracy of the records from both types of instruments is practically
identical.

In connection with these conclusions it must be pointed out the
fineness of the trace obtainable with the British Association type of
instrument partly compensates for its comparative want of sensibility.
The particular sensibility given to it is one that is obtainable at a variety
of stations. Were this increased, which is easily done by raising its
period from sixteen to twenty, or even forty, seconds, when it would be
more responsive to tremors, then at many stations it would be found
that diurnal and other wanderings, together with air tremors, would
seriously interfere with the recording of earthquakes. Instruments of
the Rebeur-Ehlert type, with large multiplication, not only consume what
for many would be a prohibitive quantity of photographic paper, but, as
for example at Trieste and Kremsmiinster, they are frequently recording
movements which are not required.

84. REPORT—19038.

VII. The Velocity of Propagation of Earthquake Vibrations.

In the ‘ British Association Report’ for 1902, p. 65, a diagram is given
showing the time taken for various phases of earthquake motion to
traverse arcs or distances corresponding to arcs of various lengths.

From this diagram an arcual velocity for the maximum of large wave
movement may be derived of 3 km. per second. For the commencement
of such movements this would be slightly increased, and would then
accord with observations made by Dr. F. Omori, who obtains for this
particular phase an arcual velocity of 3-3 km. per second.

To give actual velocities or average velocities for the preliminary
tremors, not knowing the paths they follow, is accompanied by un-
certainties. What can be done, and is shown in the following table, is
from the above-mentioned time curve to calculate velocities on the
assumption that the paths have been arcs or have approximated to chords,
or we can make similar calculations from a time curve so corrected that
11 and 17 minutes are respectively taken to traverse distances corre-
sponding to 70° and 150°. The justification of reducing the steepness of
the preliminary tremor curve and yet keeping within the results of
observation rests upon the analysis given on pp. 5 and 6.

Average Velocities of Preliminary Trenwors.

| |
20° | 30° | 40° | 50° | 60° | 80° | 90° 150° =

p
Bz} 88 9°2| 9:2] 9°6 | 98 10°1 12°9| Km. per second.

Uncorrected time curve on | 3to5
ares.

|
Uncorrected time curve on | 3to5 92) 91) 9:1 9°0| 9°2/) 91) 91 94 x as
chords. } |
Corrected time curve on/ 3to5 j10°5 11°1 |10°6 |10°9 j11°1 |12°3 12°8 16°3 FA a
ares. | | | |
Corrected time curve on | 3to5 10°65 10°9 10:3 |10 5 |10°6 /11°3 11°5 12°0 ~ Gs

chords. |
| |

From the above table it will be seen that if the preliminary tremors
follow paths which are arcual, then there is a marked increase in speed
of transmission on long paths as compared with the speed upon short
paths. If, however, the paths approximate to chords, then velocities
which are approximately constant prevail. The deviation from being
actually constant along chordal paths is apparently a slight increase in
speed along paths taken nearer and nearer to the centre of the earth.

The high values of 10°5 to 12 km. per second suggest a high rigidity
for the world, whilst the approximate uniformity of speed within its core
indicate approximate uniformity in those properties which determine the
rate at which it transmits vibrations. Unless it is assumed that as we
descend in the earth electricity and density increase in the same ratio, to
which hypothesis there are objections, the inference is that the nucleus of
the world has a density more nearly uniform than is generally assumed.

To satisfy the interpretation given to these seismometrical observations
what is required is a globe with an approximately uniform nucleus not
less than 3% of the earth’s radius covered by a shell which passes rapidly
upwards into the materials which constitute the crust of the world.

1 In an article in Nature, April 9, 1903, p. 538, on ‘Seismometry and Geite,’
minimum values are given for these quantities.

2 If these last values are plotted on squared paper a curve for their mean_posi-
tion gives the following values; 3 to 5, 9:0, 10:4, 10°6, 10°8, 11-0, 11°3, 11°5 and 12:0
km. per second.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 85

That low velocities are found on wave paths corresponding to chords
of less than 10° suggests that this crust is not more than forty miles
in thickness. This seismometrical determination of thickness for the
earth’s crust accords, it will be observed, with determinations of the same
quantity which are chiefly dependent upon the effects of high temperatures
assumed to prevail at such a depth. At fusion temperatures liquefaction

[F1e. 3.—Average Velocities for Preliminary Tremors if propagated
along Chords. ]

4000 MILES

150°

is a state for many substances which is promoted by pressure, whilst at
still higher temperatures Arrhenius points out that whatever the
pressure might be it seems probable that fluids would become gaseous, and
such gases would be dense, but slightly compressible and viscous. What
the velocity table (as it now stands) indicates is that a crust passes
rapidly into a nucleus which is exceedingly rigid and fairly homogeneous.
A specific gravity can be defined for this nucleus which will meet the
requirements of gravitational observations, and it seems likely that the
same may accord with the tests of the astronomer.

Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene-—Fourth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor H. A. Miers (Chairman),
Dr. H. E. ArMstRonG (Secretary), Professor W. P. WYNNE and
Professor W. J. Pope. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE object the Committee have primarily in view is the crystallographic
study of the complete series of sulphochlorides and sulphobromides derived
from the isomeric dichloro-, dibromo- and chlorobromo-benzenes.

The results obtained in the case of the para- and two of the three
series of meta-derivatives have been referred to in previous reports. It
may be pointed out that whereas no evidence was obtained that the 1: 4
derivatives exist in polymorphic forms—the five compounds measured

86 REPORT—1903.

being strictly isomorphous, in the case of the meta-derivatives, the 1: 3: 4
series formed an isotrimorphous group, the 1: 3:4 series an isotetra-
morphous group.

During the past year Mr. Harding has determined the constants of five
of the eight members of the 1 : 2: 4 ortho- -series, viz., the chlorides derived
from the acids Nos, I, II, and IV and the bromide of acid No. IT :—

Br
~a eae a Er
SO,H SO,H co iE SO,H
I Ln III IV

Of the chlorides, I and II are practically identical crystallographically ;
the chloride of IV was obtained in quite a distinct form, belonging, how-
ever, to the same crystallographic system. The bromide of II was obtained
in both these forms, so that it establishes a connecting link between the
two isomorphous series which evidently exist.

Great difficulty was experienced in making the measurements owing
to the low melting-points of the sulphon-halides and the extraordinary
way in which they crystallise (from a mixture of benzene and petroleum)
in very thin micaceous plates ; it was discovered, however, that by using
petroleum of higher boiling-point more massive crystals could be obtained ;
forms fit for measurement were eventually secured by this artifice.

It would seem that the character of the solvent has a definite influence
on crystalline form, especially in the case of substances which manifest
polymorphism. When opportunity offers it will undoubtedly be desirable
to study this question experimentally.

The anilides, which have higher melting-points than the halides,
erystallise with much greater facility ; the opportunity has been taken to
study several of these. Mr. Harding finds that the orthodichloranilide
exists in two forms, one orthorhombic the other monosymmetric ; and
that whilst the dibromo- and bromochloranilides crystallise in a form
isomorphous with the monosymmetric form of the dichloranilide, the
fourth anilide crystallises in a second monosymmetric form.

Mr. Harding has also measured the 1: 3 dibromo- 2 sulphochloride
and has thus made a beginning with the 1 : 2: 3 meta-series.

Although the material is available, it has been papossple hitherto to
obtain two of the para-compounds and three 1: 2:4 derivatives in
forms suitable for measurement ; it is hoped that o ditticulty will be
overcome and that the experience which has been gained will make it
possible to extend the investigation to the remaining terms of the meta-
and ortho-series at no distant date. It is very desirable, for this purpose,
to have large quantities of material at disposal and that special apparatus
should be devised which will make it possible to effect the crystallisation
under ccnstant conditions.

1 Mr. Harding has recently been able to obtain a sixth member of this series—
the 1 Cl: 4 Br: 3 sulphobromide—in measurable form, and finds that it is isomorphous
with five which Mr,Gidden measured. Mr. Gidden did not succeed in preparing this
compound.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 87

Wave-lenyth Tables of the Spectra of the Elements und Compounds.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscoz (Chair-
man), Dr. MarsHaLL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. LocKyER, Pro
fessor J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Liven, Professor A. SCHUSTER
Professor W. N. Hart ey, Professor WoLcoTt Giszs, and Captain
Sir W. DE W. ABNEY.

MotyspEenum (Arc SPECTRUM).
Hasselberg, ‘Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akadem. Handl.,’ Bd. 36, No. 2, 1902.

Reduction to BES

Intensity | Vecaum S86
Wave-length| and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) = aS
Character Pot Evi SA

x Ok:

5893°67 4 161 4:6 | 16962°8
91°89 2 1:60 “ 967°9
88°61 8 x a9 977°3
83:11 2 ” ” 993°2
81°85 2 op a9 996°8
76:90 2 ” ” 17011:2
69°57 4 1 os a 032°4
69-05 2 He % 033°9
61°66 2 A . 055-4
58°52 8 “ HA 064°6
51°80 4 1°59 » | O841
49:99 4 “5 “3 | 089°4
49:16 3 | ” ” 091°9
40°25 2 | “A ee 118-0
35°87 2 aes 4:7 130'7
25°50 3 hee A 161:2
25°28 2 a a 161'°8
21-00 2 Ih eas “ 174:5
16 00 2 eal ne 189°2
15°76 2 acs 190:0
14:14 2 2 43 194:7
09°30 2 | ” ” 209'1
08°54 2 fer ki a3 211°3
0646 | 2 at » 2175
02°95 4 a rs 227-9
00°72 4 ye Bs 234°5
5792°10 8 ” ” 260°2
85:99 2 » » 278-4
83°54 4 - A 285'7
80:96 2 i “4 293°5
80:38 2 5 “A 2952
79°65 4 ” ” 297-4
78°46 2 ” ” 3019
74:85 3 ” ” 3118
71°33 2 ae alah 3 3223
70°02 2 ” ” 326°3
67°63 2 - i 333-4
66:79 2 ei ss 336-0
65°57 2 -. a 339-6
57°80 2 be 2 8363:0
51 67 9 mp ss 3818

REPORT—19038.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to

ab
Intensity | Vacuum Sag
Wave-length); and | Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) 23,3
Character | 1 3 a”
5747°93 2 1°59 4:7 | 17392°9
47-08 2 FA A 395°4
41°96 2 ” ” 411°0
39°93 2 +3 rn 4171
38°40 2 ” ” 4217
35°55 2 a ip 430°4
34°32 4 ef - 4341
31:58 2 | 3» | 48 | 449-4
30°17 4 ; had
29°77 4 asehie ss 447°9
29:03 4 Rial st 450°2
22°98 7 Pee be br 468°6 |
20°45 3} 53 iy 4763
19°55 2 syd be eke 480°1
12°05 4 57120 Ti ” ” 502°0
08-28 2 “ - 513°6 |
05-97 6 ae 520°7
02°39 3 Fe dal ir 5317
5699:87 4 Mae at
98°53 4 ms Vs 543°6
96-30 3 cade ae 5B0°5
95°66 2 6 | re 552°4
95°10 2 7 3 5541
94-64 2 ee 555'6
89°39 9 "| 2 aes
87:93 2 eles 5762
83-20 4 * id 590°9
78:18 5 ae, 2 . 606°4
74-77 5 ere ar. | 617-1
73-92 4 ae eet 619°7
72°35 2 sp lies 6246
67°37 3 a) Dd 639°4
64°65 3 MAL dat 648°5
52-47 2 Ae he 686°6
52°12 3 Svea. ki 6877
51°54 2 os as 689°5
50-40 8 ER 693-0
43°47 2 aml Se 7148
42:05 2 5642-11 Ni » | 99 719°2
35°14. 5 lone 741:0
32-74 8 a se ee 7485
19°63 4 4 k 789-9
19-03 3 canny 791-9
18°69 4 it eee 792-9
13°37 4 cei. 809°8
11-20 6 oP shri 8. 816-7
09:80 2 "| 49 | 821-0
09°53 4 BM tlhsderr: 821-9
08:90 4 Bn opel a aes 823°9
01°31 3 * 848:1
5596°62 3 55 5 863°0
91°84 4 an ) 8783
89:02 + 5588°98 Ca on 5 887°4 |
7547 4 5 oF 931°8 |
70-69 12 . i 946-2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 89

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to BRS

Intensity | Vacuum | :5 aS

Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) i BS

| Character a 7 3 a”

4. (ears
5569°75 4 159 | 4:9 |17949-2
68°88 5 el ae 955°5
64°34 4 ete oe 9667
63°65 2 ” ” 968°9
62°74 2 ” ” 971°8
57:02 4 9 y 990°4
62°47 | 2 oP Fi 18006°1
44-78 | 4s 5 a 030°1
43°38 4s 5543°41 Fe ” ” 0346
41°93 2s <3 ” 039-4
39°67 4s A 6 0467
34°85 2 ee a 062°4
33:26 12 a % 067-6
32°00 2 ” 1 OTL?
27°27 4 a ny OST 2
26°81 4 = " 088°7
20°93 3 55 43 108°0
20°32 3 = #4 110:0
17:73 2 - = 118°5
11:77 2 A Z 138'1
06°75 12 a a 1546
03°82 3 Pn 5:0 164:2
02°18 4 i x 169°6
01:78 4s +s a 170°9
5499°77 2n “; » | L776
98°76 4s - » | 1809
97°18 3n SNe lar | 186-1
94:06 4 Pe gee 1965
92°43 4 sittin leas 200°9
90°54 4 i hoe 208:2
88°91 2 sane taye| eee lor
76:18 4 ot lity Wemzob:9
73°64 6 a Ce 264-4
65°83 4 of Pa 290°5
56°71 4 re * 320-7
53°27 4 3 i, 332°6
50°73 5 # oi 341-2
48°78 2 i : 347°7
47°86 2 - * 350°8
39°95 2 5 = 377°5
37:97 5 re s 384:2
35°91 ° 4 5 5 pimao Lez
31:27 2 . Pa 406:9
27°80 2 .5 » | 418-7
2714 | 3 Fe a 420°9
26°24 2 a a 424-0
1764 | 3 aA As 453°2
14:95 2 os A 462-4
11°31 2 a * 4748
06°64 | 3 Pa ahs 490°8
5397°63 3 Fe 51 521°5

; 539491 ee
: 94-75 4s ea ay Mn elt | pomerd
i 8894 | 2 ” ” 551-4

7263 | 12 93 ~ (i BOTS |

90 REPORT—1903.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to |

f=)

Intensity Vacuum 3 z 3
Wavye-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) S35
Character 1 3 SF

A+ = eee

| A
| ait s

5367-30 4n (1:59 | 5-1 |18626-2
64:50 7 3 . 636-0
60°76 9 | sey st 649-0
56°70 4 | a ” 6631
a ias 1” il 686
27°35 2 |g tp 68-0
24°70 2 ” ” 675°3
20-14 2 4 é 796-4
18:20 2 * if 798°3
ae ite | eee
5295-67 wane "| Be fe 8782
93°65 2 : f 8854
92:30 3 is r 8902
81:07 4 ” ” 930°3
79 85 4 Fd és 934°7
76°50 2 . 7 946°8
72-00 2 - » | 9629
See » |» | 2 Cos0
45-71 4 2 is 058-0
43-01 4 ‘s : 067°8
41-09 6 4 i: 074:8
38-41 6 ae? ia 084°6
34-47 4 ay : 098-9
32°58 2 ae : 105:8
ua | 3 ns fs
12-08 : he z 181-1
oa} i | st) ie
5180-44 3 yee
74°35 “oa eee ” |) 3208
73:14 6 3 a 325°3
71°33 6 os i 332+1
ao | oe
55-48 2 ie ‘3 391-5
48°65 2 XS i; 418°3
41-47 2 Z i 444-4
ae 2 3 » 468-2
es - : i HO
=e : 2 is oa
17°18 3 baa : 536-7
eo 2 eae 5-4 541-7
: ee he 544-1
08-80 4 5109-83 Fe ar ee 564-5
: y i 600-2
5098-27 3 yo. a. eae
97-71 5 5097-67 aut dans 611°3
96:85 4 i s 614-6
96°11 3 ” ” 616°4
92°96 2 ” ” 630°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to| gm,

Intensity Vacuum a 2 8

Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) 4 5,5

Character 1 Od
ae | Sa (epee
r OR

5092 40 2 1:59 54 | 19631:7
91:56 2 ” a 634'9
91°17 3 ” ” 636°4
90°80 2 ” 4 637°9
84:47 2 A oa 662°3
81:49 2 ” AA 673°9
80°23 5 * ny 6787
62°76 2 ” ” 746°7
60°07 5 ” ” T57-2
58°30 2 ” ” 7641
55:22 3 ” ” T7671
47:90 4 “ cn 804°8
46°73 2 af as 809°4
39°12 2 ay 3 839°3
30°96 4 ” ” 871°5
29°21 4 ny x 878°4
20:07 2 ie 55 914:7
16:99 ) a a 926°8
14°80 2 cf a 935°5
00°13 4 a4 A 994:0
4995°55 2 ” ” 20012°3
79°32 5 5 Hc 077°5
76°23 2 a3 4 090:0
75°58 2 o “ 092°6
64:63 4 = 137:0
64:42 3 = 13 1378
57-78 6 495788 Fe ” ” 164°8
56°83 2 *, os 168°7
52:20 2 ae os 187°5
50°83 5 - a 193-1
41:90 4 25 5-6 229°5

33°99 2 35 *r 262:0 |

33°30 4 Fs cr 2648
31:42 2 eS i 2726
26°65 4 oe oe 292-2
26°42 4 33 s 293-1
25°08 2 5 oF 298°6
09°41 2 aS a 363°5
07°65 2 e Fe 3718
04:03 5 ee 3 385'8
4899°8] 2 * A 4105
97:50 2 Es A 4130
94°65 2 3 Ps 424°9
89°44 2 “ 446°6
86°70 2 s PS 462°3
78:59 3 Af se 492-1
15°73 2 4875:67 V 3 cs 504:3
69-43 4 fe ‘i 530°7
68:23 6 es > 535°7
66:07 2 a a 5449
60:99 2 3 5:7 5663
60°28 3 is 3 569-2
58°44 3 ¥ si 577-0
51:92 2 ae a 604:°7
50:05 2 612°7

92 REPORT—1908.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

| Reduction to| ¢ Bo
: iS)

Intensity Vacuum 368

Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) a aS

Character 1 See

At =f o ce

4845°38 2 1:59 5°7 | 20632°5
39°82 2 n or 656°2
38°35 2 39 662:0
35°98 2 A BS 672°6
34°16 4 tes » | 680-4
33°13 2 ” ” 684'°8
30°73 6s 35a ay 695°1
30°15 2 99 2) | “so ee
28°67 4s a | 499) See sO
23°16 2 “6 5 7276
22°62 2 oo Melitass 729°9
19:47 6 oA aes 743°4
17-92 4 ss 2 Re 7501
14°68 2 » | 9 7642
11°28 5 ” ” 7787
08°68 2 1 5 790:0
08:29 | 4 08°32 Fe a , 791-7
05°78 4 ae 802°6
05°13 2 | appl Ege 804:9
4796-75 5s |: asp M leas 841-7
94°81 2 + Fa 850°2
94:03 3 = + 8539
93°60 4 ” ” 855°4
92°96 4 Pe 3 8582
88°39 2 "3 7 878-1
87°83 2 sya “ey 880°6

? 4786-73 Ni } ;
86°68 4 { ena vy. | » | » | 8866
85°34 5s sym Ml mass 8913
84-64 2 | ot) sae 894:°5
83°16 ft 5 83°17 lowess PU
78:09 2 heeererie mish c: 923:0
76°54 t 6 also V 76°55 Co ek le 2a: 929°9
75:87 5 L's 3 932°8
74°42 4 ee ee lets: 939-1
73 64 + [cS ie ees 942°6
T3347 3 |) <p of 943°2
64°64 4s ” ” 982°1
60°39 8 a » | 21000°9
58°71 5 aye Ol lee 008°3
56-06 2 5 s 020°0
53°56 2 Woe i 0311
51:31 2 | as Gl sn nme
50°60 5s » Ol 4g a OE 2
49°61 2 1 El) ae ESS so
49°35 2 Pa ey. 049:7
49:06 2 » Sloe -eee@
40°58 2 99 fl oon (peOBS:7
40°36 2 3} p 089°6
36-84 2 ” | #053
35°51 2 * os, | REBEL,
34°34 2 ” ” 116°5
31°64 7 “A A 129°4
29°36 6 5 a 138°7
25°55 2 as + 155-7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 93

MoLyBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

. | | Reduction to |

Bo
: Vacuum Se3

Intensity eM BF poke
| Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) =
Character A+ Eee Sa

| x Sn A

4723-50 |, 2 159 | 5:8 (211649
23°27 3 » | 9 1759
19-08 | 4 ” ” 185:0
18-13 5 el oe 189-0
e 16°88 2 ” | ” 194°7
14°69 4 3) Ge 204°3
10:16 2 a) MAIS 93 224-9
08°43 6 Pll ee 232°7
07°44 {¢ 470746 Fe ” 59 237:2
06-40 2 bell mas 241:7
06-25 4 also Cr » |» 242°4
00°71 4 rial 267°5
4696-71 3 | 99 ss 285°6
96:06 2 | | ” | ” 2886
93°55 2 | ” rr 299°9
92°89 2 ” re 302°9
9219 2 ” a 3061
91-05 4 ” ” 311°3
88°41 5 468846 Fe ” op 323°3
86:28 4 ” 3 333°0
86:01 4 Mn G Seon eS 3342
84:54 2 Uh savr Wel tas 340°9
84:04 3 | 99 ” 343°2
82°44 2 | 99 3 350°5
81:82 2 see Ge 353°3
81:24 2 ” ” 356°0
75°91 2 ao IP R55 3849
73°24 2 ” | ” 392°5
72-11 6 eho Meee 397°7
69-00 2 rr ibeten eee: 412°0
65°59 2 Fy Hoan MG 427-6
63°31 2 ” a 438-0
62°95 t¢ 6 4662:93 ” f 439°7
62-11 5 ” ry 443°6
57°67 2 ” “5 464°0
56°57 2 ” + 469:1
52°47 * 4 { ” | ” 488:0
51:25 + | Pree! eae 493°6
49°28 3 ” ” 502°8
48-02 4s ” > 508°6
42-90 3 ” o 532°4
41-78 2 ” | ” 5376
41:12 2 ” ” 540°6
35-22 2 ” 6:0 572°6
32:75 2 ” Cp 579°5
30-20 4s ” | - 591°3
27°70 5 4627°73 3 7 603-0
26-67 rj also V 4626°74 Mn * . 607°8
24-44 4 ” ” 618-2
23°66 3s aw sy 621°9
21:57 5s On Ys 631-7
18°15 2s Pita ee 647:7
17°82 2 ” ” 649-2
16°81 * 2 ” ” 654-0

* Probably not due to Molybdenum.

| Wave-length

REPORT—1903.

MoLyBpENuUM (Arc SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

4614-94
11-36
11-03
10-07 t
08-90
08:32
03°78
4599-35
98-44
98-07
95°35
93:84
92:40
90°55
88:33
87°61
86:98
86:75
86:25
82:69
82:52
79:92
78:06
i @RagO7
| 76-70
76:05
75°36
74:80
74°66
70:78
70°30
69-21
67:87
67°57
60:32
59:94
58-92
58:30 t
54:00
53°52
5340
53-00
41°75
39°84
38°60
37:00
35°56
35:00
34-63
29:59
28°77
25:56
25:50
24°53
22:37

WONWNM RM WL Db eb

< <} NNN W WR
bo bo bo bo Bia

RON ROO ER ONN FEN WOWROWNWFRNW RN EDN NWO ts

|
|

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

4610-09

4560'27 Fe

4558°29

4258'80 Fe

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 95

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to BR o

Intensity Macau S a 5
Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) ees cd
Character ee Jy 3 3 q

Xe | See

4518°61 2 1:59 61 22124°6
17°58 4 e a5) 1 A129°6
ee 6 4517-28 4517:32 Co a3 ot (meooel.
: 4 re ' 140°5
15:20 3 ” : 141:3
12°32 5 ne “- 155°4
ae + x 3 182°3
0613 | 6 i ts EUR
01°44 ze 4501°42 Ti | 99 ” 209°0
4499°62 4 Ohad 4 218°2
ae 2 fn 62 | 2443
f 2 ” ” 244-4
92-00 2 aso a 255°6
91:46 6 3 » | 258-3
90°37 4 ” 9 263°7
89°17 3 | 9 3 269°6
87-23 4 ” ” 278:7
85°16 5 a a 289'5
ne | ca ere
3 ss + 13
73°37 5 ” ” 348°3
72:23 3 We Es oe, 354-0
Be: et
: ” ” 372°9
68°28 2 | 93 * 373°8
64:96 6 4464-94 Fe lense + 390°4
ME began:
4 thoes; ” 21:2

y ” ” 451-7
ae eee
‘ ry) ” 478°8
46°62 4s 1 a eage » | 482°8
44:21 2n +5 a3 495-0
43°25 4s ” ” 499°8
42°37 5s a - 504:3
39°15 2s “rp * 520°6
37°35 2 + a 529-7
37:06 4 as ep 531°2
33°68 3s <p ve 548-4
= 2 “A 6:3 570°5
y 2 ” ’ 576°3
26°86 5 ” B 583°3
24°40 2 a ae 585°6
23°79 5 + a? 598°8
23°24 2 also Ni ” ” 601°4
22°23 3 . - 606°7
20°91 2 ae a 613°5
17:40 2 ” ” 631°4
12:96 4 ” ” 654-2
11:90 6 ” ” 659-7
11:76 5 “A fr 660°4
10°15 4 “p + 668°6
09°61 2 ” +H 671°4

REPORT—1903.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

4407-04
04:71
03°07
02°67

4398°68
97°48
97:02
96°83
96°55
94:67
94:49
92°32
91-71
89:76
88-49
86:10
82°61
81:82
81:36
80°80
80°47
76°87
75°21
75:07
73°52
72°31
70°33
69°23
66°73
64-90
64:76
64-65
63°82
63°21
62°87
62°20
57:50
54°88
53°48
50°53
49°41
46°40
44:86
42°16
41:61
40:93
40:02
39°42
38:90
38°73
36°38
35°00
34°65
33°40
32°68

77)

BO BO 09 69 CO 00 BO HE bO He OH HE bo

NWN FENN ENHWERNWHNHRHNWHONNHWWNODRabN bY NWN RWH ORD

Reduction to
Vacuum

At 2

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

226847
696°7
705°1
7072
727°8
7340
7364
7373
738°'8
748-5
749°7
760°7
7639
774:0
780°5
792°9
811°2
8153
817°6
820°6
822°3
841-1
849-7
850°4
8586
864'9
875°3
881-0
894:0
903°6
904:3
904°9
909°3
912°5
9143
917°8
942°5
956°3
963°7
9793
985°2

23001°1
009°3
023°6
026°5
03071
035:0
038-2
040°9
041°8
054-4
061°6
063°5
070:2
074:0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 97

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to| ¢ 5,

; Vacuum es

Intensity Ba 8

Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) =

Character A+ Bee Seen

A Om"
4330°27 2 1:59 | 64 |23086-°9
29°82 3 5 089'3
29°50 2 # i 091-0
26°33 6 is t. 107-9
25°44 2 a i, 112°6
24-72 2 x ‘ 1165
29:60 2 i, 1278
22-17 4 u \, 1303
18-46 2 ts \, 1500
18°13 5 Ls t. 151°8

15-60 2 x i 165°
13°74 2 % e 175°3
13°16 : id t 182-4
12°98 3 +s rf 179'6

‘ 4310°63 :
10°58 4 { te oil a ages
08°85 2 » | 63 | 2018
05-10 4 # [ 221°8
04:20 3 3 $3 226'5
01°45 3 mi 5 241°5
4296°35 3 a e 269:0
94:07 6 af ( 281-4
93-42 6 x f 2850
92°34 6 i i 290°8
91-39 4 i ¥ 296 0

8956 | 4 4989:50 Ca » ” 305-
sss2 | . 6 és f 309°5
87:26 % i ., 319-4
8477 | 6n s 332°3
82:00 | 4 a + 347-1
80:17 2 - 2 359-0
79:19 2 a # 362.4
77-58 4 77-54 Zr 5 4 371-2
77-38 6 77°38 i: Ns 372°3
77:08 6 a a 373°9
75°86 2 i hs 380-6
74:22 2 6 i 389°5
73-23 3s iH 395-0
72°24 3 + of 400°4
69-444 | 69°45 o » 415°8
68-25 4 if is 422°3
66: 27 4 is 433-2
64°81 2 # bs 441-2
61°63 3 A Lk 458-7
61:17 2 if, ys 4613
60°85 3 60°89 ” ” 463-0
60°52 3 3 3 4648
58-85 2 i 2 472-0
53°77 2 * “f 502:0
52°69 2 o 6°6 507:9
52-08 3 i , 5116
51°58 2 ~ a 5141
50°87 3 if % 518-0
46-19 5 46-25 Fe 0 ” 543°9
44-95 3n ik 550'8

1903. H

98 REPORT—19038.

MoLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Intensity Vacuum
Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

Character
A+

a
A

4242-97 1:59 66
41:03
40°48
40°26
39°37
39°25
35°23
33°68
32°75
26°44
25°10
24:93
24:10
23°15
22°59
20°17

19°55

19:20
17-02
14-24
11-23
10:39
09:84
0897
07°75
07°42
06-00
04-80
02°42
01:50
01:35
00°76
00:02

419982
94-74
94-20
88-49
86-97
85°98t
84-59
84-33
81-24
80°69
80:12
78°72
78°45
17-45
77-09
75-32
71°65

| 71-27

| 70-58

7001

| 68-68

rs
© pe one
n
rs)
<

19°58 Fe
19°52 Fe 7 He

4185°94

(2) Ti
69°93 Fe

ey Uh Ws Ss 0 Ro Cs FI BS We 02 RD IKS Sh WH OO 'RD. OriR RO 109 1BO69 RD 10 TBD NORD ROLPO > 80 £0 RO. Nwwnpwwwnwwre

Frequency

Oscillation
in Vacuo

23561°8
572°6
5756
576'8
5814
582°5
604'8
613°5
618°7
654-0
661°5
662°4
666°1
672°4
675°5
688"
692°6

694°6
706°8
7225
739°5
7442
TAT'3
7532
7591
761°0
769:0
T75°7
788°2
794°4
795°3
798°6
802°7
803°8
832-7
835°8
8682
876'9
882°6
890'5
892°0
909°6
912°8
9160
924-1
925°6
931°3
933-4
943°6
964°6
966°8
971:2
9741
981-7

ee AP

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 99

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to] g Po

Intensit Wacnay 3 85
Wave-length eat y Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) ——_—__——_——. s B.S

cS)

Character a <- é cE s

4166°47 3 1:59 67 | 23994-4
65°94 2 ” ” 997°5
64°26 3 » ” 2400771
62°85} 5 62°83 ” ” 0153
60°44 D3 ” | ” 029°2
58°27 2 ” ” 041°7
57°59 5 ” ” 045:7
55°77 5 ” ” 056°8
55°47 5 ” ” 058:0
52:07+ 4 52°11 ” ” 0777
49:90 2 ” ” 090°3
49°14 5 ” 6°8 094°6
48°88 2 ” ” 102°3
43°73 8 ” ” 126:0
42°28 2 ” » 1345
39°72 2 ” ” 149°4
38°72 33 ” ” 1553
38°35 3 ” ” 156°9
37°10 2 ” ” 164°7
35°55 2 ” ” 173°8
35°37 2 ” ” 174°8
33°18 2 ” ” 187°6
32°90 2 ” ” 189°3
32°41 4 ” ” 192-1
32:07 4 ” » 1941
29:02 4 ” a 212°0
28°46 4 » a 2153
24-72 4 ”» ot 217°3
23°83 4 Spe li Ness 242°5
22°55 2 ”» ” 250:0
20°26 6 ” ” 263°5
19°18 2 » * 269°9
19°12+ 4 19:05 Fe ” ” 270°2
15:08 4 ” 53 294-2
13:77 2 ” ” 301°8
12°29 2 ” “8 310°5
10°88 2 ” "9 3189
10°46 2 ” ” 321-4
08°30 3 08:29 ” ” 3342
07°63 6 ‘ » ” 338:1
05°72 4 ” ” 349-4
05:27 4 ” ” 352°1
03°94 3 ” ” 360-0
02°33t 5 02°32 V ” ” 369°6
4098°91 2 » 69 389°8
96:98 4 » ” 401°3
94°63 2 » 4153
93°32 2 ”» . 423-1
89°90 3 ” ” 443°6
86:16} 4 408613 ” ” 466-0
8454+ 6 84:58 Ted RI A is. ee
81:94 4 3 + 491-3
81°62 6 ” ” 4932
78:25 2 rH 3 513-4

{ Not coincident with Fraunhofer line.
H2

100 auponTt “1908.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to} 2 >

: Vacuum 228

Intensity 338
Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) Bes

Character ks pape Shee

r Oar

4076-69 3 { Ce 159 | 69 | 24599°8
76°35 4 Pe + 524°8
75°72 4 55 oF 528°6
75°43 4 a ~ 530°4
70°17 + aS 9 5620
70:05 6 * + 562°8
67°88 2 vs ¥ 582-4
66°52 4 66°52 Co Prt 3 584:2
62°24 5 fe + 610°0
59°79 4 a3 + 624'9
57:77 3 also Ti os 5 637°2
57°61 2 3 + 6381
56:18 4 | oe ea ‘ > 646°8
51°35 2 is 7:0 6761
50°27 2 3 cs 682°6
49°75 2 aif + 685°9
47°75 2 if ” 698°2
47°56 2 i = 699:2
47-07 2 ar aa 702°2
43°91 3 a 5) 721°5
43°44 2 a + 724°4
43°05 4 ” ” 726°8
41°30 3 ” ” 1375
38°26 + 5 ” 755°6
37°95 4 ” ” 758-0
36°83 2 “4 % 764:9
43°11 2 . & 787-7
32°65 3 32°61 Fe V es * 790°6
31:60 2 xj Ss 7970
31:06 2 + A 800:4
28°80 3 * + 814°3
27:07 2 hs * 824-9
25°64 3 ” ” 833°8
21°19 4 3 4 861-2
20°59 3 { ote ae ” ” 865:0
19°32 2 3 6 872°8
17°55 3 % Ap 883°8
16°86 2 A + 888°1
12:97 2 bs “7 9122
12°68 2 a = 914:0
12°42 2 * = 915°6
12°12 4n # a 917°4
09°53 4 c + 933°6
08:21 2 a + 941°8
07°62 2 es ‘3 945-4
06°85 2 As + 950:2
06°23 + + 5; 954-1
05°86 2 also V ” ” 956-4
03°62 2 a 1 970°2
00°67 4 00°61 Fe ” ” 9867
00°55 4 A + 989-4
3998-45 4 of » |25002°6

eEeeE—e——————E———<—— rc Crm Cr—~—

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 101

Wave-length

MoLyBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and

Character

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

3995-66
94°79
94-06
93-22
92-02
91°55
86°45
85:88
84-92
82°22
81:80
80:87
80°37
79°40
78-08
74:09
73-92
73:10
71:54
69:17
68-91
66-40
65°89
64°14
63-68
60°12
59°83
59-03
58-76
55-66
54-08
51-70
51:49
51-14
50°40
47:33
47-00
45°41
43°66
43-19
40°50
39°65
39°30
38-88
36°89
36°30
35°33
35°13
34-41
31°57
30°35
28-95
28-86
28°45
26-00

NWWWWWWWRWDHDNWHNHNHOEEN PHFD HEE RNYDNNWEWWRNUWUNHY PRP RRR WORD WERE BR WR

3969°29 Cr, Co

61°57 Al

45°47 Co
44:10 Al

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

102 REPORT—1903.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to | g Be

Intensity Nace 3 a6
Wave-length aaa Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) 3 a
Character Ne mee 2K

nN (es) & “_

392478 2 1:59 72 | 25471°9
23°91 4 a “s 477-6
22°49 4 7 zy 486'8
21°09 2 Ay BS 495'9
20°25 2 as 5014
17°95 4 a - 516°4
1770 4 > 8 518-0
17:09 4 “5 PP §21°9
16°62 2 & “a 525°0
15°60 2 ss oe 531°7
13°52 3 BS i 545°2
12:10 3 ” ” 554°2
11°24 3n a a 56071
09°92 5) ” ” 568°8
08°42 3 a 73 5785
07°10 t ” ” 587-1
03°07 20n, r ee - 613°6
01°95 5 ” ” 621°0
90°87 2 <5 5 628°0
00°40 2 a oe 6311
3897°68 2 + 35 649:0
97°05 3 ef i 653°1
96°55 3 a re 65674
93°50 2 3893°54 Fe ” ” 676°5
90°88 3 93°45 Co ” ” 693°'8
89°06 + BS oy 7059
88°36 4 eS 710°5
88°15 2 A = WT9
87°87 2 cP 9 713°7
86°98 5 86°94 ” ” 719°6
79°20 2 a ‘i T71:2
74:34 3 74:32 Ti ” ” 803°5
73°30 3 73:25 Co fr ae 810-4
T0717 3 s a 827°3
70°62 3 *s " 828°3
69 25 2 A: “3 837°5
66°87 | 2 y is 853°4
64°25 20n, r 64:25 Mo, C KS 3 870°9
56°15 3 5 = 925°2
55°09 2 5 Ny fee 932°4
62°17 4 a r. 952°0

51:57 2 “ BS 956°2 .
49:95 2 5 yo 9671 j

48°45 a 48°48 Ti > 9772
47-41 4 Re ee 984:2
46°36 3 - i 991°3
4612 | 4 - fe 992°9
44:09 3 %, + 26006°6
40°72 2 * * 029°5
39°65 2 _ Pr 036°8
35°49 4n . & 065°0
35°15 3 Be os 067°3
34°82 3 3 i 069°5
33°92 6 ” ” 0757
32°26 4 ” < 087:0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 103

| Wave-length

3831°95

31°25
30°98
30°22
30°08
29°95
29°04
27°33
26°85
25°63
25°50
24-94
24:34
23°17
22°14
21:82
21-09
19-98
18°83
17-37
15:24
14°64
12°63
11°56
10:99
10°31
08°79
08:04
07°82
06°15
04:70
02°35
02-00
00:28
3798°39
97°46
97°20
96°45
96:19
95°48
94-60
88°42
86°54
85°67
85:19
82°86
82°35
81°75
80°78
79°92
77°90
76°73
76°27
72:99
72-11

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Pre Ce Cree Cis oon Oe cee Cha Choe Cheer ae Clog Ce sn Sa Ch CH cn CC Hot Sa CiUn Cir Scarce Cn Crs cu taUn Cia rear Sctn Car sree

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

31:00
30:90 \ He

01:98
3798°40 Mo

Reduction to

Vacuum
a
At | =-
1°59 13
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”?
” ”
” ”
” ”
as 74
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” } ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
Fs T5

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26089°1

fo)
iJe}
re
oo

095°7

1018
102°7
108°9
120°6
123°9
1322
133°1
136°9
142°0
149°0
154°9
158°2
163°2
1718
178°7
188°6
203°3
207°4
221°2
228°6
232°5
237°2
248°3
252°8 |
254°3
265°9 |
2759
29271
2946
306°4
319°5
3260
327:9
332°3
3348
339'7
345°8
388°8
401°9
408°0
411-4
427-6 |
431-2
435-4
442°3
448:2 |
462°3
469°8
473°8
496°7
502°8

104

REPORT—1903.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

64:20
63°52

62:27
61:93
61:07
59°80
58-70
56:02
55°68
55°31
52°12
51°38
48°66
AT 37
45:12
44:55
43°98
42°48
40°97
38:10
36°36
35°80
34°56
33°59
33°22
32°91
30°75
28°70
28°50
27°86
26°45
25°75
24-00
23:70
22°50
20°42
19°87
19-71
18-66
17-05
16:27
15°83
14°73
13:64
12:22

3770°¢6
68.92
68°78
67:90
65°58
65°92
65:40
65:21
64°60

SERNUNHYRwWHNhwa

=
B

| ieee |
©,

WOEWHENNHHENWNPRRAWENH AEN WWHENTONKEWEE RDP DY WKh WER Rw

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

3727-78 Fe

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26513-0
525°3
526°3
532°5
541°8
546°5
5502
551°5
555-7
558°5

563°3

5721
5746
580°7
589-6
597°4
616-4
619-0
621°5
644:1
649°5
668°7
677-9
693°9
698°0
702-0
712°6
723°5
744-0
7565
760°5
769°4
T7764
779-0
781:3
796°8
811°5
813°0
8174
827°6
832°6
845-2
847°6
856-0
871:1
875°1
876:2
883°
895°5
901-1
904°3
912°3
920°2
930°4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

105

; Reduction to db
Intensity Vacuum 228
Wave-length and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) aoa
Character 1 Bee
| A+ =o a 2 q
A lo} <a
8711°68
ions 1:59 76 | 26934-4
08°73 4 z é tees
eet 3 370879 ” ” 955°8
05°57 2 2 fae
02°67 4 : = is
02°33 2 3702 63 ” ” 999:9
Se : ”9 vs 27002°4
00:15 3 e a ies
3698-69 3 or WA peste
96-18 3 : v ik =
Be as 3696°17 Fe ” ” 047°3
93°52 4 zs 2 Ce
79 i 1m ” ” 066°'8
“5am é 3692°79 Fe as on 072°2
90:72 5 ” ” 076:2
90°30 2 - Hee
ee A ” ” 090°5
88°45 4 é a rt
83-12 2 ” ”» 104°1
87-12 3 ” ” 106°5
86:72 4 4 re tine
8627 ji ” ” 116:0
84-48 3 is ie ie
89°12 9 ” ” 133°3
81°88 4 ” aca 150°6
S169 = % 7 152°3
- 80-85 ” ” 153°7
80°75 | 7 3680°80 a 1598
80:36 2 “yc eee
79°39 3 sy p ene
97°83 4 { 3677°83 : re peice
el = jt rR "i Ss eee
7615 3 ‘ ie 4
“eh fi 367611 Fe ” ” 194°6
73°38 3 2 = ae
72:97 6 ” » 21571
69:50t 5 =f Pace are
68°63" » 3669°54 ” ” 244:0
66°87 4 . ate
64-98t 6 eS Fe ” ” 264°5
64°45 ri ” ad 277-7
63°83 9 ” ” 281°5
63°14 4 Se (teil ers
61°91 4 aD het Ee tat
61-24 3 ” ” 300°4
61-08 4 ” ” 305°5
59°51 7 iz af ae
ere) C BH) feat RNS!
B7-B3 2 . “4 7 325°9
55-21 3 3657 56 Fe ” ” 333°1
” ” 350°5
54°73 : i
54°74 Ti ” ” 354°2

3654'81 Fe
4n
546 Cu

106

REPORT—1903.

MoLyBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
Character

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

Reduction to
Vacuum

A+

3653-75
51-48
50°75
49-61
48°75
47-03
42-37
41°16
41-08
40°76
38-72
38-57
38:35
37-68
35°77
35-57t
35°30
29-45
28-80
28°50
26-33t
24-77
24-60
23-36
17-01
15-91
15°32t
14:87
14-42
13-94
13-80
13°55
12°62
12:15
10:80
08:52
07°56
05-19
04-73
04-24
03:86
03-10
00-04

3599-05
96-54
95°87
95-71
94-73
91°55
90:90
90°47
8910
87-02
85°74

CO ee a Be

w
)
sh
un
fo}
<

bo Co OTH Or to He or

5 al

LEER WHEE ROT WD ROD H ENE PRWWANWO RR DW

o Fe

3649°65 Fe

3637°69

3635°61 Ti, Fe
3635°34 Ti, Fe

3623°36 Fe

3615°34

3603°92 Ti
03°83 Cr

358905

scillation
requency
in Vacuo

O
F

273614
3784
383°9
392°5
398°9
411-9
446°9
4560
456°7
459-1
4744
4755
477-2
482-2
496°7
498°2
500°2
5446
549°5
5517
568°3
5802
581-4
589-4
639°3
647:7
652°2
655°7
659°2
662'8
6639
665°8
672°9
676°5
686°9
704-4
7118
729°0
7335
7373

740°2

746°1
7697
V7T3
7967
8019
803:1
810°6
| 835-2
8403
8436

854°2
| 870°4
880-4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 107

MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

3584-42

83°30
82-03
81-15
80°70
76°35
75°88
75°78
74°63
74:05
71:42
70:82
70°63
66°91
66°57
66-20
64:45
63°91
63:30
62-26
60-28¢
59-42
58°25
57°63
5558
54°35
52°57
51-12
48°88
48-05
47°57
43:27
42°92
42-32
29-62
39:07
37-41
34:83
31-44
26:08
26°11
24-76
22°52
21-56
21°32
21:17
18°35
17:70
14-93
13:86
10:93
08-26
07-45
07:16
05°45

Intensity
and
Character

SOR ae ea ee i Fie dD aegis eRe) OS RSPR RG 20S Sa KO b= ee SP) Go RO Cy Gru GO Or Go G0 OF Cee RS AO Se

Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland)

3573 97 Fe

3563°30
3560°28
3558°21

Reduction to

Vacuum
A+ g -
A
1:59 79
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”? ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 8-0
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
, 81

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

108 REPORT—1903.
MOLYBDENUM (ARC SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reduction to Bee
1 7 Intensity Bee e3 8
Wave-lengt and Fraunhofer Lines (Rowland) Bes
Character ee ee ee eee
[e) —& —_—

; 3504°57 V ; : ’
3504-55 5 { ee 159 | $1 | 28596-2
3498°21 2 ” ” 578:0

93°49 ‘ 5 - 616°5
92°98 2 3 + 620°8
92:05 2 es % 628°4
91:92 2 4 “6 629°4
90:42 2 3 fF 641-7
84:05 4 r 5 694-1
82°55 4 Hs 3 706°5
81:95 3 3 9 7114
80-26 3 5 cS 725°4
79°60 4 53 55 730°8
76:15 4 347607 Cu 9 53 7593
75:19 4 - on 767°2
71:09 3 i 7 801°2
69°80 2 os 8-2 8119
69°39 + ne 2 815-2
68-70 2 PA “- 821:0
68°02 4 = - 826°7
67:13 3 a as 8341
66°98 4 A “i 835°3
65°81 3 9 ne 845-1
63:78 3 ri e 8620 |

{ Certainly coincident with Fraunhofer lines.

+ Not coincident with Fraunhofer lines.

CALCIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. k. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Ixviii. 1898.
Exner and Haschek, ‘Sitzber R. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cvi. 1897.

Wave-length

Intensity
Eder and Exner and and
Valenta Haschek Character
6499°9 8
93:9 |o 10
719 18 8
62:3 | & 10
49-99| & 8
39-4 | 2 10
61699 +o 5
69-4 | 2 5
66:8 | 2 5
62:5 | "a 10
225 13 10
02:99] 2 8
5857°7 8s
5603-009 5s
01°475 5s

Reduction to |
Vacuum
ad | ae,

| A
| 1:91 | 45
” ”

1:90 2

139] |
| 1:82 | 4:8
|-a-S1t og
| ” ”»
| 1:80 | =4
|e | ao
| 153 | 4:9
|

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

15380°5
3944
447-0
468°8
499°5
525-0
16203°0
2043
211-2
222°5
328°5
380°6
17066°3
“842°7
847°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 109

CALCIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wawve-length Reduction to
= Intensity Vacuum rs
and a ale Beamenay,
Gian. ‘Haschek | Character | 4 | 1_ | in Vacuo
A
5598°681 5s 153 | 4:9 17856°5
94°632 6s ” ” 869-4
90°324 4s 152) ,, 883°1
88:948 6n ” ” 887-6
82°167 4s ” ” 909°3
13-120 2br 150] ,, 18133:7
5349°619 5s 146] 51 687°8
5270°463 5s 1:44 | 5-2 968°5
65°720 5s ” ” 985°6
64:402 3s ” ” 990:3
62°365 3s ” ” 997°7
61°863 3s ” ” 999°5
5188:977 2s 1-42 | 53 19266°3
5041-920 In 138 | 5:4 828°3
4878-360 4s 1:33 | 5:6 204931
4847-2 In ” 57 624°8
4586-086 6b* 1:26 | 6:0 21799°1
81-618 5s ” ” 820°3
78-780 4s 125 ” 833°9
27°183 4b¥ 1°24 | 6-1 22082-7
4481-34 4481-7 2n Mg? 1:23 | 62 308°6
67-929 In 122) ,, 3755
66°625 In ” ” 382-1
56-786 3s ” ” 431°5
56:057 56:06 7s ” ” 435:°2
54:919 54:93 Tn ” ” 4409
44-087 1 ” ” 495°6
42-963 1 ” ” 501°3
35°838 35°84 6s ” ” 5387-4
357124 35°12 6n ” ” 541-1
25°616 25°62 8b 1:21} 6:3 589°4
4355-467 3bY 119] 6-4 953-2
33°932 1 ” ” 23067°3
30°313 2 ” ” 086°6
18-798 4318-79 8 118 ” 148-2
14148 2 ” ” 1731
10°585 1 ” ” 192°3
07°864 OT 92 5 ” 6°5 213-4
02-676 02°70 4) ” ” 234:8
4299°133 4299°14 8 ” ” 254:0
89°534 89°55 8 ” ” 3061
83°125 83°18 8 ” ” 340°9
78018 2 117 os 368°8
77-403 1 ” 3 372:2
71°760 1b + 3 403°1
40 515 40°55 2n 116} 66 575-4
38°587 In ” ” 5862
26-870 26°88 8r ” £ 6516
4130-98 In 113 | 68 24200°5
27:96 In >” t 218:2
23°39 In ” ” 245'1
4098-876 2bv éc re 390-0
95243 2bv ” 6-9 411:7
57-980 3s 1:12 = 635:9

3979°208 r‘ghost’?; 1:10 | 7:1 251235

110

REPORT—1903.

CALCIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length Reduction to
Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
xner an and haa
eee ashe Character Ap Meee po Ee
A
3973°908 3973'87 2s 1:09 | 71 | 251570
68638 68°62 10r es : 190°5
57:960 r‘ghost’?|__,, ay 2584
57232 57:23 4s x 3 263°1
49101 49:03 3s #5 7-2 315-0
33°803 33°81 10r 1:08 a 413°5
23:345 10r‘ghost”?),, ne 481-2
15°388 1 + 5 5331
09:980 1 4 55 568-4
05°691 4s +. 73 596-4
3856°153 2b 1:06 55 925°3
26°506 4s op + 26126:2
3759°419 3s 1:04 | 75 592-4
47151 4b 5 + 679°4
37-090 3737°25 10b” 1:03 48 751°3
16°193 2b’ 6 as 901°7
067190 06°25 10b 3 76 9743
3696°429 2b” 1:02 0 27045°5
85°317 3s > 5 1271
53606 2 NOL (S70 362°5
44-466 364453 8 er 2 4311
30°812 30°8 6br + 78 5343
24°162 24-1 5b é Ps 5848
01:957 2b 1:00 a 7549
3594:259 1s 3) TA 8142
87156 4b 5 a 869°3
35-60 2s 0:98 | 80 28275°7
10:97 4s 4 ne 474-2
05:00 5s a5 81 514-4
3487°87 2b" OD Tele ae 662°7
74:96 2b” Pa ‘5 769°2
56°58 2s 096 | 82 92271
44-53 3s 3 290233
3387:99 3s 0:95 | 8-4 507°6
72930 6s O94 “ 639°4
61:374 6s 3 a 741-4
49-568 6s a 85 846°1
49-199 4s a - 849-4
35°30 2s O30; 973°8
32:26 2n by ‘: 30001:2
29°60 3s c vt 025'1
23°09 6s 7 8-6 083°9
3278:74 2s 0:92 | 8°7 490°8
61:70 4s a r 650-2
48°71 3s 0-91 | 88 T7127
42:11 3s * Hs 835'3
39°15 38 tl de 863°5
36 70 5s Bae 886°9
34°68 6s Jes 906°2
24:42 1s e: i. 31004°5
23:00 2s celia oes 018-2
18:45 1 0:90 S 062-1
17:05 1 “5 4s 0756
3181409 3181 51 8brr 0:89 | 8&9 4229
79°60 10b*r 43 9-0 4430

79447

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS 111

CALCIUM (SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length Reduction to
Intensity Vacoum |) Gacilation
Eder and Exner and omm 1 Bepeney
Valenta Haschek ee ae PEUaCeS
3170-2 In 0°89 | 9:0 31534°8
59013 59-11 10b*r ” ” 646°5
03°92 2s 088 | 9:2 322081
3092°84 8s 0:87 an 323°5
8811 4s i 7 3731
82:21 8s an 9:3 435:0
78:67 3s fp 4723
75°39 2s % a 506°9
73°06 Is ns 3 531°6
66°40 3n cf, op 602'2
09°32 3009-29 3s 0°85 | 9:5 33220°6
06°98 06°95 As = a 246'5
2999-74 2 i a 326°7
97:2 if = 9°6 354°9
95:08 2995 04 3s a = 378°5
36°83 4n 0°83 | 98 34040°5
28:92 4n ae 3 132°5
2816:44 2n 0°80 | 10:3 35495°5
2660°53 4 0:77 | 10-9 375756
2575:22 3 0-75 | 11:3 38820°3
68-09 3 és 11-4 928:0
2398:°73 2n 0-71 | 12:3 41676°4
73°24 2 0°70 | 12°5 42124:0
13-02 1 069 | 13:0 43220°5
09-20 1 PS x 292:0
2290:09 1 Bs 13:1 653°3
75°44 2 0°68 | 13:3 934:2
59°5 3n , 13-4 442442
08:95 2 0°67 | 13:8 45256°6
00°5 $n - 13:9 430°3
219803 2 * x 481°5
33°0 3 0°66 | 14:1 46868°2
31°2 = 0°65 | 14-5 907°4
23:0 4 se 146 47088°6
13°01 1 + 14:7 311-2
03:47 al + 14:8 525°7
2099°'87 1 be me 607°2
86°64 1 Ps 14:9 909:0
81°53 1 FA 15:0 48026'6

REPORT—1903.

Scanpium (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM).

Exner and Haschek, ‘Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cix. 1900.

Wave-length

4744-02
41:25
37.86
34°30
29-40

4698°50
70°64

457417

4431°57
20°87

4315°85
00:64 *
85:01
74:70 *
59:22
54°80
25°24 *
21:01 *
14°32
05:94

4294:98
80:05
47:02 *
38°22
32°12
29°98

4082°60 *
68:8
614
54:70 *
47-96
23°86 *
20°56 *
14:68

3996°76 *
89°21
88:13
44-9
23°60
12:05 *
07:69

3678°65
76°82
7542
66°69
64°37
51:96 *
45°46 *
42:93 *
30°86
28°35

Reduction to

Intensity Vacuum
and
Character
A+

2 1:30

2 ”

1 ”

i 1:29

ul ”

ZA 1:28

In 1:25

3 1:22

2 1:21
15 ”
20 9

4 1:20
20 Fi

1 1”

3 119
20 >
20 %
30 118

6 st

5 ”

1 117

100 s

iL 1:16

1 Nb? FP

1 ”

3 1:12

2b ”

3 TA!

2 ”

8 ”

8 1:10

2 ”

1 ”

1 Yb? 7

In 1:09

1 1:08

6 53

6 rt

3nr 1:02

1 ”

1 ” |

3 ”

1 ”
20 1:01
15 ”
50 ”

100 ”
In ss

Oscillation Frequency
in Vacuo

21073°4
085°7
100°8
1166
138-5
277°5
404-4
855°7
22559°1
613-9
646°5
716°6
W977
852-4
933°5
956°8
23113°6
136°3
1722
220°1
276'5
357-7
5393
588°2
6222
6342
24487°3
570°4
6151
6558
6968
844-7
862-7
901°8
250132
060°5
067°3
346°8
4786
5532
583°3
27176°2
189-7
200°0
264-0
2821
3750
423-7
442-7
533'0
552°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 113

SCANDIUM (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

3624°77
19-97
13°96 *
03-1
359067
89°82
81°15
76°52 *
ea *
67°86
58°72
35°88
3457-62
35°67
29°59
339455
85°6
83°81
795
78°5.
72°30
69°10
62°09
61°45
59°83
53°88 *
52°19
43°5
314
aS.
17°25
13°0
12:0
3289°50
73°76
70°05
. 55:79
51°44
3199°6
91-2
39°98
33°32
30°49
28:48
26°2
08-70
3082°80
65°32
60-7
53°12
45°88
‘ 40°15
21:14
20°70
19°42
1903.

Reduction to

Intensity Moire | Oscillation Frequency
and 1 in Vacuo
Character i! a |
in 1-00 78 275792 |
1 Yb? : 618'8
100 a » 665°4
1b : . 746-0
10 . 79 842-0
10 : - 848-6
20 33 915-1
30 099 | on 953°1
50 Re) te A 9821
20 J i 28020°1
20 5 ” 092-1
15 0:98 8-0 274:2
1 0:96 8:2 896°7
1 bb 4 29089°7
1 - 8:3 1497
In 0°95 $-4 449°6
1b a Ne 528°5
t be & 544-1
3nr »” ” 581°8
lnr ” ” 590°5
10 O94 a 644-9
10 e > 675-1
8 i FS 7350
8 ” ” 740°7
8 e ” 759°8
20 At 8:5 807-7
2 7 4 822-7
3b s i 900-3
2b 0°93 ° 30008°8
1b es 8°6 1482
In es 8 145°9 id
8b 5s A 184°6 i
2b ¥ ., 193°7
i a'g es 4; 0:92 8°7 395°6
2 * a 536°2
2 a 3 5718
1 s . 705°8
1 0-91 88 7468
1b # 8-9 31245-0 |
1b . - 327-2 }
2n % 1 838°2
2n 0:88 + 899°7
1 Nb? 3 > 934-6 |
1n 35 oF 955-1 |
1b 5 is 978°6
in 5 9:2 32158°3
1 0:87 9:3 428°7 t
5n * a5 613°6
In 0°86 5 663°
4n A 9°4 744°0
3n “ as 821'8
Qn a i 883-7
1 | 0°85 95 090°6
1 | ” ” 095-4 |
1 | re e 38109°5

114 REPORT—1903.

ScANDIUM (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to
Intensity Magee Oscillation Frequency
Wave-length and E, a in Vacuo
Character ne | 1 =
A |
3015'46 1 oss | oe | 33153-0
2989-20 3n teens | || aye 444-9
80°91 1 | O84 | re 548-4
80:0 1b ” ” | 5475
74.17 tL wb ¥ Se. 613°2
13-1 | In 0-83 SCO 9-9 34308°2
2871:1 1b 032 | 101 809-9
66:2 1b * é 860°0
595 1b O81 | > 961-1
58-40 | 1 Od eee ee | 974-2
26°88 3n e | 102 85364°5
22°4 3b 0:80' | 103 420°5
19°75 2n Fe re 453°8
01°6 1b A rs 683°6
2790:94 In i 10°4 819°8
89°4 2b y i 839°5
82:6 1b 0°79 3 | 927-1
34:12 16 0:78 106 36543°7
2699°14 10 bo 10°8 37027°4
84:3 1b 0-77 ge 242°7
76°15 In *! 10:9" 4 346-4
67:7 1b | * 5 474:5
11:4 2b 0:76 111 38282°5
2563°30 4 0°74 11:4 991:2
62°65 3 a y? | 39010-7
60°39 6 a = 029°8
55°91 4 a . 112°4
52°49 8 a . | 166:0
45°31 4 a 115 266°9
2400°44 1 0-71 12°3 41646°7
2363°95 lb 0:70 12°6 42289°5
2299-25 In 0°69 131 43466°6
88:20 In be 675°6
73°21 3 0:68 13°3 963°6
51:94 In a 13-4 44391°7
32°98 In A 136 769°6

* Rowland 4400°555, 4374628, 4325°152, 4320-907, 4246-696 (Y?), 4082589 Sc, Fe,
Ti; 4054-714, 4023-834, 4020°547, 3996-682, 3911-963, 3651:940, 3645-475 Sc ?, 3642-912.
3613:947, 3576°527, 3572°'712, 3553875, also 5672:047 occur in Rowland’s list of solar
lines.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Inpium (Uxrra-vioLter Spark Spectrum).

115

Reduction to | ab

I . | Vacuum 328

ntensity Sle ben

Wave-length and Previous Observations (Arc) Sot
Character lene to Ons

React ered EL

4511°55 50r 451144 K and R 1:24 61 | 22159-2
4375:13 2 1:20 | 63 850'1
09:72 1 118 64 | 231970
4177-69 2 115 | 6:7 930°0
02°01 50r 4101°87 a 113 | 68 | 24371°5
3835°2 3b 1:06 73 | 26067:0
3774:49 1 1:04 TA 486:2
10°45 2 1:03 76 943°3
3633°27 1 1:01 78 |27515°6
11-20 1 { LO0.t 5 683°8
10°60 lL Hee ee 7 688°4
3519°33 1T1? 6-98 | 8-0 | 284065
3262°45 1 Sn 0:92 | 87 |30642°8
58°64 3 3258°66 A O-°L - 6790
56:22 8r ef 3 701°8
318715 In 0-90 | 89 |31367°0
yaar lg 1. Sn 7 9-0 485°5
3039°45 4nr 3039°46 4 0 86 9-4 | 32891':3
i ot23 1n So oF > 947°9
08°30 10 95 | 33231°9
2983-51 8n 085 | 96 508°1
41:39 10 0°84 | 9:8 987°7
32°73 1 2932°71 F | 0:83 . 34088'1
2890°35 4 0:82 | 10:0 587°8
40°11 1Sn | O81 | 102 | 35199°6
2754-03 In 2753°97 * 0°79 | 10:5 | 36299°9
1471 In 14:05 js 0:78 | 10°7 833°9
10:39 2b 10:38 “A 10:9 884°4
2658°7 1b Sn | 0-77 | 11-2 |37601°5
02:0 1b 2601-84 7 0-76 | 11-4 | 38420°8
2560:05 1b 2560-25 Ws 0-74 | 121 | 390503
2429-52 In Sn} 2429-76 ss 0:72 | 12°7 | 411483
2350°84 i! 0:70 | 13:0 | 42525°3
06°18 5 0°69 | 13°3 | 43348°7

| 2265-08 2 | 0°68 » | 44135°3

| (
BeryLuium (ULTRA-vIOLET Spark SPECTRUM).
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cviii. (2), 1899.

Reduction to Bo

Intensity Waoveim B55

Wave-length and Previous Observations (Rowland) ae
Character A+ 1_ Se

Xr oOk'"

4572°88 1 4572°9 Thalén 1:25 | 6:0 | 21867'1
3321°51 3 3321:5? Hartley 0:93 86 | 30098-2
3131° 15 } F 0°88 9:1 | 31927°5
30°56 oor f | 31302, ¥ i 9359
2650°71 7 double | 2650:2 Ry 0-76 1:0 | 377147
_ 2494°84 3 24939 A 0:73 1:7 | 40071°0
94°69 3 } 3 is a 073°5
2348-72 3 0:70 | 2:7 |42562:7
48°58 1 vi 3 566°2

]

116

{

REPORT—1903.

Liraium (SPARK SPECTRUM).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ lxvii. 1898.
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien, cvi. 1897.

Wave-length | aa 8 Bo
; c Intensity | Previous Observa- | Vacuum 255
= and tions (Kayser and |———_| =& ne
Eder and Exner and | Character Runge) (arc) rae | oo ue
Valenta Haschek a OR'A
67082 ) 10 6708-2 12 | 4:0 | 149031
6103°77 | 10 610377 166) 4:4 |16378°9
497211 4 4972°11 1:36. 5:5 | 20106:7
4603:10 2nr 126 | 60 |21718°5
4602-46 10b'r 4602°37 11 3s IL) pone Remieedliecs
4273°52 4n 4273-44 117 | 65 | 23393°4
4132°57 6b 413244 | 114) 68 | 24191-2
3985-90 In 3985°94 110 | 71 | 250813
3232°798 3232°91 5n 3232°77 0-91 88 | 30924°1
2815°55 1 / 080 | 10:3 | 35506-7
2741-57 | 2 2741-39 0-78 | 106 | 36464-9
Liraium (OxyHYDROGEN FLAME SPECTRUM).
Ramage, ‘ Proc. Royal Soc.’ Ixxi. 1902, p. 164.
| | Reduction to
Intensit: Previous Observa- Vacuum ae
Wave-length | and tions (Kayser and = — eae
Character Runge) (are) es As) ee
| Xr
6708-0 | 10 P2 | 6708-2 = ay =
610384 | 9) A3 610377 1°66 4:4 16378°7
497198 | 2 B4 4972°11 1:36 55 20107:2
4603-07 7 Ad 4602°37 1:26 6-0 21718°6
4273°34 1 Bd 4273°44 117 6°5 23394-4
4132-93 5 AD5 413244 114 68 24189'1
3985°86 1 Bé 3985°44 | 1:10 Tl 25081°6
3915°59 3 A6 3915-2 | 1:08 72 2553817
3795°18 2 AT 37949 1 1:05 T 4 26341°8
3719°0 1 A8_ | 37189 1:03 76 26881:3
3232°82 4 P3 3232°77 | 0:9] 8:8 30923°9
2741°43 | 1 P4_ | 2741:39 0-78 10°6 36466°7

THALLIUM (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM).

Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cviii. 1899.
Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Ixviii. 1899. .
Cornu, ‘ C. B.,’ c. 1885, p. 1181.

| ' Reduction to | di
= = °
abe oy Intensity Beeioud Vacuum | 3 a 5
ag i i and Observations | Fea a
Exner and Eder and | Character : 1) | pie 5
Haschek Valenta oy ie OR"
3775-89 20r 377587 K. and R. | 1:04 | 7:4 264764
3529°54 10 3529-58 33 | 0-98 8:0 28324°3
19°35 20r 19°39 ae LA » | 4063
13°42 | In ” ” | 454°3
2456°50 2n mars 81 |) 9229
3229-90 2b 3229°88 i, | 0-91 | 8:8 430955°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 117

THALLIUM (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

5 Ss |
Wave-length pin Al ee Ll a) So
ae PY | Previous 2s 8
= an | . c= S|)
Exner and Eder and Character | Observations TE 1 3 oe
Haschek = Valenta A Rim} |
3091:88 [vere 088 | 9:2 | 32333°6
2921-7 | ib | 2921-63K.and R. | 0°83 | 98 | 342168
18°47 | ln | 18°43 fe : 1 3 999) 254°6 |
276800 | 276800 | 6nr 276797 | ,, 079 | 10°5 | 36116-7
| 2740/01 3nr_si| al 485°6
| 3408 | In O78 | ,, 564-8
18-08 In | io} 107-7800
10 90 Spe | 2710:70 0 ag ee 877°4 |
27093 | 09°34 3br | 09°33, cea 899°2 |
00°34 2. =| =6003 i, » | 10°8 |37021°6
267097 | 1 077 | 109 | 428:5
6990 | 2n | 7 E 443°6
2665'8 Gh) Sn. | SBeBEr SA. leics bs 502-2 |
TED Ps! I 0-86 | ys, 0:76 | 11:0 | 38241°3
OFM | S [-0908 ,, B belioat age 07)
2585:90 In | 258568 | O75 | 11:3 | 658-7
2580°30 8029 | Snr--| 8023 _,, i 4 743°9 |
44338 | 1 O74 | 11:5 | 39291-6 |
2530:94 30°89 5b | 2 > 515-8
| d358 | + pal | 0°73. 11:6 | 7723
247867 Fe = 4 | 5 | 118 | 40332-4
6oo7° | | 6B O72 11-9 | 485-9 |
2452-04 52:04 4n » | 120 | 770-4
45m >}! 8 & i 877°6
| 3365 | In 1 | 121s) 4078-5
| 239472 , 3s | | O71 | 12-4 | . 746-2
72°68 10r | 237966 + ,, | 4, | 12:5 |42010:0
65:00 3 | | 0°70 | 12:6 | 2706
6230 | in P362-16 Ly | 4, f 319-0
4182 | 4 | | > 2). 12-75) 2 B89-]
Ie -| - 4 | 9816-01 «5 )) 49 | 069 | 12:9 | 43162-4
1050 ; 2 yy 1| 190 a) HeGT-7
2298-25 999895 (| Is | » | 13B1 | 498-3
ed oer | 4, | 132 | 691-8
8595 31 | Te ie 732°3
65:05 3s 068 | 13°3 | 44135'8
37°83 | . Br 2937:91 #4 lo 4y {1 136 | 0652-5
B08 |. yin \ i | BB 2a-4
| 159 4 0-67 | 13-8 | 451146
| 1079 8B 2210:30) Fee ie 5 218-9
| 079 | In L, | | SVS
OTA |. Ob 220713 f » | 4299°3
Os go: * Pe lel 2 i 362°6
2144-50 1 | 066 | 144 466165
39:44 | 3 x » | 1268
Cornu
2119°2 | 065 | 14:6 | 47173-0
05:1 » | 148 | 4708
2098 5 best ses 6156
88°8 ) / » | 149 8597
83:2 5 || 15:0 988-1
173 | 5 » | 48124-4
ic a, | 064 151 ; 238-1
69-2 2069-80 1 if » | 812-8
62°3 » | 152 | 4744

118

REPORT—1903.

THALLIUM (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Reduction to ab
= i]
pe al Tatenstty PiSsious Vacuum 3 FS g
an . — — 5
Exner and Eder and Character Sees rn = 3 or
Haschek Valenta | pe Pe Cima
57°3 0°64 | 15:2 §92°4
53°9 : na 15°3 672°6
1964-80 1 062 | 162 | 60879°5
1868:48 1 » | 17-4 | 686021
62:70 1 q Fe 6681
Porassium (OXYHYDROGEN FLAME Specrruy).!
Ramage, ‘ Proc. Royal Soc.’ lxx. 1902, p. 303.
| Reduction to BB
Intensity Vacuum S86
Wave-length and Previous Observations =| oS
Character ie ag
} A+ r Om'=
———— ee ]
7697 10? (Pa 7701:92 Lehmann 2:08 | 35 |12988°6
64 10 Pl 766854 ss, 3 » | 18044°5
6939 8 B3 6938'8 Kayser and Runge 1:88 | 3:9 | 14407
13 B83 11:2 Ks 3 18-7 5 462
5832°25 6 A4 5832'23.,, Rs 1:59 | 4:7 |17141°3
12°53 5 A4 12°54, € 158-95 199-5
02:12 7 B4 0202 =O, BS u 5 230°8
5782-74 6 B4 578267 —,, +5 ats 49 288°1
5359-96 4 AB | 535988 ,, " 1:46 | 51 |18651°8
43°38 2 Ab 43-35 3, 5 ra ” 709°6
40-17 3 BS 40:08 ,, 5 ” » 720°9
23:68 2 Bs 23-55, € 145] ,, 1789
5112°76 2 A6 511268 ,, 4 1:40 | 54 |19553°1
5099-83 1 B6 5099°64 ,, ; 1:39 8 602°7
97-64 1 A6 97-75 ss, " ” ” 611-1
85-07 1 B6 84:49 ,, a > >» | 689°4
4965°61 1 AT 4965°5 ¥ Pe * “7 20132°5
57 1 B7 56°8 BS F 1:38 m7 167 |
51:46 1 AT 52:2 i> y 9” ” 190°1
4870 =| «61 AS | 48708 Liveing and Dewar be e 528
62 1 B8 63°8 ns * + - 562
57 1 A8 56:8 5 é Fy ” 383
29 1 i a 702
03 1 AY 03°8 3 ” ” » 814
01 1 B9 3 ” 823
4798 1 4796°8 & 3 ” ” 836
67 1 > ” 972
60 1 Al0 59°8 5 x » |21002 _ |
eee : 4642 Hartley and Ramage fi & ed
4047°39 9 P2 4047:36 Kayser and Runge lll | 7:0 | 247003; |
44°33 10 P2 44:29 =, % Pe fr 719-0: |
3447°56 3 P3 3447:49 _,, i 0:96 | 8:2 | 28997°8
46°55 4 P3 4649 ,, ‘hy uc ‘ 29006°3.
Present 1 P4 3217-76, * [ne 5, | 31068°7
3217°36 2 P4 RA. ss a4 0:90 | 88 072°7

The lines of the principal series are marked ‘P,’ those of the first subordinate

series ‘ A,’ and those of the second subordinate series ‘ B,’

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 119

Rusipium (OxyHYDROGEN FLAME SPECTRUM).
Ramage, ‘ Proc. Royal Soe.’ Ixx. p. 305.

Reduction to

§ Fe
Intensity Vacuum 33 8
|Wave-length Guaeaie Previous Observations 1 a ge
A+ oR Ona
Pl 7960°46 Lehmann 2:15 | 4:3
7799 10 P1 | 7805-98 Ga 1b | |
6306°8 L 171 ss 15851°3
6299°19 9 A4 6298'7 Kayser and Runge ” ” 870°5
06°74 8 Ad 06°7 > + 169 | 4:4 | 16106°8
6160-04 5 B4 6159°8 3 % 168] ,, 228-9
6071:04 4 B4 6071°2 Re - 1:65 | 4:5 466'8
5724:62 8 A5 572441 > F 156 | 4:7 | 17463-2
5654°16 3 Bd 5654-22 = = 1:54 | 4:8 680°9
4819 7 Ab 4818 x “4 4 699'6
5579°5 2 Bb 152 | 49 9181
5432-05 6 AG | 5431°83___,, 2 1-48 | 51 |18403-9
5391°3 1 B6 1:47 ss 543-0
63°15 5 AG | 5362:94 ~ : i 640°3
22°83 1 B6 1:45 * 7815
5260°51 4 AT | 52598 ‘ A 1:44 | 5-2 | 190040
34°6 1 B7 1:43 a5 098
5195-76 3 AT | 51948 Bs 3 142} 563 | 240-7
65°35 2 ” “ 3541
51:20 2 A8& 141 re 407°2
32 1 B8 1:40 A 480
5089°5 1 A8 1:39 | 5:4 642°5
76°3 1 AY ” a 693°6
37 1 1:38 + 847
23 1 Al0| 50218 _,, § 1:37 | 55 | 902
17 1 AQ $ a 926
4983 1 All 1:36 “5 20062
67 1 ” a 127
4215°68 9 P2 | 4215-72 ,, , 115 | 66 | 23714-4
02°04 10 P2 01:98 is fe ” “ 7914
3591°86 3 P3 3591°74 oy * 1:00 | 7-9 | 27832°8
87:27 4 P3 ” s 868-4
3350°98 1 P4 | 3351-03 a 0:94 | 8:5 | 29833-5
48°84 2 P4 48:86, a a i 852°6
3229°26 1 Pb 0°91 | 8:8 | 30958-0
28°18 5 ie 5) a a 968°4 |

120

REPORT—1903.

Casium (OxYHYDROGEN FLAME SPECTRUM).

Ramage, ‘ Proc. Royal Soc.’ 1xx. 1902, p. 304.

Wave-length

Intensity
and
| Character

Previous Observations

5664-14
35°44

5574-4
68:9
03:1

546671

11-70
3477-25
3398°40

BRE REE DRE RN ODMR RP ER He RB WR RP REP ROR RON SON OHRONWDNHNAWDONN LOD

6973°9 Kayser and Runge

6723'6

6213-4

6010°6

5845°1

5664-0
35'1

55731 Lecoq de Boisbaudran |

01:9?

5465°8 Kayser and Runge

5257°8 Lecoq de Boisbaudran

4593'34 Kayser and Runge

55°44
3888°83
76-73
3617-08
11°84

”

| Reduction to

| Vacuum
|
| a
At | x=
1:90 | 39
louBOAD 7,
Vals865) Gs
| ” 4:0
| 1831 iy,
| 181.) 41
| Tae ep
| 1:76 | 4:2
| p75, x
1:73.| 43
169 4-4
164 4:8
59.| |,
” | ”
ican
154! ,,
” ”
152) 4-9
150 5-0
49.|
roel) &
146) 51
sae | |
” 5:2
+ 2 | ”
ee ae
126 6-0
| 1-251 .,,
| 107 | 73
|
1-01 | 7:8
Foo | i
0-97 | $1
095 | 83
094) ,,
093 | $6
092 | 8-7

|
|

Frequency

Oscillation
in Vacuo

14314
335
554
639
873

15079 |
171
447
540
733

16078°7
089°7
5667 |
632°4

257079
790°4
27635°7
680-0

| 28750°3

294173

853-7
30166
414

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF. THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 121

ANTIMONY (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Ixviii., 1899.
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wien,’ cvi. 1897.

| |
} Reduction to! gp. |
Wave-length 908 |

5 | Intensity Previous Observations. ag 85 8
and Kayserand Runge | | . | SES |

Eder and Exner and | Character (Arc) Nae iL ans

Valenta Haschek | A Ok

46932 | 2b 11:29 | 59 | 21301-9

580 ln | 1:28 . 462°5

478 | In b 4227 = 509°6

Pbe |e = Te P= 5, | 6:0 | 6226

45996 | Ib | 1:26 = 7350

919 | 4b ap cote in ees 7715

44-8 | 1 1:25 | 61 | 9961
260 | 1b 1-24 | ,, | 220885 |

06s In | rs, 4 183-6

4499-0 In | 123 | ,,. | 290-4

578 ibe s| 122 | 62 | 426-4

33:0 1b H | ” ” 551°9

28°6 1b | ; 1:21 | 63 574-2

25°5 Ibe «| s » | 5900

11:7 1b | | ” ” 660°5

43780 | 2b | 1:24 Mie aeeiaeil

wo. |y Ie | pes, 64 | 8926

524 | 10b 1:19 » | 9714

15:0 4b 1-18 » | 23168-9

4260:3 8b 117 65 | 466-0

59°5 1b ” ” 470°4

30-0 1b 116 66 | 634-0

26:9 1Ca . » | 651-4

I | 245 1b pas 4 6648
) 19:2 6n ss » | 6946
O1‘1 lb 1:15 » | 7921

| 4195-3 4b 5 67 829°5

71:0 lb 9, ahaa oh 96a.

; | 40-7 2b 114 68 | 24142:0
. 34-0 2b SEOOE IE te 182:8
4058-0 6 (Pb) 112 | 69 | 635-8

| 40-6 1b 119) | 70 739°3
33-71 8 4033-70 - snl e840)

24:8 tow |} la ea ee 838°8

| 3986-1 ni 110 7-1 | 26080-2

68°6 2 Ca 1:09 ‘ ee
64:8 2n MBF 3 214°9 |
| 60°8 4b rae aes 240:1 |
33:8 | 2Ca | 11:08 | 7: 4135

33-7 2b i 3 414-2

| 32-0 In | a ¥ 425-2
Obey || ah lo, | 23 | 5760
| 38633, | cin 1:07 3 744-0
RO-4 6b 1-06 ne 964-0
41-4 6b : » | 260249 |
3772°9 2b 1:04 | 75 497-3 |

66°6 In | d a 541-6

54:8 1 : ‘ 625°1

39°5 8b . A 724-0

22°93 8 3722-92 1:03 | 7:6 853-0

36920 1b ' 1:02 » | 270780

87-0 a ae 114:7

122 REPORT—1903.
ANTIMONY (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
Reductionto| gm. |
3 { <: oral
i i Intensity | Previous Observations sa S55
and Kayser and Runge | fo os
| HKder and Exner and | Character (Are) ee A ee F] |
Valenta Haschek : x: Om |
| 3683°7 2 Pb | 1:02 | 7-7 |27138-9
{omens 1 aes “ 182°5
756 1b hoeen ) 198°7
| 68:0 1b lh guys ” 255°1
| 655 In | aol) ee 348°3
| 52:0 6n * AE 3746
39°8 1 ” ” 466°3 |
38°01 8 3637-94 3 78 479°8
36°8 1 / 5 ‘i 488:9
| 30:0 4b | Bs 7 540°4
27°5 ln 5 > 559-4
3597°7 8b 1:00 ” 7877
66:7 8b 0:99 79 | 28029°2
59°5 8b £ +4 085°9
34:0 4b 0:98 8:0 288°5
19:7 4b- 5 7 403°5
04:8 10b bees 81 §24'2
3498-6 8b 0:97 5748
74:0 8b 4 as T7172
59°5 1b + 82 897°7
52:0 1b 0:96 ” 960°5
25-9 4b eae 83 | 29181°1
14:7 In 0:96 | 0%; 2768
03°9 2b i 5 369°8
- 00:0 in - yy 403°5
3396°0 1b _ 84 438°0
93°8 1b 5 a 4571
90°6 lb ss a 484°9
83:2 6 3383°24 4 ” 44:2
175 1b | 0-94 s 599°3
74:8 1b _ “5 614°2
672 ib | Pex 3 689°9
55:0 1b | = 85 7978
373 4b sy os 955°8
} 12°'8 In 0:93 86 |30177°3
04:3 2b | - >» 2550
| 32883 In | 0-92 87 402-2
| 85-8 1b ‘ . 4253
| | 78-7 1b - vt 491-2
767 1b - . 509'8
TA] 2 M - 5340
67°62 10 3267°60 * 3 595:1
554 1 0:91 7 709°5
52-2 1 rs 88 | 739-6
47-7 1 3 :. 782:2
41-2 8b s A 844:0
| 32°65 10 32°61 a5 a 925°6
3197°4 1b 0:90 8:9 | 31266°5
93°7 In a + 302°7
92'°8 In ay “7 311°6
752 In 0°89 9:0 485°1
69'4 1b ” ” 542°7
| 48:2 1b as x 755°2
3087°2 1b 0°87 9:2 | 32382°6
| 67-9 1 , | 98 | 5863

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 123

ANTIMONY (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.
| Reduction to} gp,

Wave-length oo?

E Intensity | Previous Observations | Vaeumm Bas

oS | aa a and Kayser and Runge |— Tee ea 5S

29°90 10 3029°91 aS . 995:0

24-8 1 » | 95 | 330505

221 2b O:85) 9 4; 079°7
101 2b J ‘ 212-0 |

2981°2 8n oF 9°6 533°9

66°4 6b 0:84 9:7 701°3

23°56 1b 0°83 98 | 34195°8

13°53 8n 3 9-9 313°4

2895°7 1b 0°82 A 5241

91-7 4b 5 || 100 5717

90-0 2b f ri 592°1

87:7 1b <" z 619-6

$6:0 1b be zt 640-0

84:0 1b * a 664°1

80:0 2b - # 712:2

78:05 10 287801 ” ” 135°7

63:1 1b O81 | 10-1 9171

581 1 ee We 978°3

57-2 ln ae te 989°3

53:3 In 5 » | 35037-0

51:20 8 51:20 45 i 062°8

375 lb Pr 10:2 2321

33:1 1 F 286'8

26:9 2b * is 361°6

19-0 1b 0-80 | 10:3 463°3

13:3 In *. 5 5351
2806°80 10n ” ” 617°5
02:0 £ 4: 678°4

2797:9 1b 5 10°4 730°7

95:7 1 Ms £ 758'8

90:57 8n 5 ef 824-6

86:2 In OG os 880'8

75'8 1b 0:79 », |36015-2

2769°97 70°08 8s 2770 04 Fé 10°5 089-8
64:8 1b * . 1785

62:2 In e a 198-5

41-2 ln O78 | 10°6 469°8

27:37 27°3 3 27°32 ee Pee 655:7
19°05 19:00 8s 19 00 Ss 10°7 767-2
06°73 1 i A 934:2
2692°43 2692:3 3 2692°35 O77 - 37132:1
82:98 82°8 5 82:86 so | 108, |) 275-1
70°81 70:7 5n 70°73 » | 109 430°9
69°79 69°6 5n PRA ae 445-2
63°31 1s ett eae 536-4
57:03 56°8 1b = > 625:1
52°73 52°70 7 52°70 076 | 11:0 686:2
32°6 In Rogie. 974:3

17-46 175 3n 5 11-1 | 38193°3
14:78 148 1s 14°74 ey | ee 233-1
14-33 2 Wo: 238-6
12°43 12-4 5 12°40 Spe vale Os 267°5
2598-24 259815 9r 259816 OTs pe lieZ 477-1
9042 | 90-4 bb oe) ee 592°6

124.

REPORT—1903.

ANTIMONY (ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRUM)—continued.

Wave-length

|
|
|

and
Eder and Exxner and | Character
Valenta Haschek |
2586" 8 =| In
2574°24 TAL 3s
TL64 716 ln
70°6 In
67:87 67:8 Is
65°62 65°6 3b
57°6 1b
54°81 54:8 Is
44:10 43°9 3n
28°68 28°62 | 9r
28°58 | 1
22°9 1
20:30 20°3 In
145 In
10°66 106 1
07'S In
2488°3 1
83°3 1
81°8 1
2480°55 80°5 2
78°45 784 4
74°80 74:6 1
45°66 45:7 5
29°55 1
26°52 26°5 2s
22°31 22°2 2s
2395°35 2395-4 In
83°77 §3°8 2n
73°84 3 Fe
61:2 In
60°58 60°6 1
16:02 3
171 11'8 4
11°47
06°56 06°6 2n
2295:99 1
93°48 93°5 2s
88:99 89-1 1
62°51 3:
46°97 ee!
24:92 | 3
22°02 | 1
20°70 | 3
08:48 | 4
03°59 | 2
01:36 | 1
2179°23 { 4
75:90 4
70:13 | Bien
44:99 4
41°76 | 1
39°75 3
18°57 1
2098°47 | 1

Reduction to

Vv: 5 Bo

Intensity Previous Observations 2 iia 88 3
Kayser te) Runge ie =) S=
re) = a2¢4

( A+ | . Ges
"0°75 | 11:3 | 38646°5

74:14 ahead - 832°8
ipe3 : 874-4

" ” 890-1

” 11-4 931-4

” ” 965°5

0:74 +» | 390878

54:72 » ” 130°4
= 11:5 310°6

28°60 Sie LEG 535-2
eee Ne He 536'3

yo |e | 6258

vy lets 666°2

14°64 O73 | 45 T1577
10°60 se |, wekea 818°8
” ” 863°9

» 11°8 | 401763

» ” 2572

2481°81 | Ge gall pion 281°5
80°50 f 7 301'8
” | ” 336°0

74-63 ee pe alist 395-4
45°59 | O72 | 12-0 876-7
et ye aR

26°44 | oe. ey ae
22°21 ee 270°7
2395°31 O71 | 12:4 7352
83°71 D si 938-0
73°78 0°70 | 12:5 | 42113°3
” ” 3377

60°60 Ahem 8 bs; 349°9
0°69 | 12:9 | 431648

11.60 + 13:0 245°0

ry th Bas 249°5

06:56 ce Ne Rs 341°6
pera Sa ilsial 526°9

2293°54 09 7 588°8
89-09 lo so IL. 74:3
62°55 068 | 13-4 §44185°3
A 13°65 490-9

25:06 O67 | 13-7 931:7
22°10 sie Mees 990-4
20°85 | toy BOLTL
08-65 » | 138 266°2
03°83 ay 13:9 366-6
01-46 - 5 412-6
2178°32 | 066 | 141 873°9
75:99 Oe. Es 943-9
ee 14:2 | 4606671

45:10 | oo» 14:4 6059
41°76 rec 7 676:2
39°89 ; . 720°0
065 | 146 | 471871

2098-47 cf 14°8 639-0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 125

ARSENIC (SPARK SPECTRUM).
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzungsber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cx. 1901.

|
|

ae | Reduction to |

BB o |

Intensity | Z : ee | ea
Wave-length dad at Previous Observations Fr oni io ates = = |
Character | Kayser and Runge (Arc) mn a? Eee al

i | x om"
4540:0 Po 1:24 | 6-1 | 22020°3 |
4495°5 2b! 1:23} ,, | 238-4 |
66°6 lb | stele) 8/62 382°2
4368:50 In | 1:20 » | 885°0 |
4229'5 Ib. 1:16 | 66 | 23636°8
O81 1b : | ” ” T5T 1
4197°8 |- Ib | 1:15 7 8153
88:80 | 2 | Mey 8 871-0
4082°8 Tole 112} 69 | 24486-1
64°55 In t ” ” 596°1
37:18 30, | 1:11.| 7-0 762°8
394885 | Ib | 1:09 | 72 | 253166
Seo be 7-038" Fae, 429:0
22:60 | 100 W043 s 486°3
3545°75 In | 0:99 | 80 | 281948
3256-0 Qn} | 0-91 | 87 | 307033
3119:70 .|,.1n, + |, 3119-69 | 088 | 91 | 32045°3
16°7 = 2b | ” ” 07671
3032-97 © 1 3032-96 | 086 | 9-4 9616
2991:2 In +) 2991711 AE 'h 9°6 | 33415°1
59°8 3b) 5] | 084 | 9:7 478°4
263 { Ib | ti gh 9:8 | 341584
2898-86 2 + | 2898'83 | O81 | 99 | 486-4
60°60 8 60°54 We sel gLOrL 947°6
43°80 ones | | | 102 | 35154-0
Or AO Hew es] pirg 4 313-0
2780°37 || 10 | 2780°30 | 0-79 | 10-4 956:0
4510 | 5 | 45:09 | 45 | 106. | 36417°9
249307 4 2492-98 | 0:73 | 118 | 40099-4
5662 | 4 | 56°61 | 0:72 | 12:0 6943
37°30 | 1 y S730 ' ,, | 121 | 410169
2381'32 ‘|’ 2n 2381-28 | O71 | 12°5 978-0
7087 "| 3 ) 70°85 | O70} 4, | 421661
69°75 Bt ‘eel 69°75 1 Bo 5, 186:0
63°10 In 63°12 | | 126 |. 3046
50:02 10 | 49:92 7. (12:7 bass
2288:23 8n =| _-—«-2288°19 0°69 | 13:2 | 43688-7
71°53 In 71°46 1°68 | 13°3 | 44009:9
66°82 in 4} 66779 4 2 lois
29:96 1 | 0°67 | 136 | 830-2 |
DORI ee In) | » | 13:9 | 45602°2 |
6553 | n | 2165-64 | O66 14:2 | 46163-9
56:3 In| » | 143°) 361-4
34:37 1 : | 14S 37:7 |

126 REPORT—1903.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—
Fifth Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. Noet Harriey (Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R.
Japp, Professor J. J. Doppre, and Mr. ALEXANDER LAUDER,
appointed to investigate the Relation between the Absorption Spectra
and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.

THE work of two of the members of the Committee, Dr. Dobbie and Mr.
Lauder, has been exclusively devoted to the investigation of certain alka-
loids, and the connection between their chemical constitution and their
absorption spectra, and the results they have obtained since the last
meeting at Belfast constitute the substance of this report.!

Nore.—As sometimes the nitrates of the alkaloids are well-crystallised
salts, the examination has been in certain cases made with nitrates. It is
necessary to observe, however, that unlike chlorides, sulphates, and ace-
tates, which are very diactinic and exert only a general absorption, nitric
acid and the nitrates give characteristic absorption bands.” This does not
affect the spectra here referred to, but it might happen that if the effect
of the nitric acid were not taken into account, erroneous conclusions could
be drawn from the absorption band of the nitric acid being attributed to
the organic base.

In a paper communicated to the Royal Society eighteen years ago by
Hartley,’ it was proved that the principal alkaloids give highly characte-
ristic absorption spectra which can be used for their identification and for
ascertaining their purity. Furthermore, that alkaloids closely related to
one another, like quinine and quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine, all
contained a similar nucleus, which was probably formed by the conjuga-
tion of four pyridine or two quinoline groups, and that the opium alka-
loids had also a characteristically constituted nucleus which is either a
benzene or a pyridine derivative. The effect of alkyl and acetyl sub-
stitutions on the curve of absorption was demonstrated, the increased
intensity of absorption of the apo-derivatives was shown and accounted
for, and the occurrence of several oxidised radicals—hydroxy], methoxyl,
carbonyl, or carboxyl—in the constitution of an alkaloid was shown to
be capable of causing remarkable differences in the absorption curves
of the original nucleus. At the time at which this paper was published,
however, little progress had been made with the investigation of the
alkaloids, and it was not possible, therefore, to trace any closer connec-
tion between their structure and their spectra. In this connection,
however, the relationship of the absorption curves to the differences
in constitution of quinoline, dihydroquinoline, and tetrahydroquinoline,
was determined by Hartley.

The Absorption Spectra of Corydaline, Berberine, and the Opium Alkaloids.

The constitution of the principal members of the group of alkaloids to
which corydaline and berberine belong—namely, papaverine, hydrastine,

1 Dobbie and Lauder, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1903, 838, pp. 605, 626.
? Hartley, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1902, 81, and 1902, 83.
3 Phil. Trans., 1885, Part I1., p. 471.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 127

narcotine, and narceine—has now been definitely determined, and the
examination of this group furnishes a good basis for the study of the
relationship between the absorption spectra and the constitution of the
alkaloids.

Since papaverine is, in some respects, more simply constituted than the
other members of the group, it will be convenient to consider each of the
others with reference to it. According to Goldschmiedt, the structure of
papaverine is represented by the following formula :

Papaverine.

The absorption curve of papaverine shows two absorption bands, the
first lying between !/A 2998 (A=3335) and '/A 3295 (A=3035), and the
second between !/A 3956 (A=2528) and 'A 4555 (A=2195).

Hydrastine differs structurally from papaverine in the following par-
ticulars : (i) The zsoquinoline nucleus is partially reduced ; (ii) The two
methoxyl radicals of the isoquinoline nucleus are replaced by a dioxy-
methylene group ; (iii) A methyl group is attached to the nitrogen atom ;
(iv) A carbonyl! group is attached to the carbon atom (4), and through
the medium of an oxygen atom is also linked to carbon atom (2), which
has only one atom of hydrogen attached to it. From this comparison, it is
obvious that the two substances differ considerably in their constitution.
On comparing the curve of the absorption spectra of hydrastine (fig. 4) with
that of papaverine (fig. 2), it will be seen that there is a correspond-
ingly wide difference between them; hydrastine exhibits slightly less
general absorption than papaverine, and shows only one absorption band
which is wider and much more persistent than either of the absorption
bands of papaverine. Narcotine only differs from hydrastine in con-
taining an additional methoxyl group attached to ring IV, and the
two alkaloids give practically identical absorption spectra (figs. 4
and 5). Assuming the constitution of corydaline, as determined by
Dobbie and Lauder, to be correct, it is represented by the second of
the following formule :

Tetrahydroberberine. Corydaline.
7) )oMe 7)OMe
M OM
H, /\/ OMe h/\/
Peta 1 SHMe
ye ey Na OMe \/\N4
CH.<4| tv || a | | 1v || mo
O H, OMe H,
fee eY/r/

128 REPORT—1903.

On comparing this formula with that of papaverine, the differences
will be seen to consist in the partial reduction of the zsoquinoline nucleus
and in the presence of carbon atom (5), which, with its associated methyl
group, is linked on the one hand to carbon atom (4), and on the other to
the nitrogen atom, thus forming a fourth closed chain in the molecule.
Here, again, the difference between the absorption spectra and those of
papaverine is very marked. The amount of general absorption is less, and
there is only one absorption band, which is, however, better defined and
more persistent than the papaverine bands (figs. 2 and 6).

In discussing the relations between corydaline and berberine, it is to
be remembered that corydaline corresponds to tetrahydroberberine, and
berberine to dehydrocorydaline. The constitutional connection between
corydaline and tetrahydroberberine is undoubtedly very close,' as a com-
parison of the above formule will show, and between the spectra of
the two substances there is also a very close relation (figs. 6 and 7),
the only difference being that the general absorption of tetrahydro-
berberine is slightly greater than that of corydaline.

When papaverine is reduced to tetrahydropapaverine, it is brought
structurally very near to corydaline. A comparison of the formule of
the two substances shows that the former substance differs from the latter
in the absence of carbon atom (5) of ring II with its associated hydrogen
atom and methyl group. The spectra of the two compounds are almost
identical (figs. 3 and 6). Viewing corydaline as derived from tetra-
hydropapaverine by the addition of CH, forming a fourth closed chain in
the molecule, it might have been anticipated that the difference between
the absorption spectra of the two substances would be greater than is
found to be the case. It should be noted, however, that ring II in cory-
daline is a reduced ring, and would not therefore exert the same in-
fluence on the absorption spectra as the formation of a pyridine ring.
It might be expected to produce an effect comparable with that produced
by the substitution of a dioxymethylene for two methoxyl groups,
which, we shall show later, is slight in compounds of high molecular
weight.”

Narceine is the extreme member of this group. It has two benzene
nuclei, but no pyridine ring, and in other particulars differs considerably
in constitution from papaverine. The absence of any absorption band
differentiates the spectra widely from those of the other members of the
group (fig. 22).

Nore.—This was accounted for by Hartley in the following explana-
tion : ‘Carbonyl, carboxyl, hydroxyl, and methoxyl on side-chains, or as
forming a portion of the substituted benzene nuclei, exhibit great absorp-
tive power, and the occurrence of several oxidised radicals may cause the
following variations in spectra: (a) the absorption band becomes so
widened as to extend into the region of rays affected by naphthalene,
quinoline, and their derivatives ; (6) or the absorption is so powerful
that it extends to rays less refrangible than those in which the band
is situated, and continues so far down the curve that the selective
absorption is not made manifest. Narceine appears to be a good ex-
ample of this ; its absorptive power is very great, extending into the

1 Chem. Soe. Trans., 1902, 81, 145.
2 Hartley, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1885, 47, 691; Hartley and Dobbie, Chem. Soc.
Trans. 1900, 77, 846.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 129

region of such low refrangibility as \ 3000 when 1 mm. of liquid is
examined containing only +,\5,th of substance, so that no band is visible.
The remarks on narceine are also applicable to papaverine in every
particular.’ !

Dobbie and Lauder? have shown that corydaline and berberine give
rise to parallel series of derivatives. The absorption spectra of the
corresponding derivatives are related to one another in the same way as
the spectra of the parent substances. When corydaline is acted on with
mild oxidising agents, four atoms of hydrogen are removed, and a yellow
substance is obtained, which stands in the same relation to corydaline as
berberine to tetrahydroberberine.*

Oxidation with dilute nitric acid converts corydaline and berberine
respectively into the dibasic corydic and berberidic acids :

C,3H<(CH3)(OCH;)."N(CO,H).,
Corydic acid.

C,3H,(CH,0,)N(CO,H),,

Berberidic acid.

whilst oxidation with permanganate gives rise, amongst other pro-
ducts, to corydaldine in the former case, and to w-aminoethylpiperonyl-
carboxylic anhydride in the latter. The corresponding derivatives differ
structurally from one another in the same way as corydaline and tetra-
hydroberberine, excepting that, in the case of corydaldine and w-amino-
ethylpiperonylearboxylic anhydride, ring II having disappeared, the
difference between the two compounds is confined to the replacement
of the two methoxyl groups of the former by dioxymethylene in the
latter. The spectra of the corresponding derivatives (figs. 10 and 11,
and 14 and 15), exhibit the same close relationship as those of the alka-
loids themselves. ‘The general absorption of the berberine derivatives
is, however, always slightly greater than that of the corresponding
corydaline derivatives. This is probably due to the influence of the dioxy-
methylene group, and the correctness of this inference is supported by
the fact that piperonylic acid, C;H;(CH,O,)-CO,H, shows slightly
greater general absorption than veratric acid, C,H;(OCH;),"CO,H
(figs. 12 and 13),

Whilst the. spectra of corydaldine and w-aminoethylpiperonylcar-
boxylic anhydride approach one another closely, they differ widely from
those of cotarnine and hydrastinine (figs. 14, 15, and 16), the correspond-
ing oxidation products of narcotine and hydrastine respectively, The
difference finds a sufficient explanation in the fact that whilst all four
substances are nearly related, the chain containing the nitrogen atom,
which is closed in the two former, is open in the two latter. "When,
however, hydrastinine is oxidised by means of an aqueous solution of
potassium hydroxide, the open chain is closed, and oxyhydrastinine
results, the absorption spectra of which substance are almost identi-
cal with those of corydaldine and w-aminoethylpiperonylcarboxylic

1 Phil. Trans., 1885. ? Chem. Soc. Trans., 1902, 81, 145.
3 Thid., 1902, 81, i145. °

1903. K

130 REPORT—-1903.

anhydride (figs. 14,15, and 17). The relationship between these com-
pounds is shown by the following formule :—

w-Aminoethylpiperonyl-

Though Dobbie and Lauder have found that cotarnine and hydras-
tinine in alcoholic solution do not possess the constitution commonly
assigned to them, this in no way affects the argument, since there is an
important constitutional difference between oxycotarnine and oxyhydras-
tinine on the one hand, and cotarnine and hydrastinine on the other, what-
ever formule be accepted for the two latter.

Again, when the pyridine ring of cotarnine and hydrastinine is closed
by the conversion of these substances into their salts or by their reduction
to hydro-derivatives, the changes of structure are reproduced in a striking
manner in the spectra.

Relationships established between differences vn Constitution and Absorption
Spectra, which may be applied to the study of Alkaloids of unknown
Constitution.

It is now known that many alkaloids which possess the same formula
are stereoisomerides. Alkaloids which are related in this way give, like
other stereoisomerides, identical spectra.! Illustrations of this are
afforded by d-corydaline and 7-corydaline (fig. 16), narcotine and gnos-
copine (fig. 15), tetrahydroberberine and canadine (fig. 17). Quinidine
(conquinine) and cinchonidine also give absorption spectra identical with
those of quinine and cinchonine respectively, of which substances they
are probably stereoisomeric forms (figs. 18 and 19). This relationship
might sometimes be used to assist the investigation of cases of suspected
‘stereoisomerism. Where, for example, two compounds of the same
formula are known, one active and the other inactive, it may be inferred
that they are not optical isomerides if they have different absorption
spectra.

A case in point is afforded by canadine and papaverine, which
possess the same molecular formule but give widely different absorption
spectra. Even if it were not known otherwise that these two substances

1 Hartley and Dobbie, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1900, 77, 498 and 509.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION, 131

are structurally different, this might be inferred from the differences
in their absorption spectra (figs. 2 and 7). Canadine has long been
regarded as a stereoisomeride of tetrahydroberberine. This question
might have been decided by a comparison of the spectra of the two sub-
stances, which had been already undertaken when Gadamer! published
an account of the resolution of tetrahydroberberine into its active com-
ponents, and showed that one of them was identical with canadine. The
result of the spectroscopic examination points to the same conclusion
fig. 7).

: DA coeding to Gadamer,” inactive corydaline exists in two modifica-
tions, one melting at 134-135°, and the other at 158-159°. The latter
of these only can be resolved into dextro and inactive corydalines. The
inactive modification of lower melting-point which cannot be resolved,
might either be a structural or a stereoisomeric modification of corydaline.
The fact that its spectra are identical with those of natural corydaline
(fig. 6) affords strong presumption in favour of the view that the two
are structurally identical.

Homologous alkaloids give practically identical spectra. It has been
shown from the examination of many homologous substances that the
replacement of an atom of hydrogen by a methyl group produces very
little effect on the spectra, even when the compounds are of low mole-
cular weight.? The effect is still less noticeable when the replacement
occurs in substances of high molecular weight, such as some of the
alkaloids. The effect is such that in every case it may have been pre-
dicted.

Codeine and morphine (fig. 1) were examined by Hartley, and his
curves show clearly the relation between these two compounds. We
have examined numerous other cases of homologous alkaloids, and find
that they all give practically identical spectra. The curves of cory-
bulbine, C,,H,;0,N (fig. 20), and corydaline, C.,H,,O,N (fig. 6), and
those of quinine, C,,H,,0,N,, and cupreine, C,>H..0.N, (fig. 18), may
be referred to as examples. When, therefore, the formulz of two alka-
loids differ by CH,, it may be inferred with certainty, if they give dis-
similar spectra, that they are not homologous. On the other hand, it
cannot be inferred with certainty that two substances which differ by
CH,, and have very similar spectra, are really homologous, because the
difference in the formule may be due to other slight structural differ-
ences.

The formula of bulbocapnine, C,,H,,O,N, differs from that of
papaverine, C,,H,,0,N, and of tetrahydroberberine, C,,H,,0,N, by
CH,, but the wide difference between the spectra of all three sub-
stances (figs. 21, 2, and 7) renders it highly improbable that bulbo-
capnine is homologously related to either of the others. What is
known of the chemistry of bulbocapnine entirely bears out this con-

- clusion.°

Many minor modifications of structure in alkaloids are unaccom-
panied by any marked difference in the spectra, even where the same

! Arch. Pharm., 1901, 289, 648.

2 Tbid., 1902, 240, 19.

3 Hartley and Huntington, Phil. Trans., 1879, Part I., 257.

4 Phil. Trans., 1885, Part II., 471.

5 Gadamer and Ziegenbein, Arch. Pharm., 1902, 240, 81. P
K

1903.

REPORT

132

Fic. 1.—Morphine,

C,,H,,0,N + H,0.

(In aleoholic solution).

The curve of codeine is identical

mith this (see also Hartley,

loc, cit.).

Scale of oscillation-frequencies.

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ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 133

modifications would produce an appreciable effect on the spectra
of compounds of low molecular weight. Corydaline, tetrahydrober-
berine, and their derivatives afford instances in which the replacement
of 2(0CH;) by CH,O, does not markedly alter the spectra, and nar-
cotine and hydrastine furnish an example in which the introduction
of an additional methoxyl group is unaccompanied by any considerable
effect.

The case of cinchotenine and cinchonine may be quoted as another
instance. In cinchotenine the side chain ‘CH: CH, of cinchonine is
oxidised to a carboxyl group without the spectra being appreciably
affected. The resemblance between the two series of spectra is so close
that it would at once suggest a near structural relation of the substances,
even if we knew nothing of their chemistry.

The reduction of closed chain compounds is accompanied by a com-
plete change in the character of the spectra.!_ Good illustrations of this
are afforded by the widely different spectra of berberine (fig. 9) and tetra-
hydroberberine (fig. 7), dehydrocorydaline (fig. 8) and corydaline (fig. 6),
papaverine and tetrahydropapaverine (figs. 2 and 3). There are,
however, cases in which partial reduction produces very little change.
Hydroquinine, C,)»H,,O.N», is unquestionably very closely related to
quinine, C.»H.,0,N,, from which its formula only differs in containing
two more atoms of hydrogen. The difference between the spectra of the
two substances is hardly perceptible, and it is highly probable, therefore,
that the addition of the two atoms of hydrogen is unaccompanied by any
important change of structure. The change probably consists in the
reduction of the side chain.

From the results of the examination of more than thirty alkaloids, it
may be laid down as a general rule that those which agree closely in
structure give similar absorption curves, whilst those which differ in
essential points of structure give dissimilar curves.

This principle has already been recognised and applied in previous
investigations, particularly in the study of coloured substances and dyes,
and it is probably capable of extended application in the case of the alka-
loids, as most of these compounds have a high molecular weight, and
changes may be effected in their molecules without alteration of the
spectra which, in substances of lower molecular weight, would be attended
by wide differences. The essential identity of constitution subsisting
between two alkaloids can often be detected by the spectroscope in spite
of differences of structure. Cinchonine and cinchotenine give practi-
cally identical curves, whereas styrolene and benzoic acid, which differ in
the same way, give very different curves. If, therefore, an alkaloid
of unknown constitution is found to give spectra closely resembling
those of an alkaloid of known constitution, it may with great pro-
bability be inferred that the two only differ in the details of their
structure.

The systematic study of absorption spectra is of real practical value
in the investigation of the alkaloids, and may often be the means of saving
much time and labour in their chemical investigation, especially in
dealing with a large number of closely related compounds.

1 Hartley, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1885, 47, 691, and Phil. Trans., 1885; also Hartley
and Dobbie, Chem. Soc. Trans., 1900, 77, 846.

134 REPORT—1903.

Experimental Details.

For the specimens of the opium alkaloids, including gnoscopine, we
are indebted to the kindness of Messrs. T. and H. Smith, of Edinburgh,
and for the specimens of oxyhydrastinine and w-aminoethylpiperony]l-
carboxylic anhydride, to Professor W. H. Perkin, jun. The specimens
of inactive and artificial corydaline, corybulbine, tetrahydroberberine,
tetrahydropapaverine, dehydrocorydaline, corydic and berberidic acids,
corydaldine, and hydrastinine were prepared in the laboratory of the
University College of North Wales, Bangor ; and our best thanks are
due to Messrs. C. K. Tinkler, K. 8. Caldwell, and Ed. Jones for assist-
ing in the preparation of some of these substances, and to Mr. C. P.
Finn for assisting in photographing the spectra. The remaining alka-
loids were obtained by purchase. In every case the specimens were
tested as to their purity, and, where necessary, subjected to purifica-
tion. Whenever possible, specimens were obtained from at least two
distinct sources, and several independent examinations were made of each
specimen.

In photographing the spectra and in representing them graphically,
owing to the slight solubility of some of the substances examined, it was
not always possible to get a solution of 1/100, and thicker layers of a
more dilute solution had to be employed. In such cases, for convenience
of reference, 25 mm. of a solution of 1/500 have been plotted as equi-
valent to 5 mm. of a solution of 1/100. Except in the case of hydrastine,
all the curves are drawn to the same scale. The position of the trans-
mitted portions of the spectra and of the absorption band have been
marked on one of the curves (fig. 3).

We may remark that it is difficult by means of curves to give a proper
representation of the photographs, it being found impracticable to
adequately represent differences of intensity as well as extent of absorp-
tion upon which the similarity or difference between two series of spectra
often to a large extent depends. °

By far the most satisfactory comparison is that which is made by the
actual inspection of the photographs. When reasonable care is taken
to work under similar conditions, the results are remarkably constant.
We have never discovered any discrepancy between the photographs of
the same preparation, even when taken by different operators at wide
intervals of time. Hartley having worked in 1882 and again in 1884
with constant weights and not with molecular quantities of the alkaloids,
it was found necessary, for purposes of comparison, to repeat the exami-
nation of a few of the alkaloids which he had previously examined. In
so far as it is possible in such cases to compare the results, they show
remarkably close agreement.

135

AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA

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136 REPORT—19038.

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ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

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“saujaumappu ur uownjos fo wan, fo ssauyouyy

*9°9 0OT

-UDLBYyIVU T

un aynoajou

——

143

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Cras ee pee fo ayy

"$27 YQU poorjwapr
82 aULpUoYyIUID {0 BAND NT

[:910 ‘90, ‘hapqunzy osyy aagy]
(Cuornjos ayoyoorp uz)

NO“ HD ‘ouruoyoulN—'6T ‘SIq

99 00S'S

<<—u [— << 02 aq noaqow-mnabyypu [ ——————_ > <-—-1 |- >

*9°9 00S

2°9 OOT

*saLJOULIy [UU UL UOYN OS fo Lahny fo ssauyoIyT

9° 008°S

UL ajnoajow-umnibYyprue | ——————--> <-—-u [——>

*saljounppue us u0rnjos fo Lahn) fo ssauyny Tz

|
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|
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*9°2 00S

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<-—u [—

“sa~ouanha.tf-u01701 22080 fo aznogy
‘auvuinb fo asoyz
YIU IDIYUAD?L awv aUraLina
puv aupuunb fo saaino ayy
['310 ‘001 ‘Aapguuzy os7y aac)
(worjnjos ayoyooyn UT) —
2n79'*H%O ‘quruingy—'gT “D1

*9'9 00S‘

——><— wt

9°9 00S
ud ajnrajzou-UunLby}VUE T

REPORT—1908.

"sanjay ur uoynjos fo Lain] fo ssauyow,T

*9°9 OOT

Ce I a =

*sanuanbatf{-uorjn))080 fo aypagy
(-wo1gn7,08 ayoYoo?y Uz)
‘No Ho
‘guiudeooqiug—'IZ “DIL

*sarauanba.tf-u01jy))Ws0 fo ayvogy

(‘wougnjos oynoyonry uz)

‘O°HE + N°O“ Hf ‘ourooreN—'Ze “OTL

144

99 008%

-wnLbuy7uU | ————_———> <-—-u2. |_>

*9°9 00S
*saljauuaypjiu we uoynjos fo Lahn] fo ssauyouy,D

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*9°9 OOT

(-wo1gnjos 910Y097D UT)
. N’ 07H")
‘guiqingé109—"0Z “OLA

“9° 00S‘S

*2°9 OOS
un aynoajow-wvsbypwu | ———————> <-—U1 [—

*9"9 QOT

<—u | >< —

*sajoumyjium ur uornjos fo sahn] fo ssauyory,y

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

PAPAVERINE.!
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 146°.

Solution in Alcohol.

145

(Fig. 2.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum — A
millimetres | a
1 milligram-molecule in 100 e.e.
5,4,and 3 , Spectrum continuous to A 2 . 2938 3404
land 2 | 9 ” . . 2982 | 3354
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to : 2982 3354
4 3 : 2998 3335
3 * ES 4 2998 3335
Absorption band 2998 to 3295) 3335 to 3035
Spectrum continuous to 3295 to 3328) 3035 to 3005
2 2998 3335
Ist Absorption band. 2998 to 3295) 3335 to 3035
Weak spectrum transmitted from 3295to 3354 3035 to 2981
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5, 4, 3 Spectrum continuous to 3956 2528
2 x x 3956 2528
2nd Absorption band . |8956 to 4555) 2528 to 2195
1 Spectrum continuous to c 2 4038 2476
2nd Absorption band . . |4038 to 4821/2476 to 2314
Very weak spectrum from 4321 to . 4656 2148
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to x 4038 2476
2nd Absorption band 4038 to 4321 2476 to 2314
Very weak spectrum from 4321 to 4656 2148
4 Spectrum continuous to . . “ 4038 2476
2nd Absorption band . . |4088 to 4821) 2476 to 2314
Weak spectrum from 4321 to 4656 2148
3 Same as 4, but with lines showing in
the absorption band at 4248 2354
2 Spectrum practically all transmitted,
but very weak in position of ab-
| sorption band.
1 Spectrum practically all transmitted,
but still very weak in position of
absorption band.
1 Of. Hartley, Phil. Trans., 1886, Part II., 471.
1903,

146 REPORT— 1903.

TETRAHYDROPAPAVERINE,
C,,.H,;NO,. M.P. 200°.

Solution in Alcohol.

(Fig. 3.)
paren: i i Description of Spectrum | i | r
millimetres A
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
25 and 20 Spectrum continuous to é : : 3296 3033
15 45 “A : ; : 3323 3009
10 » + : 3 : 3323 3009
Line showing at . : ; 3 : 3886 2573
5 Spectrum continuous to : 2 ; 3323 3009
Absorption band 3328 to 3824 3009 to 2615
Weak spectrum from 3824 to . : 4038 2476
4 Spectrum continuous to . . : 3323 3009
| Absorption band 8828 to 3824] 3009 to 2615
Spectrum transmitted from 3821 to 4038 2476
3 Spectrum continuous to 3323 3009
Absorption band 3323 to 3824) 3009 to 2615
Lines showing at . 3754, 3778, | 2663, 2646,
and 3792 | and 2637
Spectrum transmitted from 3824 to 4038 2476
2 Spectrum continuous to 3354 2981
Absorption band 3354 to 3754) 2981 to 2663
Weak spectrum from 3754 to 4113 2431
1 Same as 2 mm.
Lines in absorption band at . - 13638 & 3694 | 2748 & 2707
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 and 4 Spectrum practically continuous to 4113 2431
Weak in position of absorption band. |
3 and 2 Spectrum continuous to 4415 2265

After this, practically all transmitted.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

HyYDRASTINE,
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 133°.

Solution in Alcohol.

147

(Fig. 4.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum = nN
millimetres A
1 milligram-molecule in 100 ¢.e.
5, 4, and 3 | Spectrum transmitted to . : : 2938 3403
2 | # . - 2982 | 3353
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to 3046 3282
Absorption band 8046 to 3824) 3282 to 2615
Lines faintly transmitted at pace pte 2615 & 2573
4 Spectrum transmitted to 3250
Absorption band . s07et S ‘3688 $250 to 2748
Spectrum feebly transmitted from 3638 to 3886 2573
3 Spectrum transmitted to . 5 3064 3263
Absorption band 3064 to 3638) 3268 to 2748
Spectrum transmitted from 3638 to 3903 2562
2 Spectrum transmitted to . > 3148 3176
Absorption band : 3148 to 3568) 3176 to 2802
Spectrum transmitted from . 3568 to 3926] 2802 to 2547
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.e.
5 Spectrum transmitted to 3182 3142
Absorption band . : : 13182 to 3530/3142 to 2832
Lines showing faintly in absorption
band about 3295 3034
Spectrum transmitted from 3530 to 3926 2547
4 Spectrum transmitted to c [4119 2427
Still weak in position of absorption
band.
3 Same as 4 mm., but faintly transmitted
at : . : 4321 2314
2 Spectrum transmitted to 4406 2269
Weak beyond 5 4119 2427
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 e.e.
5 Spectrum transmitted to " 4406 2269
Line showing faintly at : 4531 2207
4 Same as 5 mm., with additional line at 4549 2198
2 and 1 Spectrum all transmitted.

148

REPORT—-1903.

NaRkcorine.!
C,,H,,NO;,. BLP."173°.

Solution in Alcohol.

(Fig. 5.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum 5
millimetres
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
25 and 20 Spectrum transmitted to 2938
15 and 10 = “5 2982
5 ” 9 -| 3077
Absorption band . . 3077 to 3638
Very weak spectrum from 3638 to 3886
4 Spectrum continuous to 3077
Absorption band 3077 to 3638
3 Spectrum transmitted to 3077
Absorption band . s : ° 3077 to 3638
Weak spectrum from 3638 to 3932
2 Spectrum transmitted to 3148
Absorption band 3148 to 3471)
Lines in absorption band about 3296 & 3323
1 Spectrum continuous to . : 4038 |
Very weak in position of absorption band.
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 and 4 Spectrum continuous to 4127
3 ” ” 4127
Very faint to 4321
2 Spectrum continuous to . 4420
| Weak beyond : A A é . 4127
1 Spectrum continuous to 4420
Faint to 4555
| 1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 e.c.
5 tol Spectrum practically all transmitted. |

1 Hartley, Phil. Trans., 1885, Part IL.,

p. 471,

3404
3353
3249 |
3249 to 2749
2573
3249
3249 to 2749
3249
3249 to 2749
2543
3177
3177 to 2881
3034 & 3009
2476

2423
2423
2314
2262
2423
2262
2195

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND ‘CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 149

CoRYDALINE.
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 135°,

Solution in Alcohol.

(Fig. 6.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum = | A
millimetres x
1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.e.
5, 4, and 3 Spectrum transmitted to 4 5 ‘: 3323 3009
2 “ : - : : 3323 3009
Lines showing faintly at_ . . : 3886 2573
1 milligram-molecule in 500 e.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to . 3 - |... 3354 | | 2981
| Absorption band . . —. ~—.~——«,. 8854 to 8824 2981 to 2615
| Weak spectrum from 3824to . .. 3999 2500
4 | Spectrum transmittedto . . eS 3354 | 2981
Absorption band . . A : . |8354 to 3824 2981 to 2615
| Weak spectrum . : . : - |3824 to 4030) 2615 to 2481
3 _ Same as 4mm., but stronger.
2 Spectrum transmitted to . . 3387 | 2952
Absorption band . - : : . |3387 to 3638 2952 to 2748
Spectrum transmittedfeeblyfrom3638to 4107 2428

1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to . : : 4123 |) 2425

1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
Spectrum practically al transmitted.

ARTIFICIAL CORYDALINE AND INAcTIVE CoRYDALINE.

_. The spectra of artificial corydaline and inactive corydaline are
identical with those of corydaline.

150 REPORT—1903.

TETRAHYDROBBRBERINE.
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 167°.

Solution in Alcohol.

(Fig. 7.)
Thickness of AVA, | 1 |
layer in Description of Spectrum : A
millimetres
1 milligram-molecule in 500 ¢ ec.
25, 20, and 15| Spectrum continuous to ‘s : é 3200 3125
10 + rs : Seal es aUe 3125
Line at. : - ° . 5 : 3886 2573
5 Spectrum continuous to a : * 3246 3080
Absorption band .° . 5 : . |8246 to 3824) 3080 to 2615
Weak spectrum from 3824 to 2 : 4008 2495
4 Spectrum continuous to 5 - : 3296 3034
Absorption band . : 5 : . |8296 to 3754) 3034 to 2664
Weak spectrum from 3754 to : . 4038 2476
3 Spectrum continuous to 5 . . 3296 3034
Absorption band . ; : 3 . |8296 to 3754) 3034 to 2664
Spectrum continuous from 3754 to 4038 2664 to 2476
2 Spectrum continuous to : “ 3323 3009
Absorption band . ¥ : ; . |8323 to 3638) 3009 to 2749
Spectrum continuous from 3638 to. 4038 2476
1 Spectrum continuous to 4 : - 4132 2420
Very weak in position of absorption
band. |
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 and 4 Spectrum continuous to . - |. 4132 | = 2220
Weak in position of absorption band.
3 Spectrum continuousto . . ., 4412 | 2266
Weak in position of absorption band, |
Very weak beyond . “ : : 4132 2420 i
2 and 1 Spectrum continuous to . i c 4412 2266
Very weak beyond. | |
a ee eee ee
CANADINE.

The spectra of canadine are identical with those of tetrahydro-
berberine.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Thickness of
layer in
millimetres

5 and 4
3

4tol

DEHYDROCORYDALINE NITRATE.

C,,H,,;NO,HNO, + 2H,0.
Aqueous Solution.
(Fig. 8.)
Description of Spectrum | *
1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c.
Spectrum practically all absorbed.
Spectrum feebly transmitted to 2162
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
Spectrum transmitted to -| 2202
. 2244
1st Absorption band. 2244t02714
Spectrum very feebly transmitted from
27l4to . c 2768
Spectrum transmitted to m 2277
1st Absorption band. . |2277 to 2673
Spectrum transmitted from 2673 to 2768
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
Spectrum continuous to : 2789
Still weak in position of absorption
band.
Spectrum continuous to : 2789
2nd Absorption band . 2789 to 3282
Spectrum very feebly transmitted from
3282 to ‘ ; 3309
Spectrum continuous to < 2884
2nd Absorption band . |2884to 3282
Spectrum very feebly transmitted from |3282 to 3341)
Spectrum transmitted to. - : 2884
2nd Absorption band . 2884 to 3148 |
Lines showing faintly in the band of | 2982, 3042,
absorption at . and 3064
ae ep transmitted from
3148 to = : : 5 3471
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
Spectrum practically continuous to 4405
Weak beyond 3471

Still weak in position of absorption
band.

Spectrum practically all transmitted,
gradually getting stronger.

151

| 4625

4541
4456
4456 to 3684

3612

4391
4391 to 3741

3612

3585S

3585
3585 to 3047

3022

3467
3467 to 3047
3047 to 2993 |

3467 |
3467 to 3177
33538, 3287, |

and 3264

|
|
2881

2270 |
2881 |

152

REPORT—1908.

BERBERINE NITRATE.
C,,H,,NO,.HNO,.

Aqueous Solution.
(Fig. 9.)

Thickness of

layer in Description of Spectrum 2 oN
millimetres Z:
1 milligram-molecule in 100 ¢.c:
5 tol | Spectrum practically all absorbed.
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 Spectrum practically all absorbed.
4 and 3 Spectrum transmitted to 2162 4625
2 : 2162 4625
lst A bsorption band ; . |2162 to 2468) 4625 to 4060
Weak spectrum from 2463 to | (2673 3741
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 ¢.e.
5 Spectrum continuous to : 2714 3684
Still weak in position of Ist absorption
band.
2nd Absorption band 2714 to 3295 | 3684 to 3034
Spectrum feebly transmitted from
3295 to : : 3323 3009
4 Spectrum continuous to 2768 3612
2nd Absorption band 2768 to 3295 | 3612 to 3034
Spectrum feebly transmitted "from
3295 to 3354 2981
3 Spectrum transmitted to 2768 3612
2nd Absorption band 2768 to 3148 | 3612 to 3176
Spectrum feebly transmitted "from
3148 to é 3354 2981
2 Spectrum transmitted to < 2768 3612
2nd Absorption band . 4 2768 to 3148 | 3612 to 3176
Lines showing faintly in absorption | f 2982, 3042, | 3353, 3287,
band at {| and 3064 | and 3263
Spectrum feebly transmitted “from
3148 to. ° C : 3638 2748
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.e.
5 Spectrum practically continuous to 4405 2270
Weak beyond 3638 2748
Still weak in position of absorption
band.
Lines showing faintly at . 4533 2206
4tol Spectrum practically all transmitted

and gradually getting stronger.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 153

Corypic AciD.
C,,H,N(OCH,),(CO,H), +$H,0. M.P. 218°.

Aqueous Solution.
(Fig. 10.)

Thickness of | |
layer in Description of Spectrum
millimetres
1 milligram-molecule in 100 e.c.
5and 4 | Spectrum continuous to é 5 c 2244 | 4456
3 and 2 | - fe | 2273. | 4399
1 milligram-molecule in 500 e.c.
5 to 2 | Spectrum continuous to - . c 2354 | 4248
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to é f 2 2508 3987
Absorption band . . | 2508 to 2982, 3987 to 3353
Spectrum feebly transmitted from 2982
tone. < ; : . : : 3323 3009
4 Spectrum transmitted to . é R 2508 3987
Absorption band . : : . | 2508 to 2982) 3987 to 3353
Spectrum transmitted from 2982to . 3323 3009
Very feeble prolongation to . 7 : 3886 2573
3 Spectrum continuous to : . a 2508 3987
Absorption band . : 4 z . |2508 to 2884) 3987 to 3467
Spectrum very feebly transmitted from
2884 to . : : : 5 ; 4408 2267
2 Spectrum practically continuous to . 4408 2267
Very weak in position of absorption
band.
1 Spectrum practically all transmitted,
but still weak towards the end. |
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.e.
5 tol Same as 1 mm. above, but gradually

getting stronger.

154

REPORT—19038.

BERBERIDIC ACID.

O,;H,N(CH,0,)(CO,H),. M.P. 285°.

* Aqueous Solution.
(Fig. 11.)

Thickness of
layer in
millimetres

5, 4, and 3

3 and 4

5 tol

Description of Spectrum

>|K

1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c.
| Spectrum continuous to “ 5 :

” ”

1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to

nn ”

Absorption band .
Weak spectrum from 2982 to

2157
2207

2276
2303
2354

4636
4531

4393
4342
4248

2354 to 2982
3148

1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
Spectrum continuous to 5
Absorption band . : . .

Weak spectrum from 2982 to
Spectrum continuous to
Absorption band °
Weak spectrum from 2982 to
Spectrum continuous to °
Absorption band . 5 .
A few lines showing in the absorption
band.
Spectrum continuous from 2884 to
Weak beyond : . ° -
Spectrum continuous to . . .
Weak in position of absorption band,
and beyond : :
Spectrum practically all transmitted,
but still weak.

1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.

| Same as 1 mm. of last plate, but gradu-
| ally getting stronger.

2508
2508 to 2982
3323
2508
2508 to 2982
3323
2508

4248 to 8353
3176

3987
3987 to 3353
3009
3987
3987 to 3353
3009
3987

. | 2508 to 2884

3872
3872
4414

3872

3987 to 3467

2582
2582
2265

2582

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Thickness of
layer in
millimetres

VERATRIC ACID.
C,H,(OCH,),CO,H. + 2H,0.

Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 12.)

M.P. 179-180°.

Description of Spectrum |

4and 5
3

1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to : : 2 |

Very faint prolongation to

1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.

Spectrum continuous to

Absorption band .

Weak spectrum from 4230 to

Line showing faintly at

Spectrum continuous to

lst Absorption band.

Very faint spectrum from 3521 to

2nd Absorption band . 5
Weak spectrum from 4240 to

Spectrum transmitted to

lst Absorption band . 4 5
Weak spectrum from 3471 to - ‘
2nd Absorption band . :
Weak spectrum from 4106 to

1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.

Spectrum transmitted to . .

1st Absorption band :

Spectrum from 3471 to.

2nd Absorption band .

Weak spectrum from 4106 to

Spectrum transmitted to .

Very weak in position of Ist absorp-
tion band.

2nd Absorption band .

Weak spectrum from 4106 to

Spectrum practically continuous to

Weak in position of absorption band.

2nd Absorption band

Lines showing faintly in 2nd absorp: (
tion band at.

Weak spectrum from 4106to

Spectrum transmitted to .

Very weak in position of 2nd absorp-
tion band.

Spectrum all transmitted.

>|n

3191
3191
3246

3246
3296
3296 to 4230
4321
4321

3323
3323 to 3521
3638
3638 to 4240
4321
3354
3354 to 3471
3694

3694 to 4106
4407

3134
3134
3080

3080
3034
3034 to 2364
2314
2314

3009
3009 to 2840
2749
2749 to 2358
2314
2981
2981 to 2881
2707

2707 to 2435
2269

3354 2981
3354 to 3471) 2981 to 2881

3694 2707
3694 to 4106 2707 to 2435
4407 2269
3694 2707
3694 to 4106 2707 to 2435
4407 2269
3886 2573
3886 to 4106 2573 to 2435 '
4018, 4038, 2488, 2476,
and 3994 and 2504
4407 2269
4407 2269

156

REPORT—19038.

PIPERONYLIC ACID.
C,H,(CH,0,)CO,H.

Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 13.)

M.P. 225°,

Thickness of
layer in
millimetres

Description of spectrum

25,20,15and10
5

5 and 4

2 and 1

1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to

”

Lines at a

”

Spectrum continuous to
Lines at .

Spectrum continuous to

lst Absorption band

Weak spectrum from 3520 to

2nd Absorption band

Weak spectrum from 4102 to

Spectrum continuous to

1st Absorption band

Weak spectrum from 3471 to

2nd Absorption band .

Weak spectrum from 4098 to

Spectrum continuous to

Weak in position of 1st absorption band.

Very weak in position of 2nd absorption
band.

1 milligram-molecule in 2°500 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to ° .
Weak in position of Ist absorption band

” 2nd
Continuous to - . .

” ”

Still weak in position of absorption band.

Spectrum practically continuous,

mle

3148
3191
3638, 4230,
and 4300
3191
3560, 3630,
4230 & 4350
3191
3191 to 3520
3630
3630 to 4102
4402
3191
3191 to 3471
3678
3678 to 4098
4402
4402

4402

3177
3134
2749, 2364,
and 2325
3134
2809, 2755,
2364 & 2299
3134
3134 to 2840
2755
2755 to 2439
2272
3134
| 3134 to 2881
2719
2719 to 2440
2272
2272

2272

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Thickness of

layer in

millimetres

5 tol

4 and 3

2and1

4
' 3, 2, and 1

CoRYDALDINE.
C,H,NO(OCH;),. M.P. 175°.

Aqueous Solution.

157

(Fig. 14.)
Description of Spectrum | + “2X
1 milligram-molecule in 100 e.c.
Spectrum transmitted to . | 3064 3264
1 milligram-molecule in 500 ¢.c.
Spectrum continuous to 3064 3264
Lines faintly transmitted 3148 3177
Spectrum transmitted to 3148 3177
” ” : 3148 3177
Absorption band - . |8148 to 3494 3177 to 2862
Very feeble spectrum from 3494 to 3638 2749
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to | 3182 3143
Absorption band . 3182 to 3482 | 3143 to 2872
Lines showing faintly in band . | 3295 & 3323 | 3035 & 3009
Very feeble spectrum from 3482 to | 8638 2749
Lines faintly transmitted 4110 & 4124 | 2433 & 2425
Spectrum practically continuous to 4321 2314
Very weak beyond : 4 3638 2749
Very weak in position of absorption |
band.
Same as 4 m.m. but stronger. |
Band still perceptible.
Spectrum transmitted to 5 4412 2266
Still weak beyond . 3638 2749
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
Spectrum continuous to . . 4533 2206
” ” (ae . 4656 2148

Spectrum practically all transmitted.

158 REPORT—1903.
w- AMINOETHYLPIPERONYLCARBOXYLIC ANHYDRIDE.
C,H,NO(CH,0O,). M.P. 181-182°.
Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 15.)
Thickness of vial | 1 |
layer in Description of Spectrum = x
millimetres A
1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to : : : 2884 3467
Lines showing at . : | 2982 3353
4 Spectrum continuous to : 2982 3353
3 ” » ° | 3002 3331
2 » + . 3064 3264
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.e.
5, 4,3 Spectrum transmitted to 3064 3264
2 5 ” ° 3148 3177
Absorption band . |3148to 3521 3177 to 2840
Weak spectrum from 3521 to 3638 2749
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to 3148 3177
Absorptionband . .. . |8148to 3471 3177 to 2881
Lines faintly transmitted in eee
tion band at 3295 & 3323 3035 & 3009
Weak spectrum from 3471 to 3886 2573
Lines faintly transmitted at . |4111 & 4130 2432
4and 3 Spectrum practically transmitted to 4321 2314
Weak beyond - 3638 2749
Position of absorption band still clearly
perceptible.
2 Spectrum transmittedto . . 4412 2266
1 ” » . - 4656 2148
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
5 tol | Spectrum practically all transmitted.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 159
HyYDRASTININE.
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 115°.
Solution in Alcohol,
(Fig. 16.)
cand Description of Spectrum & ix
millimetres A
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
25, 20, and 15) Spectrum transmitted to . 2502 3997
1st Absorption band. 2502 to 2892 | 3997 to 3459
Weak spectrum transmitted from 2892
to : 3148 3177
10 Spectrum transmitted to 2502 3997
Faint prolongation to . . 2542 3934
1st Absorption band . 2542 to 2884) 3934 to 3467
Weak spectrum transmitted ‘from 2884
to : - : 3148 3467
5 Spectrum transmitted to 3148 3177
Weak in position of Ist absorption band
2nd Absorption band 3148 to 3638 | 3177 to 2749
Weak spectrum transmitted ‘from 3638
TO.) aie : . . 3824 2615
4 Spectrum transmitted to 3296 3034
2nd Absorption band 3296 to 3688 | 3034 to 2749
Weak spectrum transmitted “from 3638
to. . 3824 2615
3 Spectrum transmitted to 3296 3034
2nd Absorption band 3296 to 3638 | 3034 to 2749
Weak spectrum transmitted ‘from 3638
to. : 3824 2615
Line in absorption band at : 3568 2803
2 Spectrum transmitted to 3296 3034
2nd Absorption band 3296 to 3521 | 3034 to 2840
Spectrum transmitted from 3521 to 3824 2615
3rd Absorption band 3824 to 4114/2615 to 2481 |
Very weak spectrum transmitted from
4ll4to. - : - 4420 2262
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to . 3886 2573
Still weak in position of 2nd absorption
band.
3rd Absorption band : 3886 to 4114/2573 to 2431 |
Spectrum transmitted from 4114 to 4555 2195
4 Spectrum transmitted to 3886 2573
3rd Absorption band . - |3886 to 4114) 2573 to 2431
Spectrum transmitted from 4114 to 4555 2195
3 and 2 Spectrum transmitted to : 4656 2148
Weak in position of 3rd absorption
band.
1 Spectrum all transmitted.

160 REPORT—1903.
OXYHYDRASTININE.
C,,H,NO(CH,0,).. M.P. 97-98°.
Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 17.)
Thickness of aa | 1 |
layer in Description of Spectrum d x
millimetres a
1 milligram-molecule in 100 e.c.
5to1 | Spectrum continuous to Pe LP ea Ly, [S068 3264
1 milligram-molecule in 500 ¢.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to. . 3064 3264
4 x y . 3064 3264
Line faintly transmitted at 3568 2803
3 Spectrum transmitted to 3064 3264
Absorption band 3064 to 3521 | 3264t02840
| Spectrum feebly transmitted from 3521
| Rae sa Gh See 6 eee 2749
2 Spectrum transmitted to 3148 3177
Absorption band 3148 to 3482 | 3177 to 2872
Weak spectrum from 3482 to : 3638 2749
' 1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to 3148 3177
Absorption band 3148 to 3482) 3177 to 2872
Spectrum transmitted from 3482 to 4321 2314
| Very weak beyond 3638 2749
Lines showing feebly in bands at 3295 & 3323 | 3035 & 3009
4 Spectrum practically transmitted to 4321 2314
Weak towards end and in the position
of absorption band.
3 Same as 4mm., but stronger.
2 Spectrum transmitted to . . : 4406 2269
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to . 4555 2195
Weak towards end.
4tol Spectrum practically all transmitted
and getting stronger.

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

QUININE. |
C,,H,,N,0,. M.P. 172-178°,
Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 18.)

16]

Thickness of

2938 to 3300
3330
3330 {03837
3890
2938
2938 to 3300
3350
3350 to 3837
2938
2938 to 3295
2982, 3046,
3295 & 3923

4006

4038

layer in Description of Spectrum
millimetres
| 1 milligram-molecule in 100 c.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to P °
4, 3, and 2 ” ”
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to
4 :
Ist A ‘sorption band. :
Weak spectrum from 3300 to
2nd Absorption band
Very weak spectrum from 3887 to
3 Spectrum transmitted to
lst Absorption band :
Spectrum from 3300 to. .
2nd Absorption band .
2 Spectrum transmitted from 3837 to
1st Absorption band
Lines faintly showing where the 2nd f
absorption band occurred .
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to
Weak in position of Ist absorption
band, |
4,3, 2 Spectrum transmitted to
Weak transmission in position of Ist |
absorption band.
ul Spectrum practically all transmitted,

but weak beyond.

4038

3442
3403
3403 to 3030
3003
3003 to 2606
2570
3403
3403 to 3030
2985
2985 to 2606
3404
3404 to 3035
3353, 3282,
3035 & 2549

2496

2476 |

2476

QUINIDINE? AND CUPREINE.

The spectra of quinidine and cupreine are identical with those ot

quinine.

Hypkoquinine.
C,H, O,-

The spectra of hydroquinine resembled those of quinine so closely that
ho separate curve was drawn.

* Hartley, Phil, Trans:, 1886, Part I1.; p. 471;

1903,

2 Hartley, loc, cit.

162 REPORT—1903.
CincHONINE.!
C,,H,,.N,0. M.P. 255-255°:5.
Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 19.)
Thickness of | 1
layer in Description of Spectrum = aA
millimetres | A :
1 milligram-molecule i 500 e.e.
25, 20,15 Spectrum transmitted to 3076 3251
10 i i 3118 3207
5 + * 5 . =Al ees 3177
Lines showing feebly at || A117 & 4130 2429 & 2421
4and3 Spectrum transmitted to | 3148 3177
Absorption band . . . 8148 to 3886 8177 to 2573
Very weak spectrum transmitted from |
3886 to 4130 2421
2 Spectrum transmitted to. . 3148 3177
Absorption band . 3148 to 3824 3177 to 2615
Weak spectrum transmitted from 5824 to | 4176 2395
Line feebly transmitted in absorption
band . : . 3295 3035
1 milligrnam-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to - 4175 2395
Weak in position of absorption band,
4 and 3 Spectrum transmitted to 4250 2353
Weak in position of absorption band.
2 Spectrum transmitted to 4250 2353
1 + ” : : .| 4418 2263
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
4 tol | Spectrum all transmitted

CINCHONIDINE.?”
©,,H..N,0: . M.P. 202°,

The spectra of cinchonidine are identical with those of cinchonine.

1 Hartley, Phil. Trans., 1885, Part *

p. 471.

? Hartley, loc. ct

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

Morentne.!
C,,H,,NO, + H,0.
Solution in Alcohol.

163

(Fig. 1.)
Thickness of | ; 1
layer in | Description of Spéctrtin Fl aA |
millitnetres
=
1 milligram-moletule in 100 €.e. |
5 and 4 Spectrum contintious to . é 3323 5009 \
3 er % : 3323 3009
| Line showing faintly at 3824 2615
2 | Spectrum continnous to 3354 2981
Absorption band 3354 to 3758 2981 to 2664 |
Lines showing faintly at . .—. 894% 3886, 2015& 2573 |
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
5 / Spectrum continuous to Sy ee -| 3354 | 2981 '
| Absorption band . . 8854 to 3638 2981 to 2749
| Weak spectrum from 3638 to 3886 2573
4 | Spectrum continuous to . | 383854 | 2981 |
| Absorption band . 3354 to 8638 2981 to 2749,
| Lines faintly transmitted in absorp- | |
tion band at . (8471 & 3568 2881 & 2803
Spectrum continuous from 3658 to .| 3886 2573
3 and 2 Spectrum practically transmitted to. 3926 2547
But still very weak in position of
absorption band. |
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
5 | Spectrum continuous to 4320 2316
Very weak beyond 3886 2673
4, 3, and 2 Spectrum continuous to 4414 (2265
Very weak beyond 3886 | 2573

Spectrum all transmitted.

CopBINneE.?
C,,H,,NO,. M.P. 153%5.

The spectra of codeine are nearly identical with those of morphine.

1 Hartley, Phil. Lrans., 1885, Part IL., p. 471.

* Hartley, loc. cit.

164 REPORT—19035.

CoRYBULBINE.
C,,H,,NO,. M.P, 223-235°.

Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 20:)

Thickness of

layer in Description of Spectrum . ar
millimetres | x |
1 milligrant-molecule in 1,000 c.c.
50, 40, and 30 | Spectrum transmitted to s : 3296 | 3033
20 ts 3 3323 3009
10 and 8 “6 a : 5 3323 3009
Absorption band . . | 8328 to 8815 | 3009 to 2621
Rather feeble spectrum from 3815 to 4017 2489
6 Spectrum transmitted to 3334 2999
Absorption band 8834t0 8740 2999 to 2673
Spectrum feebly transmitted f rom 37 40 to 4028 2482
4 Spectrum transmitted to ; 3334 | 2999
Absorption band . 3334t0 38638 2999 to 2748
| Weak spectrum from 3638 to 4104 | 2436
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.c.
and 4 | Spectrum transmitted to . 4117 2428
Very weak in position of absor ption
band.
3 Spectrum transmitted to = : 4408 2271
| Very weak beyond , 4117 2428
2 Same as 3 mm., with additional line
| showing at 4495 2224
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum transmitted to . 4549 2198
| 4tol Spectrum all transmitted.
BuLBocarNin,
C bas SLP.20r,
Solution in Alcohol.
(Fig. 21.)
Thickness of | 1 %
layexin | Description of Spectrum : ) x |
millimetres A
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.e,
25 Spectrum continuous to ° : . | +2988 3403
20 and 15 > os ; | 2982 3353
10 y 43 | 8013 3318
5 | ” » | 3064 3263
4 » ” | 3064 3263 4]
3 and 2 » ” Ayers PANS e SONG 3250 |

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION,

BULBOCAPNIN—continued,

165

Thickness of

l
Aneta

layer in Description of Spectrum | A
millimetres | a |
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 ¢.c.
5 | Spectrum continuous to | 3521 | 2840
| Absorption band ; 3521 to 3886 | 2840 to 2573
| Very weak spectrum from 3886 to Has 4038 2476
4 Spectrum continuous to | 3521 2840
_ Absorption band : 3521 t0 3886 | 2840t02578 |
Spectrum from 3886 to. 4128 2422
Lines in absorption band feebly shown {| 3568, 3638, | 2802, 2748,
NCEE frites Sy “ty 2 1, and 3824 | and 2615
3 | Spectrum continuous to ar 3638 2748
_ Absorption band . 3638 to 3824) 2748 to 2615
_ Weak spectrum from 3824 to | 4128 2422
2 Spectrum practically continuous to | 98824 2615
Weak in position of absorption band. i)!
| Spectrum practically transmitted to lhe ODG. ta ook eda
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
| Spectrum all transmitted. |
NARCEINE.!
C,,H,,NO,+3H,O. M.P. 145°
Solution in Alcohol,
(Fig. 22.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum = A
millimetres he
1 milligram-molecule in 500 c.c.
25 Spectrum continuous to | 8002 3331
20 and 15 » » 2076 3251
10 and 5 Al ” 3148 3177
4 » ” 3191 3134
3 and 2 “ ” 3323 3009
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 c.c. .
5 and 4 Spectrum transmitted to . ; .| 3886 2573
But very weak beyond.
3 | Spectrum transmitted to , 4123 2425
Very weak beyond. |
2 | Spectrum transmitted to | 4411 2267
| Very weak beyond. |
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
5 Spectrum continuous to 4536 2204
Very weak beyond 4411 2267
4 and 3 Spectrum transmitted to 4555 2195
Very weak beyond ; 4411 2267
eae pee all transmitted,

} Hartley, Phil. Trane, 1885, art IL, p. 4,

166 , REPORT-—19038.

The Absorption Spectra of Laudanine and Laudanosine in Relation to
their Constitution.! By Jamus J. Dosste, D.Sc., M.A4., and ALEXANDER
Lauper, B.Sc.

It has been shown that alkaloids which only differ from one another
in minor details of structure give similar absorption curves, whilst those
which differ widely in structure give correspondingly different series of
spectra. So far, no case has yet been encountered in which two substances

Fig. 23.— Laudanosine, Fig, 24.—Laudanine,
C,,H,,0,N. C.gH.,0,N.
(Ln alcoholic solution.) (In alcoholic solution.)
Scale of oscillation-Srequencies. Scale of oscillation-frequencies.

QUAL A H
peters! ted |
pea tT fal

500 cc.

Thickness of laver of solution in millimetres,

<—1 in—-><—_ —- — 1 milligram-molecule in —-——_—— 5 <-—1 in-~—>

2,500 cc.

Corer © he

known to differ substantially in structure give an identical or nearly iden-
tical series of spectra.

This principle finds an interesting application in the case of laudanine,
C,,H.,0,N, and laudanosine, C,,H,,0,N, two rare alkaloids separated
hy Hesse ? from opium. ‘These differ from one another by CH., and since
the former contains three, and the latter four methoxyl groups, it has
been assumed that the substances are homologous, although the conversion
of laudanine into laudanosine has not yet been accomplished. If this
view of their relation is correct; they should give practically identical
absorption curves, and this we have found to be actually the case, the

1 Chem. Soc. Trans., 1903, 83, 626,
? Annalen, 1870, 77, 47; Suppl., 1872, 8, 261,

ON ABSORPTION SPECPRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 167

measurements of the photographs of the two series of spectra agreeing
almost perfectly.

The investigation of these compounds was undertaken solely with
reference to their suspected homology, but it was at once seen, on examin-
ing their spectra, that a close resemblance subsisted between them and
thé spectra of corydaline and tetrahydropapaverine. The photographs of
the spectra of corydaline and laudanosine in particular are almost indis-
tinguishable, and suggest a very close structural relation between these
two compounds. Laudanosine differs from tetrahydropapaverine by CH,,
and may simply be a homologue of this substance, possibly having a
méthyl group attached to carbon atom 4. (See papaverine, p. 127.)

Apart from the closer resemblance of their spectra, however, there is
some ground for believing that laudanosine is more nearly related to cory-
daline than to tetrahydropapaverine. It differs from corydaline only in
having one atom of carbon less in its molecule ; the two substances cannot
therefore be homologous, if the formule of both have been correctly
determined.

Corydaline has recently been analysed by numerous investigators, with
concordant results, and its formula may be regarded as well established.
Laudanine and laudanosine, on the other hand, have been but little
examined, and there is a possibility that their formule may not yet have
been definitely settled. Assuming, however, as we are bound to do for
the present, that the analyses are correct, cases are known in which sub-
stances, other than homologues, which are nearly related structurally,
show as close an agreement between their spectra even when their formule
differ more widely than those of corydaline and laudanosine.

Unfortunately, very little is known of the chemistry of laudanosine,
but that little is entirely in favour of the view expressed as to its close
relationship with corydaline and tetrahydropapaverine. Like those sub-
stances, it contains four methyl groups, and yields metahemipinic acid as
one of its products of oxidation. It further resembles corydaline in being
optically active and in the ease with which, when heated with dilute nitric
acid, it undergoes oxidation to a yellow base. This substance, which has
not been analysed, may be identical with meconidine,' an alkaloid asso-
ciated with laudanosine in opium. The formula of meconidine, C,,H,,0,N,
bears the same relation to that of laudanosine that the formule of dehydro-
corydaline and berberine bear to those of corydaline and tetrahydrober-
berine respectively, as the following table shows :—

Colorless. Yellow.
Corydaline, Dehydrocorydaline,
CooHy;0,N, Cx9H,,0,N,

m.p. 135°°5. m.p. 118—120°.
Tetrahydroberberine, Berberine,

Cy )H.,O,N, C3)H,;0,N,
m.p. 167°, m.p. 145°.
Laudanosine, Meconidine,
C.,H.;0,N, C,,H.;0,N,
m.p. 89°. m.p. 58°.

» Hesse, Annalen, 1870, 77, p. 47.
e

168 é REPORT—1903,

Whether the yellow substance produced by the oxidation of laudano-
sine is identical or not with meconidine, the mere fact of the existence of
a coloured base in opium having a formula differing from that of laudano-
sine by four atoms of hydrogen lends some support to the view of the
relationship of these substances set forth in this paper, and this hypothesis
receives some additional support from a comparison of the melting g-points
of the substances. The question, however, as to whether laudanosine is
more closely related to corydaline or to tetrahydr oberberine can only be
settled by further chemical investigation.

The point which we wish to emphasise is that it must, from the simi-
larity of the curve plotted from its spectra, he bnilt on the same plan as
these two closely related compounds,

LAUDANOSINE.
Ch, NO)..) M.P./893

Solution in Alcohol.

(Fig. 23.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum = | IN
millimetres |
1 milligram-molecule in 500 e.e.
25, 20,15 &10 | Spectrum transmitted to : 9 ; 3323 3009
5 | ’ 4 ; 3354 2982
| Absor “ption band . : . 8354 to 3824 2982 to 2615
Spectrum transmitted from 3824 to ; 3930 2544
4 Spectrum transmitted to ‘ : . | 8354 2981
Absorption band . . . |8354 to 3824 2981 to 2615
Spectrum transmitted from 3824to .| 3930 | 2544
33 | Spectrum transmitted to : 5 F 3354 2981
| Absorption band . . |3354 to 3754 2981 to 2664
Spectrum transmitted from 376410. 3930 2544
| Line faintly showing at 3 ‘ , 4003 2498
2 | Spectrum transmitted to ; : i 3388 2951
_ Absorption band . 3 . (8388 to 3638 2951 to 2749
| Spectrum transmitted from 3638 to. 4038 2476
1 | Spectrum transmitted to : c 4038 2476
But very weak in position of absorption
| band. |
1 milligram-moleciule in 2,500 c.e.
4 | Spectrum transmitted to. : | 4115 2430
3 | : = Mis ies 4428 2258
2 | FS i SU hi! 4555 2195
1 | 3 all transmitted . F its
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 e.e.
4tol Spectrum all transmitted. | |

ON ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

169

LAvUDANINE,
CipH,,NO,.
Solution in Alcohol,
(Fig. 24.)
Thickness of 1
layer in Description of Spectrum : A
millimetres bs
1 milligram-molecule in 500 e.c.
25, 20,and 15 | Spectrum transmitted to 3323 { 3009
10 | i # é 3323 3009
| Line showing at : v1 3886 2573
5 . | Spectrum transmitted to .| . 3354 2982
Absorption band . : ‘ 3354 to 3824/2982 to 2615
| Spectrum transmitted from . 3824 to 4003] 2615 to 2498
4 | Spectrum transmitted to .| 8854 2981
| Absorption band : . 33854 to 3824/2981 to 2615
' Spectrum transmitted from . 3824 to 4003/2615 to 2498
| Faint indications of lines from, . 3754 to 3824) 2664 to 2615
and from 4003 to 4038/2498 to 2476
3 | Spectrum transmitted to » fi 8Bh4 2981
Absorption band . - : | 3354 to 3754/2981 to 2664
| Spectrum transmitted from . . (3754 to 4038) 2664 to 2476
2 | Spectrum transmitted to | 8382 2957
| Absorption band ; 5 3382 to 3654 2957 to 2737
| Spectrum transmitted from . 3654 to 4026) 2737 to 2484
1 | Spectrum transmitted to ep) eel 28 2422
Very weak in position of absorption
| band.
1 milligram-molecule in 2,500 e.e.
4 | Spectrum transmitted to - St hil Maso! Ca 2430
3 ” ” adi 9h hatipeteee 2258
2 | ” ” 4555 2] 95
1 | + all transmitted
1 milligram-molecule in 12,500 c.c.
4tol | Spectrum all transmitted, |

On the Possibility of Making Special Reports more available than at
present.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. A. SHEN-
STONE (Chairman), Dr. M. O. Forster (Secretary), Professor E.
Divers, Professor W. J. Popr, and Dr. A. W. CROSSLEY.

The Committee recommend :—

1, That at the close of each annual meeting the Sectional Committee
shall request its secretaries to compile a list of the Special Reports, other
than those of Standing Committees, which have been presented to the
Section during the previous five years, and which have been published
in extenso, this list (see Appendix) to include those Reports of the
character specified which have been presented at the annual meeting
just terminated. .

170 REPORT—1903.

2, That the secretaries of the Sectional Committee be requested to
forward copies of the list to the secretaries of the Chemical Societies of
London and Berlin, with the suggestion that the councils of these bodies
might be disposed to bring such Reports to the notice of Fellows by
inserting the references in one of the issues of their publications.

APPENDIX.

List of Special Reports presented to Section B during 1898-1902,
indicating the type of Special Report to which attention might be drawn
in the manner indicated by the Committee :—

1900, ‘The Constitution of Camphor.’ By A, Lapworrn.
1901. ‘ Methods of Determining the Hydrolytie Dissociation of Salts.’
By R. C. Farmer.
‘On the Equilibrium Law as applied to Salt Separation and
to the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits.’ By E. F.
ARMSTRONG.
1902. ‘Hydro-aromatic Compounds with Single Nucleus.’ By A. W.
CROSSLEY.
‘Our Present Knowledge of Aromatic Diazo- Compounds,’
By G. T. Morean,

Duty-free Alcohol for Scientific Research.—Report of the Conmittee,
consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor (Chairman), Protessor H. B.
Dixon (Secretary), Sir Micnart Foster, Sir A. W. Ricker, Dr.
T. EK. THorre, Professor W. H. Perkin, and Professor W. D.
HALLIBURTON.

Tue Committee appointed at the Glasgow meeting in 1901 were unable
to report in 1902, as they were at the time of the Belfast meeting in the
midst of their negotiations with the Board of Inland Revenue.

After a preliminary meeting and correspondence in the winter of
1901-2 the Committee received information that the Government were
willing to adopt a clause in the Budget Bill of 1902 which would permit
the use of duty-free alcohol under conditions to be laid down by the
Board of Inland Revenue. When the Budget Bill was passed a deputa-
tion from the Committee waited on the Chairman of the Board, and
after full discussion the Committee agreed to confine their application at
the present time to the use of duty-free alcohol (ethyl and methyl) and
of alcoholic derivatives for the purposes of research work and higher
teaching in the laboratories of universities, colleges, and public institu-
tions.

At the request of the Chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue the
Committee drew up the following statement :—

* 70 the Chairman af the Baard of Inland Revenue.

‘August 6, 1902.
‘Srr,—At the meeting of the British Association held at Glasgow last
_ year a Committee was appointed to approach the Inland Revenne Com-

ON DUTY-FREE ALCOHOL FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. 171

missioners’ to urge the desirability of securing the use of pure alcohol
duty-free for the purposes of scientific research,

‘Tt was pointed out at the Glasgow meeting that the low price of pure
alcohol and its derivatives on the Continent and the high duty payable in
the United Kingdom severely handicapped research workers here in
chemistry, physiology, and pathology, and to a smaller extent in zoology
and botany. In the recent debates on the Budget Bill this disadvantage
was recognised, and steps were taken with a view to remedy the evil,

‘In the United States, where alcohol is taxed, permits are granted to
scientific institutions of certain rank enabling them to obtain duty-free
alcohol for use in their laboratories. The conditions under which these
permits are granted by the United States Treasury have been obtained by
this Committee. A copy of these regulations was placed in your hands at
the interview you were good enough to grant on the 9th inst. to members
of this Committee.

‘In accordance with your request we have obtained some statistics as
to the amount of alcohol (and its derivatives) used in English laboratories
for higher teaching and research work. It has not been possible to obtain
complete details, but the following figures, which are the average number
of gallons used per annum during the last three years in the laboratories
at Cambridge, at Owens College, and the Yorkshire College, may be taken
as typical :—

at SWS ATS a --
Absolute | é Absolute _ Methy-

I. CAMBRIDGE. | |
(University and College |
Laboratories. )

II. OWENS COLLEGE.

: Medical Department

160

Jt should be pointed out that if pure alcoliol could be obtained duty-free
more would be used in scientific work instead of the methylated ‘spirit
now used whenever possible.

‘From the table given it will be seen that the chief demand in scientific
laboratories is for pure ethyl alcohol and pure ethyl ether. But other
alcohols (e.g. methyl alcohol) and other derivatives of alcohols (e.g. methyl
and ethyl iodides) and ethereal salts (e.g. malonic ether) are largely used
in organic chemistry. These reagents are at present mainly imported

172 REPORT—1903.

from Germany and pay duty to the Customs. There is therefore a desire
that such ethereal compounds might be imported duty-free for scientific
use.

‘In the request that we now make for the use of duty-free ethyl
alcohol and its derivatives, for the purpose of higher teaching and
research, we would point out that the alcohol (or other reagent) is
destroyed or contaminated beyond recovery by the use to which it is put,
and such destruction or contamination could be certified by the director
of the laboratory.

‘In the opinion of the Committee there would be no difficulty in
arranging for one distributing station in each university centre to supply
the several laboratories of that centre.’

On October 22 the Committee received from the Board a draft of the
suggested regulations under which it was proposed to authorise the issue,
in accordance with section 8 of the Finance Act, 1902, of pure spirit duty-
free for purposes of scientific research and education. The Board asked
for observations on the proposed regulations.

The Committee had copies of these proposed regulations sent to the
directors of the chief ]aboratories in the country, with a request that they
would forward any suggestions they might wish to make to the Committee,
After considering the suggestions sent in, the Committee submitted their
observations to the Board, who adopted the alterations suggested, and
informed the Committee that methyl alcohol might be obtained under the
game regulations.

The Committee, with the permission of the Board of Inland Revenue,
published the regulations in ‘The Times’ and other newspapers with the
accompanying explanatory letter :—

‘ Duty-free Alcohol for Research.

‘To the Editor of “ The Times.”’
‘December 15, 1902.

‘S1rr,—It has long been felt by scientific workers in this country that
a serious drawback to the prosecution of research lies in the fact that the
full and very heavy duty has to be paid on pure alcohol, as distinguished
from methylated spirit, largely used in scientific laboratories where higher
teaching and research are carried on. And this appeared to be a hardship
in the first place because the alcohol thus used is either destroyed or
rendered useless for potable purposes, and in the second place because no
such duty is paid in Germany, France, or the United States, and thus the
British is heavily handicapped as against the foreign worker.

‘ At the meeting of the British Association held last year in Glasgow,
a Committee was appointed with instructions to approach the Board of
Inland Revenue with the object of endeavouring to secure the removal of
this grievance—a grievance which was recognised by Government in the
Budget Bill of this year. We are now glad to report that the Board has
met our suggestions in the fairest possible manner with an obvious desire
to extend facilities for scientific research in the direction indicated, as a
perusal of the regulations which we enclose will show.

‘The Secretary to the Board of Inland Revenue informs us that pure
“methyl alcohol,” also much used in chemical research, may be obtained
under the same regulations, and should smaller quantities of methyl

ON DUTY-FREE ALCOHOL FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. LTS

alcohol bé required than the minimum permitted in the case of ethyl
alcohol, the Board will consider special applications to that effect.—
Weare, &c.,

‘H. E. Roscor, Chairman.

‘H. B. Drxon, Secretary to the Committee.’

(Enclosure.)
Regulations for the Use of Duty-free Spirit at Universities, Colleges, ke.

1. An application must be made by the governing body or their
representatives, stating the situation of the particular university, college,
or public institution for research or teaching, the number of the laboratories
therein, the purpose or purposes to which the spirits are to be applied, the
bulk quantity likely to be required in the course of a year, and, if it
amounts to fifty gallons or upwards, the name or names of one or more
sureties, or a guarantee society to join in a bond that the spirits will be
used solely for the purpose requested and at the place specified.

2. The spirits received at any one institution must only be used in the
laboratories of that institution, and must not be distributed for use in the
laboratories of any other institution, or used for any other purpose than
those authorised.

3. Only plain British spirits or unsweetened foreign spirits of not less
than 50 degrees over-proof (7.e. containing not less than 80 per cent. by
weight of absolute alcohol) may be received duty-free, and the differential
duty must be paid on the foreign spirits.

4, The spirits must be received under bond either from a distillery or
from an Excise or Customs general warehouse, and (except with special
permission) in quantities of not less than nine bulk gallons at a time.
They will be obtainable only on presentation of a requisition signed by
the proper supervisor.

5. On the arrival of the spirits at the institution the proper revenue
officer should be informed, and the vessels, casks, or packages containing
them are not to be opened until he has taken an account of the spirits.

6. The stock of spirits in each institution must be kept under lock in
a special compartment under the control of a professor or some responsible
officer of the university, college, or institution.

7. The spirits received by the responsible officer of the institution
may be distributed by him undiluted to any of the laboratories on the
same premises.

8. No distribution of spirits may be made from the receiving laboratory
to other laboratories which are not within the same premises.

9. A stock-book must be provided and kept at the receiving laboratory,
in which is to be entered on the debit side an account of the bulk and
proof gallons of spirits received with the date of receipt, and on the credit
side an account of the bulk and proof gallons distributed to the other
laboratories. A stock-book must also be kept at each other laboratory, in
which must be entered on the day of receipt an account of the bulk and
proof gallons of spirits received from the receiving laboratory. These
books must be open at all times to the inspection of the revenue officer,
and he will be at liberty to make any extract from them which he may
consider necessary.

10. The quantity of spirits in stock at any one time must not exceed

174 REPORT—1903.

half the estimated quantity required in a year where that quantity amounts
to 20 gallons or upwards.

11. Any contravention of the regulations may involve the withdrawal
of the Board’s authority to use duty-free spirits.

12. It must be understood that the Board of Inland Revenue reserve
to themselves full discretion to withhold permission for the use of duty-
free spirit in any case in which the circumstances may not seem to them
to be such as to warrant the grant of it.

Nore.— Proof spirit’ is defined by law to be such as at the tempera-
ture of 51 degrees Fahrenheit shall weigh |} of an equal measure of
distilled water. Taking water at 51 degrees Fahrenheit as unity, the
specific gravity of ‘ proot spirit’ at 51 degrees Fahrenheit is 92308. When
such spirit is raised to the more usual temperature of 60 degrees Fahrenheit,
the specific gravity is ‘91984. To calculate the quantity of spirits at
proof in a given quantity of spirit over or under proof strength, multiply
the quantity of spirit hy the number of degrees of strength of the spirit
and divide the product by 100. The number of degrees of strength of
any spirit is 100 plus the number of degrees overproof, or minus the

number of degrees underproof.
Example :

19-8 gallons of spirits at 64:5 overproof
p00 + 64:5 = 164°5 proof strength.
164:5 x 19°8 + 100 = 32°571

taken as 32°5 gallons at proof.

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. TILDEN (Chairman) and Dr. H. HE. ARMSTRONG
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the past year proof has been obtained of the structure of the
series of higher brominated derivatives prepared from | : 5 : 6-tribromo-
B-naphthol which were referred to in last year’s report ; these com-
pounds were then represented by formule containing a bromine atom in
position 3 marked with a query. The following facts show that a correct
view was then taken as to the position of this bromine atom.

The tetrabromo-@-naphthol (m.p. 184°), from which the higher bromi-
nated compounds are derived, is convertible by nitric acid into a tri-
bromo--naphthaquinone (m.p. 183°) which aniline converts into the

compound
2 O

NHPh

Br Br
Br NPh

Such a substance can obviously only be formed from aquinone containing
a bromine atom in position 3, not trom one containing bromine in the

ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 175

alternative position 4. The relationship of the several compounds is
therefore as follows :—

Br O
OH OH "
AL
Br Br Br Br
Br Br

Br 4
Br
Tribromo-f-naphthol, Tettabromo 4-naphthol, Tribromo-f-naphtha-
. m.p. 159°, rup. 184°, quinone, m.p, 183°.
O
NHPh
a
Br Br
Br NPh

Anil.

The structure has also been determined of the tetrabromo-G-naphthol,
No. 3 (m.p. 191° ; acetate, m.p. 210°), described in the 1901 report, which
differs from all the other highly brominated naphthols in that it fails to
give a nitro-bromo-keto- compound, being converted by nitric acid, at the
ordinary temperature, into a tetrabromo-/3-naphthaquinone (m.p. 241°).

This tetrabromo-/3-naphthaquinone is oxidised by dilute nitric acid to
a new dibromophthalic acid, which by exclusion must be the hitherto
unknown 3: 05-dibromophthalic acid ; the quinone is therefore 3 : 4:6 : 8-
tetrabromo-}-naphthaquwinone.

The parent naphthol, which is derived from 1 :3:6-tribromo not
from 1 : 5 : 6-tribromo-f-naphthol, must therefore contain the bromine
atoms in positions 1:3:6:8, the series of compounds being related as
shown by the following formule :—

Be Br Br O Br
OH 0 /~ ©0,H
smog austen | |
Br Br Br Br Br Rly CO,H
Br

Tetrabromo-8-naphthol, Tetrabromo-8-naphtha- 3: 5-Dibromophthalic acid,

m.p. 191°. quinone, m.p. 241°. m.p. 188°; anhydride,

m.p. 155°.

It follows from these results that whilst the product of the further
bromination of 1 : 3 : 6-tribromo-8-naphthol is 1 : 3 : 4 : 6-tetra-bromo-
B-naphthol small quantities of the 1:3 :6 :8-tetrabromo- derivative are
also formed.

The investigation of the bromo-naphthols has involved incidentally
the study of the bromophthalic acids: the discovery of 3:4- and 3:5-
dibromophthalic acids in the course of the work completes the series of
dibromo- acids.

176 REPORT—1903.

A systematic investigation of the nitro-bromo-keto- compounds formed
by the action of nitric acid on the bromo-@-naphthols has led to the
important discovery that whereas most of these substances are of normal
composition—for instance,

NO, Br NO, Br NO, Br
We \/, ea
O O
T II III
Br Br Br
NO, Br
xy,
“10
IV
Br Br
Br

others can only be obtained in association either with acetic acid alone or
with water of hydration. Thus :

NO, Br NO, Br
<7), (OE Be SN aL
< <
Vv OAc VI OAc+2H,0
Br Br Br Br
Br é Br

A similar addition of acetic acid takes place in the case of the keto-bro-
mides (infra) but apparently not in the case of the keto-chlorides. These,
however, as Zincke’s researches show, in a few cases combine with alcohol.

Generally speaking, the nitro-bromo-keto- compounds increase in
stability as the number of bromine atoms increases, so that, whilst the
compound I, for instance, begins to decompose slightly above 0° the
compound IT is so stable that it may be left exposed during several
months in the air at the ordinary temperature without undergoing change.
But that structure and not merely the proportion of bromine present
in the compound largely determines stability is shown by the fact that,
for example, the compounds represented by the formule

NO, Br NO, Br
eZ BE yi \%
VII GO Sane WaTE
Br Br Br Br
Br Br

although rich in bromine rapidly decompose at the ordinary temperature.

ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. gl

When bromine (1 molecular proportion) is left in contact with the
nitro-keto- compound
NO, Br
NA
O

(derived from 1 : 6-dibromo-8-naphthol), suspended in glacial acetic
acid and exposed to diffused light, nitrous fumes are slowly evolved and
an arborescent mass of needles separates which appears to be the mono-
hydrate (1) of the acetate of a dibromo-naphthalene-keto-bromide

Bra ou spa ou
P Oskc4H,0, oll OAc +2H,0
Br Br
Br Br
Br,
a
ba OAc +4H,0
Br
Br

This substance melts at 63-65° ; from the mother liquors large slightly
yellow prisms slowly separate which consist of the tetrahydrate III.
The dihydrate II is formed only under very special conditions, namely,
when a solution of the nitro-bromo-keto- compound from 1-bromo-f-
naphthol in acetic acid is acted on by bromine ; it separates very slowly
from solution in the form of small nearly colourless needles, melting at 81°.

If any one of these hydrated acetates be gently warmed with benzene
a turbid solution is obtained ; if this be dried with the aid of calcium
chloride and slowly evaporated it deposits magnificent nearly colourless
plates of the simple keto-bromide.

Br,

Br
Br

This substance apparently is the first representative of the class of
naphthalene keto-bromides corresponding to the keto-chlorides which have
been so fully studied by Zincke. When gently warmed, either alone or
in the form of one of its hydrated acetates, with glacial acetic acid, it
loses bromine and is converted into 4 : 6-dibromo-/}-naphthaquinone
(m.p. 171°); if the warming be continued the liberated bromine acts on
this compound, converting it into 3: 4: 6-tribromo-/-naphthaquinone
1903. N

178 REPORT—19038.

(m.p. 190°). Care is necessary, however, as otherwise the action may go
further ; a pentabromo-dinaphthyl-diquinone, C,)H;Br,O,, then separates
as a yellow crystalline insoluble powder. This compound is formed accord-
ing to the equation 2C,,)H,Br,0, = HBr+C,..H;Br;0,. A similar case
of condensation was mentioned in last year’s report.

Unlike the keto-chlorides, the keto-bromides do not give substituted
naphthols when reduced either with stannous chloride and chlorhydric
acid or with iodhydric acid (d. 1°9); the sole product is 4 ; 6-di-
bromo-1 : 2-dihydroxynaphthalene,

which is also obtained by reducing 4 : 6-dibromo-] : 2-naphthaquinone.
The corresponding diacetate, C,,H,Br,(OAc),, crystallises in large
prisms, melting at 157°.

The keto-bromide is probably first transformed into

OH OH
\A i On

LE
NoH
Br

The discovery of 4 : 6-dibromo-2-keto-naphthalene-1-dibromide makes
it possible to explain the production of 4 : 6-dibromo-1 : 2-naphtha-
quinone during the decomposition by heat of the nitro-keto- compound of
1 : 6-dibromo-f-naphthol. That the dibromo-quinone could not be formed
by a mere bromination of 6-monobromo-)-naphthaquinone initially
produced is shown by the fact that this bromination cannot be realised in
practice. The real explanation is that the bromine initially split off from
the nitro-keto- compound brominates the undecomposed remainder of this
substance, first displacing NO, ; a subsequent decomposition produces the
4 : 6-dibromo-quinone.

ON ISOMERIC NAPTHALENE DERIVATIVES, 179

Now that the investigation has reached a stage when it is possible
to give a complete account of the complex series of processes underlying
the formation of the brominated naphthols, it is proposed to submit a
considered discussion of the results for publication,

The Study of Hydro-aromatie Substances.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. K. Divers (Chairman), Dr. A. W. CrossLey
(Secretary), Professor W. H. PERKIN, and Drs. M. O. Forster and
Lr Sueur.

Recent Work on Hydro-aromatic Substances. By Dr. A. W. Crosstry.

Tue following is a summary of the work published on hydro-aromatic
compounds since the preparation of the last report.!

Petrolewm.—When acetylene and hydrogen are passed over reduced
nickel, there results a mixture of hydrocarbons having the general pro-
perties of petroleum. Sabatier and Senderens” therefore put forward the
following suggestion as accounting for the production of natural petro-
leum. In the interior of the earth alkali metals and carbides are found,
and these under the influence of water give hydrogen and acetylene,
which in contact with finely divided iron, nickel, &c., generate the hydro-
carbons of petroleum. This supposition is not considered probable b
Aschan,* who, from experimental results, is led to conclude that the slow
distillation of fossil fat in the earth’s interior gives rise mainly to an
unsaturated hydrocarbon residue, and to a smaller extent to an unsatu-
rated complex containing carboxyl. Pressure and temperature cause the
polymerisation of these residues with production of the naphthenes and
naphthene carboxylic acids, which must therefore be regarded as second-
ary products of the distillation of mineral oil in the earth’s interior.

Mabery * has described various hydrocarbons, with from thirteen to
twenty-eight carbon atoms, isolated from the portion of Pennsylvanian
petroleum, boiling above 216°.

Synthetical Hydrocarbons.—Starting with optically active substituted
hydroxyhexahydrobenzenes, Zelinsky ° has propared dimethyl- and methy]-
ethylhexahydrobenzenes, both of which hydrocarbons show a slight
optical activity.

Harries and Antoni ° have further investigated the method of prepar-
ing substituted dihydrobenzenes by distilling the phosphates of certain
diamines. The dihydrobenzene prepared from dihydroresorcin by this
method adds on four atoms of bromine to give the solid tetrabromide
melting at 184° ; whilst starting with dihydroresorcin, and submitting it
to the method of Crossley and Le Sueur,’ the resulting dihydrobenzene
absorbs only two atoms of bromine, forming a dibromide which melts at
104°-5, and decomposes with evolution of hydrogen bromide at 170°,8

The series of substituted ketotetrahydrobenzenes described by
Knoevenagel ° provides a starting-point for the preparation of substituted

1 Reports, 1902, 120. ? Compt. Rend., 1902, 184, 1185.
8 Annalen, 1902, 324, 1. * Amer. Chem. J., 1902, 28, 165.
5 Ber., 1902, 35, 2677. ® Annalen, 1903, 328, 88.

7 J.C.S., 1902, 81, 822. * Crossley and Haas, J,C.S., 1903, 83, 494.
° Annalen, 1894, 281, 225, ;
N2

180 REPORT—19038.

dihydrobenzenes and dihydrobenzenecarboxylic acids,' as illustrated by
the following example :--

Ci CH

CH, .CO,C,H.
eon ee CH Ot : sas
2 a OH
{hares | 11 |
HO ies H.C CH,
Si
oH, CH,
CH CH
dames nN
CH,.C °C.CH, .CO,0,H, CH,.c ©.0m
| 114 || | TV ||
H,C CH H,C OH
DS A nw
Ca, CH,

Methylketotetrahydrobenzene (1) when treated with zine and ethyl-
promacetate gives rise to an oxy-ester (11), which cannot be isolated, as it
so readily loses water, giving an unsaturated ester (111), This latter, on
saponification, yields the corresponding dihydro-meta-tolylacetic acid,
which when heated under pressure evolves carbon dioxide, with produc-
tion of dihydro-meta-xylene (Iv).

Hydroxy- derivatives, —1 ; 2-dihydroxyhexahydrobenzene.? Methyl-
cyclohexanose.*

Dihydroresorcins.—The action of phosphorus haloids on dihydroresor-
cins ‘ confirms the opinion that these substances behave in general as if
they possessed the ketoenol (1), and not the diketonic structure (11).

CH, . CO CH, . CO CH, . CO
CMe, I Sou CMe, II \cu, CMe, Ill pen
nee Wy ae wa a \ “
CH,. COH CH,. CO CH, .CCl

Thus dimethyldihydroresorcin gives with phosphorus trichloride, 5-chloro-
3-keto-1 ; 1-dimethyl-A‘-tetrahydrobenzene (111), and with phosphorus
tribromide the corresponding bromo- derivative ; whereas phosphorus
pentachloride produces 3 : 5-dichloro-1 ; 1-dimethy]-A? ‘*-dihydrobenzene

= cl
cme, 1 CH
Nou, — cer

Phosphorus pentabromide behaves as a mixture of bromine and phos-
phorus tribromide, and gives rise to a complicated mixture of bodies,
varying greatly according to the conditions of experiment. Among the
substances isolated were bromodimethyldihydroresorcin, tribromoketo-
dimethyltetrahydrobenzene, and several bromoxylenols, which latter are,
however, not primary products of the reaction.

Acids.—A method for the synthetical production of dihydrobenzene-
carboxylic acids, with ketotetrahydrobenzenes as starting-point, has
already been alluded to. Hexahydro-aromatic acids and polymethylene-
carboxylic acids in general can be prepared ° from the iodine or bromine

1 Wallach, Annalen, 1902, 323, 135. 2 Brunel, Compt. Rend., 1903, 136, 383.
3 Zelinsky and Roschdestwensky, Ber., 1902, 35, 2695.

4 Crossley and Le Sueur, J.€.S., 1903, 88, 110; Crossley and Haas, ibid. 494,

3 Zelinsky, Ber., 1902, 85, 2687.

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 181

derivatives of hexahydrobenzene and its homologues. These substances
react readily with magnesium to form organo-metallic compounds, which
with carbon dioxide yield the magnesium salts of the corresponding
carboxylic acids. Jodohexahydrobenzene is under these conditions
transformed into hexahydrobenzoic acid.

When ethyl dibromopropanetetracarboxylate ! is condensed with ethyl-
disodiopropanetetracarboxylate it gives rise to ethyl hexahydrobenzene-
octocarboxylate (1).

(COOC,H,),.C. CH,. C . (COOC,H,), COOH .CH.CH,.CH. COOH
I

Il | |
(COOC,H,),.C.CH,.C . (COOC,H,),, COOH .CH.CH,.CH. COOH

On hydrolysis this ester yields the corresponding octocarboxylic acid,
which loses carbon dioxide on heating, with formation of a mixture of
trans-hexahydrobenzenetetracarboxylic acid (11) (hexahydropyromellitic
acid), and the double anhydride of the cis modification of the same
acid.

Transformation of Ketones.—Cyclic alcohols when dehydrated often
form unsaturated hydrocarbons isomeric with those that would be expected
from the constitution of the alcohol, thus providing the initial step in the
transformation of a ketonic oxygen from one carbon atom to another.’
For example, 1 : 3: 3-trimethyl-5-ketohexahydrobenzene (1) (dihydroiso-
phoron) on reduction

CH, CH, CH, CH, CH,
| | | | |
CH CH CH CH C
en Um OX ra. VAN
CH, CH, HC CH, HC OH, HC CH, CC CH

r | | a1 | {| 14 | | Iv | ive

CO C(CH,), H,C C(CH,), HC C(CH,), HC C(CH,), H,C C(CH,)
ye ‘Ses my A N77)

cH, cH, CH, CH ch,
gives the corresponding alcohol, which on dehydration yields a trimethy]-
tetrahydrobenzene identical in every respect with geraniolen, and there-
fore possessing formula 11 ; though a hydrocarbon with either formula 111
or Iv would naturally have been expected to result. On treating the
nitrosate of this trimethyltetrahydrobenzene with sodium methylate it
yields an oxime identical with the oxime of 1 : 3 : 3-trimethyl-6-keto-
tetrahydrobenzene (v). The ketone regenerated from this oxime can by
the usual reactions be converted into the corresponding saturated ketone
1:3 : 3-trimethyl-6-ketohexahydrobenzene, thus completing the trans-
formation of the ketonic group from its original position 5 to position 6.

Aromatic from Hydro-aromatic Substances.— Phosphorus pentachloride
in excess converts 3: 5-dichlorodihydrobenzene into metadichloroben-
zene,*? and dichlorodimethyldihydrobenzene into dichloro-ortho-xylene.!
In the former case bromine reacts in the same way as phosphorus
pentachloride, but not so in the latter case, where there is obtained a
series of chlorobromoxylenes.

1 Gregory and Perkin, J.C.S., 1903, 88, 780.

2 Wallach, Annalen, 1902, 324, 112.

% Crossley and Haas, J.C.S., 1903, 88, 502.

‘ Crossley and Le Sueur, J.C.S., 1902, 81, 1536.

182 REPORT—1903.

Stereochemistry.—A graphic method of demonstrating the nuinber of
different stereoisomeric forms in which a substance can exist, has been
brought forward by Aschan,! as being preferable to the use of models.
Tt is shown in detail that the possibilities of isomerism in ring-systems
are more truly seen when the symmetry of the molecule is alone con-
sidered ; and further, it is demonstrated on these lines that optical activity
becomes possible in certain ring-systems in the absence of an asymmetric
carbon atom.

If one imagines the plane of a carbon ring of an alicyclic compound as
standing vertical to the plane of the paper, it can, provided the ring atoms
lie in one plane, be represented by a straight line on the paper. The sub-
stituents (omitting hydrogen atoms and unsubstituted methylene groups)
are then written, according as to whether they lie on the upper or lower
half of the ring, above or below the projected line. Only such forms
are identical as can be superimposed either directly or after turning
through 180° in the plane of the paper.

The simplest example is afforded by trimethylenedicarboxylic acid,

CH . COOH

ch, |

~
CH. COOH

which can exist in the three following forms :—

COOH | COOH COOH CooH

COOH COOH

A plane of symmetry can be drawn through form 1, which is not
possible with 2 and 3, these being mirror images of one another. Aschan
defines as optically isomeric only those substances which are mirror
images of one another, whilst the term geometrical isomerism applies to
all those stereoisomeric forms, active or inactive, which show a dissimi-
larity in all their physical properties.

On Dihydrobenzenes and on Aromatic Compounds derived from
Hydro-aromatic Substances. By Dr. A. W. CRrosstey.

Dihydrobenzene.—It has been shown that the dihydrobenzene obtained
from dihydroresorcin ? has the formula

CH = CH
1 \ H
CH pe
CH, -—CH

that is, the double bonds are in the 1:3 position. Up to the present
time it has not been found possible to prepare the hydrocarbon ina pure
condition, as it is contaminated with tetrahydrobenzene ; but further
experiments are being conducted in the hope of obtaining the pure
substance by this method.

A second means of producing this same dihydrobenzene seemed to
consist in the removal of two molecules of hydrogen bromide from

! Ber., 1902, 35, 3389. 2 J.CS., 19038, 83, 494,

ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 183

dibromotetrahydrobenzene, there being only one possible way in which
the hydrogen bromide could be eliminated.

OH, . CHBr CH=CH
CH, NcuBr = 2HBr + CH, Sox
CH, . CH, \cu,—cH

This reaction has been tried by Baeyer! and Fortey.2 The latter
states that when dibromotetrahydrobenzéne is treated with quinoline,
dihydrobenzene is formed ; but no details of any sort are given. It
is therefore to be presumed the author concluded that the dihydro-
benzene so formed was the one giving a tetrabromide melting at 184°.

Preliminary experiments have conclusively proved that such is not
the case, for the hydrocarbon so obtained gives no trace of the tetra-
bromide melting at 184°, but only the dibromide melting at 104°°5, thus
proving it to be A-'**-dihydrobenzene.

Final experiments, with larger quantities of material are now being
carried out.

Aromatic Compounds derived from Hydro-aromatic Substances.—
When dichloro-dihydrobenzene * (1) and dichloro-dimethyldihydro-
benzene * (11)

CH = CCl CH = CCcl
SJ J.
CH, 1 CH CMe, It CH
\cH,—cci \ou,—cdt

are treated with excess of phosphorus pentachioride, they are converted
respectively into metadichlorobenzene and 3 : 5-dichloro-ortho-xylene.
Bromine produces the same change with dichlorodihydrobenzene,” two
atoms of bromine being first added on and then eliminated on distillation
as hydrogen bromide.

Jt was thought that the reaction would be the same with bromine
and dichloro-dimethyldihydrobenzene, a supposition which proves to be
incorrect ; for though the aromatic substances obtained are always
substituted ortho-xylenes, they consist for the most part of dichloro-
bromoxylenes, of which both the possible forms with the chlorine atoms
in the 3: 5 position have been isolated—namely, 3 : 5-dichloro-4-bromo-
ortho-xylene and 3 : 5-dichloro-6-bromo-ortho-xylene. The work is hot
in a sufficiently advanced state to warrant the publication of further details.

Edenvale Caves, co. Clare-—-Report of the Committee, consisting
of Dr. R. F. Scmarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. Luoyp PRAEGER (Secre=
tary), Mv. G. Correy, Professor G. A. J. Conn, Professor D. J.
CunninGHaM, Mr. G. W. LampLueH, Mr. A. McHEnry, and Mr.
R. J. Ussner, appointed to explore Irish Caves. (Drawn up by
Mr. R. J. UssHeEr).

In April 1902 Dr. Scharff and Mr. R. J. Ussher visited some caves in the
co. Clare, and decided to explore two at Edenvale, near Ennis, which
adjoined each other and proved to be connected.

» Annalen, 1894, 278. 2 J.CS., 1898, 78, 948.
# J.C.8., 1908, 88, 502. 1 J.0.8., 1902, 81, 1536,
5 J.C.8., 1903, 88, 502.

184. REPORT—1903.

Another system of connected caves was subsequently explored there,
and both groups of cavities were found to be prolific in remains of animals
now extinct in Treland, and in human relics of different periods.

Edenvale House stands on a ridge of Carboniferous Limestone, which
forms the western side of a deeply cleft anticlinal; in the chasm thus
formed lies a lake of relatively great depth, which is surrounded by a steep
declivity on all sides but one.

The first two cavities referred to, which have been named the Alice
and the Gwendoline caves, open in a low escarpment on the western side
of the Edenvale ridge. Their aspect is southerly.

The Alice cave, after running a straight course for 80 feet, was found
to terminate in an upward opening that had been filled in with earth and
stones, and contained material resembling that found in kitchen middens.
At 40 feet from the mouth of this cave a gallery branched off, and con-
nected it with the Gwendoline cave on a lower level.

At 15 feet from the mouth of the Alice cave a projection in the rocky
wall was worn smooth, as if by the constant rubbing of creatures which
had passed in and out.

In most parts of these caves two strata were distinguishable :—

lst and upper. Brown earth, occasionally containing calcareous tufa.
Tn this stratum was found much charcoal, bones of man and domestic
animals in a fragmentary state, and also objects of human art of various
descriptions—a bone pin or aw], an amber bead, a bracelet of bronze, and
another of gold.

2nd. A lower stratum composed of clay, generally of a yellow-ochre
tint, but sometimes purplish.

Bones and teeth of reindeer and bear were found chiefly in the latter
stratum, and the ursine remains indicated that they belonged to individuals
of great size.

Having removed the fossiliferous deposits of the above caves, opera-
tions were commenced at the orifice of the second group, opening in the
cliffface under Edenvale House overlooking the lake.

This cave runs 50 feet into the rock, but is traversed by a series of
galleries, some of which are wide and confluent. One of these galleries
was excavated for a distance of 60 feet, and it was found to be crossed
by another cave that led out to the cliff, but whose orifice is blocked.

This system of caves is so extensive and complex that we have named
it the Catacombs. It has proved still more fruitful than the former caves
in relics of man and of extinct animals. Human bones were frequent,
and in one place an assemblage of these included a cranium not far from
which there were two stout iron knife-blades. A strap of bronze bearing
a buckle was found elsewhere, ornamented with an interlaced pattern in
silver plating. In other parts of the Catacombs were chipped flint
scrapers, a bone piercer, a tusk of a large boar pierced as if to form an
amulet, and a marine shell similarly pierced.

Several marine shells occurred, although the sea is many miles away
from the site ; also much charcoal and bones of horse, ox, pig, sheep or
goat and dog.

Bones and teeth of bear and reindeer were of daily occurrence in
excavating the deposits, and in a few cases we obtained pieces of the bones
and of the antlers of the great Irish deer (Irish Elk).

The large collections of human and animal remains found in the Eden-

enema 2

ON EDENVALE CAVES, CO. CLARE. 185

valé vaves are in course of examination, and the further exploration of
the Catacombs is in progress, there being reason to believe that the un-
explored portions considerably exceed those that have been examined.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. KH. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHEELTON
Hinp (Secretary), Dr. F. A. Barner, Mr. G. C. Crick, Dr.
A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J.
HinpE, Professor P. F. Kenpaty, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. G. W.
LaMPLuGH, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. B. N. Peacu, Mr. A.
STRAHAN, and Dr. H. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tuk Secretary regrets that he has received no reports from members of
the Committee, and that the small sum of money voted last year, 5/., has
not permitted work to be carried on on the usual scale.

In the spring, a chart of the chief fossil shells found at various
horizons of the North Staffordshire coalfield was published by the Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.

This chart was drawn up by Mr. J. T. Stobbs, F.G.S., and Dr. W.
Hind, F.G.8., and shows a section of the North Staffordshire coalfield,
with the marine beds at present known ; each bed in the section has
opposite to it the shells found in it, or a reference by a number to a shell
figured as being found in other beds. This chart is an amplification of a
section of North Staffordshire coalfields and on which the horizons at
which fossil shells occur, drawn up by Dr. W. Hind and published in his
monograph on Carbonicola, Anthracomya, and Naiadites. The authors
contend that many of the important seams of the North Staffordshire coal-
field can be easily recognised by the mollusca found in connection with
them, and that the marine bands form absolutely certain indices of horizons.

Collecting has been carried on by Mr. J. T. Stobbs, F.G.S., in Wensley-
dale and in Teesdale.

The Secretary determined to examine the bed of Limestone mapped in
Quarter Sheet 102 S.E., which occurred intercalated in the Millstone Grit
beds. Mr. W. Gibson had called attention to this bed, thinking it possible
that the Pendleside fauna might be found there, but such is not the case.

The carefully drawn up reports and sections by Mr. Stobbs speak for
themselves. The fossils are unfortunately not worth preserving, but the
Secretary has been able to identify the great majority, and his identifi-
cations are inc]uded in the lists in Mr. Stobbs’s report.

The district comprising Mickleton and Underthwaite Moors lies
between the River Lime and the River Balder (both of which are southern
tributaries of the River Tees), and is known as part of the area whence
the water-supply of Stockton and Middlesbrough is obtained. At the
present time three shafts and a tunnel are in progress of driving, the
positions of which are shown in fig. 1. The opportunity was taken of in-
specting the débris brought to the surface as a consequence of these works.

The rocks occupying this area belong to the upper portion of the
Yoredale series, and consist mainly of finely laminated black shales. The
freestones are hard and approximate to the ‘gannister’ type. The
sections afforded by the streams marked (A) were also examined (see
fig. 2). The whole series of beds points to a gradual termination of those

186 REPORtT—1903.

recurrences of clear deep-sea conditions during which the Yoredale Lime-
stones were deposited. In this district the Crystalline Limestones are

Fig. 1.

° Botany

“Se M2/ Shaft
<r ISk

“yo M22 Shatt

Scale» 1 Inch =/ Mile

very thin, whilst the thicker ones are shallow-sea deposits, as proved by
their detrital character.

No. 2 Shaft (fig. 1) at Bullhill Sike passed through the following
beds :—

ft. in.
Black shales 5 .- 40 0 Fossiliferous bullions.
Hard gannister . » 9 3190 Ldmeondia sulcata, Protoschizodus

aviniformis.
From the black shales the following fossils were collected :—

Archeocidaris sp.
Chonetes Laguessiana.
Discina nitida.

Spirifera lineatus,
Ctenodonta sp.
Syncyclonema sp.
Lingula mytiloides. Bellerophon sp.
Orthis Michelini. Raphistoma sp.
Orthotetes crenistria. Lrilobite.
Prvductus longispinus.

The mouth of the tunnel at No. 3 Shaft is driven in dark shale

containing a l-inch band of Limestone, from which were obtained the
following :—

Camarophoria crumena.
Orthotetes crenistria.
Productus scabriculus.
Lthynchonella pleurodon.

Spirifera trigonalis ?
Phillipsia sp.
Reed-like plant-remains.

In the shale itself Aviculopecten dissimilis was obtained.

Lirt-ZoNnES {iN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS: 187

The succession of beds in the stream (A) (fig. 1), which flows into the
reservoir near Hury, is shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2
ft. in
1. Limestone . » oe 4+ 0
2. Limestone in thin nodular beds . iY tft PH tH Hat 6 0
Pe
oh a alii — 29
MeeERIVESHRIG » « «+ Mme. 0 , ‘s i196)
Detumestone .. . a «ms TN 2 9 (crinoidal)
6. Finely laminated blue shale. . aX 4 0
7. Limestone .» « « ~ © © — (QUUINIIITITTT 10
\Y
8. Fissile shales . > vs So 9:0
9, Shales with calcareous nodules , ® 30
10. Dark fissile shale . . . . 22 0
11, Grey fireclay . 2 9
12, Freestone . 13 0

13. Dark micaceous shales, with bullions 180 0 (estimated)

188 KErORT—1903.

Beds (1) and (2) are detrital limestones, from which the following list
was collected :—

Cyathophyllum sp., abundant near top. Productus semireticulatus (full sized).
Archeocidaris sp. Productus undatus.
Fenestella sp., abundant in layers near top. Spiriferina octoplicata.
Athyris ambiqua. Strophomena analoga.
Chonetes Buchiana. Aviculapecten dissimilis,
Productus aculeatus. es sp.
Po plicatilis, Edmondia suleata.

The thin crystalline Limestone (7) weathers reddish-yellow, and from
its fossiliferous character it should constitute a good horizon for strati-
graphical work. The following list was obtained :—

Crinoid. Lthynchonella pleurodon.
Orthotetes crenistria. Edmondia sp.
Productus punctatus (abundant). Parallelodon sp:

y scabriculus. Bellerophon Urei.

3 sinuatus. Mucrocheilus sp.

No fossils were found in the shales (8), (9), and (10).

The grey fireclay (11) contained a fair.abundance of rootlets, and in
the Freestone (12) Stigmaria ficoides was found. No fossils were seen
either in the thick deposit of shale (13) or its contained bullions.

In Wensleydale the typical Yoredale Rocks were examined, and fossils
were collected from the uninterrupted sections afforded by Mill Gill,
represented in fig. 3. oR al Dae xs

The following is a statement of the fossils found in the various beds :—

1. Cherty Limestone. Productus giganteus (common).

2. Black shales. Productus giganteus.
4, Strong calcareous shales.

Productus giganteus (abundant). Productus semireticulatus,
9 longispinus. Spirifera sp. (common).

9. Cherty Limestone. Productus giganteus.

10. Black shale. Productus semireticulatus. - .

11. Limestone, the upper part is cherty; at the base is a layer crowded with
Lithostrotion, Syringopora, and Cyathophyllum.

14. Black shale. Spirorbis helicteres?; and fragments of plant-remains in the
roof-layer of (15) coal.

16. Fireclay. Rootlets

Fig. 3.

ft. in
1. Cherty limestone . f * ‘ I IMA 4 0
2. Black shale . . < . . : KO inary 1 3
3. Limestone. ‘ r : 3 : OVUGTIUAASOAAOUNURITH 3
4, Strong calcareous shales . 3 0
6. Limestone 14 0
6. Black shale 9
7. Limestone 6 5 ¢
Sleek Shale 2 Middle Limestone.
9. Cherty limestone . 2 3
10. Black shale 6
11, Limestone . ' . . e . 10 0

19,

20.

—

22.
23.
24,
25.
26.

27.

2
2

80.

32,
33.

34.

35.
36.
37.
38.

39.
40.

41.
42,

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS.

. Sandstone ,

. Arenaceous shale .
. Black shale

. Coal

. Fireclay ,

Sandstone

. Limestone

Sandstone and arenaceous shales

Black shales .

. Limestone (six beds)

Black shale

Limestone
Shale
Limestone
Shale

Limestone

Sandstone

. Arenaceous shales .

Sandstone

Black shale with nodules

Limestone

Soft black shales .

Limestone

Black shales .
Limestone

Black shale 3
Nodular limestone
Black shale

Coal

Fireclay .

Sandstone

NN WY
MQ NY

————————t

RL
RNMMMQ
pel
N

\
UUAUOUUANARANAUUUAU ETO
A
nc

Mn
INNA
TN

(estimated)

Hawes Flags.

189

Simonside Limestone.

190

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

55,

. Shale . . .
. Sandstone

. Black shale

. Nodular limestone .
. Black shale

. Limestone « “ = .

Black shale . . ‘ .

Limestone . . . .

Sandstone , = 2 .

Black shales with nodules

Nodular limestone .

- Shales .
LS apne . . .
Limestone . . .

20. Black shales.

Fenestella sp.
Orthis Michelini.

REPORT—-1903.

: “3
CHAT

d \ d 5 Hardraw Scar
A Limestone.

32 0
(estimated)

35 0
(estimated)

Great Scar Limestone.

Seale : 20 feet per inch.

Pseudamusium anisotus.
Luomphalus carbonarius.

Productus semireticulatus. Rhapistoma junior.
Amusium concentricum. Phillipsia sp,
Aviculopecten clathratus.

LIFE-ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS, 191

32, Limestone.
Allorisma suleata (common). Naticopsis.

34. Limestone. Productus giganteus (in lower portion).

41. Fireclay (upper part gannister-like). Rootlets.

46, Nodular limestone. Vaticopsis sp.

48, Limestone (Hardraw Scar), Upper portion weathers red.

Productus semireticulatus, var. Lithostrotion.
costatus.
49, Black shale.
Productus giganteus. Syncyclonema Sowerbii.

51, Sandstone. Upper portion thickly bedded, lower portion flaggy.
52. Black shale with nodules.

Fenestella sp. Rhynchonella trilatera.
Athyris ambiqua. Spirifera lineata.
Chonetes Buchiana. aS sp.

i papilionaceas Spiriferina evistata.
Dielasma hastata. Aviculopecten clathratus.
Orthis Michelini. Ctenodonta levirostris.

» resupinata. Kdmondia Me Coyi.
Orthotetes crenistria. unioniformis (young ).
Productus aculeatus. Leiopteria squamosa.

is costatus. Nucula luciniformis.

b giganteus ? Pseudamusium ellipticum.

- longispinus. Scaldia Benediana.

Pi scabriculus. Syneyclonema Sowerbii.

Pr semireticulatus. Macrocheilina acuta ?

> undatus, Stroboceras sulcatus.
Rhynchonella pleurodon. Phillipsia sp.

53, Nodular Limestone, Macrocheilina sp.
54, Shales.

Orthis Michelini, Posidonomya Becheri (abundant
Productus semireticulatus. in layer marked P. B., fig. 3).

55, Great Scar Limestone. Productus giganteus.

From the underset Limestone above Mill Gill, the following were
obtained :—-

Productus giganteus. Productus semireticulatus.
- latissimus. Spirifer ovalis.
S punctatus. Athyris sp.

Remarks : It will be observed that Productus giganteus ranges from
the bottom to the top of the section and is met with both in the Lime-
stones and the shales.

Posidonomya Becheri is very abundant in a layer of shale about
9 inches above the Great Scar Limestone, and may be useful in de-
scribing that limestone in other districts.

The occurrence of Spirorbis helicteres so low down on the carboniferous
system is especially noteworthy. It is fairly abundant in the roof-shale
of (15) Coal, with which it is associated in the same way as with the
Coal-seams of the true Coal-measures.

The two thin coals (15) and (40) may be used as indexes to the
Middle Limestone and the Hardraw Scar Limestene respectively, No, 15

192 REPORT— 1908.

Coal being 10 feet 4 inches below the Middle Limestone, whilst No. 40
Coal is 11 feet 4 inches above the Hardraw Scar Limestone.

In conclusion the Committee would ask for a larger grant than 51.,
which only covered railway fares and actual out-of-pocket expenses, and
would point out that the reports have always justified the grant.

Miss Jessie Barker sends me the following list of fossils which she
collected from a shale top at Newbrough. Professor Lebour informed her
that the horizon of that shale was somewhat doubtful owing to faulting,
but ‘at any rate the shale is very near one of the limestones next beneath
the 4 fathom Limestone, and called the 5 yard, 5 yard, and Scar Lime-
stone respectively.’

1. Monticulipora tumida. 16. Productus longispinus.
2. Arecheocidaris Urei. 17. Spirifera convoluta.

3. Poteriocrinus fusiformis, 18, ef laminosa.

4. Serpulites carbonarius. 19. Athyris ambiqua.

5. Ostracod, possibly Carbonia. 20. Dielasma hastata.

6. Fenestella sp. 21. Chonetes Laquessiana.
7. Rhabdomeson gracile. 22. Rhynchonella prob. triangularis.
8. Polypora sp.? 23. Orthotetes crenistria.

9. Polyzoa genus ? 24. Myalina pernoides.

10. Lingula mytiloides. 25. Actinepteria persuleata.
11. Crania? 26. Pteronites angustatus.
12. Productus semireticulatus. 27. Bellerophon Urei.
BF ” striatus. 28. Porcellio puzio,

14. A punctatus ? 29. Strepsodus sauroides.
15. giganteus. 30, Labyrinthodon.

1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 18 determined by Dr. G. J. H.; 3, Mr. F. A. B,,
also 2, I think, but it is quite unmistakable ; 30, Dr. H. Woodward ; the
remainder by Dr. W. Hind.

The Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire. —
Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W.
Warts (Chairman), Mr. A. R. DwerryHousE (Secretary), Pro-
fessor A. SMITHELLS, Rev. EK. Jones, Mr. WaLrTer Morrison,
Mr. Grorcr Bray, Rev. W. Lower Carter, Mr. T. Farruey, Mr,
Percy F. Kenpati, and Mr, J. KE. Marr. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

[PLAtEs IT, anv III.]

Tre Committee is carrying out the work in conjunction with a committee
of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

On April 4 the members of the joint committee resumed the work of
tracing the underground waters of Ingleboro’, described in previous reports.

On that day half a pound of fluorescein was put into the sink at the
Washfold (P 52) on Bent Hill Rig, Park Fell, at 2.15 p.m. This had
almost disappeared at 6.15 p.m., when a second half-pound was intro-
duced, this being arranged so as to flow in slowly and keep up the supply
for a considerable time. The stream was still coloured on April 5 at
1.30 p.m., when the remainder of the charge was sent down in a flush.
The stream was slowly dwindling on the 5th, it having been in flood on
the previous day.

Allthe springs in the neighbourhood were carefully watched for several

MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-WEST YORKSHIRE. 193

days, but as yet no result has been observed. This sink will be again
tested during the current year.

_ While waiting for the result of the above experiment the survey of the
‘underground passages in the neighbourhood of Alum Pot was continued.

Previous experiments tried at the stream sinking at P 14 on Farrar’s
Allotment having been without result, 2 lb. of fluorescein were put in
there at 7 p.m. on June 26.

A look-out was kept at all the springs from Austwick Beck Head to
Turn Dub for a period of ten days, and also by residents in the neighbour-
hood up to the time of the next visit of the Committee, but without result.

On the day following the introduction of the test there was a very
heavy flood, which may account for the non-success of the experiment.
This stream will be tried again as soon as favourable conditions occur.

Streams near Ribblehead Station.

$102 is a small spring issuing from the grit beds of the Yoredale
Series, above Keld Bank, on Park Fell. The stream from this spring
sinks at P73, about half a mile south-west of the station, at a height of
1,240 feet above the sea.

A quarter of a pound of fluorescein was introduced at P 73 at noon on
June 29, and was seen at 8103 at 3.30 p.m. on the same day. It again
sank at P 74, and reappeared at 8 104 at 3.35.

About 30 yards below 8 104 the stream has been partially diverted to
P76, but a portion flows down the natural channel to P75.

By turning the whole stream alternately down P75 and P76 it was
possible to trace both lines of flow.

First the stream vas turned down the normal channel to P 75, and the
fluorescein was seen at P77 at 4.35 p.m., where it again sank, and was
seen half an hour later in P 78.

Secondly, the flow having been diverted into the artificial channel to
P76, the colour was seen in a trough at Brock Holes, the flow being
partly by a natural channel parallel to the main joints in the limestone,
and partly by a pipe to supply the trough.

Fluorescein was next put into P 67, and was traced by S 95, P 68, S 69,
P 69, and S 97, to P70, where it finally sank.

The fluorescein from all the above streams emerged at S 99, below the
Station Hotel at Ribblehead, and subsequently at Batty Wife Hole, S 100.
Ti then flowed overground to P 72, where it again sank, to come to light at
S 101, near the bank of the Ribble below Gauber Farm, and so into the river.

The spring at $101 is similar in appearance to Turn Dub, described
in the last report of the Committee, but is much smaller.

In wet weather the excess of water from Batty Wife Hole flows over
the surface, by way of Batty Wife Beck, into the Ribble, which it then
joins some 100 yards further up-stream than the water which goes under-
ground.

Streams near Colt Park Farm.

The streams sinking at P62, P63, and P 64, near High Barn, were
found to unite in the spring at S 89 and to flow overground to Colt Park
Farm, where the water sank, to reappear at S 90, whence it flowed over-
ground for a few yards and again sank. This water was again seen in
the spring § 93, in Salt Lake Quarry, where it forms a waterfall visible

from the railway. It then crosses beneath the railway and sinks in #
1908, 9

194, REPORT—1903.

mass of glacial gravel at P65, below which point we were unable to trace
its course.

The fluorescein from the flows just described having been allowed to
pass off, the streams sinking at P48 and P49 near Bent Hill Rig Barn
were next tested. These were found to unite and to flow along a master
joint in the limestone via P59 and P60, and then to turn down a cross-
joint to § 88, on Ashes Shaw Pasture Rocks. From 8 88, after an over-
ground journey of about ten yards, the water sinks at P61, and again
resumes the direction of the master joints, running parallel to the hillside
to Rake Spring, 8 91.

The stream from Rake Spring flows overground past the south end of
Salt Lake Quarry, beneath the railway, and through Ashes Gill Planta-
tion to P66, on Ashes Eller Bank, where it sinks in glacial drift near
the river.

Sinks on Fell Close.

There are three streams flowing over Fell Close, viz. Keld Bank Spring
East, sinking at P 79, Fairweather Spring East ; sinking at P 80, and Fair-
weather Spring West at P 81.

These three streams were found to unite, and to issue at Eller Keld
Spring, S 106, whence the water flows into the bed of Winterscale Beck,
otherwise known as Haws Gill, where it again sinks to join the main
drainage of Chapel-le-Dale, which will be described later.

Proceeding southwards, the next stream is Keld Bank Spring West,
which sinks on Scar Close Moss, at P 82.

Fluorescein was put into P 82 at 12 noon on July 4, and was seen at
S 105 and P 83 at 5 p.m. on the same day, and on the following day at
P 84, and at Eller Keld Spring, 8 106.

The group of small streams sinking at P 93, on Fenwick Lot, are
almost dry in summer, and have not yet been tested. They probably fall
into Douk Cave, P 95, but this will be determined in due course.

The Washfold on Souther Scales Fell.

The group of streams sinking at the Washfold, P 94 and 96, on Souther
Scales Fell, were tested on June 30, at 2.30 p.m., and the fluorescein was
seen. in Douk Cave, P 95, at 3.50 the same afternoon, having traversed a
well-marked joint running N. 10° W., via the pothole known as Little
Douk Cave.

In Douk Cave the water again sinks, and the green colour was
observed in Chapel Beck, in the pool below Gods Bridge, at 1 P.M. on
July 3, and was much stronger at 2.30 P.M.

The stream was low at the time, and there was little water above
Gods Bridge. Weathercote Cave, P 88, and Hurtle Pot, P 90, were care-
fully watched from June 30 to July 3, but no trace of fluorescein was to
be seen in either. The conclusion arrived at was, therefore, that the water
from Douk Cave joins Chapel Beck on some part of its underground
journey between Hurtle Pot and Gods Bridge.

The main joint at Douk Cave runs N. 65 W., and this, if continued,
would strike the main stream in the neighbourhood of the Vicarage, which
agrees very well with the conclusion mentioned above.

The small streams sinking at P 97, P 98, and P 99, still remain to be
‘tested.

British A [Puary IT.

Ss) . < :
ae ELS :
7 Ns
— Pa _( Sage 3344 é hn :
ee

port, 1908

UNDERCROUND WATERS OF N.W.YORKSHIRE .

Pravi IT

» to trace

== SOUTHERN AREA. =

lowed to
Rig Barn
a master
n a CTOSS
an over
nd again
e hillside

th end of
] Planta
drift near

ak Spring
and Fair

ler Keld
ale Beck,

the main

ing West,

sbably fall

on Souther
escein was
raversed a
1 as Little

colour was
1 PM. on

ater above
_were care-
ein was to
t the water
nderground

f continued,

rage, which

emain to be

MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-WEST YORKSHIRE. 195

Mere Gill Hole.

Mere Gill rises on the upper slopes of Ingleboro’, and flows down
the hollow known as Humphry Bottom, and sinks in a large open joint
running N. 50 W. at Mere Gill Hole, on Mere Gill Platt.

Mere Gill was charged with fluorescein at 1 P.M. on July 4, and the
colour was observed on the following morning in the spring S 111, on the
left bank of Chapel Beck, immediately above Gods Bridge, and almost in
the direct line of the master joint at Mere Gill Hole. From S$ 111 the
water passed under Gods Bridge by way of P 91, and reappeared below
the bridge at S 112.

The small streams sinking at P 101 and 102, on Black Shiver Moss, to
the south-west of Mere Gill Hole, have not as yet been tested.

Passing along the hillside in a south-westerly direction, the next
stream of importance is that at Crina Bottom, the course of which has
been described in a previous report.

Long Kin West.

The group of potholes known as Long Kin West, P 108, was
examined, and it was found that no water was flowing into them, nor was
there any evidence that a stream had lately occupied any of them, and,
consequently, no test was possible.

By visiting these pots during heavy rain, when there isa large amount
of local surface drainage, we may be able to connect them with some of
the neighbouring springs.

Grey Wife Sike.

On referring to the first report of the Committee, it will be found that
an unsuccessful attempt was made to trace the water flowing down P 1,
at the foot of Grey Wife Sike.

On that occasion methylene blue was employed, and, as that reagent
has since been found to be practically useless for our purposes, we deter-
mined to try again with fluorescein.

Accordingly, about half a pound of fluorescein was introduced at P 1 on
July 2, and another similar quantity on July 4. This came out at Moses
Well, S 7, a large spring on the right bank of Clapham Beck, on the 5th
and 6th.

The River Greeta.

The last piece of work undertaken this year was the tracing of the
underground course of the main stream in Chapel-le- Dale.

This stream flows underground in many places in normal weather,
but when in flood occupies a well-worn channel on the surface.

The upper part of the stream, above Weathercote, is known as Winter-
scale Beck, the portion between Weathercote and Gods Bridge as Chapel
Beck, and from that point down to Ingleton as the river Greeta.

The stream rises on the moors near the tunnel of the Midland Rail-
way, above the Ribblehead Viaduct, and soon sinks in a series of pot-
holes, there being, however, a well-marked open flood channel.

The whole stream again comes to the surface at the mouth of Gate
Kirk Cave, 8 107, and another large spring a few yards away.

It then flows through several large pools, and again goes underground

at P 85, leaving the stream bed dry, to again emerge about seventy yards
Met ‘7,03

196 REPORT—-1908.

further down atS 109. It again sinks at the foot of Haws Gill, P 87,
where it is joined by the water from Eller Keld Spring.

Except in cases of exceptional flood, the bed of the stream below this
point is dry, and from the point where Philpin Lane crosses the channel,
to Philpin Hole, it is occupied by meadow land, which shows no sign of
having been recently overflowed.

In the clough above Weathercote Cuve the water can be heard below
the stream bed, and actually comes to the surface in several places in wet
weather. It emerges in the fine waterfall in Weathercote Cave, and again
passes below the limestone at the bottom of that pot.

The water sinking in Weathercote Cave then passes through the pool
at the bottom of Hurtle Pot, and finds its way beneath the surface to
Gods Bridge, where it finally comes to light, and flows off the carboniferous
limestone on to the Silurian rocks some 200 yards farther down stream.

In extremely wet weather Weathercote Cave fills up and overflows at
the surface, washing over the carriage drive, and flows into Jingle Pot,
and also down the, at other times deserted, river bed.

Hurtle Pot, when the stream is in moderate flood, makes an extremely
weird noise, similar to that produced by the inrush of water and air when
the plug is removed from the bottom of a lavatory basin, but immeasurably
louder. This noise is caused by the suction of air through gigantic eddies
produced in the deep pool at the bottom of the pot.

In extremely heavy flood Hurtle Pot fills up and overflows into the
surface channel, thus acting in a manner precisely similar to Footnaw’s
Hole, described in the last report of the committee.

The surface channel from Chapel-le-Dale Church to Gods Bridge is
usually dry, but is occupied by the stream when in flood.

The underground channel seems to follow the direction of the open
one very closely, as the water can be heard at many points, and appears
at the surface in wet weather,

The following is the fluorescein record from which the above has been
deduced :—

Two pounds of fluorescein put into the stream just below the mouth of
Gate Kirk Cave, on the morning of August 23 : Sank at P 85, and emerged
at S 108 at 1 p.m.; sank at P 86 at 1.30 p.m. ; seen at S 109 and P 87
at 2 P.M.

August 24.—Seen in Weathercote Cave at 9.15 a.m.; seen in Hurtle
Pot at 10 a.m.

August 25.—Arrived at 8 112 (Gods Bridge) at 12 noon.

It will be seen that the work on Ingleboro’ is now almost completed.
It only remains to test two streams which have hitherto proved refractory,
and one or two small streams on the west side of the hill. These latter
should offer little difficulty, as the main flows on both sides of them have
been determined, and their possible range thus limited.

We have been unable as yet to carry out the proposed borings at Turn
Dub, owing to the absence of the owner of the property in South Africa,
and our consequent inability to obtain the necessary permission.

Through the courtesy of the Yorkshire Ramblers’ Club several members
of the joint committee were enabled to make the descent of Gaping Gill,
the pothole mentioned in the first report of the Committee, and to explore
the extensive system of chambers and passages at the bottom of the shaft.

The thanks of the Committee are due to the following gentlemen, who

a
i

British As [Prats III.

sill, P87, British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903 Pate III

below this

.e channel,

UNDERGROUND WATERS OF N.W. YORKSHIRE
== CHAPEL-LE DALE AREA. ——=—

ard below

SCALE

in wet

and again

/h the pool

surface to
rboniferous
streain

n extremely
air when

measurably
antic eddies

ws into the
Footnaw's

Bridge is

the open

and appears

ove has been -
the mouth of
09 and P 87
n in Hurtle Z
sy

st completed.
ed refractory,
These latter
of them have

orings at Turn
South Africa,
sion

veral members
f Gaping Gill,
and to explore
m of the shaft.
entlemen, who

Tilustrating the Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire

MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF NORTH-WEST YORKSHIRE. 197

have kindly assisted them in their work :—Professor Thompson and Mr.
E. J. Edwards, of the Yorkshire College ; Mr. Metcalfe, of Weathercote ;
Mr. Sydney Calow ; Mr. R. Nowell, of Ribblehead ; Mr. Percy Lamb, of
Clapham ; Mr. Taylor, of Crummack ; and Mr. Cook and Mr. Hunt, of
Horton-in-Ribblesdale.

The Committee asks to be reappointed, and to be allowed to retain the
unexpended balance of the grant made at the Belfast meeting.

Vhotographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Iourteenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary), Professor T. G.
Bonney, Professor E. J. Garwoop, Professor 8. H. REYNOLDs,
Dr. Tempest ANDERSON, Mr. GoprrEY Binary, Mr. H. Coates,
Mr. A. K. CoomAraswAmy, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. J. G. Goop-
cHILD, Mr. WILLIAM Gray, Mr. Rosert Kinston, Mr. J. Sr. J.
Puiuurrs, Mr. A. S. Rem, Mr. J. J. H. Teauy, Mr. R. WEtcH,
and Mr. H. B. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Committee have to report that during the year 463 new photographs
have been received, bringing the total number in the collection to 3,771.
This exceeds by 50 the largest number of new photographs previously
recorded in a single year, and the yearly average now reaches 268. About
60 additional photographs have been sent in since this Report was written.

The usual geographical scheme is appended. Brecknock, Cardigan,
Nairn, and Ross appear for the first time, and very substantial additions
are made to Cheshire, Dorset, Norfolk, Yorkshire, Glamorgan, the Channel
Islands and Scilly, Inverness, Sutherland, Antrim, and Louth. The fol-
lowing twenty-five counties are still entirely unrepresented :—Cambridge,
Huntingdon, Rutland, Carmarthen, Clackmannan, Dumbarton, Dumfries,
Kincardine, Kinross, Roxborough, Selkirk, Carlow, Kildare, Kilkenny,
King’s Co., Leitrim, Longford, Monaghan, Queen’s Co., Roscommon,
Tyrone, Waterford, Westmeath, Wexford, and Wicklow.

The high standard mentioned in the last Report is maintained, the
photographs being usually taken in sets and with a definite geologica] aim.
Mr. W. Jerome Harrison sends two large series taken to illustrate glacial
phenomena on the Norfolk and Holderness cliffs. Mr. Morton and Mr.
Howard contribute illustrations from Brecknock ; Mr. R. H. Preston from
the Scilly Islands ; Mr. Guiton from Jersey ; and Mr. Maidwell from the
Nuneaton district. Mrs. Coomdraswdmy has taken several series from the
north of Scotland and of Ireland ; Mr. Wright a useful set from Dublin ;
and Mr. Lamond Howie some interesting Scottish mountain photographs.
The Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society continues to illus-
trate the geology of Surrey ; Dr. Abbott that of Durham ; Mr. Hopkinson
that of Bedfordshire ; and Mr. Hodson that of Leicestershire.

The members of the Committee have not been idle, as is testified by
Professor Reynolds’ series from Dorset, Gloucestershire, Somersetshire,
Glamorgan, Antrim, Down, and Kerry ; Mr. Bingley’s sets from Cheshire
and Yorkshire ; Mr. A, K. Coomdraswamy’s series from Ross, Sutherland,
and Berwick ; Professor Garwood’s contribution from Westmoreland ;
Mr. Teall’s photographs from Hertfordshire; and Mr. A. S, Reid’s
continuation of his series from Higg and Perthshire.

198 REPORT—1903.

To all those contributors named and to the following the Committee
desire to tender their warmest thanks for photographs received or help
‘rendered: Mr. J. B. Scrivenor, Mr. C. M. Gillespie, Mr. Howard Fox,
Mr. G. T. Atchison, Mr. A. Wheen, Mr, E. M. Wrench, Mr. H. A.
Hinton, Mr. R. H. Rastall, Mr. C. H. B. Epps, Mr. F. Greenwood, Mr.
A. A. Armstrong, Mr. W. G. Fearnsides, Mr. J. H. Baldock, Mr, N. F.
Robarts, Mr. C. G. Cullis, Mr. Caradoc Mills, Mr. G. E. Blundell, Mr.
H. W. Monckton, Mr. E. K. Hall, and Mr. H. B. Woodward.

A few photographs have been received for the duplicate series, but
will be held over for the present. This collection has been sent during
the year to natural history societies at Winchester and Croydon, and
accounts of the work have been given by Mr. Whitaker.

ar Previous Collec- Additions Total
tion | (1903) Oe
ENGLAND—

Bedfordshire , ; . 4 2 6
Berkshire . : é A 5 = 5
Buckinghamshire . 5 ; 7 1 8
Cambridgeshire : é - = = ==
Cheshire . , A 5 3 46 23 69
Cornwall . ; ‘ F ; 50 i 57
Cumberland . ; ‘ : 39 4 43
Derbyshire - - : ; 44 1 45
Devonshire 5 c 5 4 175 3 178
Dorset. ‘ . 3 ; 101 35 136
Durham . s j J { 117 19 136
Essex i . 3 j F 6 — 6
Gloucestershire . ? 3 51 16 67
Hampshire 4 : : : 36 — 36
Herefordshire . p : ; 1 — 1
Hertfordshire . . M : 10 | 5 15
Huntingdonshire. ; ; — — _
Kent ‘ bE : : ‘ 79 2 81
Laneashire . 5 . : 68 } 1 69
Leicestershire . F F = 138 6 144
Lincolnshire . ; és , 6 — 6
Middlesex : A M a — 7
Monmouth . : ‘ F 5 — 5
Norfolk . 3 i ‘ ‘ 23 44 67
Northamptonshire . . : +1,\6 = 6
Northumberland 4 A 5 70 3 73
Nottinghamshire . ; é 14 — 14
Oxfordshire . 4 ‘ : 1 - 1
Rutlandshire . E § - — — _
Shropshire F : : ; 51 3 54
Somersetshire . - : 66 4 70
Staffordshire . . : ; 53 — 53
Suffolk . : 4 Z : 21 — 21
Surrey. 3 ! : . 47 7 54
Sussex. : ; 5 4 12 — 12
Warwickshire . 5 : 5; 39 5 44
Westmoreland . E - 4 78 + 82
Wiltshire . f : ; , 5 2 7
Worcestershire " : 4 26 — 26
Yorkshire 2 g . s 544 60 604

Total . 3 5 ; : 2,051 257 2,308

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST,

199

| Previous Collec-

Additions

Tiras tion (1903) Total
WALES—

Anglesey . : : 7 5 = 5
Brecknockshire ‘ os 8 8
Cardiganshire . — 1 1
Carmarthenshire . _ => —
Carnarvonshire 92 4 96
Denbighshire 16 = 16
Flintshire 5 — 5
Glamorganshire 41 13 d4
Merionethshire 19 — 19
Montgomeryshire A: = 11
Pembrokeshire . 15 —_ 15
Radnorshire 20 — 20
Total 224 26 250
CHANNEL ISLANDS . 15 23 38
ISLE OF MAN . : 5 60 — 60

ScoTLAND—
Aberdeenshire . 6 — 6
Argyllshire 20 3 23
Ayrshire . 5 6 — 6
Banffshire 11 = if
Berwickshire . | 4 5 9
Bute z 6 — 6
Caithness . P 4 — 4
Clackmannan . —_ — —-
Dumbarton : : — -- —
Dumfries . rn ‘ fs = — —_—
Edinburgh 47 — 47
Elgin 9 — 9
Fifeshire . 24 -- 24
Forfarshire : {6 a 7
Haddingtonshire 4 — 4
Inverness . 115 23 138
Kincardine — — —=
Kinross . — — es
Kirkcudbright . 3 — 3
Lanarkshire 11 —_ 1l
Linlithgow | 2 — 2
Nairn : — 2 2
Orkney and Shetland é 3 — 3
Perthshire | 22 2 24
Renfrewshire é 5 5 1 — 1
Ross-shire Z : : | — 19 19
Roxborough . ‘ : = = =
Selkirk. 3 ; F — — =
Stirlingshire : - 15 — 15
Sutherlandshire 1 i 6 42 48
Wigtown . . é é = — —
Total . 4 2 js 326 96 422

IRELAND—
Antrim
Armagh
Carlow
Cavan
Clare i
Cork C :
Donegal .
Down
Dublin
Fermanagh
Galway
Kerry
Kildare .
Kilkenny .
King’s Co.
Leitrim
Limerick .
Londonderry
Longford .
Louth
Mayo.
Meath
Monaghan
Queen’s Co.
Roscommon
Sligo
Tipperary
Tyrone
Waterford
Westmeath
Wexford .
Wicklow .

Total .

Rock STRUCTURES, Kc,

FOREIGN

ENGLAND.

WALES z :
CHANNEL ISLANDS .
IsLE OF MAN
ScoTLAND “
IRELAND

Rock STRUCTURES, &c.

FOREIGN . .

REPORT—1908.

' Previous Collec- Additions :
tion | (1903) i
239 34 273
2 a 2
1 a 1
13 — 13
2 — 2
50 — 50
88 10 98
33 6 39
5 a= 5
29 = 29
26 4 30
2 = 2
23 — 23
1 7 8
14 _- 14
2 = 2
5 — 5
1 —- L
536 61 597
96 = 96
2,051 267 2,308
224 26 250
15 23 38
60 — 60
326 96 422
536 61 597
96 — 96
463 3,771

The collection is stored at the Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn

Street, and the Committee wish to express their thanks to the Director

and to Mr. Crook for the care taken of it and the space devoted to it.

The second of the three contemplated issues of the published series of
The issue consists of eighteen
half plates, four quarter-plates, and four whole-plates, and it has been

photographs has been sent to subscribers.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 201

published in the form of mounted and unmounted prints and lantern-
slides. The negatives were contributed by thirteen photographers, and
the descriptions by twenty geologists. To all who have thus contributed
to the success of the issue the Committee give their best thanks.

The process of selection for the third issue is well advanced, and it is
hoped that publication will take place early next year.

The Committee are prepared to publish a second series if there is a
demand for it. The number of names at present sent in is only about
sixty, and at least twice that number would be required to put the issue
on a possible financial basis. The first two issues of the first series show
a small profit. The Committee intend to apply one-half to the purposes
of the collection, and thus avoid calling upon the Association for any
grant for a few years, while they are returning the other half to the
subscribers in the form of additional photographs. The subscribers have
already received an ‘interim dividend’ (rather a larger one than the
present profits warrant) in the form of four whole-plate photographs and
additional slides.

With regard to finances, it seems a good opportunity to state that there
has been granted to the Committee since 1889 the sum of 130/., of which
they have spent 1017. 10s. This sum has been used in acquiring, mounting,
and storing 3,771 photographs. In other words, the Association has obtained
this valuable, and unique collection at the cost of rather less than 64d.
per print. In addition to this, it possesses a duplicate collection of over
450 prints and slides, and, if the publication scheme continues to turn out
well, the money invested by the Association will yield a further similar
return for the next four or five years,

Applications by Local Societies for the loan of the duplicate collection
should be made to the Secretary. Either prints or slides, or both, can be
lent, with a descriptive account of the slides. The carriage and the
making good of any damage to slides or prints are expenses borne by the
borrowing society.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed, without a grant
and with the addition of Mr. W. Jerome Harrison and Mr. W. Whitaker.

FOURTEENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(To Aucusr 17, 1903.)

This list contains the geological photographs which have been
received by the Secretary of the Committee since the publication of the
last report. Photographers are asked to affix the registered numbers,
as given below, to their negatives for convenience of future reference.
Their own numbers are added in order to enable them to do so.

Copies of photographs, desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the local society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
print and on local circumstances over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photographs
included in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications

for permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers
direct.

202 REPORT—1908.

It is recommended that, wherever the negative is suitable, the print be
made by the cold-bath platinotype process. The very best photographs
lose half their utility, and all their value as documentary evidence, unless
accurately described ; and the Secretary would be grateful if, whenever
possible, such explanatory details as can be given are written on the forms
supplied by him for the purpose, and not on the back of the photograph
or elsewhere. Much labour and error of transcription would thereby be
saved. It is well, also, to use a permanent ink for this purpose. A local
number by which the print and negative can be recognised should be
written on the back of the photograph and on the top right-hand corner
of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnmownted to W. W. Watts,
The University, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole-plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate. 10/8 =10 inches by 8,
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargements.

* Indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or
obtained through the address given with the series.

LIST I.
ACCESSIONS IN 1902-1903,

ENGLAND.

BEDFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by J. Horxinson, /.G.S., Weetwood,
Watford. 1/4.

Regd.
No.
3295 (12) Stone Lane Pits, Heath, Ferruginous Sandstone in Lower Green-
Leighton Buzzard. sand, Boulder-clay on top. 1902.
3296 (13) Castle Hill Pit, Clophill, 10’ Clay in thin layers in Lower Green-
Ampthill. sand. 1902.

BuckinGHAMSHIRE.—Photographed by J. Hopxinson, £.G.S., Weetwood,
Watford. 1/4.

3297 (11) Eddleborough Church, near Outlier of Totternhoe Stone. 1902.
Dunstable.

CuEsHiIrE.—Photographed by Goprrey Bineiey, Thorniehurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/4.

3298 (6117) Meolse, near Hoylake . Submerged Forest. 1903.
3299 (6118) ,, v J ; . e

3300 (6119) _,, » » . » ”
3301 (6120) ” ” ” D ” cS ”
3302 (6121) ” ” ” ’ ” ”
3303 (6122) ,, ¥ i ‘ eS ”
3304 (6123) _,, 74 x t 9 »
3305 (6124) ” ” ” 5 ” ”

3306 (6125) ,, . 53 : ”

3307 (6112) Hilbre Point, near West Bunter Sandstone. 7
Kirby.

3308 (6128) Middle Island, Hilbre . 7 ”

3309 (6129) p econ 5 *

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 203

Regd.

Oo.
3310 (6130) Hilbre Island é . Bunter Sandstone. 1903.
3311 (6132) ,, », North . 3 Be Cross-bedding. 1903.
3312 (6136) ” ” ” ° ° ” ” ”
3313 (6133) ” ” ic o ” ” ”
3314 (61381) ” ” . ° ” ” ”
3315 (6134) _,, * : 7 - + a
3316 (6135) _,, © é - 7 4
3317 (6142) Higher Bebington . . Keuper Sandstone, Fault. 1903.
3318 (6141) ” ” : ° ” ” ”
3319 (6140) ” ” : * ” ” ”
3320 (6138) is Fa A . Sandstone slab with Footprints. 1903.

CornwatL.—Photographed by J. B. Scrivenor, W.A., 7.GLS.,
28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.

3321 (1) Cligga Head ‘ ‘ . Alternations of Granite and Greisen. 1902.
3322 (3) ,, % 5 ; . Greisen Bands. 1902.

Photographed by C. M. GILLEsPIE, UA, Yorkshire College, Leeds. 1/4.

3323 ( ) Bude. . 4 “ . Anticlinein Culm. 1902.
Seat ( ) »- 2 : : . ” ”

Photographed by Howarp Fox, Mr. SHEPHARD, and W, M. Harrison, and
presented by Howarp Fox, F.G'.S,, Rosehill, Falmouth. 1/2 and 5/4.

3325 (434) Jangye-ryn, Gunwalloe . Contorted Grit and Shale (Ordovician ?).
1900.
3326 (136) West Kennack, Lizard . Porphyritic Diorite. 1890.
3327 (135) Boulder, near Cavouga + 1888.
Rocks, between Caerleon
Cove and Kennack Sands.

CuMBERLAND.—Photographed by G. T. Arcuison, I/.A., Holmwood,
Sutton Coldfield. 1/2.

3328 (43) Langdale Pikes, from Borrowdale Rocks. 1902.

Elterwater.

3329 (45) The Bowder Stone, Borrow- A » a
dale.

3330 (44) Half-mile below Lodore, Quarry in Borrowdale Series. 1902.
Borrowdale.

3331 (48) Below Watendlath, Bor- ‘The Devil’s Punchbowl.’ 1902.
rowdale.

DERBYSHIRE.— Photographed by A. WuxnEn, Baslow, and presented by
E. M. Wrencu, Park Lodge, Baslow. 1/2.

3332 (3) Cutting in Old Pack-horse Boulder-clay. 1899.
Road, N.E. corner of Chats-
worth Park.

DEvoNsHIRE.—Photographed by H. A. Hinton, 7.G.S., 7 Cranhurst
Road, Willesden Green, N.W. 1/4.

3333 ( ) Chagford, Dartmoor . Dyke of red, schorlaceous Granite. 1900.
3334 ( ~-) Bovey Tracy . . . Clay-pit in Lignite Beds.

204

Photographed by R. H, Rasraut, B.A., Christ's College, Cambridge.

Regd-
No.
3335

Dorsret.— Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynotps, J.A.,
University College, Bristol.

3336
3337

3338
3339
3340
3341
3342
3343

3344
3345

3346
3347
3348
3349
3350
3351
3352
3353
3354
3355
3356
3357
3358
3359
3360
3361
3362

3363
3364

3365
3366
3367
8368
3369
3370

REPORT—1903.

( ) Budleigh Salterton . .

(13) Ballard Down .
(16) Near Handfast Point,

(12) Handfast Point .

C14) _gisn

(15) Near Handfast Point | :

(33) Peveril Point and Ballard
Down.

(18) Peveril Point, Swanage

(21) Near Peveril Point, Swan-
age.

(17) Durlston Bay

(19) ”

(20) >
22)
(23) Durlston Head .
(32)
(24) Between Tilly W him and
Durlston Head.
(25) Seacombe Quarry s
(26) E. of St. Alban’s Head
(27) Dancing Ledge .
(28) Dancing Ledge Quarry
(29) Winspit Quarry . .
(30) Tilly Whim, Durlston Head

(84) 4p

(31) E. of St. Alban’s Head z

(35) Emonet Hilland St. Alban’s
Head.

(37) Emonet Hill,
Alban’s Head.

(36) Hounstout Cliff .

(39) ”

38) Chapman’s Pool.
(40) Between Hencliff
Freshwater Steps.
(41) Cliffs W. of Freshwater
Steps.

(42) Cliffs E.. of Kimmeridge
Bay.

(438) Henclifi and Kimmeridge
Bay.

(44) Between Broad Bench and
Kimmeridge Bay.

(45) W. side of Kimmeridge
Bay.

(46) Near Worth Matravers .

W. of St.

and

1/4.

Triassic Pebble-bed. 1903.

PGS
1/4.

Chalk Sea-stacks. 1902.

Karly stage in formation of Sea-stack.
1902.

Promontory and Sea-stack of horizontal
Chalk. 1902.

Stage in formation of Sea-stack. 1902.

Sea-stacks in horizontal Chalk. 1902.

Chalk and Purbeck Rocks; differential
denudation. 1902.

Weathered surface of Purbeck Marble.
1902.

Weathered surface of Corbula bed in
Middle Purbeck. 1902.

Chert in lower beds of M. Purbeck. 1902.

Weathered suface of ‘Cinder Bed’ of
M. Putbeck. 1902.

Thin bands of ‘ beéf’ in M. Purbeck clays.
1902.

Middle and Lower Purbeck. 1902.

Portland Stone capped by Purbeck. 1902.

Portland Beds. 1902.

Upper beds of Portland Stone, 1902.

Weathering of Portland Stone. *

Portland Stone. 1902. i

Portland Stone and Purbeck Beds. 1902.

Sea-caves in cherty beds of Portland Stone.
1902.

Chert in Portland Stone. 1902.

Sea-caves in Portland Stone. 1902.

Portland Beds overlying Kimmeridge Clay.
1902.

Portland Stone and Sand.

Portland Beds overlying Kimmeridge Clay.
1902.

Portland Stone, Sand, and Kimmeridge
Clay. 1902.

Y-shaped valley. 1902.

Lower Kimmeridge Clay and beds of
impure Limestone. 1902.

Kimmeridge Clay Cliffs. 1902.

Kimmeridge Clay, Stone-bands, and old
Coal-workings. 1902.

Ledges due to Stone-bands in Kimmeridge
Clay. 1902.

Kimmeridge Ledges. 1902.
Kimmeridge Clay and Stone-bands. 1902.
Terraces (lynchets) probably due _ to

ploughing. 1902.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST,

205

DuruAm.—Photographed by G. Asporr, M.R.C.S., 33 Upper Grosvenor

Regd.
No.
3734
3735
3736
3737
3738
3739
3740
3741
3742
3743
3744
3745
3746
3747
3748
3749
3750
3751
3752

Road, Tunbridge Wells.

(140) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(141) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . :
(151) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . :
(152) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . :
(167) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(193) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . :
(194) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(182) Fulwell Hill, Quarry i
Magnesian Limestone .
(137) Fulwell Hill, Quarry i
Magnesian Limestone .
(221) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . :
(159) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(163) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(158) Fulwell Hill, Quarry i
Magnesian Limestone .
(183) Fulwell Hill, Quarry i
Magnesian Limestone . :
(180) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .
(179) Fulwell Hill, Quarry i
Magnesian Limestone . :
(188) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . F
(172) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone . 5
(187) Fulwell Hill, Quarry in
Magnesian Limestone .

1/2.

‘ Flag’ beds, 20’’ Marl, and part of lowest
cellular Limestone bed. 1902.

‘Flag’ beds, 20’ Marl, and part of lowest
cellular Limestone bed. 1902.

‘Flag’ beds, 20'’ Marl, and part of lowest
cellular Limestone bed. 1902.

‘Flag’ beds, 20’ Marl, and part of lowest
cellular Limestone bed. 1902.

Concretion ; spherical ‘honeycomb’ (a).
1902.

Concretion; spherical
1902.

‘Honeycomb’ (a) and (b) tn situ.

3 (b).
x (c), early stage.

‘honeycomb’ (a).
1902.
1902,

1902.

‘Coralloid ’ bed (part of ‘ flags’). 1902.

” ” 9
” ” ”

” ” ”

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.— Photographed by Professor S. H. Rrynoups, J/A.,

3371
3372
3373
3374
3375
3376

3377
3378

8379

L.GS., University College, Bristol,

(55) Cutting W. of Stoke Gifford
Station.

-(56) Cutting W. of Stoke Gifford

Station.
(57) Near Stoke Gifford Station

(58) Stoke Gifford Station

(59) ‘ ;

(60) East of Lilliput, Chipping
Sodbury.

(61) E. of Chipping Sodbury .

(62) Half-mile I. of Lilliput,
Chipping Sodbury.

(63) Cutting, , end of Sodbury
Tunnel,

1/2 and 1/4.

Lower Lias and Rhictic Beds. 1902.

Zone of A. planorbis overlying Rhetic
1902.

Red Marl faulted against Rhetic and Tea-
green Marl. 1902.

Red Marl faulted against Rheetic and Tea-
green Marl. 1902.

Red Mar! faulted against Rhetic and Tea-

green Marl. 1902.
Block of Rhetic Bone-bed. 1902.
Rheetic and Lower Lias. 1902.

Rhetic resting unconformably on Old Red
Sandstone. 1902,

Great Oolite and Forest Marble: 1902:

206 REPORT—19038.

Regd.

No.

3380 (614) Cutting S.of Badminton . Forest Marble. 1902.
3381 (66) ‘i +,

3382 (72) Aust Cliff . : f . Keuper Marl and Rhetic Beds. 1902.
3383 (68) 6 A $ . Juxtaposed faults. 1902.

3384 (69) is ; : . Gypsum in Keuper Marl. 1902.
83385 (70) 3 - : : : £ = -

3386 (71) 3 : : : : 5: S Fs

HeERTFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by J. J. H. Traur, IA., FBS,
28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 1/4.

3387 (1) Pinner’s Cross, Smith’s End, Inclined Chalk and Boulder-clay banked

S. of Barley, near Royston. up against it. 1903.
3388 (2) W. of Newsell’s Park, N. of Chalk greatly disturbed, with Boulder-clay
Barkway, near Royston. underlying it. 1903.
3389 (3) W. of Newsell’s Park, N. of Chalk greatly disturbed, with Boulder-clay
Barkway, near Royston. underlying it. 1903.
3390 (4) N. of Reed, near Royston . Chalk arching over, glacial disturbance.
1903.
3391 (5) 59 % . Chalk arching over, glacial disturbance.
1903.

Kent.— Photographed by G. Assort, M.R.C.S., 33 Upper Grosvenor
Road, Tunbridge Wells. 1/2.

3753 (8) Opera House, Tunbridge Earth Creep. 1902.
Wells.

3754 (9) Opera House, Tunbridge a x
Wells.

LANCASHIRE.—Photographed by *F. Greenwoop, 5 St. Mary’s Gate,
Rochdale. 1/2.

3392 ( ) Blackstone Edge, Rochdale Roman Road. 1895.

LEICESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by G. Hopson, M.Inst.C.£.,
Loughborough. 1/4.

3393 ( ) Blackbrook, Charnwood . Trench cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking

3394 ( ) = 5 : Pe cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking
3395 ( ) p 3 Z aioli cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking
3396 ( ) 5 fie P mun cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking
3397 ( is = ay F eile cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking
3398 ( ) ‘5 28 a: ie cutting Blackbrook Rocks, looking

Norrotk.—Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, £.G.S., 52 Clare-
mont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2 and 1/1.

3399 (1897) Trimingham . ; .. Drift Cliffs. 1896.

3400 (1895) wal: ; : - Re

3401 (1850) Cromer . , : . Mr. Savin’s collection of bones from the
Forest Bed. 1896.

3402 (1862) Sidestrand Beach . ‘Mud glacier’ from the drift cliffs. 1896.

3403 (1899) Sidestrand, KE. of Cromer Old Church Tower on cliffs. 1896.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

Regd.
No.
3404
3405
3406

3407
3408
3409
3410
3411
3412
3413
3414
3415
3416
3417
3418
3419
3420
3421

3422
3423
3424
3425
3426
3427
3428

3429
3430
3431
3432
3433
3434
3435
3436

3437
3438
3439
3440

3441
3442

(1794) Half a mile E. of Cromer
(683) Beeston Regis :
(1829) Cliffs W. of Cromer

(1818) $

(1825) 3

(1836e) +

(1830) W. end of Cromer .

(692) Near Runton

(1817) Runton Cliffs

(1836) :

(1824) Runton Gap .

(1816) .

(1778) West Runton .

(698) Runton Cliffs.

(700) Cliffs, near Runton

(690) Runton . :

(699) Runton Cliffs . $

(696) Beeston, E. of Shering-
ham.

(695) ” ”

(1870) ” ”

(1823) fp

(693) E. of Sheringham : :

(686) Cliffs, E. of Sheringham

(1822) _,,

(1836d) E. end of Sheringham
Beach.

(501) E. endof Sheringham

(1877) Beeston Beach

(1777) Sheringham Beach

(1836a)

(1834) Cliffs, near Sheringbam .

(1894) 7 -

(691) W. of Sheringham

(694) ‘

(1833) ”

(1820) +

(1821)

(1836b) Upper dietinp Hari

(508) Weybourn . :
(496) Coast W. of Weybourn

NorTHUMBERLAND.— Photographed by A. A. Armstrone, IA.

3443

3444 (2) Farne
opposite.

3445 (38) ‘Limestone Bank, 2 m. W.
of Chollerford.

(1) Bamborough Castle

Island and_ shore

SHROPSHIRE.—Photographed by W.

Sussex College, Cambridge.

3446 (5) Hope Dingle, near Min-
sterley.

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 207

Contorted Drift. 1896.
Drift Plain between cliffs and hills. 1896,
Drift, with included Chalk Boulders.

1896.
Drift. 1896,
‘Elbow ’ in Contorted Drift. 1896.
Contorted Drift. 1896.
Sandy Drift. 1896."
Loamy Drift (contorted). 1896,
Large Chalk Boulder. 1896.

” ” ”

Long Chalk Boulder. 1896.

Folds in Chalk, covered by Drift. 1896

”» ”» ”

» ” ”

1896.

”

Contorted Drift.

Drift. 1896.
Contortions in Drift. 1896.
Contorted Drift. 1896.
Paramoudra. 1896.

Paramoudra in Chalk. 1896.
Ring of Flint. 1896.
Contorted Drift. 1896.
Large Chalk Boulder. 1896.

Pinnacle of Chalk, embedded in Drift.
1896.

Pinnacle of Chalk, embedded in Drift.

1896.
‘Stone-bed.’ 1896.
Basalt Boulders. 1896.

Chalk covered by Clay. 1896.
Pebble Beach and Lagoon. 1896.

1/2.

Junction of Whin Sill and Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902.

Thin bedding, folding and jointing in Car-
boniferous. Rocks. 1902

Outer fosse of Roman Wall cut out of
Basalt. 1902.

G. Fearnsipes, B.A., F.G.S., Sidney
5/4.

‘Boulder-bed’ in Arenig Ash. 1902.

208 REPORT—1908.

Regd.

No.

3447 (11) Lower Ashes Hollow, Longmyndian Scenery. 1902.

: Longmynd.

3448 (12) Upper Ashes _ Hollow, : " -
Longmynd.

Somerset.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, J.4., £.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

3449 (48) Goblin Combe . : . Dry Valley in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902,

3450 (47) ” : ( . Dry Valley in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902,

3451 (49) “3 5 , . Disintegration of Carboniferous Lime-
stone by tree-roots. 1902.

3452 (50) if ; ; . Disintegration of Carboniferous Lime-

stone by tree-roots. 1902.

Surrey.—Photographed by J. H. Batpock, 3 St. Leonard’s Road,
Croydon, and sent through the Croydon Natural History and Scientific
Society. 1/2.

3453 ( ) Croham Hurst, Croydon. Conglomerate. 1901.
3454 ) Bacteria Tanks, Bedding- Shelly Woolwich Beds. 1902.
ton.

) Bacteria Tanks, Bedding- of
ton.

) Foundations of Wolding- Red Clay-with-flints in Chalk ‘ Pipes.’ 1902.
ham Fort, facing N.

(
3455 (
(

3457 (_ ) Foundations of Wolding-
(
¢

” ”

3456

” ” ” ”

ham Fort, facing 8S.
3458 ) Foundations of Wolding-
ham Fort, facing E.
) Foundations of Wolding-
ham Fort, facing W.

” ” ” ”

3459

” ” ” ”

Warwick.—Photographed by F. 'T. Matpwet1, 50 Compton Road,
Wolverhampton. 1/4.

3460 (1) Moor Wood, Chapel End, Unconformity, Coal-measures on Stock-
near Nuneaton. ingford Shales. 1899.

3461 (2) Moor Wood, Chapel End, Soil Creep. 1899.
near Nuneaton.

3462 (3) Midland Quarry, Nuneaton Quartzite and Diorite Sill, Unconformably

overlain by Keuper Sandstone. 1898.

3463 (4) Near Church, Radford, Boulder of Charnwood Syenite. 1897.
Coventry.

3464 (5) Near Church, Radford, ss E Re
Coventry.

W esTMORELAND.— Photographed by Professor E. J. Garwoop, J.4., 2.G.S.,

University College, London, 1/4.

3292 ( ) High Cup Nick, Appleby Valley cut in Whin Sill.
3293 ( ) ”

” ” ”

Photographed by GoprrEY BrineiEy, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds.

1/4.

3465 (6084) Kirkby Stephen, Bed of Jointing in Lower Brockram. 1902.
River Eden.

B466 (6085) Kirkby Stephen; Bed of 4 4 is

River Rden;

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 209

Wittsnire.— Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, M.A, L.GS.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

Regd.

No.

3467 (65) Cutting N.W. of Hulla- Forest Marble. 1901,
vington.

3468 (67) Cutting N.W. of Hulla- i *
vington.

YorksHireE.—Photographed by W. Jerome Harrison, F.G.S.,
52 Claremont Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/1 and 1/2.

8469 (368) Flamborough Head. . Chalk Cliffs, showing coast-erosion. 1898.
3470 (351) S.W.ofFlamboroughHead Drift on Chalk. 1898.

3471 = (383) 8 ; Caves in Chalk, 1898.

3472 (S86) Near Danes’ Dyke, Flam- Chalk. 1898.
borough.

3473 (893) NorthSea Landing, Flam- Drift on Chalk. 1898.
borough.

8474 (894) North Sea Landing, Flam- % és
borough.

3475 (897) South Landing, Flam- " a
borough.

3476 (900) King Rock, Flamborough Boulder-clay on Chalk, 1898,
Head.

8477 (2070) Thornwick Bay, Flam- Drift on Chalk, 1898
borough.

3478 (2072) Thornwick Bay, Flam- a5 *
borough.

3479 (2077) Thornwick Bay, Flam- as a
borough.

3480 (2078) Near Thornwick Bay “A re
3481 (884) Sewerby, Flamborough . Buried Cliff. 1898.
3482 (375) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S. of Purple Boulder-clay. 1898.

Bridlington.
3483 (574) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, 8. of Stratification in Boulder-clay. 1898,
Bridlington.
3484 (882) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S.of Drift. 1898.
Bridlington.
3485 (6594) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S. of 5 is
Bridlington.
3486 (378) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, 8. of Lamination in Diift. 1898.
Bridlington.
3487 (883) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S.of Boulder-clay, Loams, and Grayels. 1898.
Bridlington.
3488 (377) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S. of Drift. 1898,
Bridlington.
8489 (595) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S. of 5 ‘5
Bridlington.
3490 (376) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, 8. of i .
Bridlington.
8491 (881) Hilderthorpe Cliffs, S. of ‘
Bridlington.

Photographed by Goprrey Binciey, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds
1/2 and 1/4.

83492 (6111) Meanwood Valley, Leeds. Fossil Tree in Gannister. 1902.

8493 (6088) Hambleton Quarry, Bol- Contorted Yoredale Limestones. 1902
ton Abbey Station.

3494 (6091) Hambleton Quarry, Bol- ‘s ‘5 i *
ton Abbey Station.

REPORT—1903.

(6094) Hambleton Quarry, Bol-
ton Abbey Station.
(6095) Hambleton Quarry, Bol-
ton Abbey Station.
(6097) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6098) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6100) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6101) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6102) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6103) Brimham Kocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6105) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6106) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6107) Brimham Rocks, near
Pateley Bridge, Nidderdale.
(6070) Penyghent, from near

Hull Pot.

(6072) Hull Pot, Horton-in-
Ribblesdale.

(6071) Hull Pot, Horton-in-
Ribblesdale.

(6059) Alum Pot, near Selside,
Ribblesdale.

(6067) Turn Dub, near Horton-
in-Ribblesdale.

(6066) Turn Dub, near Horton-
in-Ribblesdale.

(6068) Footnaw’s Hole, Ribbles-
dale.

(6069) Footnaw’s Hole, Ribbles-
dale.

(6062) Upper part of Long
Churn, Ribblesdale.

(6062a) Upper part of Long
Churn, Ribblesdale.

(6063) Entrance to Long Churn,
near Selside, Ribblesdale.
(6061a) Entrance to Long Churn,
near Selside, Ribblesdale.
(6064) Dickon Pot, near Sel-

side, Ribblesdale.
(6069) Horton Scar, N.W. side
ot Penyghent, Ribblesdale.
(6073) Hunt Pot, near Horton-
in-Ribblesdale.

(6075) Hunt Pot, near Horton-
in-Ribblesdale.

(6074) Hunt Pot, near Horton-
in-Ribblesdale.

(6078) Bed of River Bain, Bain-
bridge.

(6079) Lund’s Fell, near Hawes
Junction.

(6081) Hell Gill, Tund’s Fell.

Contorted Yoredale Limestones. 1902.

” »” ” »

Millstone Grit; atmospheric erosion. ,,

” ” »
os ‘ Dancing Bear.’ 5

, atmosphericerosion. ,,

” ” ”

Mountain Limestone and Millstone Grit.
1902.
Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone. 1902.

” ”» ” ”

300 feet deep, in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902.

Exit for water from Alum Pot. 1902.

” ” ” ”

Interior of Pot-hole in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902.
Carboniferous Limestone. 1902.

Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone. 1902.

Yoredale Limestone. 1902.
Source of River Ure. 1902.
Source of River Eden. 1992.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 211
Regd.
No.
3526 (6083) Hell Gill, Lund’s Fell. Source of River Eden. 1902.
3527 (6086) Clapham Beck Head. Outlet of stream from Gaping Gill. 1902.

3528 (6087) Crummack Dale, near Carboniferous Limestone resting uncon-
Clapham, E. side. formably on Silurian Grits. 1902.

WALES.

Brecknock.—Photographed by P. Morron, .4., Christ’s College,
Brecon, and presented by F. T. Howarp, I.4., 7.G.S. 1/2.

3529 (1) Canal Aqueduct, Brecon . Taken before the frost. 1890.

3530 (2) a 93 . Effect of frost on leakage. 1895.

3531 (3) ” ” : » ” ”

3532 (4) ” ” ~ ” ” ”

3533 (5) Rhyd-goch Falls, Brecon, Grits amongst Shales and Clays. 1891.
River Gwdi.

$534 (6) Cilieni, just entering River Usk cuts down the more rapidly as it
Usk, 8 m. W. of Brecon. follows the outcrop of Old Red Sand-

stone Clays. 1890.

3535 (7) Liyn-cwm-llwch. ‘ . Glacial Mounds. 1900. '

3536 (8) Near Llyn-cwm-llwch, N. of Moraine at foot of Old Red Sandstone—
y Fan-cwm-du. escarpment. 1900.

Carpican.—Photographed by C. G. Cutis, Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, S. W. /4.

3537 ( ) New Quay, Cardigan Bay. Llandovery (?) Rocks; relation of Cleavage
to hard and soft beds. 1903.

Carnarvon.—Photographed by Carapoc MILts, Plas Helyg, Llanrwst.

3538 (1) Near Llyn Geirionydd, Tre- Boulders. 1902.
friw.

3539 (2) Near Llyn Geirionydd, Tre- Perched Block. 1902.
friw.

3540 (3) Near Llyn Geirionydd, Tre-
friw.

Photographed by W. G, Fuarnsives, B.A., 7.G.S., Sidney Sussex College,
Cambridge. 5 /4.

3541 (_ ) Tu-hwnt-yr-bwich, near § Tremadoc Slates with fossils. 1902.
Portmadoe.

GuamorGaNn.—Photographed by G. E. Buunpewy, F.G.S.,
Wellington College, Berks. 5/4,

3542 (+) Spritsail Tor, Gower. Cave and Kitchen Midden. 1902,

Photographed by H. W. Moncxton, F.G.S., F.L.S., 3 Harcourt
Buildings, Temple, H.C. 1/4.

3543 (1694) Cliff between Caswell Raised Beach. 1902.
Bay and Brandy Cove.

212

Regd.
No.
3544
3545

3546
3547
3548
3549

3550
3551

3552
3553

3554

3555
3556
3557
3558
3559
3560
3561
3562
3563
3564
3565

3566
3567

REPORT—1903.

Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, I.4., 7.4

University College, Bristol.

(1) Mumbles Head . i

(3) Above the Lifeboat House,
Mumbles Head.

(7) W. of Mumbles Head .

(5) E. of Oystermouth
(6) 5 » :

@) » ” elie

(8) Bishopston Common .
(2) Limeslade Bay and Twt Hill

(9) Limeslade Bay

(10) Between Limeslade Bay
and Langland Bay.

(11) Between Limeslade Bay
and Langland Bay.

1/4

Dip of Carboniferous Limestone. 1902.

Dolomitisation of Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1902.

Honeycomb weathering of Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902

Dolomitised patches in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902.
Dolomitised patches in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902.
Dolomitised patches in Carboniferous
Limestone. 1902.

Stream disappearing in ‘daw-pit.’ 1902.

Dip of Carboniferous Limestone and old
shore platform. 1902.

Weathered surface of ‘Head.’ 1902.

Raised Beach on Carboniferous Limestone.
1902.

THE CHANNEL ISLANDS.

(1) ‘Creux Gabourel’

(2) St. Laurence Valley .

(3) Near Rozel Bay, Le Sauchet.

(4) Portelet Bay

(5)

(6) § Fosse Vourin, St. Brelade .

(7) Le Pinacle, St. Ouen’s.

(8) ” ” 7

(9) ” ”

(10)

(11) Blanches Banques, Quen-
vais, St. Brelade.

(12) Blanches Banques, Quen-
vais, St. Brelade.

(13) Blanches Banques, Quen-
vais, St. Brelade.

Jurszey.— Photographed by E. F. Guiton, 8 Victoria Crescent,
Jersey.

1/2.
Three levels of Sea-beaches.
Ripple-marked Shale. 1902.

1901.

Marine erosion of Conglomerate. 1902.
Raised Beach. 1902.

” ”
‘Creux’; formation of Blowhole. 1902.
Granite and Diabase. 1902.
Vein of Diabase and Marmite. 1902.

‘Marmite’ or marine pot-hole.
Mound of Blown-sand, 1902.

”

Scitty Istanps.—Photographed by R. H. Preston, Alverne Louse

3568
3569
3570
35741
3572
3573

3574
8575

Penzance.

(18) Peninnis Head, St. Mary’s.
(27) Dick’s Carn, St. Mary’s

( ) ‘The Tooth Rock, St.
Mary’s.

(22) ‘The Monk’s Cowl,’ St.
Mary's.

( )‘The Pulpit Rock,’ St.
Mary’s.

(29) ‘The Loaded Camel,’ St.
Mary’s.

(75) ‘The Punch-bow]l,’St. Agnes
(26) ‘The Drum Rock,’ St.
Mary’s.

ve.

Weathering of Granite. 1895,

” ” ”

$9 49 %)

” ” ”

Regd,
No.
3576

3577

ARGYLLSHIRE.—Photographed by A. K. Coomdraswimy, B.Se., FG
and Mrs. CoomAraswimy (b), Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.

3578
3579
3580

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL

G@ jaibe
Mary’s

Giant’s Chair,’ St,

(72). § The Nae’s Head,’ St. Agnes.

INTEREST. 213

Weathering of Granite. 1895.

” ” ”

SCOTLAND.

(79a) S. of Dun Dubhaidh, Iona.
(19b) Balephetrish, Tiree .
(20b) ” ye

AS. (a),

1/4.

Schistose Marble and Gneisses. 1902.

Well-foliated Marble. 1902.

Weathered Marble, with Forsterite,
Spinel, &e, 1902.

BerRwIcKsHIRE.— Photographed by A. K. CoomAraswAmy, B.Sc., I°.G'S. (a)

and Mrs. CoomAraswinmy (b), Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford,

3581
3582
3583
3584
3585

3294

3587
3588

3589
3590

3591

3592
3610

3593
3594
3595
3596
3597

(la) ‘The Leithies,’ near North
Berwick.

(2a) ‘The Leithies,’ near North
Berwick.

(3a) ‘The Leithies,’ near North
Berwick.

(4a) North Berwick Law .

(28b) The Bass Rock, from near
North Berwick.

1/4.

Dyke in Carboniferous Tuff. 1902.

Bedded Carboniferous Tuff, with large
Bomb. 1902.

Bedded Carboniferous Tuff, with large
ejected blocks. 1902.

Carboniferous Trachyte ‘ Neck,’ ‘ Crag and
Tail.’ 1902.

Carboniferous Trachyte. 1902.

InvERNEsS.— Photographed by W. Lamonp How1e, Hanover
Lodge, Harrow. 5/4, 12/4, 18/4, &e.

) The
Glenroy.
) Scuir-na-Gillean, Skye

( ‘Parallel
¢ =:
( ) Summit of Blaven, from
(

(

Roads,’

Marscow.

) The Cuillins, from N.

) The Cuillins and Glen
Sligachan, from E.

) Glen Brittle and the Cuil-
lins, from Col to Loch Brittle,
from W.

) Coire-na-Creiche

a a

) Ben Alder and Carn Dearg.

Looking N.N.W. from slope of Bohuntine

Hill. 1896.
Gabbro, 1903.
” 7

1903.

”

From Meall Cruaidh. 1902.

Photographed by A. 8. Rei, WA., /.G.S., Trinity College,

Glenalmond, Perth.

(SE 27) Island of Higg, from
Muck.

(SE 22) E.end of Scuir of Eigg,
from sea.

(SE6) Scuir of KHigg,
E.N.E.

(SE 17) E.endof Scuir of Eigg,
‘from 8.E.

(SE 29) Bidein Boidheach, N.W.
end of Scuir of Higg. (E.),
from seg.

from

1/2, one £.

Outline of Scuir. 1901.

Steps of Basalt, surmounted by Scuir Pitch-
stone. 1901.
Position of tributary valley (Cornbheinn)

in relation to Scuir valley. 1901.
Pitchstone occupying old valley in
Basalts. 1901.

River Conglomerate under Pitchstone and
resting on eroded Basalt. 1901,

214

Regd.

No.

3598 (SE 33) Scuir of Higg, from
Beannan Breaca.

3599 (SE31) Scuir of Higg, from high
ground §.W. of Loch Beinn
Tighe.

3600 (SE 35) E. prolongation of Scuir
of Kigg, from N.W.

3601 (SE11) Scuir of Higg, Eastern
prolongation, frorm W.N.W.

3602 (SHE34) Scuir of Higg, from
knoll N.W. of Loch an
Nighean Dughaill.

3603 (SE 40) Shoreof Laig Bay, Bigg.

3604 (SEH9) Cleadale, Higg 5

3605 (SE 36) S. Shore, Ruadh’an Tan-
caird, Hige.

3606 (SE37) S. Shore, Ruadh’an Tan-
caird, Hige.

8607 (SE38) S. Shore, Ruadh’an Tan-
caird, Higg.

Natrn.— Photographed by E.
38608 ( ) Tom Riach, near Clava
3609 ( ) as 5

REPORT—1903.

Physical features of Scuir ridge. 1901.

Pitchstone in main and tributary valleys.
1901.

Pitchstone Ridge, to show varying trend.
1901.

Relation of main to tributary valley.
1901.

Basalt Dyke in Jurassic Rocks. 1901.
Bedded Basalts of Small Isles Plateau.
1901.

Two Pitchstone Dykes in Basalt. 1901.

Pitchstone Dyke in amygdaloidal Basalt.
1901.

K. Hatt, Nairn, NB. 74/5.
Boulder. 1901.

” ”

PERTHSHIRE.—Photographed by A. 8. Rep, I.A., L.G.S., Trinity College,

Glenalmond, Perth.

3611 (CL20) Wester Glenalmond,
near Auchnafree.
3612 (CL36) Sma’ Glen, Glenalmond

1/2.

River Terrace and Moraine Mounds.

1901.

A few hours’ Pluvial Denudation. 1901.

Ross-sH1rE.— Photographed by A. K. CoomAraswAmy, B.Se., F.G.S. (a)

and Mrs. CoomAraswAmy (b), Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.

3586 (67a) River Kanaird, near Road

3613 (62a) Hills above Hotel, Gair-
loch.

3614 (61a) Hills above Hotel, Gair-
loch.

3615 (64a) Shore, Gairloch

3616 (38b) Gairloch Hotel

3617 (63a) Shore, Gairloch

3618 (65a) -

3619 (76a) Head of "Loch Maree,
from Kinlochewe Forest.

3520 (73a) Ben Eadh, near Loch
Maree.

3621 (35b) Ben Eadh, near Loch
Maree.

3622 (386b) Ruadh Stac Mor and Sail
Mor, from Glen Goudie, Loch
Maree.

2 23 (387b) Half-mile N.E. of Furnes,

Letterewe, Loch Maree,

1/4.
Erosion of earlier Terrace by river ; depo-
sition inside curve of stream. 1902.

Perched Block. 1902.

” ”

Ripple-marked Sand. 1902.

50’ Raised Beach. 1902.

Torridon Sandstone, Basement Conglome-
rate. 1902.

Augen-gneiss, vertical foliation. 1902.

Kinlochewe River, and Delta filling lake.
1902.

Quartzite scenery and glaciation. 1902.

” ” ” ”»

White Quartzite cap on mountains of
Torridon Sandstone; moraines. 1902.

Contorted Limestone in Gneiss. 1902.

Regd.
No.
3624

3625
3626

3627
3628
3629
3630

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

(74a) Kinlochewe Forest, Loch
Maree.

(75a) Glen Goudie, Loch Maree

(72a) Opposite Ullapool, on
Loch Broom.

(69a) Braemor, head of Loch
Broom.

(89b) Corryhalloch, Braemor

(8a) Oykell Bridge

(9a) ” ”

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 215

Quartzite scenery, Eastern Schists. 1902.

Wilderness of Moraines.
Outcrop of Thrust-planes.

1902.
1902.

Gorge and small Waterfalls in Eastern
Schists. 1902.

Monotonous scenery of Eastern Schists.
1902.

Silvery Eastern Schists. 1902.

SUTHERLAND.—Photographed by A. K. CoomAraswAnmy, B.Sc., PGS. (a)

and Mrs. CoomAraswAmy (b), Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford.

3631
3632
38633
3634
3635
3636
3637
3638
3639
3640
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
3646
3647

3648

3649
3650
3651

3652
3653

(14a) Coul Mor, from head of
Loch Veigatie.

(82a) Summit of Coul Mor :

(21a) Near Summit of Coul Mor

(18a) Canisp and Suilven, from
Glen Canisp, near Lochinver.

(29b) Suilven, from Coul Mor .

(15a) Canisp and Suilven, from
S. of Loch Urigill.

(12a) Tributary of Alt Achaidh,
W. of Cromalt.

(11a) Tributary of Alt Achaidh,
W. of Cromalt.

(10a) Tributary of Alt Achaidh,
W. of Cromalt.

(5a) Cnoc an _ t’Sassunaich
(Knockan Cliff), Ullapool.
(7a) Cnoc an _ t’Sassunaich
(Knockan Cliff), Ullapool.
(8a) S.W. shore of Cama Loch.

(81b) Sronchrubie Cliff, Inch-
nadamff.
(29a) Inchnadamff

(28a) Cnoc an Droighinn, Inch-
nadamff.

(22a) Traligill Burn, Inch-
nadamff.

(23a) Traligill Burn, Inch-
nadamft.

(24a) Traligill Burn, Inch-

nadamft.

(8lab) Alt Uamh, near Inch-
nadamff,

(82b) Near Loch
Inchnadamff.
(25a) Conimheall (Ben More),

Assynt.
(33b) Top of Conimheall .
(3la) From Cnoc an Droighinn.

Gillaroo,

1/4.

Torridon Sandstone hill with Quartzite
summits. 1902.

Quartzite on Torridon Sandstone.

Weathered Torridon Sandstone,

Torridon Sandstone hills. 1902.

1902.
1902.

Torridon Sandstone Mountain and Gneiss
Plateau. 1902.

Torridon Sandstone. 1902.
Peat on Drift (Alluvial Cone). 1902
Peat on Drift with tree stumps. 1902.

” ” ” ”

General view. 1902.

Sole of Thrust-plane. 1902.

Torridon Sandstone, Basement Conglome-
rate. 1902.

Edge of Limestone Plateau. 1902.

Durness Limestone Plateau and Sronch-
rubie Cliff. 1902.

‘Pipe-rock’; half-inch pipes. 1902.

Conimheall (Ben More); Major Thrust-
plane in Durness Limestone. 1902.

Conimheall (Ben More); Major Thrust-
plane in Durness Limestone and dry
valley. 1902.

Large stream issuing from under Lime-
stone hill. 1902.

Stream disappearing into Swallow-hole.
1902.

Quartzite. 1902.

Weathering of Quartzite. 1902.

Outliers above Ben More Thrust-plane,
1902.

216

Regd.
No.
3654
3655
3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
3661
3662
3663

3664
3665

3666
3667

3668
3669

3670

3671
3672

REPORT— 1908.

(56a) Old Man of Stoer
(55a) 9%
(82a) Uamh Rhuadhrige, near
Kylesku,
(38a) Half-mile
Kylesku Inn.

(84b) Aird Du Loch, from §.
side of Loch Glencoul.

(38a) Glen Dhu, from Unapool,
near Kylesku.

(89a) From base of Stack of
Glencoul.

(36a) Loch Glencoul, N. side

Shem io | Oye

(41a) Stack of Glencoul, from
N.N.W.
(80b) Quinaig,
Strome.

(44a) N. of Scourie .

(46a) Creag a mhail, Scourie
Bay.

(52a) Quinaig,
from Scourie.

(50a) 1m. E.S.E. of Laxford
Bridge.

(48a) Ben Stack

(51a) Mainland, from Handa
Island.

(42a) Coast opposite
Island.

(59a) Handa, Sea Cliffs

(60a) Handa Island . ’

from Kyle

Suilven, Xc.,

Handa

Stack of Torridon Sandstone. 1902.
2” ” ” 54

Nearly horizontal Foliation in Hebridean
Gneiss. 1902.

‘Slack’ due to weathering out of Basic
Dyke in Gneiss. 1902.

Glencoul Thrust-plane. 1902.

” ” ”

Cliff of Eastern Schists; Moine Thrust-
plane. 1902.

Glencoul Thrust-plane ; Gneiss on Durness
Limestone. 1902.

Moine Schists, Moine Thrust, Cambrian
rocks, and Gneiss. 1902.

Torridon Sandstone Mountain and Gneiss
Plateau. 1902.

Hummocky (glaciated ?) Gneiss,

Basic Augen in Gneiss. 1902.

1902,

Torridon Sandstone and Gneiss. 1902.

Basic Auge in Gneiss. 1902.

1902.
1902.

Gneiss Mountain, 2364 ft.
Ben Arkle and Ben Stack.

Vertical Thrust-plane in Gneiss.

Torridon Sandstone. 1902.

Torridon Sandstone Stack. 1902.

IRELAND.

AntTRIM.— Photographed by ¥; Mrs. CoomAraswimy, Walden, Worplesdon,

3673

3674
3675
3676

Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynorps, ./., 7.4
College, Bristol.

3677
3678
2679
3680
3681
3682
3683
3684
3685
3686
3687
3688

Guildford.

(24) Coast from Dunluce Castle
towards Portrush.
(23) The Gobbins Cliffs

(22) ”
(21) Giant’s Causeway

) Giant’s Causeway

) ”
) Fair Head
) Rue Bane Point

) ”
) 8. of Cushendall
) Garron Point

” .
Garron Point .

” .

SLNINONON NON SN NNN

meme YS

) Garron Tower , .

1/4.

Basalt filling Ancient Valley in Chalk,
1902.

Higher Lava filling crack in lower,

Junction of two Lava- flows.

1902.

‘Transverse Jointing in Columnar Basalt.

1902.

JS., University
1/4.

Spheroidal Weathering of Basalt. 1902.

” ” ” ”
Erratic block and Roche Moutonnée. ,,
Camptonite Dyke. 55
Puckered Gneiss. 3
Old Sea-caves, raised. ef
Slipped Basalt and Chalk. 7%

Standing on strip of faulted Basalt, "

bo
—_
NI

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Reed.
No.
3689 ( )Garron Point, ‘Leg of Marine undercutting. 1902.
Mutton Rock.’

3690 ( _) Glenarm Quarry ; . Basalt overlying Chalk. iF

3691 (_») Ballygally Head F . Fault between Chalk and Basalt. __,,

3692 (_ ) Magheramorne. : . Basalt overlying Chalk. FA

3693 ( ) + i , ; .

3694 (_ ) The Gobbins Cliffs . 4 Amygdaloidal Basalt.

3695 ( ) * yale ue Amygdaloidal Basalt with vertical amye-
dules. 1902.

3696 ( ) : * Tongue of Upper Lava piercing Lower
vesicular Lava. 1902.

3697 (_ ) Beechmount, Belfast . Basalt Dyke in Trias. 1902.

3698 ( ) 9 ” Keuper, 1902.

s6g99 ( ) " % Boulder- clay on Keuper. ,,

3700 (_ ) er * 3

3701 ( ) yy 5 Laminated Boulder-clay. *

3702 ( ) 4 oa Deceptive appearance of horizontality in
Trias. 1902.

3703 ( ) Cave Hill, Belfast . . Junction of Basalt and Chalk, 1902.

3704 ( ) 7 oa Basalt Dyke in Chalk. .

8705 ( ) ” ” . ’ ” ” ”

38706 ( ) s ” srg a » ” ys

Down, —Photographed by Mrs. CoomkraswAmy, Walden, Worplesdon,
ruildford. 1/4.

3707 (27) Castles of Kivvitar, Mourne Granite, weathering. 1902.

Mountains.

3708 (26) Castles of Kivvitar, Mourne ” ” ”
Mountains.

3709 (25) Slieve Commedagh, Mourne » ” ”
Mountains,

Photographed by Professor S. H. Reynoups, W.A., F°.G.S., University
College, Bristol. 1/4.

8710 ( )Scrabo Hill . ; . Basalt Dyke in Trias, 1902.
3711 ( ) * : - Basalt Dyke in Trias. Cracks filled with
Calcite. 1902.

3712 ( ) 43 5 F . Sills breaking across bedding. 1902.

3713 ( ») y 4 : . Basalt Sills in Trias. if

3714 ( ) ” . ° ’ ” ” ”

3715 ( ) $3 Basalt Dyke and Sills in Trias. ,,
3716 ( ») ri é Basalt Dyke cutting Trias and Basalt Sills,

1902.

Dueiin.—-Photographed by W. B. Wricut, 14 Hume Street, Dublin.

1/4.

3717 (1) Greenhills . ‘ s . Even and Current-bedded sand in Esker.
1902.

3718 (2) 3 5 : ‘ . Ripple-bedding in Esker, 1902.

3719 (3) + 4 F ; , Silts in Esker; crumpled band and amid
evenly bedded silt and sand. 1902.

3720 (4) 9 , : ; . Boulder in current-bedded sand in Esker.
1902,

3721 (5) 3 : ; : . Sand and silt layers truncated by coarse

gravel in Esker. 1902.
$722 (f) FA 3 : a . Sand and silt layers in Esker. 1902,
y

218 REPORT—1903.

Regd.
oO.
Kerry.— Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reyrnotps, J.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

3723 (51) W. of Dunquin, Dingle . Points formed by relatively hard beds.
1900.

3724 (52) Sight Point, Dingle . Highly inclined Smerwick Beds. 1900.

3725 (53 Rugged Old Red Sandstone. 5

3726 (54) E. side of Smerwick Har- Clitf on Boulder-clay.
bour.

”

Loutu.—Photographed by Professor 8S. H. Reynoups, I.A., F.G.S.,
University College, Bristol. 1/4.

3727 ( )Greenore . Basalt Sills in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902.

3728 ( ) aA A 3 < . Basalt Sills in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902.

3729 ( ) 4s 4 ; : . Basalt Sills in Carboniferous Limestone.
1902.

3730 ( ) p : ; . . Basalt Sills with included Gabbro frag-
ments. 1902.

3731 ( ) Barnavave, Carlingford . Granophyre network in Gabbro. 1902.

3732 ( ” ” O ” ”

3733 ( ) n i . Banded Gabbro.

”

Estuarine Deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire.—Preliminary Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. W. LAMPLUGH (Chairman),
Mr. J. W. SraTuer (Secretary), Mr: F. W. Harmer, Mr. P. F.
KenDALL, Mr. Ciement Retp, and Mr. Tuomas SHEPPARD,
appointed to investigate the Estuarine deposits at Kirmington,
Inncolnshire, and to consider its position with regard to the Glacial
Deposits. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Your Committee report that, as a favourable opportunity presented itself
during the summer, preliminary operations were undertaken to investigate
the beds underlying the estuarine deposit, by means of boring, and the
results obtained are of such general interest that it is proposed to continue
the work, and to apply for a grant of 25/. to enable this to be done.

While it would be premature at present to enter into a detailed
account of the investigation, it may be advisable to state briefly the
problems which are involved, and the results already obtained. Attention
was first called to the fossiliferous nature of the deposit by Messrs. Wood
and Rome on the ‘ Glacial and Post-glacial Structure of Lincolnshire and
South-east Yorkshire,’ in which they refer to it ‘as a portion of the
Hessle clay formation.’ Mr. C. Reid gives a fuller account of the bed
in his ‘Survey Memoir on the Geology of Holderness’ (p. 58), stating
that though the sand underlying the warp probably rested directly on
the chalk, the deposit was an estuarine clay of interglacial age. Mr. G. W.
Lamplugh some time later made passing reference to the Kirmington
section, and suggested that the bed was probably older than any of the
Yorkshire glacial deposits.

The warp, which is well exposed in a brickyard, is situated on a low
hill about 80 feet above sea-level. The upper portion has yielded a few
species of estuarine shells, but, as our recent investigations have shown,
fresh-water shells occur in a peaty bed at its base. It is proposed to
investigate the fauna and flora of this bed very carefully.

ON ESTUARINE DEPOSITS AT KIRMINGTON, LINCOLNSHIRE. 219

Below the warp a few feet of sand is exposed in the brickyard, but
until our boring was put down there was no information as to the under-
lying bed. Our boring proved a thickness of 12 feet of sand and fine
chalky gravel, resting on 12 feet of stiff purple clay with foreign
stones, evidently a glacial clay, and then 11 feet of silt, sand, and fine
chalk rubble, below which it was impracticable to carry the boring
without tubing the hole, for which we had not the appliances.

As boulder-clay is seen at one corner of the pit to overlie the fossili-
ferous warp, there seems no doubt that the bed lies between two glacial
deposits, but it is highly desirable that the section should be carried
downward to the chalk.

The thanks of the Committee are due to Mr. J. Villiers of Beverley,
who very kindly put the boring down at his own cost ; also to the Earl of
Yarborough (landlord), Mr. Hervey (tenant), and Mr. E. P. Hankey (agent).

Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the British Isles.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN
(Chairman), Mr. J. Lomas (Secretary), Professor W. W. Warts,
and Messrs. P. F. KenpAuu, E. T. Newton, A. C. SEwarp, and
W. A. E. UssHer. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

[PLATES IV.—VIII.*]

Tue scheme of work undertaken by the Committee includes the fol-
lowing :—

(1) To record all fossils from the British Trias now deposited in
museums (public or private), special care being taken to get the exact
locality and horizon from which the fossils were obtained.

(2) To compare the fossils from different horizons in order to see
whether any changes can be traced in the character of the fauna and
flora during Triassic times, and if geographical limits can be made out for
certain species.

(3) To collect data regarding deep borings which show Triassic rocks.

(4) To obtain photographs of slabs showing footprints or other fossils,
and of quarries and beds in which organic remains have been found.

(5) To compile a bibliography of works and papers dealing with the
subject.

Considerable progress has been made as the result of the Committee’s
first year’s work, and many offers of assistance have been received. The
Committee is especially indebted to Mr. H. C. Beasley, who has furnished
a report on cheirotheroid footprints, and has promised to write other
reports on rhyncosauroid and chelonoid footprints next year.

REPORT ON FOOTPRINTS FROM THE TRIAS.—Parr I.
Introduction.

The organic remains found in the Trias of Great Britain are so rare,
and confined to so few localities, that the animal life of the period might
appear to have been very limited, both in the number of species and of
individuals, but for the records of the presence of an abundant fauna pre-

* The plates are reproductions of photographs taken by kind permission of the
authorities of the Museums mentioned.

220 REPORT—1908.

served in the footprints of vertebrates and the tracks of invertebrates
found in different horizons over extended areas wherever the conditions
were favourable to their preservation.

Thesmall prospects of satisfactory results, the certainty of the expendi-
ture of much labour and time, and the necessity for the exercise of so
much patience have caused the systematic study of this particular branch
of paleontology to receive less attention than it deserves.

The paper of Dr. Duncan in 1828,! the great work of Sir W. Jardine
on the Ichnology of Annandale, and the numerous papers by Huxley,”
Owen, Egerton, Black, Mantell, Cunningham, Harkness, A. 8. Woodward,
and others, scattered through the transactions of various societies, are
mainly concerned with describing prints found in the special localities to
which the papers relate, and not to the review of the subject as a whole,
Dr. T. C. Winkler,’ in the archives of the Musée Teyler, brought together
abstracts of the most important papers that had appeared up to that time,
and gave a description of the examples in the museum of that institution ;
but he did not attempt to correlate the results.

The footprints in the Trias in England, and probably also in Scotland,
are with some doubtful exceptions confined to the Keuper.!

Whether this indicates any great difference in the mode of deposition
and prevailing conditions or not, the fact remains that from the base of
the Lower Keuper to well up in the Upper Keuper footprints are met with
at intervals whenever there are beds suitable for their formation and pre-
servation,

The tracks of vertebrates are associated with those of invertebrates,
probably representing Vermes, Mollusca, and Crustacea, or at any rate
resembling the tracks made by recent members of these classes.

On looking through collections of Triassic footprints it will be seen
that the greater number has been obtained in this country from Storeton,
Runcorn, Weston, and Lymm, all in Cheshire, or in other places in the
same series of exposures of the basement beds of the Keuper and those
beds immediately overlying them. They have also been recorded from
beds occupying a similar horizon at Grimsill in Shropshire, and
in Staffordshire, both north and south, particularly from quarries a few
miles north-west of Wolverhampton and from the neighbourhood of
Warwick. They have also been noticed in the St. Bees Sandstone near
Appleby. In Scotland the counties of Elgin and Dumfries are classical
localities, and a little search would probably prove their presence in most
districts where the bed of the upper division of the Trias are quarried.

The earliest finds of footprints in this country seem to have been those
at Corneockle Muir in Dumfriesshire in 1824, and at Tarporley in Cheshire,

1 «An Account of the Tracks and Footprints of Animals found impressed on Sand-
stone in the Quarry of Corncockle Muir in Dumfriesshire,’ by the Rev. Henry Duncan,
D.D., Minister of Ruthwell, Zrans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. 1828. Read January 7,
1828.

* Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Monograph III., by T. H. Huxley, on
‘Crocodilian Remains from the Elgin Sandstone, with Remarks on the Ichnites of
Cummingstone.’

* ‘ Htude Ichnologique sur les Empreintes de Pas des Animaux Fossiles,’ Archives
Musée Teyler, Harlem, second series, vol. ii., part 4, 1886.

* There are in Owens College Museum, Manchester, two slabs with footprints,
said to have come from the Bunter Pebble Beds, near Eastham, Cheshire, and given
by Sir J. Leader Williams. As a quantity of stone for use in the construction of the
Manchester Ship Canal was obtained from the Runcorn and Weston Quarries there
is a possibility of error as to the original source of the specimens.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES, 221

also in 1824. The former were found by Dr. Duncan and described four
years later in the paper referred to above. The latter, although found in
1824, were not recognised as footprints by Sir P. Grey Egerton ! till 1836,
and were described in 1838 in a paper read at the Geological Society’s
meeting, December 5, and at the same meeting the prints from Storeton
were described.”

The footprints vary greatly both in size and form, the smallest noticed
being about one-eighth of an inch and the largest 15 inches inlength. The
variation in form is not only caused by differences in the form of the foot
itself, but also by the conditions under which the tracks were made, such
as the consistence of the mud, the action of the animal, whether moving
rapidly or otherwise, and the inclination of the surface.’

The prints are generally preserved as casts on the under surface of the
overlying sandstone. The bed of marl on which the original prints were
made, being very thin and friable, is seldom fit for removal. Immediately
after a slab is lifted the perfect prints are often visible, but rapidly
become obliterated. At Corncockle Muir, however, the prints themselves
are frequently preserved.

The bed of marl is often much broken up by desiccation cracks and
otherwise deformed in drying, which greatly interferes with the preserva-
tion of impressions, and casts of these cracks often form a network of
ridges on the overlying sandstone. :

The beds in which the prints were made appear to have resulted from
temporary accumulations of water, which, as they disappeared, left behind
the mud, on which were preserved the footprints of whatever animals
happened to cross it. In the loose sand which formed the general surface
of the country such records of their presence would not be preserved.

There is no indication in the forms preserved that they were produced
by water-loving animals ; there is no more reason for supposing that the
mud attracted an unusual concourse of animals than that it merely
recorded the presence of the usual inhabitants.

There is every probability that the sand was usually deposited on the
mud by exolian rather than by aqueous agency. The prints were often
made in a very thin layer of mud (occasionally so thin that it adhered to
the foot of the animal, leaving the underlying sand exposed), and this
thin ‘layer in drying was broken up by shrinkage and divided into a
number of curved plates, the curved surfaces being perfectly reproduced
on the under surface of the layer of sandstone above. Had this mud
been again covered with water it would have lost its curvature, and the

' «On two Casts of Impressions of the Hind Foot of a gigantic Cheirotherium from

_ the New Red Sandstone of Cheshire,’ by Sir P. Grey Egerton, Proce. Geol. Soc.,
vol. iii. p. 14. Read December 5, 1838.

? * An Account of the Cheirotherium and other unknown Animals lately discovered

in the Quarries of Storeton Hill, in the Peninsula of Wirral], between the Mersey and

the Dee, Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 12. Read December 5, 1838. This appears to

have been a report by the Liverpool Natural History Society written by Mr. J.

Cunningham and submitted by the Geological Society in London.

3 A letter from Professor Buckland, dated Oxford, December 12, 1827, quoted in
Dr. Duncan’s paper referred to above, shows how fully the importance of studying the
effect of varying conditions on the prints left by recent animals was recognised by
earlier investigators.

Professor T. McKenna Hughes in the Quarterly Journal Geological Soviety, vol. 31.
p. 178, pls. 7-11, has a paper on ‘ Some Tracks of Terrestrial and Freshwater Animals,’
which, though referring to the tracks of invertebrates, has an important bearing on
the present subject, 3

222 REPORT—1908.

overlying sandstone would have been flat on its under surface, as has
been shown by Messrs. Davies and Reade.!

Again, we could hardly expect to find the sharpness of the prints to
be so well preserved had they been subjected to the erosive action of
water moving with sufficient rapidity to carry fairly coarse sand.

There are, however, some few cases in which the sand would appear to
have been deposited by water, where the casts of the prints consist of laminze
of rather micaceous sandstone. An example of this may be seen in the
collection at University College, Liverpool. Such prints are very imperfect. °

Occasionally prints are met with on rippled surfaces with the ripples
extending across the prints. An example of this may be seen in a large
rippled slab at the Liverpool Public Museum, where the ripple marks
are distinctly traceable across some large imperfect prints ; but a long
series of smaller prints crossing these seem to have been made subsequently
to the rippling. There is also one large print from Storeton in the
University College, Liverpool, collection distinctly showing the same
thing. In these cases the larger prints may have been made whilst there
was a thin layer of water over the mud, just sufficient to form the short
ripples represented. Such rippled surfaces are usually free from desicca-
tion cracks, and the wind-borne sand may have been deposited before the
water had quite disappeared. The drying would in that case be very
gradual, and the curvature of the layer by the very unequal rate of
desiccation of the upper and lower surfaces would be prevented. The
covering of the mud by wind-borne sand whilst it still retained its moisture
will explain the absence of cracks on some surfaces, and their presence in
others where the thickness of the beds of mar] is the same.

Character of the Beds in which Footprints occur.

CuHESHIRE.—The quarries at Storeton are in the Lower Keuper Sand-
stone. It is here brought down by a trough fault into the Upper Bunter,
which bounds it on the east and west, and so forms the ridge that runs
approximately north and south from Oxton to Higher Bebington.

The point now being worked, and where footprints are obtained, is at
the northern end of the south quarry, and the working shows a vertical
face of 120 feet. The footprint beds occur rather above the middle of the
face, and just there are three in number, confined within a thickness of
3 or 4 feet. They were estimated by Mr. Morton? to be about
124 feet above the base of the Keuper. The stone obtained is a fine
grained sandstone, white or cream-coloured, with occasionally more
deeply iron-stained surfaces. There are afew beds of very red marl from
an inch to some feet in thickness, and thinner beds of a fine white clay.
In the stratum containing the footprint beds the sandstone is flaggy, but
the rest is rather massive and compact, somewhat soft towards the top,
harder below, the best stone being obtained below the footprint bed.

The method of working is to clear a space of 30 or 40 feet square
and work downwards, so that the surface of the footprint beds is only
exposed occasionally and its extent limited. It is hoped that careful
observations may be continued in order to ascertain whether some slight:
differences that have been noticed in the footprints from the three beds:
are really characteristic of the three beds over a larger area.

«Description of the Strata exposed during the Construction of the Seacombe
Branch of the Wirral Railway,’ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol. vii. p: 329.

* Gevlogy of the Country around Liverpool, 2nd edit., p. 106.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 223

The beds of white clay in which the prints were made are so thin as
to be hardly discernible on the freshly worked face, but become readily
traceable, after a few years’ weathering, when a scant vegetation has taken
root in the softer places.

The quarries in the neighbourhood of Runcorn extend about a mile
along the escarpment of Lower Keuper, forming the crest of the hills
facing the estuary of the Mersey from Runcorn to Weston.

The sandstone is of coarser grain than at Storeton, and of a dull red
colour ; but the position and nature of the footprint bed are about the same,
and it can be traced the whole length of the hill until it passes beneath
the floor of the principal quarry now worked. The spoil banks covering
the larger area of the old quarries still yield numerous examples, and in
spite of the coarse nature of the stone and the deformation of its surface
by desiccation, cracks, &c. some very perfect specimens have been pre-
served. While the larger forms are less plentiful than at Storeton, the
smaller ones are more numerous and varied.

There is a second bed, a considerable distance below the footprint bed,
which yields very many curious markings, but none that can be said with
certainty to be of organic origin.

At Lymm the quarries in the neighbourhood are mostly closed, and
the spoil banks covered with vegetation.

Near Tarporley and in Delamere Forest beds which have yielded foot-
prints are found. They occur at horizons rather higher in the Keuper
than those at Storeton and Runcorn.

SHROPSHIRE.—The quarries at Grimsill, Shropshire (easily reached
from Yorton station on the Crewe and Shrewsbury Railway), are very
extensively worked, and yield from time to time not only numerous
footprints but remains of rhynchosaurus.

They are very like the quarries at Storeton both in the character of the
stone and the position of the beds.

W ARwWICKSHIRE.—Near Warwick the quarries at the Coten Hnd in the
Lower Keuper are not much worked now. The small but very interesting
quarry at Shrewly, a mile or so from Hatton Junction, on the Great West-
ern line, is in the Upper Keuper Sandstones, with the marls above and
below. Footprints are frequently found, and the remains of invertebrates.

STAFFORDSHIRE.—Traces of footprints have been noticed in quarries at
Alton and Hollington, in North Staffordshire, in the building stones of the
Lower Keuper.

In South Staffordshire footprints are very numerous in the quarries
along the outcrop of the harder beds of the Keuper a few miles north-
west of Wolverhampton. Some of the sections have recently been
described by Mr. Beeby Thompson, F.G.S.!

ScotLanp.—The footprint-yielding quarries in Dumfriesshire do not
seem to be much worked now ; the footprint beds are described as extend-
ing through a thickness of about forty-five feet (see Dr. Duncan’s paper
referred to above).

For an account of the quarries at Elgin see Huxley’s monograph,
previously referred to; also ‘ Reptiliferous Sandstones of Elgin,’ by
Rev. George Gordon, LL.D., ‘Trans. Geological Society Edinburgh,’
February 1892. rs

1 ¢Some Trias Sections in South Staffordshire,’ by Beeby Thompson, F.G.S.. Gen/.
Mag., Det. iv., vol. ix., May 1902.

924 REPORT—1908.

Description of the Footprints.

In describing the footprints in detail it will be convenient to consider
them merely as footprints, regarding only the features they individually
present, without reference to the animal that may be supposed to have
made them, except in the case where two forms have frequently been
found together in such a position as would warrant our considering them
as representing the fore and hind feet of the same animal.

If we bear this principle in mind and fully recognise that the nomen-
clature ! does not involve any assumption as to their origin, it will be well
to group together certain of them as cheirotheroid, rhynchosauroid, and
chelonoid, the prints in each group having a certain resemblance to those
ascribed by the earlier writers to the Cheirotherium, the Rhynchosaurus,
and ‘some Chelonian’ respectively. This will be the more convenient, as
the forms in each group differ greatly from those in either of the others.
There will remain many other forms that cannot be included in these
groups, but they may be considered later, the above being taken first, as
they contain the more common forms.

Cheirotherotd Forms.

The most striking of the footprints found in the Triassic rocks is that
to which Professor Kaup gave the name ‘ Cheirotherium ’ when it was dis-
covered at Hessburg, near Hildburghausen, in 1835. He also suggested
the alternative name of ‘Cheirosaurus’ in the event of the animal whose
presence it recorded proving to be a saurian. As we are still ignorant of
the nature of the animal referred to it will be well to adhere to the
original name.

The print is pentadactylate. and roughly resembles a human hand. It
varies from 5 to 15 inches in length, the average being from 8 to 9 inches.

The middle digit is the longest, those next on either side being rather
shorter, and the outer ones considerably shorter still.

The divisions between the outer digits and those next them extend
farther back than those on either side the middle digit.

Four of the digits are only slightly divergent, and each shows the
presence of a sharp claw at the extremity. The outer digit on one side
has its origin further back than the corresponding digit on the other side,
is broader in proportion to its length, diverges considerably from the axis
of the rest of the foot, and is usually curved outwards: it does not show
any trace of a claw.

Where a series of prints is shown it is usually found that they are in
a single line, and that the curved digit occurs alternately on the right and
left side. If a line be drawn through the middle digits of the prints
having the curved digits on the one side and the corresponding digit of
those having the curved digit on the other, it will be found that the distance
between the two lines is seldom over 3 inches. This would point to
the curved digit being the fifth ; but the suggestion has been wade that
the animal may have crossed its feet to the extent of 3 inches, and that
the curved digit was the first. However, tracks have been found where
the distance between the lines of the right and left feet is much greater.
There is a slab in the Warrington Museum from Lymm where the lines
are fully 6 inches apart, and another in the British Museum, No. R. 728,

1 Tn the detailed description which follows the various forms have been indicated
by letters. These correspond with the nomenclature adopted in my previous papers,
Proc. Livempool. Geol, Soc., vol. vii. p. 891; vol. vill. p. 253; vol. ix. pp. 81 and 238.

iNVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 225

from Hildburghausen, very similar, in both of which the curved digit is
still the outer one. It is therefore clear that it represents the fifth or
outer digit, and for the purposes of this report will be described as such.

At the base of each digit there appears to be a pad or cushion, often
merging into that of the next digit ; that at the base of the fifth digit is
larger than the others and quite separate from them, and it forms the
posterior outer margin of the print ; but on the inner side the margin
of the print is very slightly marked, sometimes not at all, between the
pad at the base of the first digit and that of the fifth.

Occasionally the fifth digit is not curved, and is only slightly divergent
from the other digits. Two prints from Grimsill, Salop, show this
peculiarity : one isin the Ludlow Museum and the other at Shrewsbury.

A short distance in front of the prints just described indications are
found of the presence of a smaller foot. The print is frequently very
slight, but is sometimes very clearly defined, and its axis coincides with
that of the larger print.

It consists of five short divergent digits, the fifth being nearly at right
angles with the third ; there is no clear indication of an ungual termina-
tion ; the print is rather broader than long, and varies from a third to
half the size of larger print, which we may consider as that of the pes,
and the smaller as the manus. There are pads at the base of the digits
which coalesce and form the posterior margin of the print.

The weight of the body was principally borne by the pes, as, although pre-
senting a much larger surface than the manus, it made a deeper impression.

Both pes and manus seem to have been almost digitigrade, the distal
extremities only of the metatarsals and metacarpals reaching the ground ;
these being represented by the pads at the base of the digits.

Traces of a Caudal Appendage.

No certain traces of a tail have been seen associated with these foot-
prints. In the British Museum there is a slab of prints from Storeton,!
R. 730, on which is a long tapering mark, with rows of scales on the
thicker part and terminating in some indistinct rod-like markings,
This, it has been suggested, may indicate the presence of a tail. Very
similar markings are present on a large slab from Lymm, in the Warwick
Museum. In neither case does the marking in question occupy the
position in regard to the footprints that might have been expected, and it
is possible the marks in question may have had a vegetable origin.
Undoubted tail-marks have been observed, but they were not associated
with the Cheirotherium footprints. As will be seen later, a small print
bearing some resemblance to the Cheirotherium does show the presence of
a tail, and there is a very clear track of a tail associated with some
webbed footprints on a slab at Warwick.

Traces of the Integument.

Professor W. C. Williamson’ recorded and figured a print from
Daresbury, a few miles from Runcorn, which showed the presence of
small scales covering the sole of the foot. He says :—‘ Many of them (the
scales) run across the foot in oblique lines, thus leaving no doubt they

? Described and figured in Geology of Country around Liverpool, Append.,
p. 300.

* *Cheirotherium Footprint from the Base of the Keuper Sandstone, Daresbury,
by Professor W, C. Williamson, Quart. Journ. Geol. Sov., vol. xxiii, 1867, p. 56.
1903. e

226 REPORT—1903.

represent true scales and not irregular tubercles as are seen on the skin
of many batrachians. The scales on the toes and anterior part of the
foot are smaller than on the posterior.’ Several footprints from Storeton
are similarly, though not so distinctly, marked, and Mr. Beeby Thompson
has found an example! from South Staffordshire. The markings very
much resemble the scales on the feet of recent crocodilia.

The Cheirotherium footprints show considerable variation, even in the
same quarry ; but it is generally such as might arise from the age of the
individual making the print. Some prints, for instance, suggest a large
fleshy foot, with the nails but faintly shown ; others are more slender,
with the details more distinct. There are, however, forms showing more

important variations, with the same distinctive fea-
Al. %.—Left Pes tures frequently recurring.
o aed Mana. A 1,—The most common form is that figured by
Mr. G. H. Morton ? as representing
Cheirotherium stortonense.
Cheirosaurus stortonensis.
In addition to the pads at the base of the digits this
form shows similar pads on the digits themselves, pre-
senting gently rounded surfaces divided by slight
constrictions which probably mark the position of the
joints of the phalanges. The prints of the digits are
broadest about the middle and narrow towards the
base. (Plate IV.)
/ The natural cast figured by Mr. Morton is in the
/) British Museum (R. 2591), and measures 9 inches in
length. A slab with a series of three hind feet is in
the Bootle Museum,* and is supposed to be one of
2 those referred to by Mr. Cunningham in his original
aNy paper. The feet correspond in size and form to those
figured by Mr. Morton. The distance between the
print of the left foot and the next print of the same
foot is a little over 3 feet 7 inches, and the distance between the centre
of the right foot and a line joining the centres of the two prints of the
left is less than 3 inches.

The somewhat elongated posterior portion of the print in Mr. Morton’s
specimen is very possibly caused by the foot having moved slightly
forward after being put down; there is some indication of the mud
having been slightly raised in front of the print, but at any rate this
elongation is not common in the Storeton prints.

The impressions of the pads on the digits are so imperfectly and
irregularly preserved that, supposing they coincide with the phalanges,
the number of these in each digit of the pes cannot be determined with
the certainty that is desirable. So far as has at present been observed

the formula would be i : = sf e As there are no clearly marked

1 Described and a portion figured in Geol. Mag. for May 1902. ‘ Footprints from
the Keuper of South Staffordshire,’ A. 8. Woodward, LL.D., F.RB.S., &c.

2 Geology of Country around Liverpool, pls. 8 and 9.

Mr. Morton suggested the specific name ‘Stortonense’ in a paper read March 17,
1863, Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol, 1.

3 The fifth digit of the middle print of this series has been chipped, giving a
different form from that of the other two. This is not shown in a drawing made
about 1839, so the damage is probably subsequent to that date.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903, ] [Puate IV,

Slab of sandstone, probably from Storéton, with two series of footprints of A1 in relief.
Owens College Museum, Manchester.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1908.] [PuaTe V.

Natural Cast of A2 from Storeton. British Museum, Natural History. R414.

Lilustrating the Ieport on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES. 227

pads on the fifth digit, the number of joints has been estimated from its
curvature.

The pads, if there are any on the manus, are too slightly marked to
guide us in making any formula for that foot. The manus, whenever at
all clearly shown, shows distinctly that it was pentadactylate like the pes.

The larger and stouter prints from Storeton appear practically identical
with those from Hildburghausen, to which the name Cheirotherium was
originally given.

2.—A form differing somewhat from the typical Chetrothervwm
stortonense is found occasionally at Storeton, but more frequently in the
Lymm district. The print is broader than A 1, and
the digits are rather shorter in proportion to the A2. 1.—Left Pes.
length of the foot, and are widest at the base, where
their width slightly exceeds that of the middle of the
Cheirotherium stortonense. They taper rapidly to
their extremities, which show the presence of nails.

The sole of each of these digits, instead of present-
ing a gently rounded surface, rises sharply from each
side towards the middle line, forming there a slight
ridge. There are no indications of pads on the digits,
but those at their base are clearly marked.

The first and fifth digits are both much shorter in ~~
proportion to the others. The fifth, whilst projecting Jane
outwards at a considerable angle, has not the curva-
ture so characteristic of Cheirotheriwm stortonense,
neither does it nor its pad form so conspicuous a feature.

The size of the foot is generally about the same as Cheirothervwm
stortonense. (Plate V.) ;

The manus in the few specimens seen would seem to be rather
broader and the digits rather stouter and more
divergent than in Chetrotheriuwm stortonense ; pos- A3. }.—Left Pes
sibly these are only individual peculiarities.

A 3 is represented by the form found at Tar-
porley, Cheshire, and described by Sir P. Grey
Egerton ' under the name Cheirotheriwm Herculis
from the specimens now in the British Museum Al
(R. 295): in many respects this resembles A 2 ;
but besides being much larger-—about 15 inches
in length—it is much elongated and the digits
are shorter in proportion to the whole length.

No impression of the manus has been recorded as
associated with it. (Plate VI.)

The possibility of the appearance of the first
four digits in A 2 and 3 being due to the condi-
tion of the mud in which the prints were made
and that such conditions might be more frequent
in the Lymm district or the horizon in which
these prints have been found, has not been over-
looked ; but as the digits of this form are associated with a much smaller

1 «On two Casts in Sandstone of the Impressions of a gigantic Cheirotherium from
the New Red Sandstone of Cheshire, Proc. Geol. Soc., vol. tii. p. 14, and * Notes on
Type Specimen of Cheirotherium Herculis (Egerton), H. C. Beasley, Prec, Liverpool
Geol. Soc., vol. ix. p. 81, pl. 5, March 12,1901.

Q 2
M

928 REPORT—1903.

fifth digit it seems we ate justified in considering the difference as struc-
tural.
The three forms described may be provisionally grouped unhdet
letter A :—
Al. Cheirotheriwm stortonense.
A 2. The Lymm form.
A 3. Cheirotherium Herculis:

K.—The next form to be considered is one that would seem at first
sight to be altogether dissimilar to the foregoing, but is possibly very
intimately connected with them: it is a short

K. 3.—Left Pes. round print, rather broader than long, and mea-

. sures about 5 inches across. It shows four toes,
greatly resembling the first four of A 2, and, like
them wide at the base and tapering rapidly to a
point without trace of pads, except at the base,-
and presenting the longitudinally ridged appear-
ance described. The other digits are somewhat
curved laterally, and a similar curvature is obser-
vable in the Chetrotheriwm Herculis.

It has been found at Storeton, but is more
common in the Lymm district. There are two examples from Lymm in
the Grosvenor Museum, Cheshire.

This corresponds, in fact, somewhat to the distal portion of A 2, the
fifth digit not having apparently reached the ground, or at any rate not
having left an impression. However, as there is no sign of its being a
merely imperfect print, it has been described separately as K.!

B 1 is a small form described and figured by Mr. G. H. Morton ?
from a specimen in the Liverpool Free Museum from Storeton. It

consists of four stout rapidly tapering digits, slightly diver-

Bl. %.—Left gent, and a fifth short and broad standing outwards at a

Pes. considerable angle. The points of difference between A 1

and A 2 are greatly accentuated, the breadth of the digits

being much greater and the length less in proportion to the

size of the print. Mr. Morton has named this Cheirotherium

SS minus. It is doubtful whether it is the same as the print

to which Sickler gave that name in 1835; but no oppor-

tunity has occurred for comparison. The small print in the

British Museum, R. 419, supposed by Lydekker* to represent this, is

rather obscure, but seems to differ from the Liverpool print. The length

of the print is nearly 3 inches, but the writer has one about half

the size—also from Storeton—in which the peculiar features of the print

are more strongly marked. This may possibly point to the prints being

made by an immature animal, as suggested on the original label in the
Liverpool Museum. This print will be referred to as B 1.

B 2. There is some resemblance between the form just described and
the prints on a slab in the Bootle Museum (No. 5) showing a series of
five prints, with a slightly sinuous furrow following the middle line, ap-

' «On two Footprints from the Lower Keuper and their Relation to Cheirotherium
Stortonense,’ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol. ix. p. 288, pl. 16.

* Geology of the Country around Liverpool, Append., p. 299.

® Catalogue of Fossil Iteptilia in British Muscum, vol. iv. p. 217.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903.] [Puate VI.

Natural casts of two prints A3. Cheirotherium Herculis, Egerton.
British Museum, Natural History.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation cf the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903.) [Puate VII.

Part of a slab of sandstone from Storeton, with prints in relief of a series of Al,
crossed obliquely by another series of smaller prints of L. British Museum,
Natural History. The whole slab measures about 7 feet 6 inches in length ;
only about half of the length is shown in the Plate.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

INVESTIGATION OF FAUNA AND FLORA OF TRIAS OF BRITISH ISLES, 229

parently caused by a tail. This is almost certainly the slab described by
Mr. Cunningham! as having been found at Flaybrick Hill, Birkenhead
(it is labelled ‘ Probably Runcorn’ at present). There are

two prints of the right foot and three of left, 6 inches sepa- po. 1_Lett
rating the right line from the left ; length of stride from Pes,
one print to the next of the same foot is 15 inches. The

prints are 1} inch long, and are rather more slender than

B 1; both the first and fifth digits diverge considerably

from the others ; there is no curvature discernible on the

fifth ; the pes appears to have been placed upon the print

of the manus, obliterating it and confusing both ; but one

of the prints is fairly clear and was figured. Other imperfect prints
probably representing this have been seen, but at present we have no
knowledge of the manus. This form will be described as B 2.?

L.—One other form must be included in this group. Itis a small form
about 4 inches in length, and resembles Cheirotherium in every respect
except that it presents only four digits. Three are long,
straight, and nearly parallel, the middle one the longest, ™ ce a -s
and all terminating in long claws, and a fifth, somewhat “” ela
curved, occupying nearly the same position as the fifth in
A; but it is rather further back and slightly nearer the rm
middle line of the foot.

The pads at the base of the digits are well marked.

The digits represented are probably 2, 3, 4, and 5. The ()
curve on the fifth digit is almost entirely confined to the

bending of the last joint. The most perfect specimen seen

is from Guyscliff, Warwick, now in the Bootle Museum.

In it there is a very clearly defined margin on the inner

side of the print extending from the tip of the second digit a.

to the posterior margin of the pad, with no trace of a

first digit reaching the ground. The same form has been

found at Storeton lately, and there is in the British Museum a long slab
of Cheirotherium prints (R. 729) on which a series of these prints cross
the others obliquely. In these the prints of the manus (not shown on
the other examples) is seen. It consists of three short stout digits, and
is three-quarters of an inch in length and about the same in breadth.
(Plate VIT.)

This form has been described under the letter L.?

This print seems to agree in some respects with the description given
of Cheirotherium minus (Sickler) in Lydekker’s ‘Catalogue of Fossil
Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum,’ vol. iv. p. 217, which is
apparently taken from Sickler, but it does not agree with that figured by
Winkler (see ante).

The foregoing have all been seen to have a form resembling the
Cheirotherium print and readily take their places in this group; and

' Proc. Liverpool Lit. and Phil. Soc., vol. i. (figure).

® In the Musée Teyler, Harlem, there is a print described and figured by Winkler
as Cheirotherium minor. M. Sickler (Archives, vol. ii. p. 430, pl. 3, fig. 2). He
suggests it may be the print of a young animal, but the figure does not agree with
the prints discussed above.

* Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., vol, ix. p. 289, pl. 15.
' oer also Buckland’s Bridgwater Treatise, 1st edit., vol. i. p. 265, and vol. ii,
pir 20; ;

230 REPORT—19038.

although in two cases only four digits are represented, the foot was
probably pentadactylate ; in the case of K, the fifth digit, and in L the first
digit failing to reach the ground, or at any rate not leaving any trace of
its having done so. Whether this may or may not be due to a gradual
shortening of the outer toes and the development of a form with only
three functional digits is a matter worth considering. For this reason it
may be well to notice here a form that can hardly be considered
cheirotheroid, nor can it well be classed in either of the other groups. It
is a three-toed form found in the dolomitic conglomerate of Glamorgan-
shire and described by Mr. W. J. Sollas! under the name of Brontozowm
Thomasi. There are three impressions of the left foot and two of the
right. The footprint ‘shows the mark of three toes diverging from a
posterior heel ; the middle toe is the most regularly defined, the outer
comes next in regularity, and the inner last.’ ‘The outer toe is confluent
with the heel ; the middle and inner toes are separated from it and from
each other.’ The total length of the impression from the point of the nail
of the middle toe to the back of the heel is 10 inches ; the angle contained
between the inner and outer toes is 50°, and the projection of the middle
toe beyond a line joining the points of the inner and outer toes is 34 inches.
The middle toe shows the existence of a nail, which is not so clearly shown
on the others. The length of stride is 3 feet 2 inches. The slab is now
in the Cardiff Museum. Owing to the generally unsuitable nature of the
matrix impressions would have been seldom made and still less frequently
preserved. (Plate VIII.)

In connection with the subject of this report the writer had occasion
to examine the footprints of the following museums :—British Museum,
Natural History ; Museum of the Geological Survey ; Liverpool, Free
Museum ; Liverpool, University College Museum ; Bootle (Lancashire),
Free Museum ; Manchester, Owens College Museum ; Salford, Peel Park
Museum ; Warrington, Municipal Museum ; Chester, Grosvenor Museum ;
Shrewsbury, Free Museum ; Warwick, Naturalists and Archeologists’
Field Club Museum; Cambridge, Woodwardian Museum; Ludlow
Museum ; and he has to thank those in charge of these collections for the
facilities and assistance afforded him, particularly Dr. A. 8. Woodward,
F.R.S., Mr. E. T. Newton, F.R.S., F.G.8., &c., and Dr. C. W. Andrews
for advice and assistance.

Unfortunately the time at the writer’s disposal has not been sufficient
to enable him to do more this year than give an account of one group of
footprints ; but should the Committee be reappointed, and see fit to allow
him to continue the report, he hopes to describe the remaining two groups
and such other footprints as have come under his notice in time for the
succeeding meeting of the Association.

* *On some Three-toed Footprints from the Triassic Conglomerate of S. Wales,’
by Mr. W. J. Sollas, M.A., F.G.S., Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxv. p. 511. Read
April 9, 1879.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903.] [Puate VIII.

Footprints from the Triassic Conglomerate of Newton Nottage,
Glamorgan. Cardiff Museum.

Illustrating the Report on the Investigation of the Fauna and Flora of the
Trias of the British Isles.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 231

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.—Highth Report of the Committee
consisting of Dr. J. E. Marr (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Kenpaut
(Secretary), Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. DE Rance,
Professor W. J. Soutuas, Mr. R. H. Trppeman, Rey. 8. N.
Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. F. M. Burron, Mr. J. Lomas, Mr.
A. R. Dwerrygouse, Mr. J. W. StatHer, Mr. W. T. Tucker,
and Mr. F, W. Harmer, appointed to investigate the Hrratic Blocks
of the British Isles and to take measures for their preservation.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE majority of the records received during the present year has been
contributed by workers in Yorkshire, and it is satisfactory to note that
one of the few areas in that county inadequately studied hitherto is now
receiving attention. The Thirsk Naturalists’ Club has organised a sub-
committee acting in co-operation with the Yorkshire Boulder Committee,
and the first results of its investigations in the Vale of Mowbray are
now presented. The present writer visited Thirsk in the spring of this
year and identified many boulders which will serve as types for the
guidance of the local workers. The observations made in the Vale of
Mowbray may be said to close up the last gap in the network of obser-
vations which now extends over the whole of the great county of York
from the Tees on the north to Sheftield on the south, and from Ingleton on
the west to the sea. The thoroughness with which the search for erratics
has been made is very gratifying, yet the fact that fresh types of erratics
still continue to be recorded shows that this well-worked field is far from
being exhausted.

In the present report we record the recognition by Professor Brogger
of yet another type of igneous rock derived from the prolific country near
Christiania, and the visit of the Yorkshire geologists to the Tweed Valley,
referred to in the report presented last year, has borne fruit in the
identification at two localities in Yorkshire of examples of the trachytes
so characteristic of the south-east of Scotland. Other boulders worthy of
mention are the small boulder of Borrowdale Ash, found by Mr. Gregory,
near Keighley, at an altitude of 900 feet O.D. This is an interesting
confirmation of a record to be found in the report for the year 1875.
Mr. Hemingway sends some valuable notes on the puzzling drift-area
about Barnsley.

A welcome contribution to the knowledge of a little known area is
the report on boulders in co. Durham sent by the Rev. W. J. Wingate.

A series of records from East Anglia (including the first sent to this
Committee from the county of Norfolk) shows that valuable results would
repay workers in the district ; and it should be pointed out that with the
centralisation of the brickmaking industry at a few centres, and the
general introduction of road-metal from distant places, the opportunities
for observation are being rapidly diminished by the closure of brickyards
and gravel-pits which furnish at present the most numerous and con-
venient opportunities for the study of erratics, especially the smaller
ones, at the same time the larger boulders are being broken up for
road-mending. It should here be again pointed out that the smaller
stones are frequently of greater interest than large ones. Some of the

232 REPORT—1908,

most interesting erratics yet recorded in England, such as the Norwegian
rhomb-porphyries and the Riebeckite-Eurite of Ailsa Craig, have never
been found in large blocks, and usually are little more than pebbles.

The most conspicuous boulders in East Anglia are the dolerites and
basalts, which are by far the most numerous of the igneous boulders,
large or small ; and the writer is convinced that the determination of
their places of origin would throw much light upon the difficult problems
of East Anglian glacial geology. Over a wide area from the east coast
of Norfolk to the Fens, and southward into Essex and Hertfordshire,
boulders of sandstone are very numerous: some of these, especially in
Norfolk, are derived from the Neocomian sandstone, while in the southern
part of the area blocks of brown sandstone are of very common occurrence,
which are for the most part of Tertiary age ; but whether all are from
the same source or not requires investigation.

The discovery of rhomb-porphyry is not an absolutely new fact in
the geology of Norfolk, but the specimens recorded from Hellesdon and
Wymondham are interesting, as they are the most southerly stations
known for this rock in Britain.

The two examples of Laurvikite at Bacton and Happisburgh respec-
tively are the first records of this rock south of Lincolnshire. An endeavour
has been made to secure the Bacton specimen for the Norwich Museum.

The present writer has long felt the need for some summary present-
ment of the vast mass of facts accumulated by this Committee and its
predecessor during the last thirty-two years, and he has_ therefore
prepared a synopsis of the whole of the reports from the year 1873 down
to and including the present one. The labour has been great, but the
advantage and convenience to students of glacial geology will, he hopes,
be more than commensurate. The records for Ireland have not been
included in this summary, as they were presented in tabular form in the
Report for 1902. Next year it is contemplated to publish a second part
of this synopsis, in which the distribution of boulders of noteworthy rocks
will be analysed,

DuRHAM,
Communicated by the Rev, W. J. Wixaate, of Bishop Auckland.

Blackhalls (shore at)—

Granite (probably Dumfries), porphyrite (Cheviot type), augen-gneiss,
gneiss, quartz porphyry.

Bishop Auckland Cemetery (in boulder clay)—
Carboniferous limestone,
Barnard Castle (in bed of R. Tees)—
Whin Sill, Carboniferous sandstone, andesitic ash (Lake District)
Harperley (in bed of R. Wear)—
Volcanic breccia (? Lake District),
Piercebridge, ‘ The Greystone’ Boulder—
Andesitic breccia (Lake District).

Oxenlow—
Andesite (Lake District) -

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 233

Lindisfarne—
Andesitic ash (Lake District),

WESTMORELAND.
Reported by Mr. Percy F. KENDALL.

Brackenber Moor, Hilton—

Shap granite.
Milburn, E. of Howgill Castle—

Whin Sill, Carboniferous limestone and sandstone,
Burney Hill, near Milburn—

Whin Sill, Carboniferous sandstone,
Hazelrig, near Gambleahy—

Carboniferous basement conglomerate, granite (Galloway), red lamprophyre

resembling that of Knock Pike, Shap granite, Dalbeattie granite, Whin
Sill.

YORKSHIRE.
Communicated by the Yorkshire Boulder Conmittee.
feported by Mr. W. Cuapwick.

Thirkle Bridge, Holderness—

Dolerite, 36 inches by 31 inches by 32 inches. Situated } mile south of the
bridge,

Reported by Mr. W. H. Crorvs,
Hornsea—
Millstone grit.

Reported by Mr. P. F. Kenpaut, F.G.S,
Burstwick—

Trachyte similar to that of Eildon Hills, Melrose; dolerite similar to those
of Black Hills, near Karlstown ; quartz porphyry.

Bridlington (from beach)—
Trachyte, south of Scotland.

Reported by Mr, G. W. B. Macturk.
Little Weighton—

In chalky dry valley deposit near Dannatt’s chalk quarry, containing pebbles
of basalt, quartzite, and sandstone.

Newbald.—On roadside between Bushey Hill and Little Wood Planta-
tion, about 24 miles east of Newbald, 372 feet above O.D.

Dolerite, 54 inches by 36 inches by 24 inches. Probably removed from an
adjacent field.

Reported by Mr. Tuos. SHEpparD, F.G.S.

Brough.—The boulder of augite-syenite recorded from Mill Hill gravel]
pit in the 1899 Report has been transferred to the Hull Museym,

234 REPORT—1908.
Kelsey Hill—

Carboniferous limestone, 57 inches by 41 inches by 29 inches. Found
during excavation of gravel 15 feet below the surface. Now at Hull
Museum.

Aldbrough (Holderness)—
A large mammoth tooth weighing 11 lb.

Sand-le-Mere—

Small mammoth tooth found on beach.

feported by Mr. J. W. Starusr, F.G.S.
Hornsea—
Small boulder of keuper marl with pseudomorphs of salt crystals,

Reported by Mr. F. F. Watton, F.G.S,

Hornsea —
Coarse red granite, 42 in. by 30 in. by 24 in.
Augen-gneiss, 24 in. by 24 in. by 20 in.

Dalbeattie granite, 12 in. by 6in. by 5 in.

Reported by Messrs. H. B. Murr, B.A., F'.G.S., and Percy
F. Kenpatu, F.G.S.
Stonegate, Eskdale.—In railway cutting above Stonegate—
Syenitic dyke-rock.

Professor W. C. Brégger, of Christiania, has seen this specimen, and
writes :—‘ This rock is without doubt originally transported from the
Christiania region. It isa syenitic dyke-rock, consisting of micro-perthite
and katophoric hornblende, with traces of riebeckite, further with
titanite, magnetite, &c. Such dyke-rocks occur as well in the Longen
Valley as north from Christiania accompanying pulaskites and nord-
markites.’

eported by Mr. H, Brantwoop Murr, £.4., F.GS.
Lanton, Wharfedale—

Silurian slate. At the S. end of the railway cutting, one-third of a mile
W.S.W. of Linton, four large boulders of cleaved greenish Silurian slate in
boulder clay. The largest boulder is nearly 8 ft. long; another is striated
from N.W. to S.E.

Reported by Mr. E. HAwKEsworTH.
Flaxby, S. of Boroughbridge, in Moraine-ridge—
Whin sill.

Wykeham—
Whin sill.

Brompton, near Northallerton—
Andesite (Borrowdale series),

Wighill, near Tadeaster—
Whin sill.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 2385

Reported by the Thirsk Naturalists’ Club, per Mr. J. E. Haut, Secretary.

Thirsk.—In gravel pit—

Gabbro (Carrock Fell), porphyrite (Cheviot type), Shap granite, oolite (not
local), Carboniferous conglomerate (Roman Fell type), granite.

Upsal, Wool Moor, 725 feet O.D.—

Dolerite, millstone grit, black limestone.

Upsal, Hag’s Hill, 225 feet O.D.—

Gabbro (Carrock Fell).
Granite (? Cheviot).

A, Very frequent throughout district.

Carboniferous limestone, black and encrinital.
Ganister.

Chert.

Millstone grit:

Dolerite.

B. Fairly frequent throughout district.

Andesitic breccia.

Cleaved andesitic breccia.

ash.

A a » with epidote.
rhyolitic breccia.
agglomerates.

3 pS purple breccia.
Shap granite.
Vein quartz.

C. Occasional.

Cheviot porphyrite.
Carboniferous conglomerate.
Volcanic tuff (? Cheviot).
Gabbro (? Carrock Fell).

Remarks.—Dividing our district into three longitudinal strips,
roughly, Codbeck (central), Swale (western), edge of Hambletons (eastern),
we find Class A pretty evenly distributed.

Class B very frequent in the central district and only occasional in
the E. and W.

Class C, so far as our research goes, are almost entirely confined to the
central district.

Gravel Pits, Thirsk—
Cheviot porphyrite, 3.
' Carboniferous conglomerate, 4.
Shap granite, at least, 30.

Gravel Pit at Pickhill—
Carboniferous conglomerate, 1.

Shap granite also found at Richmond, Swaledale, and Wemmergill,
Lunedale,

236 REPORT—1908.

Boulders reach their highest limit at about 700 feet—

725 on Wool Moor, above Upsal,
675 on Hood Hill, near Kilburn—

and consist of dolerite, millstone grit, and black limestone,

NoRFOLK,
Reported by F. W. Harmer, 2.G.8., and P, F. Kenpars, £.G,S,

Bacton.-—On beach—
Rhomb-porphyry, jasper (S. Scotland), opposite Post Office,
2 dolerite, 1 iridescent Lanrvikite well striated, about 3 ft. long.
Hellesdon.—Mr, Cunnall's brickyard, Out of chalky boulder clay—
Rhomb-porphyry,

Catton.—Mr. Cunnall’s garden, but removed from brickyard—
Many large boulders, including several of basalt, 1 quartz porphyry,
1 Shap granite (now in Norwich Myseum).

Happisburgh.—By stables of house called ‘The Chimneys ’—

Coarse Laurvikite about 8 ft. long.

Walcott.—Outside Post Offica—

Many large boulders of dolerite, for the most part little worn,

Pakefield.—Out of chalky boulder clay at brickyard—

Grey and black flints, hard chalk, septaria and fossils from Kimmeridge clay,
Gryphea incurva, fossiliferous Spilsby sandstone, porphyrite (Cheviot
type), dolerite.

Corton,—In brick-earth—
Flints, dolerite, quartzite pebbles (? from Trias), shell fragments.

Forncett.—¥rom chalky boulder clay in railway cutting—

Grey and black flints, grey paramoudra with hard chalk adherent, hard
chalk, septaria shale and fossils from Kimmeridge clay, dolerite, horn-
blende schist, Spilsby sandstone, Red chalk with Bel. minimus, L. Lias
with Gryphea incurva.

Oolitic limestone, Carboniferous sandstone, quartzite pebbles (? Trias),

Scole.—Brickyard } E. of church—
Dolerite 16 in. long.

Tharston.—Chalk pit—

2 large blocks 3 ft. or more in length of coarse dark red sandstone, with
millet-seed grains, and containing subangular pebbles of flint. The rock
closely resembles a sandstone in the Forest Bed series at Gudram’s Gap,
Bacton; but Mr. Harmer points out that many of the Upper Tertiary
sands form a similar rock when consolidated. /

1 Spilsby sandstone with fossils.

Stanfield Hall,—Ballast pit beside railway—
Ganister sandstone with rootlets, millstone grit,

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 237

Wymondham.—Gravel pit in Cannonshot gravels. These gravels are
mainly composed of flint, but there is a small percentage of other rocks,
including hard sandstones, grits, and dolerites. Two specimens of Rhomb-

porphyry.
East Dereham.—Station brickworks. In chalky boulder clay—

Chalk (hard and soft), flints, both black and grey, sandstone, quartzite, iron-
stone (rather sandy), dolerite, granitoid rock resembling that of Ercal
(Wrekin), porphyrite, jasper, greywacke sandstone, 2 ft. by 1 ft. by 1 ft,
well striated. (This has been removed to the Norwich Museum.)

In Crown Point brickyard—

Cubic block of Neocomian sandstone with pebbles 1 ft. 4 in. cube, sandstone,
dolerite.

At Mr. Horne’s cottages—

Block of greywacke sandstone 16 in. cube.
» very ferruginous sandstone (Tertiary), with pebbles of quartz, flint
and clay ironstone.

Swaffham.—Railway station. In chalky boulder clay—

Septarian with ammonite (probably Kimmeridge).

Broome Ford, Ditchington—
Kimmeridge shale in boulder clay.

Bedingham.—Pit opposite church. In chalky boulder clay—

Hard and soft chalk, Kimmeridge shale, dolerite.

Hempnall.—By butcher’s shop—

Dark green sandstone with fossils, including an ammonite (? Neocomian),
3 ft. by 2 ft. by 1 ft.

Boyland Hall.—Pit at corner of road (4 mile W. of)—

Kimmeridge shale with fossils.
Fossiliferous Spilsby sandstqne.

Diss.—In chalky boulder clay—

Neocomian sandstone.

SUFFOLK.

Reported by Messrs. F. W. Harmir, 2.G.8., and
Percy F. Kenpat, /.G.S.

Howne.—Brickworks. In chalky boulder clay—

Hard chalk, Kimmeridge shale with Perisphinctes biplex, Neocomian sandstone.

Oolitic limestone,
Needham Market.—Quinton’s brickyard—

Neocomian sandstone, 2 ft. 6 in. long, out of chalky boulder clay.
Sudbury.—Ballingdon Brickyard. In dark-brown chalky Boulder

Clay—

Many fragments of Kimuieridge shale and septaria,

238 REPORT—1903.
Wattisfield.—By roadside—

Hard sandstone, dolerite, Neocomian sandstone, limestone (? Carboniferous),
quartz pebbles (probably from Trias).

Essex.

Reported by Messrs. F. W. Harmer, F.G.S., and
Percy F. Kenpatt, F.G.S.
Braintree—
Many boulders of ferruginous sandstone (probably Tertiary) and Hertford-
shire pudding stone.
Takeley Street—At Old Mill Inn—

Massive brown sandstone (probably Tertiary), 3 boulders 3 ft. by 2 ft. by
1 ft. 9 in., 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. by 1 ft., 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.

Schist 2 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. by 8 in. visible.

Other smaller boulders of the sandstone also observed.

Stanstead.—By Old Bell Inn—

Large concretionary masses of dark brown sandstone (Tertiary).

Stanstead.—Through the village—
Many boulders of Tertiary sandstone, some inclosing flint pebbles.

Newport.—The great boulder recorded in the 1884 Report appears
to consist of Tertiary sandstone, not of Millstone Grit, as there stated.

HERTFORDSHIRE.

Reported by Messrs. F. W. Harmer, 7.G.S., and
Percy F, Kenpat, £.G.S.

Bishops Stortford.—In brickyard near Isolation Hospital—

Fossiliferous Neocomian sandstone with pebbles at gate of Isolation Hospital.
Brown compact lustrous sandstone passing on one side into Hertfordshire
puddingstone, 2 ft. by 1 ft. by 1 ft.

Excavation for new houses, Elm Grove. In chalky boulder clay—

Hard chalk, grey and black flints, green-coated flints (Eocene), Gryphea
ineurva, G. dilatata, Ostrea deltoidea, Kimmeridge shale, dolerite, oolitic
limestone.

APPENDIX.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Summary of records from England, Wales, the Isle of Man, and
Scotland contained in the reports from the year 1873 to 1903 inclusive.
A summary of Irish records is embodied in the Report for 1902.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 239

List or ABBREVIATIONS.

Hematite.
Ironstone.
Kimmeridge.
Limestone.
Lower.

Lake District.
Lamprophyre.
Laurvikite.
Mica.
Markfield.
Millstone Grit.
Porphyrite.
Palzozoic.
Permian.
Porphyry.
Pudding Stone.
Rhomb. Porphyry.
Rhyolite.
Sandstone.
Schist.
Silurian.
Siliceous.
Syenite.
Swedish.
Threlkeld.
Trias.
Yoredale.
Yewdale Breccia.

Quartzite, Gall., Esk.,

L.D.A., Yew. Brec., Sil. Grit, Diab., Sands.,

A. or And. Andesite. Hem.
Agg. Agglomerate. Trons.
Ard. Ardwick. Kim.
Aren. Arenig. L. or Limes.
Armb. Armboth. L. (prefix)
Ba. . Basalt. L. D. <
B. (And.) Borrowdale. Lamp.
Brec. Breccia. Laur.
Broc : Brockram. Me.
Butt. Buttermere. Markf.
Carr Carrock. M. G.
Charn, Charnwood. Pe
Chev. Cheviot. Pal.
Chins Cleveland. Perm. 2 L
Cc. M. Coal Measures. Porph. (suffix)
Cong. Conglomerate. P.S. é :
Criff. Criffel. Rh. P.
Dalb. Dalbeattie. Rhy. :
Diab. Diabase. S. or Sands.
Dior Diorite. Sch.
Dol Dolerite. Sil. .
El. Elezolite. Sils.
Esk. Eskdale Granite. Syen.
in. Flint. Swed.
Fels. Felstone. Threl.
Gall. Galloway Granite. | Tr. .
Gn. . Gneiss. Yored.
Greens, Greenstone. Yew.
H. Hornblende.
ANGLESEA.
1. Frondwl 1881. Picrite.
= , 1885. Identifies local origin of Picrite.
2. Llanerchymedd 1881. Horn. Diab. (? Local).
3. Porth Noble . 1881. Picrite.
nf - 1885. Identifies local origin of Picrite.
4. Tycroes. 2 . 188). Picrite.
“ - z . 1885. Identifies local origin of Picrite.
AYRSHIRE.
1. Ballantrae 1901, Ailsa.
2. Girvan . j 1901. Nod. Dol., Ailsa.
3. West Kilbride 1901. Nod. Dol.
CARNARVONSHIRE.
1. Moel Tryfaen 1881. Flint.
CHESHIRE.
1. Adswood 1891. Gran.
2. Alderley 1893. L.D.A., C.M. Sands.,
Butt.
7 A oe ee 1895. L.D.A., Esk.
3. Arden Mills, Woodley. 1891. L.D. And., Esk.
4. Barnston and Pensby . 1893.
Gall., Esk.
5. Birkenhead . 1879. Strie. ;
; a A 1897. Serpentine.
1900. Diab.

lll bell soe
NHroCoeeENID

_
oo

18,

aay

UDidlareal ae ee oN,
. Dukinfield to Lyne Edge .

. Bramall. : ‘ -
. Bredbury

. Brimstage .

. Cheadle

. Chester ;

. Clatterbridge

- Dawpool

. Dee Estuary, Burton Rocks,

near Kirby.

. Delamere Forest .

Goyt Hall, Stockport . .
Guilden Sutton, near
Chester.

. Hatherlow .
. Hazel Grove
. Hilbre.

Hyde .

. Knutsford .

” . .
. Leasowe Castle .

Little Grange

. Little Storeton : 2
. Lyne Edge to Harrop Edge

Lyme Park .

. Macclesfield ‘

. Macclesfield District .
. Marple

2. Mottram

. Norbury

. Norbury Moor

. Northen Etchells

86, Offerton

45.

. Overton, Taxal .

. Raby to Willaston

. Rock Ferry . A :

. Setter Dog, Macclesfield

. Spital . . .
. Stockport .

. Storeton
. Styal .

Taxal ,

. Thornton é 5 5
. Thornton Hough - ‘

. Werneth Low. i ‘

. West Kirby : “ ;
. West Kirby to Park Gate .

1891.
1891.
1892.
1891.
1893.
1892.
1877.

1893.

1893.
1900.
1899.
1888.

1892.
1878.

1891.

1891.
1892.
1891.

1891.
1895.
1876.
1892.
1892.
1888.

1893.
1891.
1895.

1893.
1891.
1892.
1891.

1891.

1891.
1891.

1891.

1890.

1896.

1896.
1891.

1892.
1591.

1892.

1891.
1890.

1892.
1892.

1890.

1892.

1879,

REPORT—1908.

Esk., Rhy. Brec., ? Butt., Gran.

Esk.

Gall., L.D.A. Agg., Limes., Sil, Grit.

L.D. And.

Diab. rare.

Fels. L.D.A., Sil. Grit.

Hornb. Felst., Criff., L.D. Grit, Butt. L.D.
Vole.

L.D.A. Brec. and Ash, Criff., Sil. Grit,
Ba., Esk., Butt., Criff., Dalb., Dior., Diab.
(? Scott.), Carb. Sands., M.G., Quartzite,
Fels., Trias.

Diab. rare.

L.D:A., Esk., Ailsa Craig, Criff., Flint,

Esk;

Fels., Gran., And., And. Ash, Microgran.,
Esk,

Gall., L.D.A.

Lias.

L.D.A., Gall., Gran.

L.D. And.

L.D, Agg. and Ash., Diab.

L.D, And. Agg., Rhy., Quartz Porph.,
? Perm. L., C.M. Sands., Ardwick Limes.,
Esk., Butt., Gall., ? Sil. Grit.

Gran., ? Gall.

Esk., Butt., Gall., L.D.A.

Greenstone Dior, w. Isorine, Syen., Ash.

Gran,, Sil. Grit.

Yew. Brec., Gall., Sil. Grit, Dior., L.D.A.

And, Ash., Rhy. Brec., Esk., Vein.

Gran., L.D.A.

Gran.

L.D.A,

Butt., Esk., L.D.V., Ba., Gall., Gran., Grit..

Gran., L.D.A. Brec., ? Esk., ? Gall.

L.D.A.

Gran., And.

L.D. And., Butt.

L.D. And. and Rhy. Scott., Flint, Esk., Gall!,.
Ba., Butt., Fels.

Esk. Gall, L.D.A. Brec., KRby., Gran.,.
?C.M. Sands., Butt.
Butt.

Gall., Sil. Grit, Diab., L.D,A., Butt., Strize.

Stria.

Butt., Dalb.?, Criff., Porph. Gall., Quartzite,
L.D. And. Rhy. Age.

Fels., Sil. Grit, L.D.A. and Ash., Gall., Butt 5
Carb. Sands.

Esk., L.D. And. Brec.

L.D.A., Dior., Sil. Grit, Gall.

Esk.

Eskdale, Butt., L.D. And., Gall., Quartzite,
Gall. Gran., Trias.

Gran., L.D.A. and Agg., Diab., Sil. Grit.

Gran., L.D.A. and Agg., Criff., Dalb., Sil.
Grit.

Esk., Butt., L.D. And. Rhy., Porph. Agg.,
Sil. Grit, C.M. Sands., Quartzite, Trias.

Ba., Gran., L.D.A. Age,

Greenstone, Scott. Gran., Dior.

51.
52.

53.

wnNre

oo AD Ore oo

GO Oe OTR OS LO

DONIR OUP WH

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 241

Wilmslow
Wirral

Woodle y

. Maryport
. Skiddaw .
. Whitehaven, Coast WE of

. Cefn Cave

Eryrys. °
Glyn Ceiriog

. Llanrwst Gorphwysfa .
. Minera

Ruabon
Trevor
Wrexham

”

. Broadhurst Edge.

. Bugsworth .

. Buxton

. Chapel-en-le-Frith
- Doveboles

. Hayfield.

. Little Hayfield

_ Millersdale .

. Ashburton
. Barnstaple Bay

Berry Head .

. Bickington . ,
. Bishop’s iis nie
. Cleve .

. Churston

. Diptford

. Englebourne

. Harberton .

. Kingston

. Maristowe

. Rivalton

. Santon :

. Start Point to Prawle .
. Tamerton Foliot .
. Waddeton

. Barnard Castle
. Blackhalls

1903.

1891. L.D.A., Esk.

1876. Aren.

1879. Greenstone.

1891. L.D.A. Rhy. and Brec., Esk., Gall., Butt.,
? C.M. Sands., ? Carb. L.

1892. L.D., Scott., Ard. Limes.

CUMBERLAND.

1881. Gran., Trias.

1901. Strie.

1879. Criff., Greenstone.

DENBIGHSHIRE.

1876. Aren.

1874. Sils. Congl., Felspc. Stone.

1881. Flint, Esk., Aren.

1876. Aren.

1876. Striz.

1878. White sil. Rock (? Jur.).

1877. Esk., Trias.

DERBYSHIRE.

1901. L.D. And., Rhy., Porph. Fels., Butt, M.G.,
Grit, Trias.

1891. L.D.A. and Rhy. Agg., Criff., M.G., C.M.
Sands., Vein Quartz, Butt., Esk., Gall.,
Flint, Trias, Carb. L. Chert and Sands.

1895. L.D. And. and Ash, Butt., Chert, Ganister,
Toadstone.

1893. L.D.A., Gran., Vein Quartz.

1893. L.D.A., ?Gran., Flint.

1893. L.D.A., Agg., Butt., Esk.

1891. Butt., Esk.

1892. Butt.

1893. L.D.A.

DEVONSHIRE.

1877. Greenstone.

1873. Gran.

1875. New Reds.

1879. Gran.

1874. Travelled Boulders.

1880. Quartzite.

1875. New Reds.

1880. Quartzite, Greenstone.

1875. ‘Trap.

1877. Not erratics.

1880. Greenstone.

1880. Quartz.

1876. Felsite.

1873.

1880. Schorlaceous Gran.

1880. Quartzite.

1875. New Red Sand., Dol. Limes.

DurHaAm Co.

1903. Whin Sill, Carb. Sands., L.D. And. Asa.
1903. Gran. (? Dumfries), Porph. (Chev.), Augen-
Gneiss, Gneiss, Quartz Porphyry, Gran.
w

3.
4,

om wre

cur hoe

242

Beda Hills .
Bishop Auckland

”
. Darlington .

Durham City

. Etherley

. Harperley

. Harton

. Kip Hill

. Lindisfarne.

. Low Coniscliffe .
. Oxenlow

. Piercebridge

”
5. Sadberge -
}, Seaham Harbour

. Barnston
. Bocking Place

Braintree

: Causeway End
. Felstead

“5 (General)

. French Green

. Great Saling
. Great Leighs
. Great Waltham, North
. Great Waltham, Ford End.
. Little Dunmow . c

2. Little Saling

. Little Easton.
. Little Leighs .
. Littley Green.

Littley Park

. Mill House .
. Newport

. Pond Park .

. Potash Farm
. Snows Lane
. Stanstead

. Stebbing

. Takeley Street

. Woolpits Farm
. Whelpstones Farm

. Bach-y-Graig

Caergwrle
Greenbich .

. Halkin Mountain
. Holywell!

REPORT—1903.

1895. Carb. L. S. and Irons., L.D. And. and Ash,
Gran., Quartz Porphyry (? Armb.).

1897. Shap.

1903. Carb. L.

1887. Shap.

1895. L.D.A., Gran. (? Scott.).

1897. Shap brought from Tees.

1908. Vole. Brec. (? L.D.).

1889. Ba.

1895. Carb. L. and 8., L.D.A. and Porph.

1903. And. Ash (L.D.).

1887. Shap.

1903. And. (L.D.).

1887. Shap.

1903. And., Brec. (L.D.).

1887. Carb. Limes.

1888. Carb. Limes.

Essex.

1888. Carb. L., M. Sch., Syen.

1888. Gneiss.

1888. Gneiss, Carb. L.

1903. ‘Ter. Sands., H.P.L.

1888. Sands., Ol. Dol.

1888. Sands., Dol., Porphyrite, Hypersthene Dol.

1888. Quartzite, Mica Schist, Quartz Porph., Silici-
fied Wood, M.G. with Shells.

1888. Sands, Flint, Porph., Ol., Ba. Dol., Carb, L.,
Jur. L.

1888. Dolerite, Ol. Dol.

1888. Herts P.S. Sands.

1888. Sands., Herts P.S. Porph.

1888. Sands., Carb. L., Flint, Dol.

1888. Ol. Dol., Sands., Flint, Syen., Carb. L., Spher.
Felsite, Clunch (? Oxf. Clay), Quartz
Tourm. Rock.

1888. Calc. Sands., Sands. with Bel. (? Kell.), O01. Dol.

1888. Sands., Limes. (? Oxf.), Herts P.S.

1888. Dol. Fels. Porp. Sands.

1888. Carb. L.

1888. Sands.

1884 and 1903. Ter. Sands. (Not M.G. as in 1884
Report).

1888. Sands. (Neoc.), Septaria, Flint, Herts P.S.,
Dol.

1888. Sands. Quartz-rock.

1888. Ol. Dol.

1903. Ter. Sands.

1888. Sands., Dol., Ol. Dol., Quartz, Quartzite,

Fels., Carb. L., Porph.

1908. Ter. Sands., Schist.
1888. Dol.
1888. Sands.
HLINTSHIRE.
1893. Butt., Gall., Welsh Rocks.
1876. Aren.
1893. Butt., Gall., Aren. Fels.
1876. Aren.
1576. Aren.

oom

10.

He 20

why

ON ERRATIC

. Marion Mills
. Meliden

. Mold . °
. Pandy.

Tremeirchion

. Dunbar

. Amwell
. Ashwell

Bayford

. Bishop’s Stortford

. Brickendon Green
. Bygrave

. Essendonbury

. Goose Green

. Hertford

. Hitchen

. Hoddesdon .

. Kelshall

. Mangrove Lane .
. Royston

. Lolmer’s Church
. Ware .

. Westmill (near Buntingford)

. Ballafayle .
. Ballajora
. Claghbane to Ballaskaig

. Douglas Head
. Kirkbride

”

. Maughold

. North Barrule (S. side)

BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 243

1898. Carb. L.

1895. L.D.A. and Ash, Gall., Sil. Grit (Scott.),
Porph. (! Chev.), Grit (Welsh), Rhy.
(Welsh), Sands., Esk,, Slates.

1876. Aren.

1893. Esk., Butt., Gall., Ailsa, ? Mynydd Mawr,
Carb. L.

1892. Ailsa Craig.

1893. Grits (Welsh), Aren. Fels., Carb. L. and S.,
M.G., Slate, Quartzite, Trias, Gall., L.D.V.

HADDINGTONSIIIRE.
1902. Zire. Syen., Laurv. (Ballast),
HERTFORDSHIRE.

1885. Sand.

1871. Sands., Sands. Neoc., Carb. L., Ba., Gneiss,
Sands. (Ool.), Chalk Marl, Porph. (? Chev.),
Gran. c.f. Criff., M.G., 8. (? Carb.),? Sept.
Kim, or Oxf., Lr., Lias, L. Ool.

1877. Sands.

1885. Herts P.S.

1903. Chalk (hard), Flint, Green Flints (Koc.),
Lias, Kim. Clay, Dol., Ool., Sands., Necc.
Sands., H.P.S.

1885. Herts P.S., Sands.

1882. Sands.

1885. Sands.

1885. Herts P.S.

1883. Limes. ? Lias, Sands, L. (? Carb. or Sil. Le
Ba., Conc. (? Oxf.), L. (Ool.), Gran., x
Carb. L., M.G.

1885. Sands., Herts P.S.

1883. Ba., Carb. L.

1885. Sands., Herts P.S.

1877. M.G.

1885. Herts P.S.

1885. Sands., Herts P.S.

1875. Carb, L.

Istz or Man.

1891. Gran.

1892. Dalb., Loch Skerrow Gran., Red Sands.,
Greenstone, Grit, Vein Quartz, Gran.,
Slatey Cong., Diab., Clay-Slate, Porph.,
Quartz, Siln. Grit.

1893. Slate (prob. from Dhoon).

1893. Vein Quartz, Grit, Queensbury Grit, Criff.,
Syen., Shap, Gneiss, Porphyry, Pitch-
stone, Loch Doone Gran., Limes., Sands.,
Gran.

1896. Arran Gran., Felsp., Porph.

1897. Shap.

1892, Biotite Gran., And. Agg., Grit, Gran., Red
Sands., Vein Quartz, Loch Doone Gran.,
Butt., Clay- Slate (local), ‘ Trap.’

1892, Grit, Micaceous Grit, Vein Quartz, Grit

Quartz, Clay-Slate, Dhoon Gran.
R 2

244,

“IO? See Oo bo

11.

12.

13.
14.

15.
16.

17.
18,

19.
20.

21.

22.
23.
24.

. Port e Bloggan

Port Lewaigue

” ”
Port Mooar .
3s 5 Shore
Fi to Corna .

Port e Vullyn to Corna

. Traie na Feeinney
. Traie Uanaigue

. Arden Mills, near Woodley,

Cheshire (for which see
other records).

. Bacup.

Barton-on- Irwell
Bolton-le-Sands .

. Bootle. :
. Bootle Dock ;
. Castleton, Rochdale

e ” ” . .
Cowm Top, Rochdale .

”

F Crosby
. Decoy Marsh to Ditton

Dingle Point to Hale Head
(River Mersey)

”

Facit, Rochdale :

Fallowfield (Manchester)
Greenbooth, Rochdale.

Haughton Green. :
Hale Head to Decoy Marsh

Heaton Chapel . 4 :
Heaton Mersey . z 2
Hey Houses (near Lytham)
Hest Bank . > ’
Heywood

Hopwood, near Rochdale
Trlam .

Kensington, near Liverpool

REPORT—1908.

1891. Gran., Ba.

1891. Gran., Grey Gran., Trap.

1897. Shap.

1891. Gran.

1891. Gran. (coarse grey), Gran. red, Syen.

1891. Gran., Porphyry.

1891. Gran., Grey Gran., Pitchstone.

1892. Pitchstone of Corriegills.

1891. Gran.

1891. Porphyry, White Limes., Quartzite.

LANCASHIRE.

1891. L.D. Rhy., Esk.

1888. Reference.

1891. C.M. Sands., Esk., L.D.A.

1891. Carb. L.

1877. Hornb. Felst., Esk.

1879. Greens., Scott. Gran.

1891, L.D.A. and Rhy., Butt, Gall; M.G.,
Esk., Carb. Sands, Quartz Porph., Sil.
Grit.

1892. L.D.A., Rhy. and Porphyrite, Butt., Gall.,
Carb. Sands.

1891. Grit (M.G.), Gall., Esk., Quartzite, L.D. Rhy.,
Quartz Porph.

1892. L.D.A. and Rhy.

1879. Greens., Striz.

1893. L.D.A. and Brec., Felsite, Sil. Grit, Esk,
Gall., Butt., Ba, Carb. L. and Sand.,
Dalb., Dior., C.M. Sand.

1892. L.D.A. Brec., Gall., Sil. Grit, Dior., Felsite,
Grit, Limes., Sil. Limes., Ba.

1896. Goat Fell Gran.

1891. Butt., L.D. Rhy. and A., Quartzite, Quartz,
? Gall.

1896. Esk., Quartz Syenite, Butt., L.D.A. and Rhy.,
Carb, Sands.

1890. Butt., L.D.A.

1891. Butt., Quartz Porph., Quartzite, Hem.,L.D.A.
and Rhys., ? Gall., Esk.

1891. L.D.A. and Rhy., Gall., Butt.

1892. Dalb., L:D.A. Brec., Butt., Criff., Dior., Sil.
Grit, Gran., Felsite, Trias Sands, Gall.,
Sands., Esk.

1891. C.M. Sands.

1891. Esk., Butt., L.D.A. Rhy. Brec., Gall., Dalb.,
Ba., Perid., Quartz Porph., M.G., Carb. L.
and Sand., New Red Sand., Sil. Grit.

1892. L.D. Porphy. and And., Gran., Butt.,
Gall.

1891. Shap, Perm. Congl., Sil. Grit, Carb. L.
Chert., Sands., M.G., L.D. Brec., Rhy. and
And., Mica Trap.

1891. Carb. fe L.D.A., Esk., Butt., ?Gall, Grit,
Quartzose Rock, Gran., Vein Quartz,
? Syenite.

1892. Limes., Gall., Gran., Butt., L.D.A.

1891. C.M. Sands.

1875. L.D.V.

25.
26.

27
28.

29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.

35.

NAN HMoPwr

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS

Langden End,nearRochdale 1892.

Levenshulme

Liverpool
Manchester .

”

Millbottom to Micklehurst ;
Moorside, near Rochdale
Newchurch in Rossendale .

Old Trafford

Piethorne, Rochdale

Rawtenstall

Rochdale

»”»

. St. Helen’s .
. Scambrick .
. Shaw Moor .
. Snape . ; 3 : ‘
. Sparth Bottoms, Rochdale .

° Swaindred. near Rochdale ;
. Spotland, Rochdale
. Stonyhurst .

. Wardle, near Rochdale
. Whitworth, near Rochdale .

. Aylestone

”

Beeby :

. Bushby
. Carlton
. Countesthorp

Desford

. Evington

”

. Hallaton
. Hoby .

” ‘ a

. Hugglescote

. Humberstone
. Kirby Muloe
. Knighton

”

OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 945

Gall., Butt., Esk., L.D.A. and Porph., Quartz
Felsite.

1891. C.M. Sands., Ard. Limes.
1893. Ba., Gall., Sil. Grit, C.M. Sands.
1875. L.D.V.
1880. Grit.
1891. C.M. Sands.
1893. Gall.
1888. Hsk., And. Ash, Fels., Syenite, Vein, Butt.
1891. Sil. Grit., Butt.
1889. L.D.V,
1890. C.M. Sands.
1878. Lias.
1890, L.D.A., Butt., Gran., Esk., Gall., Criff, Gran.,
Vein Quartz, Carb. L. and Chert, Red Sand.
1891. Gall., Carb. Sands., Butt., L.D. Agg., Quartz
Porph.
1892. Carb. Sands, Hsk., L.D.V., Quartzite, L.D.A.
Butt., Gran.
1893. Quartz Porph.,Granophyre, L.D.A. Brec. Rhy.,
Butt., Esk., ?Gall., Sil. Grit., Quartzite,
Carb. L. Grit and Sand., Hem., Butt.
1891. Butt., Sil. Grit, Gall., Gran.,, ? Esk., L.D.A.
1874. Gran.
1888. L.D.V., Criff.
1874. Gran.
1891. Gall., L.D.A. and Rhy., M.G., Carb. L. and
Sands., Esk., Quartzite, Hem.
1892. L.D. Porphyrite, Gall,, Carb. Sand.
1892. Gneiss, Gran., ? Gall.
1890. L.D.A., Criff., Carb. Sand.
1891. Perm., Marl. and Sands., L.D.A. and Rhy.,
Butt.
1890. Carb. Sands.
1896. Carb. Limes.
LEICESTERSHIRE.
1878. Syen. (Charn.) Flint.
1880. Syen.
1881. Syen.
1882. M.G. Sands., Markfield Syen.
1877. Coal.
1880. Syen. (Mt. Sorr.)
1880. Ash, Syen.
1880. Trias, Ool. L., ‘Greenstone,’ M.G.
1874. Syen., Gran., Greenstone, Ba. Chert, Carb. L.,
Lias, Sands.
1877. Gran., M.G., Limes., Chert, C.M. Sands.,
Trias, Syen., Greenstone.
1878. Syen., Trias, M.G., Carb. Limes., Gran.
(Mt. Sorr.)
1883. Flints, M.G., Carb. L., C.M. Sands.,
? Marlstone.
1874. Syen., Gran., Greenstone, Ba.,Chert, Carb. L.,
Lias, Sands.
1875. M.G., Ba,
1873. (Charn.) Rocks., M.G., Greenstone.
1878. Syen. (Mt. Sorr.)
1883. Markf., Syen.
1881. Syen. (Mt. Sorr.)
1882. L, Lias, Gran., Syen., Greenstone.

246

14,

MADAP wre

Leicester

5. Leicester Abbey ;
. Leicester Forest .
. Loseby

é Loughborough to Ashby
. Market Bosworth
. Melton

. Newfound Pool

. Newton Unthank
3. Normanton .

. Oadby.

. Ratlitfe

. Ridgeway
. Saffron Lane

28. St. Margaret’s, Evington

”

99
Shakerstone

Stoughton .

. Sayston
2. Thurnby

”

” e

. Aylerby .
. Barnoldsby

Barton on Humber

. Beechby

. Benniworth

. Bradley . ;
. Bradley Wood .
. Brigsley

. Brocklesby

. Cadeney

. Cleethorpes

. E. Ravendale
. Gainsborough
. Great Coates

. Grimsby . 5
. Brigg Howsham
. Humberstone

REPORT—1903.

1874. Dol, or ? Dior. (? non-British).

1878. Syen.

1880. Syen., Chert.

1881. M.G., Gran., Gran., Syen., Slate, Grit, Sands.,
Carb. L., Ool., Lias L., Marl-St., Chalk,
Coal, Shale, C.M,

1882. Syen. of Enderby or Croft.

1883. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.)

1886. M.G., Carb. L., L. Ool., Syen. (Charn.), Coal.

1888. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.), M.G., Ool., Lias L.

1874, ?M.G. or Trias.

1883. Markf., Syen.

1877. Gran., Quartz, Coal.

1878. M.G., Flint, Chalk, Lias, Sands.

1883. M.G.

1880. Ash, Agg. (Charn.), Syen.

1874. Syen., Gran., Greenstone, Ba., Chert, Carb.
L., Lias, Sands.

1888. Groby or Markf., Bone of Whale.

1883. Markf., Syen.

1875. (Charn.) Forest Rocks.

1880. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.)

1874. Syen.Gran., Greenstone, Ba., Chert, Carb. L.,
Lias, Sands.

1880. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.)

1882. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.), Ba., M.G., Carb. L. and
Chert, L. Lias.

1878. Syen., Trias, M.G., Ool.

188]. Gran. (Mt. Sorr.), M.G., Sl. (Swithland).

1875. Porph. Greenstone of Whitwick, Gran.,
Syen., Ba.

1881. Syen. (Mt. Sorr.)

1880. Ash, Agglom. (Charn.).

1877. Gran., Syen., Greenstone.

1880. Syen. (Mt. Sorr.), Brec., Trias or Perm.

1882. Carb. L., M.G., Perm.

LINCOLNSHIRE.

1898. Whin Sill, Sands., Gran.

1898. Whin Sill.

1896. Shap, Ba., ? Gran.

1898. Quartzite.

1896. Aug. Syen. (Laurv.), Sands.

1898. Gran., Quartzite, Sands., Ba.

1898. Whin Sill.

1898. Sands., Ba., Whin Sill.

1896. Sands. (Primary), Ba., Quartz.

1901. Augen-Gneiss, ? Limes., Neoc., Red Chalk,
Ba., Limes. (? Lias), Sands., Shale.

1901. Rh. P., El. Syen., Chev. Porph., Gray
Eycott Hill Dol., Flints (Grey, Black,
Pink, and Green).

1898. Sands., Whin Sill.

1900. Shap, Greenstone.

1898. Ba., Rh. P., Gran., Ool. Limes., Schist,

' Limes., Sands.

1895. Gran., Syen., Dol.

1896. Spilsby Sands.

1898. Ba., Sands., Whin Sill, Quartzite.

* Doubtful records, almost certainly brought by barges.

18.
19.
20.

He oo bo

WAG URI

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS

Irby . :
Kirmington

»”

”

; Ludborough
. 8. Elkington
. &. Ferriby

. Stewton
. Ulceby
. Waltham

. Carnedd-y-ci

Glyn-Ceiriog

. Llandrillo :
. Llan-y-cil (Bala)

. Kerry Hill .

. Bacton

Bedingham .

. Boyland Hall
Broom Ford, Ditchington .

Catton.

. Corton

Diss F
E. Dereham

. Forncett

. Happisburgh
. Hellesdon
2. Hempnall

. Paketield

. Scole . ;
. Stanfield Hall
. Swaffham

. Tharston

. Walcott "
. Wymondham

OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

1896. Shap, Ba., Sands. (Secondary), Gran.

1896. Rh. P.

1895. Dol., Sands. (? Jur.), Gran.

1896. Ba., Gran., Rh. P., Laury,, Lamprop., Dior.,
Gneiss, Quartz Porph., Carb. L.and G., Lias,
Porph., Halleflinta, M. Schist, Flint (Black
and Green), Ba., Congl, M.G., Irons.
(? Lias), Septarian (? Kim.).

1897. Laurv., Rh. P., Carb. L.

1898. Basic Rock (Hitterdal).

1896. Ba.

1896. Gran.

1896. Rh. P., Quartz P., Ba. Carb. L. and S.,
Black Fl., Shap, Gneiss, Schist, Gran.,
Sands , Porph., Limes. (? Ool.), M.G.

1896: Ba.

1896. Ba.

MERIONETHSHIRE,

1900. Quartzite and Greenstone from Cader
Berwyn.

1900. Welsh Felsites and Denbigh Grits.

1900. Ash and Greenstone.

1876, Strive, Aren,

MoNTGOMERYSHIRE.

1885. Sil. Grit.
NorFouk.

1903, Rh. P., Laurv., Dol., Jasper.

1903. Kim. Clay, Dol., Chalk (Hard and Soft).

1903. Neoc. Sands., Kim. Clay.

1903. Kim. Clay.

1903. Shap, Quartz Porph., Ba.

1903. Flints, Dol.

1903. Neoc. Sands.

1903. Sands., Quartzite, Irons., Dol., Granitoid
Rock (like Rock from Ercal (Wrekin),
Porph., Jasper, Greywacke, Neoc. Sands.,
Ter. Congl., Flint, Chalk (Hard and
Soft).

1903. Chalk, Flints, Kim. Clay, Dol., Hornb. Sch.,
Quartzite (? Trias), Neoc. Sands., Carb.
Sands., L. Lias., Ool., Red Chalk.

1908. Laurv.

1908. Rh. P.

1903. Neoc. Sands.

1908. Flints, Hard Chalk, Kim. Clay, L. Lias,
Neoc. Sands., Porph, (? Chev.), Dol.

1903. Dol.

1903. Ganister, M.G.

1903. Sept. with Amm. (? Kim.)

1903. Ter. Sands., Neoc. Sands.

1903. Dol.

1903. Sands., Grit, Rh. P., Dol.

248 REPORT—1903.

NoRTHUMBERLAND.
1. Akeld . F . : . 1900. Porph. (? Chev.), Greywacke.
2, Little Mill . : ; . 1895. Dol, Sands., Carb. L., Jasper, Porph.
(? Chev.), Striz.
3. Rochbury (? Reyebeey) . 1874, Carb. Sands.
4. Roddam Dene . - 1900. Porph. (? Chev.), Greywacke.
NovrriInGHAMSHIRE.
1. Harworth . : : . 1897. Chalk, Flint, Mag. L.
2. Plumtree . : : . 1875. Lias L.
3. Stanton : : : . 1875. Lias L.
4, Sth. Notts . , : . 1875, . Quartzite (? Trias), M.G., Carb. L.
OXFORDSHIRE.
1. Wolvercote . ; ; . 1876. Sands. (? Ter.)
PEMBROKESHIRE.
1. St. Davids . : ; . 1885. Picrite.
RADNORSHIRE.
1. Beguildy . , 2 - 1883. Sil. Grit.
2. Rhayader . ; - 1885. Ditto.
SHROPSHIRE.
1. All Stretton 3 5 - 1900. Trias.
2. Bridgenorth : 5 . 1876. Esk.
3. Cefn . 5 : : . 1876. Aren.
+ 2 5 -. 1878. Ditto.
4, Chirk . : ; : . 1876. Ditto.
os 5 5 : 5 . 1878. Ditto.
5. Church Stretton . : . 1900. Criff., Esk., Butt., Perm. Sands.
6. Claverly . : : . 1883. Gran, Fels.
7. Clunbury Hills . F . 1883. Sil. Grit.
8. Clun . 5 c ; . 1882. Ditto.
55 : : ; t . 1883. Ditto.
+ , c : : . 1883. Quartzites (Stiperstones).
9. Comley - : : . 1900. Eskdale.
10. Crickheath . 5 : . 1892. Striae.
11. Ellesmere . , . 1878. White sils. Rock (?Jur.).
12. Halfpenny Green : . 1883. Vein Quartz.
13. Ketley, Wellington . . 1873. ?L.D.Gran.,? Scott. Gran., Charnw., Green-
stone, O.R.S., Sil. Limes., Shells.
14. Leebotwood ; ; . 1883. Gran. (Scott. or L.D.)
15. Lilleshall . . : - 1877. Felst.
os - z - . 1886. Shells.
16. Llanfair Waterdine . - 1883. Sil. Grit.
17. Llanymynech Hill. . 1892. Argillite, Limes., Caradoc Sands., Trap,
Striz.
18. Shifnal to Tong . : . 1887. Esk., Syen. (? Scott), Criff., Butt., And.,
And. (? Welsh), Gran. (? Scott.), Quartz
Fels., L.D. Rhy.-Brec.
19. Waystone . : : - 1883. Felstone.
20. Wellington . : 5 - 1886. Shells.
21. Welsh Frankton . : . 1878. Aren., Sil. Grit, Carb. Sands. and Quartzite.
22. Wroxeter . 5 - - 1877. Felst.

noe

aan

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 249

. Burton-on-Trent .

Codsal.

Colton .

. Gunston
. Hanley

. Harborne

. Gospel Ash .

. Highgate Common

. Little Madeley

. Madeley . : i
. Manor Green, Walsall.
- Moseley Hole

. Needwood Forest

. Newcastle, Stoke-on-Trent .
. Red Hill Farm, nr. Stafford
. Rugeley. : A
. Tettenhall .

. Wolverhampton .

”

9. Wightwick .

. Baddesley

. Birmingham

Pealitomin...

: Coventry
. Eddsone

. Exhall. - F
. Hatton-Wilmcote
. Hatton é .

. Hazeler

STAFFORDSHIRE.

1878. M.G., Syen., Lias.

1887. Gran., Esk., L.D.V., Felstone (? Scott.),
Gran. (? Scott.), Criff., Felstone (? Welsh),
Butt., Porph. Scott., Vole. (? Chev.), Ash.

1883. Criffel, Aren.

1887. Gran. (? Scott.), ? Butt.

1893. L.D. And. and Agg., Butt., Gall., M.G.,
Esk., Trias.

1873. Gran.

1876. Quartzite, Vein Quartz.

1883. Butt., Felsite, Mica Syen.

1883. Gran.

1891. Gran., Chalk, Flint, Shells.

1891. Trap, Gran,

1879. Fels.

1879. Gran.

1878. Carb. L. and Chert, Yored. Sands., M.G.
(?Gran.), Porphyry, Syen., Greenstone,
Trachyte, Toadstone, Lias, Ool.

1877. Felst., Gran.

1873. Gran.
1883. Aren. Fels.
1873. Gran.

1876. Criff., Esk.

1879. Fels., Gran., Slate, Quartzite (Trias).
1886. Flint, L.D. Scott.

1877. Felst.

W ARWICKSHIRE.

1874, ?Scand. Quartzites(Camb.), Carb. L. and §.,
Chert, Lias, Gt. Ool., Cornb., Felst.(Cumb.
or N. Wales) Wrekin Volc., Amygd.
Gran. (? Malv.), Palc. Limes., Greens.,
Trap, Vole. Grit, Gran., Syen., Grit,
Quartz, Jasper, Agate, Slate, Sands., Felst.,
Dol., Chalk, For. Marble, Gt. Ool., Lias,
Mag. L., M.G., Perm., Sil. Fossil.

1882. Felsites and Ash(Aren.),Shale,Quartz Congl.,
Flagstone, Quartzite, M.G., Sil. Sands.

1886.
1874. Striz.
1886. Aren.

1895. Mt. Sor. Syen., Syen. c.f. Sapcote.

1874. ?Scand., Quartzites (Camb.), Carb. L. and 8.
Chert, Lias, Gt. Ool., Cornb., Felst. (Cumb’
or N. Wales) Wrekin Volc., Amygd’
Gran. (?Malv.) Pale. Limes., Greens.°
Trap, Vole. Grit, Gran. Syen., Grit’
Quartz, Jasper, Agate, Slate, Sands., Felst.’
Dol., Chalk, For. Marble, Gt. Ool., Lias’
Mag. L., M.G., Perm., Sil. Fossil. ,

1890. Vein Quartz.

1874. Flints and Chalk.

1874. ?Scand., Quartzites (Camb.), Carb. L. and &.,
Chert, Lias, Gt. Ool., Cornb., Felst. (Cumb.
or N. Wales), Wrekin Volc., Amygd.
Gran. (? Malv.), Pal. Limes., Greens., Trap,
Vole. Grit, Gran., Syen., Grit, Quartz,
Jasper, Agate, Slate, Sands., Felst., Dol.,
Chalk, For. Marble, Gt. Ool., Lias, Mag.
L., M.G., Perm., Sil. Fossil.

1874. Ditto.

250

10.
11.

19.
20.

WH» Co bo

King’s Norton
Knowle

. Lapworth .
. Packwood

. Preston

. Rowington .

; Sherbourn
. Stirchley
. Temple Balsall

Watton Wawen . :
Wroxall c ; ‘

. Brackenber Moor, Hilton
- Burney, near Milburn.

. Castle Hill, Kendal

. Cunswick Scar

. Farleton Fell . ; :
. Hazelrig, near Gamblesby .

Helm .

- Helm End .

. Hincaster

. Kendal

. Kent River.

. Larkrigg

. Milburn

. Milnthorpe.

5, Natland

. Oxenholme.

. Scout Scar .

. Sedgwick .

. Sellet Hall .

. Spital Wood

. Stainton

. Storth End.

. Wath Sutton

. Whitbarrow ‘ ‘
. Windy Hill, near Kendal

. Bromsgrove

”
. Bureott
. California .
. Canister .

REPORT—1903.

1884. Fels. Ash (Aren.).

1874. ?Scand., Quartzites (Camb.), Carb. L. and 8.,
Chert, Lias, Gt. Ool., Cornb., Felst. (Cumb.
or N. Wales), Wrekin Volc., Amygd.
Gran. (? Malv.), Pal. Limes., Greens., Trap,
Vole. Grit, Gran., Syen., Grit, Quartz,
Jasper, Agate, Slate, Sands., Felst., Dol.,
Chalk, For. Marble, Gt. Ool., Lias, Mag.
L., M.G., Perm., Sil. Fossil.

1874. Ditto.

1874, Ool., Chalk, Flint.

1890. M.G., Gran.

1884. Fels., Slate, C.M. Shale, Car. Grit, Trias.

1874. ?Scand., Quartzites (Camb.), Carb. L.and5&.,
Chert, Lias, Gt. Ool., Cornb., Felst. (Cum).
or N. Wales), Wrekin Volc., Amygd.
Gran. (? Malv.), Pal. Limes., Greens., Trap,
Vole. Grit, Gran., Syen., Grit, Quartz,
Jasper, Agate, Slate, Sands., Felst., Dol.,
Chalk, For. Marble, Gt. Ool., Lias, Mag.
L., M.G., Perm., Sil. Fossil.

1874. Ditto.

WESTMORELAND,

1908. Shap.

1903. Whin Sill, Carb. Sands.

1878. Shap.

1878. No Limes. Sil., L.D.V.

1878. Carb. L., Sil.

1903. Basement Carb., Gran. (Gall.), Lampro. (c.f.
Knock Pike), Shap, Dalb. Gran., Whin Sill.

1878. Shap.

1878. Shap, L.D.V.

1878. No Shap, W.

1878. Shap.

1908. Whin Sill, Carb. Limes. and Sands.

1878. Shap.

1878. No Limes., but Sil., L.D.V.

1878. Shap.

1878. Shap, L.D.V.

1878. Shap.

1878. Sil, L.D.V.

1878. Shap.

W oRCESTERSHIRE.

1875. Felstone, Ash.

1886. Welsh. t

1875. Ash, Prem. Brec.

1876. Gran.

1875. Ash.

jolie)

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

. Catshill

Clent "

. Frankley Hill

. Fringe Green

2. Hagley

. Hales Owen

. King’s Norton .

. Northfield and King’ s Norton
. Perry Hall . F

. Ran Dan Woods .

. St. Claines, near Worcester.
. Stoke Elm ,

. Whetley

. Woodcote Farm .

. Woodrow

. Worcester .

. Airy Hill, Hunmanby
. Airton :
3. es Holderness

. Aldfiela” ‘

. Ainthorpe, near Danby
3. Arkendale . -
. Atwick

”

. Ayton, near Scarborough .
. Balby, near Doncaster

”

: Baldersby ‘A : :

. Bainton-on-Wolds
. Bannacks .
. Barnsley

. Bartindale, North Burton .
. Barton (N.R.) . :

i. Barugh Hill, R.H. ih

. Bempton

: Bentham
. Bilborough

. Blackstone Edge

. Bold Venture, near Hutton
. Bowes :

. Bowland x 4 ‘
. Bradford . 3 5 °

: Brandsburton
. Brantingham Thorp
. Branton . ?

1875. Porph.

1878. Aren.

1883. Felstone.

1879. Ba., Diab. (Aren.), Felsites.

1875.

1875. Aren.

1876. Fels. (Aren.)

1875. Felstone.

1875. Felstone, Porph.

1875. Ba., Ash.

1875. Ash.

1887. Criff.

1875. Felstone, Ash, Sil. L.

1875. Porph.

1875. Ash.

1875. Porph.

1892. Vein Quartz, Agate, Butt., Welsh V., Flint,
Esk., Gall. Wrekin Bh., Sil. L.

YORKSHIRE.

1888. Jur. Sands, Gran., Shap, Ba.

1887. Carb. Cong.

1902. Haggis.

1908. Tooth of Mammoth.

1902. Ba.

1899. Porph., L.D.V.

1889. Carb. Limes.

1896. Shap.

1898. Gneiss, Shap.

1900. Shap, Laurv., Rh. P.

1901. Rh. P.

1890. Limes., Gran.

1896. Mag. L., C.M. Sands. &c., M.G., Carb. L.
Chert, Gypsum, Tr. Quartzite, ‘'r. or
Perm. Sands., L.D.V., Threl., Gran.,
Shap.

1897. Ba., Granoph., Gran., Gneiss, Vole. Aggl.,
Quartz Porph.

1898. Esk.

1887. M.G.

1895. Shap.

1899. Ba., Brock, Gran., Grit.

1895. Carb. Sands.

1895. Shap, Gran., Rbhy., ? Armb., Butt., And.,
Ba., Carb. L., Mag. L., Flints, L. Lias.

1901. Ba.

1891. Shap.

1900. Porph., Ool. L.

1887. Ba.

1888. Sands., Ba.

1889. ‘Fourstones.’ Not erratic.

1896. Carb. L. Sands. and Chert, Trias, Mag. L.,
Ba., Shap, Clay Ironstone.

1896. L.D.V.

1899. Porph., Vole. Ash.

1903. Shap.

1896. ?L.D.V.

1875. B. And.

1896. Carb. L.

1899. Rh. P.

1896. Gran.

. Brearly
. Bridlington

b Brigham Hill, near N.

Frodingham.

. Brompton, near Northaller-

ton.

: Brough-on-Humber 2

. Buekton (Flamborough

Head).

. Burmiston.

”
. Burstwick .

”

. Carlton Bank
. Carnaby
. Castleshaw

. Cayton

. Cayton Bay

. Chalk Villa

. Cherry Burton .

. Church Carlton, nr. Barns-

ley.

. Claro ,

. Claro Hill.

3. Cloughton .

. Coast Cloughton to Horn-

sea,

. Commondale
. Coney Garth, near Brands-

burton.

. Coniston, Holderness
51. Cotherstone, Barnard

Castle.

. Cottingham

3. Coxwold

. Cropton (V. of P.) é

. Crosspool (730 O.D.), near

Sheffield.

. Cundall, near Borough-

bridge.

. Cutsworth and _ S§prot-

borough.

. Cusworth, near Doncaster .
. Danby

. Dearne Valley .
. Deepdale .
. Dewsbury .
. Dimlington

”

: Doncaster A
. Driffield

: Easington (Holderness)

REPORT—1908.

1896.

1899.
1903.
1899.

1901.

1903.

1898.

1903.
1888.

1889.
1898.

1900.

1902.
1903.

1899.
1902.
1889.

1888.
1899,
1895.
1901.
1903.

1889.
1897.
1898.
1879.

1899.
1899.

1896.
1897.

1895.
1902.

1888.

1883.

1888.
1897.

1900.
1899.

1896.
1887.
1892.

1898.

1901.
1902.
1897.
1889.
1902.

1890.

Gran., Butt.

Sands., Shap, Ba., Carb. L.
Trachyte (8. Scotland).
Rh. P.

Rhby., Ba., ? Gabb., Carb. L.8.
And. (Borr.)

Rh. P.

Laurv.

Ba., Sands.

Shap.

Shap, Rh. P.

El. Syen.

Trachyte (? Eildon Hills), Dol. (? Black Hills),
Quartz Porph.

Carb. Grit, Porph., Vole. Ash.

Ba.

Syen. (? Butt.), Sil. Grit, Esk. Horn. Trap,
1 L.D.A.

Ba., Gran., Carb. L. Sands.

Shap.

Sch., Gran., Ba.

Chey. Porph., Ba., Greywacke, Lias.

Micro. Gran,

Carb. L.
Shap.
Chalk,
Shap.

Porph., Sparag. ? H. Sch., Shap.
Rh. P.

Gran.
Shap.

Ba.

Carb. L., S. and Ch., L.D.A.

Sands.

Felstone, Felsite, Quartz, Fels., Tuff, Mag.
L., Slate, Sands., Rhy., ? Sil. Grit, Qzite.,
Carb. Chert, ? Trias, M.G. The Vol-
canics prob. L.D., and others from §.
of Scotland.

Shap.

Shap, Orth., Porph., Dior., Ba., Carb. Grit,
Carb. L., Gran.

Ba.

Porph. Gran., Rh. P., Porph. Gran., Flint,
Ba.

Gran, Ba., Carb. L., Rhy. and And.

Shap.

Butt. Gran.

Laurv., Rh. P.

Eycott Dol., Carrock.

Zir. Syen., Swed., C.M., Chalk.

Ba.

Ba., Carb. L. and 8., Lias, Gran., Ba.

Rh. P.

Boulders.

66.

82.

83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.
OL.
92.
93.

94,
95.
96.

97.
98.

99.
100.
101.

102.
103.

104.
105.
106.
107.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 255

Easington (Holderness)

. Easington Beck (N.R. Z
. East Ayton

. Eastington Moor

. East Hutton

. Egton

. Elland F :
. Elloughton (Brough).
. Elnire i
. Elton, near Beverley F
, Escrick

. Extwistle Moor.

. Falsgrave .

. Far Hollingworth
. Ferriby Common
. Filey.

Flamborough

Flaxby, near Boroughbridge

Flaxton

Flinton .
Flixton (Filey) .
Folkton
Fordon-on- -Wolds
Foston-le-Clay .
Fulford

Ganton

Gardham (near Beverley) .

Garton (Holderness) .

Garton-on-Wolds
Giggleswick
Goathland .

Gordale
Great Ayton

Green Dyke (Peak)
Grimdale-on-Wolds .
Gristhorpe .

Grosmont
”
Guisborough

Haddockstones .
Harfa Bank

Harrogate . A
Hazelgrove to Marske

1898.

Shap, Rh. P., Gran, Laurv., Gneiss, Ba.,
Carb. L. Sands. and Basement, Brock,
Mag. L., Lias, Crioceras, Black and Pink
Flint, Bel. lanceolata.

Shap.

Sch.

Gn., Rh. P.

Ba.

Esk., Butt., L.D.V., Carb. L.

Laurv.

Shap.

Chev. Porph., Sreyaanke, Lias.

Carb. L

Sil. Grit.

Ba., Gran., Lias, Syen.,
Carb. L., Ool., Chalk F.

Gran., Butt.

Rh. P., Ba., Carb. L.

Shap.

Ba., Mica T., Limes., L. Lias, Quartz F.,
Freestone, Shap, Sands., Ba.

Ba., Sands., Carb. L. Grit, Ool. Sands.

El. Syen., Lias, Bh. P.

Shap.

Gran., Ba., Sands., M. Sch., Limes.

Ba., Sands.

Rh. P.

Whin Sill.

Carb. L.

Sands.

Carb. L. and 8. Sands., Ba.

Ba., Carb. L., Dior., Sands.

Gneiss, Ba., Carb. Sands.

Limes., Gran., Shap, Sands.

Carb. L. and Chert, Sands., L.D.V.

Shap, Ba., Ool. Sands.

Chev. Porph., Ba., Carb, L.

Carb., Basement, Carb. L. and Sands., M.G..,
Lias, Gneiss, Gran., Ba., Rh. P., Quartzite,
Porphyrite.

Rh. P.

M.G., Carb. L. Sh. Grit, Sil. Grit.

Sch.,Gneiss,Cleveland Dyke, Flint, Trias, Ool.
Sands., Chev. Porph., ? Sparag., Fels., Ba.

Carb. Cong].

Porph., M.G., Carb. L. and Ch. L. and M.G..
Lias, Trias, Jur. Grit, Mag. L., Flint.

Quartz P., Porph., Gran., Ba., H.

Quartzite, M.G.,

Rh. P.

Gabbro (Norse), P. and Jasp.,
Porph.

Shap.

Gran.

Shap.

Not Erratics.

Carb., Ch.

M.G.

Carb. L., Yore. L., Ba., Whin Sill.

Quartz

122.
123.

124.
125.
126.

127.
128.
129.

130.
131.
132.

133.
134.

135.
136.
137.

138.

139.
140.
141.

142,

. Hawks

Clough, Calder

Valley.

9. Hayburn Wyke.
. High Catton

. High Lee . :
2, Holderness Coast

‘Holthy 41;

. Horbury

. Hornsea

. Hunmanby

” . . .
. Hutton, near Guisborough
. Hutton Bushel .

9. Hutton Moor, near Ripon .
. Iburndale .
. Ingleby Greenhow

”

Ingleton .
Keighley .

Kelsey Hill
Kettleness .
Kilburn

Kilnsea
Kirkby Underdale
Kirklington, near Ripon

Kirkmoorgate, RHB.
Kirkthorpe
Laithkirk . °

Langcliffe (Settle)
Lealholm .

Lebberston

Leconfield.

Leeds :

Lindholme Hall, Hatfield
Chase.

Lindrick (Ripon) .
Linton Wharfedale .
Little Weighton

Lockingt on

REPORT—1903.

1896.

1902.
1896.

1896.
1896.
1897.
1896.

Vein Calcite, Sil., Quartzite.

Haggis Rock.

Carb. L., Sands., and Chert, Flint, Carrock,
Mag. L., Trias, Brock, L.D.V., Shap.

Vein Quartz (Pebble).

Analysis of 310 Boulders.

Swed., Bel, lanceolata.

Carb. Sands., L. and Chert, Carb. Basement,
Ba., Keup. Marl, Gyps., Trias Sands.,
L, Lias, L.D V., Ba., Mag. L., Shap, Scott.
Gran. (? L. Doone.)

Esk., Butt., L.D.V., Quartzite, Vein Quartz,

Chert.
Shap, Brockram, Rh. P., Flint.
Shap.
Carb. L., Ba.
Shap.
L.D.V., Armb
Rh. P., Shap, L.D.V., Queensbury Grit.

M.G., Keuper Marl, Gran., Augen-Gneiss,
Gran. (Dalb.)

Shap. Sands., Gran. -

Sands., Ba.

Porph.

Chev. Porph., Mag. L., Kim. Gneiss, Gran.

Rh. P.

Gran., M.G.

Shap, Gran., Porph.

And. and Porph , Chey. and §., Scott., Ba.,
Cl. Dyke, ? H. Criff., ? Shap, Kelso Trap.
Ba., ? Criff., Greywacke, Vein Quartz, Threl.
Quartz Porph., L.D.V., M.G., Carb. L.S. and

Grit, Jur. S.

Lamprophyre.

Hitchingstone, M.G.

Not erratic.

Carb. L.

Chev. Porph., El. Syen., Gneiss,

Shap, And., Ash.

Dol., M.G., Limes. (Carb.)

Shap.

Ool. L.

Ba.

Carb. Sands.

Bia? Pe

KEsk., Butt, L.D.V.

Shap.

Striz.

Flint, Porph., And, Gran., ? Sparag., Quart-
zite, Ba., Ool. L., Carb. Chert, Mag. L.,
M.G., Quartzite, Porph.

Ba., Sands.

Chev. Porph., Greywacke.

M.G.

Mag. L., Carb. Sands., M.G., Chert,
Porph., Ba., Quartzite, Vein Quartz, Flint,
Congl., Halleflinta.

Shap.

Sil. SL

Chev. Porph.

Ba., Quartzite, Sands.

2M.G.

. Lockwood . é > .
. Long Lee .

. Lowthorpe

. Luddendenfoot .

. Lund

. Malham

. Manfield, near Darlington.
. Market Weighton

”

‘ Marton- cum-Grafton
. Meaux 5 :
. Middleton-on- -W olds.

4, Mirfield

5, Mount Grace
. Mulgrave Park .
. Muston, near Filey

; Mytholmroyd
Neswick
. Newbald
. Newbold

. Newby (Scarborough) t
3. New Year’s Bridge, Den-

shaw Valley.

. Noblethorpe SAG
. Norber :

- North Cave
. North Dean
. North Ferriby

. North Otterington
. North Stainley .

. Old Bridlington

. Out Newton

”
. Patrington

. Peak Station

. Pickering .

. Pickhill

. Pierce Bridge

. Preston (Holderness)
. Rainton (N.R.).

. Redcar to Saltburn

. Reighton .

2, Robin Hood’s Bay

” e

ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

1899.

1896.
1890.

1893.
1891.

1887.
1889.
1892.
1895.
1898.
1889.
1991.
1902.

1893.
1896.

1898.
1890.
1888.
1889.
1896.
1902.
1888.
1889.
1903.
1895.
1890.
1889.

1896.
1887.
1888.
1895.
1893.

1896.

1888.
1888.

1888.

1895.
1902.
1898.

1899,

1900.
1896.
1892.

1887.

1896,
1891.

1896.
1888.

1889.

1887.

1889,
1896.

1902,

bho
Cr
Crt

Porph.

Butt., L.D.V., Esk.

Ba., Carb. L., Ool. Sands,,

L.D. Vole.

Gran., Ba., Dior., Sands.

Carb, Cong].

Fels. Trap (? And.).

Ool. Sands.

Carb. Sands.

Black Flint.

Shap.

Rh. P., Chev. Porph., Carb. L. and §., Lias.

Rh. P., Gran., Ba., Carb. 8. and Grit, Chev.
Porph., Lias.

Butt.

L.D.V., Butt., Esk., Carb. Grit, Gran.

Red Sands,

(Not

Ba., Grit.

Sands., Gran., Ba.

Esk., Butt., Gneiss, ?L.D.V.
L.D. And. Rhy., Butt., Esk.
Ba.

Ba.

Gran., Limes.

Sands.

Syen., Dior.

L.D.V.

Carb. Cong].

Sil. Grit.

Ba.

L.D.V., Butt., Gran., Esk.
Carb. L. Sand. Grit Congl.,
Ba., Gran., Sch., Gneiss.

Gran,

Carb. Grit.

Ba., Sands,

El. Syen., Laurv., Rh. P.

Shap.

Ba., Gneiss, Porph., Rh. P., Carb. L. and
Sands., Lias, Flint.

Gneiss, Porph., Gran., Ba., Flint, Mag. L.,
Quartzite, Vein Quartz, ? Sparag, Grit,
Trias, M.G., Qz. P., And., Jasp., H, Sch.

Rh. P., Shap.

Ool. Lime and Sands.

Ba.

Shap.

Ba., Carb. Sands,

M.G.

Carb. L. Sands ,Grit, Mag.L., Lias, Ba.,Gran.

Gran., Carb. L.

Ba.

Shap.

Carb. L., Shap, Grit, Sands. (? Jur.), Gneiss,
Ba., Felstone.

Shap, Sch., Carb. L., Ba., Gran., Gneiss,
Armb., Dalb., Gran., Rh. P., Qz. P., Laurv.,
Porph., M.G., Brock, Mag. L., Tr. Sands,,
Gyps., Lias, Ool,, Flint.

O,R.S, and Jasper, Haggis Rock.

Lias, Chalk,

256

183.
184.
185.
186.
187.
188.
189.
190.
191.
192.
193.

194,
195.
196.

197.
198.

199.

Rokeby

Rough Ground . i
Rough Lee (Rendle Water)
Royston

Rudstone .

Runswick . :
Runswick Bay .

Ruston Parva

Sand Hutton .

Sandle Mere (Holderness).
Saltburn

”

Sawley Abbey
Scalby

Scarborough

Scarth Nick
Scugdale

Seamer

. Seamer Beacon .
. Seamer Beacon .
. Settrington (V. of P.)

. Sinderby
. Skeffling

. Skelton Beck. .

. Skidby and Little Weighton
. Skinning Grove.

. Skipsea

. Skirlaugh .

. Sleights

. Slippery Foot, Keighley
. Smalley Bight :

. Sneaton .

. Southburn, near Driffield .
. Southburn’ el

. South Cave

. Sowerby Bridge

”»

. Speeton

”

E Sprotborough

. Staintondale

. Staithes

. Stanghow .

. Stanley

. Startforth .

. Staveley

. Staxton (Scarborough)
. Stillington :

1892.
1882.
1887.
1895.
1899.
1889.
1900.
1890.
1891.
1903.
1888.
1896.
1897.
1892.
1890.
1898.
1892.
1891.
1899.
1899.

1888.
1889.
1890.
1899.
1900.
1901.

1900.
1900.
1901.

1892.
1898.

1896.
1895.
1887.
1893.
1896.
1888.
1903.
1893.
1896.
1899.
1890.
1895.
1893.
1902.

1888

1890.

1899.
1900.
1897.

1890.
1897.
1899.
1893.
1892.
1889,
1889.
1888.

REPORT—1908.

Ba.

Shap, Carb. L.

Carb. Cong].

Vole. Ash, Chert, Mag. L., Threl., Ba.
Rh. P.

Gran., Shap.

Shap, Brock., Mag. L.

Dior.

Shap.

Tooth of Mammoth,

Shap.

Ba.

Laurv.

Perm. Congl., Limes.

Ba.

Ool, Sands., Carb., Ba., Chalk.

Ba., Limes., Shap.

Ool. Sands.

Ba., L.D.V., Porph.

Grit, Carb. Chert, Gran., Vole. Ash,
Porph.

Gran., Shap., M. Schist.

Ba., Sands.

Ba., Sands. Ool. Sands., Carb. L., Gran.

Ba.

Rh. P., Chev. Porph., Ba., Gran., Mag. L.,
Carb. L., Flint, Lias.

Jur, Sands., Chev. Porph., Ba.

Jur. Sands., Chey. Porph., Ba.

? Quartzite, Trias, Vein Quartz, Carb. Sands.,
Jasper, Flint, Ba., Gneiss.

Carb, L.

Ba , Gneiss, Porph., Rh. P., Carb. L.and Sand.,
Lias, Flint.

Whin Sill.

Ba.

Ash (Borr.).

L.D.V

Shap.

Ba.

Limes.

L.D. Vole.

Carb. Sands.

Ba., Sands.

Sands., Ba., Shap, Carb. L., Gran., M. Sch.,
Red Sands., L. Lias, Ool. Irons.

Rh. P., Sil.

Shap.

Shap, Orth. Porph., Dior., Ba.,
Carb. L., Gran.

Shap.

Rh. P.

Shap.

Esk., L.D.V.

Shap, Grey Gran.

Sands., Carb. L., Shap.

Carb. L., Ba

Limes,

Carb. Grit,

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 257

228. Stonegate . ; e . 1899. ? Sparag., Porph., Ba., Gran., Quartz Porph.,
And., Carb. Chert L. Basement, M.G.,
Flint, Jasper, Red Sands., ? Old Red S.,
Gneiss, H. Sch., Quartzite, Vein Quartz,
U. Lias, Mag. L, M. Lias.

+5 ; : = . 1902. Queensbury Grit, H.

229. Stonegate, Eskdale . . 1903. Syenitic Dyke-rock (Norw.).

230. Stonehouse F : . 1896. Gran.

231. Strensall . 1889. Sands., Ba.

232. Strinesdale (OldhamW. W.) 1899. Sil. Grit, Syenites, L.D. (prob. Butt.), Carb.
L.B., Quartzite, ‘ Trap.’

233. Stump Howe, near whe 1900. Rh. P.

234. Sutton-on-Hull . F 1895. Ba., Carb. L., L. Lias, Gran.
235. Swanland . : : . 1896. Gran., Ba., Sands.

236. Swine : 5 é . 1895. Ba. M.G., Carb. L.

237. Tanfield. . : . 1893. Shap.

238. Teeside . 1892. Shap, Armboth, Carrock.

239. Thirkle Bridge (Holderness) 1903. Dol.

240. Thirley, sea cig : . 1900. Jur. Sands.

241. Thirsk 3 F . 1903. Gabb. (Carr.), Porph. (Chev.), Gran., Ool.,
Carb. Congl., Shap.

242. Thornborough (W. Tanf.). 1889. Grit.

243. Thornes. 1893. Esk., Butt., L.D.V., Vein Quartz.

244. Thornton Dale (V. of PB). 1901. Ool.

245. Thornton-le-Beans . . 1888. Shap.

246. Thornton-le-Clay ‘ . 1889. Carb. L. and §., Ba., Sands., Gran., Lias.

247. Thornton-le-Moor . . 1888. Gran., Ba., ? Ash.

248. Thornwick Bay. 5 . 1899. Laurv.

249. Todmorden 4 : . 1896. L.D.V.

250. Topcliffe . 3 : . 1893. M.G.

251. Upper Foot d . 7 18965 La Div-

252. Upsal. - A 6 . 1903. Gabb.(Carr.), Gran. (? Chev.), Dol., M.G.,
Carb. L.

253. Wakefield . p : . 1892. Butt., Gran.

53 f - ¢ . 1893. Esk., L.D.V.

254. Wassand (Hornsea) . . 1898. Ba.

255. Wath (N. rae < - 1890.

256, Wawne . é . 1902. Laurv., Rh. P., Ba, Greywacke, Chev. P.,
Flint.

257. Weeton . : “ . 1898.. Ba., Gneiss, Porph, Rh. P., Carb. L. and
Sands., Lias, Flint.

258. Welwick . . 1898. Ditto.

259. West Rigg (Lockwood) . 1899. Flint, Porph, ? Sparag., Quartzite, Grit,
And., Carb., Chert, Sch., Gran., Rh. P.

260. West Tanfield . - . 1889. Carb. L.

261. Wetwang . . 1903. Quartz.
262. Washton (Bourn Cas) . 1897. Shap.
263. Wheatcroft, near Scar- 1900. Shap.
borough.
264. Whitby . é : . 1889. Carb. L., Shap.
“7 6 4 3 . 1899. El. Syen., Dolerite.
i 5 . * . 1900. Jur. Sands., Mag. L., Carb. L., Ba., ? Sparag.,

Jasp., M.and L. Lias.
: p : - 1902. L.O.R.S., Ba.
265. Whorlton i ; . 1887. Gran.
266. Wighill, near Tadcaster . 1901. Ba., Chert.
1903. Whin Sill.
267. Willerby, near Hull ‘ . 1898. Carb. L. Sands., Ba., Jur., Gran., Gneiss,
Rh. P., Black Flint, Bel. lanceolata, L. Lias.
268. Winestead . : ; . 1890: Ba., Carb. L.
. 1892, Carb. L.

269. Winterbut hae ; a. . 1896. Gran., Quartzite.
270. Withernsea ; 3 . 1898. Shap, Blae Gneiss, Bel, lanceolata, Black
Flint.

1903. 8

258 REPORT—1903.

271. Wykeham . FA ‘ - 1901. Ba., Chev. Porph. and And., Flint, El. Syen.,
Lias.
=9 4 : : - 1902. Flint.
F : . s . 1903. Whin Sill.
272. Yedmandale, near W. 1899. Rh. P.

Ayton.
~ Fe 1900. Chev. Porph., Greywacke, Jasper, Gran.
273. York . 5 F . » 1888. Shap, Limes., Est. Sands., Carb. L., Jur.
Sands. and Limes., And.
ave - 5 é . 1889. Carb. L.
ee zs é : j elega rel Gr.

1901. Carb. Sands.
274. Youlthorpe, near Stamford 1888. Sands.
Bridge.

Observations on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom.—
Report of the Oommittee, consisting of Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE,
Captain E. W. Creax, Mr. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Mr. A. T.
WatmisLtey, Mr. W. WHITAKER, and the GENERAL OFFICERS,
appointed by the Council.

[PLATE IX,]

In 1898 the following resolution was referred by the General Com-
mittee of the British Association to the Council for consideration and
action if desirable :—

‘That the Council be requested to bring under the notice of the
Admiralty the importance of securing systematic observations upon the
Erosion of the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom, and that the co-opera-
tion of the Coastguards might be profitably secured for this purpose.’

On the recommendation of a Committee of the Council appointed to
consider the above resolution, the Council decided to inquire whether the
Admiralty would be willing to arrange that observations of a simple
character on changes in the sea coast be recorded and reported by the
Coastguards. A favourable answer having been received from the Lords
of the Admiralty, the Committee, at the request of the Council, proceeded
to draw up suitable forms on which to make the reports and a scheme of
instructions to guide the observers in recording their observations. A
supply of these forms with instructions was then forwarded to their
Lordships, and issued by them to the Coastguards in 1899. Since that
date forms, duly filled in, have been received regularly from the Coast-
guard stations of the United Kingdom and filed in the offices of the
‘Association in Burlington House.

The observations having accumulated to an extent sufficient to justify
an attempt being made this year to tabulate them, the present Committee,
having been appointed to superintend and direct the work, with the
consent of the Council, obtained the services of Mr. John Parkinson, B.A.,
of St. John’s College, Cambridge, to collate the data in hand. Mr.
Parkinson has devoted himself with much ability and zeal to the some-
what laborious task he undertook, and has prepared a most valuable
report and map which the Committee are pleased to incorporate in
their report to the Council.

[Plate IX.

he United Kingdom.

British Association, 78rd Report, Southport, 1908.]

[Plate IX

Gain of land Indicated by

Loss of land indicated by am

No attempt Is made to show relative rapidity of either gain or loss

Tilustrating the Report of the Committee on Observations on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United Kingdom.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 259°

The Committee recommend that their réport be communicated to the
Geological Section at the Southport meeting of the Association, and that
it be published in the Annual Report.

The Committee further recommend that copies of the report be sent
to the Admiralty, that their Lordships be informed of the valuable and
important information which has been obtained through their assistance
and co-operation, and that an offer be made to forward to them copies of
the report for distribution to the Coastguard stations if considered
desirable.

In conclusion the Committee consider that the best thanks of the
Council are due to Mr. Parkinson for his report and to the various.
officers in the Coastguard Service who have furnished the information
upon which it is based.

Report to the Committee by JOHN PARKINSON.

The observations on which this reportis based were sent to the British
Association by the Coastguards on forms supplied to them. These forms
were of two kinds. No. I. when filled in gives information as to the nature
of the coast reported on, the vertical range of ordinary spring tides, the
evidence for encroachment of the sea or for gain of the land, the artificial
causes influencing natural changes and details concerning the removal of
shingle, &c. Form II. is used to record any changes of especial interest,
such as falls of cliff or the erection of new groynes.

In this summary the observations are treated in order round the coast,
beginning with the county of Wigtown and following on from point
to point in the direction taken by the hands of a watch. Ireland
is treated last, the same arrangement being adopted, beginning at

Galway Bay.
ScoTLAND.

The reports received from Scotland—forty-eight in all—are for the-
most part confined to the eastern coast ; the western, including the-
Hebrides, being unrepresented as far south as the mouth of the Clyde.

The distribution of the reports in the maritime counties and adjacent
islands is as follows :—Wigtown, 5; Ayr, 3; I. of Arran, 2; I. of
Bute, 1; Renfrew, 1; Orkney Isles, 2; Shetlands, 1 ; Caithness, 2 ;
Eastern Sutherland, 1; Eastern Cromarty, 1; Eastern Inverness, 1 ;.
Elgin, 3; Banff, 1; Aberdeen, 5; Kincardine, 6; Forfar, 5; Fife, 5 ;.
Haddington, 2; Berwick, 1.

The following alterations are recorded :-—

Some encroachment of the sea takes place in the neighbourhood of
Stranraer. Concrete walls now protect an endangered road ; a break-
water, piles, &c. have been built at the head of the loch and groynes.
erected at Broadstone (1} miles N.W. of Stranraer).

No other change is on record until we reach the eastern coast of
Sutherland, where at Helmsdale, behind the west pier, there has been
some loss of land. This is now partially stayed by a breastwork of
wooden piles. No gravel is removed. In Banff a slight loss occurs to
the east of Portsoy Harbour, and stones &c. are constantly removed.

The southern part of the Kincardine coast suffers loss in two adjacent
places : first at Gourdon through the shingle being removed for indus-
trial purposes, and the absence of groynes ; second in the neighbour-
hood of Johnshaven, where the loss occurs about 300 yards south of the

§2

260 REPORT—1903.

C.G.S. and between East and West ‘Mathers,’ on the Lawrencekirk
estate The damage is done by south-easterly winds and spring tides,
and a short wall, 60 feet long, has been built 300 yards south of Johns-
haven to save the land. No shingle is removed.

Part of the sandy shore has been removed by the sea between East
and West Haven, Carnoustie (Forfar). There are no groynes, and beach
material is occasionally removed by the permission of the factor of the
estate.

The cliffs in certain parts of St. Andrews Bay are being worn away
by the sea, and near the town have to be supported by masonry and con-
crete walls. Within the past three years several cases of landslip are
recorded. As before no groynes have been built, and material is taken
from the east sands by contractors for building purposes.

The only gain in land from the Scottish coast is reported from
Burntisland owing to the accumulation of sandbanks on the foreshore ;
much sand is dredged for the construction of the new docks.

Finally, in the counties of Haddington and Berwick, from Pefferburn
to St. Abb’s Head, a distance of 29 miles, a loss of cliff takes place at
spring tides with north-easterly gales, The coast is unprotected, and no
shingle &c. is removed.

ENGLAND.
From St. Abb’s Head to Saltburn.

The changes on this coast appear to be insignificant, but losses are re-
corded in the neighbourhood and to the north of Hartlepool, near Shields,
and on the northern side of Blyth, the latter part being now protected.
On the other hand, small gains of land are reported from Holy Island
Sands and St. Gan Breakwater, Redcar. As regards the coast-protections
Berwick is shielded by a pier, while Newliggin and Cresswell (Wansbeck
Road to Chevington Burn) are groyned. South of this section the list of
coast-protections given in the returns apparently understates the truth,
nothing of the kind being mentioned from Tynemouth and South Shields.
The northern side of Blyth Harbour is protected by a wall, and piers
have been built at Sunderland and Hartlepool. At the latter town the
sea- and dock-walls have a tendency to keep the sand in the bay. The
concrete pier erected at Skinningrove is said not to affect the beach.

Sand is removed from Berwick, Bamburgh, the Amble and Hauxley
district (Alnmouth), from the neighbourhood of North Shields (from Brier
Dene Burn to Low Light), Sunderland, and the north of Seaham, and
from Saltburn. On the contrary it is not removed from the ten miles of
coast between Wansbeck River and Brier Dene Burn (Blyth Haven) from
S. Shields to Souter Point, and from Seaham Harbour and Hawthorn Hive.

The Yorkshire Coast south of Saltburn.

For the stretch of coast between Saltburn and Scarborough Bay no
returns have been received, but for the important district between Filey
Point and Spurn Head the records are complete, and the following may
be taken as a general summary.

Between Filey Point and Flamborough Head the coast line is practi-
cally stationary, except in Filey Bay, from Filey Brig to the King and
Queen Rocks at Speeton, where the average loss for some twenty-eight years
is about 3 feet per annum. On the southern side of Flamborough Head the

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 261

rate of erosion is about the same. The town of Filey is protected by a
sea-wall. No groynes exist at Speeton, and shingle and sand are being
constantly removed during the winter months ; but on the southern side
of Flamborough Head (at Sands Road), one groyne has been built which
retains the beach sufficiently to enable carts to get down to and to remove
the sand. This loss is stated to have no apparent effect. At Bridlington
Quay parades and a sea-wall prevent subsidence to the north and south of
Bridlington Harbour, where there was formerly an annual loss of about
six feet. Piles are driven in close to the sea-wall, and groynes prevent
the scour of the beach and retard the travelling sand and shingle. To the
north of Wilsthorpe Gap groynes protect the beach, but do not prevent
subsidence of the cliff. At Flamborough Head, Bridlington Bay, fresh-
water springs cause the initial slipping of the cliff. The Divisional Officer,
writing from Bridlington Quay concerning the coast from 3 miles north
of Filey Brig to Grimston Garth, 9 miles south of Hornsea, states that
shingle, sand, and stones are removed from most places, exceptfrom Atwick
Gap to Garton Gap, where the beach is protected by order of the Board of
Trade. Along this coast, from Bridlington Quay to Spurn Head, practi-
cally the whole coast is receding at an average rate of 6 feet per annum,
where not especially protected, as in Bridlington Harbour.

Groynes exist at Hornsea, both to the north and south of the village,
and keep the shingle in place ; elsewhere the loss appears to be between
3 and 4 feet per annum. At Withernsea groynes in a very bad state of
repair are placed 100 yards apart, but the average annual loss is 9 feet
per annum. Shingle is not removed. At Sandlemere and Hompton an
annual loss of 9 feet per annum is also recorded.

From Kilnsea Warren to Spurn Point, a distance of 4 miles, groynes
retain and build up a good beach ; nevertheless the annual loss is given
as 6 feet. Three observations of definite change witnessed have been
supplied on Form IT. The first relates to a large fall of clay in June 1899
at Pampletine Cliff, Filey. The mass was 60 yards in length by 9 yards
in breadth, having a depth of some 100 feet. Such slips, which are not
uncommon, are produced, not merely by the encroachment of the sea, but
also through heavy rains and springs. At Ulrome (between Hornby
Runnell and Atwick) about 15 feet of cliff disappeared in 1899; the
average annual rate is estimated at 6 feet. The cause is locally attri-
buted to the scarcity of sand at the base of the cliff; and it is noted
that the loss is greatest where the cliffs are highest.

An undated report (probably 1899-1900) from Kilnsea records a very
rapid loss of land. In two months these slips reached the extent of
50 yards inland and 100 yards in length, and occurred at intervals along
some five miles of coast. Additional information, received in July 1903,
from Withernsea states that a large quantity of cliff has been washed
away since 1899 or 1900 from Wareholme, Garton, and Dimlington.

The shingle is not removed from Hornsea to Kilnsea.

The Humber Estuary.

The records for the Estuary of the Humber are also fairly complete
up to and beyond Barton. On the northern bank Cherry Cob Sands and
Sunk Island Sands show slight gains, due to the building of five chalk-
stone groynes. On the southern bank, the more northerly part of Clee-
thorpes shows some gain : it is protected by a sea wall and groynes.

262 REPORT—1903.

Also at Tetney Haven, to the south of Cleethorpes, sediment is deposited
upon the foreshore for an area of some 25 miles in length and } mile in
width at spring tides. The observations extend as far south as North-
cotes Point. The low and muddy shores of Marfleet and Paull, on the
northern bank, show no change, but variable erosion is reported from Barton
and Killingholme, where the shore is unprotected, and on the southern
shore of Cleethorpes through heavy gales. Nearly all the southern bank
of the estuary is protected by sea-walls or groynes. At Killingholme the
clay banks, their summits 6 or 8 feet above the beach, are covered, more
or less completely, by an apron of chalk and ironstone. A shingle bank
is said to be accumulating on the northern shore of South Killingholme
Haven, and a large sandbank in the river between North Terriby and
Hessle. In the neighbourhood of Terriby Hall, Barton Cliff, and
Barton Ness (Barton-on-Humber) the recorded loss is from 4 to 6 feet
in 24 years. Small groynes have been built from the Rifle Butts (3 miles
west of Hull) to, North Terriby, but are said to have no effect on the
beach. Docks and piers occupy part of the bank between Barrow Haven
and Chalk Point, and stones have been deposited to protect the banks near
Barton Cliffs. Apparently erosion in the estuary of the Humber is not
very serious, for (in July 1903) the loss of land at Barton-on-Humber is
said to have been imperceptible since 1899, while at Killingholme no
change has been recorded in the same time. At Cleethorpes, however,
about 20 feet of bank have been washed away in this period ; but the
sea-wall is now being extended for # mile E.S.E. to protect the part in
question.

Lincolnshire and the Wash.

Along the remainder of the Lincolnshire coast, the borders of the Wash,
and the Norfolk coast as far east as Salthouse at Lower Sheringham the
losses of land are also insignificant. From Northcotes Point (south of the
Humber estuary) as far south as Ingoldmells Point losses occur at
Sutton-le-Marsh and Chapel St. Leonards. Elsewhere the coast-line is
stationary. At Anderby there are no groynes and the shore is fringed
with sandhills covered by gorse and grass; while from Theddlethorpe
northwards it is protected by groynes at intervals. At Chapel parts of
the sandbank are washed away during each winter, but the shore is pro-
tected by groynes and faggots, which help to make up the banks. No
sand is removed for any purpose. In the neighbourhood of Sutton and
Mablethorpe the low sandy beach suffers a similar loss, and the shore,
moreover, is unprotected by groynes. As at Chapel, no sand or shingle is
allowed to be removed.

On the remaining Lincolnshire coast, and that of Norfolk as far as
Salthouse, but one loss is on record—viz. between Old and New Hun-
stanton. The contrary is the case in many parts of the Wash ; thus from
Lynn Cut to Wooten Creek the sea has apparently been receding during
the last five years, and land once under water is now covered only by
high spring tides. Banks are built to keep back the sea and reclaim the
land for cultivation. The same system is adopted east of Sutton Bridge
(near mouth of the river Nene), where the last inclosure (1899) was
made in 1865. From the south point of Fleethaven to the Lighthouse
(river Nene), Drove End detachment C.G.S., the land is reported to be
gaining on the sea. It is protected by banks near Freiston and Butter-
wick on the western side of the Wash. At Ingoldmells C.G.S piers

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 263

tend to keep the sand and shingle up to the banks. Beach material (or
mud locally) is removed from the neighbourhood of Ingoldisthorpe, the
river Witham, and Skegness. The low coast of the last-named place
is unprotected by groynes,

Last Anglia.

Entering the Hast Anglian coast at Salthouse we find an almost con-
tinuous record of erosion as far south as Harwich. But four gains of land
are recorded and but one stationary coast-section (Sizewell). Taking the
gains of land first, we note that a local increase is recorded opposite the
C.G.S. at Winterton ; and at North Yarmouth, where the increase is
supposed to arise from the piers and jetty stopping the shingle travelling
from the north. The third locality which shows a gain is the coast to
the north of Orford Ness, and that without the aid of groynes, while the
fourth and most southerly is on the eastern bank of the river Deben. On
the western side of the river the sea is encroaching. The gain at Winter-
ton appears to be purely local ; since both to the north and south of the
©.G.S. losses occur in spite of three groynes to the north of the station.

Losses are reported from all other stations (nineteen in number), with
the exception mentioned above at Sizewell, where the coast line is said to
be stationary. The erosion necessarily varies greatly from point to point,
but may be taken as from 6 feet to 9 feet per annum. An exceptional
case is that of the Low Lighthouse on Lowestoft Ness, which has been
moved back 249 feet in consequence of a loss to the headland on which it
‘stood of 120 feet in the year (probably 1899). Out of twenty-four coast-
guard stations sixteen are reported as being protected by groynes ; the
exceptions are Orford Ness and to the north, the coast south of Great
Yarmouth, and north of Happisburgh.

Shingle is removed from twelve stations along the coast, Shering-
ham, Cromer (by Lords of the Manor and Urban District Council),
Mundesley, Bacton, and Happisburgh (above high-water mark), Winterton
(in quantity), Caister (except between Scratby and the lifeboat house,
Caister), N. Yarmouth, Gorleston, Thorpe (in small quantities), Orford
‘Haven, and Felixstowe (between Beach Station Road and Martello
Tower Q).

Taking the various stations in order, the following details may be
noted as being of interest. Information from Weybourne (Clay Sluice to
Sparrow Gap) is that ‘ most of the shingle beach for a quarter of a mile
to the west of the station was washed away, but is now coming back,
while 6 yards of cliff have been washed away to the eastward of the
station during the eight years the present occupier has been in charge’
[up to July 1903]. At Sheringham six groynes exist, and have made an
improvement in the beach, and a sea-wall is under construction. At
Cromer the coast is protected by six permanent or pile-driven groynes and
twenty-four Case groynes. Occasional large landslips and frequent small
landslips occur. Several important ones are recorded in 1899, 1901, and
1902 along the coast from Runton to Sidestrand: they varied from
100 to 160 yards in length and 18 to 70 yards in depth. Eight wooden
groynes have been built at Mundesley, by which the shingle is at times
retarded, but at others it is scoured away. Several falls of cliff have
taken place since 1899. At Cox’s Point the sea is said to have gained
20 yards since that date, and the annual loss over about five miles of
coast is estimated at 5 yards,

264 REPORT—1903.

At Happisburgh the groynes put down in 1893 were carried away by
gales in 1895, and the annual loss is estimated at 9 feet ; but the writer
was informed in July 1903 that the yearly loss between Harboro’ Gap
and Ostend Gap is about a foot.

Five groynes have been placed ‘near Eccles steeple,’ and prevent the
beach from scouring away, while ridges of thorns are placed in trenches
at the foot of the sandhills. The average height of these hills is 15 feet.
Since 1899 an encroachment of 8 to 12 feet has taken place between
Eccles Point and Horsey Gap, the greatest loss being at Eccles Beach.

For one mile north of Winterton Ness there has been an annual loss
of about 6 feet, with ‘a corresponding gain to the south of that point.’

A similar loss is recorded between California and Caister Points, but
groynes erected by the Midland Railway Company 14 mile north of
Caister have there caused an increase of sand and shingle.

The cliff north of Baker’s Score at the end of Corton village sustains
an annual loss of 3 feet, but erosion is prevented south of this point by
Mr. Colman’s defences. North-easterly winds appear to be very destruc-
tive to this coast (and also easterly and south-easterly), since by removing
the beach they allow the tide to get close up to the cliff. With westerly
winds the sand again makes up to the depth of 4 or 5 feet.

Between 1899 and 1903 about 50 yards of land have been washed
away from Pakefield Cliff for the length of a mile; but opposite the
coastguard station (at Lowestoft) a gain of 20 yards has taken place for
a length of some 600 yards. <A report, dated February 1900, remarks
that the footpath has been lost between the lighthouse and the R.N.R.
battery through high tide and wind. The heavy loss on Lowestoft Ness
has been referred to above. From Kessingland C.G.S. an outline of the
coast has been forwarded (from Pakefield Gap to Covehithe, a distance of
about 6 miles) contrasted with its appearance fifty years ago, 7.e. in 1849.
During that time the shore has receded nearly 1,200 feet to the north
of Kessingland Church and at Covehithe.

Around Southwold an encroachment of 30 to 40 feet has taken place
since 1899, giving an average yearly loss of 10 or 12 feet from Covehithe
to Dunwich (64 miles) ; and in a report of earlier date the estimate is still
higher. From 500 yards north to 500 yards south of Thorpe C.G.S. the
sea has encroached (August 1899) 150 feet since 1882 ; a northerly wind
greatly increases the height of the tide, and there are no groynes or other
protection. Between East Lane C.G.S., Bawdsey, and Woodbridge Haven
there has been a yearly loss since February 1900 of about 15 feet, appli-
cabie to 1} mile of coast. Groynes have been built locally. Between
Felixstowe Pier and Felixstowe Point (23 miles) the coast gains through
being groyned. North-easterly winds tend to wash the beach to the
southern side of the groynes, south-westerly to the northern. A southerly
wind tends to make the beach, a northerly having the contrary effect.

Groynes have been built at intervals along the Sheringham, Cromer,
Overstrand, Mundesley stretch of coast. As above mentioned, they existed
formerly at Happisburgh ; while allusion has been made to those built
at Eccles, Winterton, and Caister. Immediately to the south of Great
Yarmouth the coast is unprotected ; but groynes have been constructed
locally between Gorleston and Corton. Lowestoft and Southwold have
certain coast-defences ; the south beach at the former place has a system
of Case groynes ; and thirty have been constructed at Southwold, where
they are stated to have a good effect.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 265

The Kessingland and Dunwich coasts are unprotected, and no beach
is removed with the exception mentioned below. At Coney Hill, near
Misner Haven, one groyne has been placed ; here also nothing is taken
away for industrial or other purposes. Southwards groynes have not been
erected ; but Orford Haven is partly groyned, as is the coast from Bawd-
sey to Woodbridge Haven. The effect is to collect the shingle, of which
none is taken away.

At Felixstowe (to the entrance to Harwich Harbour) a sea wall was
in course of erection in August 1899, a few yards above H.W.M.O.S.T.,
between Landguard Lodge and Beach Station Road. Between Towers
Q and R (and also extending round Felixstowe Point) groynes have
been constructed ; but these were partly washed away during heavy
weather. The effect of the wind on the beach has been already noticed.

Two reports have been received relative to the erection of new coast
defences. At Cromer these refer to the extension of the pier and the
promenades ; at Bacton to the building of a sea-wall of concrete between
Walcott and Ostend Gaps (report received in June 1899), Especial men-
tion should be made of the large quantity of shingle removed (February
1900) from above high-water mark along the coast 50 yards north of
Dunwich. This has been done by order of the Blything Rural District
Council.

Essex.

Concerning the coast from Harwich to the Roach River, observations
from thirteen stations provide evidence of little change, since ten
record no alteration—a result no doubt of the artificial protections.

A gain is reported from Waliton-on-the-Naze following the lengthening
of the pier, and a loss from near Harwich Harbour, where the sea-wall is
broken in, with local slips at Clacton at unguarded spots. Every station
is protected, usually with sea walls; while Harwich, Walton, Clacton,
and the eastern side of Mersea Island are provided with groynes.
Shingle is removed in small quantities from Harwich, Clacton, Colne
Point, and from the southern side of the Blackwater River.

Kent and East Sussex.

The next reports are sent from the mouth of the Medway, and we
may consider the Kentish together with the Sussex coast as far west as
Goring, near Worthing. (Sheet 20 and 24 of the 4 miles=1 inch map.)

We have to deal with seventy-three observations, amongst which six
gains of land arg recorded.

Taking these first, a gain of 60 feet in seven or eight years is reported
from Walmer, and from Kingston in the same neighbourhood (south of
Deal). The beach also accumulates between Littlestone and Greatstone,
and southwards almost to the point of Dungeness ; indeed Littlestone
Point is said to have lengthened out 100 to 150 yards in the last three
years (up to 1899). This report, dated from Romney C.G.8., records
that ‘the whole of the Hoy has been, and the mouth of the Hoy is now,
thickly faggoted in square patches representing small square fields,
which by accumulating mud and sand are gradually filling up the Hoy
to nearly tide level.’

Gains occur at Rye Harbour, Newhaven Harbour (insignificant), and
at New Shoreham. The first place is protected by groynes anda sea-wall.

266 REPORT—1903.

On the western side flints are collected and sent to Stafford for the manu-,
facture of pottery, and sand and gravel are removed for making concrete
and for building purposes. At Shoreham groynes have been placed
14 mile west of the harbour, and accumulate the shingle &e.

Comparing the erosion which occurs on the various parts of the
Kentish coast, it would appear that the northern shore is the greatest
sufferer, the amount of erosion decreasing in passing from the eastern to
the southern coast and the borders of Sussex. Omitting those localities
where the shingle gains, and also those where there is a loss in one place
and a gain at another, as in parts of Rye Bay, the relative losses on the
three parts of the coast may be roughly expressed by the figures 61, 59,
and 54, these representing percentages of loss on the total number of
observations.

As before, various points of interest will be noticed in sequence in
passing round the coast. In the parish of Minster, Sheppey, about two
acres of cliff fell in January 1903, half way between the Coastguard Flag-
staff and Bell Farm.

Eastward very little change is reported from Whitstable since 1899,
except for a slight increase of shingle near the old coastguard buildings
at Swale Cliff, with, however, a considerable loss near the new station,
where in May 1903 about an acre fell, and the whole edge is reported as
seeming to be in a crumbling condition.

At Herne Bay, from Hampton west of the old pier to Hampton
Point, a distance of a mile, a report dated July 1903 records falls
of cliff owing to the beach being scoured away. Near Hampton the
yearly loss has been 15 to 20 yards, but gradually less northward
for the remainder of the cliff. Moreover, the loss of land increases
rapidly each year. Hampton Pier causes a scour to the west, but
collects the shingle on its eastern side. To the west of this pier four Case
groynes have been erected to protect the cliff.

Frequent slips and falls of cliff occur at Reculvers during the rainy
season after a long period of dry weather or when a thaw sets in after a
frost. No important changes are reported since. 1899 between Cold
Harbour on the east and Beltinge Lane on the west, but the cliff between
Reculvers and Herne Bay loses about 4 feet per annum. Groynes have
been erected by the High Commissioner of Sewers, by Mr. A. Collard and
Miss A. Monckton. For a mile W.S.W. of Birchington Station towards
Reculvers the average yearly loss through falls of the cliff has been 6 feet.
At the termination of the cliff groynes are placed, and cause a large
accumulation of shingle which is not removed.

From the east end of Margate to the North Foreland the annual loss
of land is about one-tenth of an acre, for heavy falls of the chalk cliff
take place in wet or frosty weather.

From the North Foreland to Dumpton Gap (Broadstairs C.G.S.) four
falls of cliff took place in 1901, and three in 1903, the average yearly loss
since 1899 being about one-fifth of a foot. For one mile south of the coast-
guard station at No. 2 Battery, Deal, the annual loss is 123 feet. South
of this again the coast is stationary, while at Kingsdown, as above
mentioned, the beach is ‘making’ to the north of the station. To the
south, however, the loss has been heavy. A carriage drive formerly
existing south of this station to St. Margaret’s Bay is now destroyed,
although a margin of 50 yards of land lay once on its seaward side. At
high spring tides the sea now reaches the base of the cliffs. To the north
of the coastguard station shingle is removed in large quantities.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 267

The losses of cliff at St. Margaret’s Bay form the subject of a number
of reports on Form II. In February 1900 between 400 and 500 tons of
chalk fell from the western end of the bay ; in March of the following
year the sea made breaches in the foreshore ; while in December two falls
are reported of 100 and 500 tons, the first one mile N.E. of the bay, the
second half a mile S.W. of South Foreland High Light. In February of
1902 800 tons of chalk fell from the cliff 200 yards east of Cornhill
C.G.S., while in November and December of the following year a fall of
100 tons of chalk took place about one mile north of the bay, and one of
1,500 tons from ‘ Fan Bay,’ 600 yards east of Cornhill C.G.S. In March
of the same year (1903) the sea, aided by a strong wind from the N.N.W.,
cut into the foreshore between North Point and Ness Point at various
places ; some of the hollows thus formed were 100 feet in length with
a width of 30 to 50 feet.

At Black Rock (the eastern end of Dover Parade) the sea has
encroached about 40 feet in the space of twenty years. The works
at Dover, now nearing completion (July 1899), are probably the cause
of certain alterations in the beach. Thus in the winter of 1898 the
‘shingle was taken away by the sea from a point 600 to 700 yards east of
the Promenade Pier and collected at the western extreme. The Dover
Harbour Board are placing two new groynes with the intention of recover-
ing it.

” At Sandgate extensive damage has been done to the foreshore and
sea-wall during the ten years from 1899. Groynes have been built and
act favourably in retaining the beach.

Near Hythe the tram lines near the old Lifeboat House have been
undermined, and No. 17 Martello Tower is considered to be dangerous
for the same reason.

To the S.W. the coastguard station at St. Mary’s has been given up
by reason of the encroachment of the sea. Here the groynes are reported
to have but little effect on the travelling shingle, although a temporary
accumulation of sand may be produced in the summer. The heads of
these groynes ‘are a long way from the beach,’ and the east winds carry
the shingle on towards Dungeness or Greatstone Point.

The coast around Dungeness is of considerable interest. _As above
mentioned, gains are reported on the lee side, i.e. to the north of the
head, for some 6 miles ; but at the point itself and to the W.S.W. variable
conditions obtain. During the months of January and February 1899
‘about 12 yards of beach inland’ were washed away by the sea: the
exact position is not stated, but presumably from the western side. A
report, dated July 1903, records an average gain to the shore at the
Point of about 12 or 15 feet per annum, with, however, losses to the
westward of about 4 to 6 feet, the district included being from Dungeness
Point to three miles westward. It is worth remarking that two new
lighthouses are being built. From 14 to 3 miles west of Dungeness light-
house the average loss to the coast is 3 feet per annum (1903), an earlier
observer remarking that the ‘former Hope and Anchor Inn is now on
fold of beach, and extraordinary spring tides wash the base.’ A few
groynes have been constructed to protect the sluice that drains Dengemarsh,
and in 1902 a new groyne was laid down at Dengemarsh Gut.

To the north-east of Hastings, at Haddocks, Fairlight, and Eccles-
bourne, falls of cliff are frequent, and at Bexhill information gathered
from a member of the coastguard who has known this part of the coast

268 REPORT—1908.

from 1857 states considerable encroachments of the sea from the date
mentioned to 1899. It is reported, in addition, that the groynes laid down
as far as Clynde Arch have no apparent effect on the beach, but removal
of the shingle, formerly allowed, is now discontinued.

Loss of the cliff is reported from Birling Gap on the western side of
Beachy Head, and at Crowlink the cliff is slowly but constantly crumbling.
A slight encroachment is noted at Cuckmere owing to groynes having
been constructed at Seaford, 3 miles to the westward, and the mouth of
Cuckmere Haven, recently closed, is now again open owing to the con-
tinual shifting of the beach. Very little material is removed. From
the west end of Seaford Parade for three quarters of a mile westward
the estimated loss is 4 feet per annum, but a slight gain occurs from 400
yards west of the Buckle Inn to Newhaven Harbour. At Newhaven
itself falls of cliff are frequent, and the large breakwater on the western
side of the entrance to the harbour stops the shingle travelling eastward.

Passing on to Brighton, it is noteworthy that the groynes along the
sea front retard the shingle from working east, and by this means the
cliff from the Aquarium eastwards to Roedean is laid bare, This cliff
constantly crumbles away with high winds and spring tides. Two wooden
groynes at the eastern end of Rottingdean Gap prevent the shingle working
eastwards with south-westerly gales. Wooden and stone groynes have
been constructed at Hove and Southwick. .

The loss at Goring is suggested to be owing to defective groynes, and
in the winter a few years ago about 70 yards of a field adjoining the coast
were washed away during high spring tides. In this parish no beach
material is removed.

Other Coast-protections.—The northern coast of Kent is, on the whole,
well protected with groynes, and locally by sea-walls. In the Isles of
Grain and Sheppey five stations out of seven are protected by groynes or
a sea-wall, or by both. From Whitstable Bay to Margate every station
is more or less protected, although losses are mentioned in almost every
report. At Westgate, since 1899, a slipway has been built and a groyne
run out to protect the new promenade ; also the five groynes in St. Mil-
dred’s Bay are now completed. The cliff around Foreness Point and the
North Foreland is unprotected by groynes, while those existing at the back
of the harbour at Broadstairs and at St. Margaret’s Bay are said to have
no effect on the shingle or sand. It is noteworthy, however, that flints
and sand are taken away from the beach for building purposes. The
groynes laid down at the northern end of Deal are causing the shingle
to shift further north. These groynes (apparently the same), put down
north of the pier in 1898, retain the shingle and sand, but are liable to be
scoured out by the set of the sea after north-westerly to north-easterly or
south-westerly gales.

From Dover to Littlestone (New Romney) reports from eight stations
have been received covering the entire stretch of coast. In each case
protection by groynes, faggots, or piers has been afforded, and in six out
of the eight instances these are effective in accumulating shingle. The
alterations in the harbour works at Dover render any precise determination
difficult in that locality, while the groynes at St. Mary’s have been already
mentioned. From Littlestone round Dungeness Point, as far as the
eastern side of Rye Harbour, five stations out of seven are protected.
Of the remaining two the one situated immediately north of Dungeness
Point shows a gain, the other to the south and west a loss. This loss,

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM, 269
as above noted, is continued westward, and it is noteworthy that the
groynes are few. Light out of thirteen reports covering the coast from
Rye Harbour to the northern part of Eastbourne mention shore-protec-
tions which it would seem are effective, with the exception noted above
from Bexhill.

The remainder of the coast included in this section of the report, viz.
from Beachy Head to Goring, has been the subject of fifteen reports, of
which ten record the building of groynes or of a sea-wall. Some of these
have been already mentioned ; in the others the groynes appear to be
fairly effective in accumulating and retaining the shingle and sand at the
places where they have been erected.

Beach material is definitely stated to be taken from the following

places :—

The Isle of Grain.

The western side of Sheerness.

Westgate-on-Sea.

The neighbourhood of Margate,
Broadstairs, and Ramsgate.

Kingsdown.

Dover (for building sea-wall
under Shakespeare’s Cliff).

The foreshore at Folkestone.

The eastern side of Ecclesbourne
Station (hard stone).

Hastings, St. Leonards (at the
western end), and formerly from
Bexhill.

In large quantities from Lang-
ney (Pevensey Bay).

Portobello (between Newhaven
and Rottingdean),

The beach belonging to the Shoreham.
Hythe Corporation. Sand in great quantities from
Rye Harbour. Worthing.

Haddocks (occasionally).
West Sussex, Hampshire, the Isle of Wight, and Hast Dorset.

The next section of coast to be considered is comprised in Sheet 23 of
the 4 miles = 1 inch map (as far west as Portland Sound and in-
cluding the Isle of Wight). Of this the eastern part from Goring to
Chichester Harbour shows an almost uniform loss, the coast to the
south-west of Pagham being the only part which is reported as stationary.

From East Preston (near Littlehampton) a loss of 12 feet took place
in the ten years ending at July 1899. The groynes retain the travelling
sand and shingle to a great extent, but beach material, chiefly sand, is
removed for industrial purposes.

At the eastern end of the sea front at Littlehampton and at Elener
Point severe gales have caused an encroachment, but groynes stop the
eastward movement of shingle, and the removal of sand tends to prevent
the blocking up of the harbour-mouth.

At Felpham the groynes, which when in proper repair retain the
shingle, are now (1899) practically useless through neglect, and a loss of
40 feet is reported in the preceding two years, a road and pathway havin
been washed away. The sea-wall and esplanade are being lengthened by
the Bognor Urban Council.

The eastern side of Selsey Bill loses ground, and groynes have
been erected to prevent this. Only small quantities of gravel are
removed.

Loss also takes place on the western side of Selsey Bill for some
23 miles from Corham’s Gap to Thorney Barn, the damage being done
by heavy south-westerly winds in conjunction with spring tides. Groynes

270 REPORT—19038.

have been built to aid the accumulation of sand and shingle, of which but.
little is removed.

From East Wittering, Bracklesham Bay, an average of 20 feet has
been washed away for a distance of 2 miles within two years, due, it is
supposed, to the absence of groynes or other protection to the coast.
Beach material is not removed.

No groynes have been built on the eastern side of Chichester Harbour,
and a loss of land is reported, as a result of high tides and winds which by
undermining the cliffs cause small falls, while the neck of shingle at the
entrance to the harbour is being gradually driven inwards by the sea in
bad weather. No beach material is removed.

The coast from Chichester Harbour up Southampton Water as far as
Woolston is described in eleven reports. The southern side of Hayling
Island is liable to inundation when strong south winds occur with high
tides; but, with this reservation, no change is recorded, except a landslip
% mile west of Lee-on-Solent (Stubbington), where, owing to heavy rains
and strong winds, a mass of cliff 100 yards long and 4 to 5 feet deep fell.
The coast on the whole is well guarded. A sea-wall has been built at
Eastney (small quantities of shingle are occasionally taken by the Admiralty
Works Department), and groynes at Southsea, which prevent loss of
beach material, none of which is removed. The neighbourhood of Stokes
Bay and to the east (Clay Hall C.G.8.) is also well protected. Forts
Blackburn and Haslar are provided with ten wooden groynes which
accumulate shingle for the protection of the sea-wall and fort, and three
others at Gilkicker Point cause the shingle to gather and form a pro-
jecting spit.

Two low groynes built between Stokes Bay Railway Pier and Lee
Point have no effect.

It is worthy of note that the southern part of Hayling Island is
unprotected, and that the shingle and sand of the beach are removed for
industrial purposes.

On Southampton Water rough wooden groynes proteci Titchfield
Haven, and the groynes have been built near Warsash C.G.S. ; but little
shingle is removed, though mud is taken from the Hamble River for
cement making.

Ten observations from the northern, eleven from the southern coast
complete the circuit of the Isle of Wight. Five records on the mainland
side and no fewer than nine on the southern are of encroachment.
From no locality is a gain of land reported. Taking the northern shore
first, we may note that no appreciable erosion is taking place along the
coast from Nettlestone Point to West Cowes. Between the former
locality and Bembridge Harbour groynes have been erected in places,
and both sand and gravel are removed. Groynes have been built to
the eastward but not to the westward of Ryde Pier, and these collect
shingle and sand (the latter is not removed from close in shore). The
Binstead and Wootton district is low and muddy with a shingle beach,
there are a few groynes on the Osborne estate, and a sea-wall at East
Cowes but no groynes. From Colwell Bay to the Beacon at the Needles
the coast is stated to neither gain nor lose material. There are five
groynes in Colwell Bay. Along the remainder of the shore losses occur :
at Bembridge, in places unprotected by groynes which have been only
built locally ; near Burnt Wood Copse, Gurnard C.G.S., where heavy
rains cause landslips, and groynes, moreover, are absent; between

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 271

Hamstead Wood and Saltmead, where the sea has encroached 18 feet in five:
years, and groynes again have not been erected ; and in the neighbourhood
of Yarmouth. Here the cliffs for three miles east of Yarmouth Pier are
continually sliding on to the beach carrying away small trees ce. in their
progress. To the west of Yarmouth Harbour a roadway along the beach
has been completely washed away during the five years preceding 1899.
From about 1894 to 1903 the annual loss of cliff has been three feet
along the stretch of coast from the west end of Yarmouth Common to
Hampstead Point. The coast-defences are not unimportant. They consist
of a sea-wall 700 yards west and 300 yards east of Fort Albert and
another 100 yards long in front of Fort Victoria, and also short groynes
along the shore east of Yarmouth Pier. The latter are said, however, to
have very little effect on the travelling sand &c. No beach material can
be removed without the permission of the Board of Trade, and then only
for use in sea-walls de.

The stationary parts of the southern coast are at the eastern end.
From a point half way between Shanklin and Sandown to the Foreland
no change is reported. Groynes at the eastern part of Sandown retain
the sand, and a small breakwater near the Foreland C.G.S. collects the
shingle. Neither sand nor shingle is removed. Returning westward, we
find at Freshwater Bay an annual loss of about a foot for a distance of
about 300 feet where the cliff is soft. Near Brook (Compton Bay and
south-eastward) a report states (probably in 1899) that rocks which
thirty years ago formed part of the foot of the cliff are now 58 feet away.

Along the coast 3 miles north-west of St. Catherine’s Lighthouse
the encroachment of the sea is said to be owing to the bed of the cliff
being of blue clay, which, being easily eroded by every gale, facilitates.
slipping in the overlying mass. There are no groynes, and nothing is.
removed. The eastern arm of Woody Bay, Ventnor, is disappearing by
landslips and exposure to east winds much more rapidly than the western:
arm, where there is little alteration. At Bennel (June 1899) subsidence
of the land is taking place, making a gradual but very rugged slope
seaward (by reason of the cracks). A somewhat similar report deals
with the coast from Orchard Bay (Ventnor) to Dunnose Point, where
encroachment takes place on positions exposed to the 8.E., 8., S.S.W., and
N.S.W. winds. The few groynes along this station collect shingle with
W. and 8.W, winds, such shingle being removed by easterly winds.
Nothing is taken away for any purpose. The lack of sufficient groynes
has been given as the cause of the slight loss of land from Dunnose Point
to beyond Shanklin Pier. Those already built assist in accumulating the
beach, of which none is removed.

No reports have been submitted from the northern side of the Solent
or Christchurch Bay, but between Christchurch Head and Boscombe Chine
an average loss of 3 feet per annum is recorded, with no groynes and
nothing removed. Erosion is taking place along the soft cliffs extending
from Bournemouth to Poole Head, consisting of the Bagshot beds and
plateau gravel, with an admixture of clay. The sandhills stretching from
Poole Head to North Haven Point, at the entrance to Poole Harbour,
were subject to erosion as far back as records exist ; but some years ago
they were protected by the construction of a sea-wall near high-water
mark, of which a portion, for a length of about 1,940 feet from Poole Head,
is perfectly sound ; another portion further on is seriously damaged in
places, and of the part nearer North Haven Point only traces exist. In

DAnlp? REPORT—1903.

1896-98, however, thirteen groynes were erected along the foreshore
between Poole Head and North Haven Point, which have led to an accu-
mulation of sand along their western sides, and produced an advance of the
foreshore.! A comparison of the Admiralty charts of 1849 and 1878 shows
that a considerable amount of accretion took place along the northern
foreshore of Studland Bay within this period, which may be attributed to
the protection afforded, during the latter part of this period, by a training
bank, carried out in a southerly direction from the southern extremity of
South Haven Point, for a length of 1,300 feet between 1860 and 1876 ;
but the latest charts indicate that some accretion has taken place since
1878 in the vicinity of South Haven Point. A small quantity of shingle
is occasionally taken from Ballard Point. From this promontory as far
as Swyre Head, West Lulworth, practically no ioss seems to occur, and no
groynes have been built. From West Lulworth as far as the Chesil Beach
losses to the coast are common. High spring tides and strong winds,
heavy rains, and thaws after severe frosts, are responsible for the damage
done. Four groynes formerly erected along the shore at Preston are now
reduced to one, which is useless for stopping the travelling beach. A
proposal to erect groynes was under consideration in 1899 by the town
authorities of Weymouth. No beach material is removed from this
neighbourhood except the northern part of Portland.

Three reports include the whole of the Isle of Portland, and mention
no alteration. This does not agree with the result of Wheeler’s investi-
gations. He notes a loss of land on the eastern side and gives an estimate
of loss for ‘the centre part of the island’ of a foot per annum (‘ The Sea
Coast,’ p. 153). When we reach Burton Bradstock, at the western ex-
tremity of the Chesil Bank, loss of land is reported. Between Swyre
Gulley and Freshwater (Burton Bradstock) there was formerly sufficient
land under the cliffs to pasture cattle. This is now gone, replaced by
sand and shingle, while the sea beats against the cliff at spring tides.
There are no groynes until we reach the eastward side of the harbour at
Lyme Regis, and, though but little beach material is removed, encroach-
ments occur as far as 2 miles beyond the county boundary. The loss of
cliff in the neighbourhood of Lyme Regis is due almost entirely to the
alternation of hard and soft material aided by the percolation of rain.
The blue Lias stone is taken away to be burnt for lime.

This part of the Dorset coast has been the subject of several reports
on Form II. Two come from the Preston C.G.8. (near Weymouth),
recording falls of cliff from the eastern end of the station, in the one case
600 feet long, with a width of 18 to 40 feet, in the other 100 feet long by
50 to 90 feet broad (April 15, 1901). In January 1903 several tons of
cliff fell into the sea half a mile west of the Burton C.G.S.; in June
1899 a fall took place between West Bay and Eype ; and in September
1902 at Clay Knapp (200 yards east of Eype’s Mouth, near Bridport),
another 26 yards long by 6 or 8 feet wide.

From near the Devon county-boundary as far as Cliff Castle, Beer
Head, there is no loss of coast, and no groynes have been built ; but a
slight encroachment is recorded from Branscombe.

1 Report on Poole Harbour Protection to the Poole Harbour Commissioners, by
L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, November 24, 1903 (Poole 1903).

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 273

Devon.

Of the Devonshire coast between Sidmouth and Teignmouth no records
have been received, but between Babbacombe and Torcross, in Start Bay,
eight observations are to hand. No alterations are reported, except that
the inner harbour of Torquay, modified by piers, is gradually filling up,
and that in the neighbourhood of Paignton the sea encroaches at the
eastern end of Goodrington Sands and on Preston Sands. At the Jatter
place a sea-wall is being built. Elsewhere groynes, &c., are absent, but
shingle is removed from the neighbourhood of Babbacombe and from
Hallsands, Torcross. Erosion was formerly seriously imperilling the
existence of the beach used by fishing-boats in Babbacombe Bay ; but a
fishing pier erected at the eastern extremity of the Bay in 1889-90, and
carried out in a northerly direction for 120 feet as a protection for the
fishing-boats, has also caused shingle to accumulate along the shore of
the bay within its shelter.

The Start district itself is unequally affected. On the eastern side of
the estuary of the Avon loss is recorded from Start Point to within a
short distance of East Portlemouth, although the encroachment is but
slight. In the estuary of the Salcombe River no change has occurred
during the last forty years (up to the summer of 1899), nor is there altera-
tion as far as West Cliff, midway between Bolt Head and Bolt Tail.
Losses, however, occur westward from this locality as far as Freshwater
Cliffs (about 1} mile west of Ringmore). Sand and shingle are removed
from the neighbourhood of Hope Cove [? Thurlestone Sands].

Cornwall.

From this point westward along the coast, rownd Land’s End, and
along the northern cliffs of Cornwall as far as Bude (after which the
records are fewer) is a stable region of comparatively small changes.
These are as follows :—

At Downderry, in Whitesand Bay, the unprotected coast loses about
6 inches per annum. No sand is removed.

To the west of Looe there is a slow encroachment on a low clay cliff—
partly protected, however, by a stone wall.

In the neighbourhood of Porthscatho there is also a slight loss; at
Polearnick and Pendower roads have been destroyed. The coast is
unprotected, and sand is removed for building purposes.

Near St. Mawes, from Killigerran Head to St. Just Creek, 3 feet of
cliffhas been lost in seventy years, owing apparently to clay soil giving way.
There are no groynes.

At the Lizard between Lean Water and Soapy Cove a slight loss
occurs, ‘ where the cliffs are composed of mica schist.’

Movement of the shingle, in accordance with prevalent winds, occurs
to the north-west of Mullion, between Porthleven and Gunwalloe, a
succession of south-easterly gales bringing it towards Porthleven to the
extent of 10 to 15 feet in depth, whereas south-westerly gales remove
it, though not to the same extent, towards Gunwalloe.

From this locality round Mount’s Bay itself losses are rather more
frequent—as, for instance, in Prussia Cove, especially at spring tides and
with a heavy sea, where the cliff is composed of clay and sand. Locally

the latter is removed. Erosion also occurs on the eastern side of Mount’s
1903. T

274 REPORT—1903.

Bay at Marazion. No change takes place at Penzance, although there
are no groynes, and thousanidls of tons of sand are removed annually for
agricultural purposes ; but at Newlyn, to the eastward of the harbour,
the sea has encroached slightly during the past ten or twelve years,
causing the old road along the sea-front to be abandoned. Now, indeed,
this road has almost disappeared. To the westward of Newlyn Harbour
an artificial beach is being formed by the refuse from quarries.

In the neighbourhood of the Land’s End and St. Ives Bay two changes
only are on record, both being local falls of cliff arising from heavy gales.
The first of these is at Sennen Cove, Land’s End, where, however, the
loss is very slight, and occurs especially along the back of the beach,
which is composed of sandy material ; the second is from the Hayle
River westward, the cliffs falling away after heavy north-westerly gales.
There are no groynes, and no beach material is removed.

Five reports have been received from the Scally Isles. The islands of
St. Martin’s, St. Mary’s, and St. Agnes, situated on the eastern and
southern sides of the group, all suffer erosion either where the shore is of
a soft nature or by the cliffs falling. No groynes have been built on any
of the islands. In St. Mary’s the loss in certain places—e.g. Porcrasa,
Old Town, Porthloo, and Pelistry Bays—varies between ‘10 and 40 yards
in the last five to ten years.’

No shingle, sand, or slabs of stone are removed from the shores of
St. Mary’s or St. Agnes.

The northern coast of Cornwall from Gwithian to Bude suffers neither
loss nor gain, with the exception that local falls of cliff take place near
Port Isaac (Bounds Cliff and Kelland Head).

North Devon and Somerset.

The northern coast of Devon and the coast of Somerset are the subject
of scattered reports,! which will be taken in order.

In the neighbourhood of Clovelly and Hartland Point the cliffs are
continually falling. There are no groynes, nor is anything removed.

From Abbotsham Sand Path to Bideford (Barnstaple Bay) no changes
are noticeable. There are no groynes, and at Graysand Point, near
Barnstaple Bar, sand is removed at low tide in large quantities. From
Baggy Point to Lee Bay (Morthoe C.G.S.) the coast-line is stationary ; a
little shingle and sand is taken from the beach at Woolacombe.

No change is reported from the Ilfracombe district ; there are no
groynes, but beach material is removed for building and road-metal.

The same applies to the Combmartin district (Watermouth to
Heddonsmouth, about twelve miles), and also to the neighbourhood of
Lynmouth for about six miles on either hand. A loss of several feet of
cliff within three years is, however, recorded from the Minehead C.G.S.,
between Minehead Pier and Warren Point. Some beach material is re-
moved by private owners. A report from Watchet C.G.S. concerning the
shore as far as East Quantock Head mentions that small landslips are
of frequent occurrence on either side of the harbour. Shingle is removed
from Doniford and sand from wherever it can be obtained.

Letters addressed to Weston-super-Mare and Avonmouth have been
left unanswered, presumably because no coastguards are stationed along
that part of the Bristol Channel.

1 Dated July 1903, with the exception of that from Minehead.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 275

W ALES.

The reports sent in are almost entirely confined to the southern
half of the Principality. Out of twenty-four, eight record loss of land.

At Barry, owing to occasional landslips due to undermining by the
sea, this recession of the coast averages a foot per annum. Sand and
stones are removed from the beach for building purposes, and pebbles for
lime burning. A loss of coast is also taking place at Oxwich, in the
Gower Peninsula. Oxwich Marsh is periodically flooded; while in
December [? 1898] a landslip detached some thousands of tons of rock.
Owing to this encroachment the practice of removing shingle é&c. from
the shore has been discontinued.

Erosion is also taking place between Llanelly and the Kidwelly River
through storms and high spring tides, and is estimated at about 6 feet
per annum. Like other parts of Glamorganshire, there are no groynes
along the coast. Shingle and sand are removed for industrial purposes.

At Tenby a very slight gain is recorded from Giltar Point to St.
Katherine’s Rock. Here sand is blown up by the south-westerly wind,
and held in position by marram grass. By these means high sandhills are
formed, for there are no groynes. Sand and shingle are removed in small
quantities, but not sufficiently to make any change in the form of the
beach or to cause damage to surrounding property.

In St. Bride’s Bay at Broadhaven the sea encroaches slightly, part of
the front of the town having been washed away in 1899. Broadhaven is
protected by a sea-wall, and shingle and sand have at times been removed
from the foreshore.

Stones &c. are taken from the shore at Goodwick, but no changes in
the coast-line are given. No groynes are constructed.

At St. Dogmells in Northern Pembrokeshire an encroachment is recorded
through gradual rotting of the slate, but at Aberporth the sea is stated
to be gaining considerably every year, the blue clay on the foreshore
being washed away by the sea. Here also gravel and stones are
removed from the beach.

At Penrhyn the cliffs are falling away, the same thing happening at
Newquay, Cardigan. At Cibach there are two groynes which catch the
shingle, none of which is removed, but with this exception no groynes are
recorded from any place in the southern half of Wales.

In regard to the northern part of Wales a report has been received
from Bangor, including the coast line from Moelfre Island to Great Orme’s
Head, a distance of 38 miles. This part of the coast is stationary ; much
is low, with muddy, sandy, or shingle shores, and the vertical range of
ordinary spring tides is 19 feet. Sand is used for building purposes. The
low sandy coast of Rhyl loses only at the end of the sea-wall, through
the backwash of the sea. Groynes built to protect the wall gather sand
and shingle.

No coastguard stations are established between Newquay in Cardigan
Bay and Carnarvon, along part of the North Welsh coast, and between
New Brighton and Maryport. Accordingly information concerning the
Lancashire and Cumberland coast is but scanty. The marine surveyor
to the Mersey Dock Board has kindly given information on the shore
between Hilbre Island and Formby Point. He notices an encroachment
of the sea along this part of Liverpool Bay. The coast is not protected

276 REPORT—1903.

by groynes, but embankments have been put up here and there near high-
water mark. Occasionally loads of sand are removed.

At Maryport, in Cumberland, erosion is also reported, especially about
half a mile N.E. of Maryport Harbour, where the loss is heavy. The
coast is low, and both sand and stones are taken from the shore. At
Silloth, where the coast is sandy, and flat, no change is recorded.

IRELAND.

From the northern part of the county of Galway, i.e. as far south
as Galway Bay, six records have been received, some of which mention
losses of land. The coast between Slyne Head and Streamstown (Clifden)
suffers erosion at Slyne Head itself, at Mannin Bay and at Fahy Bay, and
also at Slackpool and Doalaghan. Tully Point (Killary Harbour) becomes
almost surrounded by water at high spring tides with northerly winds.
Previously under cultivation, it is now a sandy waste through storms.

Mayo provides twelve reports. The first concerns the islands between
Westport and Newport Bays (Clew Bay), where the annual loss on those
most exposed is from 3 to 5 feet. A certain amount of beach material
is removed and coast defences are absent. In the neighbourhood of
Achill Sound and Achilbeg high spring tides, with strong winds from
the west or south-west, cause a loss of land where the cliffs are low and
composed of clay. Nothing is removed, and there are no artificial causes
to influence the natural changes.

In Blacksod Bay (and Elly Bay) erosion of the coast is also on
record. In 1893 a horse and cart could pass along the cliff outside a
boundary- wall which is now lapped by high spring tides, and in one place
has been destroyed. From Doohooma a variable state of loss and gain
of coast is reported.

On the northern coast of Mayo no alterations are recorded except a
gradual washing away of unprotected banks at Ross, Killala Bay,
during high spring tides.

No changes are reported from the county of Sligo, and in Donegal
out of eighteen observations three only record alterations.

From Ballyshannon in Donegal Bay observations extending over
nearly 41 miles give evidence of both loss and gain. On this stretch
of coast there are no artificial protections, and neither shingle nor sand is
removed. The other two alterations are on the north-western side of
Lough Foyle. On the northern side of Dunagree Point Lighthouse
(Greencastle C.G.S.) the sea has encroached about 50 yards during the
last forty years (up to 1899), and about half that distance during the same
period between Magilligan Point and Downhill in Cownty Derry. At
Magilligan Point piles have been driven in the shore and have successfully
resisted further encroachments. Sand is removed from the bay at
Dunagree Point. Near the mouth of the river near the Ark House,
Moville, groynes and stone work have been resorted to in order to save the
land. This loss appears to be owing to the cartage of gravel and sand
from the mouth of the river. In some places, on the other hand, hundreds.
of acres have been reclaimed by banks, while changes are also made in
the channels by the work of steam-dredgers.

In the county of Antrim thirteen reports include four of loss, one of
which is slight, and one of gain. Along the sandy coast of Portrush land
allotted for building purposes was perforce abandoned in 1894. This

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 277

part of the shore is unprotected. The low coast of Portballintrae is
undergoing considerable erosion. On the western side of the bay wooden
and stone structures have been raised for protection, and these send the
sand and shingle eastwards, where much is removed. From Fair Head
southwards to Cushendun erosion is slight, while at Cushendall a gain of
about 3 feet is on record in the last five years. At a point a mile
north of Glenarm considerable loss takes place, the coast-road being
gradually set back several feet. One groyne has been erected, but at the
time the report. was sent in its effect was doubtful. Beach material is
removed for industrial purposes, and also at Ballycastle, Larne Harbour,
* and Whitehead.

In County Down the list of losses becomes longer. On the low and
rocky coast of Donaghadee an encroachment is noted at a locality about
{ mile south of the coastguard station ; and between Templepatrick and
Ballyferris Point losses have taken place to the extent of 15 feet in the
ten years preceding July 1899, and also, according to old inhabitants,
between Ballyferris Point and Bray Hill. At Cloghy the house occu-
pied by a former coastguard officer is now (1899) all but washed away.
Here one groyne built opposite the coastguard station protects the sea-
wall, which lately has been strengthened.

North of the entrance to Strangford Lough (Tara C.G.S.) it appears
that considerable loss of land has resulted from the encroachments of
the sea, and that the public road is locally submerged during south-
easterly and easterly gales. A sea-wall has been built to protect the
coast, but gravel and sand are removed for industrial purposes.

In the more southerly part of the county, in the neighbourhood of
Dundrum Bay and Kilkee], losses are practically continuous for a
considerable stretch of coast. From ‘ Big Pack,’ Ballykinler, past the ccast-
guard stations of Newcastle, Annalong, and Kilkeel the sea is reported as
encroaching at several points. These are : from Murlough Point to Long
Hill, south of the Dundrum River ; between the bar of Dundrum and
the Shimna River; between the Ballagh River and Black Rock,
Annalong, and at the harbour of Kilkeel, with the adjacent localities of
Leeston’s Point and Ballykid. Beach material is removed from many
places along the coast and in great quantities from the neighbourhood of
the Dundrum River. High tides and strong southerly or south-easterly
gales are given as the reasons for many of the losses. Coast protections
bave been erected in several places. A sea wall has been constructed
from Newcastle Harbour for about half a mile northwards and the beach
paved with boulders, while groynes, which appear to act successfully,
have been erected under the esplanade and New Railway Hotel. Three
groynes have heen erected at Kilkeel Harbour.

Passing southwards we find a loss of land occurring at Cranfield
Point, where the sea has washed away the pillars of the gate of the
lightkeeper’s house. The Commissioners of Irish Ligiit have now had
the cliff faced with stone and cement. At Greenore, near the
southern entrance to Carlingford Lough (County Louth), slight encroach-
ment is noted.

On the northern side of Dundalk Bay, near Giles Quay, the sea is
encroaching along a strip of coast about 13 mile in length, a loss of
45 feet having occurred in places during the last six years. A groyne
at the back of the fishing pier tends to accumulate the sand and shingle,
which is, however, removed for making concrete. A report covering nearly

278 REPORT—1908.

9 miles of coast around Soldier’s Point, Dundalk Bay, mentions no
change ; but from Dunany Point, the southern extremity, a considerable
loss results from gales washing away portions of cultivated land to the
N.N.W. of the coastguard station. The southern part of a sea-wall built
on the Dunany estate is now nearly destroyed, although it is only reached
by the tide in bad weather. Gravel is removed as ballast.

The coast is stationary near Clogher Head and the mouth of the Boyne ;
neither station is protected. Beach material is removed from the latter.

The ample reports from the County of Dublin provide a heavy record
of loss, greater on the whole from the northern part of the county.
Amongst these is included a report from Laytown, in the County of
Meath. It is interesting at the outset to notice that groynes are absent
almost throughout the former county.

Within 500 yards of the Nanny River (Laytown), on either side, the
sea has encroached 30 feet during the last twenty years, while losses are
recorded near Balbriggan ; from the east end of South Strand to Skennick
Point near Skerries ; near Rush, when heavy gales from the east or south-
east occur at spring tides ; and near Rogerstown and Portrane. On the
other hand, the coast around Lough Shinny, Malahide, and Baldoyle is
apparently undergoing no change.

Shingle, sand, slabs of stone, and other material are removed from the
beach at Balbriggan, from the northern end of South Strand at Skerries,
to a minor degree from Rush and Portrane and Lough Shinny. A report
from Lambay Island states the coast is without alteration ; that no shore-
defences have been erected, and that shingle is used only for the pathway
to the coastguard station.

The headland at Howth and the northern side of Dublin Bay show
neither loss nor gain. In the centre of Dublin Bay, however, from Poolbeg
Lighthouse to Booterstown, inroads of the sea may accompany south-
easterly gales. No changes are reported from Kingsdown and Dalkey,
but a rapid erosion is taking place between Killiney Bay on the north
and past Bray Head to Six Mile Point. The Dublin, Wicklow, and
Wexford Railway Company has built a sea wall at the foot of part of the
cliffs to the north, but hereabouts two Martello towers have entirely
disappeared with the fallen cliffs, while part of the foundations of a third
protrudes over the edge (1899). From time to time during the past ten
years the railway has removed its permanent way inland, in places
10 to 30 feet, while at the date the report was written the rails in places
are only a few feet from the edge. No beach material is reported as
having been anywhere removed, and south of the Cable Rock groynes
have been placed to protect the embankment. Southwards as far as
Cahore Point the loss of land is much less severe. Near Five Mile Point
the coast-line is stationary, no artificial restrictions stay erosion, and
gravel de. is removed for paths and the like. Near Wicklow, however,
the sea encroached for the last fifty years at an average rate of 3 feet per
annum, while from the Old Strand House to Steam Packet Pier gravel
accumulated by being washed down from the northern part of the beach.
Groynes have not been built, and from one place beach material is
removed. Between here and Cahore Point loss is recorded only along
the stretch of coast 74 miles southwards from Arklow Head, past
Kilmichael Point. The coast is low, with sandbanks, and it is these
which are being washed away by the sea. The beach, which is of a
mixed character, is removed for industrial purposes.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 279

Near Bar of Lough, between Bentley Cottage and Ballinadressoge
(Curracloe), and between Rosslare Fort, in Wexford Bay, and Ballygeary,
loss of land by gales and landslips is frequent. The battery wall of the
R.N.R. drill ground (Rosslare) is now 12 yards ‘seaward of the land,’ a
result produced in thirty years. Northerly and north-easterly gales and
heavy rains are active agents of destruction. Near the railway pier
(Ballygeary C.G.S.) small quantities of gravel are removed for filling in
thesleepers. This coast is either low and sandy or formed by ‘ marl cliffs’
averaging some 60 feet in height.

Round Carnsore Point, as far west as Takumshin, the cliffs are com-
posed locally of a ‘yellow clay,’ and in these places the coast loses
considerably. No artificial causes stay encroachment, and small quantities
of shingle and sand are removed.

Between Takumshin Bar and Kilmore C.G.S. high tides and gales of
wind break away the low sand and clay cliff to an extent estimated during
the last fifty years at between 2 and 3 yards per annum. The older
inhabitants of the district remember houses standing on sites now covered
by the sea. For about 500 yards east of Kilmore the harbour works
retard the waste of cliff during the prevailing winds. To the eastward
farmers remove the sand in small quantities.

At Morris Castle about 28 yards of land have been washed away since
1862. The cliffs, about 50 feet in height, are composed of sands and
marls, and the sand and shingle of the beach is removed.

From the eastern side of Bannow Bay, as far as and along the eastern
side of Waterford Harbour, the coast loses ground locally. From Fethard
C.G.S. losses are reported at Wood, between Baginbun and Carnivan, and
also between Loftus Hall and Harry Lock ; and from Arthurstown C.G.8.
landslips occur in the vicinity of Booley Bay.

No alterations are taking place between the western side of Water-
ford Harbour and Mine Head, south of Dungarvan Harbour, except at
Tramore, where the sea encroaches on the strand to the south-east of the
station through unusually high tides and winter gales. Unfortunately a
large amount of shingle is taken away.

The Waterford coast south-west of Mine Head, z.e. in Ardmore,
Youghal, and Ballycottin Bays, is undergoing erosion. A few groynes
have been placed to break the force of the waves against the sea-wall at
Ardmore village, but otherwise Ardmore and Whiting Bays are unpro-
tected, and a considerable amount of sand is removed. At ‘ Claycastle’
and a mile to the westward (west of Ferry Point, Youghal) the sea in
February 1899 made a breach about 50 yards wide in the foreshore, and
the loss on Garryvoe Strand (Ballycottin Bay) is said to be a third
of a mile in forty years. Reports stating loss of land come from the
coastguard stations at Knockadown, East Ferry, Ballycrenane, and Poor
[? Power] Head. Groynes have been built to the west of Youghal, but
along the remainder of the coast line defences are absent. The nature
of the shore varies greatly : it is formed by precipitous cliffs near Knock-
adown, but of lower cliffs of variable height and texture to the westward,
rising again at Poor Head. Near the latter C.G.S8. and that of Ballycrenane
beach material is removed in small quantities, as well as from Ardmore
and Youghal.

Neither side of Cork Harbour is apparently suffering erosion, nor is
the coast as far westward as Ringabella Bay, but at Robert’s Cove and
Rocky Bay the losses within the last five years have been respectively

280 REPORT—1903.

20 and 25 feet. A sea-wall has been partially destroyed, but there are
no groynes, and sand is removed from Robert’s Cove at low water.

The neighbourhood of Reanies Bay and Kinsale Harbour is stationary,
but between Hake Head and the Old Head of Kinsale low sandy cliffs
have been levelled and covered by the beach within the last five years.
The coast from Courtmacsherry Bay westwards to Clonakilty Bay is
undergoing continual and obvious erosion where unprotected by rocky cliffs.
At the eastern end of Broadstrand in Courtmacsherry Bay the sea flows
over a spot where thirty-five years ago houses were to be seen; an
advance estimated at about 30 yards. One mile westward at Blindstrand
a road formerly crossed from Lislee village to Coolbawn, on the opposite
side of the strand. This is now 130 yards outside the present high-water
mark, and it is estimated that during the last thirty years 16 acres of
land have been lost. Coast-defences have not been neglected : the Board
of Public Works built a wall 200 yards in length on the eastern side of
Blindstrand to save the village of Lislee, and the local railway company
another on the river Argidean to protect their property.

The remainder of Clonakilty Bay and the coast westward past Cape
Clear as far as Mizen Head is a stable region of bold rocky cliffs broken
now and again by sandy beaches and coves. The coast is unprotected, but
little material is removed, and no alteration is on record except a slight
gain of land around Schull, where the spring tides do not run so far up
into the land as once they did.

The rugged and indented coast of Bantry Bay and the Kenmare
River is without observations, but from Ballinskelligs Bay northward the
records are fairly complete.

Between the last-named inlet and Brandon Head the changes are but
few. The waves at the north-eastern end of Ballinskelligs Bay have to
some extent worn away the cliff at exceptionally high spring tides.
There are no groynes, and the taking of sand from the beach appears to
produce no appreciable effect.

In front of Ballinskelligs C.G.S., on the western side of the bay, a loss
of 2} feet is recorded in the four years preceding 1899. <A pier close by
is suggested as being the cause of. this erosion by collecting shingle on
one side and producing thereby an eddy which does the damage. No
shingle is removed.

On the southern side of Dingle Bay, between Coonanna Point and
Rossbehy Point, the sea encroaches, especially in the winter with southerly
or south-westerly gales. The cliffs under the Bathing Cottages at Ross-
behy were protected by large blocks of concrete, joined with railway-irons
and balks of timber. These having no effect, large concrete blocks were
sunk in the sand and boards placed from one to the other ; but at the date
of the report (August 1899) the time had been insufficient to test the effect
of this arrangement.

Losses occur in both Dingle and Smerwick Harbours. In the former
a sea-wall formerly existing on the north-eastern side has now been washed
away, and also a portion of the adjoining land, while abreast of the town
and public road walls have been built to prevent encroachment.

In Smerwick Harbour for a stretch of a mile (viz. from Ballynagall
Point to Murriegh) a cliff of average height of some 12 feet is crumbling
through the action of the sea, which has broken into an old public road
and rendered it almost impassable. The fishing-pier at Ballynagall has
probably retarded the erosion of the banks in its vicinity.

OBSERVATIONS ON CHANGES IN SEA COAST OF UNITED KINGDOM. 281

Local loss of and is reported from the C.G.S. at the mouth of the
Casheen River, and north of the mouth of the Shannon along the stretch
of coast between Kilkee and Milltown Malbay.

The annual loss from Goolen to Doonbeg Bridge (Kilkee) is given as
6 inches, an estimate derived from information given by the older fisher-
men, while northwards it is rather greater, in Mal Bay, where the cliffs
are less high than to the south and interspersed with low and sandy coast.
Some sand is removed and no groynes have been built. The northern
shore of Galway Bay and the Aran Islands show no change (small
quantities of sand are removed), but the southern shore from Kilcolgan
Bridge northward for 30 miles is undergoing gradual erosion.

The vertical range of ordinary spring tides may be summarised
by taking the averages of a number of observations at adjacent points.
The figures (in feet) are as follows :—In the Solway Firth 22-5, falling off
to 15 in Wigtown and to 9 off the Ayrshire coast and towards the
Firth of Clyde. On the Caithness, Sutherland, coast the readings are
15, decreasing to 13 in the Moray Firth, to rise to 16 off Peter-
head and Aberdeen. A lowering of about 2 feet takes place towards the
Firth of Tay to rise again to the same level (16) off the Haddington coast,
whence there is a gradual decrease of about 3 feet to Hartlepool. At the
mouth of the Humber, however, the range is 19 feet (21:75 at Barton) ;
but while maintaining an 18 or 20 feet range at the entrance to the
Wash the variation is much lower off the East Anglian coast (say 7:5),
thence gradually increasing to 18°75 round East Kent. ‘The highest
reading on the southern coast is in the neighbourhood of Hastings
(24); the lowest on the southern side of the Isle of Wight, and
towards Portland (7°5 and 9°8 respectively). Once more the range rises
to about 16, which is maintained to the North Cornwall coast, where
the figures again increase (18-75) to 27-5 in North Devon. On the
Glamorganshire coast we find 33-8, in the southern part of Cardigan
Bay 12, on the North Welsh coast 19, and in Liverpool Bay 27-5.
The variations in Ireland are less conspicuous, in Galway Bay 12:5,
decreasing slightly as we go northwards, and being decidedly less between
Malin Head and Belfast Lough (8-7 to 7-4). Southwards the range in-
creases to 14:6 off County Down, 11°8 off County Dublin, and varies
between 13-25 and 11-75 off the southern coast.

In this report little or no description is given of the nature of the
coast. Mr. Wheeler’s book supplies this defect for England, while, in
judging from the reports sent in, it is often doubtful how closely a general
description of the ccast can be applied to any particular part which is
undergoing change. The writer concluded that details of this kind would
not add materially to the value of the report and would greatly increase
its length.

[Since this Report was read at the Southport Meeting, Mr. R. G. Allanson-Winn
has published various criticisms in letters to the Times, Daily Ewpress, and other
publications, and has sent numerous communications on the subject to the Com-
mittee. It has been thought best, however, to allow the Report to be published as
it stands, and any corrections which may be found necessary, either in the infor-
mation supplied by the Coastguard Service or in the deductions drawn from it, can
be inserted in the next Report submitted to the Association. ]

282 REPORT—1903,

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor G. B. Howes (Chairman),
Mr. J. E. S. Moore (Secretary), Dr. E. Ray LanKEster, Professor
W. F. R. WeEtpon, Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A. SEDGWICK,
and Professor W. C. McIntosu.

Report on the Occupation of the Table during February, March, April,
and half of May, 1903.

The Oocyte of Tomopteris. By Witt1am Watwace, B.Sc.

Ar Naples I studied the earlier stages of the oogenesis of Z'omopteris
onisciformis, Esch., and particularly the changes in the germinal vesicle
during the growth of the oocyte.

Since Eschscholtz discovered this species in 1825, several naturalists,
including Claparéde, Vejdowski, Carpenter, and Fullarton ! (1895), have
dealt with the genital products of Tomopteris, and have described the
more obvious features of the oogenesis, such as the following :—

1. The origin of the ovaries in the rami of the parapodia by pro-
liferation of cells of the ccelomic epithelium.

2. The detachment from the ovary and discharge into the ccelom of
balls of cells. One cell of each cluster, increasing in size, becomes the
oocyte, while the remainder—some half-dozen or so—continue attached
to the larger cell, and constitute the ‘ nurse-cells.’

3. The growth of the oocyte (apparent]y) at the expense of the group
of nurse-cells, which is soon no more than a cap or small appendage at
one pole of the egg. These nurse-cells finally degenerate and disappear.

Such phenomena are not diagnostic of the oogenesis of Tomopteris,
but have been described for other Polychetes, such as Ophryotrocha
(Korschelt *), Onuphis (Bergmann %), &c.

The cytological changes accompanying the growth and maturation
of the egg of Tomopteris do not appear to have been studied hitherto.
Some observations on this head may accordingly be of interest.

The material at my disposal was, thanks to the kindness of Dr. Lo
Bianco, tolerably abundant. The species, however, does not seem to be
so plentiful here as, for example, at St. Andrews, where, during certain
seasons, large quantities are found in the tow nets. Neither were the
ripe female specimens so large at Naples. All that I had to deal with
were under a centimetre in length, whereas at St. Andrews the specimens
commonly attained a length of two or three centimetres (if I remember
rightly).

In all the Neapolitan specimens I examined numerous gregarines
occurred, mostly in an encysted condition in the epithelium of the gut.

I studied the eggs in the fresh state, when, like the whole body of
Tomopteris, they are transparent. I also studied them in serial sections
of fixed material.

1 Fullarton, Zool. Jahrb. (Spengel’s), Morph. Abth., viii. Bd., 1895.
2? Korschelt, Zeit. fiir wiss. Zool., Bd. 1x. 1895.
3’ Bergmann, Zeit. fiir miss. Zool., Bd. |xxiii., Hft. 2, 1902.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 283

The following points were made out in the larger eggs before treatment
with reagents.

The eggs are perfectly spherical and transparent. The nurse-cells,
if still present, occupy a small area at one pole. There is no follicle
around the egg, but an extremely fine membrane (? zona)—which therefore,
as Bergmann points out for Onuphis, must be an independent product
of the egg itself—is present at the surface. In the cytoplasm just under
the membrane minute highly refracting droplets, probably of oil, can be
discerned. They are often in clusters and of various sizes. In the very
centre of the egg is the perfectly spherical germinal vesicle with a single
highly refractive germinal spot or nucleolus. Occasionally one or two
smaller refractive bodies (the ‘neben-nucleoli’) may be seen within the
germinal vesicle. The position of the germinal spot is invariably
eccentric. Vacuoles varying: in number and size could be distinguished
in the nucleolus, except in the case of the largest eggs. The nucleolus
of the full-sized eggs was notably smaller and at times contained a small
vacuole. The nucleolus, therefore, enlarges up to a certain point in the
growth of the oocyte and then diminishes. Its complete dissolution was
not observed.

The space between the germinal vesicle and the egg membrane is
filled up with yolk spheres. These are nearly uniform in size, and almost
touch one another, leaving very little protoplasm between. The spheres
are not very highly refractive, and are therefore only vaguely discernible
in the fresh egg.

In the germinal vesicle of the full-sized eggs one can distinguish,
besides the nucleolus, certain nebulous or flocculent masses. These are
the definitive chromosomes. To see them in the fresh egg requires a
certain intensity of light and careful focussing.

By the addition, under the cover-glass, of an aqueous solution of
methyl green more facts were brought to light. As the green solution
reaches the eggs these swell up somewhat and burst their membranes.
Often the yolk is extruded in small drops through the substance of the
membrane, the external surface of which is accordingly studded with
drops. This observation seems to indicate that the egg membrane of
Tomopteris, like the zona radiata of vertebrates, is perforate. The
protoplasm flows out through a rupture in the capsule slowly, sometimes
in long strings like a syrup. The yolk spheres entangled in it generally
adapt themselves to the size of the aperture and pass out intact. On
coming in contact with the watery solution they break down and flow
together. The yolk spheres are, I think, evidently viscid drops of some
albuminous substance. Inside the egg the syrupy protoplasm in
which the spheres are imbedded appears quite homogeneous and trans-
lucent, but as it flows out into the watery methyl-green solution minute
granules (? microsomes) come into view in its interior. It is probable
that, as Wilson! has observed in the case of certain Echinoderm and
Annelid eggs, the yolk of the Tomopteris egg forms a true emulsion in
Biitschli’s sense. I cannot, however, definitely state the existence of
microsomes in the cytoplasm of uninjured eggs, i.e. before contact with
the methyl-green solution. Probably they are naturally present in this
transparent egg and only require a coloured solution, like methyl green,
to show them up.

* Wilson, Journal of Morphology, vol. xv., Supplement, 1899.

284 REPORT— 1903.

Turning now to the germinal vesicle, after treatment with methyl
green. This body is often extruded intact. As the green solution
reaches it, minute refringent granules in constant dancing motion come
into view. After oscillating for some time these granules settle down
and arrange themselves in a network formation. .Here again, as in the
case of the microsomes, it is not very easy to say whether the granules
pre-existed in the natural state of the egg. In the meshes of the network
larger granules (7 lanthanin of Heidenhain) were seen. None of these
minute granules stained with the methyl green; in fact, the only
structures in the nucleus which take up this stain are the chromosomes
(strong) and the nucleolus (faintly). The chromosomes appear to be
rings or loops of irregular form. They are very thick and roughly
moniliform—very different in appearance from the smooth outlined
attenuate loops depicted by Korschelt in the nearly ripe egg of Ophryo-
trocha. I counted four chromosomes in full-sized eggs of Tomopteris.
Korschelt gives the same number for Ophryotrocha.

The numerous unstainable granules in the full-grown germinal vesicle
of Tomopteris appear to correspond to Heidenhain’s ! oxychromatin granules,
while the substance of the chromosomes—which stains with methyl green—
is basichromatin.

Besides the larger eggs, oocytes with chromatin in the primitive
spireme stage were examined after treatment with methyl green. The
spireme stains intensely. In somewhat older oocytes with reticular
nucleus the nucleolus lies eccentrically in the nucleus, and is surrounded
by a vacuole to the walls of which it is moored by radiating threads of
the network. The growth of the nucleolus keeps pace with the growth of
the germinal vesicle and of the oocyte. It is at first homogeneous, but
becomes gradually more and more vacuolated. These small vacuoles fuse
to form a single large eccentric vacuole. Finally, in full-sized eggs, the
nucleolus is smaller, and contains no large vacuole. It seems probable
therefore that the decrease in size is due to the collapse of the vacuole
and discharge of its fluid contents into the nucleus.

For sections various methods were tried. The fixing agents employed
were chiefly Mann’s picro-corrosive-formol mixture, Gilson’s mercuro-nitric-
acetic fluid, Hermann’s fluid, and Boveri’s picro-acetic. The Hermann
preparations were stained with thionin or safranin. The others were
variously treated, the chief combinations employed being Heidenhain’s
iron-hematoxylin with orange green, Delafield’s hematoxylin with eosin
or congo-red, borax carmine and picro-nigrosin, and nigrosin and ‘light
green.’ On the whole, perhaps the best results were obtained with
material fixed in Boveri’s picro-acetic and stained with nigrosin and light
green. The latter is a very rapid staining method, and gives a good
chromatin-achromatin differentiation. It suffices to stain for one and a
half minute in a saturated aqueous solution of nigrosin, and then for
half a minute in an alcoholic solution of ‘light green.’ By this method
only the chromatin proper stains black, while the nucleolus and the
cytoplasm stain green. The nucleolus is especially prominent in these
preparations, appearing as a shining green body. The nucleoli both of
the germinal vesicle and tissue cells, such as the epithelium of the gut,
stain similarly with the light green, and do not take up the black.
Nigrosin, however, does not distinguish between oxychromatin and

' Heidenhain, ‘ Ueber Kern und Protoplasma, Festschy. fur Kélliker, 1892, &c.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 285

basi-chromatin : both constituents stain black. Its chief use is for differ-
entiating the nucleolus from the chromatin. This is what iron-hema-
toxylin, for example, does not do.

The results of staining sections of the fixed ova of Tomopteris were as
follows :—

Iron hematoxylin and orange (. varies a good deal, according to the
time allowed for extraction of the stain with iron-alum. After a long
extraction primitive spireme, nucleolus, and definitive chromosomes, black.
Oxychromatin, orange. Cytoplasm, purple. Yolk spheres aud zymogen
granules of gut cells, pale.

Delafield’s hematoxylin and eosin.—Nucleolus, brick red. Chromatin,
blue to light red, according to age of oocyte.

Borax-carmine and picro-nigrosin.—N ucleolus and definitive chromo-
somes, bright red. Remaining nuclear contents, purple.

Nigrosin and light green.—Nucleolus, green. Chromatin, black.
Cytoplasm, green.

It will thus be seen that with certain combinations of dyes nucleolus
and ‘basi-chromatin ’ stain alike, whereas other double stains differentiate
these two constituents of the nucleus. The result is rather conflicting.

The precise origin of the nucleolus or germinal spot could not be
made out. It is present when the chromatin is in the spireme stage and
the nucleus has as yet no definite membrane. When the membrane is
formed the nucleolus is applied to its inner surface, and has one side
flattened against the latter. As the egg grows the nucleus leaves the
wall and lies eccentrically within the nucleus. It is invariably surrounded
by a vacuole, to the walls of which it is moored by threads of the nuclear
reticulum. The progressive vacuolisation of the germinal spot has been
already referred to.

The large eccentric vacuole of the germinal spot owes its origin
apparently to the fusion of numerous smaller vacuoles. When this fusion
is complete the germinal spot has attained its greatest size. The single
large vacuole—in stained sections—contains a reticulum with granules
staining exactly like the nuclear reticulum, although no communication
between the vacuole and the contents of the nucleus could be certainly
demonstrated. This vacuole with its contained reticulum corresponds
to what certain authors call the plastin portion of the nucleus and to the
‘nebentheil’ (Flemming ') of the nucleus of the Lamellibranch egg. The
reticulum looks exactly like an included portion of the general nuclear
reticulum. It may, however, be due to the coagulation of the intra-
vacuolar fluid.

The germinal spot or chief nucleolus of the oocyte of Tomopteris is
certainly nota karyosome ; neither is ita chromatin nucleolus in Carnoy’s
sense ; that is to say, it has no genetic relation to the chroinosomes or
‘nucleinkérper’ as have the numerous nucleoli of the germinal vesicle of
Amphibia and Fishes (according to Carnoy ? and Rohde *). Further, there
appears to be no difference, as regards staining properties and morpho-
logical relations, between the germinal spot of the egg and the nucleolus

) Flemming, Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelitheilung, 1882, &c.
* Carnoy et Lebrun, ‘ La vésicule germinative et les polaires globules chez les
Batrachiens,’ Za Cellule, 12, 14, 17.

* Rohde, ‘ Ueber den Bau der Zelle, i. Kern und Kernkérper,’ Zeit. fiir wiss, Zook.
Bad. Ixxiii., Hft. 4, 1903. 7

286 REPORT—1903.

of the tissue cells, such as the gut epithelium. ‘Neben-nuclei,’ or
secondary nuclei of minute size, are to be found in the germinal vesicle
during the growth of the egg. They stain like the chief nucleolus, and
are often found in close proximity to this body. Similarly staining
granules found in the vacuole or vacuoles of the chief nucleolus may be of
the same nature. These ‘neben-nucleoli’ are variable in size and number.
They may be readily demonstrated by means of iron-hematoxylin or by
the nigrosin-light-green combination. In the iron-hematoxylin prepara-
tions minute black granules resembling the neben-nucleoli were found
scattered in the cytoplasm as well as in the germinal vesicle. Roule
(Ascidian ova) and others have described a migration of nucleoli into the
cytoplasm. Recently (1901) Schockaert'! (Thysanozoon) and Gérard ?
(Prostheceracus) have noted the presence of such chromatophil bodies in
the germinal vesicle and their elimination into the cytoplasm. Both
authors employed iron-hematoxylin. Gérard considers that these bodies
represent portions of waste nuclein derived from the chromatin element
and destined to be eliminated from the nucleus. Schockaert, on the
contrary, thinks that they are ‘nucleolules,’ which first appear in the
‘plastin portion’ of the chief nucleolus, and are afterwards expelled into
the nucleus, where they form secondary nucleoli, and there dissolve.
According to him, they do not contribute to the formation of the
chromosomes. Rohde (1903) describes a chief nucleolus and numerous
‘neben-nucleoli’ in the egg of the cat. He thinks that the former is a
‘cell organ,’ and that its vacuoles have a secretory significance (cf.
Hacker *), while the ‘neben-nucleoli,’ like the ordinary nucleoli of the
Amphibian egg, are genetically related to the chromatin granules (nuclein-
kérper), the two kinds of granules being mutually convertible.

I could find no evidence in the case of Tomopteris for a relation
between the neben-nucleoli and the substance of the chromosomes. The
circumstantial evidence was rather in favour of Schockaert’s view that
the neben-nucleoli are derived from the chief nucleolus. I could not
decide whether the chromatophil granules in the cytoplasm were of the
same nature. They were only seen in the iron-hematoxylin preparations
and may be artefacts.

There is no evidence that the chief nucleolus gives direct origin to the
chromosomes of the first maturation figure, although several observers
have stated and figured such a relation in the case of other eggs. The
definitive chromosomes are formed apparently quite independently of the
chief nucleolus. I have seen nothing resembling Carnoy’s and Hart-
mann’s‘ figures of chromatin filaments emanating from nucleoli. The
definitive chromosomes are formed while the membrane of the germinal
vesicle is still intact. They arise apparently by a condensation of the pre-
existing chromatin by a growth and possibly a fusion of certain granules
along certain tracts. The granules composing the chromosomes differ in
two respects from the granules of the general reticulum :—(1) they are
larger, and (2) they stain with methyl green, hematoxylin, and other
‘basic’ dies.

The changes in the chromatin of the nucleus from the primitive

‘ Schockaert, Za Cellule, 18, 1901.

2 Gérard, ibid.

3 Hacker, Das Keimblaschen, seine Elemente und Lageverdnderungen, i.ii.; Arch.
f. mikr. Anat, Bd. xli. xlii., Jahrg. 1893.

4 Hartmann, ‘ Hireifung von Asterias glacialis,’ Zool. Jahr. xv. 1902.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 287

spireme stage up to the formation of the definitive chromosomes will now
be briefly described. As the egg grows, the chromatin undergoes a
progressive change both in structure and in staining property. In the
spireme stage it consists of a thick filament loosely coiled and lying in a
vacuole in the cytoplasm. This filament has a square or polygonal cross-
section and is monilated. I did not observe any signs of a longitudinal
division of this primitive spireme. Threads (? linin) extend in ladder
fashion between the monilations on adjacent portions of the filament and
similar threads (green with nigrosin-light green) moor the coil to the
walls of the vacuole in which it lies. Later a definite nuclear membrane
lines the walls of this vacuole, and would thus appear to be of cytoplasmic
origin. The chromatin of the spireme has a compact appearance even
under a +1, oil-immersion lens.

The chromatin of the spireme stains deep black with iron-hematoxylin,
and intensely blue with Delafield’s hematoxylin. During the growth of
the oocyte the spireme is gradually resolved into a network in a manner
not very clearly understood. The compact substance of the spireme is
resolved into distinct granules which are distributed along the threads of
a now copious reticulum, but are more massed together at certain points.
The germinal vesicle of the more advanced eggs has a beautiful open net-
work with very large meshes, Jn this diffuse form the chromatin does not
stain readily with hematoxylin, but rather with acid dyes, such as eosin,
orange G, and congo red. It possibly corresponds to the oxychromatin of
Heidenhain. This progressive change in staining properties on the part
of the chromatin during the growth of the egg may, as Rohde (1903)
asserts for cells in general, be the expression of a loss of phosphorus on
the part of the chromatin granules (Nucleinkérper). The observation is
quite in line with the chemical researches of Zacharias, Rosen, and others,
according to whom the nuclei of the meristomatic cells of plants contain
more phosphorus than the nuclei of cells which have been growing for
some time.

Again, when the definitive chromosomes are being formed, that part
of the chromatin which goes to form these bodies stains intensely with
hematoxylin, and, in the fresh state, with methyl green. The remainder
of the chromatin—the ‘residual chromatin’ of authors—is acidophil in
its reaction.

In connection with the important but difficult question as to which of
the manifold appearances in fixed and sectioned cells represent organised
structures, and which are mere coagulation products, some observations
on the yolk spheres of the egg of Tomopteris may be mentioned.

The yolk spheres, as may be easily demonstrated in the living egg by
pressure under the cover-glass, are fluid or viscid drops, and must, of
course, be regarded as inert bodies: they are quite homogeneous until
attacked by a fixing reagent, such as a drop of Gilson’s fluid let under the
cover-glass. The yolk spheres then appear—under a low magnification—
to have a uniform granular structure. Under a high power (;},
oil immersion) this granular structure resolves itself into a beautiful
uniform network, like that of a nucleus in the resting stage, except that
the reticulum is quite uniform throughout. There can be little doubt
that this reticulum is a pseudo-structure due to the coagulating action of
the fixing fluid. In sections the spheres are often to a greater or less
extent dissolved, and cease to fill completely the vacuole in the protoplasm
which they formerly occupied. This pseudo-reticulum can be easily

288 REPORT—1903.

stained with iron-hematoxylin if care be taken not to extract too long
with the alum. In such preparations the resemblance to a nucleus is very
striking.

The cytoplasm of the egg of Tomopteris in stained sections under a
high power presents a most distinct reticulum, the granules seen under a
lower power being apparently the cross-sections of filaments. This is
equally true of the scanty cytoplasm which lies between the yolk spheres
in the larger eggs. The difficulty is how to reconcile this observation with
the emulsion structure noted in the fresh egg. It may be that the
‘microsomes’ certainly seen in methyl-green preparations have been
dissolved out, and that it is the network of intermediate or ‘ continuous
substance’ which is seen stained in sections.

The material available at Naples during my occupancy of the table did
not provide me with any stages later than that at which the definitive
chromosomes are formed. I was unable, therefore, to study the polar bodies
and fertilisation in this form. The preparation of a detailed and illus-
trated account of my observations, which I hope to extend, and a discussion
of the more important literature bearing on the subject must stand over
in the meantime.

In conclusion I desire to thank heartily the Committee for the use of
their table, and to express the sense of obligation which every student of
marine zoology must feel who has had the privilege of working at the
renowned Stazione. Of the kind attention of the authorities of that
institution I entertain the most pleasant recollections.

Index Generum et Specierum Animalium.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. Henry Woopwarp (Chairman), Dr. F. A.
BatHer (Secretary), Mr. W. E. Hoye, Mr. R. McLaca.ay,
Dr. P. L. ScuaTEr, and the Rev. T. R. R. STEBBING.

THE Committee have the honour to report that at the end of October,
1902, the first volume of this work was published. It covers the period
1758-1800, and was issued by the Cambridge University Press. The
volume consists of 1,254 pages, viz. 59 pp. of ‘Introduction and Biblio-
graphy,’ 1,071 pp. of ‘ Index,’ and 124 pp. of ‘Index to Generic Names,
showing the trivial names associated with each,’ from 1758-1800.

The work has been well received, and favourable reviews have appeared
in the ‘Geological Magazine,’ ‘Revue des Questions Scientifiques,’
‘ Zoologist,’ ‘ Zoologisches Zentralblatt,’ ‘Entomologists’ Record,’ ‘Science,’
‘ Athenzeum,’ ‘ Nature,’ ‘ American Journal of Ncience,’ &e.

Numerous letters have also been received from the Continent and
America containing gratifying expressions as to its value to zoologists.

The indexing of 1801-1900 continues in a satisfactory manner, but it
is of necessity slower, as the question of the determination of dates of
publication of works which have appeared in parts makes the compiler’s
progress a very laborious one.

The amount of Jast year’s grant has been drawn (with the authority
of the Committee) and applied by Mr. C. Davies Sherborn to the carrying
on of the work during the year now ending.

The Committee earnestly request reappointment with a grant of 100/.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 289

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Sixth and Final Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor NEwron (Chairman),
Rey. E. P. Knousuey (Secretary), Mr. Joan A. Harvie-Brown,
Mr. R. M. Barrineton, Mr. A. H. Evans, and Dr. H. O. Forses,
appointed to work out the details of the Observations on the Migra-
tion of Birds at Lighthouses and Inghtships, 1880-1887.

In submitting this, which, according to the intimation more than once
previously given, your Committee intend to be their last Report, they
again have the pleasure of including a summary by Mr. William Eagle
Clarke of the observations on the highly interesting movements of two
well known species, the Starling (Stwrnws vulgaris) and the Rook
(Corvus frugilegus), which he has prepared with the same skill as he
exercised upon the six species he has treated in former Reports, and with,
if possible, a greater expenditure of time and toil, on account of the
difficulty of coping with the details of such complicated movements as are
therein recorded.

Your Committee feel that, while Mr. Clarke’s work speaks for itself,
they find it hard to express their indebtedness to him for the labour he has
undergone in drawing up the eight summaries, a labour almost unrequited,
and so great that nothing but intense zeal would render its performance
possible. Everyone acquainted with the subject of Bird Migration will
admit that, owing to the plan followed by Mr. Clarke, so much informa-
tion in regard to the species whose movements he has worked out has
never been given before, and that within space which cannot be deemed
excessive.

It will be observed that of the eight species which have been the chief
subjects of attention, only two, or three at most—the Swallow, the
Fieldfare, and, perhaps, the White Wagtail—are popularly considered to
be ‘ Migrants’ in this country, the others, being, as species, resident in it
throughout the year. Yet nothing has been more clearly proved than
that, as individuals, Song-Thrushes, Skylarks, Lapwings, Starlings, and
Rooks are migratory in the highest degree, a fact which had before been
known to comparatively few ornithologists, and wholly unsuspected by
the public at large, though these are among our most familiar birds,
The clear way in which this has been set forth by Mr. Clarke ought to
remove all misapprehension on this matter, and in itself almost justifies
the whole inquiry, instituted more than twenty years ago, since an obvious
inference is that many other species must show the same character, and
hence that Migration, among birds of these islands at least, instead of
being the exceptional quality it was once thought, may be general.

It would no doubt be extremely desirable for more species to be
subjected to the same rigid examination as the eight upon which
Mr. Clarke has laboured, but your Committee believe that the results
would hardly repay the toil. It is not to be expected, of course, that any
two species, even among those most nearly allied, would be precisely alike in
their movements, but the amount of difference observable would probably
be immaterial, and nearly all the species which appear at the Lighthouses
and Lightships could most likely be referred to one or other of the

903. U

290 REPORT—1908.

categories represented by the eight which have been chosen for particular
investigation.

Regarding as a whole, the work on Migration begun by the first
Committee appointed at Swansea in 1880 to obtain ‘ Observations on the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships’ after the Association
had become acquainted | with the preliminary inquiry instituted in 1878
by Messrs. Cordeaux and Harvie-Brown, and continued for many years,
until it took the shape of a Committee to make a Digest of the observa-
tions so collected (which Digest was presented at Liverpool in 1896), and
then in its present form to work out the details of these observations, it
may be stated as another important result of the inquiry that the fact of
Bird Migration being for the most part carried on by night, which for
a long while had been only surmised, must now be accepted as proved.
The establishment of this fact is a very considerable gain, for though it
may tend rather to obscure than enlighten us for the time as to the means
whereby birds are able to direct their course on their wonderful nocturnal
journeys, several theories to explain that mystery are thereby shown to
be unsound, and, these being thus eliminated from the inquiry, its limits
are by so much narrowed.

That investigation of the subject of Migration in general is far from
being exhausted will be very evident to everyone. Some branches of it,
indeed, are not touched at all, being precluded by the conditions of the
inquiry, which (extensive as it has proved) was limited to observations at
Lighthouses and Lightships, and thereby shut out all consideration of the
very interesting question of the distribution of Migrants in the interior
of the country after their arrival.

It follows that the investigation will have to be reopened, and that, it

is to be hoped, at no distant time. The last thing your Committee would
wish is to discourage the prosecution of observations, but they feel bound
to express the opinion that no great advance of our present knowledge of
the subject seems likely to be made until new methods are applied. What
they should be it is impossible to suggest, but those used at present
appear to have reached their limit. Meanwhile your Committee regards
with much gratification the efforts made in several foreign countries, and
especially in Denmark and in the United States of America, to obtain
observations from their light-stations, while the recent establishment
at Rossitten in Germany of an Ornithological Observatory is a hopeful
sign.
Lastly, your Committee cannot present this, their final, Report with-
out again recording the uniformly constant assistance received from the
Corporation of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern and
of Irish Lights, without whose cordial co-operation nothing could haye
been done. Nor is it fitting that this Report should be closed without
an acknowledgment of gratitude for the countenance so long extended by
the British Association to the object of the inquiry, and the material
support from time to time received in furtherance of the same—support
which your Committee know would have been often more liberally granted
had the funds of the Association permitted.

' Report of the British Association, 1880 (Swansea), p. 605; Zoologist, 1880, May,
pp. 161-204; Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glasgow, Sept. 30, 1879, p. 140.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 291

Statement furnished by Mr. Wm. EaGie CLARKE.

Herewith I submit histories of the various migrations performed by
the Starling and the Rook ; species whose movements present special
points of interest, while those of the former are of a more complex
nature than is to be found in any other British bird.

My thanks are accorded to Professor Collett, of Christiania, and to
Herr Knud Andersen, late of Copenhagen ; and also to several British
ornithologists (whose names are duly mentioned in the histories) for
information afforded.

As this is the final instalment of my work for the Association, I
desire to make the following remarks :

The ‘ Digest of Observations ’ submitted in 1896 has been abundantly
and thoroughly tested during the progress of the subsequent work, and
its accuracy has practically remained unshaken. A few modifications may
be necessary, but they are of such an unimportant character as to need no
mention here.

As regards the treatment of the movements of species, the plan
devised aims at furnishing complete histories of each and every movement
(and the various conditions &c. under which they are performed) of a
few birds, carefully selected so as to include every type of British
migrant ; a comprehensive method of treatment never before attempted, I
believe, for any species of migratory bird, British or foreign.

The consummation of this ideal has, however, presented exceptional
difficulties ; due chiefly to the fact that some of the movements are
habitually performed under conditions which enshroud them in all but
complete obscurity, indeed often in complete obscurity. Their elucidation
has demanded an infinite amount of research ere results which were
entirely satisfactory could be arrived at, for not a single statement made
in the histories is of a hypothetical nature, unless it is clearly implied to
be such.

Before concluding, I wish to express my acknowledgments to the
members of the Committee for the honour they did me in 1887 in entrust-
ing to my charge the preparation of the results obtained through this great
inquiry ; and also for the confidence they have since unfailingly reposed
inme. To the late Mr. Cordeaux and others my special thanks are due
for much valuable advice and encouragement ; without the latter incen-
tive I doubt much if I should ever have ventured to undertake so great
and important a piece of research, or should have accomplished it.

Finally, I would state that although the work is fittingly concluded,
so far as the British Association is concerned, the subject is by no means
exhausted ; and that I intend to continue the investigations in the hope
of being able to add something to what has already been accomplished.

THE MIGRATIONS OF THE STARLING (Sturnus vulgaris).

The Starling is a summer visitor to Northern and much of Central
Europe, and a winter visitor to Southern Europe and Northern Africa.
In the British Isles it is a resident, a partial migrant, a winter visitor,
and a bird of passage.

The migrations of the Starling observed in Great Britain and Ireland
are of a singularly varied nature, being performed with great frequency
and at all seasons. These remarkable characteristics in the movements of

294% REPORT—1903.

a well-known and familiar bird are due to a number of causes—among
others, to its gregarious and desultory nature, the varying degree of its
migratory instincts in different parts of the British area, its dependence
upon supplies of food which not only change with the season but from
year to year, and to the fact that it is double-brooded ; peculiarities which
result in innumerable movements, many of them of a partial or wholly
irregular nature.

In addition to these, there are the regular migrations performed by
the Starling (1) as a migratory species in Britain ; (2) as a winter visitor
to our isles from Northern and Central Europe ; (3) as a bird of double
passage, traversing our shores when en rowte between Continental summer
quarters and winter retreats ; and, finally (4) there are winter movements —
partial migrations within the British area and emigrations to the Con-
tinent —dependent upon and varying with the severity of the season.

The data amassed relating to these numerous irregular and regular
movements are extraordinarily voluminous, and their study has presented
problems for solution of an exceptionally complex nature—more so than
those appertaining to any other species hitherto treated.

As aresident species the Starling is widely distributed over our islands,
its range extending from the Shetland and other northern isles ' south-
ward to the English Channel. In many of the northern and in the more
elevated portions of the mainland of Britain the bird is migratory, being
entirely or partially absent during the autumn and winter months.”

This variability in the migratory habit is also manifest in many dis-
tricts of England. It may in most cases depend upon the distribution
of food-supplies ; but this does not explain all, for there are certain
counties in south-western England (Cornwall and Devon) in which the
Starling has only recently become a breeding species, and is still chiefly a
winter visitor.

In Ireland the peculiarities in seasonal distribution of native Starlings
are very similar, and the species is mainly a winter visitor to the south and
west. An interesting and important fact is that in Ireland winter visitors
from Great Britain and the Continent far outnumber the Irish birds,

Summer and Autumn Movements of British Starlings.—These take the
form of (1) local migrations within the British area, and (2) of emigrations
of native birds to winter quarters beyond our shores.

1. Local Migrations.—These begin in the early summer ; indeed, as
soon as the young, especially those of the broods first cast off, are able to
shift for themselves. Sometimes as early as the first week in June parties
composed of youngsters begin their wanderings ; but it is usually about
the middle of the month that such flocks are commonly observed. Even
thus early the maritime districts, the light stations, and islands lying off
the coast are sometimes visited.

Later in the summer both old and young gather together and form
large flocks. Movements of a more definite nature are then undertaken,
at first probably in search of fresh feeding-grounds, and finally for winter
homes.

The coast with its vicinity is largely visited, especially the southern
and western seaboards ; and when summer is past the Hebrides and other

1 In North Ronaldshay, one of the outermost and exposed of the Orkneys, only a
few remain for the winter.

2 At Halmyre, a moderately elevated district, in Peeblesshire, about 75 per cent.
leave (Laidlaw). At Pitlochry, in Perthshire, all depart (Macpherson),

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 295

islands (including Scilly) and Ireland are also sought for the winter.
These movements commence in some seasons as early as the end of July,!
and are in progress throughout the autumn. Ireland receives consider-
able numbers of immigrants from England, Scotland, and Wales towards
the end of August and onwards.

Later in autumn these movements merge into those of the Continental
hosts also seeking winter retreats in various parts of our islands.

2. Summer and Autumn Emigration.—Not only are winter quarters
sought by our native Starlings within the British area, but many travel
much further to find retreats in South-Western Europe. Thus a number
of our British-breeding Starlings are summer visitors to our islands.

Late in July, during August, and up to the middle of September
(before the Continental birds appear on our shores) emigrant Starlings
depart from the south coast of England, and are observed crossing the
Channel towards France, sometimes in company with Wheatears, Sedge
Warblers, Song-Thrushes, Meadow Pipits, Skylarks, Curlews, and other
species. These movements of departure are performed during the night
or the earliest hours of the morning, and hence for the most part escape
notice ; but I have received during the past two years much valuable
information regarding them from the Eddystone Lighthouse, the situa-
tion of which is singularly favourable for the making of such observations.
Nearly all the Starlings (and other species) which meet with an untimely
end at the lanterns at this season are birds of the year, a circumstance,
however, to which undue significance should not be attached ; for we must
remember that the majority of the emigrants are young, indeed only a
few weeks old, and it seems natural that they should fall easier victims
to the attractions of the lanterns than older travellers with more
experience.

Some of these native emigrants are probably of Irish origin, but their
departure is likewise difficult to detect. There are, however, nocturnal
movements (and emigratory movements are eminently performed by
night) of Starlings and other birds during the latter part of July and in
August, which seem to indicate that this species quits Ireland in the late
summer and early autumn for more southern winter quarters.

It is possible that some Starlings may cross the English Channel in the
daytime. There is, however, but one record of such a movement in the
returns,” and during a five weeks’ residence at the Eddystone in Sep-
tember and October 1901 I never saw any diurnal emigration on the part
of this species, though many thousands crossed in the night and earliest
hours of the morning.

Autumn Immigration from Central Europe.—The first arrivals from
the Continent on our coasts in the autumn come from the east, and are
doubtless emigrant summer visitors from Western Central Europe. These
visitors cross the southern waters of the North Sea by a more or less
direct east-to-west passage, and appear on the coast of England from the
Humber southwards to the Channel.

These immigrations set in with great regularity during the last week
of September,’ reach their maximum volume in the last three weeks of

1 At the Tuskar Rock, off the S.E. coast of Ireland, on July 27, 1894, several
Starlings were observed proceeding in a north-westerly direction.

2 At the Varne Lightship (Straits of Dover) on September 18, 1887, twenty
passed from N, to §.S.E. at 7 A.M.

3 The earliest date chronicled is September 21, 1880, but the initial date for
other years follows closely thereon.

294. REPORT—19038.

October, and usually cease with the early days of November, but in some
seasons there are arrivals until the middle of the month.!

As an illustration of the magnitude of these inpourings, it may be
stated that they have been recorded for as many as twenty-one days
during October, and that the chief ‘rushes’ often cover several successive
days, and affect the entire coastline from the Humber southwards. The
passage is chiefly performed during the daytime, and not unfrequently
lasts from early morning until dusk ;* but there are records which may
refer to a night passage along this route.

Like other immigrations along this route, the direction of flight
varies, being from direct east to west at its centre about the mouth of the
Thames, to the south-west off the coast of Kent, to the north-west on the
Norfolk coast, and to the north-north-west at the mouth of the Humber.
Occasionally at the more southern stations and at the Varne Lightship,
in the Straits of Dover, Starlings and Rooks are recorded as proceeding
N.N.W., and as coming from the coast of France.

The species which have been observed migrating from east to west
on the same dates as the Starling are Rooks, Larks, Tree Sparrows,
Chaflinches, and Lapwings.

Many of these immigrant Starlings from Central Europe winter in
various parts of England’ ; many, too, pass along our southern shores :
some to cross the English Channel at various points on their way to re-
treats in South-Western Europe ; while others proceed to Ireland, where
they arrive on the coast of Wexford as a centre after passage across St.
George’s Channel. Vast numbers of Starlings pour into Ireland by this
route between the latter half of October and the middle of November, the
passage on some occasions lasting for several successive days.*

Autumn Immigration from North-Western Hurope.—The arrival on
our shores in the autumn of the Starlings quitting their summer homes in
Scandinavia does not begin until about two weeks after the first appear-
ance on the coast of England of the emigrants from Central Europe.

The earliest immigrants from the north appear on the north-east
coast of Great Britain during the first half of October,® and the main
body arrives late in the month. There are also important inpourings
during the early part of November, and in some seasons laggards have
made their appearance as late as the 21st of the month.® A pronounced
feature of these movements is that the birds arrive in a series of ‘ rushes,’
there being no immigration of a straggling nature chronicled.

During these movements Starlings are recorded as arriving on the
east coast from Shetland to, and sometimes beyond, the Humber. A
number, too, reach the Atlantic seaboard and the Hebrides, occurring not
unfrequently as far west as the Flannan and Monach Isles.

? Latest at the Corton Lightship on November 17, 1880.

* At the Leman and Ower Lightship on October 24, 1884, a flight, estimated at
eas passed landwards at 5 P.M., and of these fifty struck the lantern and were

illed.

’ It is highly probable, indeed almost certain, that some of these Central Euro-
pean birds winter in latitudes north of their summer homes.

‘ In 1884 it was observed for eight consecutive days (October 15-22) at light-
stations off the coasts of Waterford, Wexford, and Wicklow.

5 The earliest dates recorded are as follows: October 1, 1886; 3, 1884; 6, 1883;
9, 1882; 15, 1880; 16, 1885; 18, 1887; 19, 1881.

§ Professor Collett informs me that most of the Starlings leave Southern Norway
in the course of October, and are common at the lighthouses during that month and
the early part of November.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 295

Like other visitors from the north, these immigrant Starlings appear
on our shores during the late hours of the night and early hours of the
morning ; the other species arriving in company simultaneously being
Redwings, Fieldfares, Song-Thrushes, Blackbirds, Ring Ousels, Wheatears,
Hedge Sparrows, Redbreasts, Wrens, Goldcrests, Redstarts, Bramblings,
Siskins, Chaflinches, Larks, Short-eared Owls, Snipes, and Woodcocks.

These autumnal immigrations from the north-west are followed by
overland movements westwards and southwards in search of winter quar-
ters within the British area; the western, southern, and south-western
districts of England, the Hebrides and other western isles, and Ireland
affording specially favoured haunts. Ireland is entered from the north
and north-east ; the birds travelling by way of the Hebrides and the west
coast of Scotland, or (after an overland flight across Northern Britain)
from the Galloway coast.

Autumn Passage from Northern and Central to Southern Europe.—
Vast numbers of the Starlings which arrive on our shores in the autumn
from both Northern and Central Europe do not remain to winter with us,
but proceed on passage to retreats in South-Western Europe.

These passage movements follow (probably at once in the case of the
majority of the migrants) the arrivals from the Continent, and are in
progress from the latter half of September (on the part of the Central
European birds) until the third week of November. The course of the
birds from the east (Central Europe) has already been traced along the
south coast of England and across the Channel. The birds of passage of
northern origin proceed southwards down both the east and west coastlines
(including the Hebrides), but more especially the former, and finally
depart as emigrants,' crossing the Channel at various points between
Kent and Scilly.

Some idea of the magnitude of these movements may be gathered
from the fact that on the night of October 12 and the early morning
of October 13, 1901, vast numbers of Starlings, evidently of Continental
origin, passed the Eddystone, going southwards for ten hours and a half
without a break. Sixty-seven perished at the lantern, and great numbers,
after striking, fell over into the sea and were drowned.2 Some of these
autumnal visitors belong to a race which is characterised by having a
purple head and throat and green ear-coverts. This form occurs on our
south-eastern and southern coasts, and as I have failed to match them
with British and Scandinavian specimens obtained at the same season, I
think it is probable that these birds come to us from the east.

During the autumnal migratory movements Starlings sometimes con-
siderably overshoot our western limits, and are observed far out in the
Atlantic. At the end of October 1870 a large flock was encountered
300 miles west of Scilly,? and on October 23, 1876, one alighted on
H.M.S. Alert between Capes Farewell and Clear, when 517 miles from
the latter. At Eagle Island, off’ Mayo, on October 31 and November 1,
1886, several thousands are said to have passed westwards over the
Atlantic.

Winter Movements.—The winter movements of the Starling are

' It is possible that some of our British Starlings may also participate in these
emigrations by joining the ranks of the Continental birds and departing with them
for the south.

2 This, 1902, pp. 252-255. * Rodd, Birds of Cornwall, p. 292.

* Feilden, Zvvlogist, 1877, p. 469.

296 RE!r'ORT—1908

attributable to the same cause and are performed under identical con-
ditions as those undertaken by the Song Thrush, Skylark, and Lapwing,
which have been fully treated in the summaries on these species, and the
subject generally in the ‘ Digest of Observations.’! It is, therefore, only
necessary to touch somewhat briefly on these forced migrations of this bird.

Although a species which is much affected by severe weather, and
especially snow, inasmuch as its ordinary food then becomes difficult and
sometimes impossible to procure, yet many of our resident Starlings
remain in their accustomed haunts throughout periods of such extreme
severity that great numbers perish from hunger. Others, along with
species similarly affected, move to the coast, especially the west and
south-west coasts of England and Ireland. Ireland is also sought by
considerable numbers of emigrants, which arrive from the north-east and
east on the occasion of each great outburst of cold in Great Britain. But
even on the south-west coast of Ireland, where the climatic conditions
are more favourable than elsewhere within our area, great numbers
perish in severe seasons such as those of 1881 (January), 1882 (December),
and 1895 (January to March). Many, too, cross the English Channel
and proceed southwards in search of more genial haunts on the
Continent.

I am of opinion that these migrants are chiefly composed of our
winter guests from the Continent, for careful observations made during
seasons of exceptional severity lead me to believe that most of our resi-
dent stock do not leave their usual haunts, and may be seen daily on the
approach of dusk proceeding in numbers to their usual winter roosts.

Spring Immigration from Southern Europe and Passage to Northern
and Central Europe.—The spring immigrations of the Starling relate to
the return of (1) British summer visitors and of (2) the birds of passage on
their way north and east from their accustomed winter quarters in South-
Western Europe, and of (3) the refugees which have been forced to flee
our country through the pressure of winter conditions.

The first Starlings to appear on the southern coastline of England are
probably those birds which quitted our shores earliest in the autumn,
namely, the British summer visitors, which return to their breeding
haunts about the time that the first of the spring immigrants arrive on the
south coast, 7.e. usually during the last week in February.? These return
movements continue at intervals during March and the early part
of April, the 12th being the latest date on which they have been
chronicled. The later migrants are, no doubt, birds of passage, which
after arrival proceed along hoth the east and west coasts (mainly the
former), en route for summer quarters in Northern and Central Europe.

The immigrants appear on the south coast during the night and early
morning, and travel in company with (in addition to the species already
named) Redwings, Ring Ousels, Wheatears, Redstarts, Blackcaps, Chiif
Chaffs, Willow Warblers, and Swallows.

) Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1896, p. 473.

? The earliest record is for February 19, 1903, when great numbers passed the
Eddystone in flocks, coming from the 8. and §.8.E. They commenced to arrive at
7 P.M., and the passage lasted, with breaks, until 5 A.M. Many were killed at the
lantern, and great numbers struck and fell over into the sea. The other species
participating in this great return movement were Mistle Thrushes, Song Thrushes,
Skylarks, Lapwings, and others.

3 On some cccasions Starlings and other species (Skylarks, ‘ Black Crows,’ Rooks,
Goldcrests, and Wild Ducks) have been recorded as arriving on the south-east coast

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 297

Starlings have been noted as spring immigrants on the south-east
coast of Ireland at dates ranging from the third week of February to
mid-April. This indicates a return of Starlings which have either quitted
Treland for the winter, or of birds of passage on their way north, or,
again, most probably of both, for the dates are wide-ranging, sufficiently
so to cover both the return of native birds and the movements of birds of
passage. During the later dates, these Irish immigrants are sometimes
accompanied by various summer visitors and birds of passage-—Wheat-
ears, Ring Ousels, Redwings, &c. Similar movements at the Hebrides
are recorded as late as April 14.

Spring Emigration to Central Kurope.—The spring emigration from
the coast of south-east England eastwards across the southern part of the
North Sea of the Starlings which are returning to summer quarters in
Central Europe, after wintering in the British Isles and in South-Western
Europe (the latter being birds of passage), is very little in evidence as
compared with the great immigratory movements on the part of these
same birds during the autumn.

It comes under observation, however, at the great fleet of lightships
stationed between the Wash and the mouth of the Thames, and takes
place between the middle of February and the end of March. There are
no April movements chronicled, nor have other species been recorded as
emigrating in their company. The observations on these return move-
ments relate to the daytime only.

Spring Emigration to North- Western Europe.—The return movements
to their summer haunts in Scandinavia of those Starlings which have
wintered in the British Isles, or have traversed our shores on their way
from winter quarters in South-Western Europe, do not, as is the case
with all emigratory movements, find a very marked place in the records.
They are performed at night, and under favourable weather conditions,
between mid-March and the end of April,! and are observed chiefly
at stations on the north-east coast of Great Britain and at the Orkneys
and Shetlands, the other birds noted as emigrating at the same time
being Skylarks, Blackbirds, Lapwings, and Goldcrests.

The latest record was chronicled at the Isle of May on April 28,
1886, when at 10 pM. Starlings appeared during a ‘rush’ of migrants
(Wheatears, Redstarts, Whitethroats, &c.)

The Starlings which winter in Ireland begin to emigrate about the
middle of February, and in some seasons the movements are in progress
until the middle or end of March.* Those wintering in western Britain
and certain of the Hebridean Islands (such as Tiree), leave at dates
ranging from the middle of February to the end of March.

of England in the spring (see Zteport, 1883, p. 57). In the Zvologisé for 1870
(p. 2140) it is recorded from Aldeburgh that during the second week of March
immense numbers of Rooks and Starlings were almost constantly arriving ‘from
over the sea.’ In the same Journal for 1902 (p. 87) Mr. Gurney states that on
March 23, 1901, some were picked up dead on the beach at Yarmouth, along with
Rooks, ‘ which had lost their lives in crossing.’ This last record may, however,
refer to spring emigration. the disaster occurring after departure from our shores.
Similar but more regularly recorded movements are performed by the Rook, to
which reference may be made.

1 Professor Collett informs me that Starlings arrive singly in southern Norway
about the middle of March, and in flocks at the beginning of April.

2 On March 26, 1887, the Starlings and Thrushes wintering on Tearaght left the
island. On April 14, 1885, thirty, probably on passage north, struck the lantern at
Copeland Island.

298 REPORT—1903.

Summary of the Migrations of the Starling.—The various movements
of the Starling may be conveniently summarised as follows :

1. In June, sometimes early in the month, the young of the first
broods of our native Starlings gather together and lead a roving life,
during which they visit the coast and elsewhere.

2. Later in summer both old and young form flocks and wander
afield in search of food, and in the autumn many of these wanderers
seek winter quarters in the west and south of Great Britain and Ireland,
some numbers of the British birds emigrating to Ireland for that purpose.

3. A portion of our native Starlings, especially those inhabiting the
more northern and elevated districts, quit our shores in the late summer
and early autumn to winter in South-Western Europe &e. Such birds
are essentially summer visitors to the British Isles.

4. During the autumn (late September to early November) vast
numbers of Starlings arrive on the south-east coast of England from
Central Europe: many to winter in England and Ireland, others to
proceed, as birds of passage, to South-Western Europe for the cold
season.

5. Later in the autumn (October and November) considerable numbers
of immigrants from Scandinavia arrive on our northern and north-eastern
shores, many of which winter in Great Britain and Ireland, while others
proceed on passage to winter in Southern Europe.

6. During these autumnal movements Starlings sometimes overshoot
our western limits, and are observed far out in the Atlantic.

7. On the advent of severe cold the would-be winter residents (chiefly
our Continental guests) fly to the southern and western districts (especi-
ally the coasts) of Great Britain and Ireland, and in winters or periods of
exceptional severity many quit our isles for more southern asylums on
the Continent.

8. In February the birds inhabiting the more northern and elevated
districts in our isles begin to return to their summer quarters.

9. The earliest days of spring, and even those preceding (February and
March), witness the return from their winter quarters in Southern Europe
of the Starlings which are summer visitors to the British Isles.

10. About the same time the refugees which quitted our isles during
the winter return to our shores.

11. Later (March and April) the birds of passage, which also wintered
in Southern Europe, arrive on the south coast to travel by way of our
shores to their breeding haunts in Central and North-Western Europe.

12. Early in spring, too (mid-February and during March), the Central
European birds which have wintered with us depart eastwards for their
summer homes on the Continent.

13. Later (in mid-March and during April) the Scandinavian birds
which have passed the winter in our islands take their departure for their
northern summer haunts.

Tue Mierations or THE Rook (Corvus frugilegus).

The Rook is a summer visitor to North-Western Europe, and is
migratory to a considerable extent in the central portions of the
Continent.

From both of these areas the bird seeks Great Britain in the autumn
as a winter retreat, departing in the spring.

ONe BIRD MIGRATION. 299

Some Rooks leave the south-east shores of England in the autumn,
and though such emigrations, or passages, are somewhat scantily re-
corded, yet the corresponding return migrations in the spring are
regularly chronicled. A similar spring immigration is also observed
on the south-east coast of Ireland. The above-mentioned movements
constitute the regular migrations of the Rook as observed in Great
Britain and Ireland. ‘

In addition, some irregular migrations and intermigrations come under
notice, for the bird is much given to wandering, especially after the close
of the breeding season and during the summer, when flocks consisting
of old and young visit the vicinity of the coast and some of the neighbouring
islands ; food of a particular nature being, presumably, the main incentive
for these roving movements.

In Ireland, with the exception of the spring immigration already
mentioned, the movements, both local and intermigratory, are to be re-
garded as being only of a partial or irregular nature.

In severe winters Rooks, in small numbers, have been recorded as
seeking certain of the Outer Hebrides in search of more genial quarters
than those afforded by the mainland. To others of these islands it is a
regular winter visitor.

Apparently erratic movements out into the Atlantic have been known
to take place in the autumn.

Although one of our most familiar birds—a species known to all ob-
servers—yet there is a lack of information regarding the movements of
the Rook that is not a little surprising : further and striking proof of the
great difficulties which enshroud the whole subject of bird-migration.

Autumn Immigration from Central Europe.—This is by far the most
important of the autumn migrations of the Rook witnessed on our shores,
for it is from Central Europe that we receive the great majority of the
birds which winter in Britain.

The immigrants arrive on the south-east coast of England, from the
Humber to the coast of Kent, at dates ranging from the latter half of
September to mid-November,! the greatest numbers appearing during late
October, when these movements are often in progress for several succes-
sive days, during which vast numbers pour in upon our shores.”

The direction of the flight varies, being usually from direct east to
west at or about the mouth of the Thames (and sometimes on the coasts
of Norfolk and Kent) to north-west and north-north-west on the coast of
Suffolk and northwards. Occasionally numbers are observed off the
mouth of the Thames and east coast of Kent moving north-west across
the Straits of Dover, as if coming from the north-east coast of France.
On reaching our shores the immigrants proceed inland in search of winter
quarters.

The movements are only observed during the daytime, usually between
9 a.m. and 4 p.m. ; and the birds pass the lightships in straggling flocks, or
sometimes in small parties (even of two or three individuals), and frequently
immense numbers pass in a single day.

The most frequent companion of the Rook on these occasions is the
Daw, though always in smaller (usually much smaller) numbers than its
congener ; the other species also migrating in company, or at the same

1 The first recorded appearance is September 16 in 1880.
* In October 1884 the migrations covered twenty-two days.

300 REPORT—1902,

time, being Grey Crows, Carrion Crows, Starlings, Skylarks, Chaffinches,
and Tree Sparrows.

Mr. Caton Haigh, who is favourably situated on the north coast of
Lincolnshire for observing these immigrants, remarks that the parties
sometimes consist entirely of old birds ; sometimes of old and young, and
sometimes, so far as he was able to determine, wholly of young birds.

Autumn Immigration from North-Western Europe.—The immigration
from Northern Europe is far from being extensive. Rooks from
Scandinavia! appear in the Shetlands and at some of the Orkneys (North
Ronaldshay in particular) from the middle of October to mid-November.
They arrive during the night, sometimes in fairly large flocks, and often
remain for a short period before proceeding southwards.”

On the east coast of the mainland of Great Britain the arrival of these
northern immigrants does not seem to have been observed ; but passage
movements soutliwards performed during the daytime are recorded as far
south as Flamborough Head. Similar migrations are witnessed on the
west coast of Scotland, chiefly at the Hebridean stations, which likewise
follow the arrivals from the north. These diurnal migrations are pro-
bably passage movements to British winter quarters, and they sometimes
extend as far westward as the Flannan and Monach Isles. The Rook is a
winter visitor to Barra and probably to some other of the Hebrides.

The autumn immigrants from both east and north settle down for the
winter in Great Britain—chiefly, I believe, in eastern England—and do
not, as far as we know at present, proceed southwards of the British area
after arrival on our shores.

Autumn Enugration from Britain.—At the Goodwin Lightships, on
several occasions during September and October,’ Rooks, sometimes in
considerable numbers, are recorded as crossing the Straits of Dover in the
daytime, in an easterly and south-easterly direction, as if proceeding to
the coasts of Belgium and France. These records are of considerable
interest when considered in connection with the more regularly observed
return movement which occurs in the spring. The early date on which
some of these migrations are chronicled would seem to indicate that the
emigrants are British birds, for they are dated prior to the arrival of the
earliest autumn visitors from the Continent.

Spring Immigration to Britain.—During late February, throughout
March, and sometimes in the first half of April,‘ considerable numbers of
Rooks, occasionally accompanied by Daws, Starlings, and Skylarks, arrive
during the daytime on the south-east coast of England between Norfolk
and Kent, the immigrations on some occasions lasting for several succes-
sive days.°

’ Professor Collett informs me that the Rook, which is not an abundant species
in Norway, mostly leaves that country for the winter.

* Mr. Thomas Henderson, junior, of Dunrossness, tells me that during long-con-
tinued southerly gales he has often seen the immigrant Rooks rise in a flock to a
considerable height, as if anxious to be off, and then settle down again. They leave
Shetland for the south as soon as favourable conditions set in.

* The earliest of these autumn departures is dated September 9, and the latest
October 30.

* The earliest record is for February 23, and the latest for April 18.

5 The late Sir Edward Newton made a number of interesting observations on
these movements as witnessed by him at Lowestoft. He writes thus on one of them
which occurred on March 31, 1889: ‘This morning, while sitting in the house,
I heard Rooks and Jackdaws. On looking out I saw flocks of about one hundred
coming in very high from the S.E. A few minutes later I again heard Rooks and

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 3801

These, or perhaps we should say some of them, are, no doubt, the
return movements to British haunts of the emigrants observed leaving
our shores in the autumn. Other individuals, especially the late arrivals,
may be on passage to the Continent, the corresponding autumn passage
southwards on the part of foreign immigrants is not obviously recorded
in our data, though it possibly occurs.

Spring Emigration to Central Europe.— As the reverse migration was
the main one of the autumn, so is this the most important one of the
spring.

; The first departures of the Rooks which have wintered in England
are those for Central Europe. As early as the second week of February
(the 10th being the earliest record) these great emigrations eastwards set
in, reach their maximum during March, and are much in evidence
until the middle of April, the 23rd of that month marking their extreme
limit in the observations. During this prolonged period vast numbers of
emigrants are observed at the lightships between the Humber and the
mouth of the Thames (occasionally at the Straits of Dover), passing to the
south-east and east during the daytime, from 6 a.m. onwards, and some-
times flying very high ; Grey Crows, Daws, Skylarks, Tree Sparrows,
and Chaffinches not unfrequently departing at the same time.

Prior to their departure certain of these emigrants have been observed
passing southwards, occasionally accompanied by Grey Crows, on both
the Yorkshire and Norfolk coasts, en route for some particular points of
embarkation for the crossing of the North Sea.!

Spring Emigration to North-Western Europe.—The Rooks from Scan-
dinavia which have wintered in our islands return north in March and
April, and (as in the autumn) are mainly observed on passage in the
Orkneys and Shetlands. Some appear in these northern islands as early
as the first days of March. but the chief movements take place during its
latter days and the early days of April, though a few are seen as late as the
end of that month.? They arrive during the night, occasionally in large
flocks, and are sometimes accompanied by Grey Crows and Daws. The
emigrants appear at stations widely scattered over both Orkney and Shet-
land, and usually tarry for a few days before proceeding northwards.

There are only a few records relating to these movements northwards
on the east coast of Britain, and it would seem as if they but rarely came
under notice at any of the mainland stations. Rooks in small numbers
are, however, observed annually at the Hebrides, including the Flannan
Isles, on passage during March and April. They occur at the Feroes on
passage about the same time (Andersen), and arrive in Norway during
the latter part of March or beginning of April (Collett).

Irish Migrations.—The regular migrations of the Rook witnessed in
Treland are of an extremely limited nature, and relate to certain arrivals
in the spring. Ireland does not appear to be visited by Continental birds
as a winter resort, and hence the movements observed there are chiefly

Jackdaws, and again saw another flock, also very high, flying northwards; they were
occasionally toying and circling as one sees them in summer and autumn.’

1 At Somerton. on the Norfolk coast, on March 20, 1886, Rooks were flying due
south in a continuous stream from 10.30 A.M. to 6 P.M., never fewer than 1,000 being
in sight at the same time. (J?eport, 1885, p. 47.)

2 Stragelers have been observed as late as May 16, and some of a party which
arrived in Unst on March 4, 1901, remained until July 23 (T. E. Saxby), and probably
did not proceed beyond the limits of the British Isles.

302 REPORT—1903.

of a local or irregular character. There are, however, occasional inter-
migrations with Great Britain.

Irish Autumn Movements.—During October and November in some
years Rooks have been recorded as arriving on the south-east coast, but
these immigrations are so irregular and unimportant as not to merit further
notice at present. Such passages on the part of other species are among
the best observed and most interesting of the Irish movements, and the
absence of the Rook presents a remarkable negative feature, especially
so since nearly all the species from Central Europe which winter in England
find their way to Ireland by this route in considerable numbers.

Rooks have also been occasionally observed in October at the islands
(Rathlin and Maidens) off the north-east coast, coming from the direction
of the mainland of Scotland, and sometimes ‘rushes’ are recorded.

Irish Spring Movements.—The chief feature in the migrations of the
Rook as observed in Ireland is the regular spring immigration observed
(during the daytime) on the south-east coast, between the latter half of
March and the third week of April—the movements indicating that a
corresponding autumn emigration most likely takes place, though such has,
as yet, entirely escaped notice. It is impossible to determine the precise
nature of these movements. They may relate to birds returning to their
native homes, or to birds of passage traversing the Irish coast on their
way northwards. We have, however, no further information concerning
them, and the question must remain open.

There are occasional records of spring departures. These are witnessed
at Copeland Island, Rathlin, and the Maidens, off the north-east coast,
where oceasionally Rooks have been observed moving towards Scotland
in April. These are probably return migrations of the birds sometimes
observed at the same stations moving in an opposite direction in the
autumn.

Apparently Erratic Movements to the West.—In the Jate autumn large
numbers of Rooks have occasionally been observed moving westwards
beyond the British Isles and over the waters of the Atlantic, wherein
many perish, and whence others, having retraced their flight, arrive in an
exhausted condition on our furthest western shores.

Perhaps the best instance on record of such movements occurred in
October 1893, when late in the month vast numbers (estimated at from
5,000 to 6,000) arrived at Scilly from the south-east, accompanied by a
few Daws, and proceeded in a westerly direction. About the same time
a large flight of Rooks, presumably the same birds, were met with by
steamers out in the Atlantic some 300 miles west of Ireland, and in such
an exhausted condition that some fell into the sea and were drowned,
being too weak to retain their foothold on the vessel on which they had
alighted. It is said that these birds avoided the outward-bound steamers,
but sought those which were approaching the land. As there was nothing
unusual in the weather at the time of the birds’ appearance in Scilly,
they were certainly not on this occasion blown out to sea, a theory which
has been advanced to explain similar flights.

Return movements of considerable numbers of Rooks from the
Atlantic have several times been recorded at stations on the west coast
of Ireland. In 1884, between November 2 and 25, large numbers

} J. H. Jenkinson, The Field, March 3, 1894.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 3038

arrived at Tearaght Island and at the Skelligs, off the coast of Kerry,
for several days, either in flocks or at intervals.

Again in 1887, between October 21 and November 23, they appeared
at the same stations, also in numbers and direct from the Atlantic.
Similar movements were witnessed in 1888 and 1890, chiefly in November,
at Tearaght and at Slyne Head, Galway.

In the middle of November 1893 (soon after the great movement
observed at Scilly), some 4,000 or 5,000 appeared in the Island of Lewis,
arriving in an exhausted state, and great numbers were washed ashore on
the west side of the island.' It is worthy of remark that actual occupancy
of a new ‘ Rookery’ took place within the castle grounds of Stornoway,
Lewis, very shortly after this phenomenal invasion was first recorded in
The Field by Mr. Duncan. Mackenzie.’

Summary of the Migrations of the Rook.—1. Partial and irregular
movements on the part of young and old begin at the close of the nesting
season and continue throughout the autumn. .

2. Vast numbers of Rooks from Central Europe arrive on the south-
east coast of England (coming from the east and south-east) between the
latter half of September and the middle of November, to pass the winter
in the eastern counties of England. This is the main autumnal move-
ment.

3. From the middle of October to the middle of November emi-
grants from Scandinavia arrive on our northern shores and remain to
winter in Great Britain. They are chiefly observed as immigrants in
Shetland and Orkney, and, on passage to their British retreats, on the
north-east and north-west coastlines.

4. In severe winters some emigrate from the mainland of North
Britain and are observed in smal] numbers in the Western Isles (Lewis
&e.

f Late in February, during March, and sometimes early in April
numbers of Rooks arrive on the south-east coast of England from the
Continent, moving in a westerly and north-westerly direction during the
daytime. These are most probably returning British emigrants whose
departure in the autumn has escaped notice.

6. Early in February and until mid-April the Rooks from Central
Europe which have wintered in England depart from the south-east coast
for their summer homes. This is the most important movement of the
spring. .

7 7. Throughout March and April the winter visitors to Britain from
Scandinavia are observed, chiefly at the Orkneys and Shetlands, returning
to their northern summer quarters.

8. The Irish movements are chiefly of an irregular and unimportant
nature, and Ireland is not resorted to by the Continental visitors for
winter quarters. In October and November in some years arrivals have
been recorded on the south-east coast after passage across St. George's
Channel ; and there are occasional arrivals from Scotland at the islands
off the N.E. coast. In spring there is a regular return migration wit-
nessed on the 8.E. coast between the latter half of March and the third
week of April ; implying an unobserved autumn emigration either of

' D. Mackenzie, The Field, April 4, 1894.
2 Annals of Scot. Nat. Hist., pp. 149-150.

304: REPORT—1903.

native Rooks or of birds of passage, or both. There are a few records of
the return of Rooks to Scotland in the spring.

9. In the autumn of some years apparently erratic movements west-
wards over the Atlantic have taken place. During these many of the
wanderers have been known to perish, while others have been observed
returning, in an exhausted condition, on the west coast of Ireland, and of
the Hebrides.

The State of Solution of Proteids.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor HauLipurton (Chairman), Professor WaYyMouTH
Rew (Secretary), and Professor EH. A. SCHAFER, appointed to
investigate the state of Solution of Proterds.

Tue test of solution employed in this research has been the production of
a lasting osmotic pressure upon a membrane impermeable to the proteid
when the pure solvent is exhibited on one side and the reputed solution on
the other side of the membrane. A positive result by direct manometric
observation is taken as indicating a condition of true solution, a negative
result as indicative of a state of fine suspension of the proteid. The
membrane used has been almost exclusively formalised gelatine supported
in the pores of peritoneal membrane, fixed on a perforated metal support,
and set in an osmometer in which continuous stirring for periods of six
to eighteen days was possible.

The pressures were read daily with careful thermometric correction.

Ovalbumin, serum-albumin, and various globulins have chiefly been
used for experiment, though work with other proteids is still in progress.

Since the molecular weights of proteids is uncertain, the results have
been simply stated in the pressures in mm. of mercury for 1 per cent.
concentration of the proteid in reputed solution as determined by
analysis.

As the source from which all proteids are drawn must, by the nature
of the case, be one heavily contaminated with other bodies, and as it is
well known that proteids absorb other bodies in solution very strongly,
attention has been largely directed to the purification of the material used
for experiment. In some cases crystallisation may assist, but it is believed
that thorough washing with salt solutions in which the crystallised or
precipitated proteid is insoluble, is the best means for removal of adherent
foreign substances. The purification of the material for experiment has
been the most laborious part of the research.

The fact that solutions of similarly prepared samples of the same pro-
teid (say ovalbumin) obtained from different sources (different batches of
eggs) may give very different osmotic pressures per unit concentration of
proteid, suggested that the pressure read in such cases is not due to the
proteid in solution, but to some other body or bodies in true solution
and present in variable amount.

If this is so, thorough washing of all such proteids, which in apparent
solution at first give an osmotic pressure, should finally yield a fluid hold-
ing proteid, but giving no osmotic pressure.

This has been amply verified in the experiments, both in the case
of ovalbumin and serum-albumin, and osmotic-pressure-free proteid
‘solutions’ have been prepared without great difficulty, and the proteid
obtained dry by the vacuum pan for use in other experiments.

ON THE STATE OF SOLUTION OF PROTEIDS. 305

An obvious objection to the above interpretation of the results is that
the process of washing may so physically alter the proteid that, though
originally in true solution, it reaches in the end a state in which it is
only in suspension. This objection is much weakened by the fact that
if the washings are collected, the salt removed from them, and the fluid
concentrated in the vacuum pan (in which the temperature is not allowed
ever to exceed 30°C.), a fluid is obtained free of proteid but giving a last-
ing osmotic pressure, though the washed separated proteid does not give
any pressure. In other words, the substance or substances causing
an osmotic pressure in the proteid ‘ solution’ first obtained can be washed
out and collected, and a solution so obtained is then found to give a
pressure though containing no proteid, while the proteid from which it
has been removed is no longer capable of giving a pressure.

It is interesting to observe that a plain gelatine membrane is permeable
by the substance or substances in solution in the washings, and that only
when osmotic-pressure-free proteid is added to the solution does the
pressure stand steady for the full length of the experiment (nine days).

It is thought that this solution contains disintegration products of
proteids, since bacterial action will soon cause a ‘solution’ of osmotic-pres-
sure-free proteid to give a lasting pressure, and that the pressure exhibited
by freshly prepared and unpurified ‘solutions’ of proteid is really due to
adherent proteid metabolites in true solution.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ——Thirteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor NEwron (Chairman), Mr. Davin
Suarp (Secretary), Dr. W. 'T. BLanrorp, Professor 8. J. Hickson,
Dr. P. L. Scrater, Dr. F. Du Cane Gopman, and Mr. Epear A.
SMITH.

Turis Committee was appointed in 1890 and has been since annually
reappointed.

Since the last report two parts of the Fauna Hawaiiensis, published by
the Committee, have appeared, viz. Vol. III. Part 2, ‘Hemiptera,’ by
Mr. G. W. Kirkaldy, and Vol. IIT. Part 3, ‘Coleoptera Caraboidea,’ by
D. Sharp.

The Thirst set of the Diptera described by Mr. P. H. Grimshaw has
been sent to the British Museum, Natural History.

The part of the Fauna Hawaiiensis dealing with Vertebrata is in the
Press, and copy for two other parts is in hand.

The Committee asks for reappointment without a grant.

Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—Fourth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. A. Sepa@wick (Chairman), Mr. J. STANLEY
GARDINER (Secretary), Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister,
Mr. Francis Darwin, Dr. S. F. Harmer, Professor A. Mac-
ALISTER, Professor W. A. HerpMan, Professor S. J. Hickson,
Professor G. B. Howes, and Professor J. GRAHAM KERR.

Tur Committee present the following Report by the Secretary, who has
had charge of the work :—
1903. x

306 REPORT—1908.

During the past year two parts of ‘The Fauna and Geography of the
Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes ’ have been published, i.e. Part IV.,
completing Volume I., and Part I. of Volume II. They contain reports
by Mr. C. Forster Cooper on the Cephalochorda ; by Mr. R. C. Punnett
on Meristic Variation in the Cephalochorda ; by Dr. Gadow and Mr.
Stanley Gardiner on the Birds ; by Mr. F. E. Beddard on the Earth-
worms ; by Mr. W. F. Lanchester on the Stomatopoda ; by Mr L. A.
Borradaile on the Crabs of the groups Catometopa, Oxystomata, and
Dromiacea, and on the Cirripedia ; by Dr. M. Foslie of Trondhjem on
the Lithothamnia, important reef-building alge ; by Professor Sydney J.
Hickson and Miss Pratt, two most valuable and interesting papers on the
Alcyonaria of the Maldives ; by Sir Chas. Ehot, K.C.M.G., on the Nudi-
branchiata ; by Mr. F. F Laidlaw on a Land Planarian, the first recorded
from an oceanic atoll; and by Sir John Murray and Mr. Stanley
Gardiner on the Lagoon Deposits.

Part IL. of Volume II. is in the press, and will contain, among others,
papers by Mr. Edgar Smith on the Shelled Mollusca, of which 381 are
recorded ; and by Mr. R. C. Punnett on the Enteropneusta, fourteen
species and varieties, with an account of meristic variation in the group.

Reports are shortly expected on most of the other groups which
have not already been dealt with. A list of the genera and the pelagic
species of Foraminifera has been given in the report on ‘Lagoon
Deposits.’ In view of the accounts published or in the press on the
East Indian Foraminifera, and also of the necessary limitation of space,
it is not proposed to give any further report. Mr. Cyril Crossland has
undertaken to work out the Polycheta in conjunction with his own
collection from Zanzibar. The group shows great variability, and the
collections are both of very considerable size, similar in genera, and from
two well-defined areas of the Indian Ocean, of which the physical features
are known. As it is obviously greatly to the advancement of our know-
ledge of the group, I have agreed that the two collections shall be
reported on together in a single paper, of which the first part has already
appeared in the ‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society.’ I am myself at
present engaged in preparing my report on the true Corals (Madre-
poraria), but the work is one of considerable difficulty, as at present
practically nothing is known of variation in this group of animals.

Volunteers are urgently desired for the Hydroid Polyps, Actiniarians,
Pteropods, Holothurians, and some other groups. It is not proposed to
publish any detailed report on the whole pelagic fauna, as it would be
foreign to the main objects of the expedition. The collection is of course
open to specialists who desire to examine it for different groups of
animals.

In addition to the papers enumerated above as published in the year
1902-03, I have concluded my article on the coral formations with a
detailed description of the Maldive atolls and banks in Appendix B, and
some concluding remarks on the food, life, and death of corals in
Appendix C. So far as possible I have shown in the text and in a series
of figures the present conditions of the Maldive atolls and reefs visited
by my expedition. The surveys were made in comparison with the
already existing charts. They do not pretend to strict topographical
accuracy, but were such as the very limited means and time at our disposal
enabled us to do. They were intended for comparison only ; but being,
T believe, fairly accurate, so far as specific islands, reefs, lagoons, depths,

ON CORAL REEFS OF THE INDIAN REGION. 307

&c. are mentioned, will be, I trust, useful for a further comparison wnen-
ever the group is resurveyed by the Admiralty.

As the results of the expedition on the question of the formation of
coral reefs, the investigation of which was the main object of the expedi-
tion, have now been published, I may be permitted to briefly summarise
them.' I would, however, first express my very great indebtedness to
Messrs. L. A. Borradaile and C. Forster Cooper and Captain Molony, of
the ss. ‘Ileafaee ’ for the very loyal and whole-hearted way in which they
aided me in all the work.

In the first place, an accurate knowledge has been obtained of the
largest and most extraordinary series of coral formations in the world,
one situated too at the present time quite outside the influences of conti-
nental conditions. The physical features of the region have been examined,
especially in respect to currents, while the biological conditions have been
exhaustively studied both of the encircling reefs and of those within the
banks, and both towards the ocean and the enclosed waters of the lagoons
and banks. Owing to specially favourable circumstances it has been pos-
sible to throw considerable light on the rate of growth of corals and hence
also of reefs. Special work was undertaken to investigate the seaward
slopes of the reefs, the formation of lagoons, the action of boring and
sand-feeding organisms, and the conditions affecting the land. Owing to
this examination it has been possible to ascertain the changes in progress
in the different atolls and banks, and so by deduction to infer the later
stages in the formation of the coral reefs of the region.

Unfortunately the means available for the expedition were not
sufficient to allow of detailed work being undertaken below 50 fathoms,
which was shown to be the ewtreme limit in depth of the so-called reef-
building corals, those forms which at present are found living on the
surfaces of the reefs.2 A few deeper soundings were nevertheless made,
showing in the centre of the Maldive group a comparatively shallow
(200 fathoms) table on which the majority of the atolls and banks have
arisen. A subsequent expedition by that renowned American investigator
Professor Alexander Agassiz has further elucidated the greater depths,
and its full report, when published, will probably be found to give a very
complete idea of the whole topography of the Maldive Archipelago,

While a fair knowledge has now been attained of the conditions and
life on the floor of the deep sea, there has unfortunately been little work
done in oceanic areas on the shallower bottom down to 500 fathoms. The
evidence from the Maldive group shows how peculiarly interesting would
be such a knowledge of the conditions between 50 and 200 fathoms.
Indeed, an expedition undertaken mainly for this object would certainly
do more to elucidate the probable and possible methods of the formation
of coral reefs than any other mode of investigation. Further, such an
expedition would undoubtedly throw an immense flood of light on the
bathymetrical distribution of animals and plants. It would also make
possible a proper examination into the questions relating to the geographical
distribution of marine animals and plants, a subject at present untouched,

" See also ‘The Origin of Coral Reefs as shown by the Maldives,’ by J. Stanley
Gardiner, Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xvi., Sept. 1903, pp. 203-213.

* These forms depend mainly on their commensal alge for their nutrition, but
the existence of a perfectly distinct coral fauna living at intermediate depths, having
its maximum luxuriance at about 40 fathoms, and not depending on commensal alge,
was discovered.

308 REPORT—1903.

but one which, I venture to predict, will throw more light than even that
of land animals on the past changes of land and sea on the earth. The
further investigation of the interesting question of the formation of coral
reefs in my opinion calls for such an expedition. From several areas
might be expected important results on which a host of questions at
present depend. A well-equipped steamer would be essential, but the
equipment of such an expedition is beyond private enterprise.'

The publications of the ‘Results of the Funafuti Expeditions’ and of
Professor Agassiz’s Maldive expedition may shortly be expected. The
time for such an investigation as I have indicated above will not perhaps
be ripe for one or two years, but I venture to hope that the question
will be considered by the Committee.

The Committee ask for reappointment without a grant.

Investigations in the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of
the West of Scotland at Millport.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir JoHN Murray (Chairman), Dr. J. F. GEMMILL
(Secretary), Professors BowrEr, Cossak Ewart, W. A. HERDMAN,
and M. Laurie, and Messrs. ALEX. SOMERVILLE and J. A.
‘Topp.

Or the grant of 25/. given in 1901 the greater part was expended during
1902 in enabling Mr. Alexander Patience to investigate the Crustacea of
the Clyde sea area, and Dr. Jas. Rankin, B.Sc., to investigate the Com-
pound Ascidians of the same area. Reports by these workers were sub-
mitted in 1902, that of Mr. Patience being an interim one. Mr. Patience
has now presented his report to the Committee, which is as follows :—

Report on the Crustacea collected during the Dredging Cruise of the Millport
Marine Biological Association’s Steamer ‘ Mermaid’ since May 1902.
By ALEXANDER PATIENCE.

Investigations were carried out, on various dates since May 1902, in
all the Northern Clyde Lochs, in Kilbrennan Sound, in the vicinity of
the Great and Little Cumbraes, and from the Little Cumbrae to Ailsa
Craig. In all, dredgings were taken from 140 stations. The depths
ranged from 5 to 107 fathoms. This is the greatest depth within the
Clyde sea-area, and is found in Lower Loch Fyne, off Skate Island.

The chief object of my investigations was to study the distribution of
the Malacostraca within the Clyde sea-area.

Apart from the new species discovered and the new records made, the
distribution of many of the MJalacostracan species has been extended,
especially among the Schizopoda, since the publication of Dr. Scott’s list
in 1901.2. In this short report I cannot deal with this part of my in-
vestigations, but hope to publish, at an early date, an extended paper
giving details.

1 I estimate the cost at about 12,000/. for a well-equipped expedition.
2 B.A. for Adv. of Science, Glasgow, 1901, ‘ Fauna, Flora, and Geology of Clyde
Sea-area,’ p. 328.

THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF WEST OF SCOTLAND. 309

As mentioned in my interim report, two new species were discovered,
V2. -—

Pleurocrypta Patiencei, Scott. P, Cluthe, Scott.

They have been described by Dr. Thomas Scott, F.LS., of H.M.
Fishery Board, in a paper contributed to the ‘ Ann. Mag. of Natural
History.’

T have reason to believe that a Sacculina which I discovered on
Munida rugosa, Fabr., as also one on Galathea intermedia, Lillj., and a
Peltogaster on Anapagurus levis, Thomp., are new to science. I am
waiting, however, for further material to establish this fact.

The following species which I have discovered are new to the Clyde
sea-area, Viz. :—

Decapoda.
ELbalia Coste, Heller.

E. Coste, Heller, var. granulosa, Milne-Edw.

I am indebted to Dr. Norman, F.R.S., for identifying the above.
I have verified Landsborough Martin’s record of the occurrence in Clyde
waters of HZ. Cranchii, Leach, which was held as doubtful by Dr. J. R.
Henderson.!

Xantho hydrophilus, Herbst., var. tuberculata, Couch.

I have established the occurrence, at the greatest depth (107 fathoms),
within the Clyde sea-area, of Pandalus Montagui, Leach. Records of
its occurrence in depths of over 70 fathoms in British waters have hitherto
been regarded with doubt.”

Schizopoda.
Macropus Slabberi (Van Beneden). Pseudomma reseum, G. O. Sars.
I have contributed two papers to the Glasgow Natural History Society

of Glasgow dealing with the occurrence of the two above-named Schizo-
pods within the Clyde sea-area.

Isopoda.
Idothea negiécta, G. O. Sars. I, viridis (Slabber).

I am of opinion that these two species have been confounded by
previous observers in the Clyde with J. baltica (Pallas).

I submitted them to Dr. Scott, who agrees with my identification of
them.

Eurydice spinigera, H. J. Hansen. Cymodoce truncata, Leach.

I believe this species, as well as C. emarginata, Leach, were recorded
by the late Dr. Robertson, Millport, but have been inadvertently omitted
from Dr. Scott’s list.

Pleurocrypta longibranchiata (B. & W.) on Galathea dispersa, Bate ; and on
G. squamifera, Leach.

1 Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Glas. (n.s.) vol. i. p. 353.
2 Calman, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. iii. 7th series, pp. 27, 39.

310 REPORT—1903.

The following species have been found on new hosts, viz.: —

Bopyroides sarsi, Bonnier, on Spironto- P.Hyndmanni (B.& W.) on Anapagurus

caris securifrons, Norman. levis (Thomp.)
Pseudione crenulata, G.O.S8ars,on Gala- <Atheleges paguri (Rathke) on A. levis,
thea dispersa, Bate. and on Lupagurus Prideauxii (Leach).

Another species, A. Prideauxii, Giard and Bonnier, has been found
on the last-named species of decapod ; but Stebbing says! that ‘the adult
female retains a rudimentary fifth pair of appendages on the pleon which
are transitory on the former ’—7.e. on A. paguri. In my specimens, how-
ever, which seem to be fully matured, there are only four pairs, and the
form of the two plates of which each appendage consists is exactly the
same as in A. paguri. I have shown these specimens to Dr. Scott, and
he has referred them to A. paguri, and on this point I fully agree with
him.

Phryxus abdominalis (Kr.) on Spirontocaris pusiola (Kr.); S. Cranchii, Leach ;
and 8S. Gaimardii (Milne- Edw.)

I have not completed my survey of the Cumacea and Amphipoda, but
hope to publish the results at an early date.

The Committee ask for a renewal of the grant of 25/. given in 1901, to
enable Mr. R. T. Leiper to investigate the Accelous Turbellarians of the
Millport area and to enable Mr. D. C. McIntosh, M.A., to work at
Variation in Ophiocoma granulata (O. F. Miller) and other Echinoderms,
and to enable Mr. Alex. Patience to continue his investigations on the
Crustacea of the Clyde sea-area.

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with the addition of Professors
J. Arthur Thomson and J. Graham Kerr.

The Micro-chemistry of Celis.— Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E. A. SCHAFER (Chairman), Professor A. B. MACALLUM
(Secretary), Professor E. Ray LankestTer, Professor W. D.
Ha.uigurton, Dr. G. C. Bourneg, and Professor J. J. MACKENZIE.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE Committee report that the work of detecting and localising calcium
and potassium in the vegetable cell, which was begun in 1901-2, was
continued, and that in regard to potassium results of importance were
obtained which may have a bearing also on the interpretation of the réle
of sodium, magnesium, and calcium in the living cell, both animal and
vegetable.

The Localisation of Potassium in the living Cell.—It was found possible
to precipitate potassium as the hexanitrite of potassium and cobalt, which
occurs in minute octahedral crystals if the potassium salt is present in con-
siderable quantities in the living protoplasm, but ina diffuse form if it obtain
only in traces. The reagent used to effect this is the hexanitrite of cobalt
and sodium, Na,;CO(NO,),, and when dissolved in a diluted solution of

1 A History of Crustacea, Int. Sci. Series, vol. 74, p. 409.

ON THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CELLS. 311

acetic acid it gives an instantaneous precipitate of the hexanitrite of cobalt
and potassium, K,CO(NO,),, carrying down with it a certain quantity of
the precipitant, Na,CO(NO,);. So completely is the potassium removed
from solution that the reagent is found to be of service’ as a means of
separating the element from the other alkalies and the alkaline earths in
the quantitative estimation of potassium. The precipitate is but very
slightly soluble in water, which may therefore be used to remove the
excess of the precipitant, after which the precipitate may be washed with
a solution of sodium nitrite to which acetic acid has been added, or with
a solution of sodium acetate. In either of these solutions the precipitate
is practically insoluble, and is thereby freed from traces of the corre-
sponding ammonium compound, CO(NH;);(NO.),, which is much more
soluble than the potassium compound.

This reaction does not precipitate the amido acids, glycin, leucin, taurin
tyrosin, sarcosin, aspartic acid, or glutamic acid, nor does it precipitate urea,,
carbamic acid, asparagin. These therefore do not complicate the reaction,
and the only compounds in living protoplasm which, in addition to those:
of potassium and ammonia, precipitate with the reagent are creatin and
oxalic acid. The former separates out from solution only slowly, and not
at all if solution is very dilute. As it does not occur in the vegetable
cell, and is unknown in the tissues of invertebrates, it cannot confuse the
determination of the presence of potassium. The distribution of oxalic
acid and its salts is so limited that they cannot interfere with the success
of the reagent in localising potassium in the cell.

The hexanitrite of cobalt and potassium is brownish yellow, and,
therefore, except when it is abundant, not readily recognisable directly.
It is brought into view by treating the preparation with ammonium
sulphide, which reveals the presence of the potassium through the black
sulphide of cobalt, CoS. If at the same time it is mounted on the slide
in dilute glycerine, to which a trace of ammonium sulphide is added, it
will keep unimpaired for a few weeks.

Some of the results of the investigation with this reagent are espe-
cially interesting in that they directly negative the generally accepted views
as to the distribution of the salts of the alkalies in the cell.

1. Asarule the nucleus is free from potassium, even when the cyto-
plasm contains it in abundance (the intestinal epithelium of insecta and
erustacea, the erythrocytes of amphibia). In alge the nucleus of the
healthy cell never contains potassium, and even in karyokinesis the chro-
matic filaments are free from it, however abundant it may be in the
cytoplasm. In such non-nucleated forms as the cyanophycez the ‘ central
body,’ which is regarded by cytologists generally as the homologue of the
nucleus of higher forms, is also absolutely free from potassium, although it
may occur in abundance in the peripheral zone, and particularly in the
so-called ‘red granules’ of Biitschli.

2. The salts of potassium when abundant in the cytoplasm are not
uniformly diffused through the latter. In the vegetable cell as a rule
only a minute quantity is so diffused, while the rest is localised apparently
as precipitates in portions of the protoplasm which serve as inert structures,
and these are situated adjacent to the cell membrane (alge). In this
respect the salts of potassium are disposed of like those of iron when the

: Van Leent, Zeit. fii anal. Chemie, vol. x1. 1901, p. 567; also Autenrieth and
Bernheim, Zcit. fiir physiol. Chemie, vol. xxxvii. 1902, p. 29.

312 REPORT—19038.

latter is abundant in a cell. The quantity of potassium required by
protoplasm is very small, as shown by the feebleness of the reaction
obtained in the growing points of vegetable organisms. In old as com-
pared with young cells the quantity is great, but the excess is stored away
in the inert form, and is apparently due to the protoplasm precipitating it
from the water constantly diffusing into the cell. This may explain the
high proportion of potassium found in the cells of vegetable forms, and it
seems to indicate that more is present than is required. Further, the
varying amounts in different vegetable forms may be accounted for as
caused by variation in the flow of the sap, in the transpiration currents,
and perhaps also in the dissolving powers of the secretions of the root-
hairs.

When the potassium salt is stored away in the inert form it is, unlike
the inorganic iron, still subject to solution and redistribution by the proto-
plasm, as is illustrated in the case of the spores of equisetum, the potas-
sium of which is in by far the greater part transferred on division to that
daughter cell which gives origin to the primary rhizoid. A similar control
over the precipitated potassium is found in the formation of the zygospores
of spirogyra.

3. In the cytoplasm of the animal cell the potassium as a rule is much
less abundant, and when this element predominates in the medium from
which protophyta derive their abundance of potassium the accompanying
animal forms contain only traces of it (vorticella), and then chiefly in the
form of small localised precipitates. The unicellular animal organism
appears to be capable of rejecting the potassium even when it comes in the
food masses. On the other hand the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells in
the intestine and the excretory organs of vertebrates and invertebrates is
deeply impregnated with potassium salts which appear to be in the process
of excretion.

4. In striated muscle fibre the potassium is limited wholly to the
doubly refractive material in the dim band (frog). This is significant
seeing that the potassium greatly exceeds the sodium in voluntary muscle
fibre, the proportion in frog’s muscle being 557: 100. The element is
found also in the doubly refractive material of the fibres in the wing
muscles of insects and in the muscles of the lobster. Here there can be
no reason for doubting the nature of the reaction, since creatin does not
occur in the tissues of invertebrates.

It is proposed to continue the investigation of the distribution of
potassium in the cell, and to make an extensive examination for this
purpose of a large number of animal and vegetable forms.

Terrestrial Surface Waves.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. J. Scorr Kexrre (Chairman), Dr. VauGHaN CornisH (Seecre-
tary), Colonel F. Barney, Mr. E. A. Fioyrr, Professor J. MILNE,
and Mr. W. H. WHEELER. (Drawn up by Dr. VAUGHAN CoRNISH.)

[PLATE X.]
Variability of the Severn Bore.

Tus phenomenon is subject to apparently capricious variations in addi-
tion to that which depends upon the varying amplitude of the tide.
Visiting Newnham-on-Severn on the occasion of one of the highest tides

ON TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WAVES. 313

of an early autumn I found that there was practically no bore, although
in springtime I had seen a good one with a smaller tide. The fishermen
opined that the sands between Awre and Frampton, a few miles down
the river, had shifted in some way, which would be found to account for
the failure of the bore at Newnham. Accordingly at the next succeeding
tide I took up a post of observation at Hock Crib, where I could com-
wand a view over the extensive sands in the broad straight stretch
towards Severn Bridge, which constitutes the commencement of the
proper estuary, as well as of the last bend of the winding channel of the
river proper looking towards Newnham. The main stream of the river
had established itself in a channel somewhat near the right bank, and up
this the ‘first of the flood’ came with a good ‘head’ to it, the bore
appearing as a crested breaking wave stretching quite across the low-
tide channel. It thus continued until it reached a point close to Hock
Cliff, at the head of another channel which skirts the concave left bank,
passing Frampton. From the position now reached by the incoming
flood, water now poured back into this channel, the further advance of
the tide up stream being stopped. Presently the back-flowing stream
met another coming up the Frampton Channel, and the turbulent waters
then began to spread over the large expanse of sand intervening between
the two channels. Not until these were nearly covered did any percep-
tible rise of tide make its way up the river channel towards Newnham.
The total rise of tide is unaffected by this course of events, but the ‘head’
which the flood had gathered is lost and the bore is spoilt. It was
pointed out in a paper on sand waves in tidal estuaries that the flood
tide tends to follow the chords of the arcs made by the sinuosities of an
ebbing current. According to the information collected by the late
Mr. Frank Buckland, the Severn in a wet season tends to collect in the
Frampton Channel, and in a dry season in the Awre Channel.

In the estuaries of the Mawddach, Dovey, &c., dealt with in ‘Geogr.
Journ.’ August 1901, the last of the ebb and the first of the flood respec-
tively had settled into separate channels and there was no bore, but a
circulation of the tidal waters.

That the continued action of the flood tide upon the sands minimises
the bore which it at first produces is further shown by the observation
of Mr. D. J. Wintle, of Newnham-on-Severn, who reports that ‘the
best heads are two tides previous to the highest tide of the moon—say
for four tides before the highest of the moon. The very next tide after
the highest tide may run within a few inches of the same flood-mark, but
will have a comparatively poor head and lack crispness.’

On the Size of Waves as related to the Rate of Advance of a Cyclone.

The greatest waves will be developed in that part of the cyclone in
which the direction of the wind coincides with the direction of advance
of the cyclone, and I wish to call attention to the fact that, along this
line of action, of all the waves which the velocity of the wind is capable
of increasing, that length will enjoy superior opportunities for growth
whose group velocity is equal to the rate of advance of the cyclone, the
storm either outrunning or lagging behind the transmission of energy in
waves of any other length. The velocity of the group in deep water is
half the velocity of the individual waves.

It was pointed out in the last report that the period of the longest

314 REPORT—1903.

recorded swells corresponds to a wave velocity about equal to that of the
greatest recorded hourly velocity of wind (the velocity of the dominant
wave in storms being much lower).

It may be added that no records of swells have been met with having
periods approaching those appropriate to a deep-sea velocity equal to that
attained during the gusts of a storm.

Mathematical investigations have pointed to the tendency of wind
finally to produce steep waves of velocity equal, or almost equal, to that
of the wind. When, however, we come to compare the observed velocities
of wind, the observed dimensions of cyclonic storms, and the lengths of
waves of velocity equal, or nearly equal, to that of the strongest winds,
we find that we rapidly approach a condition of things when the stretch
of water subject at any one time to such wind is only a small multiple
of the wave length ; a condition in which steep waves could not be
maintained.

On Regular Undulations produced in a Road by the Use of Sledges.

An investigation on this subject was completed after last year’s report
had been sent in, but was made the subject of a paper to Section G
(Belfast meeting). These undulations have been observed both in snow
and in ordinary road material. Those in snow are a familiar feature in
Canada and are termed cahots. An illustration is here given of ‘ cahots’”
in ordinary road material as observed upon the road to a slate quarry at
Coniston, Lanes. (Plate X.).

The chief result of the investigation may be summarised thus : when
the detritus consolidates readily under pressure, undulations arise spon-
taneously by the action of a steadily moving sledge when furrowing a
homogeneous road. The wedge of detritus travelling in front of the prow
of the sledge becomes compacted, the sledge surmounts it (rolling like a
wheel), and the detritus remains behind as an excrescence incorporated
with the road. At the same time the sledge pitches, furrowing the road
more deeply and accumulating detritus in front, which it finally surmounts
with the rolling movement which assists to compress and bind the material,
building up the next crest.

Wave Phenomena of the Niagara.

I have visited Niagara Falls, N.Y., with a view to reporting upon
some of the characters of the waves of rivers which I judged would be
seen in full development in the Rapids below the Falls. Three weeks’
work showed that the choice of locality for this study was a good one,
and afforded opportunity also for the study of phenomena of a kindred
character in the falls themselves and in the whirlpool. Indeed, it is to
the periodic and pulsative movements that much of the distinctive
character and interest of the Falls and Rapids are due.

There has not yet been sufficient time to work up the results of these
observations for publication.

As an indication of the character of the phenomena observed at
Niagara it may, however, be stated that in the tremendous current of the
Whirlpool Rapids (depth about 50 feet) there is, in addition to the usual
stationary waves of rivers, a remarkable development of visible travelling
waves, giving rise to many complex and beautiful results and contributing

[Prats X.

British Association, 73rd Report, Southport, 1903.

aves

Illustrating the Report on Terrestrial Surface W

|
‘ de oy ie Vie =
: - ~~ ee i A Cee i
7s ae, Pas wey Ste.
— ee BE Ca eras Sot
Bo ‘ = : "4 ; °
~ an a . : ,
, 7 : 1 ry
a, a

ON TERRESTRIAL SURFACE WAVES. 315

to the formation of the enormous leaping waves which are one of the
most awful exhibitions of the conflict of waters which the world affords.
What is here termed the ‘leaping wave’ is a variety of wave almost as
distinctive as the ‘ breaker’ or ‘ the swell.’

Women’s Labour—Third and Final Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. E. W. Brasrooxk (Chairman), Mr. A. L. BowLEy
(Secretary), Miss A. M. ANprERson, Miss Buacksurn, Mr. C.
Bootu, Professor S. J. CHapMan, Miss C. E. Convert, Professor
F. Y. Epceworts, Mrs. J. R. MacDonaup, Mr. L. L. Pricer,
Professor W. Smarr, Dr. G. Apam SmirH, and Mrs. H. J.
TENNANT, appointed to investigate the Heonomic Effect of Legislation
regulating Women’s Labour. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

CONTENTS.

SECTION PAGE:

INTRODUCTORY . i F 3 5 : £ - 315

I. Effect on How's Worked by 7] “Women . 5 : : z z 4 . 318

Il. Effect on Howrs Worked by Others. 5 5 . E . . 3822

Ill. Effect on Size of Workshops and Factories . é : . 322

IV. L£ffect on Employment of Women and Methods of Production. 324

(General Statistics, p. 14; Statistics re iy eats and seperih P. 18. )

V. ZLiffect on Wages and Earnings - b 337

VI. Effect on Efficiency of Women. Z : : : : . 339

VII. Effect on Efficiency of Industrial Processes .. : : : é + CCB,

Conclusion . : F : : ‘ . 340

Note to Report. By Miss HEATHER-BIGG : : . . . . 342
APPENDIX

I. Reports of Investigators : 3 - t é - : : : - 342

Il. Special Report on Laundries. By Miss ANDERSON . . : ; . 350

Ill. The Factory Acts and Infant Mortality . ; : . 4 . 361

IV. Recent Legislation Abroad. By EH. W. BRABROOK . : : ‘ . 364

THE Committee have associated with them in their work Miss Heather-
Bigg and Mrs. Bosanquet. They desire to express their deep regret at
the death of Miss Helen Blackburn, who was a regular and valued
attendant at their meetings.

Miss Collet wishes it to be understood that she is unable from her
official position to express any opinions on the subject under investiga-
tion, Her examination and criticism of the evidence submitted has,
however, been of the greatest value to the Committee.

Dr. C. Booth, Professor W. Smart, and Dr, G. Adam Smith have
been unable to attend the meetings of the Committee at which this
report was prepared and their conclusions on the matters in question have
not been communicated to the Committee.

The Committee have obtained further information from investigators,
the essential parts of which are included in their report or its appendices.
They consider that, though it has not been practicable to cover the whole
field of their inquiry, they have practically exhausted the means of
investigation open to them and have obtained sufficient information, on
the more important points on which evidence is procurable, to justify
them in arriving at certain conclusions and closing their work.

316 REPORT—19038.

The following reports have been received by the Committee, including

those summarised last year :—

Trade or District.
' Cotton in Lancashire?
' West Riding of Yorkshire .
‘Certain Industries in Birmingham .
' Boots and Shoes in and near Bristol
! Leicester, Northampton, and neigh-
bourhood ‘ : : 5
‘Certain Industries in Canning Torn
and Isle of Dogs .
Nottingham
Sheffield .
Kidderminster .
Coventry .
Derby 4 :
Tinplate Manufacture
The Potteries .

Investigator.
Professor 8. J. Chapman.
Mr. A. L. Bowley.
Miss B. L. Hutchins.
Mr. G. H. Wood.

Mr. R. Halstead.

Miss Hadley.

A special local Committee.
Mr. G. I. Lloyd.

Mr. G. H. Wood.

”

Miss Thornewill.

Paper-making near London Miss B. L. Hutchins.

Some South London Industries 4 >

Liverpool Miss A. Harrison (Mrs. F. H.
Spencer).

Committee organised by Women’s
Industrial Council, London.*

Miss Irwin.

Committee of the Women’s In-

dustrial Council, London.

Printing and Bookbinding .

Glasgow and South of Scotland
Tailoring in London

London Industries and West London
Laundries .

: ‘ Mrs. Bosanquet.
Laundries (Appendix IJ.)

Miss A. M. Anderson.

The Committee have also received memoranda on the Statistics of
Dangerous Trades from Mr. Wood, and on general statistics of Women’s
Employment from Miss Collet.

Extensive use has been made of the reports of the Chief Inspector of
Factories, which have been issued at half-yearly or yearly intervals since
1834.4

In all cases the investigators were supplied with directions respecting
the exact questions on which the Committee desired information, and
their work has been subjected to all practicable tests before heing used as
evidence on which the Committee could come to a decision ; but, as
stated last year, it must be understood that the Committee do not neces-
sarily assent to the opinions given under the names of their contributors.

It will be seen that reports have been received with regard to most of
the important industries, and most of the important towns and districts in
England and Wales, in which large numbers of women, affected by the
Factory Acts, are employed ; but it has not been found practicable to
institute inquiries in Norwich, Aberdeen, Dundee, or Belfast, or to
investigate industries in which there is much home-work, or in which
much work is given out from the larger factories or workshops to be done
elsewhere (principally the ready-made clothing, tailoring, and other
wearing-apparel industries) with the thoroughness which the Committee

1 Already published in the Belfast Report, pp. 287-306.

2 These reports are referred to in the sequel by the italicised words.

3 The notes kindly communicated by this Committee were prepared for their
book, Women in the Printing Trades, about to be issued.

4 Reference to these is made thus: Factory Inspector's Report, 1894, the date
given being that to which the report relates

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. Syl lie

would have desired. On the other hand, much information as to these
towns and industries has been found in the reports of the Chief Factory
Inspectors. The difficulty of investigation in industries of this class lies,
in a great part, in the general ignorance of the facts by the only persons
who are in a position to know them.

The Committee have interpreted the subject referred to them as
applying only to that part of legislation which discriminates between
men and women ; they do not, therefore, report on the effect of laws
velating to the prevention of accidents, to sanitation, and to special regu-
lations for dangerous trades, except in the few cases where they affect
women differently from men, or where women are a great majority of the
persons affected. The main regulations with which the Committee are
concerned are therefore those which define the hours of employment. In
this final Report they confine themselves to Great Britain."

These regulations are of great complexity, and have frequently been
extended and amended. The greater part of those now in force is contained
in the Factory and Workshop Act of 1901. Their history, change, and
development can be most easily studied in ‘The Factory System and the
Factory Acts,’ by R. W. Cooke Taylor, 1894; ‘The Factory Acts,’ by
A. Redgrave, 1895 ; ‘The Law relating to Factories and Workshops,”
by M. Abraham and A. Ll. Davies, 1896; ‘The Law of Factories and
Workshops,’ by A. H. Ruegg and L. Mossop, 1901, and ‘A History of
Factory Legislation,’ by B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison, 1903, which
last contains a nearly complete bibliography on the subject, as far as
Great Britain is concerned.

Tt will be convenient, however, to give a very condensed summary of
the principal regulations.

In textile factories the hours of women were limited in 1850 to a
period of 12 hours less 15 hour for meal-times on the first 5 working days,
and to 74 hours on Saturday, amounting to 60 hours per week. In
1874, 4 hour was cut off each of the 5 days and 1 hour off Saturday,
making the total hours per week 564; on January 1, 1902, another hour
was cut off Saturday, making the total hours 555.

Regulations of women’s hours, resulting by 1878 in a uniform 60
hours’ week as legal maximum (viz. not more than 10} hours on 5 days,
to be taken in the 12 hours beginning either at 6 or 7 or 8 A.M., and
74, hours on the sixth day), were extended in 1864, 1867, 1870, and 1878
successively, to all non-textile factories in which mechanical power is used,
and workshops where manual labour is employed in making, repairing, or
altering any article for sale. In addition to these hours, overtime is
allowed under certain restrictions in certain industries (notably book-
binding and the making of wearing apparel), where there is a seasonal or
sudden occasional pressure, or where the materials are liable to spoil,
e.g., fruit-preserving and fish-curing; before 1895 overtime might be
worked for forty-eight evenings in the year, 2 hours an evening less 5 hour
for meals, not more than five evenings being in any one week ; in 1895 the
number of evenings permissible was reduced to thirty, not more than three
in one week.

As each industry came under the Act, night work by women in it
was prohibited, except in the case of laundries.”

1 In their second Report (Belfast, 1902) summaries of similar legislation in
several European countries were given.

2 See the last part of Appendix I. below.

318 REPORT—19038.

There are many modifications to suit special circumstances, and some
important exemptions.

For the purpose of tabulating the information gathered, it is con-
venient to consider the effect of these laws. I. On the hours worked by
women ; (a) the total weekly number ; (+) the distribution through the
day, week, and year. II. On the hours worked by other persons, III. On
factories or workshops of different sizes, and on the prevalence of out-
work. IV. On the employment of women in particular processes, and on
the general demand for their labour, and on the re-arrangement of pro-
duction by employment of other classes of labour, or the introduction of
machinery. V. The effect on women’s rates of wages and total earnings.
VI. On the efficiency of women as industrial agents. VII. On the
efficiency of productive processes in general. These subjects are dealt
with in the following sections :—!

Srcrion I.—Z fect on the Hours worked by Women.
(a) The Total Weekly Number.

In the great majority of cases the hours in tewtile trades were reduced
from 60 to 564 in 1874-75, in consequence of the Act (Lancs., Yorks.,
Kidderminster) ; in some cases the hours were only 59 before 1874
(Yorks.). Though in many cases the hours were reduced to 555 hours or
less before 1902, yet in the majority the work on Saturday was curtailed
in consequence of the Act of 1901. The hours are increased illegally in
many places in Lancashire, and some in Yorkshire, by ‘cribbing time,’
that is, working a few minutes before and after the legal hours ; an
hour or more a week can easily be added in this way.”

In non-textile trades in general the Acts have had comparatively little
to do directly with fixing the normal week’s work. In many industries
the hours were under 60 before they were regulated by the Acts.*

In more recent years the hours in industries regulated by the Acts
have often been well under the legal maximum ; while in men’s industries
influenced by trades unions the hours are very rarély so many as 60.
Examples of regulated industries where the normal weekly hours are
below the legal maximum are the trades of Sheffield, Nottingham,
Coventry, Derby, the boot and shoe trades of Bristol and Leeds, the
wholesale clothing trade of Leeds, most of the Liverpool trades, and the
list might easily be extended. There are other cases where the hours
used to exceed 60 per week, and are still in times of ordinary full work
up to the maximum. Thus, match-making in Liverpool used to extend
over very long hours, but now a firm reports that they work 10 hours a
day, and do not take 104, only because it would not be worth while to
have the necessary additional meal-time.t The hours in rope-walks in
Liverpool were long and irregular before the 1867 Act. In the London
tailoring workshops the hours are up to the limit, though below it in the
larger factories. In some of the industries dealt with below, where over-

1 Reference to investigators’ reports are italicised, thus: Lancashire.

2 Yorkshire ; Factory Inspectors Report, 1897, p. 106; 1899, p. 20; 1900, p. 311;
1902, p. 119.

3 Factory and Workshop Commission, 1876; Factory Inspector's Report, October,
1869, p. 37; and October, 1879, p. 20.

4 A woman must not be employed continuously more than 5 hours without an
interval of at least $ hour.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 319

time is allowed or desired, the full legal hours are often worked in busy
seasons, though in recurring times of slackness they are not reached. As
the administration of the Acts has become effective in the smaller work-
shops of the large towns, the hours have frequently been brought down to
reasonable limits, e.g. in London, Glasgow, and Birmingham.

It is not to be assumed, however, that the existence of the regulations
has no influence in such cases. It is practically certain that the textile
factories would often exceed the limit if it were allowed ( Yorks.) ; e.g. the
Derby elastic web industry feels the prohibition of overtime. In non-
textile factories and workshops, especially in the clothing trades, and
printers’ folding, the interval between the customary weekly period and
the legal maximum is often filled in (and spoken of commonly as ‘over-
time’) ; frequent demands are made on the additional hours allowed thirty
times (formerly forty-eight) annually by the Legislature, while even this
limit is not infrequently passed by firms who hope to escape detection.

In the industries connected with printing (especially folding) through-
out the kingdom, in many cases as much overtime is worked as is possible,
and employers find it difficult to meet periodical pressure connected with
the despatch of magazines ke. with the amount allowed. Ready-made
clothing factories (e.g. in Leeds) use a great part of the extra evenings
allowed them, and these and smaller firms in Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool,
and London give out work (sometimes illegally) when they are pressed ;
but, in the main, the thirty occasions are found sufficient. In South
London a biscuit firm finds the want of elasticity troublesome ; and so
does a Bristol sweets manufacturer. In Nottingham ‘in the lace, hosiery,
and embroidery trades, many employers desire a measure of liberty in the
use of overtime to meet exceptional periods of stress to which the lace
trade is specially liable. . . . According to testimony of workers in both
lace and hosiery trades, the Acts are very often ignored when incon-
venient. Many employers agree with this statement’ (Wottingham).
The manager of a large watch-factory near Liverpool, stated in 1902 that
his firm was greatly inconvenienced by having to keep within the legal
hours in December, when special pressure occurs. In many other isolated
cases some firms in an industry complain of want of overtime, while others
have arranged (see below) to do without it.

The abolition of night-work for women has been effective in the
Welsh tinplate manufacture, in paper-making, and to a great extent in
printers’ folding ; but cases are recorded ' of folding being done, legally,
by women in separate premises at night. A great diminution of night-
work in laundries has occurred as an indirect consequence of the Act of
1895 (App. JZ).

(b) The Distribution of Work through the Day, Week, or Year.

A very important, perhaps from the economic point of view the most
important, effect of legislation has been to spread the period of work
more uniformly through the week, month, and year than had been the
case before regulation. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that
there is no trade or district to which these laws apply where this process
has not taken place.

It is convenient at this point to analyse the possible effects of the
diminution of overtime in regulated factories and workshops.

1 B.g., Factory Inspector's Report, 1902, p. 149.

320 REPORT—1903.

1. The same amount of time may be worked outside the factory.

2, The number of employees or quantity of machinery working ordinary
time may be increased either occasionally or permanently.

3. Employees not affected by the regulations may work overtime at
work usually done by protected persons.

4, The order may be given to other firms or workers («) at home, less
busy ; (8) at home, less regulated ; or (y) abroad.

5. Work may be equalised through the week, month, or year (a) by
the employees giving up the habit of holiday-making at the beginning of
the week, (/3) by pressure being put on customers to place orders earlier,
(v) by working to stock, (5) by careful management.

6. Machinery may be invented to do the work.

7. The same employees may produce the same output in the shorter
time.

8. The work may be left undone.

A great part of the above analysis applies to diminution of normal
time, but this has less important effects in this connection than overtime,
and is dealt with under other headings.

We have among our information instances of every case except 8 ;
but evidence for 4 (a) and (y) is unreliable.

3 and 6 will be dealt with below in Section 1V., and 7 in Section V.

1. In some cases work is given to out-workers not employed in the
workshop (London Printing, in Factory Commussion, 1876) ; some folding
was done thus in 1899 (Printing and Bookbinding) ; out-work increased
in the Stockport clothing trade by the 1895 reduction. In other cases
work is given to employees to take home nominally to their relations
(London, ready-made clothing),? to employees to do themselves after
hours (illegally) (Sheffield, electroplate ; ready-made clothing in various

laces).
3 2. fa workers (frequently married women formerly employed) may
be called in.

This is frequent in printing and kindred trades, in London and
Nottingham at any rate, where job-hands are called in on emergency,
sometimes regularly month by month. To those who have home duties
which prevent them from taking continuous work, this occasional employ-
ment, practically called into existence by the Acts (Printing and Book-
binding), is attractive. The expense of setting up extra machinery only
to be used occasionally is wasteful, and the additional rent for the space
necessitated for this or for extra hands involved is an important con-
sideration in the large towns where the pressure most frequently occurs
(Liverpool, confectionery). It is easily seen that an indirect effect of
limiting hours is, through the pressure of rent, to drive firms from
crowded into less congested districts.

If the number permanently engaged were increased, more might be
brought into the industry than can get sufficient employment (watch-
making, near Liverpool ; Dundee, bookbinding).*

In some cases workers go from trade to trade in their successive
seasons, in others they work only at the busy season ; in the case of fish-

1 Factory Inspector's Report, 189f, p. 38. 2 Tbid., 1901s ps 145s
3 Tbid., 1896, pp. 39.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 321

curing they follow the fish round the coast; but these cases are not
connected with the regulations.

4, Employers occasionally complain that work has to be refused (Yorks.,
silk), but often (a) the order can be placed with other firms in the same
district. In Yorkshire the system of commission weaving enabies the
various firms to put out the work they cannot cope with. (/3) Tailoring
and other clothing is sometimes taken by small employers or home-
workers, who escape regulation.

5. (a) In watch-making and the ribbon trade at Coventry, and in the
Potteries, the practice of not beginning work on Monday and working at
high pressure at the end of the week is diminished ; collection for
laundries has, in some cases, been re-arranged ; but often this should be
ascribed primarily to the invention of machinery.

(8) The tendency to put off giving orders to the last moment is easily
checked when the customer can be met with a universal legal prohibition.
Tn laundries the work has been regularised.!

(y) In modern industry, working to stock is risky, and not much im-
provement can be expected in this respect.

(6) Several instances (Liverpool, jute and dyeing ; South London, tin-
plate ; Bristol, boots)? are given where forethought and arrangement
have diminished pressure. The restriction. puts a premium on good
management.

In Sheffield we are told: ‘There has been a noticeable diminution in
the amount of overtime worked in busy seasons for which the Acts have
been largely responsible ; regularity of work has also been encouraged.’

It will be seen that the large group of industries which have met the
restriction by methods 4 (a) or (5) or 5 have benefited greatly without any
drawback ; that 1 and 4 (() will be of decreasing importance as effective
regulation spreads ; that 4 (y) is hypothetical and not necessarily injuri-
ous ; that 2 may, according to complex circumstances, assist or hinder
the flow of labour into its most efficient channels.

The difficulty which arises when it is necessary to perform one pro-
cess immediately after another has been completed by a different class
of workers is being met by allowing work to commence and finish at
different times in different parts of the same factory.*

It is the constantly reiterated opinion of the individual factory
inspectors * that overtime is in very many cases as unnecessary as it is
injurious.”

Important light is thrown on the abuses which elasticity of regulation
may allow by the description of the conditions of the jam manufacture
given in Factory Inspector’s Report, 1898, pp. 173 seq.

1 See in Factory Commission, 1876, evidence of Mr. Bell, bookbinder (Q. 2943);
Factory Inspector's Report, 1894, p. 191; 1902, p.29; and 1892, p. 89, for an instance
at an earlier date.

* Factory Inspector's Report, 1394, p. 11; 1896, pp. 39, 40.

% Tbid., 1900, p. 218.

4 Thid., 1892, p. 88; 1893, pp. 16 and 299; 1894, pp. 12, 20, 23, 28,191; 1895
pp. 13, 117; 1898, p. 66; 1900, pp. 248, 278; 1902, p. 29.

5 For the contrary opinion see /actory Inspector's Report, 1897, p. 68, and for
both opinions see Labour Commission, Digest Group, C., vol. i, p. 89, Factory
Tnspector’s evidence.

1903. Y

(ae)
bo
bo

REPORT—1903.

Secrion II.—Jnfluence of Restriction of Women’s Hours on the Hours
worked by other persons.

In the cotton industry of Lancashire there seems no doubt that the
hours of 1ion-protected persons are determined almost entirely by those of
protected persons ; but it is not possible to say to what extent they have
been influenced specially by the restrictions on the work of adult women,
for the work of young persons and children is also of the greatest import-
ance (Laives.).

In the wool industry of Yorkshire a great number of the men
work the hours allotted to the women, and it is common for the
engines to run only during those hours; on the other hand, several
instances are given where the men’s hours are quite different from the
women’s, and hardly influenced by them ; while in a third group are found
cases where the men continue women’s work at hours prohibited to
women (Yorks.).

In the carpet industry of Kidderminster the hours of work were
brought down to 564 in 1875, and 55} in 1902, in consequenceof the Acts.
* As the work of the men is mostly dependent on protected assistants,
their hours would probably have been reduced even if the rules of the
Power Loom Weavers’ Association had not necessitated that the weavers,
at least, should reduce their hours when those of the women kc. were
reduced.’ The Acts also hinder men working overtime, except in rare
cases where it is worth while to pay men for doing women’s work.

In the Potteries women’s work is so involved with men’s that the
greater regularity of the former necessitates the same for the latter ; and
a similar remark applies to those men who, through custom or necessity
of processes, work the same hours as women, in those industries whose
increasing regularity was pointed out in the last Section.

It is open to question, however, whether without the Acts the hours
for men might not be shorter ; for in the majority of trades, where the
hours are decided by agreements with trade unions, the hours are below
the legal maximum in regulated trades ; and it is possible that in the
textile industries the men, if not aided or forestalled by the Legislature,
would by this time have obtained a 54 hours’ week in Lancashire and
Yorkshire. This consideration makes it impossible to decide to what
extent the shortening of hours is to be attributed to the Acts, and to what
extent to the general tendency to amelioration of conditions. From the
evidence already given, however, it seems in the highest degree probable
that the hours would have been longer and much less regular in most
factories and workshops affected, but for legislation.

Section IlI.—Effect on Factorics and Workshops of different sizes, and
on the Prevalence of Out-work.

The Factory Acts, as a whole, exert a steady influence in favour of
firms with large capital and efficient management, as soon as regulation
becomes thorough and universal. The clauses relating to safety and sani-
tation have probably the greatest influence in this way, and do not con-
cern us here ; but those relating specially to women have also this effect.
We may first notice that in general the Acts have made compulsory
throughout an industry those arrangements of hours making for the
efficiency both of the employees and the machines, which the more

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. Bs:

enlightened firms had already adopted ; this tends to force out of the
trade competitors who cannot keep up to a high standard and whose em-
ployees are subject to conditions detrimental to the community. For
example, in most of the industries where overtime has been diminished, it
is the larger firms who are best able to apply pressure on their customers
to give their orders early, can make most easily internal arrangements to
meet a sudden demand, and can afford to keep enough machinery and
enough working-room beyond the requirements of a slack season (see
the references given in the discussion of overtime ; also Yorks.).

In this way the Acts hasten the general progress towards the use of
machinery and the growth of businesses with large capital ; ¢.g., in the
Bristol boot trade : ‘Machinery made the factory and the employment of
capital necessary, and the Factory Acts have not hindered but furthered
this development’ (oots). The sanitary regulations, which to some
extent affect factories where women are employed differently from
others, have helped this development (ibid.). The observations of Mr.
Wood, together with those of one of H.M. Inspectors, show that the
prohibition of overtime for ‘male young persons’ in 1895 gave a great
impetus to the factory system, since the smaller shops could not do
without overtime, and had to give place to the factories employing power.
Women being thus brought into the factories, the restrictions on their
overtime acted in the same direction ; thus the legislation affecting
women hastened the development of the factory system (2bid.).

Again, we learn from Northampton that legislation chiefly ‘hampered
people whose methods are getting out of date for general business
efficiency,’ and merely anticipated the results that competition would lead
to a little later (Northampton). We are told that in Liverpool ‘the
most far-reaching effect (of legislation) has been to place a premium upon
the employer of labour who can afford to lay out the capital required to
introduce improved methods of industry, labour-saving machines, and
large premises with accommodation for additional workers in busy
seasons’ (Liverpool). The allege acceptance of overtime restriction by
large chocolate manufacturers, who can keep their premises cool enough
for work on hot summer days, has been instanced as an unfair advantage
taken on their part over their smaller competitors.!_ In the South Wales
tinplate industry it is said that the less efficient mills have not been
able to stand the expense of setting up the machinery which the
abolition of women’s night-work has introduced (Zinplate). The
experience of laundries in this respect is interesting. In Nottingham,
for example, the smaller laundries cannot reconcile their customers to the
methods necessary to suit overtime regulations, while the larger laundries,
with a different class of custom, have less difficulty (Wottingham) ; but
this experience is not confirmed by the exhaustive account of laundry
development given in Miss Anderson’s report (App. JZ.). In this, as
in other industries, it is not possible to discriminate between the effects
of increasing use of machinery and of legal regulation. In the case of
laundries, where the workers are mainly women and girls, we may
include health and sanitary regulations under our reference; the
requirements of these are said (Wottingham, Canning Town) to press
heavily in small laundries, which indeed were the first to come under sani-
tary regulations, On the other side we may notice that it is more difficult

* Women under the Factery Act, by Miss Boucherett, p, 147.

324 REPORT—19038.

for large than for small firms to escape inspection, and for the actual
history of the industry we refer to Appendix I. below.

The regulations may have various effects on the amount of work given
out from large factories or workshops to small employers or to individual
workers. Some of the cases have been mentioned already. Svome
employers (Glasgow, Clothing) have stopped giving out work to their
regular hands, because the regulations were so troublesome. Others evade
the law or continue out-work under its restrictions. Some (Stockport, see
above) have increased out-work since overtime reductions. It may also
be the case that work is passed on from the large to the smaller firms, to be
done by them in illegal hours, or passed on again to uncontrolled workers.
The Committee have not received sufficient evidence as to the circumstances
in the scattered and complex clothing trades of London, Leeds, and other
great towns, to express an opinion as to the relative prevalence of these
methods.

We have not examined the effect of the legislation in the early years
of its application in relation to this Section, and therefore have not
considered whether, as has been alleged, any immediate increase of work
done under unsatisfactory conditions was due to unequal incidence of

restriction.

Section 1V.—Efect on the Employment of Women, and on the
Re-arrangement of Methods of Production.

This Section includes many highly involved questions, which may be
analysed as follows :—

(a) Women may be actually excluded from particular processes ; or

(b) They may lose only part of the work done, the remainder being
done by other workers or on other methods ; or

(d) The total demand for women workers may be increased or
diminished ; or

(2) The age or class of the body of women employed may be altered.

(f) In cases (a) and (b) the work may be done by unrestricted
workers ; or

(g) By machinery, which may be more expensive or may be economical,

only needing an impetus for its introduction.
(h) Employment of women in new directions may have been hindered.

The Committee has evidence that each of these developments has
occurred in one place or another, except (1), which is of a hypothetical

nature.
(a) Exclusion of Women.

The cases where women have been excluded from particular work
in favour of unrestricted workers are extremely rare. Throughout our
reports we find that the line of demarcation between men and women’s
work is in the great majority of cases rigidly fixed by physical suitability,
by relative cheapness, or by custom. This is undoubtedly the general
rule and the following exceptions are the only cases which a thorough
search has brought to light in the industries investigated, where women
have been displaced completely by men owing to legislation. In the
printing and kindred trades: In Derby the curtailment of overtime from

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 320
forty-eight to thirty evenings! was a serious inconvenience, as the larger
number was needed for the ‘laying on’ the printing and folding machines,
which is girls’ work. ‘At first the employers kept the young men over
18 years to do the work, but this was expensive, and as a last resort
the engineers were pressed to invent a way of doing by automatic
machinery what the girls had been doing before. This they have
succeeded in doing, and girls have been discharged’ (Derby). The em-
ployers, however, instead of discharging the girls from their workshop,
employed them in new branches, so that none were dismissed, though
fewer new ones may have been taken on. In London, one printing-house
manager said : ‘He would employ women for feeding his printing machines
were it pot for the limitations on their hours, which render it impossible
to keep them when a press of work comes in,’ but many others held an
opinion to the contrary (Printing). In an article in the ‘ Economic
Journal,’ 1899, on Women Compositors and the Factory Acts, we find
(p. 263) that among some very hesitating opinions three (out of thirty-five)
employers said that they would employ more women compositors if more
overtime were allowed ; and one doubtful case is given of women being
replaced by a folding-machine.

In last year’s Report? some instances are given where women may
have lost employment in Yorkshire and Birmingham, and cases in
Liverpool exactly similar to those in Birmingham are reported ; but the
net loss recorded is infinitesimal.

In Sheffield the clause of the new special rules coming into force
September 1, 1903, which enacts that: ‘If the factory or workshop is
situated in a dwelling-house, the work of file-cutting shall not be carried
on in any room which is used as a sleeping-place or for cooking or eating
meals,’ is expected to prevent a number of women continuing to earn their
livelihood at home, but it is too early to report on this.

We have two instances in our report from Nottingham: ‘In one
department of the lace trade, that of brass-bobbin winding, women are
being steadily replaced by youths and men, as these latter can be employed
in hours outside those permitted to women. This is necessitated by the
night working of the lace machines, for when the machine stops and the
bobbins come off empty, they must be re-wound at once. Old workers
state that men were not employed as brass winders before the advent of
factory legislation. Before this, brass-winding had been regarded as
essentially women’s work, and many employers still prefer women, alleging
that they are more efficient workers (and in emergencies can evade the
Inspector). Unsteady and drinking habits are very prevalent among
brass-winders, both male and female, and this tends to encourage the
employment of men, as they can more readily make up lost time.’
It is necessary to give the second case in full. ‘One of the largest
employers in the embroidery trade said that twenty. years. ago. women
worked all their machines, but as they got busier they had been: obliged
to put a few men (from 5 to JO per cent.) in also, as the hours of women
were too limited. He thought it was also a question of stamina, “In busy
times they now worked some of the machines twenty hours per day and
night, but the men dovetailed in with the women. They paid women the
same wages as the men, and had taken on men because of the limitation

1 The cause may have been either the prohibitionof overtime for girls under 18,

or the reduction for women over 18 ; our information is not complete.
2 Belfast, pp. 293, 299.

326 REPORT—1903.

of women’s hours as trade increased. In their trade he said “the
advantages to be gained by working the machines by night had increased
the importance of male Jabour in comparison to female.” His opinion
was that the trade would be an increasing one in the future, and he
considered that if the conditions of trade became so prosperous as to make
it important to work night and day, people putting in new plants of
machinery would probably put in male labour. It was the custom of the
trade to employ women except when night-work necessitated men’s labour.
The trade is only comparatively a small one at present, and this was the
only firm visited who employed men. Trade has fallen off this year (1903),
and the above firm that last year employed ten men and 100 women now
employs only four men and sixty-seven women. A woman can earn up
to 36s. a week’ (Nottingham).

A South London biscuit baker states that he would employ a few
women in placing biscuits on revolving ovens if it were not that he needed
overtime ; other firms employed women at this work.

The prohibition since 1898 of the employment of women in certain
processes involving the use of white lead has led to a considerable dis-
placement, modified by the substitution of innocuous processes in some
cases. The figures are so incomplete that we do not analyse them.!

(b) Substitution of other Workers in Overtime.

The instances in which women cease work at the end of their legal
hours and their process is carried on by men are fairly numerous, but
form a group which is not great in relation to the field of investigation.
Tn the Committee’s second report several such instances are given (p. 292).
One instance is reported from the Birmingham tinplate industry. In
Kidderminster the men on rare occasions work overtime on the women’s
looms. A vest-maker in Sheffield states that the men work long hours
and overtime in the busy season, doing some work which women would do

1 The numbers in the white-lead works for which the Factory Inspectors had
statistics in 1897 were:

| 1895 | 1896 1897

White lead 3
Red and yellow lead

In the Newcastle-on-Tyne district the numbers are given as

— | Male | Female | Total

It is clear that these ficures are on the one hand incomplete, and on the other
include many women engaged in processes still allowed to them; and there seem to
be no statistics available which permit a satisfactory calculation of the number of
women displaced.

One case is reported from Chester where women had been replaced by lads
for white-lead processes long before the legal prohibition,

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. ai

if allowed. Another South London biscuit firm has to employ men on
women’s work occasionally ‘at three times the wages.’ In printing and
kindred trades, men sometimes follow the girls at 9 p.m. in card-mounting
in London,! and men do overtime in Bristol and Liverpool on women’s
work ; while folding (see above) must often be done by men. In paper-
making men occasionally tend cutting and glazing machines after women’s
hours, yet in two cases women have recently supplanted men at these
machines (Paper). Occasionally in the watch-factory already mentioned
men do women’s work overtime, but do not do it so well.

In some important cases men do night-work on the same processes as
women work at in the day-time. One instance is printers’ folding (London
and the Derby case already mentioned). Again, in or near Derby; men do
cotton doubling at night, and young men some of the preparatory pro-
cesses for lace. There is also the very important instance of combing in
Bradford (Yorks.), and other instances given in last year’s report.” In
these cases women would not improbably do overtime and even night-
work, if allowed. The remaining case isin the South Wales tinplate manu-
facture, which is detailed under (7) below,

In the discussion of overtime above it was shown that the restric-
tion. of hours was often met by a rearrangement of processes. The
references there given will support the following general statement: Jn
the great majority of industrial processes carried on by women, their work
is cheaper and often more efficient than any that can be substituted for
it ; restriction is therefore met by adaptation of manufacture or rearrange-
ment of numbers employed and time at which work is done, women still
being employed at the work. Under the headings (a) and (0) all the cases
to the contrary which have come under the notice of the Committee are
detailed, and all the investigators made a special inquiry on this head.
The Committee therefore endorses the remarks of H.M. Chief Inspector
Redgrave in 1881 4 as being in the main applicable to the present time.

‘ The objection that by placing restrictions upon a certain class of labour
there will be so much repugnance to the employment of that class of labour
that it will be dispensed with, and the place be supplied by unrestricted
labour, is not made for the first time in the history of factory legislation.

‘The employment of labour by an employer is governed purely by
economical principles. The dismissal from a shop of the young persons
and women sewing in it must be followed by the engagement of men at a
much higher rate to do their work. The question the employer will put
to himself will be whether, it being a regulation that all in the same kind
of trade shall be subject to precisely the same kind of restriction, it will
be more economical to him to keep his shop open for fair and moderate
hours with moderately paid young persons and women, or to keep his shop
open well into the night with all its attendant increase of cost and with
more highly-paid assistants.

‘ All our experience (says Mr. Redgrave) goes to show that employers
prefer moderate hours under reasonable restrictions to unlimited labour.
Very few employers of any class are to be found in occupations under
the operation of the Factory Act prepared to say they would willingly

1 Tn this connection see last year's Report (Belfast), p. 306, line 4, and p. 293, note.
2 Pp: 291,,292. 3 Factory Inspector's Report, 1881, p. 41.

628 - REPORT—1903.

return to the old system. Some may think the present restriction upon
hours of work might be somewhat loosened, but those who prophesied the
dismissal of young persons from their occupation and the substitution of
male adult labour acknowledge that they were mistaken, and are loud in
the acknowledgment of the advantage to themselves, as well as to their
employees, of moderate hours of work.’

If, as appears to be generally the case, the same amount of work is
done in the restricted hours, one or more of the following alterations must
occur : the hours may be the same in total, though differently arranged
(for instances, see above) ; work in the shorter time may be more efficient,
either through the help of machinery, or employment of more skilled or
quicker workers, or because the better conditions cause better work (and
it is generally admitted that overtime work is relatively unproductive in
itself and often spoils work on the following day) ; or more workers may
be employed. ° This leads us to the next headings.

(d) The Demand for Women Workers, and (e) Changes in Age
of Women employed.

To what extent, if any, the older hands are penalised by higher
pressure in shorter hours, and to what extent the total number employed
is altered, cannot be answered satisfactorily in individual cases. Some
light is thrown on these questions, however, by the general statistics of
employment.

The following table is based on Miss Collet’s paper, published m the
‘Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,’ June 1898, brought up to date
from the census for 1901. The information tabulated in previous census
reports does not allow of further subdivision, but for the present purpose
we chiefly need to look at the figures en masse, because we are concerned
with the net result of the causes which determine the number employed.
Further analysis, even if practicable, would need to be carried to a length
too great for this report.

A discussion of the figures up to 1891 and a general criticism of their
accuracy and value is to be found in Miss Collet’s paper.

Number of Funa'es, according to the Census Reports, engaged in Occupations
for gain. (England and Wales.)

*. All above 70 years of age, oceupied per 1,000 living above 10 years of age.

li. From 10 to 15 i 5 a » from 10 to 15 years of age.
Diet siiialitoce,, ‘2 i Py »» 15 to 25 he
jy. ” 25 to 45 ” ” 2 ” ” 25 to 45 »
v. » . £0 to 65 bs ‘A Ae “4 » 45 to 65 _
vi. Above 65 i . 43 5, above 65 Eye
Occupation |Division| 18711 | 1881 1891 1901
i 6 | 866 <\'azoun liege 316 |
aie ZADZeY 0) TEL eees 121
Thi ni. 612 621 634 ; 611
ALL ‘OCCURTED 5 TVs Jeullip easels 290 296 271
Vi geol aie tao 250 212
| Vi, QO) iy also 160 132

} J’ersons retuined as ‘retired’ were included in 1871, but not subsequently.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 329

Number of Females, according to the Census Reports, engaged in Occupations
Sor gain. (England and Wales)—cont.

Occupation Division | 1871 | 1881 1891 1901
te FAO) ABE PS I12T age
ii. a | 70 66 | 39
ay J Mest iii, 297 293 274. | 298
A.—Domestic indoor servants a 98 84 90 81
v. 66 45 48 42
vi 60 26, 7] 28 20
Ur 9 9 9 8
il. 10) 0) 0 0
iii. 2 2 2 2
A.—Charwomen , ee 9 0 10 9
v. 19 21 21 20
vi. 16 1S 13 11
@ 44 44 41 37
ii 6 8 12 11
B,—Milliners,? dressmakers, shirt- jii. 66 73 78 73
makers, seamstresses . iv. 53 45 37 32
v 39 376 29 23
vi Za 23 19 Lief
4. 4 5 8 )
ii. 1 1 3 4
5.—Tailoresses,1 including clo- iii. 6 8 15 19
thiers, outfitters, dealers . iv. 5 5 6 ii
v. 4 5 6 5
Vi. 2 3 3 3
i 19 | 48 16 15
ii i} 1 1 1
; ay : iii. 10 11 13 17
B.—Washing and bathing service ca 20 18 16 14
Vv. 37 34 30 23
vi 32 24 20 15
vist 3 3 5 4
ii. 2 2 3 3
B.— Boots and shoes (including lil, 5 os 38 9
dealers) . : : | iv. 2:6 3°38 3:3 30
Nie 2:2 2:2 7 1659
vi, 18 1:2 0:9 O07
i 32 30 29 25
il 38 28 30 22
iii. 59 58 55 51
C.—Cotton . : : - ‘ ay. 98 98 96 93
v 10 10 8:7 C5
Vi 3°8 1:8 13 1:0
ve 14 12 qe 9
ji. 19 11 12 8
2 iii. 25 24 23 20
C.—Wool and worsted . : : iv re 7 10 8
We 5 45 38 3-4
05 27 12 0:8 o6

1 Mantle-makers included among tailoresses in 19C1, but among milliners &c.
previously,

300 REPORT—1908.

Males : per 1,000 over 10 Years of Age.

Occupied with 1881 1891 1901

Bootsand shoes . : - : : 20:2 19:1 163
Cotton . : : 5 t , ‘ 19°9 2071 16:2
Wool and worsted . : : : : 10:0 9°6 --
4 s, (including dealers) . — 10-1 72
All oceupied . 5 ; i j . | 832 | 831 837

From this table may be gathered many interesting facts relevant to
the inquiry. .

In the summary group ‘all occupied’ there is a marked decline under
15 years in 1871-81 and 1891-1901 ; this accounts for a considerable
part of the decline in the total. In Division vi. (above 65 years) there
is a steady decline (the great drop 1871-81 is presumably artificially
increased by the inclusion of ‘retired’ persons in 1871). In Division v.
there is a steady decline. In Divisions iii. and iv. (15 to 45) there is a
decline in 1871-81 and 1891-1901, and a slight rise in 1881-1891.

Let us take three groups: A. Unregulated industries (domestic
servants, charwomen).. B. Industries thoroughly regulated before 1871
(cotton, wool). C. Industries coming under stricter regulation since
1871 (milliners, &c., tailoresses, laundries, boots).

The figures may be retabulated as follows :—

| | Ratio of
Females | = a — b eee b
| | 1871 | 1881 | 1891 | 1901 |Columna
( All occupations | 612 | 621 634 | 611 0:98
Ages 15-25, occupied |}; GroupA . oh} 209! S—29D |, 2a yea 0-78
per 1,000 } 5 ED. of} - 88 | LOOR) ENe 3) 8 1:18
te Che | rd: 82 76 69 0-84
( All occupations 315 | 290 | 296 | 271 0°93
Ages 25-45, occupied | GroupA . - | 108 94 | 100 90 0:96
per 1,000 j i a F Ajo sill 72 62 56 0-77
\ebssaeniG: #2 Sena) 39 35 30 0-77
All occupations | 293 | 261 | 250 | 212 0°80
Ages 45-65, occupied || GroupA . «|: 386 67 69 61 0-9
per 1,000 j pe f | 88s 79 66 53 0:67
ae C3 epiledlD 15 12 11 0-7
All occupations | 259 | 183 | 160 | 132 0°72
Above 65, occupied GroupA . 1 Boe (re 41 40 ol 0-75
per 1,000 eae: Pa aay iyi 52 43 36 O07
a ae aes 3 2 16} 05

In the case of girls or women between 15 and 25 there has been a
rapid falling off since 1881 in Group A (unregulated), a slighter fall in
Group C (regulated for many decades), and an increase in Group B
(coming under regulation). The fall in C is relatively less than that of
males in the same industries.

With women between 25 and 45 the numbers in Group A are not
much changed ; in Group C the fall is the same as for males ; in Group B
there is a fall, though in tailoring there is a rise.

With women between 45 and 65 there is considerable fall in Groups

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. By |

B and G, and little in A. With women over 65 there is a falling-off all
round.

The age group 15-25 is the most important numerically, and seems
to be favoured by the growth of the factory system with all its attendant
circumstances. Older women have diminished in number in all cases ;
but, speaking broadly, the diminution is no greater where trades have
comparatively recently passed into the factory stages than in those which
have long been regulated. Thus this table does not support any theory
which would connect regulation rather than other circumstances with
this decline ; nor, of course, does it enable us to distinguish the effect of
the increase of factories from that of other concurrent developments.

The falling-off of the employment of women over 45 years of age in
all the occupations just dealt with is an important phenomenon. Part
may be attributed to the same causes which have led to the diminu-
tion of the number employed between 25 and 45 years since 1891,
and it may be hoped that this is due to diminished need on the part
of married women to work outside their homes. A certain part of it
is probably due to the inability of elderly women to adapt themselves
to altered conditions or to the unwillingness of employers to engage them,
and this may be modified naturally in the process of time. Again, the fall
registered in Division iv. in 1871-1881, whatever its cause, might be ex-
pected to show itself again in Division v. in 1891—1901.

Unless the fall can be shown to be due to increasing prosperity, it
suggests the necessity of careful examination of projected changes, with a
view to preventing discrimination against the employment of the old.
The Committee has not, however, come across any definite cases where
the old are handicapped by unnecessary or injudicious legislation.
Alleged cases are generally attributable to the necessities of machine
production.!

Further light is thrown on these questions by a comparison of the
returns as to the numbers employed in factories and workshops under
inspection and the general census returns :—

Crnsus.—England and Wales.

1881 1891 1901
Males . . 832 831 837 occupied per 1,000 over 10 years of age.
Females .. . 340 344 316 ” ” ” ”

Factory and Workshop Returns.—Percentages that Number of Females over
14 years old form of Total Number of Males and Females over 14 years.

1 Some people, no doubt, will instance the new rules for Sheffield file-cutting as
a case in point; but they only come into force in September 1903, and it is impossibie
to foresee their effect, so that it is out of place to discuss them.

32 . REPORT-—19038.

fas)

Thus, so far as this evidence goes, the total number of males occupied
remained stationary, and of females decreased in proportion to the total
numbers living ; while in factories the number of females increased
relatively to the males.

Addendum to Sectior IV, (d) and (e).

The Committee has thought it expedient to examine in detail the
following paragraphs from ‘The Fall of Women’s Wages in Unskilled
Work,’ by Miss Boucherett, 1899, p. 8, and Miss Deane has kindly sent
the necessary statistics and notes from the published official returns, on
which the statements are based :—

‘Where (the limitation of hours) leads to dismissal of women I
venture to think that the evil is great. It is certainly great to the
women. To give an example: When it was suggested that bleach-
works should be subject to limitation of hours of work for women, the
employers remonstrated and said that as their work depended on the sun,
rain, and wind, the hours were necessarily irregular, and that if women
could not be allowed to work irregularly they would be obliged to dismiss
them. The remonstrance was disregarded, and the result is shown in the
annual report of the Chief Inspector of Factories, p. 320. In 1890 there
were employed in bleaching and dyeing 49,453 males and 19,207 females.
In 1895 the numbers were 57,741 males and 18,554 females. These
figures show an increase of rather more than 8,000 males and a decrease
of 653 females. Now, if no artificial interference had taken place, the
probability is that the numbers of both sexes would have increased in
equal proportion, which would give an increase of about 6,000 males and
2,000 females, so that nearly 3,000 more women would have been happily
employed in a well-paid, healthy occupation than is now the fact. (In
the millinery, mantle, stay, corset, and dressmaking trades the number of
men has doubled, while the women have increased by little more than
half. See Chief Insp. Rep., p. 320.)

‘The same decrease of women employed and increase of men has oc-
curred in several other trades, as shown in the Factory Report.’

There are no other statistics offered in the pamphlet. :

With regard to these statements Miss Deane draws attentian to the
following facts :—

Bleach-works and dye-works came under regulation in 1860-7. The
earliest official returns are for 1871. Between that date and 1890 the
proportion of women increased, as the annexed table shows. The drop in
1890-5 did not bring the proportion of women down to its level of 1871,
and there was no new legislation nor better enforcement of the old at
that period. There is consequently no evidence that the fall was con-
nected with legislation, but & priorz evidence to the contrary.

Figures for separate parts of this industry are only available for
1897-8 in factories, and 1896-7-8 in workshops, and are given in annexed
table. It is there seen that the numbers in open-air bleaching are very
small, and that there is no significant change in the two years.

The conditions of the trades account for the changes quite indepen-
dently of the Acts. Even in 1871 they were chiefly men’s occupations.
The work for the most part is heavy in the extreme, and the machinery
used of the most ponderous kind. The great heat, the steam, the dirt,

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 335
the constantly wet condition of the floors, and the vapours caused by the
use of large quantities of chemicals, combine to render the occupation one
to which the above mention of ‘a healthy occupation’ in which women
may be ‘ happily employed’ is not apposite.

The numbers employed in open-air bleaching (in connection with flax
mills in Ireland) are a very insignificant part of the whole.

The same cause which has contributed to reduce the proportion of
women in favour of men employed in the washing sheds of a steam
laundry will have operated also in this trade, namely, the introduction of
heavy machinery, the rotary machines, the hydro extractor, and other
cognate machinery, while the use of mechanical drying horses and power-
driven hot-air propellers has also contributed to the same end.

Bleaching and Dyeing —Numbers in Factories under Inspection.

— Males! Females ! tire ke Papa
Totals: 1871 . - - 23,512 7,365 239
1890 Sz. : 3 48,654 18,928 28:0
1895 56,861 18,355 24-4
1896 55,172 17,848 24
1897 47,736 14,930 23°8
1898 49,450 15,650 24:0
Details for 1897 and 1898 (Children, only 1 per cent. of whole, included).
Open-air Turkey red Job ave Other bleaching
bleaching dyeing hE) NASTY) and dyeing
\Per cent. Per cent. [Per cent. Per cent.
of Total of Total of Total| ~_ of Total |
Males, 1897 630 — 2,721 — 1,575 — 43,261 —
Females, 1897. | 198 23°9 2,807| 50:8 1,717) 52:2 10,270} 19:2
Males, 1898 .| 799 | — SSG OU| a alae i — ick ae OT ne
Females, 1898. | 244 | 23-4 2,795 | 49:4 2,120) 53:8 10,571; 19:2

Workshops.—Job Dyeing and Cleaning.

Females as per

aoa | Males Females cent. of Total
1895 . 139 61 30
1896 . 133 60 31
1897 . 86 84 =f

Millinery Sec.

As regards the statement as to the millinery, mantle, &c. trades, a

reference to the appended table shows that while 1,200 more men.were
employed in this branch of the clothing trade in 1895 than in 1890, there
is an increase in the same period of 7,750 women.

In Miss Black’s reply to Miss Boucherett in the ‘ Women’s Industrial
News’ of June 1898, she remarks that ‘the real nature and tendency of

1 Excluding children.

334 REPORT—1903.

this fact depend entirely, not upon the proportions, but upon the numbers.
To come down to an imaginary example on a small scale. Suppose that
in a mantle factory there were twenty women workers and one man cutter,
and that, business increasing, eleven more women were taken on and an
assistant cutter. This new state of affairs would be exactly represented
by the above (Miss Boucherett’s) statement, but yet, if you multiplied it
by a thousand it would still mean that eleven thousand fresh women had
come into the trade and only one thousand men.’

The additional engineers, stoker, foremen, cutters, assistant cutters
and porters account for the added thousand : as the trade becomes more
specialised, the subdivision of labour greater, and the use of power-driven
machinery more common, the need for skilled cutters, foremen, and
engineers becomes greater. In the workshops where no machinery is
found, although the sub-division of labour is continually more marked,
the increase in the percentage of men is less than in the factories. The
Factory Act regulations as to limitations of hours are identical in non-
textile factories and workshops.

The attached tables, which give all the relevant figures published by
the Factory Department, show that in spite of legislative limitation of
hours, which applies to all the subdivisions of the clothing trade alike,
there has been a marked decrease in the proportion of males since 1890.

But the difference in the percentage of males and females, whether in
the trade as a whole or in the different subdivisions of it, has nothing
whatever to do with legislative enactment, but is dependent on modifica-
tions and fluctuations in the conditions of the industry : viz. the ex-
tended use of machinery, the nature of the machinery, the subdivision of
work into different branches each with its skilled foreman, the influx
of alien workers, as in the ‘bespoke’ (workshop) tailoring trade, the in-
fluence of fashion, which decrees that women’s garments shall be more
often cut and fitted by men tailors than formerly, and a number of other
causes.

Clothing: Numbers in Workshops under Inspection.—The Percentages are of
Females relative to Number of Males and Number of Females.

(Children excluded except in hats and haberdashery.)

|
Shirts and Collars |

Millinery Tailoring | Haberdashery
| eal bac | ead
M. | F. O60} GN IB woe] MM. F. | % M. | BR. | %
| | |
i borg] feta | Pian is]
1895 3,209 | 144,836 98 | 641 8,.33L (93 | 42,116 | 30,786 42 — | — j=
1896 3,877 | 163,759 98 | 907 9,913 |91:7| 49,461 | 35,683 | 42 | 4,983 | 21,430 81 |
1897 3,533 | 170,999 98 | 867 9,373 Raa 51,965 | 37,689 | 42 | 3,771 20,220 | 84
| | |
Boots and Shoes Hats and Caps All Clothing
— —_ — _
M. | F. | % | M F. | % M. | F. %
1895 26,734 10,1389 27°5 3,252 6,589 67 80,108 221,170 73'4
1896 25,705 10,614 28 3,811 7,242 65°5 88,729 247,995 737
1897 25,881 16,360 29 | 4,167 7,715 65 91,354 | 258,643 74

(J)
oD
Or

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR.

Clothing: Numbers in Factories under Inspection.

(Children excluded except in hats and haberdashery.)

Millinery &c, Shirts and Collars Tailoring |
as | |
M. F. % M. F, % Mame Fi %
— | —_ —
1871 1,396 9,675 87 607 5,410 90 1,999 7,215 78
1890 1,227 12,365 91 2.609 11,497 81 6,017 23,832 80
1895 2,424 20,103 88 2,208 18,987 90 8,292 | 29,813 78
1896 2,747 21,094 88 2,317 21,413 90 9,616 | 34,406 73
1897 2,605 20,749 89 2,681 24,310 90 10,282 34,837 77
1898-9 2,711 20,049 88 2,745 25,570 90 10,424 | 35,223 ia
Hats and Caps Haberdashery Boots aud Shoes |
a l eae wi =
M | ny | % M. Fr. % M F, 1s %
|
1871 5,051 | 6,694 | 57 = = — | 11,387 6,914. | 38
1890 9,937 | 9,688 49 2,797 13.517 83 | 384,660 13,732 | 28
1895 10,217 10,599 | 51 4,627 26.149 85 59,384 23,420 28
1896 9,987 9,818 | 50 4,904 25,926 84 60,881 23,929 30
1897 10,610 10:2 00 ||, ag 4,398 26,911 86 63,926 26,060 29
1898-9 10,601 | 10,8 | 49 4,750 29,677 86 67,600 28,025 29
|
All Clothing * \| | The above, omitting Haberdashery
4
as i | i
M. | F. one M. F. rae Ve |
* 2 a |
1871 a | = } — | 1871 20,440 35,908 | 63:7
| . 1890 54,450 71,114 | 56°6
1890 57,077. |, 84.3344 | 60 i
a || The above, omitting Haberdashery and Boots
1895 87,048 | 128,892 | 60 ; aT a GhGee
1896 90,365 | 136,438 60 -
| | = M. F, : %
|
1897 94997 | 143,429 «| 60 | :
| | | 1871 9,053 28,994 | 76
1898-9 99,595 | 149,123 60 || 1890 19,790 57,382 | 744

It is not possible to separate the numerous causes which led to the
change of relative numbers between 1871 and 1890. The rapid growth
in number of boot factories, with their small proportion of women,
causes part of the fall in that period.

and (yy When Work is taken over by Unrestricted Persons or Machiner
UP y ‘Ys

If the restriction of women’s hours can only be met by carrying on
their work without them, employers are generally put to considerable ex-
pense, and every effort is made to reduce the amount of overtime (see
previous references) or to introduce machinery to do the work. There
are probably many cases where the necessary re-arrangement of work has
given an impetus to the use of machinery ; but the Committee has only

1 Including some small items, not contained in the adjoining tables,

336 REPORT—1903.

heard of two instances where the invention and introduction of a
machine can be directly traced to this cause. One of these, the folding-
machine in Derby, has already been discussed. The other is from the
tinplate industry of South Wales. In finishing tinplates it is necessary
to bran or rub them before they cool, and this is women’s work. The
whole process of manufacture is carried on day and night, and before
regulation women used to work on night shifts as well as men. This was
forbidden by the Act of 1867, but apparently the prohibition did not
begin to be effective till after the Act of 1878, and night-work for women
lingered on in some cases till 1885. The first general method of over-
coming the various serious difficulties thus caused was to employ young
men (over eighteen years old) by night, while the women worked by day.
This proved too expensive, and then a method was invented of keeping
the plates hot by steam jets till the women came in the morning to
finish them ; but too much space was necessary for branning them all day,
and the expense was considerable. Then attention turned to the
possibilities of machinery, with the result that a cleaning-machine was
invented (about 1893), so that by 1898 we are told that ' ‘the introduc-
tion of labour-saving machinery in the finishing branches of the tin-
plate industry has led to a great dislocation of manual labour. The new
machines are attended to by boys, who are employed on the system of day
and night shifts? and the system of eight-hour shifts, and as a conse-
quence female labour in the tin-houses is rapidly becoming a thing of the
past.’

: We have no means of determining the number thus displaced, but the
following figures afford some information :—

Number of Persons engaged in the Manufacture of Tinplate Goods.

Glamorgan Monmouth
Year feat oe ee eld EU Re ee } |
| Male | Female | Male Female |
1871 3,524 956 | 1,137 263
1881 | 7,354 | 1,839 2,497 552
1891 9,601 | 2,522 | 3,119 480
1901 §,280 | 1,416 749 60

There has been a further effect, in that lads on entering the trade now
begin in the finishing department, and are said to become more useful
workmen through knowing all the processes of the manufacture.

It seems generally admitted that the Acts, which at first threatened
the welfare of the industry, have distinctly made for efficiency and cheap-
ness ; and at no time (till the McKinley tariff) was there any check in the
progress of exports of tinplates.

Some hand-branning is still done by giris by day, but this is diminishing
in consequence of the requirements for mechanical removal of the dust.

(h) New Occupations for Women.
Tt is suggested that women are prevented from taking positions of re-
sponsibility, and from taking advantage of the possibilities of new skilled

1 Factory Inspector's Report, 1898, p. 53.
2 Boys over fourteen are allowed to work at night in this occupation.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. aol

occupations, by their restriction from working extra hours at times of
pressure ; but no specific cases are given, and, considering that it is rare
that work is carried on more than sixty hours a week, or that women can
work efficiently for longer hours, any effect in this direction must be very
small.!

Section V.—Lffect on Women’s Rates of Wages and Total Earnings.

A clear distinction must be made between changes of rates per hour
or per piece, and changes in total weekly earnings ; a second line of
division is between changes which took place immediately after the coming
into force of an Act, and the change that may be observed after
sufficient time had elapsed to allow a return to equilibrium ; and, thirdly,
in cases where greater regularity week by week has followed restriction,
we need to know how monthly and annual earnings have changed.

It may be said at once that neither theory nor evidence enable us to
decide whether earnings increase or decrease after restriction.

We will first look at it theoretically. The following circumstances
would tend to produce a fall: the substitution of other labour or
machinery (in rates and earnings) ; the diminution of the product in pro-
portion to the time cut off (in earnings, probably) ; the spreading the
same output more regularly among the same workers (in earnings, but
only if overtime had been paid at a higher rate). The following circum-
stanves would tend to produce a rise: the attempt to produce the same
output in a shorter time by workers of the same class, causing a demand
for more workers (in rates, earnings might fall or rise) ; the diminution
of the product, increasing the demand for it relative to the supply (in
rates) ; the greater efficiency of the worker caused by the regulation of
hours (fall in piece-rates, rise in time-rates, and in both cases rise in
earnings) ; the more rapid output per hour caused by the attempt to make
the same earnings in the shorter time ; the greater demand for women
workers caused by the introduction of machinery.

Together with these we may put the other well-known arguments,
which connect efficiency with a diminished duration of weekly work, and
the general problem of discovering for each class of labour the time in
which the product (and in the long run the earnings) is a maximum.

From this brief analysis it is clear that it cannot be said & priort
whether either rates or earnings will rise or fall after restriction.?

Nor can statistical evidence help us to a certain and general conclu-
sion, for the effect of legislation is in most cases very much less than that
of many other concurrent events. If we had evidence of specific change
in a particular industry, it would tell us nothing of indirect effects possibly
counterbalancing, and general statements of change would need to be of
a completeness and detailed character quite impracticable to obtain, before
they would support definite conclusions.

Under these circumstances the Committee can only record the particular
facts as to date and nature of change that have come under their notice,
without drawing any but negative conclusions.

The number of women who manage laundries can be shown to be increasing by
the figures given in Appendix II. below. See also the report on Coventry.

* Of course, a particular operative, who finds herself prevented from making a
little overtime on a particular occasion, does not see either that ihere may be no
ultimate loss to her, or that if she loses her companions may gain.

1903. Zz

308 REPORT—19038.

In Mr. Wood’s paper in the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society
(June 1902) and in the Appendix to ‘A History of Factory Legislation ’
are tabulated all the known published statistics (supplemented by private
research) bearing on this question. The figures lead clearly to the conclu-
sion that no permanent fall in wages can be connected with restrictive
legislation, while in many cases a rise is recorded at the time, if any, when
the legislation might have caused a fall. These figures are important in
that they show that restrictive legislation is not inconsistent with rising
wages,' but of course they do not show whether it furthered or hindered
that rise.

Our investigators have furnished us with a quantity of wage statistics,
but many are not of a nature to throw light on this question. In the
textile industries (cotton, wool, carpets at Azdderminster, and silk at
Derby), when the hours were reduced from 60 to 564 in 1875, it appears
that, in general, weekly time-wages were unchanged (though at Stockport
they were reduced), and so were piece rates ; in some cases the piece-
earners were able at once to get up to their former earnings, in other cases
it took some time ; but the depressed state of trade which marked the late
seventies made the time-limit practically inoperative for some years.”
Similar results seem to have followed in 1902, when working hours on
Saturday were reduced by one.

In the Bristol boot trade no permanent effect is reported ; in Worth-
ampton piece-workers are said to make as much as before in shorter
hours ; no direct result has been found in Sheffield or Nottingham.

The experience of a merino factory in Nottinghamshire is very
interesting : ‘ The reduction of hours in 1875 did not reduce wages. The
men and girls at first asked for a rise of piece prices as compensation for
an anticipated loss. The employer promised to consider it in a while, if
the loss actually took place and became permanent. In four weeks it was
found, however, that earnings were equal in 56} hours to what they had
been in the previous 60-hour week. To the employer there was, in the
winter, an actual gain, as the same work being done in 3} hours less, and
the hours not worked being taken off the evening when artificial light was
needed, Jess gas was burnt.’ The same firm reduced to 555 hours volun-
tarily in 1900, and again no loss was occasioned to the operatives.

Mr. Henderson * reports on the application of the Act of 1867 in
London. In factories, he says, work is generally paid by piece, and the
operatives made up to the same total in shorter hours. A manufacturer
of artificial flowers told him that he got as much work out of the hands
of his workpeople in 104 hours as formerly in 12 or 14, and saved £30
in one season on his gas-bill. Mr. Henderson says that he knows of
many similar cases. Concurrently with the application of the Acts in
London (1867-77), there was a great increase in the demand for labour
and a rapid rise of wages in London ; this rise was greatest to those who
came ‘under the protection of the Factory Acts, namely women, young
persons, and children.’

‘In the last part of Appendix I. below, a case is given where packers in a
laundry, whose class of work was specially affected by the Acts, had obtained a
— increase of wages than any other class of workers in the same laundry.

2 Factory Ti nspector’ s Report, April 1875, p. 31 (where an opinion contrary to that
just given is to be found), and pp. 65, 67; April 1876, pp. 57, 65, 98; Yorks., Lanes.,
Kidderminster.

3 Tbid., April 1877, pp. 21, 22, 23.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 339

In 1869 Mr. Baker reports! that the application of the 1867 Act
(presumably to Birmingham) had caused a diminution of time wages at
any rate temporarily, but that piece earnings were seldom diminished.
As has been mentioned above, the hours in Birmingham are now in
general well below the legal maximum.

Except for a few complaints as to the abolition of the possibility of
payment for overtime, which, as has been pointed out, by no means prove
any loss of earnings, and which are more than counterbalanced by gratitude
for the shorter hours, the Committee have no record (other than those
already mentioned) of any loss of wages or earnings traceable to the Acts ;
nor have they definite evidence of any gain, which (if it accrued), would
be due to influences which take time to produce effect, and whose action
would be indistinguishable from that of other causes,

Section VI.—Lffect on the Efficiency of Women as Industrial Agents.

Under this heading there is little to report, for it is not often possible
to distinguish the causes which may have led to efficiency. Many who
say that the Acts have benefited women’s health refer chiefly to the
clauses relating to health and sanitation, which have no doubt had many
important effects, but affect men equally with women.

Very many employers say that overtime on one evening has the effect
of tiring the women so as to spoil their next day’s work ; and there are
many instances (to most of which references have already been given)
where a shortened or more regular week has resulted in a better output
per worker. So far as legislation has furthered the reduction of hours to
the period of greatest output, it has promoted efficiency ; and in many

cases the Acts have only made generally compulsory what the firms with
most capital and best management had already practised.

In laundries (London and Yorkshire) and smaller workshops (York-
shire), in printing (Bristol), in the boot trade (Bristol), it is said that the
workers are of a better class than in the days of non-regulation. To
what extent this is due to an improvement in the girls from the same
social stratum, and to what to the employment of girls from a_ higher
stratum (as is sometimes alleged), it seems hardly possible to obtain
evidence.

Some of our informants say that the work (in the Potteries) or the
moral standard of the class (in some /awndries) has not improved.

Section VII.—Lfect on the Efficiency of Industrial Processes in general.

Here again evidence cannot be conclusive.

There is a general consensus of opinion that overtime is wasteful and
expensive, entailing higher wages and fixed expenses for inferior work,”
and hence its diminution tends to efficiency. Very few, indeed, seriously
desire to increase the length of the week’s work, and many by their action
have shown that it is best kept below the legal maximum.

On the other hand, where the occasional pressure is of a kind that

cannot be removed, as sometimes in dealing with perishable materials,
issuing magazines &c., the expense of keeping large additional plant to

» Factory Inspector’s Report, October 1869, p. 153.
* This is not inconsistent with the desire of some employers to work overtime
under special pressure or to meet unregulated competition,
zZ2

340 . REPorRT— 1903.

save a few evenings’ overtime tends to inefficient employment of capital,
and in those cases (rare, if they indeed exist) where women could work
overtime without injury and more expensive labour has to be used in
their stead, there is also inefficiency.

When restriction has promoted the factory system or encouraged the
invention of machinery, it has in several cases, already instanced, hastened
the use of the most efticient processes.

Any restriction of employment, whether due to legislation, Trade
Union action, or the necessities of machine production, which enforces a
uniform time of work on all, is certain to press differently on different
persons. There will be some, of exceptional strength, to whom the
existing limitation of hours will act asa check. The strong or skilful,
however, are likely to find their way into industries where their strength
or skill will have sufficient play ; and, where piece-wages are the rule,
nearly everyone can produce his or her maximum output, though the
time is restricted. Others can find activities out of hours in non-industrial
pursuits. Few, perhaps, will argue seriously that 554 hours in textiles,
or 60 hours in other industries (and with overtime allowed of 45 to 75
hours a year), is too short a time for a woman to exhaust her productive
capacity. If they do, they must blame the general tendencies which force
workers to labour together, rather than legislation.

Conclusion.

Nore.—In the following, by the Acts is meant those parts of the
Factory Acts which subject the work of women to regulations which do
not apply to men (see p. 317, above),

The Committee are unanimous in expressing the following opinions,
subject to the reservation noted below :—

1. The Factory Acts have reduced weekly hours of work in some
cases and regularised them in many, and have nearly abolished night
work for women.

2. The maximum allowed is in general greater than the number of
hours worked by men in trades regulated by agreement between em-
ployers and Trade Unions.

3. In some cases legislation has enforced the custom of the better
managed firms, in others it has made compulsory hours that would not
have obtained otherwise.

4. In nearly all cases employers admit that the normal hours allowed
are sufticient, and welcome the restriction ; frequently the hours actually
worked are less than those allowed.

5. Employees, so far as their opinions have been gathered, are
unanimous in approving the restriction to the maximum allowed.

6. But for the compulsory restriction the hours would often be
lengthened against the will of the majority of all concerned.

; 7. The Acts have had considerable effect in spreading work more
uniformly through the week, month, or year, where there is occasional
pressure.

8. In the great majority of cases there is approval of or acquiescence
in the restriction of overtime ; but in some few cases greater elasticity in
arranging hours of work and the removal of the prohibition of overtime
is urgently desired by employers.

9. It appears that in a small minority of cases the partial removal of

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 3k1

the prohibition of overtime authorised by the Acts! tends to economy
and greater ease of production without overworking the employees,
particularly where occasional times of pressure follow periods of slackness
and in the other cases contemplated by the Acts. There is great danger
of any relaxation being abused, but when trial has shown that overtime
cannot be altogether abolished (as e.g. where there is actual employment
of more expensive labour to carry on work which women are prevented
by law from doing) the authorities should give careful consideration to
the circumstances of the case. The Committee have not enough evidence
to recommend relaxation in any particular case.

10. There are very few cases where women’s labour has actually been
displaced by restriction.

11. The information as to the general demand for women’s labour
does not show any appreciable change that can be traced to the Acts,
but the statistics are of such a nature that a change might easily escape
observation.

12. Women have lost some opportunities of overtime, but it is very
doubtful whether either the total number of hours worked or the total
€arnings made have been diminished in any important cases.

13. There is no conclusive evidence that the course of cither rates of
wages or earnings has or has not been affected appreciably in conse-
quence of the Acts.

14. As regards rates of wages and the allocation of work between
men and women the Acts are at the utmost among the less important of
the determining factors.

15. The Acts have in some industries exerted a small but steady
pressure in favour of the more efficient and of the larger factories or
workshops.

16. In a few cases legislation has hastened the introduction of
machinery and of new arrangements of work which have promoted
efficiency of production, even where some hardship or inconvenience has
been caused.

17. There is some evidence that the regularisation of hours has pro-
moted the efficiency of women as productive agents.

18. In some important industries as a whole, and in some processes
in others, the limitation of women’s time has caused a limitation of men’s
work, but the hours even thus limited are still more than those which
obtain in the majority of organised men’s trades.

19, There appears to be a falling off in the relative number of elderly
women returned as occupied. It is expedient that in considering legis-
lative measures care should be taken not to diminish any desirable oppor-
tunities for their employment, but so far no want of employment has
been traced directly to the Acts.

20. The Acts may have caused some inconvenience and perhaps hard-
ship in special cases, in the main of a temporary character ; the better

* Since 1878 a Secretary of State has had power to extend the permission to work
overtime to any class of non-textile factories or workshops where certain defined
special circumstances make it necessary. The Act of 1901 diminished the number
of evenings on which overtime may be worked from 48 to 30 per annum for seasonal
trades and from 60 to 50 for work on specified perishable articles, but gave the
Secretary of State additional power to prescribe conditions upon which fish and fruit
preserving and creameries may be exempt from the ordinary limits ay to hours,
meal-times, arid holidays.

342 REPORT—1903.

adaptability of the more recent Acts tends to reduce these to unim-
portance.

21. The benefits which the Acts have conferred are in the long run
great and out of all proportion to any inconveniences or injury they have
caused,

Note to Report. By Miss Heaturr-Biaa,

With the greater number of the foregoing conclusions I am in com-
plete agreement, but I cannot, in face of the facts set forth in this Report
and accessible elsewhere, admit that the benefit which the Acts have
conferred is out of all proportion to any inconveniences or injury they
have caused. (Conclusion 21.) The statement would be true enough if
made of factory legislation generally, but, limited as it is by the terms of
reference to those regulations only which determine the hours and condi-
tions of women’s work, it underestimates the drawbacks and exaggerates
the advantage of such regulations.

With regard to Conclusion 20, I would point out that there is no lack
of evidence to show that inconvenience and hardship have been caused
by the Acts. The fact that many modifications in the direction of
elasticity have been conceded of late years proves that the hardships
have been recognised as substantial and of a kind likely to recur.

With regard to Conclusion 19, I would say that I cannot share the
cheerful optimism which hopes that some of the falling off in the employ-
ment of women over 45 may be due to diminished need on their part to
work outside their homes.

APPENDIX I.

In the Appendix are given summaries and notes from the reports
received by the Committee. Those points have been selected which bear
most directly on the questions dealt with, and care has been taken to
include all adverse criticisms of the Factory Acts. The general opinion
of the employers and workpeople questioned is given as it appeared to
the investigators. Some of the reports included in the list given above do
not appear separately, because their gist is included in the tabulation of
Sections I. to VII.

Nottingham.

(Lvtracts from Report by Principal Symes, Dr. BOOBBYER, Mrs. DowsoN,
and Miss ASHWELL.)

Summary.

‘All employers and employees are agreed as to the beneficial effects of
the sanitary clauses of the Acts, and as to the period of non-employment
after childbirth.

‘ Trade customs seem to have been affected in Nottingham to a very
small extent by the time restrictions on women’s labour. In some cases
the hours appear to have been shortened, but as a general rule they fall
below the limit enforced by Government. The customary working day
in the majority of cases is shorter by an hour than that of the Acts.

‘The wages of women have apparently been little affected by the
Acts. In most cases they have advanced (the exceptions being in the

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 343

printing and in the bookbinding trades). This is apparently because of
the great and increasing demand for women’s labour in the particular
trades carried on in this city.

‘There are only two departments of trade where men and women
work at the same employment.

‘In both of these, viz. brass-winding and the working of embroidery
machines, men seem to have been introduced mainly because of the
limitations of night-work and overtime embodied in the Factory Acts.
In both the custom of the trade has been to employ women, and so far
the displacement of women by men has been small (but is increasing) in
the first case, and in the latter is very slight.’

In the bookbinding and printing trades hours are generally below the
legal maximum, but in one or two cases hours or overtime have been
reduced, and there is a difference of opinion whether wages have been
prevented from rising ; in one firm it is thought that wages per head
were reduced, but not piece rates. In printing there is no competition
between men and women ; one firm has put in machinery because of the
shorter hours. In bookbinding there is little overtime, and married
women formerly employed give any necessary assistance; one large
employer thought the Acts had lowered women’s wages ; one overlooker
attributed the lowness of women’s wages relative to men’s to the fact
that ‘men could be fallen back on in times of stress and emergencies, and
women (because of the Acts) could not.’

Lace manufacturers and the majority of dressmakers work fewer
hours than the legal maximum, except in their busy season. Almost all
employers deprecate the use of overtime for both men and women,
except occasionally, and then only for very short periods ; yet they desire
more liberty (see Section I. above).

In general in the lace, embroidery, hosiery, cigar-making, and
laundry trades all employers, without exception, regard factory legis-
lation as distinctly beneficial to women. Workpeople generally were
also convinced of its beneficial effect, and indignant at the idea of pro-
tection in regard to hours of work being withdrawn. Employers state
that the efficiency of women workers has not materially advanced. Most
consider that legislation has made no serious addition to the difficulties
of management.

In the hosiery and bleach works no serious inconvenience has been
caused by legislation, except in certain cases when sufficient workers are
unobtainable ; nor is the general output lessened, except when workers
are scarce in interdependent departments. On the one hand it is said
that restriction tends to raise wages by causing scarcity of labour ; on
the other that more persons are introduced in times of pressure than are
permanently necessary, and wages tend to fall.

Sheffield.
(Extracts from Report by Mr. G. I. H. Lioyp.)

Attention was paid specially, but not exclusively, to the distinctively
Sheiiield trades connected with cutlery, electroplate, silver work, and file-
cutting. Owing to the nature of the trades machinery is but slowly
introduced, and its applications are of a simple character. Only 28 per
cent. of females over ten are returned as occupied in 1901, against 39 per
cent. in Birmingham,, The occupations in which the largest number are

344 REPORT—19038.

engaged are ‘ buffing’ (7.e. polishing against a revolving wheel), burnishing
and polishing silver and electroplate, and whetting, wiping, and wrapping
cutlery ; while a fair number are employed in file-cutting and cutlery
work.

In the larger factories, where inspection is easy, a high standard of
sanitation is being obtained, hours are nearly always well below the legal
maximum ; but under pressure of work the prohibition of overtime may
sometimes be a serious inconvenience to manufacturers, aud cases where
work is taken home to be completed after factory hours are not unknown.
The Act tends to encourage manufacturers to equalise work through the
seasons.

In the numerous small tenement factories, out-workers, shops, &c., the
conditions are not so good, and a rigid insistence on compliance with the
provisions of the Acts is much more needed. The contrast between
rushes of work and slack time is much more marked, especially in
‘buffing’; here and with cutlery the women do the lighter work at very
low wages, often working in ‘teams’ of six or ten, the team-master alone
being responsible to the employer. So faras the enforcement of the Acts
has tended to improve the conditions of work of this sort, and to bring
these small shops up to the standard of the large firms, it may perhaps
tend to the discouragement of out-work altogether. There is, however,
not much evidence for this apart from the acknowledged endeavour of
many of the larger houses to get as much of their work done on their
premises as possible.

In jfile-cutting, machinery has for the last fifteen years been steadily
displacing hand-work. Many hand-cutters have now taken to the
machines, and a few women also have found an employment on the lighter
machines. The number of hand workers has greatly diminished, and few
young people are taking to the trade. In 1900 Dr. Robertson found 546
workshops in which 1,446 males and 594 females were employed ;
of the latter only 155 were over twenty-five years old ; work generally
ceases on marriage. In addition there were between 200 and 300 home-
workers, nearly all women, and mostly working alone and depending on
their work for their own and in some cases their families’ support. The
regulations now coming into force ‘ will probably lead to a large number
of shops being closed and cause a good deal of hardship. Some of the
single women now renting a “stock ” in a workshop will perhaps work at
home in order to escape the regulations. Others may seek to obtain
exemption from the rules by using block tin or other substitute for the
lead bed.! That the trade will be rapidly killed there is no reason to fear.
Some of the work is too small and tiresome for a machine to perform,
and much of the work is required in quantities too small to make it worth
while to adapt a machine for the purpose ; but neither will the regulations
increase the proportion of in-workers, as space in a factory is too valuable
to be used for a purpose which gives so poor a return.’

Summing up the investigation :—‘ There has been a noticeable diminu-
tion in the hours of labour and in the amount of overtime worked in busy
seasons, for which the Acts have largely been responsible ; regularity of
work has also been encouraged. Men have been practically unaffected by

1 The new rules are directed to diminish plumbism, arising from the use of a
lead bed against which the file is held. There has been considerable controversy as
to the actual danger to different classes of workers from this cause.

ON .WOMEN’S LABOUR. 345

the regulation of women’s work. The Acts have not directly influenced
women’s wages ; and they cannot be said to have appreciably lessened the
employment of women or to have modified the evolution of the industrial
processes. The efficiency of women has certainly been increased by the
improvement in the general conditions of work.’

Kidder minster.
(Condensed from a Report by Mr. G. H. Woon.)

In the census of 1901 there were 2,740 females returned as engaged
in the carpet industry in the town, and 3,432 females in ‘ other textiles,’
which consist chiefly of worsted spinning for the carpet manufacture.
The number of wemen engaged has increased rapidly since the introduc-
tion of the ‘Royal Axminster loom’ in the town in 1878, which was
sufficiently light for women to work ; previously they had been confined
to the preparatory and finishing processes. Though overtime is sometimes
desired, employers have in nearly all cases refused to employ men on this
new loom ; men are employed to prepare, ‘tune,’ and keep in order the
looms. The factory carpet industry has grown up under the Factory
Acts ; the power carpet loom was not invented till about 1852, and till
then the industry was domestic. The factory system was fully developed
before 1874. The effect of the Acts of 1874 and 1901 has been dealt
with above in Sections I. and II. In 1875 there appears to have been a
general decrease of earnings both for men and women, though not propor-
tionate to the reduction of hours ; it was made up in the course of years
through gradual improvements in the machinery. The 1901 reduction
did not affect time-workers, and the effect on piece-workers over the year
would be inappreciable. In one firm the hours were only fifty-six before
1901 ; since the reduction to 555 hours they have insisted on greater
punctuality at the start, and the output has not diminished.

The demand for carpets is not uniform throughout the year, and but
for the Acts the output might fluctuate more ; but in any case the manu-
facturers have to keep a large stock.

The prohibition of overtime for women winders &c. prevents the men
working overtime ; it is with great effort that the women can get a stock
ready for the men in advance. The men’s Trade Union discourages over-
time and the employers find it very expensive, and think that the present
maximum is as long as the women can work efficiently. The division
between men’s work and women’s is nearly rigid, but on very rare occa-
gions men work overtime on women’s looms.

Coventry and Derby.
(Condensed from Reports by Mr. G. H. Woop.)

The numbers employed in the si/k industry of Derby and of Coventry
and neighbourhood have been decreasing steadily for many decades ; the
ratio of adult males to females has not changed much. Manufacturers do
not attribute the decline in any way to Factory Legislation. The reduction
of hours in 1874 is said to have affected earnings little ; that of 1902 did
not affect time-workers at all and piece-workers very little. The curtail-
ment of hours has hastened the improvement of machinery and pro-
cesses.

In the elastic web manufacture of Derby and Coventry employers

346 REPORT—1903.

thought that the legislation had been good for the workers without having
much influence on the industry ; but they need to have enough machinery
to cope with their maximum business in the restricted hours. The men
sometimes work overtime on work quite distinct from women’s ; but the
men do not like it, and employers find it too expensive except for
emergencies. Employers one and all wished for permission to work over-
time on a few occasions in the year. Women have not been displaced
by restriction ; their numbers have increased, while men have become
fewer. Day-workers lost nothing by the reduction of one hour last year,
and piece-workers made up much of it by greater punctuality.

We are informed on good authority that ‘many cotton doubling
factories work some of their doubling machines at night, and men work
the machines that are operated during the day-time by women and
girls. . . . Each man seems to tend more machines than a woman does by
day.’ In the /ace manufacture youths do part of the preparatory process
at night that is women’s work by day, when there is night-work and the
women’s processes have not been carried out already on a sufticient
scale,

The cigar industry of Coventry has grown up under the Acts, and the
hours are only fifty per week. The Acts appear not to influence the trade,
but one employer thinks that seasonal pressure might force on undue over-
time if it were legal.

The cycle industry employs an increasing number of women, but the
hours are only fifty-four ; sometimes they work one hour more a day, but
generally meet pressure by employing more hands, who are easily obtained.
The Acts do not hinder the women obtaining responsible positions in
tyre manufacture.

The watch-making in Coventry is becoming a factory and machine
industry, and the proportion of women to men has increased rapidly. The
trade is regular, overtime is not required, and the limitation of hours is
not felt.

In Derby many women are employed in cardboard-box making. The
hours are only fifty-five per week, and overtime has been found unneces-
sary and expensive, while it spoilt the work on following days; conse-
quently enough machinery has been laid down to cope with the maximum
demand.

It appears that in general in Derby and Coventry the legislation in
question is no hindrance and indeed of little effect, because most of the
employers are well in advance of the legal requirements.

Tinplate Manufacture. (By Mr. G. H. Woop.)

The gist of this report has been included in Sections III., IV., and
VII. above.
The Potteries.’
(From a Report by Miss THORNEWILL.)
As a rule women’s work is distinct from men’s, though work is done in

a few processes by either sex. Women act as men’s assistants in so many
cases that it does not pay to keep the works going when they are absent.

“Tt was thought inadvisable to make any extensive inquiry in this industry;
for on the one hand so much information has recently been published, on the other,
all concerned have been wearied with investigations.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 347

There has been no displacement of women. Before the time of legal
regulation, the hours were very irregular and sometimes very long. This
is shown in the Children’s Employment Commission 1845. The week’s
work was sometimes not begun till Wednesday or Thursday. This
irregularity is still shown in the absence of the clockwork regularity which
is found in factory towns. In a few cases the prohibition of overtime is
found troublesome, but the weight of the evidence went to prove that the
restrictions as to hours had done good all the way round, making the
work far more regular and more evenly distributed. Though the regulari-
sation of hours has diminished intemperance, there is not much evidence
of the improvement in domestic life that might have been expected.

Paper-making and South London Industries. (By Miss B. L. Hurcutrys.)

The important relevant facts given in these reports has been included
in the text of Sections I.-VITI. above.

Liverpool.

As Miss Harrison’s report is issued as a separate pamphlet,! in accord-
ance with the regulation of the Jevons scholarship, its essential points
have been included in the earlier part of this report, and the details need
not be given here.

Printing and Bookbinding.

In this case also a full report is expected to be published very soon ;
the notes on which it is based have been lent to the Committee and have
had their full share in Sections I.—VII. above.

Glasgow and South Scotland.
(Notes from Miss IRWIN'S reports, held over from last year.)

As regards the textile industries of the South of Scotland, employers
did not consider that the Acts had handicapped them, but thought that
their restriction was beneficial.

The hours for /awndries in Glasgow were, before the 1895 Act, very
long and exhausting, and employers and operatives expressed a desire for
legislation. The working of the Act has been hindered greatly by the
elasticity allowed in the time-table. Long hours are still (1901) worked
in small domestic laundries exempt from control.

Tailoring trade of Glasgow.—The enforcement of the Acts has effected
a much needed reform by regulating the hours worked in factories. The
effect on out-work has been dealt with above in Sections I. and III. No
change of wages has been traced to the Acts, except that one employer
raised wages to compensate for the cessation of out-work, and no dis-
placement of women has been found; on the contrary, the numbers
employed have greatly increased in recent years. It is generally stated
that women’s health and economic and social efficiency have been much
improved by the legal regulation of their hours of labour.

» Women’s Industries in Liverpool: an Inquiry into the Economie Effects of Legis-
lation vegulating the Labour of Women. Liverpool University Press.

348 REPORT—19038.

Tailoring in London.

(from Information communicated by a Committee of the Women’s Industrial
Council, London.)

Investigation was made in the neighbourhoods of Regent Street, Soho,
Cheapside, Whitechapel, Borough Road, and to a less extent in other
districts. It is thought that the inquiry, though necessarily incomplete,
has led to facts typical of the regions dealt with. 115 employers and 56
workers or more have been seen or communicated with, belonging to
many different branches of the industry, but only a small minority could
give information bearing on Factory legislation. Of 12 factory employers
who answered the question, all held that women were not handicapped in
obtaining employment, 10 being emphatic on the point. Of 5 workshop
employers, 1 thought that employment was to some extent restricted,
since the women cannot help in time of pressure ; 3 were clear that the
Act was no hindrance, and the other was less certain. Four smaller
employers strongly approved the Acts, but 1 of them thought they handi-
capped women. Of 14 workers who gave answers, 2 thought there
was some hindrance, 4 were doubtful, 8 said that there was no effect.
Of 10 employers in retail shops, 8 thought there was no hindrance, and
2 that there was some. Thus out of a total of 45 persons, 6 thought
that women were handicapped, but 3 of these nevertheless approved the
restriction. Several said that there was no competition between men and
women. The investigators are of opinion that the line of demarcation is
nearly rigid ; where there is an alteration of numbers, it means a re-
arrangement of processes, which comes about quite independently of
legislation. One vest hand said that she did not take apprentices, partly
because that would bring her under inspection and regulation.

As regards hours, the detailed evidence supports the statement that
the hours are less than the legal maximum in factories, equal to it in
workshops, and more for home-workers ; but the hours worked at home
vary greatly from time to time. There is a certain amount of evidence
that the restrictions as to hours are not always observed in workshops,
especially the regulations as to the length of intervals for meals.

Most of the employers deny that they give out any work ; one some-
times gives the girls work ‘to take home to their mothers, or if a girl
cannot come the next day, she is given a little to do at home instead.’
But of 15 workers, who answered the question, 7 took work home, 2
of them but rarely.

Remarkable unanimity was found among employers and employees in
general approval of the Factory Acts, and the few objections that were
made were not to the provisions specially affecting women. Several
employers maintained that when girls have worked the legal maximum
they are not capable of more. One tailoress, who worked at home, said
that it ‘is far better to work in workshops where the Factory Acts take
effect,’ so as to have regular hours. ‘In fact, the evidence, such as it is,
is favourable to the Factory Act, and gives no ground for supposing it
constitutes any real grievance.’

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 349

London Industrics in General and West London Laundries.
(From notes communicated by Mrs. BOSANQUET),.

‘In London legislation has certainly induced considerable change of
eustom, especially as regards conditions of work, which in many cases are
notably improved. Conditions only obtaining, if at all, in the best-
managed firms, have been made compulsory upon all, a process of levelling
up. Notably in the laundry trade I have observed this. The laundries
which come within the scope of the Act are healthy, airy, pleasant
places ; the floors are well drained ; the women no longer stand to work
in water, ventilators keep the air fresh; and the work is far more
regular than formerly, though there is still great pressure at times, and
consequent overwork.

‘I believe it to be the case that since fur-work has been scheduled
under the sections regulating out-work, it is being carried on more in
factories, and less as home-work. Opinions will differ as to whether this
is a good result. In view of the extreme unhealthiness of the work in
the homes, I am inclined think that it is.

‘ Legislation has certainly affected the howrs worked by women in the
laundries and other industries which come under the Acts. I know of no
direct effect upon wages, except in so far as laundry workers, being a
more sober, steady set of women than formerly, are certain to earn more.

‘T think it likely that indirectly the Factory Acts have encouraged the
introduction of machinery into laundries. Many of the older set of workers
object to the restrictions in a modern Jaundry, and employers are finding
a difficulty in getting sufticient trained ironers. Concurrently there is
considerable increase in the extent to which ironing machines are used.
One woman minding a machine can do more work than several by hand ;
moreover, being less skilled and far less laborious work, it is less
‘highly paid. To this extent one might say that the rougher class of ironer
has been ‘ displaced’ from regulated into unregulated laundries.

‘T think there is no doubt at all that the present generation of
laundry workers is steadier, more sober, more efficient, and in every way
more to be relied upon than the generation brought up in the old unregu-
lated laundries. The employers I have seen are emphatic upon this
point : their only complaint at present is that they cannot get enough of
the steadier women to keep up with the work.

‘I know of no substitution of men for women owing to restrictive laws.
I believe the printing trades have been cited ; but as a matter of fact the
real obstacle to women’s work in this trade is the men’s union, which
prevents their being taught the higher kinds of work. Speaking
generally, there is far less rivalry between men and women in industry
than is generally supposed ; they seldom do just the same kind of work.
I know of no complaints as regards restriction of hours. In inquiring
among small shopkeepers, ¢.g., I have been surprised to find how much
they were in favour of restriction of hours. There is a tendency to
attribute loss of work ic. to legal restrictions ; ¢.g., a case was noted
‘to me of a young widow whose foreman dismissed her on the ground that
he was compelled by law to dismiss women three months before child-
birth. There is, of course, no law to that effect.’

The main points referring to West End Jaundries in Mrs. Bosanquet’s
Report have been included in Sections I. to VII. above, and the subject
is exhaustively treated below. With reference to them it is remarked that

3900 REPORT—19038.

the employers and employed accept the Acts as desirable and beneficial with
great unanimity ; that their extension to small laundries, especially in urban
districts, is desirable; and that the Acts may have favoured an increase in the
supply of casual and partially employed labour, by making it necessary to
take on more hands in times of pressure instead of lengthening the hours.

APPENDIX II.

Nore :—Since laundries form an important industry which has re-
cently come under the Acts, ana in which the process of regularisation
can be seen at work, the Committee think it advisable to offer a careful
account of the recent history of the trade.

Economic Effect of Legislation Regulating Women’s Labour in
Laundries. By Miss A. M. ANDERSON.

DocuMENTsS. Acts of Parliament: Factory and Workshop Acts, 1891, 1895, and
1901. Parliamentary Reports: Factory and Workshop Acts Commission, 1875,
Minutes of Evidence; Royal Commission on Labour, 1893 (Miss Collet’s Report
on Employment of Women in Laundries) ; Reports of H.M. Inspectors of Fac-
tories on Hours of Work, Dangerous Machinery and Sanitary Conditions in
Laundries, 1894; Annual Reports of the Chief Inspector of Factories, 1892 to
1902; Census returns, 1901.

History and Summary of Legislation.

The first authoritative recommendation that the Factory Acts should
regulate laundries is contained in the Report of the Commissioners
appointed to inquire into the working of the Factory and Workshops Acts,
1876: ‘The definition of work to be regulated by the Act should include
labour in or incidental to the washing, cleaning, or furbishing any article.’

These words were not added to the words ‘altering, repairing, orna-
menting, finishing,’ in the definition section of the Act of 1878 (section 93),
and treatment of the question was postponed until the bill which became
law in 1891 came under discussion. In that year the proposal expressly
to include laundries for regulation of hours as well as conditions of
health and safety was thrown out, and only certain limited powers for the
Factory Department to intervene and set the local sanitary authority in
movement, as regards sanitation of laundries, actually in that year
became law. The Secretary of State was empowered to make a special
order authorising an inspector to take steps for enforcing the law of
Public Health as to effluvia, cleanliness, ventilation, overcrowding in
laundries, for a specified period, if he was satisfied that the provisions of
the law were not observed. Further, an inspector was empowered to
notify (without such an order of the Secretary of State) to the local
authority any act, neglect, or default in any sanitary matter which ap-
peared to him to be remediable under the law relating to Public Health.
(See Sections 1 and 2 of 1891.) No express powers were, however, given
to the inspector (such as for factories and workshops) to enter and inspect
laundries in order to inquire whether such acts, neglects, or defaults in
sanitary matters existed; so that the powers to set the law of Public
Health in motion (if knowledge had been obtained) remained necessarily
inoperative.

The evidence before the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-93,
reopened the question, and a renewed effort to bring laundries within the
scope of the Factory Acts was made in 1894. In 1893 the Chief

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 301

Inspector of Factories presented reports from his staff on the result of
inquiries made, of employers and managers on the one hand and workers
on the other hand, and of observations made in the laundries where the
occupiers permitted the inspector to enter. On those reports the Chief
Inspector recommended inclusion of laundries under all the ordinary
provisions of the Act with regard to safety and sanitation, and with
regard to the ordinary hours of employment, with special exceptions for
liberal overtime and for elastic arrangements as to the weekly half-
holiday ; at the same time he recommended special regulation in the
matters of use of gas-irons, separation of stoves from ironing-rooms,
drainage of floors. As regards convent and charitable institution laun-
dries, he recommended their inclusion under the law, but that inspection
should be in each case only on the express instruction of the Chief In-
spector.

The Act of 1895, in the event, included all these recommendations
except the form of regulation for hours of labour and those recommenda-
tions relating to the convent and charitable institution laundries. The
Act of 1901, which consolidated and amended the general law relating to
factories and workshops, merely repeats, as regards laundries (after an
unsuccessful attempt had again been made in the bill to treat laundries
as factories and workshops), the main provisions enacted in 1895, but
made possible further control of sanitary conditions among ‘ out-workers’
in this industry. This was done by empowering the Local Authority (now
the District or Borough Council) to prohibit home-work where there is
infectious disease, and by providing for returns of lists of out-workers by
occupiers (and givers out of work) to the Local Authority.

The Existing Law Regulating Laundries may be Summarised as follows :—

Those laundries are covered by the provisions in the Act, applied
specifically or by reference in Section 103 of 1901, which are ‘carried on
by way of trade or for purposes of gain.’ Certain laundries are expressly
exempted, but there is no definition of the term laundry. The exempted
laundries are those in which the only persons employed are : (a) Inmates
of any prison, reformatory, or industrial school, or other institution for
the time being subject to inspection under any Act other than the
Factory Act ; (6) inmates of an institution conducted in good faith for
religious or charitable purposes; (c) members of the same family
dwelling in the laundry ; in these cases also, if not more than two
persons dwelling elsewhere are employed, the laundry remains exempt
from regulation. The ordinary provisions of the law which are applied
by reference in Section 103 are those which relate to sanitation, safety,
and accidents, affixing of prescribed notices and abstracts and the matters
to be specified in them (so far as applicable to laundries), notice of
occupation, education of children, powers of Inspectors, fines and legal
proceedings ; these take effect as if every laundry in which mechanical
power is used in aid of the process were a factory and every other
laundry were a workshop. The age-limit for children (twelve years) and
the time-limit for re-employment of women after childbirth (four weeks)

_are also applied. Laundries are further covered by certain Sections
relating to home-work, i.c.: (a) Power of the Secretary of State to
require lists of out-workers (Section 107); (5) penalty on occupiers for
causing or allowing wearing apparel to be cleaned in any dwelling-house

oo RELORT— 1908.

or building where there is scarlet fever or small-pox ; (c) power of the
District Council to prohibit home-work in cleaning or washing wearing
apparel where there is notifiable infectious disease. Section 103 itself
lays down for laundries classed as factories those special sanitary regula-
tions as regards temperature, fumes from gas-irons, and drainage of floors,
which were recommended by the Chief Inspector in 1893, above cited.

The special regulations limiting hours of employment for protected
persons in laundries (Section 103) are :—

The Period of Employment Exclusive of Meal-howrs and Absence from Work.

— | Women | Young Persons | Children
Daily limit in 24 hours . 14 hours 12 hours 10 hours
Weekly limit . P fi GOn ees; 60 hours SO) eas

_— (+ overtime) (no overtime) —

Meal-times may be fixed by the employer, but no protected person
may exceed a five hours’ spell of work without an interval of at least
half an hour for a meal, and a break of less than half an hour in the
course of five hours would not enable an employer to commence a fresh
spell of five hours.

The period of employment and meal-times must be specified, but may
be altered on any day provided the weekly as well as the daily limit is
not exceeded. Such alteration must, however, be specified before work
begins, in a notice affixed in the laundry. Holidays must be allowed
under the conditions required in any factory or workshop.

Overtime for women may not exceed two hours on any day, and may
not extend the daily limit beyond fourteen hours of actual work ; it may
not be worked on more than three days in one week nor thirty days in a
year. Notification to the inspector and affixing record in the laundry of
overtime are required as in other workshops and factories.

Conditions in Laundries before and since 1898.

These being the regulations affecting laundries since January 1, 1896,
what are the alterations, if any, in regard to (a) persons employed, either
in number, age, or sex; () wages and hours of labour ; (c) use of
machinery and organisation of labour ; (d) health and efficiency of women
employed, or their children ; (e) general prosperity of the trade? The
task is to find material for comparison on any or all of these points
between the periods preceding and following the two years 1896-1897,
when the law would be gradually coming into effective operation through-
out the kingdom. ;

(a) Number, Age, and Sea of Persons Employed in Laundries.’

No material exists for direct definite comparison of figures. The only
official figures before 1901 are those relating to the number of registered
steam or factory laundries and hand or workshop laundries. No returns of
persons employed in them were required from employers before the Act
of 1901, and the returns made in 1902 are not yet published for the
country as a whole. When they are published we shall know the number

1 See also Section of Committee’s Report dealing generally with the statistics of
changes in the employment of women.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. Sha

of persons coming under regulation, and, deducting these totals from the
total shown in the census, we shall be able to compute approximately the
numbers not subject to regulation.

It is to be noted that in the five years following 1896 there was a very
small increase of registered hand laundries, but a considerable increase of
registered steam laundries, thus :—

Steam Laundries Hand Laundries
1896. é p A , : ; . 1,069 5,026
KOOL: |. ‘ . 3 3 Fi : lore 5,049

Discovery of unreported laundries would account for the whole of the
increase of hand laundries, but hardly for the increase in the other column.
The tendency would thus seem to be on the whole towards increase of
employment in steam laundries, but nothing exact is known of the average
numbers employed in either class of laundry throughout the country,
although an estimate is attempted below from figures for the West
London steam laundries. Mention is made by Mrs. Bosanquet of
a recent increase in the number of casual women workers in Acton hand
eo tiied bat the experience of Miss Deane, which goes back to 1893 in
West London laundries, is that there has always been a considerable
number (even before regulation of hours) of unskilled casual washerwomen
who work for two or more hand laundries in the course of a week. The
elasticity of the daily limit of hours for women in laundries would allow
for the possibility of this class of labour developing or remaining stationary
as it might under the influence of totally distinct causes.

The Census shows that, in all, 196,141 ctmale persons are employed in
the trade in England and Wales out of a total of 205,015 persons. As
there are in all 7,021 registered laundries, the total number of male
workers being 8,874, the overwhelming preponderance of women in the
trade even since it has been regulated, and has grown so much of a
factory trade, is abundantly clear. The necessary engineer for each steam
laundry is not included in the total 8,874 male workers given by the Census,
but even so the employment of women in an unusual degree in managing
and directing (or ‘laundry-keeping ’) is evident.

The industry is still followed mainly by adult women, but the propor-
tion of young women and girls shows a marked increase since 1891. In
that year the census showed that only 21 per cent. of the women and
girls engaged in the industry were under 25, In 1901 there were 30 per
cent. under 25. In London in 1901 there were 34 per cent. under 25.

In 1891 the figures were for ‘washing and bathing service,’ in 1901
for laundry and washing service excluding bathing. Miss Collet points
out that the inclusion or exclusion of bathing service makes very little
difference in the case of females ; it may or may not have made a con-
siderable difference in the case of males.

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
!

| 28 | eS | oh | 8 | o8 | 8 | eB 8
ae Bw Su Se | 8k au aw rh ae
Sig" | Sian | OSes al paleo See] bey 5 Totals
et 5 onl = | N = nN 5 Dr} 5 5 iv] 5 ts}
Females. | |
1891 . . . 1,707 | 17,830 | 19,581 29,946 | 35,724 | 37,546 | 27,595 | 15,317 185,246
1901. =. w | 2,424 | 28,513 | 28,280 32,527 | 33,327 | 33,086 | 24,834 | 13,150 196,141
Mates | | | | |
1891 . P * 169 839 726 | 1,384 1,316 | 1,197 852 449 6,912
140) a 178 | 1,066 913 | 2,078 | 1,743 | 1,413 871 492 8,574. |

ie rs 4 pa”.

Bb: REPORT—1903.

We have had access to the official employers’ returtis in 1902 for thie
West London District laundries, which district registers 303 steam
laundries. In these about one-sixth of the female workers are young
persons under 18 years of age, while the average number of persons
employed is 242.1! The average number in factory laundries through the
kingdom is probably rather higher, for in London alone are to be found
the rows of small dwelling-houses converted into steam laundries by a
common source of power. ‘At one time it was only in a few large steam
laundries that machinery was to be met with, now it is no uncommon
thing to find a row of houses in sepat'ate occupation, the back yard of each of
which is roofed in and packed with machinery, all driven by an engine
installed at one end of the tow.’ ? Nearly half of all the steam laundries in
the kingdom are within London and its outlying borders. In this con-
nection it is of interest to note that in the only European country which
has a complete industrial census, and which has, to a certain extent,
developed the laundry industry with the aid of steam power, in Belgium,
the average number of persons employed in a steam laundry is 27.

Turning now to the earliest generalisations of an authoritative. or
official kind on the conditions of the laundry trade, in view of proposals
to regulate; we find important evidence given to the Commissioners of
1875-76 on the Factory Acts by the manager of the Civil Service
©o-operative Laundry, London. There we find, twenty years before
legislation touched laundry women’s labour, an outline of the earlier
stages of the change of the laundry industry into the factory system, and
ean see the almost complete revolution that was about to be accomplished
independently of legislation. The witness spoke from his own experience
and from visits to all the large steam laundries in London, Kingston, Man-
chester, Stockport, and Scarborough. He stated that the trade was ‘in a
transition stage from a little cottage industry, owing to the necessities of
this huge London, into more and more of a factory system,’ economy of
labour was being sought, ‘washing women are being rapidly superseded
by machines’ ; the economy of labour could only be effected ‘in the washing,
not in the ironing’ processes. ‘Girls are scarcely employed at all in
laundries, we have only two under eighteen, and not one under thirteen.’
Speaking generally, it is not common to employ girls young. The largest
Jaundries would not employ more than 70 hands, and he mentioned
instances of 40, 50, and 60 employés. Skilled labour was most needed for
the ironing processes, and the supply generally was insufficient during
the season. Many women would not take to the work partly because of
its hard nature, partly because of the ‘social stigma’ attaching to it.
London bricklayers’ labourers’ wives supplied a very large proportion of
the labour. In 1892, in Miss Collet’s Report to the Labour Commission,
we find witnesses, laundry proprietors, giving a similar account of the
source of supply of' labour (e.g., ‘nearly all his laundresses were married
or had children to support. The husbands were generally bricklayers’
labourers. . . In the busy season in summer, when women were most
wanted and there were fewest of them, they made things worse for the
laundries by going fruit-picking and pea-picking’). We find on the other
hand indication in Miss Collet’s report of a growth of employment of
young workers in steam laundries in the ‘hottest parts.’ The proportion

1 Seventeen laundries in the West London district employ over seventy workers
and seven employ over 100 workers.
2 Annual Report of the Chief Inspector, 1900, p. 382.

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 355

of married women is now probably less than it was twenty years ago,
owing to the growth of employment of young women and girls in ironing
(machine ironing) processes, but the census returns 1901 show still a very
large number :—

Total employed in Working at

laundry work home

_f Females, unmarried . ‘ 86,474 22,404
England and Wales | Females, married or widowed 109,667 50,642
Females, unmarried 7 . 20,158 2,804

County of London { Females, married or widowed 27,204 7,604

(6) Wages and Hours of Labour.

The witness before the Commission of 1875 quoted above enables us
to compare past and present as regards hours and wages for laundry
workers in London. First it may be noted that he considered legal limi-
tation of hours in London itself to be impracticable, on account of the
enormous, season pressure, although he considered it practicable possibly
in factory districts such as Nottingham. The hours, he said, were much
longer for ironers than for washers, as in the latter case the labour was
being aided and superseded by machinery tended by men. Ten hours a
day is about what a washerwoman works, 8 A.M. to 8 p.M., with intervals
for meals : in their case it would be possible to limit the hours with the
help of machinery. Ironers’ work extends over 14 or 15 hours during the
season, but actually, with meal-times, which are closely adhered to, the
work goes on during 12 to 13 hours. Ironers will not work after 11 p.m.
as a rule, nor after 10 p.m. on Saturday. ‘It is the London season, and
the pressure on them is so great that they are worked out by Satur-
day night. Occasionally they are asked as a great favour to go in on
Sunday morning for one or two hours, but the next week they suffer
from the want of rest undoubtedly.’ In private and small laundries the
hours, he says, are much longer, sometimes all night. As the workers
describe it, ‘they are worked out, and no doubt they are.’ Troners, he
says, in the London season, earn 17s. to 19s. a week, and out of the
season (if they are not ‘out of work’) earn from 9s. to lls. He gives no
information about washers’ wages.

Miss Collet’s report to the Labour Commission in 1892, and the
special Report of the Inspectors of Factories on Laundries presented in
1893, show very similar conditions as to hours. As Miss Collet says of
steam laundries, ‘by the employers’ own admission very long hours are
worked’ ; she gives instances of weekly hours, exclusive of meal-times,
ranging from 63 to 725 hours, and of daily periods ending at 9 p.m.,
JO p.m., and 12 midnight repeatedly. In 20 out of 22 hand laundries
the laundresses habitually worked longer than the day limit imposed by
the Factory Act. In the special Report of the Inspectors longer and more
irregular hours are cited: ‘Hours are irregular and excessive, two and
three nights at a stretch’ (Mr. Bowling). ‘In a shipping case work
continued all Friday night and to noon on Saturday’ (Mr. Cameron).
‘Troners work from Friday morning until Saturday at midnight (con-
tinuously . . . working 42 hours at a stretch’ (Miss Paterson). ‘Several
persons express the opinion that the pressure which occurs frequently on
Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, arises from mismanagement’ (Miss
Abraham, Miss Paterson, Mr. Vaughan, Mr. Shaw, and Mr. Dawson).

_*The fact that many laundries, including two belonging to shipping
AAZ

856 REPORT—1908.

companies, have voluntarily placed themselves under the Act . . . goes
to prove that it is practicable for all’(Mr. Richmond, Captain Smith).
The Factory Inspectors give no particulars as to wages, but Miss Collet’s
report gives them for both steam and hand laundries. Ironers on piece-
work in one steam laundry were earning from 16s. to 22s. ; machine room
day workers from 10s. to 16s., for a nominal day of 12 hours, overtime
paid at the same rate as ordinary time. Finery and best ironers are
quoted in other steam laundries as earning from 3s. to 4s. a day. In one
of the laundries where best ironers earned 4s.a day, ‘shirt ironers on
piece-work earned from 17s. to 25s., and collar ironers over 21s. in a full
week,’ Several employers in hand laundries, members of the Acton and
West London Laundry Proprietors’ Co-operative and Industrial Society,
‘stated that in Acton all proprietors paid the same wages. Washers
were paid 2s. 6d. a day, of 12 hours, including meals, with 2d. a day for
beer, TIroners, 2s. 6d., 2s. 9d., and 3s. with beer. All were paid 3d. an
hour for overtime, and deductions for short time were made at the
same rate. Miss Collet considered that the comparative uniformity of
daily wage which she found in Acton must be largely due to the com-
parative absence of young persons. ‘In Acton I gathered that it was the
custom to send girls to service on leaving school, or to the steam laundries,
and for them to leave later, or when old enough and strong enough for the
work in the hand laundries.’

As regards hours of labour since 1896 we may take it that roughly
and broadly in the registered laundries the ordinary hours of labour do
not exceed those legal, with the addition of overtime in the case
of women over eighteen years of age. At first no doubt there were
many infringements of the legal limits, and exceedingly long and trying days
of work, of which the illegality could hardly be proved, have in too many
cases occurred. Legal hours that extend to far greater length than in
any ordinary factory or workshop are still to be found on the days from
Tuesday until the end of the week; night work is legal and Sunday
labour is not prohibited by the Factory Act. Still the exhausting
continuous periods, night following day towards the end of the week,
instanced by the Factory Inspectors in the report of 1893, have certainly
been stamped out by the Inspectors in all but comparatively rare cases,
and the use of the overtime exception shows no sign of steadily increasing
in this industry. This may be seen in the following extract from official
returns of overtime. Between 1896 and 1897 any increase so small as is
shown would be attributable to improved reporting and endeavour to
conform to the law :—

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 357

Prosecutions by Inspectors on account of employment beyond legal
limits of protected persons may be summarised as follows :—
| eine | 1896 | 1897 | 1898 | 1899 | 1900 | 1901 |

|
ee eo.
Pa | a |

' Inthe case of Children . . ~| — — | 1
i » Young Persons . oh ale Tot | 20 32 | #13 47
a » Women > fe 7 8 | 53 | 26 38 = | 4s

In the special report to this Committee from the Nottingham Investi-
gators it is stated that the smaller laundries find restricted daily hours a
serious inconvenience, contrary to the experience of the steam laundries.
In the official overtime returns it appears that no claims have been made by
occupiers of workshop laundries in Nottingham for overtime, whereas in
a small number of factory laundries the exception has been made use of.
It is noteworthy that over the whole kingdom occupiers of factory
laundries make a far more general use both absolutely and relatively of
the overtime exception than do the occupiers of workshop laundries. It
may be that illegal and unreported overtime is more often resorted to in the
latter case, although this is not borne out by the experience of the Factory
Inspectors in West London. It is more probable that the elastic and
movable limits legally permissible for each day amply serve the purpose of
the smaller laundry without addition of overtime, and that the steam
laundries organising their daily period on more rigid lines throughout the
week, more readily resort to additional hours when a pressure arises.
Mrs. Tennant forwards the statement of an occupier of a large steam
laundry that before the introduction of the Factory Act the hours were
7 a.m. to 6.30 p.m., with two hours for meals, Monday to Wednesday
inclusive ; 7 A.M. to 8.30 p.m. Thursday and Friday ; and on Saturday
until work was finished, but never later than 8.30 P.M. ; on every day two
hours for meals. Thus the daily limit never exceeded 11} hours, and
the weekly total 63, not including meal-times. Yet he says, ‘On the
introduction of the Factory Act our hours were increased.’ This could
only be legally in weeks in which overtime was permissible, but possibly
the average in the less busy times rose. This evidence comes from a
seaside resort, but there is much evidence to similar effect from the
factory inspectors’ reports in the year following the application of the Act.
‘The “coming under the Act” has been found not to bring the expected
relief, but to give sanction to the late hours and long day’s work hitherto
regarded as unnecessary evils tolerated in an unregulated industry. . . .
The provision for an extra meal when working overtime has not been
made applicable . . . and the women found themselves legally employed
from 5 o’clock, the end of tea-time, till 10 p.m. without. any break... .
The class who would seem to be really benefited by the Act are the
packers and sorters, whose hours of employment commonly reached over
seventy (often nearer eighty) in the week’ (Miss Squire). The hours in
some parts of the country remained stationary, notably in Yorkshire and
Lancashire towns. ‘ Managers inform me that they could not work up to
the sixty hours limit if they wished, because beiter conditions could be
obtained by their workers in the mills’ (Miss Anderson).!

.___ We have no materials for a definite comparison of rates of wages in
different parts of the country, but there is a consensus of opinion that in

t Annual Report of the Chief Inspector, 1896, pp. 67, 68,

358 REPORT—1903.

London wages have risen. The estimate of the general manager of a
large laundry company with various branch establishments, that piece-
work wages have risen for ironers in the ten years, from 1893 to 1903,
10 percent. all round, is certainly applicable in other steam laundries as well.
The following is his table of rates of wages for different classes of workers ;—

Comparison of Wages in Laundries.

—_— 1893 1903
4 ss 8' 8 * ilo iS eee |
sd, £8. 4. | ad. £ s, d. |
Packers ; From 5 0 to 18 0 per week/From 10 0 to 1 0 0 per week
Markers ; a ‘a OR 18 0 fs eS 6-0, 1:00 45
Washers (men and
boys) 3 : ae LIPO 6 20 = 3 ED es ecl eaGrae 4
Washers and scrub-
bers(women) .| , 20 ,, 2 6 per day 5) JUG, 3 2 per day
Dryers . : F 5 9 4; 20 - ve 2D is, 26 a
Folders 3 5 +s 1-6. .,, 23 ae a iG s. 23 a
Calenderers . s Oa 20 * a 1 Oa 24 =f
Manglers fc 20-5; 26 7" ‘ 205, 26 i
Examiners . -| » 150 ,, 1 O Oper week} ,, 180 ,, 1 O © per week
Starchers F ” 2 01.;, 2 3 per day nm 250% ¥ 3 O per day
Preparers . , fd Opi, 18 0 per week} ,, 18 0 ,, L 1 0 per week
lroners F ‘ - Oe 3 O per day we A hee 3

9 per day

No class of worker would seem to have

benefited more than the

packers, whose hours have been so considerably reduced by the Act. The
washers, men and boys, more often men, the folders and the manglers,
alone appear to have remained stationary, or nearly so, in wages.

(ce) Use of Machinery and Organisation of Labour.

The development of the industry from the domestic to the factory
system has already been referred to in quotations from the Factory
Act Commissioners’ Report of 1875-6. No more striking contrast can
be produced than that between the account given by the principal witness
of the organisation of the work, then, and in the latest reports of the
Factory Inspectors. According to his experience in 1875, whereas
machinery was becoming much more largely employed in washing processes,
the only things which could be ‘ironed by machinery, are things as straight
as a piece of paper, tablecloths, pillow-cases. ... You could not put a
shirt into a machine to be ironed or anything with gathers in it... .
The mechanical irons heated by gas at the Army Clothing Factory would
be totally useless with respect to linen.’ For some time it has been a
common-place that the most elaborate developments of laundry
machinery are to be found in the fine ironing departments of body-linen
of all kinds, and of this the most marked consequence has been the de-
velopment of employment of girl-labour. The proof of growth of use of
ironing-machinery is to be seen in the fact that more than half of the total
accidents reported from laundries are caused by ironing-machinery ; in
1902, 152 out of 268, in 1901, 148 out of 289, in 1900, 111 out of 240.1
In her report for 1900, Miss Deane referred particularly to the extent of
subdivision of labour and use of labour-saving machinery in this branch.

1 Wor details see qnalysis, pp, 162 and ff. in the Annual Report of the Chief
Inspector foy 1902,

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 359

In some cases ‘ a single shirt will pass through seven or eight different
machines in the process of ironing alone.’ As regards use of machinery
generally in smaller as well as larger laundries, Miss Deane stated in
1900: ‘The old-fashioned washerwoman is fast disappearing, and is
superseded by the enterprising young “ laundry proprietor,” who turning
the tubs out of the back-kitchen fills their place with washing machines,
and connecting them with a little gasengine . . . blossoms forth as the
owner of a factory laundry ready to deal with six times the amount of
work. . . . Side by side with this development in the smaller laundries is
to be found the rapid multiplication of the large companies and syndicates,
certain of which own as many as a dozen or more fine well-equipped
laundries . . . organised into departments, in which the division of labour
is at least as marked a feature as in the majority of non-textile factories.’
In the smaller factory laundries in the same district organisation is not
developed in the same way. ‘The labour-saving methods adopted in well-
organised businesses are ignored, and in many places the work is carried
on... as it was before power was introduced, and the outpyt was pro-
bably not a fifth of what it is at present. This is to me one of the most
striking features of the laundry development. Machinery of an ex-
pensive and intricate kind is bought and installed without as far as one
can judge an effort being made to secure that the most shall be made of it.
Even the risks attending its use are very imperfectly appreciated ’ (Miss
Paterson, 1901). ‘The number of steam laundries on our register has
increased by over 13 per cent., the number of hand laundries by over 9 per
cent. ... Most of the additions to steam laundries have been by
transformation of the hand laundry through introduction of motor power’
(Miss Anderson, 1901). There is nothing to show that an impetus was
given bythe Act to theintroduction of machinery. Possibly such an impetus
might have been given by the more rigid limits of ordinary factory hours.

(d) and (e) Heaith and Efficiency of Women employed, and Prosperity of
the Trade.

The foregoing account of the organisation and hours of labour of
women in laundries, before and after limits were introduced by the Act
of 1896, indicates that no clear estimate can be formed of the gain to
women in health and efticiency by the provisions applying to women (as
distinguished from men). As lately as 1900 the Inspector’s reports insist
on the immense practical difficulty of enforcing, at all closely, the daily
and weekly maxima of hours. In that year the Secretary of State issued
a prescribed form for notice of period of employment, the use of which
was binding on occupiers who altered at any time the notice of employ-
ment for the day, the object: being to secure closer observance of the legal
limits by showing at any moment the proposed total period for the week,
as well as for the single day. In so far as the law has checked, and this
it certainly has done in a considerable degree, the excessively long night
and day turns of work at the middle and end of the week, gain must have
accrued to the workers in lessening the number of cases of complete
exhaustion. No systematic inquiry into the system of liability of laundry
workers to special forms of disease has, so far as we know, been reported
before Miss Deane’s report for 1900 (see Annual Report of the Chief
Tnspectoy, PP: 383 and ff.). She gave figures from examination of records

360 REPORT—19038.

at poor law infirmaries in typical laundry districts which brought out the
greater liability of laundresses, as compared with women of other occupa-
tions treated in those infirmaries, to ulcerated legs and to phthisis.
Further, she stated that the ‘figures supplied by the records of the cases
attended by the Kensington District Nursing Association show a large
proportion of ulcerated legs and of forms of internal disease aggravated
by standing for long hours... . I was struck by the absence of any
particular liability to skin disease, for on all hands [ had been informed
that washerwomen were not uncommonly afflicted by a local inflammation
on the hands and arms, due, it was thought, to the action of soda, soap,
and other chemicals. . . . The effect of the occupation was noticed in the
out-patients’ department of St. Mary’s Skin Hospital some years ago,
but had since almost disappeared. The immensely increased use of
machinery in the process of washing (even in the very small hand laundries
the hand-turned washing machine is often found) may account for this
difference.’ In her report for 1902 Miss Deane quotes interesting later
figures from the Medical Officer of Health of Battersea to show the
special liability of girls from fifteen to twenty-five years (mainly packers,
sorters, calender workers, and machine ironers) to phthisis. ‘They work
either in sorting the soiled linen or in the steam and heat and gas-laden
atmosphere of the machine room. . . . The constant exposure to steam,
standing on wet floors, the great heat in which the work is carried on,
and the long hours at exhausting work, amply explains the tendency to
pulmonary disease. The badly arranged floors in even large wash-houses
are a constant source of discomfort, and probably of ill-health, to
workers.’

For the latter classes of complaint the special regulation for laundries,
relating to steam, temperature, drainage of floors, are admirably calculated
to establish an amendment, even though the hours are still so long as to
aggravate any constitutional liability to ulcers or internal disease asso-
ciated with long standing.

It must be carefully borne in mind that these special provisions for
the hygiene of steam laundries were enforceable earlier in hand or work-
shop laundries under the more general provisions of the law relating to
public health by the local authority. Thus, it cannot be maintained that
larger laundry-proprietors were given any advantage over their poorer
and smaller rivals through the cost of conforming to the sanitary provisions
of the Factory Act. Under the Kensington Vestry, for example, work-
shop laundries were registered, inspected, and brought gradually into
conformity with general sanitary requirements years before steam laun-
dries were affected by the Factory Act.

No authentic case has been established of disappearance or failure
of workshop laundries through application of the standards either of the
Public Health Act or of the Factory Act.!_ On the contrary, the evidence
of the factory inspectors goes to show increased and increasing prosperity
among smaller occupiers. The readiness with which costly machinery is
installed in small dwelling-houses and the steady transformation of small
hand-laundries into small factory-laundries, negatives the idea that the
safety and hygienic clauses of the law hamper the small proprietor. It

! At the same time occasional references of Factory Inspectors to the tendency
of occupiers to dismiss a third outside worker when they learn that a third brings
them under the Act, must not be overlooked. Cf. Annual Report, 1902, p, 186,

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 561

must not be forgotten that in this industry, as distinguished from manu-
facturing industries, the employer has not the cost of raw material to add
to the cost of labour and plant, and this may account for much rapid
development of small businesses at the outset.

APPENDIX III,
[Subject to Amendment. ]

Vhe Legal Regulation of Women’s Employment and Infant Mortality.

The Committee have made a special attempt to find whether any
relation can be traced between changes in the law (regulating or pro-
hibiting women’s work in dangerous trades from time to time, and
prohibiting their employment within four weeks of child-birth in 1891)
and infant mortality, and have obtained some valuable opinions from
Medical Officers of Health, but have not found any definite evidence of any
direct connection.

A circular letter was sent to sixty-one Medical Officers of Health,
chiefly in those towns where numbers of married women were employed, -
stating the changes in the law that might be expected to have some
effect in this direction, and asking for statistical evidence and opinions,
Only sixteen replied, and most of these even had no definite information
to give. The general opinion was that high rates of infant mortality were
chiefly due to ignorance and carelessness in feeding infants, and its main
variations from time to time were traceable to the weather and its effects
on the prevalence of summer diarrhea. Nearly all who gave information
agreed that even the comprehensive iaw of 1891 could not produce any
effect visible in vital statistics. Dr. Greenwood (of Blackburn) writes that
no material reduction of infant mortality was thus caused ; but that ‘the
nursing out of children while the mothers are at work, after the child is
one or two months old, together with irregular feeding with improper
and unclean food, and the general ignorance of the principles of domestic
hygiene’ cause high rates of mortality. The Medical Officers of Health
of Leek and Batley were in favour of a longer period of prohibition.

The Committee made other attempts at investigation on this question,
but in every case the inquiry broke down without result.

Some information, however, was obtained which may prove useful for
further research on an allied question, viz., whether employment of
mérried women in factories has any definite relation to infant mortality.
Dr. Erskine Stuart instituted an inquiry in Batley as to the occupations
of mothers whose children had died under one year old, and he and Mr.
Lindley have kindly sent the details. Between May 7, 1901, and
August 7, 1902, the deaths of 200 children under one year came under
their notice. The mothers were by occupation weavers (30), condenser
minders (6), rag-sorters (16), feeder-minder, mill-hand, reeler, mender,
and laundry work (1 each) ; the remaining 143 are given as engaged in
‘housework.’ ;

362 REPORT—1908.

As regards age at death we have the following :—

Ages of Children at death | |

é ! |

| eee al |

Occupation of Mother Cndee ae prene and Over B and 6 cheers | Total
1 month RU al pees? and under

8 months | 6 months sone |
Housework alae a Gin 43 143
Mill-work &e. . 18 Bight] told 1896, aheled7

While 28°5 per cent. of these deaths were of children whose mothers’
occupations were away from home, only 21'4 per cent. of the married
women or widows of Batley were (according to the Census of 1901) so
occupied.

These figures are, of course, quite insufficient to support any conclu-
sions by themselves, but suggest a useful and simple method of inquiry.

The general tables of occupations of married women in towns and of
infantile mortality do not appear to suggest any close relationship between
the two, and the great difference in sanitation and customs between town
and town would lead us to expect this result. But Dr. G. Reid (M.O.H.
Staffordshire County Council) has continued his researches on this subject,
and kindly placed his results at the disposal of the Committee. He finds
that in Staffordshire there are two groups of towns which were from the
sanitary point of view similar in most respects, but that in the northern
group (where many women were engaged in pottery) the rate of infant
mortality was much higher than in the southern group (where relatively
few women were occupied away from home).

Pursuing the idea thus suggested, he compiled the following table ;:—

per 1,000 registered births

of married and widowed | Number | Population

i} | -

Class according to ee Total | Deaths of Infants under one year
| |
|

workers to female population’ of Towns | 1901 5 eed alle =
between 18 and 50 years | Census 1881-1890 | 1891-1900 | 1901-1902 |
| I. 12percent.and over | 5. at 182,299 | 195 | 212 192 |
| II. Under 12 per cent., 13 | 263,868 | 165 175 158 |
and over 6 per cent. |
| Ill. Under 6 per cent. . | 8 131,508 | 156 | 168 153 |

From this he concludes that ‘in the absence of any other apparent
reason the excessive mortality in the first group compared with the
second and third, and in the second compared with the third, is attribu-
table to the nature of the trades carried on as affecting the facilities’ for
the employment of women away from home, and as a consequence the
proportion of wholly artificially fed to entirely or partially breast-fed
infants. While [he is] prepared to admit that the practice of mothers
engaging in factory work and continuing at work practically up to the
day their children are born may, in itself, prejudicially affect the lives
of their children, [he maintains] that the injury arising from the entire
deprivation of mother’s milk during the early months of the child’s life
is far more serious,’

ON WOMEN’S LABOUR. 368

Dr. Reid also supplied the more detailed information leading to the
following table and calculations by Mr. A. L. Bowley :—

| a Hehe | 1881-1890 1801-1900 1901-1902

p | m d |
Longton 5 “ : 36 23°8 217 | 240}, 210) 3
Leek! . = : 15 | 20:9 148 148 | 166 |
Burslem : c 5 39 I73 191 201 | 190 |
LUST ne oe 23 17-2 180 206 | 178 |
Tunstall P : : 19 14:2 207 218 197 |
Stoke-on-Trent . . 30 11-6 158 174 W3 |
Newcastle-under-Lyme.. 20 10:1 148 200 167
Stone . : P : 6 9°9 130 129 148
Quarry Bank : 7 8:3 159 1555 | 125
Bilston . L : 24 8-2 190 208: 185
Willenhall . ‘ j 19 78 158 198 | 182
Smallthorne . 5 2 6 76 179 167.» 4, ih
Rowley Regis i ; 35 73 156 162 151
Brierley Hill 5 F 12 V2 173 169 T3Ou" |

Stafford ; : ; 19 V2 129 132 107
Ledgley ; 7 - 16 67 185 155 128
Smethwick . 4 : 55 67 173 162 148
Darlaston . , 4 15 6:3 193 |. 220 206 |
Wednesfield . - , 5 5:0 153 ' 150 136 |
Coseley . : i : 22 49 153 | “172 168 |
Wednesbury . S 27 4:8 165 176 155
Tipton . 3 5 31 4-6 163 || 179 150! |
Cannock , 5 24 4:3 143 | 163 145 |
Brownhills . ! : 15 4-0 152 ue: 5 sae ee 2 ae)
Kidsgrove . é : 5 | 4:0 155 | V7 206 |
Bhort Hegth. . . “hela 3:7 143 ten) 1? ae

| |

These details make it possible to calculate a correlation coefficient
between occupation and mortality.

Taking the columns m and d only, and counting the towns as of equal
; xyus
NG, Oo
(#2 52)... the deviations in columns m and d from their average, and
7, %, the standard deviations of these columns,| gives -47, with probable
error ‘1 ; this gives evidence of some correlation, but, as the coetticient
is only five times its probable error, the evidence is not very conclusive.

If we now weight each deviation with the population (column p), the
x pp o
0,0, 2p
tions being calculated afresh).

We may say, then, that the excess or defect of proportionate occupa-
tion of married women is shown by these statistics to have a relation ta

importance, the formula , [where 7 is the number of towns, (,:; 5,)

formula gives ‘57, with probable error ‘07 (the standard devia-

; Leek is in advance of the other towns in sanitary matters and js in q healthy
position, :

864: REPORT—1903.

the excess or defect of infant mortality, but that the connection is not
very close and that the evidence is not sufficient to measure it exactly.!

| Nore.—Reference may be given on this subject to the es gues of the
Medical Officer of the Privy Council between 1859 and 1872, especially
the Appendix to the fourth report ; to ‘ Papers relating to the Sanitary
State of the People of England, 1858 ; > and to the evidence given before
the Factory and Workshops Acts Commission of 1875 by Mr. Foulkes
and Mr. Baker. |

APPENDIX IV.

Recent Legislation Abroad relating to Women’s Labour,
By EB. W. Brasroox.

Since the Report of the Committee on Women’s Labour was agreed
to, I have been favoured by the Office du Travail of Belgium with a copy
of their ‘ Annuaire de la Législation du Travail’ for 1903 , Which contains
the text of all the laws relating to labour passed in that year in
various countries. It may be worth while to supplement the particulars
relating to foreign legislation given in the second report of that Committee
by noting those ‘which relate to women’s labour.

In German y many ordinances of the Federal Council have been made
forbidding the employment of women in industries where great heat or
motor power is used or the work is very exhausting, viz., January 31, 1902,
in chicory manufacture ; March 5, in glass works and in the blowing of
glass ; March 5, in sugar works, sugar refineries, and works for extracting
sugar ‘from molasses ; “March 20, in “the extraction of stone from quarries ;
coal mines and mines of zinc and lead in the regency of Oppeln ;
May 27, in roiling mills and forges.

In Austria a law was enacted on J uly 28 for the. regulation of railways,
which, among other things, forbade the employment of women on night
work or during the four weeks after child-birth.

In Spain a law was enacted on June 26 limiting women’s work to
11 hours a day, or 66 hours a week.

In France, by a law of March 21, women are not to be employed in
cleaning, inspecting, or repairing machinery in action.

In Italy, by a law of June 19, night work is prohibited for women.

In several of the States of the American Union laws have been made
regulating the labourof women. In Louisiana, July 24, women are not
to be employed more than 10 hours a day, or 60 hours a week, and to
have an hour allowed each day for dinner. In Massachusetts, June 3,
the limits were fixed at 10 hours a day and 58 a week. In
Rhode Island, April 4, the same limits were enacted. In the State of
Washington (not J.C.), on March 11, 1901, work was limited to 10
hours a day, and seats were ordered to be provided. The same provision
as to seats was made in Wyoming on February 13, 1901. Finally, on
April 2, 1902, the State of New York enacted that the earnings of married
women should be their own, It seems wonderful that such an enactment
should be necessary.

1 In words, a deviation from the average of 2°5 in column d may be expected
with a deviation in the same sense of ] jn “the nymbers in column 7),

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 365

The Resistunce of Road Vehicles to Traction.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir J. I. THornycrorr (Chairman), Professor H. 8.
Heve-SHaw (Secretury), Mr. T. Arrken, Mr. T. C. AVELING
(Treasurer), Professor T. Hupson BEaRE, Mr. W. Worsy
Beaumont, Mr. J. Brown, Colonel R. HE. B. CRrompron, Mr...Bs idl
DIPLock, Mr. Ate MaLtocx, Professor J. PERRY, Sir D. SALOMONS,
Mr. A. R. Sennett, and Mr. EK. SHRAPNELL SMrre. (Drawn up,
at the request of the Committee, by the Secretary, assisted by Mr.

J. F. Guu, B.Sc.)
[PLATE XI.]

CONTENTS.
PAGE
lL. Results of Trials made with Committee's vEEren ees, : : 4 . 365
Il. Suggestions by Mr. B. J. Diplock . - : 369
Ill. Papers read at the Second International Cong MITESS ON ‘Automobilism, Paris,
1903 . . . : “ 6 4 - - . 372
IV. Negotiations with the War Office : : ; . 5 ; : s . 377

I. Results of Trials made with Committee's Dynamometer,

In the last Report the new dynamometer made for the Committee was
described and illustrated, together with an account of the calibration of
the apparatus.

It will have been noticed in the drawing of the instrument that a
small screw-down valve was fixed in the circuit of tube which transmits
the pressure from the plunger to the recording gauge, this valve being
for the purpose of throttling the flow of water, and thus damping the
oscillations of the pencil. The principal dimensions of the valve are as
follows :—

Width of seat i ‘i . A » ‘008 ineh
Smallest diameter of seat. , é : oy Lodo:
Largest A 28 é p ‘ é UG Io't ss
Pitch of screw : : , : P : , O46 04:

It was found that to produce sufficient damping action it was necessary
to have this valve off its seat by an amount of not more than 0153 inch.

It was pointed out by Mr. A. Mallock, F.R.S., of London (a member
of this Committee), that the flow under a constant pressure of a fluid
through a thin film-like orifice such as this, might be different in one
direction to what it would be when flowing in a reverse direction, owing
to the stream-line formation not being symmetrical about the constriction,

If such were the case the true mean pressure would not be recorded,.
but some pressure, either greater or less than the true mean, according to
which side of the valve was next to the plunger.

Experiments were made to determine the minimum orifice that might
be used, and it was found that equal flow from either side did not occur
until the valve was opened by at least half a turn, this corresponding to
the valve being raised from its seat a distance of ‘023 inch. So that there
should be no doubt about the orifice being too small, the experiments
were conducted with the valve open by a considerable amount, the
damping action being obtained by squeezing the rubber tube which
connected the gauge to the dynamometer by suitable clips placed on the
tube some distance from any change in cross-section. By this means the

366 REPORT—1903.

stream-line flow was kept perfectly symmetrical about the constriction,
and hence the true mean pressure was recorded.

Mr. Mallock has suggested the adoption of a length of resistance
tubing (say 1/60 inch bore) to attain the same end, and ‘this will be fitted
for subsequent trials.

Experiments.

The first experiments conducted with this dynamometer were men-
tioned in the last report and the results were indicated by means of wall
diagrams. The results then obtained have been carefully gone into and
from them the following curves have been plotted.

Evperiments with Iron Tyres.

These experiments were conducted on a portion of Regent Road,
Bootle, which is paved with setts 6 inches by 3 inches, having a “regular but
fairly rough surface, with a l-inch gap between the joints. Regent Road
runs along the line of docks, and is in consequence free from gradients 5
it is,.however, so crowded with vehicles during the day-time that it was
found necessary to conduct this series of experiments during the night.

The wheel used was a light lurry-wheel, 40 inches diameter, having a
38-inch iron tyre slightly rounded in section.

The axle was tilted up out of the horizontal at one end so that the
wheel—which was slightly coned—could take up a position exactly
similar to the lurry wheels in general use ; it was mounted ona pair of
springs 3 feet 2 lage between the centres of attachment, each spring.
comprising six plates 2} inches by 4°, inch.

Three runs were inatle over this particular route with loads of 392,
672, and 952 lb. respectively, at speeds of from 5 to 14 miles per hour.

The results of these trials are plotted in fig. 1, with total tractive
effort (inclusive of axle friction, &ec.), as ordinates, and velocity as abscissz.

It will be noticed that for each curve the tractive effort increases:
with the velocity, but these curves and all subsequently obtained are
concave downwards, showing that the rate of increase of tractive effort
diminishes with the velocity. This may be due to the fact that as the
wheel travels faster it has less time to fall into the little hollows in the
roadway, merely skimming along the tops of the ridges.

Well-laid setts under these circumstances, even with wide deep gaps,
form a perfectly smooth track at high speeds. This is well brought out
in fig. 4, which shows a smaller tractive effort for setts than for macadam.

On looking into the matter, this is as it should be. Consider two
perfectly level roads, one made with setts and the other with macadam :
the setts present a surface which is extremely hard, although irregular,
but this irregularity with well-laid setts is more apparent than real, as the
tops of the setts themselves are smooth and level and all in the same plane.

The macadam, on the other hand, although quite level, is not nearly
so hard as the stone surface, and is, moreover, covered With a thin layer
of dust or fine gravel, which, as is well known, retards the progress of a
vehicle.

Experiments with Pneumatic Tyres.

A series of AE a were made with a pneumatic-tyred wheel
24 inches diameter, 24-inch tyre. This was a wire-spoked wheel of the
type used on light voiturettes ; it was mounted on the same springs as:

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 367

the lurry-wheel mentioned previously, but they were reduced in strength
by the removal of four plates, so that each spring consisted of two plates
3 feet 2 inches long, 2} inches wide, and +%,; inch thick.

This series of experiments was conducted on a level stretch of
macadam road, the surface of which was in fairly good condition, slightly
wet in places ; runs were made with loads of 315, 427, 539, and 651 Ibs.
respectively.

Fig. 1.—Tractive-effort Velocity Curves for 40’’ Iron Tyre on Setts,

4 RAT lee Paige
ok
ee tl

Les
50

35 — - a Z
= 3
5
30 a a
o
2 |
»-
o
¢
i 2 a a
5 L |e. x9
20 — =
15 ae I
i 4

cS)

B >" 10 aU 12 i 14
Velocity—Miles per hour,

o
N

Fig. 2 shows tractive effort and velocity plotted for each of these
loads. It will be noticed that the ratio of tractive effort to load for
these curves is very nearly constant, and that the tractive effort increases
slightly with the velocity. Sufticient results have not yet been obtained
to enable this Committee to state definitely the law relating to tractive
effort and load, but the results of the experiments that have been made
agree with those obtained by such pionéers in this research as General
Morin, M. Dupuit, M. Michelin, and others. Assuming for the time that
the tractive effort is directly proportional to the load, a curve has been

Tractive effort.

368 REPORT—1903.

plotted between tractive effort per ton and velocity (fig. 3) which is useful
for comparison with similar curves for wheels of different diameters.

Additional experiments were made on pneumatic tyres under the
auspices of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland. For
these trials it was found that the car used by the Committee was not of
sufficient power ; a 24 horse-power Panhard and Levassor car was there-
fore temporarily used.

It will be noticed in the photograph of this later car (fig. 6, Plate XI.)
that the springs supporting the experimental wheel have been placed above
the frame, thus enabling the centre of gravity of the trailer to be brought
very near to the ground. This alteration was found necessary owing to
a sidelong oscillation taking place at high velocities when the frame was
in the position as first arranged. The altered position proved quite

Fig. 2,—Tractive-effort Velocity Curves for 24'’ x 23'’ Pneumatic Tyre on Macadam.

LBS
oi

—poAD SSL LBS

Velocity—Miles per hour,

successful, not the slightest oscillation of the trailer being noticed even
when heavily loaded and travelling at 35 miles per hour, which, it must
be admitted, is a fairly high speed at which to tow a wheel loaded with
a weight of 900 Ib.

Some difficulty was at first experienced in getting this car to pull
steadily at lower speeds, as the governor was constantly coming into
action owing to the full power not being required. This was finally over-
come by completely cutting out two of the cylinders, and thus reducing
the power of the car by half.

These experiments were made with two sizes of tyres, one 34 inches
diameter by 54 inches, and the other 34 inches diameter with a mean
diameter of cross-section of 44 inches.

“UONIDLT, 07 sajnrya, pwoy fo aounjsisaryy ay? wo quodayy ay hurjzn.jsnpiy

“poyoryze tojyouourvudg, TIM ‘VQ TOSSBAaT pu prvyuvg Jo ydvadojoyg—9 “or,

TX sug] [e06T ‘21odyynog Guodaay pag) ‘woumoossp Ysrpiug

Tractive effort—lb. per ton.

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 869

Ruhs were made at speeds of from 12 miles to 35 miles per hour,
over both good macadam, frozen hard, and good dry setts, The springs
supporting the trailer were 3 feet 2 inches long, each having four
plates 2} inches by °,; inch, and the tyres were in all cases pumped to
a pressure of 60 Ibs. per square inch, the total load on the wheel being
896 lbs. The results obtained and plotted in fig. 4 show that the tractive
effort under similar conditions as to road surface and speed is less for the
tyre of smaller cross-section than it is for that having the larger section,
This may be due to the fact that the tread of the larger tyre was much
thicker than the smaller, rendering it in consequence more after the
nature of a solid tyre, it being well understood that a perfect pneumatic
tyre should have as little inelastic, or comparatively inelastic, material
about it as possible ; or, the greater tractive effort may have been due to
the greater cross-section. Repeated experiments alone can definitely settle
this question,

Fig. 3,—Curve showing Tractive Effort per ton for Pneumatic Tyre 24" x 22’ on
Macadam.

Velocity—Miles per hour,

Fig. 5 shows these curves plotted as tractive effort per ton. On the
same axes the tractive effort per ton has been plotted for the previous
wheel (pneumatic tyre 34 inches by 23 inches), and it is very much greater
than that for the 34-inch wheels.

This Committee is not yet in a position to state the exact relation
between tractive effort and diameter of wheel ; but, taking the results of
General Morin, that the draught is inversely proportional to the diameter
of the wheel, a curve has been plotted (fig. 5) which reduces the tractive
effort of the 24-inch wheel to that of an equivalent 34-inch wheel. Con-
sidering the variations that may have existed in the roads on which the
wheels were tried, as it was at different times of the year, these results
harmonise fairly well.

Il. Suggestions by Mr. B. J. Diplock.

The following suggestions with regard to trials of wheels for heavy
traffic weré submitted to the Committee by Mr: B. J. Diplovk (member)
1903, BB

£
3S
&
a
v
a
re]
. >]
£
H

isthe
Kolek
A

=
ima
balks
=a

Tractive effort—lbs. per ton,

370 REPORT—1903.

Fig. 4.—Tractive-effort Curves for 34’ Pneumatic Tyres on New Macadam.

Velocity—Miles per hour.

¥ia@. 5.—Curves showing Tractive Efforts per ton for Pneumatic Tyres.

(Nore.—The macadam on which the 24/’ wheel was run was older than that on which
the 34’ wheels were tried. )

ae
Ba Peale

Vee
aaa

a
ey
WAL

r 16 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Velocity—Milee per hour.

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION, 371

at a meeting held at the Society of Arts, London, on Friday, May 15,
1903 :—

Assuming that :

1. All wheels are coned or straight in cross-section ;
2. All roads are arched or flat in cross-section ;
3. It seems evident that coned wheels on flat roads, thus—

or flat wheels on arched roads, thus—

—
—— —
— hanes

cause increased road resistance in proportion as the wheels are coned
or the roads arched in relation to each other, and that the same result
is caused by inequalities in the road surface—viz., that wide tyres do
not obtain an even bearing throughout their entire width, except on very
soft and yielding ground,

Starting from the above statements, and as the results of long ex-
perience and observation, he had come to the conclusion that for heavy
traffic wheel tyres of more than, say, 9 inches in width have, in practice
little or no material value as tending to reduce road resistance or damage
to the road surface, and he suggested that experiments might be carried
out with a view to testing the accuracy of this conclusion,

Assuming that 9 inches were adopted as a useful maximum width
of tyre for heavy haulage on average roads, he submitted the following
theory :—

1, That the supporting power of a road is limited by the cohesive
friction of the road molecules or particles against each other.

2. That this supporting power limit varies very considerably according
to the material used in constructing the road and the moisture absorbed
in the road.

He would be prepared to find that road resistance up to certain limits
of weight on each wheel (for each class of road) varies approximately in
direct proportion to the increased weight on each wheel.

He was of opinion, however, that if this limit of weight per wheel is
exceeded so as to overcome the frictional cohesion of the road molecules
against each other, then an entirely new set of conditions arises ; and he
would be prepared to find that road resistance would, under such con-
ditions, increase altogether owt of proportion to increased weight on the
wheels,

BB2

372 REPORT—19038.

He urges that the Committee take steps to ascertain—

1. The maximum ‘useful’ width of tyre for heavy traffic on average
roads.

2. The ‘limit’ of weight on each wheel (for various classes of road) up
to which road resistance increases in direct approximate proportion to
the increase of weight on each wheel.

3. The rate of increased road resistance when that limit is moderately
exceeded.

TI1.—Papers read at the International Congress on Automobilisn,
Paris, 1903.

By permission of the British Association Committee a paper was read
at the Congress by Professor Hele-Shaw on the work which has been
carried out during the past year.

He gave a description of the British Association dynamometer,
recounting the reasons why it was decided to adopt the one-wheel trailer,
and then gave a réswmé of the experiments which have been made. The
paper was illustrated by photographs and diagrams.

Abstract of Paper by M. Grrarp Laverene, on Tractional Resistance:—Tractive
Effort—Springs—Effect of Nature of Tyre—Air Resistance—Power required
by Automobiles.

Tractive Effort.

In his paper M. Lavergne referred to the Report of this Committee
read at the Belfast meeeting last year, and gave some particulars of
similar experiments made in America. He stated that Professor Iva O.
Baker, of the Ilinois State University, is of opinion that the axle friction
is independent of the speed, but varies inversely as the square root of the
load supported. Where the vehicles carried only a light load, the
coetlicient of friction was about 0:02 ; heavy loads gave an average of not
more than 0:015, while with exceptionally heavy loads this coefficient fell
as low as 0:012. These values assume efficient lubrication ; with in-
different lubrication they rose to as much as six times the amount.

Concerning rolling friction Professor Baker believes that the resist-
ance varies inversely as the square root of the diameter of the wheels.

The values above given for axle friction differ somewhat from those
given by M. Forestier, who gives 0:10 for an ordinary bearing lubricated
with cart grease, 0:01 with patent axle-hox lubricated with oil, 0-005 with
lubricated ball-bearings, 0:0025 with the lubricated ‘ Philippe’ bearings
(which last-named are bail-bearings having small balls between the larger
ones, thus obviating friction amongst the latter and ensuring an equal
distribution of pressure upon all the balls).

To thoroughly understand the difference between these sets of figures
it would be necessary to know the exact conditions of lubrication and the
nature of the bearings employed by Professor Baker.

M. Lavergne does not consider that the differences shown are very
surprising, as we know that the coefficient mentioned by M. Forestier
has reference to a patent journal, the wheel revoiving evenly in a plane,
without lateral jerks, whilst a wheel revolving in less favourable condi-
tions—as, for instance, on a rough paved road—would give a higher figure.
The most important fact shown by Professor Baker’s experiment is that
the friction of the journal varies with the load upon the axle.

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 373

M. Jeantaud made some experiments on road resistance with an
electric vehicle. Such an automobile is eminently suited for this work,
on account of the perfect sensibility and absolute accuracy obtainable.
He used for these experiments a car having four equal wheels fitted with
Michelin tyres 840 by 90 mm. ; the front axles were 40-0 mm. diameter
and the back axles were of tempered steel on bronze hubs, the diameter
being 550mm. The car with four persons weighed 1,780 kilos., or 3,925 lbs.

At a speed of 15 kilometres per hour, or 9°32 miles per hour, this car
required a current of 22 amperes at 80 volts—that is, 1,760 watts.

Tf 15 per cent. is deducted as the friction of the motor itself, the
energy of propulsion is 1,496-0 watts, or 149-6 kilogrammetres per second.

Working this out in English units, we have a total tractive effort of
81 Ibs., or 46 Ibs. per ton.

M. Jeantaud has ealeulated with Morin’s formule and coefficients.

First.—The rolling friction, by the formula,

P
F=f >

in which fis a coefficient expressed in kilogrammes, varying with the
nature of the road and the width of the tyre, the value of f for a smooth
dry road being 0:010 ; F, is the rolling friction ; P is the total load on
the vehicle in tons ; and D is the diameter of the wheel.

Second.—The axle friction by the formul,

in which s is a coefficient expressed in kilogrammes (varying with the
mode of lubrication and the nature of the rubbing surfaces) and being
taken as equal to 0-015.

d is the diameter of the axle, and p the weight of the car without the
wheels.

Adding these two resistances and multiplying the total effort by 4:16,
the velocity in metres per second correspondirg to 15 kilometres per
hour, the work done per second is 182274 kilogrammetres, or 1,520 ft. Ib.

This figure would be that given for an iron-tyred vehicle, the only
kind employed at the time of M. Morin. According to M. Michelin,
the advantage obtained by using pneumatic tyres over iron tyres on a
road similar to the above would be at least 15 per cent. Taking 15 per
cent. off the figure obtained, the work expended on traction is reduced
to 154:933 kilogrammetres, or 1,120 ft. lb. per second. This value is
very near to that actually obtained, viz. 1496 kilogrammetres per second
(1,084 ft. lb. per second), and this proves the correctness of the values
given for the coefficients f and s.

In January 1903 M. Jeantaud, with the same electric automobile,
between the bridges of Bineau and Neuilly, ona stretch of road just 1 kilo-
metre in length, showed that the tractive effort for a road covered with
thick mud was, as General Morin found, quite double that on a dry road.

On January 20, on the road in question, being then very muddy, the
track was covered on the third speed in 4 minutes, with a current of
30 amperes at 80 volts. In English units this would be a mean speed
of 9°32 miles per hour or 13°66 feet per second, with a total tractive
effort of 130 lbs., or 74 lbs. per ton.

B74, REPORT—19038.

On January 21, over the same kilometre, hardened by the frost and
very smooth, on the third speed the track was covered in 3 minutes
28 seconds with a current of 20 amperes at 80 volts. This speed would
be equivalent to 10°80 miles per hour or 15°80 feet per second, with a
total tractive effort of 75 lb., or 42-7 lb. per ton.

Thus the tractive effort was 42-3 per cent. less on the hard road than
on the muddy road at the third speed. On the fourth speed M. Jeantaud
found that this difference increased to 50 per cent.

These experiments confirm those of General Morin and show the
accuracy with which that ingenious man carried out his work. But they
have to be made at speeds near to those used by Morin, and it is not at
all certain that other experiments, at much higher speeds, under the new
conditions of automobilism, so different from those of the iron-tyred
vehicles, would give corresponding results.

Springs.

When pneumatic tyres are used, it must not be thought that springs
can be dispensed with, as the duty performed by the tyre is quite
different from that of the springs. The pneumatic tyre does away with
the slight vibration caused by the wheel encountering gravel, stones, and
small obstacles generally, but the height of the axle from the ground
scarcely varies, as the tyre absorbs within itself these small objects. _

Experience has proved that these small vibrations, if not absorbed by
the tyre, would be transmitted through the springs to the body of the car
to the great discomfort of its occupants, and would tend to reduce the life
of the motor, owing to the crystallisation of the parts subjected to strain.

But the pneumatic tyre will not yield much more than 1 inch, and
is in consequence unable to save the car from vibration when passing
over a large obstacle or a deep rut ; whereas the springs, with a resilience
of, say, 4 inches, would be well adapted for this purpose.

Spiral springs have been tried with unsatisfactory results, and they
can practically only be used where heavy weights are carried. Plate
springs must necessarily be employed when ease and comfort are desired.

- It may be pointed out here that the method of attaching plate springs
to the frame is a matter of considerable importance. M. Gaillardet
believes that the usual method is not at all satisfactory. The ordinary
practice is to use clips which are pivoted to a bracket depending from
the frame, these clips being outside of and lower than the normal plane
of the spring. From the bracket they rise at an angle of about 45° and
meet the ends of the spring to which their upper ends are pivoted. The
result is, when the wheel passes over an obstruction of any appreciable
size, the axle rises under the centre of the spring, the plates of which
lengthen (theoretically) and tend to form a straight line, and at once the
load above is thrown upward in the same proportion.

On the other hand, where the clips are so connected with the spring
as to work within its length and under its ends, instead of beyond them,
any shock given to the wheel causes the load to fall, and the loss of
mechanical energy is less.

M. Gaillardet is of opinion that the springs should be so arranged
that each wheel is free to rise or fall independently of the others. When
this is done, an obstacle under one wheel will raise that wheel only, and
the centre of gravity of the whole car is raised a smaller distance than
would otherwise be the case. To attain this result he proposes to mount

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 375

the front axle on a single transverse spring, thus reducing the number of
springs on the car to three.

When the springs have been depressed by an obstacle in the roadway,
they only return to the position of equilibrium after a number of oscilla-
tions of decreasing amplitude have taken place. It is advisable to spare
the vehicle this continued oscillation, as at high speeds it causes the
wheels to leave the ground, and consequently reduces the effective power
of the motor. M. Truffault has taken out a patent for an arrangement
to remedy this defect. The friction between two metal surfaces prevents
the oscillations from arising. He tried a spring fitted with this damping
action on a quadricycle, which carried his son to victory over the kilo-
metre at Deauville in 1901. This spring has given very good results,
enabling one to travel rapidly even over the worst of paved roads.

Effect of the Nature of the Tyres.

The experiments of M. Michelin have shown that the tractional
resistance is reduced from 15 per cent. to 30 per cent., according to the
nature of the road, by the use of pneumatic tyres in place of metal
tyres. He explains this by the well-known saying, ‘Le pneu boit
Vobstacle.’ Baron de Mauni in a recent work has given an account of
some experiments which he made on different tyres, particularly pneu-
matics. He showed that if two wheels with tyres of equal widths
supported equal loads, the one that has the greater arc of contact with
the ground will travel better than the other. With a rigid tyre such
extended contact can only be secured by increasing the diameter of the
wheel, which is impossible beyond certain limits, so that the tyre will
sink into the ground by an amount proportional to the weight carried.
With rubber tyres the increased area of contact is due to the elasticity of
the material and not to the increased diameter, so that the wheel does
not sink into the road.

Professor Baker’s experiments seem to show that on good roads the |
width of tyre has little effect on the resistance, and that even on bad
roads the advantage lies sometimes with the wide tyres and sometimes
with the narrow ones, according to circumstances. Arguments have been
advanced in favour of both wide and narrow tyres, but nothing very
definite seems to be known on the subject ; according to M. Michelin,
if we reduce the width of the tyre we reduce the adhesion to the ground,
which is already little enough. As a case in point, he mentions that
M. Serpollet, in order to attain a speed of 120 kilometres (75 miles) per
hour on the Promenade des Anglais in 1902, had to deflate his tyres, and
thus get a larger surface of contact with the ground. Besides, in order
to get a narrow tread it is necessary to give to the tyre a form other than
circular, and this shape can only be retained at the expense of its flexi-
bility. Consequently a tyre of this description will be subjected to greater
internal friction in its fabric than one naturally circular in section, and
the energy wasted will be therefore greater.

The whole question, however, is very much open to discussion, and the
present Congress may offer to the opposing schools an opportunity of
coming to some understanding.

Resistance of the Air.— Study of Forms to diminish this Resistance.

The air resistance is a retarding force of the highest importance,
especially where speed is concerned, and there is unfortunately great

376 REPORT—1909.

uncertainty both as to the formule to be applied, and the values of the
coefficients which appear in them.
The best known formula is

R= KSV?

in which R equals resistance in kilogrammes.

S equals projected area in squate metres of total surface of vehicle on
a plane normal to direction of motion.

V equals velocity in metres per second.

K a numerical co-eflicient which varies between very wide limits
according to the form and the speed of the vehicle.

The formula. by M. Desdouits, R = KV, is sometimes preferred, as it
is more correct for high speeds.

The different values given to K in the first formula may be due to the
varied conditions under which the experiments were made.

Signor Canovetti had made some experiments at Zossen to determine
the value of K. He had a copper wire, 380 metres. long, stretched
between the summit of the fortifications at Brescia and a point in the
plain, about 70 metres below. Along this wire different surfaces were
allowed. to descend freely. A circle, with a surface of ‘073 square metres,
moving with a velocity of 12 metres per second, gave a resistance of
84 grammes. The same circle, having a spherical cap in front, offered a
resistance of only 21 grammes. When this hemisphere was followed by
a cone, whose height was five times its diameter, the resistance fell to
13. grammes, or one-sixth of that of the plane circle. With this same
solid, turned the other way about—that is, with the apex of the cone
towards the direction of motion—the resistance rose to 18 grammes.

Signor Canovetti has recognised that a rectangular surface, placed
with its long sides horizontal, offers a sensibly greater resistance to the
air than when its short sides are horizontal. His experiments seem. to
show. that the coeflicient K diminishes somewhat as the speed increases,
‘but investigations carried out at Zossen point to the conclusion that the
resistance may increase tenfold when the velocity is only tripled. It is
thus clear that air resistance isa matter of no small importance when
speeds. up to 60 or 80 miles an hour are attained. At 85 kilometres
(53 miles) per hour, the energy required to overcome the air resistance on
a vehicle, with an opposing surface of 1 square metre (1,550 square
inches), may be 7, 11, or 20 horse-power, according to the coefficient K
given as 0:0288, 0:0648, or 0-116 by MM. Forestier, Bourlet, or
Thibault.

The question then arises, What is the best shape for a car? The
answer depends on several things—as, for example, the necessity of placing
the radiator in such a position that it may be efficiently cooled by the air
rushing through it. Only general principles may be laid down. The
front of the car ought to taper, and the back be more pointed still, like
the form of a fish : transverse rectangular surfaces that cannot be dis-
pensed. with, should, as far as possible, have the longer sides vertical ; and
it is well to have doors on the car to prevent the air from rushing in
between the dashboard and the seat.

These conditions are quite neglected in most of the present-day cars.
Particularly is this the case in the ‘Coffin Head,’ that unlovely affair so
much in vogue—a flat surface directly opposed to the air pressure. With
a radiator of the honeycomb type, a transverse position is necessary for

ON THE RESISTANCE OF ROAD VEHICLES TO TRACTION. 377

cooling purposes, and Signor Canovetti has shown evidence that a per-
forated surface will offer less resistance to the air than a plane one of
similar area. This is not of much advantage with an automobile as the
air, after having passed through the holes in the radiator, meets with
further obstacles in the mechanism inside the hood.

With regard to the working parts situated under the car, these should
be made by the aid of inclined planes to cut the air rather than oppose it.

M. Lavergne commends the suggestion of M. Forestier that different-
shaped bodies should be mounted on an electric chassis, and the total
resistance of chassis and body accurately measured, so that a really prac-
tical model could be designed.

Poner required by Automobiles.

Under this heading M. Lavergne has shown the enormous reduction
of weight per horse-power that has taken place during the last eight
years. In 1895, Levassor made the run from Paris to Bordeaux in a
4 horse-power car weighing about 1 ton, or | horse-power per 550 Ib. dead
weight. In 1896 this weight was reduced to 365 lb. per horse-power ; in
1900 it fell to 90 lb. per horse-power. In the recent Paris-Madrid race
M. Gobron Brillie appeared with a 100 horse-power car, the weight of which
represented only 22 lb. per horse-power. This weight has been still
further reduced in the case of motor bicycles, reaching as low a figure as
17-5 lb. per horse-power.

But there is not a corresponding increase in speed. In 1901
M. Fournier made over 55 miles per hour with a 28 horse-power Mors ;
last year M. de Knyff only slightly exceeded 58} miles per hour with a
70 horse-power motor ; that is, an additional 40 horse-power.

To what must this relatively small increase of speed be attributed ?
Air resistance is responsible for some increase but certainly not all.

An extremely powerful motor must be accompanied by a comparatively
heavy load, otherwise the wheels do not ‘ bite’ well and energy is wasted.
Tt is well known that the modern racing-car skims along the surface of
the course, without sufficiently close contact between the wheels and the
ground ; in any case driving wheels should be more heavily weighted and
springs made less elastic. To reduce the power lost in vibration, the
engine should be more perfectly balanced, and, if necessary, the fly-wheel
and motor itself made heavier. ‘ Who shall say,’ M. Lavergne concludes,
‘whether, instead of building very powerful yet extremely light motors—
the durability of which is questionable—it would not be better to rest
content with a vehicle of smaller power, and use it more effectively?’

IV. Negotiations with the War Office.

At a Committee Meeting held at the Society of Arts on May 15,
1903, it was proposed that as the expenses of this research were extremely
heavy it would be advisable to approach the Mechanical Transport
Committee of the War Office, in order to see if they would conduct the
experiments with heavy traction, as they had at their command various
powerful motors and traction engines, together with the necessary variety
of wheels. The Transport Committee in return would have the use of
the British Association recording instruments for their own experiments.

This British Association Committee would have access to the in-
formation obtained which was of a scientific character with a view to

378 REPORT—1903.

publication, but it would not concern itself with data relating to the
actual waggons and other matters of a purely military character.

As a result the Transport Committee replied favourably, and arrange-
ments, it is hoped, will now be made by which important work will be
carried on by that Committee, thereby avoiding the very heavy expense
to meet which it is difficult to raise funds from private sources.

Small Serew Gauge-—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. PREECE (Chairman), W. A. PRICE (Secretary), Lord KELVIN,
Sir F. J. BRAMWELL, Sir H. 'TruEMAN Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER,
Col. Warkin, Lieut.-Col. Crompron, A. Stron, A. LE NEvE
Foster, C. J. Hewirr, G. K. B. ELpainsrone, E. Riga, C. V.
Boys, J. MarsHaLt Gorwam, O. P. CLEMENTS, W. Taytor, Dr.
R. 'T. GLAZzEBRooK, and Mark Barr, appointed to consider means
by which Practical Kffect can be given to the introduction of the Serew
Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884.

Tus Committee was originally appointed at the York meeting of the
British Association in 1881, and, after considerable labour, they made
their final report at the Montreal meeting in 1884, recommending a very
useful series of small screws, which were very generally adopted for watch
and electrical apparatus. At the Ipswich meeting of the British Associa-
tion in 1895 the Committee was reappointed to consider complaints that
screws of the British Association thread proposed by the Committee
in 1884 were not interchangeable. It appeared to the Committee that the
difficulty arose from want of some ready means of constructing gauges for
testing the screw thread, and they endeavoured, during the years 1896-9,
to remedy this by the construction of a series of such gauges. The edges of
the thread, as is well known, are rounded at the crests and roots, and great
difficulty was experienced in obtaining satisfactory gauges for such a form,
while it was stated that a flat-topped thread could be accurately made, and
gauged with comparative ease. At the Dover meeting, in 1899, this Com-
mittee reported recommending that they should be reappointed for the
purpose of considering whether the British Association form of thread for
small screws should be modified. This recommendation was adopted, and as
a result the Committee reported at the Bradford meeting, in 1900, that it
was desirable to replace the present form of screws from No. 0 to No. 11,
by one having a flat top and bottom to the thread. It was pointed out
that in the belief of the Committee such screws would, owing to the inevit-
able rounding at the edges, be interchangeable with the old stock in the
majority of cases, and that only where great care had been taken to work
closely to the old standard would any difference be noticed, so that practi-
cally while the B.A. small screw gauge had a flat-topped thread, the
B.A. screws would still have rounded tops and bottoms. After making
recommendations to the above effect the Committee was reappointed
to obtain a set of the proposed screws, with tools and gauges for a com-
parison with the present ones. Additional members were added, and new
light was thrown on the matter by their assistance. On the one hand, it
appears that gauges can be constructed readily and accurately only if the
thread be flat topped. On the other, that screws made with any ordinary
form of screwing tackle will have round tops, but that the form of these
tops will vary and may vary to such an extent as to prevent the inter-

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. B79

ehangeability of the screws. The resolution of 1900, modifying the form
of the thread, was intended to apply to the gauges only, and it was supposed
that the roots and crests of the thread in screws formed by dies or in nuts
formed by taps would still be rounded, and the form of the thread would
thus approximate very closely to that of the Montreal definitions, How-
ever, in view of the facts which have been put before them, the Cominittee
now think it best to state explicitly that they do not propose to alter the
form of the B.A. screw thread, and that they desire to withdraw the
recommendation accepted at Bradford in 1900.

The original form of the British Association screw thread was laid
down in the Montreal Report, 1884, to the following effect, viz. :

The angle of the thread was defined to be 47°5°,

The values of the pitches and of the external diameters of the screws
were scheduled in millimetres ; the depth of the thread was defined to be
sixteenths of the pitch, and the radius of the rounding was to be the
same at root and crest. The radius of the rounding was very nearly
two-elevenths of the pitch by this rule.

This definition, closely adhered to, led to inconveniently small frac-
tions in those quantities which had to be calculated from the scheduled
dimensions, but this may be avoided if we replace the definition by an
equivalent schedule of dimensions of all parts from which the insignificant
figures are omitted.

Retaining the angle of 47°5° in all cases, we adopt the following
schedule :

British Association Screws.

SCHEDULE I.—Scehedule of dimensions in millimetres.

Designating Pitch P | Outside | Effective Core | Depth of |
Number aut | diameter D diameter E diameter C Threadd |
| 0 1:0 6-0 54 | 48 6
/ 1 ‘9 53 4-76 | 4:29 Lior “Be |
| 2 81 AT £55 | <3eT8 | “485 |
| 3 ‘73 4-1 3°66 3:22 “44 |
4 66 3-6 3 205 2-81 | 395
| 5 te) 3°2 2845 | 2°49 lit * "65
6 B38 2°8 2-48 | ws NS
7 48 25 2-21 je alee 29
8 “43 a2 1:94 | 1:68 26
9 “39 19 1-665 1:43 235
10 “BB 1:7 1-49 | 1-28 21
11 “31 15 1-315 1:13 | 185
12 | 28 ee Se 113 | 96 teacher
13 ‘25 pd fe. 08 | “90 kw spt
14 | 23 1-0 “86 | ‘72 ntessled:
15 21 9 | 175 “65 125 |
16 19 “79 ‘675 ‘56 115
17 sali ‘70 | 6 “50 | 10
18 15 62 53 “44 | 09 |
. 19 14 “54 | 455 “37 | 085
20 | 12 “48 41 “B34 ‘07
TUS Bese meee Ps BoB Wik, 28 | 065
22 | “10 | “37 31 25 2 06
23 | 09 33 | 275. | 22 | 055
24 | 08 29 “24 19 05
in aan ea ae 17 | 04

380 REPORT—1908.

Tn all cases the length of bearing surface on the sides of the screw
must not be reduced below that given by the standard form of screw.
In Schedule I. the effective diameter is a mean of the outside and core

diameters, and the dimensions figured T, T, in fig. 1 (called trun-

cations) are equal to each other. The values of T, T, are tabulated in
Schedule IT.

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 381

Number Truncation | Number Truncation
0 268 13 ‘067
1 “DAT 14 ‘061
2 218 15 “057
3 195 | 16 ‘051
4 178 17 ‘047
5 “158 18 “O40
6 141 19 03
Ui +128 20 03
8 114 21 030
9 “104 2 027
10 “094 23 024
BE “084 24 ‘021 |
12 ‘O74 | 2D 020

For the convenience of English measurement, the nearest equivalents
of the pitches and diameters of screws in thousandths of an inch are given

in Schedule ITT.

SCHEDULE III.—Schedule of approximate dimensions in thousandths
of an inch.

Number Pitch Diameter | Number Pitch Diameter
| |

{ 0 39°4 236 13 98 47
1 354 209 | 14 91 39

2 31°9 185 15 8:3 35

3 28°7 161 16 io 31

4 26:0 142 |} 17 6:7 28

5 | 232 126 \| 18 5:9 24

6 | 20:9 110 | 19 55 21

7 18:9 98 20 4:7 19

8 16°9 87 | 21 4:3 17

9 15:4 75 22 39 15

10 13°8 67 23 3:5 | 3

11 | 12°2 59 | 24 31 | 11

12 | 11:0 51 25 2:8 10

In practice interchangeability has been to some extent secured by
allowing clearances at the root and crest of the thread. The Committee
think it desirable to suggest the amount of these clearances in the gauges,
and they have agreed :

(a) That clearance should be provided at the root of the thread of the
screws, and should be obtained by cutting the thread of the screw deeper
than the normal, thereby reducing the diameter of the core ;

(6) That clearance may be provided at the crest of the thread of the
screw, and should be obtained by the use of a tap whose outside diameter
is greater than the normal ;

382 REPORT—1903.

SCHEDULE IV.—Schedule of maximum and minimum diameters of the cores of
serens, and of the outside diameters of taps, where clearance is provided.

asianntiny Cores of Screws Outside diameters of taps
Number Eee. , .(Nkocwo cm. > ae
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
0 4-74 4-6 6:2 6:06
1 416 4°04 548 5:36
2 3°68 3°57 4°86 4°75
3 iy 3°07 4:25 4°15
4 277 2°68 3°17 3°64
5 2°45 2°37 3°32 3°24
6 2°13 2°05 2°91 2°83
7 1°89 1:82 2°60 2°53
8 1°65 59 2°29 2°23
9 1°4] 1:55 1:98 1:92
10 1:26 1:21 SU Aes 1:72
11 1-11 1:07 1:56 1°52
12 “94 1) 1°36 1:32
13 88 85 1:25 1:22
14 gi 67 1:05 1:01
15 “64 “61 “94 ‘91
16 “BD "52 83 “80
17 49 AT 73 71
18 43 “41 65 63
19 36 34 57 335)
20 33 By 50 49
21 28 27 44 43
22 24 23 39 38
23 21 *20 35 34
24 18 Oy, 31 30
95 16 “15 27 26

Tf clearances up to the amount indicated in Schedule IV. be generally
adopted by makers, interchangeability will, in the opinion of the Com-
mittee, be thereby promoted ; and the Committee recommend that, except
in the case of screws made for special cases, the above clearances in the
core and outside diameters of the screws be adopted as normal.

As appears from the above considerations, for many purposes the
Committee do not attach great importance to the exact form of the thread
at the crest and root.

While adhering then to the form of the thread as laid down in the
Montreal Report, and in Schedule I. above, they would advise the accept-
ance as B.A. screws of all screws which pass the nut gauge (1) described
below and have the requisite core and outside diameters, and of which
the straight portions of the sides are not less than those of the standard
screw.

The Committee have given a very long time to the consideration of
various forms of gauges. As appears from their earlier reports, it is clear
that the difficulty of constructing gauges with rounded crests and roots
has not been overcome, and the Committee are reluctantly compelled to
relinquish the task of making gauges of the ideal B.A. form following
the outline A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K (fig. 2). Two possible forms of flat-topped
gauges for screws have been considered : (1) a gauge following the outline
A, C, N, 0, G, K; (2) a gauge following the outline A, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, K.
With régard to (1) it is clear that While it will test the pitch and the

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 383

effective diameter, it will not gauge the root of the thread, and will not
therefore separate screws which are interchangeable with a standard nut
from those which are not. Besides testing a screw with a nut gauge of
this form, it will be necessary to test its core diameter by means of a gap
or notch gauge. If the screw pass the nut gauge, and have at its root the
clearance recommended, it is practically certain it will be interchangeable
with a nut of standard form. A screw which passes this gauge and
has the requisite diameters as given in Tables I. and II. at the core
and outside, and the requisite bearing surface, may be called a B.A,
screw.

The other form of flat-topped gauge which has been considered follows
the outline a, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, K. A gauge of this form will test the mini-
mum diameter, as well as the pitch and effective diameter of screws, and
all screws which pass it are interchangeable with the standard nut.
Moreover, in view of the clearance recommended at the root, the Com-
mittee anticipate that in practice this gauge could be usefully employed.
At the same time it is clear that it will not pass a screw any part of
which lies above the lines L M, P Q, and that it would therefore reject a
screw having the standard form. ~

— SCREW —

Thus in conclusion the Committee recommend :

I. That the form of the standard B.A. thread be that defined at the
Montreal meeting in 1884, and which follows the outline A, 8, ©, D, £, F,
G, H, K of fig. 2.

II. That the form of the B.A. gauge for screws be that defined by the
outline A, C, N, 0, G, K, and that this be used with a gap or notch gauge, as
described in the report.

III. That the dimensions of the notch gauge be such as to ensure that
the core diameters lie between the limits given by Schedule IV.

TV. That a screw which passes the B.A. gauge, and of which the
core and outside diameters are given by Table II. and Table I. respec-
tively, be accepted as a B.A. screw, provided that the length of the

384. REPORT—19038.

bearing surface is not reduced below the length corresponding to D, ¢ in
fig. 2.

”" A machine has been made, under the superintendence of the Committee,
by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, for the accurate
measurement of screw gauges. A description of this is given in the
Appendix. The machine has been placed in charge of the Committee of
the National Physical Laboratory, and the Director of that Institution
is prepared to undertake the measurement of gauges and screws submitted
for examination.

The Committee have further to report that the Engineering Standards
Committee have appointed an influential sub-committee to deal with the
standardisation of gauges of all kinds, including screw gauges, and that
in their opinion the work which they have been doing may with advantage
be left to this committee and to the National Physical Laboratory to
carry on. The Committee have not considered in detail the question of
the limits of error in screws purporting to represent the B.A. thread.
This matter they think it desirable to leave to the Engineering Standards
Committee, who will be able to discuss it in connection with larger screws
and gauges. On the other matters submitted to them they do not wish to
report further. In consequence they present this as their final report,
and do not ask for reappointment,

We, the undersigned members of the Small Screw Gauge Committee,
do not accept in its entirety the above report, as we consider that some of
the recommendations contained in it are not those held by the whole of
the Committee.

1. The report appears to explicitly restore without modification the
form of the original B.A. thread as defined in the Montreal Report.

2. It provides gauges for testing threads of a form differing from those
laid down in the earlier part of the same report.

The work of the first three years of this Committee showed that the
difficulty in constructing tools and gauges of the B.A. thread was at the
root of the inaccuracy complained of in commercial screws. On that
ground the Committee asked for an extended reference, and recommended
a new form of thread. The construction of taps for the old thread re-
quires exceptional manipulative skill, and does not admit of great exact-
ness. An average tool maker can produce taps of the new thread without
difficulty, and the process admits of extreme refinement. Moreover, since
the manufacture both of gauges and of screwing tools alike depends upon
the construction of accurate taps, the adoption of a form of thread which
is easily produced met at once the difficulties of the screwing tools, and
of gauges or trial pieces for testing screws when made.

The present report from which we dissent confirms the recommenda-
tion of this form of thread for the gauges, but withdraws it from screws,
notwithstanding that on account of the number used the simplification in
the construction of taps is more valuable in the case of those for screwing
tools than in those for gauges.

Although we admit the fact that screws made in dies or in screwing

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 385

machines will have some rounding at the crests and roots of the threads,
we believe that we can secure the objects for which this Committee was
appointed in 1895, viz., to produce in a material form gauges which could
be checked by a central authority, such as the Board of Trade or the
National Physical Laboratory, and certified copies of which could be issued
to manufacturers and buyers of screws to secure commercial interchange-
ability.

We recommend, therefore, with reference to threads Nos, 0-11 :—

1. That sets of gauges should be made and verified, each set consisting
of six pieces as follows, A-F.

A. A male gauge screw of the pitch and effective diameter laid down
for the distinguishing number in Schedule I., the thread having a V-shaped

Fie. 3.
Body of Nut

Body of Screw

root, and a crest flattened cylindrically to the over-all diameter laid down
in the table. The outline of the thread is in fig. 3, ACF K MPSU.

This piece A is for the purpose of testing nuts and nut gauges to check
the correctness of the pitch, angle of thread, effective diameter, and: root }
diameter, and for checking the hole gauge E. r

B. A tap, a copy of A in all respects, except that it is fluted and
backed off as a tap, and that the crests are left nearly approaching the ’
sharp V form as is possible, so as to maintain a cutting edge with this
angle of thread, zc. 47:5 degs. The outline of this thread is in fig: 3,
ABFLPTU. 2

This piece B is to be used solely for cutting the thread of the nut
gauge C.

U. A nut gauge, the thread of which is cut by the tap B, the crest
being afterwards reamered out to such a diameter as experience may sliow

is aca to give suitable minimum clearance at this point to ensure
903, cc

386 REPORT—1903.

that machine-made screws will enter the nuts or tapped holes. The out-
line of thisis ABEGLOQTU.

D. A notch gauge to test the core diameters of male screws.

E. A hole limit gauge to test crest diameters of male screws and to be
checked by piece A. The diameter of this is diameter D, fig. 1,
Schedule I.

F. A cylinder plug gauge to test the diameter of the hole in the gauge
nut C in commercial nuts or tapped holes.

The diameter of this is diameter C, fig. 1, Schedule I.

2. That the standard B.A. screw be defined as a screw which conforms
to the gauges described above in all respects except in the form of the céest
and root of the thread, which are unimportant.

R, E. Crompton.

J. M. Goruam.

G. K. B. Eveutnstone.
Mark Barr.

C. Vernon Boys.

O. P. CLEMENTS.

W. A. PRIcE.

APPENDIX.

The Committee have had constructed for them by the Cambridge
Scientific Instrument Company a machine for measuring small screws
microscopically. In figs. 4 and 5 are given drawings of the instrument, of
which fig. 4is a plan of the compound stage with the microscope removed,
and fig. 5 is an end elevation showing the arrangement of the microscope.
The screw to be measured is held in a spring chuck in the spindle (A).
By means of the two micrometer screws, 8, 8,, the screw is moved along
geometric slides in two directions at right angles. The screw is aligned
parallel to the micrometer 8, by the adjusting screws BC. The pitch of
the micrometer screws (which were supplied by the Browne and Sharpe
Company) is 0°5 mm., and the heads are divided into fifty parts, enabling
readings to be taken directly to 0:01 mm.

The screw is illuminated from below by a plane mirror and is observed
by the microscope M. Rough focussing is effected by sliding the micro-
scope in the tube T, the fine adjustment being accomplished by the
micrometer screw 83, which raises and lowers T. The tube T can also be
rotated about its axis without disturbing the focus, and the amount of
rotation measured by means of a scaleon D. The eyepiece and object-
glass of the microscope are by Zeiss. The eyepiece is furnished with
suitable crass-wires in silver.

A series of spring chucks for different diameters of screws accom-
panied the machine.

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE,

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ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 389

Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland.—Report of
a Committee consisting of Professor J. CLELAND (Chairman), Mr.
J. Gray (Secretary), Dr.'l'. H. Bryce, Professor-D. J. CUNNINGHAM,
Professor A. F. Drxon, Mr. E. N. Fatuaize, Dr. A. C. Happon,
Dr. D. Hersurn, and Mr. J. L. Myres.

Tne following circular, which was sent to certain persons and institutions
known to be engaged in anthropometric work in the British Isles, and toa
few of the more distinguished physical anthropologists in foreign countries,
will explain the objects for which the Committee was formed :—

British Association for the Advancement of Science.

Dean Sir,

A Committee, consisting of Professor J. Cleland (Chairman), Mr. J.
Gray (Secretary), Dr. T. H. Bryce, Professor J. D. Cunningham, Professor
A. F. Dixon, Mr. BE. N. Fallaize, Dr. A. C, Haddon, Dr. D. Hepburn,
and Mr. J. L. Myres, has been appointed by this Association to organise
Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Treland.

The objects which the Committee have in view may briefly be stated to

be as follows :—

1, To establish uniform standards in Anthropometric Investigation.

2, To ascertain which measurements are likely to prove the most
fruitful in result,

3. To formulate broad lines of co-operation.

Much valuable work done in various parts of the country in this
branch of Anthropological Science is at present very imperfectly utilised,
owing to the difficulty of obtaining information as to the centres at which
it is carried on, and because different methods of measurement are
employed at different centres. The Committee, therefore, think it
desirable to obtain information regarding these methods, in order to
consider which are most to be recommended for utility, accuracy, and
convenience, and in the hope that a consistent scheme may be formulated
for general use throughout Great Britain and Ireland.

For this purpose certain questions have been drawn up, which will be
found on the annexed sheet, and I am desired by the Committee to request
your co-operation in furthering its objects by answering these questions
and returning your answers to me at your early convenience. :

Tam,
Yours faithfully,
J. GRAY.

‘All communications should be addressed to me :—

Anthropological Institute,
3 Hanover Square,
London, W.

390 REPORT—19038,

1. Are you engaged in any anthropometric investigations? If so,
what measurements do you usually take, and what classes of people have
you measured? (Enclose copy of Schedule in use, if any, adding
description of exact mode of measurement.)

2. What instruments are you accustomed to use for making the
measurements ¢

3. When were the measurements first taken, and over how long a
period are your records of measurements available ?

4, Are the measurements published? If so, in what form, in full or
in abstract? If in abstract, are the original records available ?

5, With what object have the observations been made—e.g, .identifi-
cation ; registration of growth! ; detection of racial differences ; correla-
tion with occupations ; determination of influence of relationships ; or
other purpose ?

6. Have assistants been employed in making any of the measurements ?
Tf so, have they received any special training, and of what kind ?

7. How far do you regard the results which you have obtained hitherto
as satisfactory ; and what modifications, if any, are suggested by your
past experience ?

8. Add any remarks not falling within the previous headings.

Forty-seven circulars were sent out and sixteen replies were received,
A summary of the replies is given in the Appendix.

The following remarks and suggestions originating out of the Secretary’s
report have been drawn up by the Chairman of the Committee :—

Remarks and Suggestions by Professor CLELAND.

It is disappointing that so few answers have been given in response to
the Committee’s circular, and that those which have been sent show in so
. many cases work confined to certain departments of Anthropometry to
the exclusion of others; but, having been kindly furnished by our
Secretary and Reporter, Mr. Gray, with a sight of the materials at his
disposal, I cannot refrain from expressing my belief that he has made out
of them as much as could be made,

So far as explicit answers to the questions in our circular are con-
cerned, the Committee cannot be said to have been very successful, but
the absence of direct results in that respect suggests the question how far
this or some such Committee may be of use by itself proposing some
such method of research as may with advantage be generally adopted
with a view to the facilitation and organisation of research.

The following suggestions occur to me :—

1. Inasmuch as age and sex are of themselves sources of variations of
most distinct descriptions, I should say that, except for the purpose of
studying these two kinds of variations, measurements should all be made
on males not younger than 30 years and not older than about 45, I
have shown in the ‘ Philosophic Transactions’ many years ago that the
male growth is typical, and that the deviations which occur in the female
are inconstant in nature and degree. I base my recommendation, both
in respect of age and of sex, on my own experience in craniometry, but
I would extend it to measurements of all parts of the body.

} Jn this case state at what intervals the measurements were repeated.

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 391

II. Absolute measurements are more valuable than any percentage
proportions or so-called indices. Indices can be easily calculated when
the absolute measurements are given on which to base them. The
so-called cranial index, or proportion of breadth of skull to length, I have
34 years ago proved to be utterly valueless. The proportion of height of
skull to length leads to much more natural grouping of nationalities, It
is well known that the tendency to length of skull increases with stature,
and therefore when it is possible the total stature should be given along
with the cranial measurements.

III. In racial investigations on the living, and in class investigations,
as of soldiers, trades, and schoolboys, as also in estimation of peculiarities
characteristic of different parts of the country, I should recommend such
a plan as the following :—

A. Measurements or Heap.—l. Length from glabella to occipital
probole. 2. Radial length-measurements of cranium (as suggested by
Busk) from orifice of ear to nasion, glabella, middle frontal distance,
fronto-nasal and fronto-parietal points, and the vertex or greatest height
between these two last—occipital probole and occipital tuberosity.
3. Facial length measurements from orifice of ear to base of columella
of nose, tips of upper incisors, and prominence of chin, as also the
distance from nasion to base of columella.

B. Measurements oF Bopy anv Liwps.—l. Statwre should be
measured : (#) standing, with the shoes off, and during a full inspira-
tion ; (b) sitting well back and upright against a wall, and in full
inspiration.

2. Breadth of shoulders from outside the head of the humerus, with
the arms by the side.

3. Intertrochanteric breadth.—The breadth at the crest of the ilium
may for ordinary purposes be neglected, seeing that, as I have shown, it
is increased by muscularity and by want of resistance in the special
textures.

4, Span, with the arms stretched horizontally, the palms looking
forwards. This is the most reliable mode of measuring length of arm.

5. Hand, length, and the breadth of palm across the knuckles.

6. Foot, length, and breadth at balls of toes. Both measurements
should be taken with the weight of the body pressing the foot flat against
the ground.

7. Chest circwmference, in full inspiration, measured by a tape at the
level of the lower end of the mesosternum. This measurement deserves
special attention, as the notion on which importance is given to it in
selection of recruits is manifestly unsound, inasmuch as a large chest
with a small vital capacity means inactivity of the individual parts of
the lungs, and liability thereby to phthisis ; and therefore a large chest is
of questionable advantage, except when accompanied with proportional
activity of respiration.

IV. Weight should always be attended to in measurements, testing
health during growth. It should be taken in schools at regular intervals
and frequently.

So much for the question of selection of measurements ; but if the
Committee is to be of use it must get its methods employed, and must
gather together the work received so as to obtain results.

392 REPORT—1903.

For these purposes the Committee would have to be‘ continued, and
must enter on a new labour. I should recommend that (as I have
already indicated) it should confine itself to measurements of the living,
Jeaving the study of human remains, as a large and very different subject,
to be taken up by individual anatomists skilled in its intricacies.

A deputation might be empowered to communicate with the War
Office to instruct medical officers at the military depéts to help by filling
up, in the case of as many soldiers as they may be disposed to measure,
the details of a schedule to be furnished by the Committee, the schedule
mentioning, in addition to measurements, the name, birthplace, and age
of the soldier examined. By this means the variations of adult males in
different districts may easily be ascertained systematically.

In like manner the Education Department might be communicated
with to get the head masters of Board schools to fill up schedules of
measurements, weight, age, and birthplace of each of the boys and girls
under their charge. The schedules sent to schools should be kept as
simple as possible, especially in view of the measurements and weights
requiring to be repeated at stated and not too distant periods.

Probably the results to be obtained by collation of schedules will be
best worked out by Government employees, and this opens up the
question whether it may not be best for the Committee of the Anthropo-
logical Section to prepare suitable schedules and get the Council of the
Association to approve them, and approach Government through a depu-
tation headed by the President of the Association.

The following Report has been drawn up by the Secretary, and embodies
suggestions made by certain other members of the Coniittee :-—

The replies to the circulars show that the number of measurements
made on each subject by different observers varies from the four to six
measurements made on boys at public schools to some 160 measurements
or observations made in the Anthropometric Laboratory at Florence.

Among the instruments stated to be in use are Matthieu’s, Garson’s,
Cunningham’s, Gray’s, Gladstone’s, and Matthew Hay’s.

If we except veterans like Dr. Beddoe, most of those who have replied
to the cireular have commenced Anthropometric work within the last few
years. At the present time there is a promising increase of activity both
among private investigators and in connection with High Schools.

In the Appendix there will be found references to publications
describing methods or results of Anthropometric work.

The objects of the observations mentioned include most of those
enumerated in question 5. At schools the objects are usually the regis-
tration of growth, though in some cases, as at the Grammar School,
Aberdeen, much more extensive observations are made, as may be seen
by the schedule published in the Appendix. Dr. Gladstone’s investiga-
tions have in view the determination of the correlation between the size
of the head and intellectual ability.

Most of the correspondents insist on the importance of the training
of assistants.

With a few exceptions, the results of the measurements are con-
sidered satisfactory. Mr. Meyrick considers that chest measurements
and circumference measurements of the head are untrustworthy ; Dr,
Gladstone is also of the same opinion. Professor Reid recommends
greater simplicity of the schedule. Mr, Galton recommends the applica-

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 395

tion of the Higher Statistical Methods developed by Professor Karl
Pearson.

The Committee considers that the objects which it has in view, as
stated in the circular above, would be best attained by establishing a
Central Bureau or Laboratory, which would collect and disseminate
information on anthropometric work, give practical instruction in mea-
surements, and supply schedules.

By this means uniform standards in anthropometric investigations
would be secured, measurements best suited for any specified investiga-
tion could be recommended, and co-operation between investigators could
be secured. The Laboratory could also measure and give certificates of
measurements when desired. Since the abolition of Mr. Galton’s Anthro-
pometric Laboratory at South Kensington no convenient place has been
available in London where any member of the public could go to be measured,
and judging from letters which have appeared in the newspapers (see ‘Times,’
July 21, 1902), there appears to be a demand for such an institution.
The Laboratory which the Committee recommend would supply this
demand, and the statistics collected would, in the course of time, form
very valuable material for determining the physical characteristics of the
British people. This Laboratory need not be made a new centre of
activity, but should preferably be offered to some existing institution
such as the Anthropological Institute.

The Committee beg to acknowledge the assistance given by the
Anthropological Institute in providing headquarters for the Committee.

The Committee desire to be reappointed with instructions to carry
out the recommendations in the Chairman’s report, and to draft a scheme
for such an Anthropometric Laboratory as is suggested above.

APPENDIX.
British Isles.

Brppor, J., F.R.S., uses callipers, the compas glissiére, and tape. He
has taken measurements, of all kinds of people, during many years. Most
of these measurements have been published by the old Anthropometric
Committee of the British Association, the material being still in Dr.
Beddoe’s possession, also in Dr, Beddoe’s works ‘Stature and Bulk’ and
‘Races of Britain,’ and in several papers. For head measurements
Dr. Beddoe considers that no assistant should be employed who has not
been personally trained and watched.

Browne, C. R., M.D. (Trinity College, Dublin), writes that in the
Anthropological Laboratory, Trinity College, Dublin, conducted by him-
self, under the supervision of Professor D. J. Cunningham, measurements
have been made since 1891 of students of Trinity College, Dublin, and of
peasants of the farming and fishing class in the West of Ireland. The
instruments used are (for field work) Garson’s anthropometer, Henry’s
self-registering craniometer, compas glissiére, and Flower’s craniometer ;
(for laboratory work) Flower’s craniometer, Garson’s instruments, Cun-
ningham’s radial craniometer, and Watson’s index calculator, The
measurements are nearly all published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal

394 REPORT—1908.

Irish Academy.’! The principal objects of the observations are registration
of growth (at six-month intervals), correlation with occupations in
laboratory work, and detection of racial differences, &c., in field work.
Assistants trained by Dr. Browne were employed in making measure-
ments. Dr. Browne agrees with Mr. Meyrick and Dr. Gladstone that
chest measurements and circumferences of the head are unreliable ; he
considers that the schedule used should be as simple as_ possible.
Assistants should have a thorough practical training in measuring ;
unskilled measurers are liable to make grave mistakes. Schedules used
in the laboratory and for field work have been received from Dr. Browne.
He considers it very desirable that a common form of schedule, or at
least a common series of observations, should be drawn up for the use
of all observers. He also recommends that standard skulls should be used
for checking and verifying methods of measurement.

Cunnineuam, D. J., M.D., F.R.S. (Professor of Anatomy, The Univer-
sity, Edinburgh), writes that anthropometrical work has been carried on
for the last ten years in the Anthropological Laboratory of Trinity
College, Dublin. The Irish Laboratory has published numerous Reports
in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the Royal Irish Academy, giving the results not
only of its Dublin work, but also of its yearly peripatetic field work
(see Browne, C. R., M.D.).

Duckxworru, W. L. H. (University Lecturer on Physical Anthropo-
logy, Cambridge), writes that the Anthropometric Committee of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society maintains an assistant who measures all
University members who present themselves at the Library of the Society.
The principal measurements are stature, span, length, breadth, and height
of head; physiological measurements, ¢.g., visual acuity, strength of
grasp, lung capacity, are also made, In the University Laboratory of
Anthropology, instruction in Anthropometry is given, but no local
research is being conducted at the present date (August 1903).

' The following is a list of papers on work done in connection with the Anthropo-
metric Laboratory, Trinity College, Dublin: Part I. Laboratory Work. —1. ‘Some
New Anthropometrical Instruments, C. R. Browne, M.D. (Proc. Roy. Trish Acad.,
3rd Series, vol. ii. No. 3). 2. ‘On some Crania from Tipperary,’ C. R. Browne, M.D.
(ibid., 3rd Series, vol. ii. No.4). 3. ‘Studies in Irish Craniology : the Aran Islands,
Co, Galway,’ Professor A. C, Haddon (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. ii. No. 5). 4. ‘On some
Human Remains recently discovered near Lismore,’ D. J. Cunningham, M.D., F.R.S.,
and C. R. Browne, M.D. (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. iv. No. 4). 5. ‘Report on some
Osseous Remains found at Old Connaught, Bray, Co. Dublin, D. J. Cunningham,
M.D., F.R.S., and C. R. Browne, M.D. (ihid., 3rd Series, vol. iii. No. 5). 6. ‘ Report
on Prehistoric Burial near Newcastle, Co. Wicklow,’ George Coffey, C. R. Browne,
M.D., and T. J, Westropp, M.A. (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. iv. No. 4). 7. ‘Report on the
Work done in the Anthropometric Laboratory of Trinity College, Dublin, from 1891
to 1898, C. R. Browne, M.D. (idid., 3rd Series, vol. v. No.2). Part II. Field Work.—
1, ‘The Ethnography of the Aran Islands, Co. Galway,’ Professor A. C. Haddon and
C. R. Browne, M.D. (ibid., 1893). 2. ‘The Ethnography of Inishbofin and Inish-
shark, Co. Galway,’ C. R. Browne, M.D. (ihid., 3rd Series, vol. iii. No. 2). 3. ‘The
Ethnography of the Mullet, Inishkea Islands, and Portacloy, Co. Mayo, C. R. Browne,
M.D. (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. iv. No. 1). 5. ‘The Ethnography of Clare Island and
Inishturk, Co. Mayo’ (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. v. No. 1). 6. ‘Ethnography of Garumna
and Lettermullan, Co. Galway,’ C. R. Browne, M.D. (ibid). 7. ‘The Ethnography
of Carna and Mweenish, Co. Galway,’ C. R. Browne, M.D. (ibid., 3rd Series, vol. vi.
No. 3).

Papers will shortly be published on the following districts: Dunquin, co. Kerry;
Malinmore and Malinbeg, co. Donegal; the district of Ardmalin, co. Donegal (by
C. R. Browne, M.D.).

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 395

The chief instruments used are Flower’s craniometer, Martin’s
traveller’s anthropometer, Pearson’s headspanner.

The records of the Anthropometric Committee of the Philosophical
Society extend over many years, and they were used about 15 or 20
years ago by Dr. Venn in a paper entitled ‘Cambridge Anthropometry ’
(‘Jour.’ Anth. Inst.) (see also Horton-Smith in ‘Nature’ about 1895).
Measurements for crania and on living persons are published in the
‘Journal’ of the Anthropological Institute and in the ‘Journal’ of the
Camb. Phil. Society. (See a pamphlet on the ‘Anatomical Museum at
Cambridge,’ by W. L. H. Duckworth.)

The observations used by Dr. Venn enabled him to compare, in respect
of physical development, men who in their final examinations took
Ist, 2nd, and 3rd classes respectively. Otherwise, detection of racial
differences has been the chief object of research.

The Camb. Phil. Soc. maintains an assistant who has been instructed
how to make the observations: this assistant does not appear to have
attended any special course of instruction on the principles of anthro-
pometry.

The measurements made in connection with the Philosophical Society
have been but little utilised. At the University Laboratory, instruction
has been given to about 300 students in the last four years, and about
two per cent. of these have up to the present contributed to our know-
ledge of general anthropology. As the great bulk of these students are
still pursuing their medical studies, it is still early to pronounce on the
final results of the instruction given, for naturally medical students have
but little time for the pursuit of such researches as are the subject of
inquiry here.

Gatton, Francis, F.R.S., refers to the list of papers published by him
in the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers. He says: ‘The
conclusions to which a great many and various experimental inquiries
have led one are a distrust of statistical results unless the data are
collected under conditions that (1) wholly exclude bias and (2) the occa-
sional presence of large disturbing influences. I do not think that laxity
in measurement matters much, so long as laxity does not lead to error in
one direction ; in fact, I know that a vast deal of effort is wasted in
minuteness of measurement. In speaking of bias, I mean, not only
personal (often unconscious) bias, but any influence that gives a one-sided
direction to the results. An instrument that has a sensible index error,
which is not allowed for, gives a bias to the results. In every new pro-
posed inquiry, great pains and much consideration should be given before
beginning it, to be sure that the plan is not vitiated by unsuspected
causes of error.’

Mr. Galton considers that 400 cases, of which the two sets of 200
agree, are quite sufficient for any statistical investigation. The probable
error of the result should always be calculated and given. He highly
recommends the methods of the higher statistics as so greatly advanced
by Professor Karl Pearson.

Garson, J. G., M.D., has described his method of measurement and
instruments in ‘ Notes and Queries on Anthropology,’ published by the
Anthropological Institute. He uses callipers, steel tape, set squares, and
sliding rules of various kinds. He has designed a combination instrument
called the ‘Traveller's Anthropometer’ by which all the usual measure-
ments can be made,

396 REPORT—1903.

The classes he has measured during the past 16 or 17 years are
the professional classes and criminals, His results are published in the
British Association Reports and in the ‘Journal’ of the Anthropological
Institute. The objects of his observations were chiefly to determine
racial differences and range of variation, and for identification. Assistants
thoroughly trained by himself have been employed. He considers that
the measurements taken should depend on the nature of the investigation.

Guapstong, R. J., M.D. (Middlesex Hospital), writes : ‘I am at present
engaged in an anthropometric investigation, and the principal measure-
ments which I have taken are the statwie and body weight, along with the
following head measurements :

(1) Length—from glabella to occipital point.

(b) Breadth—greatest transverse diameter above zygomatic arches.

(h) Height—from biauricular line to vertex.

(c) Cireumference—taken in a horizontal plane, passing through a
point just above the glabella in front, and the occipital point behind.

‘In post-mortem subjects I have also recorded the weight of the brain.’

‘My measurements have included the following groups :—

‘The Students of the Middlesex Hospital,

‘The Medical Staff of the Middlesex Hospital.

‘The Porters and Male Servants of the Middlesex Hospital,

‘ Boys of St. Katherine’s School, Regent’s Park.

£100 Female Inmates of St. Pancras Workhouse,

*50 Male Inmates of St. Pancras Workhouse.

‘Male and Female Subjects in the post-mortem room of the Middlesex
Hospital.

‘T inclose the schedule which I have used to record data, for the first
three groups ; I have however, in addition to the items indicated in it,
taken fuil and profile photographs of the head and shoulders, and the
horizontal contour of the head.

‘2. T have used your (Gray’s) callipers for taking the longitudinal and
transverse diameters of the head ; and the instrument you had made for
me for taking the height from the biauricular line to the vertex. In
using this I take special care that both the head and the instrument are
held vertical.

‘3. My first measurements were taken in May 1901, and I have
continued taking measurements up to the present time (1 year 10 months).

‘4. In November of last year (1902), I gave a preliminary communica-
tion embodying some of my results to the “ Anatomical Society of Great
Britain and Ireland,” and showed a series of tables giving the average
measurements of different groups ; the Society are publishing the com-
munication with the tables in the “Journal of Anatomy and Physiology.”
This communication does not include the records from the post-mortem
room, which are not yet complete, and in making use of these I hope to
have the assistance of Professor Karl Pearson.

‘5. One of my chief objects in this investigation has been to determine
whether there is, or is not, any variation in the size and shape of the
head correlated with varying degrees of mental ability ; and if so in
what direction, and to what extent. In carrying out this part of the
jnquiry I have classed the individuals composing the first two groups, and

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 397

the boys of St. Katherine’s School, into three divisions, according to
whether they possess a high, average, or low degree of mental ability,
and have compared these classes with one another.

‘From the post-mortem records I hope to obtain a formula, by which
the approximate brain weight may be calculated from outside measure-
ments, and to ascertain the extent to which variation may occur from the
general mean, among cases which may be considered as normal.

‘6. The majority of my measurements have been taken by one
assistant—a gentleman in whose accuracy and care I have every conti-
dence ; the post-mortem cases have been measured by a second assistant,
who is equally conscientious and trustworthy.

‘TI have myself explained to them the method of using the instruments,
and the importance of accuracy in making and recording each measure-
ment.

‘7. As far as they go, my figures appear to indicate a correlation
between large size of head and a high degree of mental ability, but there
are many exceptions to the rule. These I believe to be accounted for
chiefly by race differences.

‘The results which I have obtained in the different groups appear to
accord very closely with one another, and with the results which have
been published by Alfred Binet in “ L’Année Psychologique,” 1901 ; my
figures are, however, much smaller than those of Professor Binet, and
others which have been published in this country, and I shall therefore
most gladly co-operate with the Committee of the British Association by
allowing my figures to be used in combination with others, if desired.

‘With regard to modifications of my previous work, I should be
inclined to discard the longitudinal and transverse arcs of the head, in
preference for the “minimal frontal diameter” of Broca. The external
occipital protuberance is in thany subjects quite indefinite, and all tape
measurements vary considerably with the condition of the hair; so that
although I have taken these two tape measurements and the horizontal
circumference, I have not made use of them in estimating capacity.

‘TI believe a few principal measurements such as the longitudinal,
transverse, and vertical diameters taken accurately will furnish far better
results than a large number of subsidiary measurements which enormously
complicate statistical work, and, at least for the purpose which I have had
in hand, are of very questionable value.

‘Tn investigating the influence of any particular characteristic, such
as mathematical or musical talent, a great deal of valuable time may be
saved by simply comparing the extremes with one another, and if the
average measurements have been found for the particular country or
district, I should regard it as unnecessary to measure the average
individuals in whom the characteristic in question was neither conspicu-
ously developed or altogether absent.

‘I think much may be gained by careful selection, and grouping of
the individuals measured, and that, on the other hand, there is a danger
in dealing with a large number of figures obtained from different sources
of losing in the general mass, class, or type characteristics which may be
of great significance.’

Gray, J., B.Sc., and Tocusr, J. F., F.I.C., have been engaged on
anthropometric work since 1895. The measurements usually taken were
length and breadth of head, and height standing and sitting. The class
of people measured were farm labourers and artisans in rural districts. in

398 REPORT—1908.

East and West Aberdeenshire. About 400 persons have beeri measured
in East Aberdeenshire, and about 100 in West Aberdeenshire. A pig-
mentation survey of about 15,000 school children in East Aberdeenshire
has also been carried out.

The instruments used were a compass callipers, and Gray’s sliding
callipers ; a specially designed stand and chair for measuring height
standing and sitting was used.

The measurements are published in the ‘Journ.’ Anthrop. Inst., 1900,
and in the ‘Trans.’ of the Buchan Field Club.

Some of the measurements have been made by trained assistants, but
the most of the measurements have been made by themselves.

The objects of these measurements have been the detection of racial
differences.

The results show that the population of Aberdeenshire is very much
darker than that of Scandinavia and North Germany. There is, however,
a certain percentage of the blond Scandinavian element, which decreases
as we go inland. The predominant brunette element is very broad-
headed and tall, and appears to correspond to the early British bronze-
age type.

Experience suggests the necessity for thorough practical training for
assistants, who should be drilled under an expert instructor till they can
without fail make accurate measurements.

Messrs. Gray and Tocher are also engaged in measuring the inmates of
lutiatic asylums in Scotland with the view of ascertaining whether there
is any correlation between external physique and insanity.

Mr. Tocher, through an assistant, measured a number of Esquimaux,
The analysis of the results is published in ‘ Man,’ 1902.

Mr. Gray measured about 100 natives of India in the Coronation
contingent, and about the same number of natives of Africa, Fijians,
Maoris in the Colonial Coronation contingent. The results of the
Indian measurements are published in ‘Man,’ May 1903. The African
&c. measurements will be published at an early date in the ‘Journ.’
Anthrop. Inst.

Hay, Matrurw, M.D. (The University, Aberdeen), has recently ex-
amined and measured 600 school children between the ages of six and fifteen
for the Royal Commission on Physical Training. His schedule is very
elaborate, and provides for a record of measurements, pigmentation, tests
of sight and hearing, intelligence, and other characteristics. The instru-
ments used were several instruments devised by himself for measuring
height, standing and sitting, height of head, &c., and Gray’s callipers.
All the measurements were made in November 1902. The results will
be published in the report of the Royal Commission, and the original
records are available. Medical graduates were employed as assistants.
The results obtained are considered to be very satisfactory.

Myers, C. 8., M.A., M.D., has measured (1901-1902) about 1,500
Soudanese and fellaheen. He measured stature with tape and set square ;
for the face he used the ordinary compass callipers, and for other
measurements of the head, Gray’s callipers. His schedule specified
46 measurements. A special feature of his measurements is a number
of radii measured from the biauricular line. For this purpose he
used the instrument used by Dr. Gladstone, with an attachment for
measuring angles devised by himself. The objects of his observations
were the detection of racial differences and the determination of the

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 399

comparative physical efficiency of the Egyptian army. The measurements
have not yet been published.

He, as a result of his experience, recommends that anthropometric
workers should be specially trained, and should be supplied with models
and figures whose dimensions have been standardised by approved in-
vestigators. Frequent recourse should be had to these models to prevent
unconscious deviation from recognised methods of measurements.

Meyrick, E. (Marlborough College), writes that measurements have
been taken at Marlborough College since 1874, chiefly with the object of
registering growth. The measurements taken are height, weight, chest
expanded, chest emptied. The measurements are taken by college masters
of scientific and mathematical training. He considers that chest measure-
ments, and other measurements dependent on the intelligence or will of
the subject, are unreliable, and circumference measurements of the head
vary with the quantity of the hair. The only measurements he finds
reliable are height and weight.

Marsuatt, J.. M.A., LL.D. (Rector, Royal High School, Edinburgh),
writes that measurements have been taken since 1899 for the registration
of growth, the results being communicated to the parents. The measure-
ments taken are height, weight, chest, forearm, upper arm, and they are
made by the senior gymnastic instructor. These measurements have
been found valuable as a guide at times when boys slow languor in
work.

Rerp, R. W., M.D. (Professor of Anatomy, University of Aberdeen),
has measured students, policemen, and asylum attendants (male and
female). The instruments used are Flower’s and Gray’s callipers for
head measurements, and the usual instruments for height and span.
Measurements were first taken in 1896, and measurements for seven
years are available ; they have been partly published in abstract. The
objects of the investigation are registration of growth and _ corre-
lation with occupations. Trained assistants have been employed. He
regards his results so far as satisfactory, and considers that any
modification ought to aim at greater simplicity of schedule. Copies of
schedules have been sent. Over thirty measurements are made on each
subject.

Srupson, H. F. M., M.A. (Rector, Aberdeen Grammar School), com-
menced measurements in March 1903. A copy of the very complete
schedule used has been sent. The main object of these measurements is
educational, and to indicate the probable ettect of physical deficiencies on
the boy’s progress. The results so far appear to show that good physique
is associated with high intelligence. Besides the usual measurements,
tests of sight and hearing are made. The boy’s position in games and
other physical exercise is also noted.

TurNeER, Sirk Wixt1AM, refers to his memoir on Scottish crania in
‘Trans.’ Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xl., part iii, 1903, for an account
of the anthropometrical methods followed by him.

From the above memoir it appears that over sixty points are noted
on each skull, half of which relate to the size of the cranial cavity and
half to the facial part of the skull. Included in the first set of measure-
ments are cubical capacity of the skull, five diameters of width, one of
length, and one of height. The circumference of the skull is taken in
four directions, and eight radii are measured. From these measurements
nine indices are calculated.

4.00 REPORT—19038.

Foreign.

Hroiicka, A. (Museum of Natural History, New York), measures
whites and negroes, but especially Indians. His schedules are made up
in book form to contain measurements and observations on 100 indi-
viduals. In each book there are three kinds of schedules, entitled
(1) Measures, (2) Inspection, (3) Physiological and medical. The in-
struments used are Matthieu’s (Paris) compas a épaisseur, compas
glissiére (all frequently controlled by standard), large aluminium chest
compass, tape (such as used in lEcole d’Anthropologie), dynamometer,
thermometer. Measurements have been taken since 1897. Anthropo-
logical observations on about 1,000 white and 100 coloured children have
been published. Original records of about 2 ,000 Irish, English, Ameri-
cans, &e., may be rleble.

The objects of the investigations have been: Registration of growth,
detection of racial differences, correlation with occupations, but espe-
cially the study of variation. In only one instance have assistants been
employed, and these have been personally trained and supervised. Work
done on other races than whites is considered to have been the most
satisfactory. Among whites, mixture, occupation, health, but especially
pathological condition, introduce many new factors.

Dr. Hrdlicka considers that the most prominent subjects for investiga-
tion are : (1) Racial studies ; (2) The study of normal children (white) in
every aspect ; (3) A thorough study in any direction of individuals (living
and dead), the most specialised (functionally) ; (4) Studies on families
and homogeneous communities.

From these studies he considers that we may expect not only to
accumulate a positive knowledge, but also to determine the circumstances
most favourable or most detrimental to development. It is also probable
that some tendencies of development among the whites can be established.
The essential thing ia all these investigations, however, is the quality,
training, and experience of the workers.

Manovvrser, Dr. L. (Laboratoire d’Anthropologie a Ecole pratique
de la Faculté ae Médecin), writes that the committee will be able to
find complete information as to the methods employed in his labora-
tory (which is that of Broca) in the memoirs published by himself and
his pupils. The following is a list of the most important of these
memoirs :—

1. ‘Dr. Godin : Recherches anthropométriques sur la Croissance des
diverses parties du corps.’ (Paris. Maloine, éditeur.)

2. ‘Dr. Papillault: L’homme moyen a Paris.’ (Bulletin Société
dAnthrop. 1902.) :

3. ‘Dr. L. Manouvrier : Etude sur les rapports anthropométriques en
général et sur les principales proportions du corps.’ (Mémoires de la Soc.
d’Anthrop. 1902.)

He published some years ago two memoirs which may be of special
interest to the Committee, copies of which he has sent to the Anthro-
pological Institute.

1. ‘Généralités sur l Anthropométrie.’* (Revue de l’Kcole d’Anthrop.)
2. ‘ Apercu de céphalométrie anthropologique.’ (Extrait de Année
psychologique, 1896.)

ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 401

In these works will be found the system of anthropometry carried out
in his laboratory, where more than 100 measurements are made on each
subject. In order to carry out this system successfully a very rigorous
technical training is necessary. An experience of more than twenty years
has convinced Dr. Manouvrier of the necessity for a practical and very
careful training in the technique of anthropometry, even when a small
number of simple measurements have been selected.

Uniformity and accuracy are very difficult to obtain when an investiga-
tion is carried out by several persons. Repeated comparison and mutual
checking are necessary if an investigation is continued for a long time.

Mocut, Dr. A. (Assistant Professor of Anthropology, Florence), has
sent the following letter and three memoirs :—

‘ Societa Italiana d’ Antropologia, Via Gino Capponi 3, Florence.
* November 21, 1903.

‘Dear Sir,—This Society received one of your circulars relative to an
inquiry into the Anthropometrical methods adopted in England and
Ireland—an inquiry intended to establish a basis of co-operative action in
accordance with the methods and principles which obtain amongst the
various. students of Anthropometry in your country.

‘In the above circular I was entrusted with the task of reporting
thereon, a task which I discharged at the meeting held on March 15, 1903,
whilst I explained its import and paid homage to your initiative. When
the account of said meeting has been published in the “ Archivio per
? Antropologia,” you will be able to see what I said on that occasion in
regard to your work.

‘In the meantime I take the liberty of sending you some of our
literature relative to Anthropometry, and I shall invite Dr. R. Livi,
Dr. N. Pizzoli, and other Italians to also send you their publications
relative to the question. In establishing the basis for a plan of Anthro-
pometrical research to be adopted in England and Ireland, you will have
before you what has been done by us in that science. I take this oppor-
tunity to tender you and the Committee my personal homage.

‘(Signed) Dr. A. Mocut,
‘ Assistant Professor of Anthropology,’

The literature received from Dr. Mochi is :—

1. ‘L’ instituzione di un laboratorio antropometrico nel Museo
Nazionale d’ Antropologia dell’ Instituto di Studi Superiori in Firenze.’
Dr. A. Mochi.

2, ‘L’ Antropometria nelle scuole.’ Dr. A. Mochi.

3. ‘L’ Antropologia nell’ insegnamento universitario e |’ antropo-
metria nella scuola di Paolo Mantegazza.’

In the first of these memoirs a list of measurements and observations
to be made on each subject is given. This list comprises more than 160
categories ; and the characters to be noted are divided broadly into (1)
Morphological, and (2) Physiological.

1903. DD

4.02 REPORT—1908.

Archeological and Hthnological Researches in Orete.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Sir JoHN Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L.
Myress (Secretary), Mr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D. G. HoGarru, Pro-
fessor A. MACALISTER, aid Professor W. RipGEway.

THE grant which was assigned to the Committee was applied in equal
parts in aid of two distinct researches :—

(1) To enable Mr. Arthur Evans to continue his excavation of the
Palace of Knossos and its surroundings a sum of 50/. was paid over to
the treasurer of the Cretan Exploration Fund and duly expended in the
campaign of 1903. Mr. Evans’s report is appended.

(2) The other sum of 50/7. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. L. H.
Duckworth, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, and University
Lecturer in Anthropology, who undertook in consideration of this grant
and of a grant from the British School of Archeology in Athens to make
a study of the human remains which were being discovered in prehistoric
burial-places in the British School’s excavations at Paleokastro, in Kastern
Crete ; and also to make a preliminary study of the anthropography of
modern Crete and other parts of the Algean area. Mr. Duckworth’s
report of his investigation is appended,

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a further grant,

(1) Mr. Arruur Evans’s Lacavations at Knossos.'

Tt had seemed to the excavator possible that this year’s campaign in
the prehistoric palace at Knossos might have definitely completed the
work. But the excavations took a wholly unlooked-for development,
productive of results of first-rate importance both on the architectural
and general archeological side, and calling still for supplementary
researches of considerable and indeed, at present, incalculable extent.

The search for the tombs, which was principally carried out in the
region north of the Palace, only resulted in the discovery of a necropolis
of secondary interest in a much destroyed condition. At the same time
remains of houses were brought to light, going back to the earliest
Minéan period and proving the continuous extension of the prehistoric
city for a distance of over a quarter of a mile north-east of the Palace.

At its north-western angle the Palace area itself has gained a monu-
mental accession. The building proved to extend beyond the paved
_court which lies on this side, and excavation here brought to light what
can only be regarded as the royal theatre. This consists of two tiers of
limestone steps, eighteen in number and 30 feet in width on the east
side, varying from six to three, with an extension of 50 feet on the
south, while between the two is a raised square platform. ‘The steps or
low seats and platform overlook a square area where the shows must
have taken place. Owing to the made character of the ground to the
north-east the limestone slabs on that side had either disappeared or were
brought out in a much disintegrated condition, and it was found neces-
sary for the conservation of the rest of the monument to undertake
considerable restoration. This was, however, facilitated by the fact that

1 Of. Proc, Brit. Assoc., 1902 (Belfast), p. 466, and previous reports,

ON ARCHEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 4.03

the lower courses of the outer supporting wall were throughout preserved.
The theatre would have accommodated about five hundred spectators. A
somewhat analogous feature was discovered by the Italian mission ;
bordering the west court of the palace at Phestos ; but the arrangement
at Knossos is much more complete and gives us the first real idea of the
theatre in prehistoric Greece. The pugilistic shows represented on certain
small reliefs at Knossos and Hagia Triadha and the traditions of the
‘dancing-ground’ of Ariadne, executed by Deedalos for Minos, may throw
a light on the character of the performances in this theatral area.

Between this building and the west court of the Palace an area was
explored containing a very complex mass of constructions representing, at
different levels, every age of Minéan culture, and apparently belonging to
a sanctuary connected with the Cretan cult of the Double Axe and its
associated divinities. Painted pottery and other objects were here found,
with designs referring to this cult. Among other discoveries were highly
decorative polychrome vases belonging to the ‘Middle Minéan’ period,
more or less contemporary with the twelfth dynasty of Egypt. Of later
palace date was an extremely important deposit consisting of a bronze
ewer and basins, with exquisitely chased ornamentation in the shape of
lilies and various kinds of foliage.

On the north-east of the Palace, built into the side of the hill, was
uncovered a remarkably well-built house, constructed largely of fine
gypsum blocks, which appears to have been a kind of royal Villa. Here,
as in the domestic quarter of the Palace, the upper story is also well
preserved, and there are two stone staircases, one with a double head.
On a landing here was found a magnificent painted jar containing reliefs
of papyrus plants in a new technique. The principal chamber was a
columnar hall with a tribuna at one end, backed by a square apse con-
taining the remains of a gypsum throne, the whole presenting an extra-
ordinary anticipation of the later basilica.

Within the previously uncovered Palace area supplementary explora-
tions of lower levels have been carried out on an extensive scale. A whole
series of deep walled chambers, perhaps representing the dungeons of an
earlier palace, have been opened out. Excavations below the floor-level
of the Olive Press area have brought to light the floor-levels of more
ancient chambers containing exquisite painted pottery belonging to the
middle Minéan period and sealings throwing an interesting new light
on its glyptic art and the early ‘pictographic’ type of script. Beneath
the pavement of the Long Gallery of the magazines a continuous line of deep
stone cists (kaselles) was discovered, and from the remains of wooden chests
inlaid with glazed ware and crystal mosaic, accompanied by quantities of
gold foil, it is clear that these repositories had once contained treasure.
Near the east Pillar Room a small pit was found beneath the floor-level
containing vases and other objects belonging to the earliest Mindan
period that immediately succeeds to neolithic, and affording the first
collective view of a representative type series of that period. The
character of the glazed beads found in this deposit seems to indicate rela-
tions with early dynastic Egypt. The exploration of the neolithic
stratum, which to a depth of 25 feet underlies those of the ‘Mindéan’
buildings, was continued, several new shafts being dug within the Palace
area. The successive phases of the local neolithic culture are thus
becoming more clearly defined.

The investigation of the eause of a slight depression in the pavement

DD2

4.04 REPORT—19038.

of a storeroom immediately north-east of the east Pillar Room led to a
discovery of extraordinary interest. Beneath the pavement and a small
superficial cist belonging to the latest palace period were found two spacious
repositories of massive stonework containing, in addition to a store of
early vases, a quantity of relics from a shrine. These had evidently been
ransacked in search for precious metals at the time of the reconstruction
above, but a whole series of objects in a kind of faience like the so-called
Egyptian ‘ porcelain,’ but of native fabric, had been left in the repository.
The principal of these is a figure of a snake Goddess, about 14 inches high,
wearing a high tiara up which a serpent coils, and holding out. two others.
Her girdle is formed by the twining snakes, and every feature of her
flounced embroidered dress and bodice is reproduced in colour and relief.
A finely modelled figure of a votary of the same glazed material holds out
a snake, and parts of another are also preserved. The decorative fittings
of the shrine include vases with floral designs, flowers and foliage in the
round, naturalistic imitations of nautiluses and cockles, rock-work and
other objects, all made of the same faience. Two extraordinarily life-like
groups represent a cow and calf and a Cretan wild goat and kids. The
central aniconic object of the cult, supplied in the formerly discovered
shrine of the Double Axe, was here a marble cross of the orthodox Greek
shape. The cross also occurs as the type of a series of seal-impressions,
doubtless originally belonging to documents connected with the sanctuary,
found with the other relics. A number of other seal impressions deposited
with these show figures of divinities and a variety of designs, some of them
of great artistic value. An inscribed tablet and clay sealings with graftito
characters was also found, exhibiting a form of linear script of a different
class from that of the archives found in the chambers belonging to the
latest period of the Palace.

In view of these important results it is obvious that further investi-
gations beneath the later floor-levels must be carried on throughout the
palace area. The search for the royal tombs has also to be continued.
The region about the theatre and the north-west sanctuary still requires
methodical excavation on a considerable scale, and the neolithic strata
call for continued investigation. The need for further assistance from
those interested in the results already obtained is still urgent.

(2) Report on Anthropological Work in Athens and in Crete by W. L. H.
Ducxworrnu, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge; University
Lecturer in Physical Anthropology.

Part I.—General Report.

In the autumn of 1902 the Director of the British School at Athens
informed me thata grant of 50/. had been made by the Cretan Committee
of the British Association in aid of physical anthropological investigations
in Crete. It was proposed that I should undertake the work, and the
suggestion was made that, in addition to research in Crete, preliminary
studies in the museums at Athens should form part of the programme,
which thus included the following series of observations :—

(a) On the prehistoric human remains in the museum at Candia and
in the ossuary at Paleokastro, Crete.
(6) On the physical characteristics of the modern Cretans, and

ON ARCH#OLOGICAL AND BTHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 405

especially those of the province of Sitia (the country inhabited anciently
by the Eteo-Cretans).

c) On the ancient human remains in the Athenian museums.

(d) On the physical characteristics of the modern Greeks.

I then applied to the Committee of the British School at Athens for
admission as an Associate of the school, and a further application was
made to the Committee on my behalf for a sum of money in aid of the
work, The former application was granted, but the response to the latter
was coupled with conditions which I did not see my way to accepting.

I arrived in Athens on January 12, 1903, and was introduced by the
Director to Professor Stephanos, who, as Curator of the anthropological
collection in the Academy at Athens, was in a position to enable me to
enter on that portion of the work which dealt with the physical anthro-
pology of the ancient and modern inhabitants of Greece. As regards this,
Professor Stephanos at once stated definitely that he himself had abundant
materials in hand and on the point of publication for an exhaustive mono-
graph dealing both with ancient remains and modern inhabitants.

I-thus discovered that my time would be more profitably spent in
examining the material in the National Museum under the charge of
Mr. Stais. Thereupon I commenced work in that museum, examining
particularly the human remains from the shaft-graves at Mycene, and
the skulls from the Theban monument on the battlefield of Cheronza,

A fortunate chance, for which I am indebted to Mr. Tod, of the British
School, enabled me to measure a number of persons in the reformatory.
This, with occasional visits to the collection of crania in Professor
Stephanos’ charge, completed the work I was able to do in Athens.

Arriving in Candia on February 28, 1903, I at once commenced work
in the museum on the crania brought from Paleokastro in 1902 by the
Director of the British School. This work, with measurements of the
whole of the police force of Candia, occupied me till it was possible to
proceed to Palexokastro, for which place I started on March 15, in company
with Mr. Dawkins, student of the school. Through the courtesy of
Professor Halbherr and his assistant, Dr. Paribeni, of the Italian mission,
T was able to measure a number of workmen at Vori, near Agia Triadha,
and also to measure men of the police force at Vori and Pyrgos.
Arriving at Paleokastro on March 25, work was resumed on the mound
occupied by the ossuary partly excavated in 1902. This collection of
skeletons was completely cleared out in the next ten days, and work was
then commenced on a neighbouring hillside on a site known as Patema,
where preliminary excavations had revealed skulls in 1902. A week
sufficed to collect all the material from this site, which will be remarkable
for having furnished an example of the mode of interment practised, an
almost complete skeleton having been discovered in the contracted position
and on the left side.

In the next place two days were spent in excavating rock-shelters near
Agios Nikolaos, after which work was resumed near the original ossuary
(near Roussolakkos, Palweokastro). There was then discovered a second
ossuary near the first, but of much smaller dimensions, and the whole of
this was completely excavated by the afternoon of April 11.

Opportunities for measuring living Cretans had occurred both at the
excavations, also at Angathi and at Adrovasti, a village some eight miles
away.

4.06 REPORT—1903.

On my way back to Candia I visited (in company with the foremati
of the excavations at Paleokastro) the inland villages of Khandra and
Armenos, in the Presos district, and here a number of men were
measured.

Returning to Candia on April 15, I journeyed to England via
Athens and Constantinople, spending a few hours ev rowte in inspecting
the collections at Buda-Pesth and at Vienna, the latter being remarkable
as containing the very extensive collection-of modern Greek crania formed
by Dr. Weisbach.

In addition to the observations on adult Cretans I made observations
on and measured 100 school children in the island.

In terminating this report I desire to express thanks to several
persons, and in the first instance to the Director of the British School ;
also to Messrs. Tod and Dawkins, students of the school. Professor
Stephanos gave me a valuable letter of introduction in Crete, Professor
Halbherr and Dr. Parabeni gave me valuable help as already described ;
Commandant Borgna (chief of the police force of Crete) gave me facilities
for work which would have been impossible but for his aid. Space does
not admit of further mention by name of those who assisted me at various
stages, but I hope to acknowledge their help in the course of future
publications.

Part II.—Special Reports.

Reference to the general report will show that the observations fall
under the four headings following :—

(a) On the prehistoric human remains in the museum at Candia and
in the ossuary at Paleokastro, Crete.

(6) On the physical characteristics of the modern Cretans, and
especially those now inhabiting the province of Sitia, the ancient habita-
tion of the Eteo-Cretans.

(¢) On the physical characteristics of the modern Greeks.

As these reports prove to be of considerable length, it is proposed
to submit here brief notices of the general results of the investigations.

Special Report (a).—On the Prehistoric Human Remains in the Musewn at
Candia and in the Ossuary at Paleokastro, Crete.

As already mentioned, the site of the excavations which provided the
human skeletons is a low mound in the vicinity of the ancient (Minédan)
settlement at Roussolakkos, Paleokastro. The position and main
features of the ossuary have been already described by Mr. Bosanquet,'
by whom the site was partly excavated in 1902.

Low stone walls surround a quadrilateral inclosure divided by
partitions into five compartments within which hundreds of bones were
amassed in confusion, which was not, however, absolute, for although
bones of the feet might be found impacted in the orbits of skulls, yet a
general survey showed that on the whole the skulls lay in distinct groups
apart from the limb bones, which were often stacked. This arrangement
and the comparative scarcity of the small bones of wrist and foot show
clearly that the skeletons had not been primarily interred here, but

' Cf, Man, 1902.

ON ARCHEOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 407

that the bones had been transferred from some other cemetery or
graves, and thus the term ‘ossuary’ is advisedly applied to the locality.

This circumstance was attended with advantages and disadvantages,
for while the bones were so closely packed that a comparatively small
amount of labour brought many examples to light, and thus saved much
time that would have been consumed in exposing each skeleton if
separately interred, yet the disadvantage remained that it was rarely
possible to assign a number of bones to the same skeleton, and there is
thus a certain lack of information as regards the proportions of the limbs.
The condition of the bones was unsatisfactory as regards transport, their
substance being extremely friable: this necessitated great care in
excavating, and measurements could often only be made while the bone
or skull was still half imbedded in the soil. About thirty-five skulls and
two or three hundred bones were preserved in various ways, but the
results of these attempts are not yet available.

Including the skulls discovered in the rock-shelter at Agios Nikolaos,
there were altogether about a hundred skulls available for examination.
In the case of male skulls sixty examples, and of female skulls twenty-two
specimens were actually measured. Skulls of later date were found in
the museum at Candia, including skulls from Zakro, collected by
Mr. Hogarth ; a child’s skull was found at Agios Nikolaos ; and several
modern Cretan skulls were also measured.

We are now chiefly concerned with the sixty-two male and twenty-two
female skulls from Paleokastro. To these may be added the data refer-
ring to two male skulls and one female skull obtained at the same place in
1902 by Mr. Bosanquet, and measured by Dr. Myers at Cambridge. This
brings the total to sixty-four male and twenty-three female crania.

The important feature to notice here is the breadth or cephalic index
of these crania, which is on the average 73:4 for males and 73 for female
skulls ; both are therefore dolichocephalic. The specimens are thus
concordant in this character with the majority of other early Cretan
skulls and, it may be added, with most early Greek crania from the
mainland.

But an important point (upon which information was desired by
many who are interested in the prehistoric ethnology of Greece and the
Levant, including Crete) is the inquiry as to how far this character of
long-headedness is general among this early population, and is not merely
the expression of an average.

In the scanty material previously available, short (brachycephalic)
skulls are admittedly infrequent, and the accession of comparatively
abundant new material provides a fresh contribution to our stock of
information. The result of the investigations is, then, to show that in this
early Cretan population longheadedness is quite predominant : of forty-six
male crania available for examination thirty (65-3 per cent.) are dolicho-
cephalic, twelve (26°15 per cent.) are of mean proportions, and only four (or
8°55 per cent.) areshort. The corresponding percentage figures for female
skulls are 70°6 dolichocephalic, 23-53 of mean proportions, and 5-87 per
cent. of short skulls.

Such a proportion of short skulls had previously been anticipated by
some (certainly by Mr. Myres), and it is evident that a proportion of
8 per cent., or even 5 per cent., in a population constitutes a factor that
cannot be ignored in a full discussion of race affinities.

Ji remains to be remarked that the crania here described are almost

408 REPORT—1903.

certainly of greater antiquity than those from Zakro described by Boyd
Dawkins in 1902, and than those from Erganos described by Sergi ; and,
further, that the fact of long and short crania being found associated in
the same ossuary is more weighty in evidence than “when (as heretofore)
short crania found in one ancient locality have been described as
contemporaneous with long crania found in a different place.

The long bones afford an estimate of the stature of the early inhabitants
of Paleokastro, which would seem to have been approximately 1624°9 mm.
for men (below 5 feet 5 inches). This is a distinctly low stature, and
the bones are slight.

It thus appears that in head-form and stature these early Cretans
anticipated the conformation of the Mediterranean race, as the precursors
of whom they can be provisionally described.

Reference must be made particularly to the most important discovery
at the site known as Patema, of a skeleton (without the skull) lying in
a contracted position and on the left side, like the skeletons of the New
Egyptian race at Naquada. The long axis of the body was approximately
N.E. and §.W., the head having been to the east.

Such are the main results of the investigations included under special
report («).

Special Report (b).—On the Physical Characteristics of the Modern Cretans, and
especially of the Inhabitants of Sitia, the ancient habitation of the Eteo-
Cretans.

This report falls into two sections, the first of which deals with adult
male Cretans and the second with school children of both sexes.

Section (i.) The results of most importance refer to the proportions
of the head and to the stature, these being the points upon which
information was chiefly desired as a basis for the comparison of ancient
and modern Cretans.

Taking the proportions of the head first, a most striking result has
come to light, viz., that in Eastern Crete the modern head-form is totally
different from the prehistoric as deduced from the material at Paleokastro.
In the province of Sitia not only is the average head short (brachy-
cephalic), but this is the most frequently occurring form. At the same
time the stature of the men has increased markedly since the Mindéan
period.

The second point of importance is that in certain provinces of Crete
the ancient form of skull is evidently still preserved. It may be noticed
that data were.obtained from no fewer than seventeen out of the twenty
provinces of Crete, but that the material for Sitia, in the eastern part, is
much more abundant than that from any other district.

These facts will, it is believed, furnish the basis for much discussion, a
difficult point being the explanation of the modern predominance of short-
headed men in Eastern Crete, the region which was considered as perhaps
the least subject to invasion and admixture. Here it can only be
remarked that records exist of definite colonisation from Venice, and that,
considering the preponderance of short heads among modern Venetians,
the solution may lie in an appeal to this historical factor.

Turning to other observations on modern Cretans, it will suffice to
state that while in colour of the hair the darkest shades are the
commonest, this is not the case as regards the colour of the eyes, the most

ON ARCHZOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 409

frequent tint being the intermediate one known as hazel. Two instances
were noticed of undoubted Cretans with fair hair and blue eyes of the
North European blond type: the brother of one of these blond men was
dark with dark eyes. These brothers, with their parents and grand-
parents, were inhabitants of Angathi (Paleokastro).

Up to the present time I find myself unable to adduce instances of
men reproducing in features and complexion the type represented on the
Knossos frescoes, but would suspend further comment till other districts
have been seen.

Section (ii.) The school children.

Seventy-nine boys and twenty-five girls were measured and examined :
the majority of the boys (fifty-nine) and all the girls were observed at Vori
(South Central Crete), province Pyrgiotissa; the remaining boys at
Angathi (Paleokastro). It is very interesting to note that in respect of
head-form, and dealing only with boys (between whom alone comparison is
possible), exactly the same difference obtains between East Crete and
South Central Crete as in the case of the adult males, viz., in East Crete
the heads are brachycephalic. Hair colour is lighter than among the
adults, this being a common phenomenon in all European races ; dark
brown is the commonest eye colour among the children, not hazel as
among the adults.

The comparatively poor physique of the children was very noticeable,
numerous instances occurring in which a boy of fifteen years would have
passed as at least four years younger if supposed to be of British
parentage and of the better nourished class. Intellectually, however, no
inferiority seems to exist.

Special Report (c).—On the Ancient Human Remains in the Athenian Museums.

Section (i.) The National Museum.

While no skeletons of such antiquity as those from Paleokastro were
seen, yet there are remains, more or less perfect, of severai skeletons of
the Mycenzan epoch, notably those from the celebrated tombs discovered
by Schliemann at Mycene. Unfortunately the earlier examination of
these skeletons was superficial only, and in the intervening period much
disintegration has ensued. The results of a careful examination are
therefore as follows :—

From Graves Nos. 1, 2, and 3 (referred to in Schliemann’s book as
Nos. ii., v., and iii. respectively) the fragments are too small to enable
one to make satisfactory measurements ; bones of domestic animals are
mingled with the human remains.

From Grave No. 4 (Schliemann’s No. iv.) there are the remains of the
shafts of a perfectly normal femur and tibia (with no marked platymeria
or platycnemia) ; also two short slender femora and two radii, these latter
and the femora being encircled with gold bands. With these are many
animal remains.

From Grave No. 5 (Schliemann’s No. i.) came the body which is
illustrated in Schliemann’s classical work : it has now fallen into a most
fragmentary state. Other bones and fragments fill a large tray : they are
mixed with animal bones. A massive femur belonged to a tal) well-
proportioned man of 1,759 mm. stature.

410 REPORT—1908.

In Grave No. 6 there were two interments. Fragments of both
skeletons remain ; the subject of primary interment was a slight man of
small stature ; the tibia was slightly flattened. The other bones do not
afford any certain indication as to the body or bodies secondarily interred.

Other remains of approximately similar date are the female skeleton
(stature 1,534 mm.) from Thoricus and a child’s skull (index 74:9) from a
tomb at Salamis. Of much later date are the nine skulls of the Thebans
who fell at Cheronrea : these skulls are either long or of mean propor-
tions, no brachycephalic examples being seen. Other skeletons, three in
number, are also in the vase-room of the museum: of the skulls of these .
two (male) are dolichocephalic, while the third is a short and broad
female skull. On the whole, then, brachycephalic proportions are rare
among these ancient Greek crania.

Section (ii.) The skulls in the Academy (in Professor Stephanos’
charge) include the following :—

(a) Ancient skulls from Mycene (Tsountas’ excavations), Nauplia,
Syros, and Paros. These are mostly dolichocephalic ; but brachy-
cephalic examples occur with suflicient frequency to call for con-
sideration.

(2) Skulls of the ‘Dipylon’ period, from Eleusis: these are more
constantly dolichocephalic than the preceding (a).

(¢) Recent skulls from Arcadia: these tend more frequently to
brachycephaly, and thus agree with the skulls of modern Greeks in
general.

(c) Recent skulls from Thessaly : these bear out Professor Stephanos’
statement that long skulls are more frequent in Thessaly than in other
Greek districts at the present day. Artificial deformation occurs in this
series, which are of varying dates during the last two centuries.

(f) A collection of recent skulls from the %gean island of Thera
comprises certainly one definitely brachycephalic skull.

Specval Report (d).—On the Physical Characteristics of the Modern Greeks.

The contribution to this subject consists in the collection of data
relating to about a hundred inmates of the reformatory for male juvenile
offenders at Athens. On the theory that criminals are a selected class, it
may be objected that such observations are inadmissible, or that they
have no value as evidence of the conformation of the normal members of
the population. In answer to such objections it is submitted that the
majority of those persons observed were undergoing detention for ‘first
offences,’ so that they need not be regarded as habitual offenders, who
may possibly form such a select type or class as has been referred to.

The measurements of the heads of these youths (for their ages ranged
from about fifteen to twenty-five) yield averages which in turn afford an
index of 82-04, so that on the average the head-form is brachyeephalic. Not
only is this the characteristic of the average example, but no less than 73°6
per cent. of the individuals presented this feature (24:3 per cent. mesati-
cephalic, 21 per cent. dolichocephalic). Some photographs of the vertex
view of the head show the rotundity in a striking manner. The fore-
going result corroborates the results arrived at by earlier observers, but

ON ARCHAOLOGICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN CRETE. 411

differs from the results obtained for Greeks of Asia Minor, for in the
latter! a very distinctly dolichocephalic element is present, and in
the Greeks of the mainland this element, though not entirely absent,
is so feeble as to be almost negligible.

In respect of hair colour the predominant tones are the darker shades
of brown and jet-black. The most frequent eye colours are : dark brown,
38°5 per cent. ; and hazel, 35-9 per cent. respectively.

A comparison of these results with those published by other in-
vestigators leads to the conclusion that the individuals observed may be
regarded as fairly typical ; and a comparison with the modern Cretan
results—report (6)—shows that while the modern head-form in Crete varies
between extremes of dolichocephaly and brachycephaly, and that the
modern Cretans on the whole have rather longer beads than modern
Greeks of the mainland, yet in some respects the modern Eastern Cretans
surpass the modern Greeks, having shorter heads than these.

While the hair colour forms but a slight basis for contrast between
the same modern stocks which closely resemble each other in this respect,
the evidence of the eye colour is to the effect that while the hazel tint
predominates (40-5 per cent.) in Crete the chief place in point of frequency
in Greece is shared by eyes of this colour and by dark-brown eyes, so that
the modern Greeks of the mainland are more decidedly brunette than are
the modern Cretans.

Lastly, when the proportions of the skull are considered (correction
being made where necessary for head measurements) it will be noticed
that on the whole modern Greeks and modern Cretans differ from their
prehistoric predecessors in the same way, viz., that the head-form, which
was previously elongated, has become very much shorter. For this com-
parison of the prehistoric and the modern populations the material dealt
with in special reports (a), (b), and (c) is now available, in addition to
that forming the subject of the present section. .

Such a conclusion has no doubt been anticipated, but it is submitted
that the confirmation derived from a wider study will not be without
value,

Concluding Remarks.

The foregoing notes constitute a réswmé of the observations and data
made and collected during the limited time available for research. As
regards the special object towards which the Committee devoted the
grant, it is pointed out that the local change in physical type has been
very great indeed since the settlement at Roussolakkos was flourishing.
In head-form in particular the change has been marked ; but this effect
has not been uniformly produced, though the eastern part of Crete has
been particularly influenced. On the other hand, the data from other
provinces include some which suggest strongly that the search for modern
representatives of the Minéan population of Eastern Crete must be
diverted from Sitia, and that other localities may have escaped from the
action of influences which have acted powerfully in the eastern province,
inaccessible though it was believed to be. The present reports can there-
fore only be regarded as instalments, and it is believed that further
efforts would be richly rewarded.

1 Of. v. Luschan.

412 REPORT—19038.

Silchester Kacavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
ArtHur J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary),
and Mr. E. W. Brasroox, appointed to co-operate with the
Silchester Excavation Fund Committee in their Excavations.

THE excavations in 1902 were begun on May 15, and continued without
break until November 17, under the direction of Mr. Mill Stephenson.

To suit the convenience of the tenant, operations were for the most
part confined to a narrow and irregular-shaped field of some four acres in
the south-east quarter of the town, adjoining and lying westwards and
southwards of the present churchyard.

The area in question consists as to its northern half of a gentle slope
southwards, but it then rapidly descends, and its southern end is only
slightly raised above the level of a small brook which rises close by.

The eastern margin of the field was explored in 1890, when part of a
walled enclosure, containing two square temples, which partly underlie
the churchyard, was excavated and planned. A small corridor house to
the south of the temple enclosure was discovered in 1896, when the
ground there was explored in view of an extension of the churchyard.

The operations of 1902, for the reasons above cited, did not enable
the executive committee to excavate any entire insula, but portions of at
least four were included in the area placed at its disposal.

The first work undertaken was the tracing of the temple boundary
wall northwards. This was followed up to and across the modern road
crossing the town and into the field beyond. Here it was found to turn
at a sharp angle in the direction of the east gate, thus showing that the
main street through the town from west to east was deflected from a
straight line before passing out eastwards. At the upper corner of the
temple area was uncovered a small apsidal building of uncertain use.

The buildings of which remains were uncovered in the field adjoining
the churchyard were eleven in number. They included five more or less
complete houses, and as many other structures. Two of the latter are of
a character not hitherto found at Silchester: one being a semicircular
building entered probably by a wide arch, and forming a kind of alcove ;
the other a long narrow gallery with a colonnade or portico along one
side. Both buildings may have stood in a pleasure garden belonging to
the house found in 1896 south of the temple enclosure.

Besides the field next the churchyard, the exploration was undertaken
of a section of the pasture west of it. This brought to light two more
houses and two other smaller structures, one perhaps a group of three
shops. The houses belong to the inswla (XXVIII) south of XXVIT,
which was explored in 1901.

The several houses discovered in 1902 are of interest, firstly, for their
comparatively small size, and secondly, on account of the transition from
the corridor to the courtyard type which most of them present. Three
at least of them had winter rooms warmed by hypocausts, but in two
instances the heating arrangements had been cleared out and the rooms
put to other uses.

The number of buildings in the circumscribed area dealt with left
comparatively little space between for garden ground, and consequently
the number of pits and wells and of objects found was unusually small.

Part of a large inscribed slab, with remains of finely cut letters five

ON SILCHESTER EXCAVATION. 413

inches high, was found used up as building material in one of the hypo-
causts in the southern part of the field. A much-mutilated Attic base of
good character, and some portions of marble mouldings and wall linings
were also turned up in the same quarter. All these may have come from
one or other of the temples during its rebuilding or destruction.

Large part of a quern of the unusual diameter of twenty-eight inches,
of Andernach lava, was found in another of the trenches. It retains two
of the iron loops of the machinery by which it was revolved.

The smaller objects included a few good brooches in bronze, a torque
and a pin of silver, portions of a pane of window-glass, a rod of solder,
part of two large trenchers of Kimmeridge shale, as well as a considerable
number of coins.

The pits and wells also yielded a quantity of bones of oxen, sheep,
goat, and horse.

The search for remains of plants &e. in the filling-in of the pits and
wells, which has been pursued with such conspicuous success during the
last five years, has been continued by Mr. A. H. Lyell. The results have
been examined by Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., who has identified the seeds
of twenty-four more plants not hitherto known to have been introduced into
this country so early as the Roman period. Among the plant remains
were clippings of box and the seeds of fig and grape.

A detailed account of all the discoveries has been communicated to
the Society of Antiquaries, and will in due course be published in
* Archzologia.’

Owing to the limited number of the minor antiquities found last
season, it has not been thought worth while this year to have any public
exhibition of them.

The Committee proposes during the current year (1903) to continue last
year’s excavations westwards, with the object of completing the un-
finished insule. The work was resumed in May, and has already brought
to light a building of large extent which seems to be the long-sought-for
public baths of the town.

Looking back over the course of the excavations hitherto, the Com-
mittee ventures to suggest that the opportunity should be taken, in
exploring tiic small fraction of the site which remains, to make special
and detailed observations on certain points which do not yet seem to
have been made out definitely. The following are suggested as specially
worthy of attention :—

(1) Though the architectural history of Silchester has been elaborated
in great detail, very little evidence has been recorded hitherto as to the
stratification and sequence of the smaller finds, and as to the question
whether any parts of the site were occupied only at special periods, or
whether (as would appear from the published reports) there is practically
only one stratum of remains on the whole of it. A closer registration of
the contents of the numerous pits and wells, and of the areas which are
still covered by undisturbed pavements, would probably go far to settle
this point.

(2) The relation in which the rectangular street-plan stands to the
trapezoidal wall-plan of the town has not yet been made clear at all
points, and might easily be elucidated in the course of the next few
seasons’ work, by minute study of mound, wall, and ditch ; as well as by
confirmatory trenching to greater depths at the points where the street-
lines, if produced, would intersect the line of the wall.

414. REPORT—1908.

To facilitate the investigation of these and similar points the Com-
mittee asks to be reappointed, with a further grant.

[N.B.—As the outcome of discussion of this Report, a reconstituted
Committee was appointed at the Southport meeting with enlarged terms
of reference—‘ To Co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on
Roman Sites in Britain.’]

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.—Fifth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. R. Munro (Chairman), Professor W. Boyp
Dawkins (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Mr. ArtHur J. Evans,
Mr. Henry Baurour, Mr. C. H. Reap, and Mr. A. BuLLer.

THE Committee, reappointed at the last meeting of the British Association
at Belfast, and specially instructed to ascertain the best method of com-
pleting the exploration as quickly as possible, and of publishing the
results with the least possible delay, reports as follows :—

The work which remains to be done in the exploration of the lake
village is comparatively small, and consists of the examination of twelve
huts with the circumjacent areas, out of a total number of seventy-six
huts within the palisades, which define the site of the village from the

urrounding marsh. ‘This will be taken in hand in the course of the next
year, as the dryness of the season may permit. If it cannot be finished in
one, it will be carried on in the next season, and it will be completed.

' Since the last Report of the Committee at the Dover Meeting in 1899,
the exploration carried on by Mr. Bulleid has been stopped, owing to his
unavoidable absence. One hut, however, has been explored by the
Archeological and Natural History Society, under the supervision of their
Assistant Secretary, Mr. Gray. This has been described and figured by
him in the Transactions of the Society for the year 1902, in a paper that
is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the lake village.

It is proposed that the future work should be carried out under the
supervision of the following gentlemen, who will act in agreement with
this Committee: Mr. A. Bulleid, as representing the Glastonbury
Antiquarian Society, and Mr. St. George Gray, to whom the Somerset
Archeological and Natural History Society has offered special permission
to assist in the work. In this manner the continuous supervision of the
work, so necessary in explorations of this kind, will be adequately pro-
vided for.

With regard to publication, the Committee is of opinion that a report
of the progress made in each session should be prepared for the British
Association by the superintendents of the work, until it is completed.
When it is completed the general results of the exploration should be
published, with adequate illustration by the superintendents, and edited
by a Standing Committee of the Association. The precise form which the
publication should take may be left for decision until the exploration has
been finished.

In this manner, and with a grant in aid of the exploration fund by the
British Association, the Committee believes that this—the most important
archeological investigation now going on in the British Isles—will be
rapidly finished, and that the results of the work which has been going on
for ten years; so long expected, will be published with the least possible

ON THE LAKE VILLAGE AT GLASTONBURY. 415

delay. The exploration on these lines has received the sympathetic sup-
port of the county of Somerset, and of those outside the county who are
interested im the social state of Britain in the centuries immediately pre-
ceding the Roman Conquest.

Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr, HK. W. BrasrooKx (Chairman),
Mr. J. Gray (Secretary), Dr. A. C. Happon, Professor A,
Macauisrer, Professor D. J. Cunnincuam, Mr. J. F. Tocurr,
and Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.

THE progress made by the Scottish Ethnographic Committee with this
survey during the past year has not been so great as was anticipated in
the last report. The delay has been principally caused by the difficulty
experienced in getting lithographed colour cards to be used as colour
seales for hair and eyes. It was considered that precise and reliable
statistics could not be obtained from a number of different observers,
except a standard colour card was sent to each. About twenty different
shades of hair were collected and an equal number of glass eyes. These
were sent for reproduction to a photo-lithographer, but after repeated
attempts he failed to get a satisfactory result by direct photography.
The shades have now been copied successfully in oil colours, and it is hoped
that these copies can be successfully reproduced by lithography. The
proofs are expected to be ready at an early date.

The application for co-operation to the Educational Institute of
Scotland has been very successful, this association, whose assistance is so
essential to the success of the survey, having passed a resolution recom-
mending the teachers to supply the information desired by the Committee,

The subdivision of Scotland into 110 numbered districts has now been
completed, As soon as satisfactory colour cards have been received the
schedules will be sent out and the survey carried out as rapidly as possible,

a = ——- ——

The Psychology and Sociology of the Todas and other Tribes of
Southern India.-—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
RipeEway (Chairman), Dr. W. H. R. Rivers (Secretary), Dr. A.
C. Happon, and Mr. W. Crooks.

On reaching India Dr. Rivers first visited two hill tribes with Mr. Edgar
Thurston, to whom he owes many thanks for help during his visit to India.
These tribes—the Sholagas and Uralis—live in the jungle in hills in the
northern part of the Coimbatore district, and while Mr. Thurston in-
vestigated the physical characters and the customs of the people Dr. Rivers
devoted his attention to psycho-physical work, of which an account will
shortly appear in the ‘ Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum,’ edited
by Mr. Thurston.

The remainder of his visit to India was devoted to the Todas of the
Nilgiri Hills, though a few observations were made on members of two
other tribes inhabiting the hills—the Kotas and Badagas. The psycho-
physical work was carried out on the same lines as those described in the
Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits,
vol. ii. parts i, and ii, Over 500 Todas were examined and a large
number of observations made which have not yet been fully worked out.

416 REPORT—19038.

Much time was devoted to the study of the sociology and religion of
the Todas. It was found that genealogies were preserved, and the
pedigrees of over seventy families were collected. Largely by their means
a detailed study was made of the social organisation, system of kinship,
and regulation of marriage.

Much attention was devoted to the details of the ritual of the Toda
dairy, which was found to be of a definitely religious character. Many
other ceremonies were recorded, and whenever possible witnessed. These
include ceremonies performed during pregnancy and after childbirth ;
ceremonies performed when naming and piercing the ears of children ;
ceremonies performed when men are fined for any offences against the
dairy ; the well-known prolonged funeral ceremonies ; ceremonies of
animal sacrifice and of lighting fires on certain hills.

It is intended to publish shortly a full account of the ceremonies and
of the general results of the investigation of the sociology and religion,

Botanical Photographs.-—Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor L. C. Mian (Chairman), Professor F. KE. WErss (Secretary),
Mr. Francis Darwin, Mr. G. F. Scorr-Eiuior, and Mr. A. Kk.
CooMARASWAMY, appointed to consider and report upon a scheme for
the Registration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs.

A LEAFLET giving information regarding the collection, preservation, and
systematic registration of photographs has been prepared by the com-
mittee appointed at Belfast, and has been distributed by the Secretary of
the Association to all the Corresponding Societies, together with blank regis-
tration forms. The same pamphlet and form were also sent to a number of
private individuals interested in botany and photography, and it is hoped
that as a result a number of photographs taken during the summer
months will be sent in for registration. Up to the present some fifty or
sixty have been received, of which a considerable number are suitable for
registration. The grant to the Committee has been sutlicient to defray
the expenses of purchasing cards and printing forms and cards for regis-
tration, but insufficient to provide mounts for the photographs. It is
hoped that this may be done out of next year’s grant.
The Committee desire to be reappointed, with a grant of 5/.

LEAFLET ABOVE REFERRED TO.

Botanical Photographs Committee.—Professor L. C. Mirani, FERS.
(Chairman), Professor F. E. Weiss, D.Sc., F.L.S. (Secretary),
Francis Darwin, F.R.S., A. K. Coomdéraswamy, F.G.S., and
G. F. Scorr-Euuiotr, B.Se, F.L.S.

This Committee was appointed by the British Association for the
Advancement of Science at its meeting in Belfast in 1902 for the pur-
pose of arranging for the ‘Collection, Preservation, and Systematic
Registration of Photographs of Botanical Interest.’

A similar committee was appointed in 1889 to collect and preserve
photographs of geological interest, and in 1898 a committee was ap-
pointed to collect and preserve photographs of anthropological interest.

BOTANICAL PHOTOGRAPHS COMMITTEE. 417

The considerations which led to the appointment of these committees
were briefly as follows :—

1. Many naturalists and travellers find it necessary to make photo-
graphic negatives in the course of their work for which they themselves
have no further use, but which they would gladly make accessible to
other students if any scheme existed by which this could be done with-
out much trouble.

2. Further, though many professional photographers in various parts
of the world have made use of their opportunities of recording various
types of vegetation, there has hitherto existed no record of what has
been done in this direction; with the result that valuable collections
have remained unknown or inaccessible to those in whose interest they
have been made.

What appears therefore to be required is, in the first place, a register
of the photographic negatives which can be made generally available,
illustrated by a permanent print from each, preserved in an accessible
centre. It is also essential that properly qualified students may be
enabled to obtain duplicate prints, or lantern slides made from them, for
their own use at a reasonable price. In any such scheme it would be
understood that the copyright, for purposes of publication, would remain
with the owner of the negative, and that all duplicate prints or lantern
slides distributed under this arrangement would be subject to that
qualification.

In establishing such a register the Committee desire the co-operation
of all owners of suitable photographic negatives, who are invited to
submit for registration one print from each negative, together with full
particulars of the subject of the photograph on the enclosed form
(Form A), additional copies of which can be obtained from the Sccretary
of the Committee.

It will be found convenient for the sender of the photograph to
number it on the back and to fill in this number on the printed form.

Photographs should be sent wxmounted. This is essential in order to
secure the proper systematic arrangement of the collection. They will
be mounted by the Committee on cards of uniform size.

Copies of photographic prints, and information relative thereto,
should be sent under cover to the Secretary of the Committee at the
earliest possible date in order to facilitate the work of registration. They
should be sent not later than August 1 in each year.

A detailed list of the photographs officially received each year with
the names of the donors and information as to where copies may be
obtained will be inserted in the report of the Committee, which is
presented annually to the British Association. A copy of the report
will, if possible, be sent to each donor of a photograph.

The photographs will be deposited in some central institution, where
they will be accessible to the public for purposes of reference.

It is important that copies of photographs which have been processed
for illustrating articles and papers in journals should be deposited in the
collection ; they should be accompanied by an exact reference to the pub-
lication and, if possible, a copy of the plate.

To avoid duplication of photographs the Committee reserve to them-
selves the right of returning duplicates or unsuitable photographs to the
sender without registering the same.

1903. EE

418 REPORT—1903.

Recommendations for the Collection of Botanical Photographs.

A. As to Subject.—The Committee propose to include the following
range of subjects :—

1. Portraits of any species of plant (more particularly foreign plants
growing under natural conditions) illustrating habit, natural surround-
ings, or points of morphological or physiological interest.

2. Diseases or malformation of plants.

3. Photographs of plants raised for purposes of experiment.

4. Photographs illustrating plant associatiotis.

In most cases two photographs would be desirable, one giving a geiieral
view of the plant or vegetation and another giving details of the subject.

B. As to Camera.—Tlhe Committee recommend the use of a whole or
half-plate camera, though quarter-plate photographs will be accepted if
well defined and clear.

The camera should admit of long extension, so that work at close
distances may be possible.

As it is essential that the ptints should be permanent, the platino-
type process is recommended where possible. The use of isochromatic
plates is strongly recommended.

In many photographs tlie inclusion of a scale object is advisable.

C. As to Recording.—In order to preserve the scientifle value, each
photograph should be accompanied by as many of the following details
as can be given on the forms which will be supplied for the purpose, and
a copy of which is enclosed :

(a) Name of plant and locality, with rainfall of district where known.
(b) Special features shown.
(c) Date when photographed.
(d) Name and address of photographer or of society under whose
direction the photograph was taken.
(e) Whereabouts of the negative, ¢.e. whether it is retained by owner, or
deposited with a professional photographer or with the Committee.
(7) Terms on which prints, enlargements, or lantern slides will be
supplied.

Further inforridtion and additional forms for registration may be
obtained from the Secretary of the Committee, Professor F. E. Weiss,
Owens College, Manchester, to whom all communications should be

addressed |
Botanical Photographs Committee. Form A.

, Price of
Price of Batten

2 “ 2 3
Local Size of Subject, Locality, Date | Photographed | Address at
Print Slide

Number | Negative | and Special Feature shown by | wen |

| | |

This form should be filled in and enclosed with the prints or negatives submitted
to the Committee for registration. Additionul copies may be obtained from the Secre-
tary, Professor F. &. WEISS, Owens College, Manchester, or from the offices of the
BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Burlington House, London, W.

ON THE INVESTIGATION OF CYANOPHYCES. 419

Investigation of the Oyanophycece—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Dr. F. F. BLACKMAN
(Secretary), Professor MarsHatt Warp, Mr. WALTER GARDINER,
ant Dv. D. H. Scorr. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tu1s investigation has been continued by Mr. Harold Wager, and is now
practically completed. A preliminary paper has been published in the
‘Proceedings of the Royal Society.’ The following is given by Mr. Wager
as a brief summary of the principal results arrived at :—

‘The cell contents are divided into two distinct regions: (1) an
outer peripheral layer in which the colouring matters are contained, and
(2) a central portion which is colourless. Both exhibit a reticulate or
alveolate structure, and contain granules of varying sizes. Under certain
conditions glycogen is present in the cell, often in considerable quan-
tities.

‘The colouring matters, chlorophyll, &c., are contained in small granules
embedded in the reticulate network of the cytoplasm. They often appear
to be arranged in regular rows, which give the impression of coloured
granular fibrils. It is probable that these granules are comparable to the
“crana” of ordinary chloroplasts, and not actualiy to the chloroplasts
themselves.

‘The central body contains chromatin in the form of minute granules,
more or less fused together on a network. This network is not sharply
marked off from the peripheral cytoplasm, but it appears to be contained
in a vacuole, and at certain times the limiting layer of the vacuole is
visible. The central body varies much at different times in the amount
of chromatin that it contains. It is more abundant in actively growing
healthy cells, in which constant cell division is going on ; in such cells a
very pronounced and distinct reaction for phosphorus is given when
treated according to the methods of Macallum.

‘There seems to be no reasonable doubt that this central body corre-
sponds to the nucleus of the higher plants. It is not precisely similar in
structure and appearance, but the presence of chromatin, the network-
like structure, and the fact that it is contained in a vacuole and is sharply
differentiated by reagents from the surrounding cytoplasm sufliciently in-
dicate its nuclear character. We are therefore justified in speaking of
it as a nucleus. In the process of division the nucleus simulates in a
remarkable manner certain features of the mitotic division of higher
plants, but a very carefui examination of the whole process in various
species of Cyanophycez convinces me that it is rather a case of direct
division, and not a true mitotic division. Nevertheless it may be justifiable
to regard it as a rudimentary form of indirect division. As the cell
grows in length the nuclear network becomes drawn out in a longitudinal
direction, whilst the chromatin substance appears to become more abun-
dant. The result is in some cases an appearance as of numerous elongate
chromosomes lying side by side. The nucleus then becomes constricted
in the middle, and divides transversely into two daughter nuclei. At the
same time the new transverse cell wall is formed. The formation of the

new cell walls appears, however, not to be dependent entirely upon the
EL

420 REPOR'T—1903..

division of thié iiucleus, as it is not uncommon to find, long before the first
division is cdmplete, several new cell walls in various stages of develop-
tment in dthet parts of the cell.

‘In their cell structure the Cyanophycee do not exhibit any very
close connection with other plants, except possibly the Bacteria ; and
even here the affinity does not seem to be a very close one. During
the last twelve years I have examined a large number of: species of
the Cyanophycex, and it seems to me that we may regard them as
the survivors of an ancient group of chlorophyll-containing plants iti
which the cell structure presents a more rudimentary condition than in
any other group of green plants known to us at the present day, and that,
in consequence, their exact relationship to existing plants cannot be
traced.

The Teaching of Botany in Schools.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor L. C. Mtatu (Chairman), Mr. Harotp WaGER
(Secretary), Professor J. R. GREEN, Mr. A. C. SeEwarp, Professors
H. Marswatt Warp, J. B. Farmer, and T. Jonson, Miss Livia
CLARKE, and Dr. C. W. Kimnins.

The Conditions of Profitable Study.—In order to make the most of scien-
tific lessons in school the teacher should have a just appreciation of the
relative importance of facts; he should encourage his pupils to work
for themselves, and he should adapt his teaching to their present wants.
All these requirements have often been disregarded by teachers of
Botany.

The Relative Importunce of Facts.—In all ages teachers have been
blamed for defective appreciation of the relative importance of facts. The
term pedant, once a mere synonym of teacher, has come to mean a man
who makes a display of vain learning, while he neglects what is practically
useful. Perhaps the teachers of Botany have sinned in this way as con-
spicuously as teachers of any other sort. Old exercise books survive to
show that in one generation instructors were content with getting the
classes and orders of the Linnean system committed to memory. In a
later generation they chiefly aimed at the description of a plant in correct
technical language. Some manuals of Botany of old date are little more
than glossaries of terms. Students of Botany have been encouraged to
spend most of their time upon the characters by which the British flower-
ing plants are distinguished from one another, the ultimate purpose being
apparently a more perfect knowledge of their distribution within these
islands. The scientific product of local lists has by no means justified
the time and labour bestowed upon them, and their educational effect has
been depressing instead of stimulating. Meanwhile the nutrition of green
plants, a subject of the highest scientific interest and the very foundation
of agriculture, was during many years almost ignored in schools and
colleges. So late as 1870 it was very slightly treated in teaching courses,
and no Englishman had made any important experiments upon it for 4
hundred years. It is only of late years that we haye become aware that
we must study our plants alive and experinientally. Scientific curiosity
would surely be better occupied in discovering how plants get their food,
respond to stimuli, adapt their structure to new circumstances, contend
with their rivals or enemies, and propagate their race than in learning

ON THE TEACHING OF BOTANY IN SCHOOLS. 421

Latin names for the shapes of their leaves, or discussing which of many
names proposed for a particular species was first used. It will be some
guide to the formation of a sound opinion upon any teaching course in
Botany to inquire whether the fact that plants are living things is ignored
or put in a subordinate place.

It is a mark of the present immaturity of the Nature Knowledge
movement that whenever a fresh attempt is made to stimulate the teacher,
it is accompanied by a great display of dried plants, diagrams, lantern
slides, models, slices of useful woods, lists of species observed, with their
dates, and maps of distribution. All these are dead products, and only
indicate that someone has been taking pains. Those teachers who fix
their attention upon the living plant and its activities will have little need
of bought appliances,

The Pupil must Work for himself.—It is probable that most men who
have been productive workers in science have at length come to recognise
that the best part of their learning they got for themselves. Example
and guidance are thrown away upon those who do not make independent
efforts ; and knowledge accumulated by a mere act of memory is feebly
grasped and soon forgotten. It is not by listening to other people, nor
by reading their accounts of what they have seen and done, nor by gazing
at the pictures which they have drawn, that we make lasting progress in
science. The pupil who has been taught thus finds himself master of
mere scraps of information, too uncertain for any practical application.
He has no power of enlarging knowledge, or of applying old knowledge to
new cases, and it is well if he has not acquired a disinclination to carry
his studies any farther.

The lecture as a mode of instruction in schools is nearly always bad,
It may be a passable expedient where the lecturer meets his audience
only once, and is able to suggest to them pregnant thoughts which
would have never entered their minds otherwise. But even the occasional
lecture is rarely stimulating, and the regular lecture is, especially to young
pupils, apt to be flat. We can enliven it a little by questions, especially
if the pupils feel free to question the lecturer, but that is not quite enough,
Choice and responsibility are necessary conditions of interest, and these
are hardly ever conceded to the pupil by any lecturer. There is a better
prospect of success when the usual conditions are inverted, and when it
becomes the rule for the teacher to listen to his class. Let them explain
to him what they have seen and thought ; let them draw before him the
structures which are under discussion. The explanations and drawings
may not be so good as those of a grown man, but at least they are the
expression of the thoughts of the learner.

It is practicable, as actual experience shows, to substitute for mere
didactic lessons learning by personal inquiry, and it may be doubted
whether any single teacher who has made the change has afterwards gone
back to the lecture or the lesson book. We have no knowledge of even
one such case.

A method of teaching in which every pupil is called upon to take his
share has the incidental advantage that it cultivates the power of expres-
sion in the class. To be well accustomed to come forward and explain
one’s meaning without embarrassment, to have learnt how to describe
complicated structures neatly, is no small gain to the pupil. In all but
quite elementary classes the pupils may be helped, not only to practise
the art of expression, but to learn how to yse hooks aright. To search ip

422 REPORT—1903.

books for the facts which are needed, and then to throw the facts into a
new mould, may be excellent discipline for an advanced class, Let the
teacher who is not afraid to innovate set before him as his ideal that
the class is in future to do for him what he has hitherto done for the class,

In the laboratory it is a good plan to use no book at all, where a
whole class works simultaneously at the same things. In biological teach-
ing the abundance of the material, and the simple means of investigation
which suftice for elementary students at least, make it possible for large
classes to work at the same objects—a great advantage to both teacher
and pupils. In botanical and zoological teaching, more than in other
scientific courses, it is easy to adopt improved methods, such as that the
teacher shall rarely give out information, but chiefly directions and
questions, the class observing the object, making drawings and returning
answers ; that the laboratory work, if separated from the work of the
class-room, shall always come first ; and that the practical exercises of the
students shall furnish the materials upon which the class teaching is
founded.

The principle of helping the pupil to work for himself will not be
abandoned in the later stages of study. Honours candidates in uni-
versity or college should spend at least part of their time in original
work. Those who are so ill-directed as to read instead of inquiring during
their whole academic course lose a great opportunity, that of carrying on
a genuine research with the co-operation of a more experienced inyesti-
gator. 'To many students the opportunity never recurs.

A Substitute for Class Lectwres.—Some years ago lectures were dis-
continued in the Biological Department of the Yorkshire College. A class
of beginners is at first questioned about their recent work in the laboratory,
After a few weeks, when confidence has been gained, the students are
invited vo give more continuous expositions. Several topics (usually five)
are written up at the beginning of the lesson, and these are handled by
members of the class, called up one at a time by lot. The student whose
name is drawn comes forward and treats his topic in his own way, making
his own diagrams and answering questions when he has done. The topic
on which he speaks is always familiar to him by work which he has
already done in the laboratory. If he describes a structure it is one
which he has examined and drawn for himself. Inferences and comparisons
are often asked for instead of mere facts. In advanced classes more
comprehensive topics are proposed, and one student may occupy the whole
hour. It is hardly necessary to point out that the teacher must scrupu-
lously avoid harsh criticism. A domineering or sarcastic manner would
be fatal to the success of any such method as this.

Inquiry wm the Botanical Class. (By A. C. Srwarp.)—A method
which I have adopted in dealing with advanced botanical classes may
prove useful in a modified form in teaching elementary Botany. After
an hour's lecture the students work for two hours in the laboratory. It
was during the time devoted to practical work that the following plan
was followed. Instead of preparing a common syllabus for all to work
through I suggested a separate piece of work to each student requiring
six, eight, or more hours to complete. On the completion of each piece of
work the student wasasked to give a concise account of his results
illustrated by blackboard sketches and by numbered sections accompanied
by very brief notes. On the conclusion of the short lecture, which usually
oceupied frem ten to twenty minutes, the other members of the class asked

ON THE TEACHING OF BOTANY IN SCHOOLS, 423

questions and criticised the statements made by the lecturer, The sections
were afterwards examined by all the members of the class, and the
preparations made in illustration of each piece of work were kept in a
separate tray until the end of the course, when each student was at
liberty to appropriate his slides. In an article on Botanical Teaching in
University Classes, published in the ‘ New Phytologist,’ January 1901, the
above method is described at greater length, and several examples are
given in illustration of the system. Since that article was written I have
adopted the same plan in a course of lectures and practical work on
Gymnosperms. As it was impossible to give a full account in the lectures
of all the questions involved in a detailed treatment of this group of plants,
I omitted certain portions of the subject, and arranged that these should
be dealt with by the students themselves during the practical work. As
an example of this method of encouraging students to fill in gaps left by
the lecturer, one case may be quoted. X. was asked to make a com-
parative examination of the anatomy of the leaves of various types of
Conifers ; in the course of his work he was referred to literature on the
subject, and his main object was to discover to what extent anatomical
characters may be used in the identification of genera, The account
given by X., illustrated by a selected series of his sections, rendered it
unnecessary for me to refer to this subject in the lectures. The advantages
of the above method over that which I had previously employed were
apparent in the much keener interest taken in the laboratory work; the
members of the class were in fact engaged in original research, and their
attitude was that of investigators who have problems to solve. which
require thoughtful treatment and careful technique. They entered fully
into the spirit of the work, and were stimulated to do their best, partly
by the interest which they derived from the work itself and partly from
the knowledge that they would be expected to give a clear account of
their results to the rest of the class, who were encouraged to ask questions
and offer criticisms during the short and informal lecture which the
students gave on the completion of each piece of work.

The practice in speaking and presenting facts, the introduction to the
methods of research, and the stimulus given by the feeling of rivalry, were,
I consider, the most striking advantages of the system.

The Teaching must be adapted to the Needs of the Pupil.—It is charac;
teristic of immature minds that they soon tire. This is a reason for
frequently changing the topic and for making the object-lesson the regular
mode of teaching Botany in junior classes, Teachers of Botany are not so
liable as teachers of chemistry or physics to make the mistake of proceed-
ing from the general to the particular, instead of from the known to the
unknown, which is a very different thing. One often recognises the inex-
perienced teacher by such a phrase as that he intends to begin by con-
sideration of the principles which underlie a particular science. Continuous
book and paper work is hateful to children, and their exercises in learning
and thinking should be varied with handiwork, their indoor work with
outdoor work.

Object-lessons in Botany.—Object-lessons are the best way of instruct-
ing children in natural history, childhood being taken to include all ages
under twelve or thirteen. In this stage there should be no formal and
separate sciences, though the lessons, which are at first studiously varied,
may gradually become connected. Among the conditions of profitable
ohject-lessons the following may be noted ;—

4.24, REPORT—1908.

(1) Every pupil should have an object to himself, or at least be able
to examine the object as long and as closely as he pleases. A drawing is
not to be allowed to rank as an object.

(2) Living and growing plants should be frequently observed.

(3) The living plant should not only be studied in flower, but when-
ever the change of season brings on a new phase of growth. Fruits, buds,
and seedlings are as important as flowers.

(4) Experiment can hardly come in too early, and there is nothing
else quite so stimulating. Even young children can appreciate the interest
of a simple experiment, and they may be allowed to take part in it before
they are able to conduct it themselves.

It is discouraging to learn from advertisements in the educational
papers what facilities are offered for scamping the object-lesson. The
teacher is encouraged to buy his objects, to buy his pictures, and to buy
his lessons. It is probable that the late demand for nature knowledge
has greatly multiplied the number of worthless object-lessons which are
given in school. Unless the teacher regularly works for himself he is
not fit to show others how to work, and no good will come of inducing
him to add nature knowledge to the list of subjects in which he offers
instruction,

Plant-physiology in the School.—When the age of the pupils and the
circumstances of the school favour the regular study of Botany we have
to choose among several ways of treating the science, each of which has
found zealous advocates. If the decision were left to ourselves we should
give a distinct pre-eminence to the study of Plant-physiology, on the
ground of its great practical importance and of its special value as
discipline when studied systematically. Systematic Botany will soon be
found to be a necessary adjunct if scientific precision is to be attained,
and other aspects of the study will ultimately find a place in the pro-
gramme, but function in connection with structure should, we think, be
prominent in every part of the school course.

In preparing a scheme of instruction in plant-physiology the teacher
will do well to take common objects, which will often engage the attention
of his pupils in after life, which can be procured in numbers without much
cost or labour, and which can be studied alive under natural conditions.
The question of the sufferings of the living objects, which is of the first
importance in some other branches of natural history, happily does not
concern the teacher of Botany.

We can recommend nothing better for first lessons in plant-physiology
than the study of seedlings of common garden plants. A course of
lessons on seedlings can be so arranged as to lead the beginner to consider
attentively the nutrition of a green plant, the adaptation of the plant to
external circumstances, and the development of new parts. The course
should also train the manual skill of the pupils. Boxes and the simpler
kinds of chemical apparatus can be made in the school. The course
should bring in drawing to scale, the graphical representation of experi-
mental results, the care of garden beds, the care of water cultures, and
many other practical arts. It ought also to encourage the habit of close
observation, the habit of methodically comparing structures which in
different plants answer the same purpose, the love of experiment, and the
unwillingness (so characteristic of the scientific mind) to accept any
conclusion except as the result of an independent and careful judgment.
The study of seedlings will lead ys to consider starch-foymation in the

ON THE TEACHING OF BOTANY IN SCHOOLS. 425

green leaf, root-absorption, transport of food material, storage of food
reserves, and other branches of the great question of the nutrition of
plants. The flower and the functions of its various parts can be studied
with interest and profit. Experiments on pollination and on the move-
ments of roots, leaves, and shoots are not too difficult for pupils in school.

School Gardens. (By Miss Littan J. CLarke.)—At the James Allen’s
Girls’ School, Dulwich, we have tried for some years, instead of giving
information in the Botany classes, to lead the girls to observe, to draw
what they observe, to experiment, and to write accounts of their own
experiments. In this we have been greatly helped by possessing a garden
in which girls are allowed to own plots. The work has grown every
year until now more than a hundred girls possess gardens, At first
only order-beds were made. The girls were encouraged to own order-
beds and to obtain plants for them. Gradually more order-beds were
added, and now the most important British orders are represented,
two or more beds being sometimes allotted to one order. As far ag
the size of the bed and the claims of other plants permit, each girl
is allowed to grow as many specimens of a particular species as she
likes. The owners of order Leguminosx generally take a great interest in
growing sweet peas and ordinary peas and beans, and the owners of order
Solanacee grow tomatoes and potatoes. Town girls are usually so
ignorant of the growth of ordinary vegetables that we encourage our girls
to grow many. This year there are in the gardens cabbages, Brussels
sprouts, cauliflowers, turnips, peas, broad beans, scarlet runners, spinach,
beet, lettuce, potatoes, parsley, parsnips, carrots, «ec.

Fruits are valued as well as flowers, so most of the flowers are left to
form fruits, and various methods of seed-dispersal are studied, as well as
the structure of fruits. A large label is placed in front of each bed, and
the name of the order, &ec., is painted in white on a black background.
In each bed small labels are also used ; for it is the rule that to each plant,
or clump of plants, must be attached a label bearing the English name.
Gravelled paths run in many cases on three sides of the beds, so that many
girls can work at the same time without getting in each other’s way.

When studying pollination it seemed so necessary that the girls should
do some work of their own that beds were arranged in which pollination
experiments could be carried on. Some plants are covered with muslin
in order to exclude insects, while other plants of the same species are left
uncovered, Afterwards the girls find out whether fruits appear on either
set. When fruits are found on both the covered and uncovered plants,
the number and vigour of the fruits are compared. In some plants the
stamens are cut off while the flower is in bud. These pollination experi-
ments arouse great interest, not only in those who happen to be studying
pollination, but in girls of other classes. Numbers of plants are grown
for the sake of pollination by means of insects, Figwort, snapdragon,
foxglove, salvia, monkshood, sweet peas, and deadnettles are found most
useful, and clumps of these are grown in different parts of the garden.
A class often spends the lesson time in the garden, and is divided into
detachments for observation of the visits of insects.

Experiments in assimilation are carried on in other beds, and the girls
find out under what conditions starch is formed in green plants. Stencils
are placed on some leaves, others are covered with vaseline, and various
simple experiments are made while the leaves are still on the plant. The
assimilation experiment beds are owned py a few girls only, but many

426 REPORT—1908.

make experiments on leaves. In wet weather when we cannot go into
the garden we find the laboratory window-boxes. useful, as in them, polli-
nation and assimilation experiments can be arranged. Most of the Botany
gardens are either order-beds, or beds in which pollination and assimila-
tion experiments take place ; but there are a few others, for example those
in which soil experiments are made. Hach year we find that something
more is needed in the Botany garden, and each year something is added.
Last year climbing plants received special attention, and now the girls
own plants climbing by twining stems, hooks, roots, stem tendrils, leaf
tendrils, or sensitive petioles.

Lately we have been specially interested in studying trees. It had
been a drawback that in studying the structure of buds, methods of
branching, &c., we had no better materials than cut specimens or trees
seen on excursions. This year there has been planted in the garden a
specimen of every common English tree not already possessed by us, and
we hope that in future the girls will draw different stages of development
of the buds of oak, beech, ash, sycamore, maple, willow, d&ec., while still
on the trees.

Two years ago we thought of making a pond for water plants, but
this was judged inadvisable, and instead of a pond in the garden a tank is
provided in our new botanical laboratory.

As gardening is not a regular branch of the school work, and no school
time is allowed for it, the work must be voluntary ; but there are many
applications for Botany gardens, and great enthusiasm is shown, The
school is a day-school, so digging, planting, weeding, and watering are
done in the dinner hour, or in the hour immediately following afternoon
school. The practical work appeals to many who would not be interested
in books, and in several cases the gardens have been the means of arousing,
a girl’s interest in plant life. In fact, we have found the out-of-door work
of such, value that we hope to extend it, and allow more and more of the
school work in Botany to depend on the observations and experiments
made by the girls in their gardens.

Exeursions.—The school excursion is highly valued as a means of
stimulating observation in the field, but we are inclined to think that for
want of attention to details its benefits are often imperfectly attained.
Excursions are sometimes wholly unprofitable. The leader stops now and
then to pick a flower, names it, mentions, perhaps, some curious feature
which it exhibits, pops it into his vasculum, and walks on. Most of the
party are not within hearing: they have no part assigned to them, and
they bring back nothing more valuable than a few dying flowers, with a
fleeting memory of some of their names. On a botanical excursion we
ought to remark not only flowers and the peculiarities which distinguish
them, but the ripening of fruits, the dispersal of seeds, and defences
against scorching sun or winter cold. It is only by visiting the same
plant at different seasons of the year that we become acquainted with
what may be called its biography. To insure the active co-operation of
all the members of the class, we have found it useful to distribute a cyclo-
styled programme, describing, but not as a rule naming, things which are.
to be looked for.

Example : A Moorland Walk.

1. Find several plants with rolled leaves.
2, Find a plant whose leaves are converted into spines, Look aut: far
seedlings of the same plant,

ON THE TEACHING OF BOTANY IN SCHOOLS, 427

8. Bring leaves of three moorland ferns, Can you find one which has
two distinct kinds of leaves ?

4, Find a moorland grass with fine wiry leaves. Can you find more
than one answering to this description ?

5, Find a moss which is very plentiful in swampy parts of the moor,
Find another which is plentiful in dry places, and occurs in two distinct
forms.

6. There is a low plant on the moor which is now in flower. Tt grows
in large patches, and from some of these patches we kick up dust with
our feet, while other patches yield no dust. Bring specimens of each
sort.

7. How many years old is the biggest stem of ling which you can
find ?

The objects brought can be named and discussed at convenient halting-
places. The school excursion should have a definite aim lest it degenerate
into the raid upon wild flowers. It is a good plan to follow it up within
a very few days by a lesson on the same objects.

Collecting.—We have a poor opinion of drying plants as an incentive
to the study of Botany. The dried plant is an inadequate substitute for
the living and growing plant, and finds its principal use in the authenti-
cation of botanical discoveries made in distant lands. The habit of
collecting plants for the herbarium may be hostile to close study of the
environment, and confirm the pernicious belief that the thing of chief
importance is to be able to name a plant as soon as you see it. One
lamentable result of the rapacity of collectors is that our native flora has
become sensibly impoverished of late years, There is little gain to science
by way of compensation. Amateur herbarium botanists have not, in our
own time and country, done much to solve important questions of any
kind, and they often propagate the misleading notion that rare species
are better worth attention than common ones. The rarity of a plant is a
reason, not for gathering a flower and drying it, but for letting it alone,
unless, indeed, you can accomplish some important and unselfish purpose
only by its sacrifice.

The museum, like the herbarium, may easily be perverted from its
proper function and made a means of oppressing the intelligence of young
persons. A vast multiplicity of objects bewilders instead of stimulating
the observing faculty. We do not mean for a moment to disparage
museums. ‘They are indispensable to the special student, who, as science
advances, demands that the museum shal] become ever more complete and
more rigidly systematic. But the wants of the specialist and of the
schoolboy are so dissimilar that they cannot be met by the same collec-
tion. A school will be fortunate if it possesses a few striking objects of
nature or art, such as a Roman altar, two or three Greek coins, a fine
ichthyosaur, a mammoth’s tusk, and the like ; but long series of woods,
seeds, moths, fossils, and minerals are simply dispiriting to the beginner.
Schoolboys can do nothing with them except make inferior copies of the
same kind. It ought to be needless to remark that the needs and also
the powers of the schoolboy are altogether unlike those of the adult
specialist. The specialist attends to few things and seeks to master those
in every detail, Precise language and minutely accurate knowledge are
indispensable to him. He has chosen his walk of life, and knows that his
strength and usefulness largely depend upon his power of concentration,
The schoolboy js untrained, and his future vacation often unknown. Naw

428 REPORT—19038.

is the time for him to learn the scope of various sciences, literatures, and
histories. But the workshop routine of the professed botanist may do the
schoolboy harm instead of good.

In our opinion both herbaria and museums are indispensable to.
scientific progress. They have their uses even to children, and many
naturalists have begun by collecting. But there are things more advan-
tageous and more appropriate to the first stage of botanical study than
the accumulation of a pile of wild flowers, dried and named. School
collections, illustrating the dispersal of fruits and seeds, the shapes of
leaves in connection with bud folding and exposure of the largest possible
surface to light, resistance to drought or cold, &c., may be made to gratify
the collecting instinct in a harmless way, and at the same time to promote
definite inquiries. It is the mechanical habit of collecting for selfish ends,
and without any scientific purpose, that we wish to discourage.

Systematic Botany in the School.—The time to introduce systematic
Botany into the school course is the time when the need for it is felt,
Good teaching will soon make it desirable that the class should be able to
recognise such families as grasses and leguminous plants. The families,
introduced to notice one by one and illustrated by fresh examples, soon
become interesting, and even children delight in the power to run down
the easier flowers. Simple descriptions of the families of flowering plants,
in which the Latin words are cut down toa minimum, will greatly promote
the attractiveness and intelligibility of early lessons in classification. We
have no high opinion of the description in technical language, once so
strongly recommended, nor of the filling up of schedules. All this is apt to
divert attention from things of greater consequence, and to stupefy the
docile, while it alienates pupils of active disposition. One independent
observation, one carefully conducted experiment, is worth sheaves of
schedules.

The Teacher to devise his own Cowrse.—-It is natural that the teacher
should seek the help of books in preparing his lessons on plants. Such
help only becomes mischievous when he becomes dependent upon others
alike for information and method. Servile reproduction of another man’s
lessons is a proof of incompetence. Not only do we maintain that the
language and the selection of facts should be the teacher’s own, but we
would have him plan his own course of work. The unenterprising teacher
may look upon the detailed syllabus as a safeguard, but to a teacher of
any spirit it is intolerable tyranny. The low condition of elementary
science in our schools is largely due to unwise examining. The detailed
syllabus, the worship of technical language, the authoritative enunciation
of general principles to pupils who have no knowledge of concrete facts,
and the practice—still widespread—of endeavouring to learn a science by
heart are largely due to the influence of public examinations. Liberty
for the teacher is essential to progress on good lines. How to reconcile
liberty with tests of efficiency is a difficult but by no means an insoluble
problem.

Microscopes in School Work.—The appliances required for junior
classes in Botany are few and simple. Much may be done with common
knives, needles, and simple lenses. When the dissection of plants becomes
a regular occupation, an inexpensive dissecting microscope such as that
sold by Leitz of Wetzlar for 8s. will fulfil many requirements. Still
simpler home-made stands will answer the purpose. It is good for any
teacher who has a mechanical turn to devise his own microscope. To make

ON THE TEACHING OF BOTANY IN SCHOOLS. 429

them really useful there should be at least one to every pair of pupils. The
compound microscope should never appear in junior classes, and we are
inclined to think that it will be best to reserve it for the highest form in
a secondary school.

Histological details and a khowledge of microscopic plants are often
expected of pupils who have never had the use of a microscope. This
inevitably leads to unreal teaching.

Other Teuching Appliances.—Diagrams and lantern slides are often
made too much of in school work. They should be mere accessories which
have their uses in particular cases. A good teacher will not depend upon
them, atid will usually prefer the dratying made in class. To make the
inost of simple means is an education in itself.

The Teaching of Science in Hlementary Schools—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. K. ArMsTRoNG (Secretary), Lord
AveEBURY, Professor W, R. Dunstan, Mr. GEORGE GLADSTONE,
Sir Puitie Maenus, Sir H. E. Roscor, Professor A. SMITHELLS,
and Professor 8. P. THompson.

Dr. Grapstonn’s death last year, at the age of seventy-five years, has
removed one of the most familiar, sympathetic, and welcomed figures
from the meetings of the British Association. The services which he
rendered to the cause of elementary education, especially in London,
although well known to his friends, have yet to be fully appreciated.
Elected a member in 1873, he retired from the School Board for London
only in 1894; throughout this time he was one of its most active
members, making himself specially prominent as an advocate of spelling
reform, of object-lesson teaching, of manual training and of the teaching
of Elementary Science. Perhaps the most enduring testimony of the
interest Dr. Gladstone took in elementary education is afforded by the
unbroken series of reports, commencing in 1881, presented by your Com-
mittee, These reports were almost wholly inspired by him, when not his
actual work ; to those who knew him, their generally hopeful, indeed
optimistic, tone affords good evidence of his guiding hand. ‘The influence
which he exercised on the London School Board—the value on such a
body of even a single staunch advocate of a policy—is, perhaps, best
shown by the fact that after his retirement the Board soon ceased to
maintain the teaching of Science in their schools on the level of efficiency
which it was beginning to assume, and only last year woke up to the fact
that the subject was one requiring special attention. There could be no
better illustration of the haphazard manner in which it has been our
custom to conduct education.

It was felt last year that the Committee had in great measure served
‘its purpose—that, in view of the changes which have taken place in
the educational policy of the country, if any such Committee were to be
‘again appointed, it should be a new one having a more definite line of
action marked out for it. It was, therefore, agreed that a final report
should be presented this year. In view of the grievous loss which has
deprived them of their Chairman, your Committee feel that they cannot
bring their labours to a more fitting conclusion than by calling special
attention to the work which will ever serve to recall Dr. Gladstone’s
services to educational science in connection with the Association.

430 REPORT—19038.

Dr. Gladstone first brought the subject of scientific teaching under
notice at Sheffield in 1879 in a paper read in Section F (Economic
Science), in which he referred to the action taken by the School Board
for London. At the same meeting Mr. Moss, clerk to the Sheffield
School Board, and Mr. Hance, clerk to the Liverpool School Board,
described the steps that had been taken to introduce teaching in
Elementary Science into the schools in their districts. Mr. Moss spoke of
the need for really good teachers. Mr. Hance described the manner in
which demonstrations were given by peripatetic teachers.

Dr. Gladstone and his friends were evidently alive to the difficulties
that would arise in judging of the work done in schools, for at the
Sheffield meeting a committee was appointed to consider ‘whether it
is important that H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be
appointed with reference to their ability for examining in the scientific
specific subjects of the Code in addition to other matters.’

Mr. Mundella was first Chairman of this Committee, Dr. Gladstone
being the Secretary. The report, presented at Swansea, referred to the
incapacity of the inspectorate to examine in Science and advocated that
steps should be taken to secure the appointment of qualified men. The
subsequent neglect of Science in elementary schools is in no slight degree
due to the fact that this recommendation was neglected.

The Committee was reappointed at Swansea to report ‘on the manner
in which rudimentary science should be taught and how examinations
should be held therein in elementary schools.’

In their report, presented at York in 1881, after considering the
manner in which rudimentary Science was taught, recommendations were
made :—

As to object lessons.—That these should be taken into account in
estimating the teaching given in an infant school.

As to class subjects—-That these should be given preferably through
illustrated oral lessons rather than by reading.

As to specific Science subjects.—That a knowledge of the facts of
nature is an essential part of the education of every child and that it
should be given continuously during the whole of school life from the
baby class to the highest standard. Of course in early years this teach-
ing will be very rudimentary ; but by developing the child’s powers of
perception and comparison it will prepare it for a gradual extension of
such knowledge. They consider also that the early teaching must be
very general, while the later may be more specific.

Up to the present day this last recommendation has been almost
entirely disregarded.

The Committee urged, with reference to the prominence given to
English grammar in the Code, that the knowledge of Nature should be
put on an equal footing in the schools with the analysis of the mother
tongue.

Mr. Mundella had just laid upon the table of the House of Commons
certain proposals for revision of the Code; the Committee was, therefore,
reappointed in 1881 to ‘watch and report on the workings of the pro-
posed revised new Code and of other legislation affecting the teaching of
Science in elementary schools.’

Desiring that the knowledge of Nature should be more effectually
encouraged as a class subject, the Secretary, at the request of the

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 4951

‘Committee, saw Mr. Mundella, the Vice-President of the Committee of
Council on Education. He found him desirous of receiving the views of
the Committee. ‘The Committee thereupon agreed upon certain recom-
mendations, which were adopted by the Council of the Association and
transmitted to the Education Department. The Government adopted
some of these recommendations in whole or in part.

‘From 1883 onwards the Committee was annually reappointed ‘for the
purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to the teaching of Science in
Elementary schools. Prior to 1894 it was attached to the Economic
Section ; in that year and until the foundation of Section L in 1901 it
was appointed under the auspices of Section B.

Kach year prior to 1901, until the introduction of the Block Grant
deprived the Committee of the opportunity, a statistical statement has
been made, derived from the Government returns, of the proportion of the
children examined in the scientific subjects. These have shown con-
siderable fluctuation ; the proportion has never risen above 30 per
cent. But there has always been great difficulty in interpreting such
returns and they undoubtedly convey far too favourable an impression.
To quote from the report of 1901 :—‘ Up to 1890 the Government Code
of regulations for day schools was so framed as practically to exclude
natural and experimental Science. Schools were at that time limited to
two'so-called ‘ class subjects,” which were specifically defined as “ English,
Geography, History, and Elementary Science,” of which English must be
one. Of the other three “Geography ” has always been the most popular
and ‘‘Elementary Science” the least. Hence in the year 1889-90 the num-
ber of school departments in which ‘‘ English ” was taken amounted to no
fewer than 20,304, while “ Elementary Science ” was taught in only thirty.
two. At that period the instruction in English was almost exclusively
confined to grammatical exercises and that in Geography to topographical
details. Nowadays both terms are to be understood in a much broader
and more scientific sense. At the period above named a free choice
amongst these subjects was given, the preponderance of English grammar
began to decline and has continued to do so ever since. In 1890-91 the
figures for English and Elementary Science were 19,825 and 173 respec-
tively ; in 1891-92 they were 18,175 and 788. The table given below
will show the comparative figures each succeeding year te 1899-1900.
Object lessons were made an obligatory subject of instruction in the three
lower standards from September 1, 1896 ; hence the rapid rise in the two
succeeding years. They then became merged into the general term of
Elementary Science, and, following the terminology of the Code, may
sometimes be included under the head of Geography.’

Class Subjects— ink oe * ; ollie
Dapartulstits 1892-3 | 1893-4 | 1894-5 | 1895-6 | 1896-7 | 1897-8 | 1898-9 2 freon 1900
Bui. = | ai
English . . «. «| 17,894} 17,032 | 16,280 | 15,327] 14,286 | 13 06 | 13194 | 12,993
Premplty - . - | se ir 15,250 | 15,702 | 16,171 | 16,646 Ws ve 17,872 18,632
Elementary Science . 1,078 1,215 1,712 2,237 | 2,617 143
Object Lessons... | = Z 2 Siig | 8,321 | 21'882 |) ae | “sani

When the character of the work which has been done is considered,
the progress made is undoubtedly unsatisfactory. It is beyond question
that ‘Science’ has in no way taken its proper place in our system of

432 REPORT—1903,

elementary education. Here and there work of the very greatest value
has been done ; but such cases are all too rare.

There are many and obvious reasons for the failure. Pupil teachers,
as a rule, have received no proper instruction in the subject and, with few
exceptions, the training colleges have done little to promote rational
methods of teaching the elementary principles of Science and their
application to common life. The inspectorate have had but little
sympathy with such work and the Education Department itself long
took no interest in the subject. The School Boards also have given little
help, owing to the fact that they have rarely counted among their
members men able to understand the great importance of training in
scientific method. In so far as the work has prospered at all, it has
been mainly under the egis of the Science and Art Department ; but
by placing a premium on certificates they have done much to discouragt
other than superficial knowledge of individual subjects in teachers.
Unfortunately the requirements of the Science and Art Department with
reference to specific subjects have rarely been such as to encourage a class
of work suitable for elementary schools. A protest from this point of
view against the inclusion of specific science subjects in the Code was
made by the Joint Scholarships Board in 1897 in a memorandum
forwarded to the Vice-President of the Council. The principal recom-
mendation was as follows! :—‘That in order to place “Science” on a
sounder footing in Elementary Schools and, above all, in order that the
teaching of the subject may be of real value educationally, it is desirable
that only one Science subject should be taught up to and within the Sixth
Standard, and that the course should be a progressive one. It seems that
this might be accomplished by adopting exclusively Course H. given in the
Supplement to Schedule 2 of the Day School Code.’

Unfortunately no effect has yet been given to this recommendation
by the Education Department.

There can be little doubt that the most effective experiment yet made
is that carried out under the London School Board in the Tower Hamlets
and Hackney districts by Mr. Gordonand then by Mr. Heller. Although
the London Board failed to understand the great work done under its
auspices and made no proper arrangements to carry it on when Mr. Heller
quitted their service in 1897, it has been appreciated by others, especially
by the late Professor FitzGerald and his colleagues on the Commission on
Manual and Practical Instruction in Primary Schools in Ireland. In
fact, since 1900 Mr. Heller has been engaged as Head Organiser of
Science Instruction in Irish Elementary Schools. The system developed
in London schools is therefore in full force in Ireland ? and it is to Ireland
that we must now look for guidance.

The great obstacles to good Science teaching at the present time in
elementary schools are still, in the words of the report of 1895 :—

1 Report, 1897, p. 291.

2 The subject—General Elementary Science—has been made a compulsory part
of the curriculum of national schools and the conditions of object lesson teaching
have been carefully defined. Satisfactory laboratory instruction must be given to
all students in training colleges. In 1901 the Commissioners of National Education
ordered that ‘the entire inspection staff’ should undergo a course of training in
laboratory work and the methods of experimental inquiry. Mr. Heller was origin-
ally appointed only for five years; his appointment has recently been made a
permanent one, however.

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, 438

Large classes.
. Multitude of subjects,
. Insufficiency of the training course for teachers in Science subjects.
Effects of the old Science and Art system, which is clearly far too
formal and pays far too little attention to ordinary requirements.

Hm CO Lo et

In girls’ schools the teaching of Domestic Science and Domestic
Economy is gradually assuming importance, but it is to be feared that
the course is rarely of a satisfactory character, being far too formal and
inelastic, besides lacking a proper scientific basis.

The same may be said of Nature Study. There is a danger that
education authorities, realising the value, as a training and as a matter
of interest, of ‘ Nature Study,’ will force instruction in this subject in
schools in which the teachers are quite unable to handle it effectively by
reason of their want of scientific training and knowledge.

Lastly, it should be pointed out that j your Committee has always taken
a deep interest in manual training. At Southport, in 1883, a recom-
mendation was passed that this Committee ‘ be requested to consider the
desirableness of making representations to the Lords of the Committee
of Her Majesty’s Privy Council on Education in favour of aid being
extended towards the fitting up of workshops in connection with elementary
day schools or evening classes and of making grants on the results of
practical instruction in such workshops under suitable direction and, if
necessary, to communicate with the Council.’ In 1885 the Committee
reported to the Council that they did consider it desirable to make
representations to the Education Department. The Council unfortunately
missed an opportunity, as they did not see their way to proceed further
in the matter.

Since then manual training has acquired considerable importance in
elementary schools: the introduction of such work was in no small
measure due to the activity of two members of your Committee, Dr. Glad-
stone and Sir Philip Magnus, on the Joint Committee of the City and
Guilds of London Institute, the Drapers’ Company and the School Board
for London. There is little doubt that the educational value of this
subject has not yet been sufficiently appreciated and that the time is
now come to introduce broader conceptions and largely extend it.

In view of the national importance of developing the scientific spirit
in elementary schools, it is not too much to say that it is now the duty
of the Association to intervene with constructive proposals which will
promote such an object: judging from the great success which has
attended the labours of the Committee on the teaching of chemistry
in schools and the recent discussion on the teaching of mathematics,
there can be little doubt that a general inquiry might now be undertaken
with great advantage and that proposals might be made which would be
of the greatest value in guiding educational authorities generally. It
appears desirable that a special Committee should be appointed to report
upon the course of experimental, observational, and practical studies most
suitable for elementary schools and generally as to the steps which it is
desirable to take to secure proper attention to and encouragement of
such studies. All who have paid attention to the subject will probably
agree that some organised effort should now be made to.extend the teach-
ing of scientific method.

1903. FF

434 REPORT—1908.

Influence of Examinations.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of the BisHop OF HEREFORD, Sir MicHAeL Foster, Sir
P. Maenus, Sir A. W. Ricker, Sir O. J. LopGr, Mr. H. W.
Eve, Mr. W. A. Saensrone, Mr. W. D. Eaaar, Professor
MarsHaLt Warp, Mr. F. H. Nevitur, Mrs. W. N. Suaw, Dr.
C. W. Kiunins, Dr. H. E. Armstrona (Chairman), and R. A.
GREGORY (Secretary), appointed to consider and report upon the
Influence exercised by Universities and Kauamining Bodies on
Secondary School Curricula; also of the Schools on University
Requirements. (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

Durine the past few months the regulation of examinations has occupied
the attention of a number of public bodies. It is an open secret that the
Consultative Committee have had the subject of a school-leaving exami-
nation under consideration, as they have consulted both university
authorities and teachers on the question ; and that there is a trend of
opinion in such a direction is shown, for example, by the action recently
taken by the University of London in the matter of school examinations,

Aza preliminary step a circular has been issued to the members of
the Head Masters’ Conference and other heads of schools, and to a
number of university tutors, &c. ; but as yet only a limited area has been
covered, and it will probably be desirable to extend the inquiry in order
to ascertain the opinion of teachers in general as well as of other com-
petent persons.

Tn inviting opinions the following statement was made :—

For the purposes of this inquiry it is desired to obtain opinions from
those whose work is affected in one way or another, or who have special
opportunities of judging, with the object of eventually placing on record
a clear statement of any objections that may be felt to attach to existing
practices ; and more especially to suggest alterations or remedies which
if introduced would favourably influence the work both of schools and
universities,

The subjects to which attention may be particularly directed are :—

1. The effect of examinations generally on school curricula. Do they,
on the whole, tend to direct the teaching along reasonable lines ; or do
they interfere with the liberty of action of schools, and check the
development of individuality and the power of independent thought ?

2. The effect of specific examinations, both as‘affecting general training
and as encouraging undue specialisation, either on the humanistic or the
scientific side.

3. 'The need of unifying examinations with the object in view, among
others, that certain examinations may serve a common purpose, ¢.g., as
qualifying examinations for entrance upon a course of professional study.

4, The need of preventing examinations from becoming stereotyped
and behind the times, and thus discouraging the development of new or
improved methods. How far does an interchange of opinion between the
teaching profession and examining bodies already take place, and to what
extent might it be extended ? ‘

5. The possibility of arranging outside examinations so as to test what

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS, 435

has really been taught in the School, leaving the Teachers a freer hand
than in the past, and arranging for their co-operation on the Examining
Board, in the setting of the questions and in considering the answers.

6, The possibility of arranging so that examinations conducted on the
basis of papers set so as to suit individual schools, with the answers
marked in the first instance by the Teachers, subsequently criticised and
standardised by outside authority, shall serve, when passed above a certain
standard in a given range of subjects, as equivalent to the Entrance
Examination for a University or for a Profession.

7, The extent to which certain subjects are to be regarded as neces-
sary and others as optional. In particular, how far do University entrance
examinations tend to promote a good all-round education ?

8. The suitability of the training at present given in Schools as
preparation for higher studies, (#) at the Universities and (6) in Technical
Schools.

9. The suitability of the training given in Universities and elsewhere
. aS a preparation for the teaching profession.

The following passages taken from the various replies (fifty-six) illus-
trate the general character of the answers given. Provisionally names
are not attached to the answers, but only numbers. S indicates that the
opinion comes from a school; U, that it comes from a university.
Thirty-five opinions are from schools, twenty-one from universities.

1, The effect of examinations generally on school curricula. Do they,
on the whole, tend to direct the teaching along reasonable lines ; or do
they interfere with the liberty of action of schools, and check the
development of individuality and the power of independent thought ?

While pointing out the many evils which attend examinations, the
majority take the view that in some form they are necessary. It is
generally recognised that there has been a marked tendency to develop
and improve examinations of late years.

8 26. Examination has its place in education ; and over and above
this must be applied and endured as a test of relative merit and ability.
Educationally its value depends on just co-ordination with the teaching
given ; and the more strict and definite the limits of a subject are, the
more possible it is to secure such wholesome co-ordination from an ex-
ternal examiner. At the present time external examinations are carried
to such wasteful and mischievous excess that they are doing more harm
than good to the advance of education, and unfortunately tell most upon
the best boys.

Every professional body appears to hold that it is forwarding educa-
tion, or perhaps rather satisfying self-respect and rising to its position,
by instituting schemes of examination and insisting on those particular
tests as alone valid. Every British university frames its own scheme
of subjects and books, to the exclusion of all others. Colleges, commis-
sioners, boards, and committees follow the same course in respect of
scholarship or admission tests. The schemes are arbitrary, conflicting,
and needlessly inelastic, and together make havoc of all unity in school
eurricula. No one familiar with the whole field can place much faith
in the opposed and contradictory conclusions enforced by different
authorities. For instance, what a hotch-potch results from the place given

to Paley, Jevons, Greek Testament, and trigonometry at Cambridge
FF2

A436 REPORT—19038.

to mechanics and science at London ; to history and English at Victoria
University! Or, again, a boy is preparing for the Army: if he takes
the Woolwich or Sandhurst route, Greek is virtually (except under heavy
forfeit) disallowed ; if finally he prefers Oxford, it is enforced. Even if
he passes Responsions twelve or fifteen months before going into resi-
dence the college insists upon his keeping up Greek for matriculation
purposes and subordinating or neglecting modern languages and mathe-
matics until residence begins. These are but illustrations of a com-
plicated mass of divergences. The total result of such pedantic and
inelastic compulsions is disastrous, and is needlessly intensified by the
usage of ‘school books’ in language examinations. The preliminary
examinations for graduation (Smalls, Little Go, &c.) have been flung
upon the schools, unity of curriculum has been made impossible, and the
final year of school preparation is broken up by distracting and dis-
cordant examination calls.

Consider first the abler boys, candidates for scholarships or exhibi-
tions. Successive scholarship competitions, ‘ Responsions,’ ‘ Preliminary,’
or ‘ Additional’ examinations at Oxford or Cambridge, college entrance
and matriculation tests, added to the indispensable school examinations
on work done and for the adjudication of school awards, break up the
year with harassing (and expensive) absences, and not much less than
a quarter of a boy’s whole time is wasted in examinations ; while the
preparation of set books on subjects encroaches seriously upon the
remainder left available.

For less able boys the latter form of encroachment becomes much
more serious. In practice for one, two, or (in extreme cases) three terms
of the final school year boys must be withdrawn from parts or the whole
of the school curriculum, forfeiting the stimulus, the emulation, and the
interest that attaches to collective learning, and must be set in ones or
twos to prepare the particular subjects or authors imposed by the
authority to whose regulations he must conform each detail. To make
matters worse, the examinations are timed quite irrespectively of school
terms, and as a net result produce more idleness, more bad and broken
and undirected work, than any other single cause to which I could point.

As to the effect of examinations upon study and teaching, external
and impersonal examinations certainly tend to narrow, not to widen,
the range ; and the higher the stage reached, the more this becomes true.
In the field of humanistic studies time and interest expended upon literary
contest or side issues (é.g., historical, archzeological, artistic, mythological,
philosophical, &c.) will pretty certainly be thrown away, and from the
examination point of view what pays is close adherence to the standard
commentary or text-book on the subject. On the whole this sets, and
probably rightly, the limits beyond which the impersonal examiner
hardly feels it proper to travel in examining a mixed field of candidates.
Of some branches of science this is less true. But here, too, examination
is apt to be restrictive and sterilising unless intimately co-ordinated with
the teacher's work. In biology, for instance, or botany, two hours
a week given to some representative corner of the subject is incom-
parably more educative than general outlines ; but if gauged by impersonal
examination tests might seem to yield an absolute zero of result.

But it seems waste of time to enlarge upon these obvious and admitted
evils. Is any remedy or alleviation possible ?

S 30. General examinations in all subjects are wholly pernicious in

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 437

their effects, not only in checking individuality and progress among
teachers, but in tending to substitute facility of reproduction for origin-
ality of thought among the taught. It is a bitter disappointment to a
young fellow to find at twenty-two that the work required to get on in
the world is of a different nature from that which has hitherto brought
him success in examinations.

It may happen that a boy has to get up the same subjects over and
over again, to pass some examination in which he has been ploughed in
some other subject. For instance, I have known a boy’s whole education
at a standstill for a year while he is getting up some one subject for the
London Matriculation ; and I have known boys go in four or five times
for the L.C.C. Intermediate Scholarships, getting up the same ‘ elementary
experimental science’ year after year, their scientific education meanwhile
being at a standstill.

8 35. The substitution of unseens for prepared books in the Civil
Service examinations has an utterly cramping effect, as it leads to study
of cram books of unseens instead of authors. Ordinary examination
reports are useless, especially those issued by the Oxford and Cambridge
Boards on inspectional papers.

8 25. Thinks that the examination of schools in classical and English
subjects, which is mainly done by the universities, is done very badly.
Points out faults and suggests reforms, thus :

1, Wrong men chosen for examiners—persons who have no experi-
ence in teaching in schools or persons who have failed in it.
2. Theory of examination misunderstood. Its real functions are—

(a) to stimulate boys ;
(6) to inform outsiders and governors of condition of school ;
(c) to improve the teaching.

The first is partially attained, the second very inadequately performed,
the third (by far the most important) practically neglected. The teachers
have no confidence in the competence of the examiners to advise or
criticise.

3. Method wrong.

(a) Examination wholly or mainly on paper, and does not touch
some of the most important parts of the master’s work, e.g., training of
character.

(6) Papers badly set—

(a) far too long for boys to have time to think ;
(3) test memory rather than brains ;
(y) questions often loosely and obscurely worded.

(a) The reports are practically useless. They do not-deal at all with
the training of character. Owing to the constant change of examiners
they cannot detect forgers or deterioration. The examiner usually takes
one or two forms, instead of one subject from top to bottom of a school,
and so cannot detect the weak points. He never comes into real contact
with the actual teachers. He does not know how many seeming failures
may be due to causes beyond the teacher’s control.

438 REPORT—1908.

Result is to (1) confine teacher to old ruts and discourage all attempts
at improvement.

(2) Cause the teacher to devote disproportionate amount of time to
written work.

(3) Foster ‘cram.’ The teacher considers, not what is best for the
boys, but what the examiner will ask.

Reforms suggested: (1) Examiners should be drawn only from
experienced and enlightened schoolmasters.

(2) Examiner should report, not merely on attainments of boys, but on
curriculum, books, and school arrangements generally. Bad work is as
often due to bad arrangements as to bad teaching.

Especially (3) examiner should spend several days at the school,
listening to teaching and, above all, coming into close contact with teachers,
so that he may know their aims and difficulties, and may give advice and
encouragement rather than criticism.

(4) In the setting of papers the teacher should have a voice and a
right of veto on such as he may deem unsuitable.

(5) Examiners should remain in office for several years, so as to
observe progress and become intimate with the teachers.

Such reforms would, I believe, do much to free the teacher’s hands.
He would be encouraged to try new methods, and would be able to give
practical effect to what is at present too often a mere theory, that a
schoolmaster’s real work should be directed, not to immediate and often
superficial results, but to building up the character and training the
intellect for life.

S 33. The effect on school curricula nil because it does not seem to be
the business of examiners to criticise the curriculum or the time-table.

8 11. Examinations should conform to the teaching.

$ 32. At present examination rules education. The learner is
spoon-fed, and everything is made easy for him in order to get marks.

8 10. Examining bodies now more ready to take advice than they
were.

$19. In general the existence of and regard for outside examinations
is useful to the schools as promoting a breadth and balance of the curri-
cula. But the severity of examining bodies, &c., complicates and embar-
rasses school organisation.

S 9. On the whole, examinations, such as those of the Joint Board,
are arranged on reasonable lines as far as curricula go. Perhaps required
as a stimulus to the British boy. Regrets the tendency to conduct all
examinations in writing, thus making exact but not ready men.

S 22. On the whole the examinations set by the Universities do tend
to direct the teaching along reasonable lines, A notable exception is
afforded in the fact that they do not test a practical knowledge of modern
languages. Again, the retention of Greek as a necessary subject in the
entrance examinations to Oxford and Cambridge is an anachronism. I
am entirely in favour of the Bishop of Hereford’s proposal.

8S 18. Approves of the Higher Certificate examination, and would
rather see Matriculation examinations on the same lines. The Victoria
and London examinations are presumably for boys of sixteen ; really they
are for boys of seventeen or eighteen, Matriculation examinations should
be general, not specialised, but with groups of subjects ; nor should undue
prominence be given to special subjects. The Oxford and Cambridge
Locals Preliminary is useless.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 439

S 5. The Certificate examinations of Oxford and Cambridge tend to
direct the teaching of most subjects along reasonable lines and interfere
little with the liberty of action of schools. Army examinations with
their cast-iron system of marking deserve the criticism they have lately
received.

S 2. Examinations such as those of the Joint Board and the Locals
on the whole seem to direct the teaching along reasonable lines ; neverthe-
less they tend to check independence of action and of thought (a) in setting
special books on periods, (b) in the mode of examining in modern languages.
Some oral test is needed.

S 4. Everything depends on the character of the examiner.

S 13. Curricula should not be controlled by examinations but directly,
and the examinations (more limited than at present and at early ages)
arranged to fit the curricula.

S 15. Some interference is probably inevitable. On the whole it has
diminished in evil effect very much within my recollection, chiefly because
better papers (on the average) are now set. The worst effects are not, I
think, direct, but are transmitted through the text-books. A bad exami-
nation always produces a crop of these in a few years, and many of them
are indescribably stupid and disheartening. An Index Expurgatorius of
such books might be of use to those engaged in reforming examinations.
The object should be to make the examination of such a character that
these books would not enable a candidate to ‘ score.’

S 34. Thinks that only the highest forms of a school should be sub-
ject to outside tests.

S 12. Examinations have of late years become much more elastic.
Those who frame the various programmes show a desire to encourage a
liberal school curriculum.

S 1. Ever since the first examinations for the I.C.S. came into
full play the whole question has weighed on me like a nightmare.
I believe that examinations as they are—with some rare exceptions—are
giving a totally wrong trend to education. They are subsidising the
receptive and discouraging the training of the instructive powers of the
mind ; they are encouraging asort of cut-and-dried mode of teaching and
learning which would have driven Arnold wild ; indeed, under such
auspices an Arnold could not arise, and (especially the Army examina-
tions) they are imbuing most of their victims with a lively detestation of
study. I believe that the dislike to the study of their profession, so
marked in Army officers, is the natural fruit of their cramming to get
into Sandhurst. Education cannot exist on an Army side, and cram-
ming disgusts its victims. The true remedy seems to me to be to reform
and not to abolish examinations. What should be encouraged by them
is not crammed knowledge but mastery of a subject and intelligence.

The particular subjects of education appear to me to be of very
secondary importance so long as the cultivation of ‘the constructive and
original rather than of the receptive faculties of the mind is the object
aimed at.

S 3. Existing examinations have a most evil effect on school curricula
and liberty of action in the larger schools, which are run by men who
will rejoice in rather than abuse such liberty. Here we are blessed with
an absolutely free hand, and teach how and what we like as far as
science is concerned ; the result is a large body of boys who are honestly
keen on working at science (up to their lights, which are.dim) in

440 REPORT—1903.

a school where intellectual effort tends to be rather despised. When
necessary these boys pass examinations all right afterwards, such as
Trinity Scholarship examinations and triposes. We never have to
‘produce results,’ so give all our time to educating the boys.

U 6. Effect on the whole good—a great help to the head master in
resisting pressure put upon him by parents and amateurs.

U 7. While recognising the evils of the system is forced to recognise
its very great merits as a most useful instrument in proper hands.

U 11. The Oxford and Cambridge Board examinations have had a
beneficial effect upon school curricula : they have (a) made teaching and
learning more methodical, (6) widened the scope of school studies, (c)
brought important instruments on education into general use.

U 13. However reasonable the schedule of an examination may be,
the preparation of candidates for it, in my opinion, checks development
of individuality in both teacher and pupil. If a teacher has a special
interest in some part of the work, and by his interest awakens that of
his pupils, he is necessarily pulled up by the feeling that his students
have to be prepared for the examination and the points in which both
teacher and pupils are interested have to be left.

Far too much energy is wasted in England in setting and looking
over examination papers.

U 18. The tendency has been steadily for improvement—they do now
on the whole offer a reasonable scheme of work. Boy nature being what
it is, a great step is taken when a motive has been suggested for indi-
vidual and unassisted effort. This motive has been supplied by examina-
tions. It is not, however, a good thing for schools—when it can be
avoided—to depend for support on the results of a particular examina-
tion. The effect is almost inevitably that teaching is narrowed and
everything neglected which does not ‘pay.’ Where this arrangement is
rendered necessary by circumstances it is most important that such
examinations should be as wide, liberal, and varied as possible, and that
every effort should be made to secure that the papers set should offer as
little scope for ‘cramming’ as possible ; and as, after all, the skill of the
crammer is pretty sure to be a match for the examiner, such examinations
should be, at any rate in part, viva voce, by which method such teaching
is most readily detected. With this precaution I do not think an
examination need ‘ check the development of individuality and the power
of independent thought.’

U 19. If sufficiently broad and conducted by examiners of experience
need not check individuality, &e. On the whole advantageous as stimu-
lating effort ; often a means of enabling the schoolmaster to judge whether
his work is in line with that of other schools.

2. The effect of specific examinations, both as affecting general training
and as encouraging undue specialisation, either on the humanistic or the
scientific side.

Very little difference of opinion exists on this subject.

8 26. Scholarship examinations do certainly bring irresistible pressure
to bear in favour of early and injudicious specialisation. So far as scholar-
ships go the classical boy does well to discard all mathematics, modern
languages, or science ; the mathematician to renounce classics and modern
languages, ke. For this I see no remedy short of a complete change of
system, which is impracticable. Examiners approach their subject as

ON THE INFLUENGE OF EXAMINATIONS. 441

specialists and judge accordingly, while they give little or no weight toa
sound background of training in other subjects. I have no faith in first
forcing specialisation by scholarship tests and then attempting to redress
the balance by enforcing supplemental subjects through subsequent re-
quirements. This will but aggravate the evil and produce successive
bouts of cram—‘ Pull baker ! pull devil !’—according to the emergency.
It is better to leave them alone, recognising certain concomitants of
mischief as inevitable. The synchronising of examinations is a great
abatement of previous evils.

8 5. Entrance scholarship examinations at Oxford and Cambridge,
especially those given for mathematics and science, mischievously affect
‘ general training’ and encourage undue specialisation. The coil of their
system propagates itself downwards through the public schools into the
preparatory schools.

8 17. The professional examinations are bad, inasmuch as they do not
take the school training into account, but merely knowledge of facts.

§ 19. University scholarship examinations tend to over-specialisation ;
hardly any encouragement is given now to the double man at either
Cambridge or Oxford. The high range of knowledge exacted for mathe-
matical scholarships and the inordinate amount of experience in working
problems which a candidate must now possess, compels a specialisation in
mathematics which is certainly very detrimental to general development
of the mind, and tends to atrophy of the imaginative faculties, which
require literary nourishment. The want of this at the ages of sixteen
to nineteen can never afterwards be made up. Over-specialisation in
classics is less detrimental, as the study tends to widen the range of ideas
rather than narrow them.

$18. London County Council Exhibition Scholarship examinations
force specialisation at an absurdly early age. This is true of other
County Council examinations.

S 4. It is the offering of money rewards for learning certain things
which is so pernicious.

S$ 14. Specialising should be discouraged in every way. For school
examinations a school might be invited to submit its curriculum and
method, If this was pronounced sufficient for its type, it might be
inspected on it and judged by it. The question is, what are the results ?
Viva voce should always form a part, a V.V. on the ground covered.

Too little time is allotted to the literary work in organised science
schools ; too little for the mere training of mind. Mere school science,
unbalanced by thorough linguistic training—training in thought, not
mere grammar detail—is one-sided. It produces in second-rate minds
too exclusive an attention to mere symbols. Such minds find all
nuances of language extraordinarily difficult to master.

If a boy is transferred from the general side, rather late, to the
organised science side, he ‘licks the heads’ of the ordinary boys in a little
while in their own subjects.

S 3. There is much to be said for specialisation by a boy at the end of
his school course. It is a fashion to decry all specialisation as ‘undue’ ;
but a boy after he is seventeen gets a vast deal of good out of one side of
his work thoroughly dealt with which he would not get if he carried on
the one or two hours a week at everything, which is good up to then.
Of course I dislike complete dropping of all other subjects while he crams
for a school ; but I think he would do better, if he is in the VIth form, if

4.42 REPORT—1908.

he spent, say, three-quarters of his time really getting to know his one
branch thoroughly.

S 8. Specific Hxaminations.—(a) The higher certificate (Oxford and
Cambridge Board) encourages undue specialisation in a less degree than
the University Scholarship examinations. For the latter a boy of average
ability must specialise in one subject—classics, mathematics, or science—
at the age of sixteen or seventeen at the latest ; and the higher certifi-
cate examination follows the same lines, allowing a boy to compete in his
special subject if he has passed in the larger range of subjects ; (b) but
the worst offenders seem to be the Science Scholarships examinations,
which expect candidates to have covered much the same ground as the
Final Honours examination for a degree. Thus a boy has to acquire
some knowledge—which at eighteen cannot be thorough—of a large
number of subjects, instead of ensuring sound knowledge of a limited
range. The student is thereby also inclined to be stale before the end of
his time at the university ; (c) Army examinations require an all-round .
education ; but for the average candidate too much is required for
thoroughness.

S$ 13. The great defect of examinations affecting schools is the undue
multiplication of subjects and the consequent want of thoroughnesss all
round. The new regulations suggested by the Committee on Military
Education, as also those for London Matriculation, seem to me a great
improvement in this respect.

Much will be gained when it is clearly recognised that school work
must be general ; that curricula of some three or four types are sufficient ;
that specialisation is the work of the universities or technical scholarships.
This does not mean that a boy of high ability should not specialise at all
at school ; he may rightly do so in broad subjects—classics, modern
languages, mathematics, or science—but schools should not be asked to
give specialised or technical education of a narrow type.

U 19, In school examinations examiners should not ask questions of
a highly special nature ; it is difficult to avoid doing so when, as some-
times happens, schools send in highly specialised syllabuses,

U 7. The bases of knowledge are now being tampered with, whether
rightly or wrongly ; and so far as the newer humanistic studies are
concerned it would, in my opinion, be deplorable were students allowed
to specialise, say, in modern languages and literatures or history without
being subjected to some qualifying examination in Latin or Greek. There
should be some common examinations guaranteeing general education,
one examination with special reference to candidates preparing for
humanistic study and another for those preparing for scientific study.
Scientists will no doubt be divided on the question of making Latin
compulsory : they should be united, however, in demanding from all
candidates an adequate knowledge of English and some recognition of
good style in composition.

U 21. Does not consider the influence of University Entrance
Scholarships to be good, When examiners have no personal knowledge
of the candidates or of their previous careers, the difficulty of comparing
their abilities and their power of benefiting by a university training is
very great, and the examination is too likely to become a mere test of
acquirements. Such a result must prejudicially affect the previous educa-
tion of the candidates, particularly in tending to narrow their training to
an early preparation for a definite and specialised examination. As a

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS, 4435

general scheme of reform it would be well to devote more of the college
funds available for these purposes to scholarships for undergraduates who
have already begun residence, and especially to post-graduate fellowships
and studentships for research. An increase of the endowments of
secondary schools to enable them to award more leaving scholarships
tenable at a university, would be an efficient substitute for the present
system of open entrance scholarships at the colleges of Oxford and Cam-
bridge. Any such change would, however, require the co-ordination of
the whole secondary education of the country.

In arranging an open entrance scholarship examination in such a
subject as natural science the chief difficulty is to provide for two
distinct classes of candidates: (1) boys, often under eighteen years of
age, just leaving school ; and (2) those, usually rather older, who have
spent some time at a university or technical college, specialising on the
work in which they are to be examined. In order to help the school-
master to give a thorough training in the groundwork and main principles
of science, it is advisable that the papers set in the scholarship exami-
nations should largely deal with these parts of the subjects ; while, to
properly test the merits of older candidates who have spent some time
at the work, more advanced questions are requisite. A satisfactory
judgment cannot be formed on the results of the examination alone,
and under present circumstances it is necessary to make allowance
for what is known or can be ascertained of the antecedents of the
candidates.

U 10. University entrance scholarships, while successful in so far as
that they do pick out the able students in each subject, are at present
doing great harm by encouraging early and excessive specialisation to the
detriment of the student’s subsequent career. Thus, for their knowledge
of chemistry and physics, scholarships are awarded to boys of eighteen
who have in far too many cases a very inadequate grounding in mathe-
matics, are ignorant of history and of modern languages, possess a
smattering of Latin, and cram up subsequently enough Greek to carry
them through the ‘ Little Go’ or its equivalent. Equally bad is the case
of the winner of a classical scholarship who, beyond his knowledge of
Greek and Latin, has a slender acquaintance with Euclid, algebra, arith-
metic, and French.

Worse still is the condition of the mathematician who as regards
general education is more poorly equipped than the rest.

The best of these men often repair their deficiencies later by their
own efforts ; the second best remain losers.

This evil might be met by insisting that all scholarship candidates
should pass a suitable matriculation examination before they were
allowed to compete for scholarships in special subjects. Most matricu-
lation examinations would, however, require to be considerably improved
and widened in their scope before they could be used for this purpose.

U 11. Whilst the Oxford and Cambridge examination of schools seems
to me to have done unmixed good, I hold that open examinations for
college scholarships have done, are doing, and will continue to do much
harm by encouraging schoolboys to specialise early in some one branch,
whether of literature or of science. The schoolmaster is compelled (a) by
the natural desire to advertise his school, (b) by the absolute necessity of
meeting the reasonable wishes of parents, to prepare his boys for open
college scholarships, obtainable only by candidates under nineteen years

444, REPORT—1908.

of age, and therefore to allow them to specialise as soon as they show any
special aptitude. This seems tome a misfortune. To prevent it I would
provide that colleges shall not award scholarships before entrance to
candidates who are not in need of pecuniary assistance to enable them to
begin residence at the university. I think that if every candidate had
to make a simple declaration of such need the knowledge that the com-
petition was a limited one would destroy the unwholesome interest which
it now excites, and that the schoolmasters would no longer have any
inducement to prefer premature successes to sound education.

It is to be noted that legislation in respect of open scholarships would
be useless unless it applied equally to all the colleges both at Oxford and
at Cambridge. The Cambridge colleges opened scholarships to school-
boys, not because they thought the practice a good one, but because, in
face of the Oxford competitions, they found themselves obligel to follow
suit; and I believe that in this matter public opinion at Cambridge has
never wavered.

The legislation which T recommend would make little pecuniary differ-
ence to the successful candidates. In general the candidate who now as
a schoolboy wins a scholarship at Trinity nine months before he goes
into residence, and begins to draw the emolument when he goes into resi-
dence, would, under my regulation, obtain his scholarship and begin to
draw the proceeds as an undergraduate six months after he began his
residence ; and if in need, though not otherwise, he would have a tem-
porary emolument to help him during the six months.

U 11. Open examinations for college scholarships have done, are
doing, and will continue to do much harm by encouraging schoolboys to
specialise early in some one branch, whether of literature or of science.
Amongst grown men specialisation is a necessity of the age, and conse-
quently colleges, in choosing their scholars, must needs take account of
special aptitudes. Now college scholarships awarded on this principle to
undergraduates who have already begun residence do not materially
affect the teaching in schools; but college scholarships awarded for special
proficiency to schoolboys affect school teaching very seriously, inasmuch
as the schoolmaster, however little he may approve early specialisation,
cannot afford to disregard these important prizes.

U 17. Set books should be abolished in the Cambridge previous
examination. Some elementary scientific subject should be introduced
and some knowledge of a modern language should be insisted on.

U 9. My own experience makes me strongly opposed to early special-
isation. In scholarship examinations performance in a special subject
should be estimated only in connection with proficiency in ordinary
school work. It is very easy to devise a scale of marking according to
which general knowledge and evidences of culture are appraised in
connection with skill ina special subject ; e.g., Jones: chemistry 50,
general culture 25 = 75; Brown: chemistry 60, general culture 10 = 70.

U 1. I should be sorry if specialisation ceased in schools ; but much
more ought to be made of a candidate’s special subject as an instrument
of general training. It ought to be used as a means of interesting the
candidate in kindred subjects—a sort of avenue to knowledge in general.

3. The need of unifying examinations with the object in view, among
others, that certain examinations may serve a common purpose, ¢.g. as
qualifying examinations for entrance upon a course of professional study.

On this question opinion is practically unanimous.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 44.5

S 26. For Preliminary and Entrance tests the crying need is unity
and simplification. Here reform is not difficult if the co-operation of the
different bodies concerned can be secured. There lies the problem. I
believe a test examination might be devised fitted to supersede or replace
the multifarious preliminary examinations (academic or professional) that
now exist. It should be treated as a school-testing examination. Its
aim and methods should be strictly pass, not competitive, certifying the
attainment of such and such general standard of knowledge in such and
‘such subjects. The range of subjects should be as wide as that of school
curricula ; all forms of option or grouping should be allowed. There
should be no attempt to award honours or places, but merely to guarantee
first, second, or third class proficiency in the subject offered. There need
be no inquiry into the age of candidates unless a junior standard for
candidates under sixteen were organised, and for this there is much to be
said. [In this case two classes would be ample for either higher or lower
test.| Each institution or profession would formulate its own conditions
of age, standard, selection and grouping of subjects, and so forth. This
would give freedom, latitude, and recognition to all forms of curricula and
set up something like a recognised and common standard intelligible to
all conversant with education. It would be imperative to exclude all set
books, or it would at once fetter curricula and encourage cram. The use
of dictionaries should be allowed, though the class award might to some
extent depend upon this, Their disallowance is absurd, and ignores all
the ordinary and necessary conditions of daily training in languages,
especially classical. The substitution of set books for use of dictionaries
is mere hiding the head in the sand, and brings with it a whole train of
mischiefs and dangers. Times of examination should be harmonised with
the needs and usages of secondary schools, and the examination be held
as far as possible at all schools presenting candidates.

The cardinal difficulty is to secure the adhesion and co-operation of
universities, colleges, and other educational boards. Conference might
render this possible, and the Board of Education might supply a nucleus
round which such bodies might unite without surrender of corporate
dignity or independence.

Apart from this examination, open at any time during the school
course, schools should, so far as possible, have examinations individual to
themselves moulded upon the lines of their own teaching ; expense would
be diminished, and co-ordination of examination with teaching be secured
by the co-operation suggested in §§ 5,6. The examiner’s report would
be that of a general inspector, for guidance of the governing body and
responsible directors of the school; while the general test examination
would furnish the public certificates of general efficiency now supplied by
senior and junior local examinations and the like.

S 16. This is the most urgent question in connection with secondary
education at the present time. There ought to he a single qualifying
examination for boys leaving school between sixteen and seventeen, and
another for boys leaving between eighteen and nineteen for universities.
Examinations such as the University Locals preliminary unnecessary from
any point of view.

S 6. This can and should be done.

S 25. Recommends one examination held jointly by all the bodies
concerned.

S 33. The effect of unifying examinations would be most advantageous.

44.6 REPORT—1908.

S 11. One common preliminary examination for all professions
required. A leaving examination would be a great boon.

S$ 10. The need for this is very great.

8 19. A common gateway would be a great boon. Much derange-
ment of school work would be obviated if the examination could be taken
at the schools at the end of the school term.

8S 9. The variety of qualifying examinations is a crying evil.

S 22. I fully recognise this need.

S$ 18. Approves of a leaving examination at sixteen in general sub-
jects. A boy should not be disqualified for failure in one subject.

S 7. Unification not so necessary as elasticity. The late isolated
regulations for the London Matriculation were an intolerable strain on a
Vith form when the majority were working for the Joint Board exami-
nation.

8 17. The need is paramount, especially for the smaller schools.

S 2. Great need of unifying. The unification should be as compre-
hensive as possible.

S 4. Much might be done advantageously to diminish the number of
examinations if all universities recognised one another.

$ 14. All entrance, professional, and university examinations should
be unified, the standard sett/ed, the bases settled, no fixed books, and every
examination paper should contain a large number of questions with a
choice to be restricted to a certain proposition. On such unified papers
the certificates might be granted.

The harm done by so many varying examinations is very great. There
is great waste of time and power caused by a variety of set subjects and
authors in languages. We want two certificates based on as wide a
freedom of teaching as possible—one for boys sixteen to seventeen, one for
boys eighteen to nineteen.

S 8. This is all-important. A resolution to this effect was carried at
a recent Conference of Secondary Schools in Kent, and it was sent to the
Board of Education and members of Parliament.

S 30. My remedy for the examination evil depends upon the following
principle, that examination is to accompany and to be subordinate to
inspection. For instance, the examiner is also an inspector who visits the
school, studies the methods of work, notebooks, and exercises, and sets
papers in consultation with the teaching staff: these are looked over as
may be directed by the examiner, his assistants, and the staff. Certificates
are given according to the standard attained.

Groups of schools in the same locality might be examined together,
conferences of teachers being held, under the inspector, for the setting of

apers.
; Seicery boy under sixteen must be examined down to the most hopeless
of duffers. Set books would of course be absolutely abolished.

Professional bodies would state what standard they would require for
entrance into any profession, and would undertake to hold no private
examinations.

No boys under a certain age would be allowed to be presented for
examination, and it would be easy to make arrangements to prevent the
repeated entering of the same boys.

This examination would entirely replace all the examinations in general
subjects ; examinations of a higher standard would be in special subjects,
and would be limited to older boys.

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS, 44.7

§ 13. All the special preliminary examinations of professional bodies
should be abolished. Broadly, two types of leaving certificates are
wanted—(1) for boys of eighteen to nineteen, (2) for boys sixteen to
seventeen.

U 2. Very advisable and quite possible.

U 7. University entrance examinations should be planned on the
same lines at one and all the universities.

U 8. The proposal sounds well, but all will depend on who does it.

U 11. I have long wished for some sort of unification ; that there
should be in kindred examinations (a) a general agreement in regard to
the schedules of the several sections ; (b) a complete agreement in regard
to movable subjects, so that, for example, set books in French and German
should be the same for all kindred examinations for the year.

U 28. Surely something might be done towards having a standard
leaving examination, properly graduated, in all schools. The number of
examinations, often with many different subjects and with fixed books
set, are a great nuisance and interfere with teaching sadly.

U 17. Strongly in favour of one single examination such as exists in
Germany or such as the Scotch leaving certificate, which would prove a
qualifying examination for entrance to all professions, including, if
possible, the Army and the Navy.

4. The need of preventing examinations from becoming stereotyped
and behind the times, and thus discouraging the development of new or
improved methods. How far does an interchange of opinion between the
teaching profession and examining bodies already take place, and to what
extent might it be extended ?

It is generally felt that it is desirable that examiners should confer
with teachers in some organised way,

S 16. No real danger of this.

S 33. The need is great. The personal qualifications of those engaged
in examining are too little regarded. Little or no interchange of opinion
between teachers and examiners.

8 11. Exchange of opinion would be valuable if schools were examined
by those who are or have been teaching in schools, not by young graduates
who have never taught.

$10. The I.A.H.M. has had several conferences with examining
bodies with good results.

8 19. Certainly the two parties should be more in touch. There is
no organised or formal inter-communication.

S 9. There is an improvement in these matters quite recently. But
schools suffer from the fact that those who organise papers, and set
them and examine them, are too often totally ignorant of the creature
examined—the average schoolboy—and proceed on lines dictated by their
experience of young men or clever boys. The Oxford Local Delegates
committed a flagrant instance of this last year, but during the last six
months schoolmasters have actually been consulted—for the first time
during ten years. Hitherto their method had been to listen to criticism
after, but not to consult before.

S 2. Interchange of opinion very valuable. Authorities are probably
afraid to do anything which would tend to diminish the popularity of
their examination or to raise the standard unduly ; and the standard is
in some respects too low.

44.8 REPORT—1903.

Possibly a review of existing systems of examination, say once in five
years, by a conference of representatives of examining bodies and teachers
would prevent the evils suggested and encourage the development of
improved methods.

S 4. One must be dependent on the character of the examiner. He
should certainly be adequately criticised, and both the teacher and the
examiner might profit much by an interchange of views,

S 12, Have found the secretary of the Cambridge Local Syndicate
ever ready to listen, to discuss, and even adopt suggestions.

S 14. I think conferences between teachers and examiners would be
most useful. We want frequent conference.

S 8. The Army examination in chemistry has been stereotyped for
twenty years. The questions in practical work are confined to analysis of
simple salts. This year there is a sign of change, due, perhaps, to repre-
sentations made by the Conference of Public School Science Masters,

Interchange of opinion is much to be desired.

S15. Teachers are, I think, rather shy of making complaints or
suggestions lest their motives should be misconstrued. Some examining
bodies are haughty.

U 19. An interchange of opinion is always desirable, Every attempt
is made by some examining bodies to keep the examinations up to date,

U 2. Distinctly necessary ; the arrangements for interchange of
opinion ought to be extended.

U 7. There should be annual conferences between the teaching
profession and examining bodies, and the papers set at the various
examinations should be subjected to frank criticism.

U 8. Sees the need all too clearly. It might often be very useful to
hear what the real teachers have to say.

U 12. Examinations tend to become stereotyped, because examining
bodies frequently find themselves unable to pay on a sufficiently large
scale to attract really competent examiners.

U 18. It is a truism to say that examinations should not be ‘ stereo-
typed’ or ‘behind the times.’ The remedy is to employ competent
examiners, directed by a competent board, open to all representations
from practical teachers.

The difticulty of organising inter-communication between boards and
the teaching profession is, I imagine, that the latter is not organised.
There is no properly qualified spokesman of the teaching profession ; and
the difficulty of aiming at definite results of big value has been rather
strongly exemplified by the history of the Head Masters’ Conference.

U 17. I think schedules and syllabuses of examinations might be
changed more frequently than they are with advantage. In most
University Scientific examinations the examiner and the teaching staff are
freely in communication with each other, and I should like to see this
exchange of opinion extended to school examinations, and especially to
entrance scholarship examinations.

U 1. More care should be taken in the selection of public examiners,
and bad examiners should not be reappointed. This is a truism, but it is
constantly ignored in practice.

U 14. It would be a great gain if examiners could have more criticism
of their papers at the hands of schoolmasters. In the great majority of
cases they have nothing to guide them as to the suitability of their papers
but the way in which they have been answered. This will show if a paper

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 449

has been too hard, too long, or, on the other hand, too easy, to fairly test
the better candidates ; but it does not show whether a paper has fairly
covered the range of work done by the candidates.

U 3. I feel very strongly on this. We are likely to get the ‘pro-
fessional examiner,’ as we have the professional witness ; and he will be
the more mischievous in that his influence will be the more universally
diffused.

5. The possibility of arranging outside examinations so as to test
what has really been taught in the School, leaving the teachers a freer
hand than in the past and arranging for their co-operation on the
Examining Board, in the setting of the questions, and in considering the
answers.

There appears to be a strange disinclination to insist that the teacher
should be trusted.

S 6. Would rejoice if this were carried out.

S$ 16. Unfortunate to weaken external examinations in either of the
ways indicated in this or $ 6; but 3 must be settled before this is dealt
with.

S11. Advocates system corresponding to that at the universities,
where the internal and external examiner co-operate.

S19. There appears no reason why a supreme Examining Board
might not develop the scheme of the Oxford and Cambridge Conjoint
Board for thus testing schools in such work as the schools might wish to
submit. Teachers might furnish syllabus, text-books, note-books (pupils?
or teachers’), and specimen internal examination papers to suggest and
guide drafting of questions by external authority.

S 22. If the public examintions are on the right lines there would be
no need for this plan, which would be attended with almost insuperable
objections.

S 9. Something might be done.

S 5. We have nothing corresponding to the excellence of system
prevalent in some Continental countries by which, for individual exami-
nations, members of the teaching staff are associated with the external
examiners,

8 17. Quite possible with care.

S$ 2. While I should be in favour of leaving the teachers as free a
hand as possible in the achievement of their results, and would give
them full right to criticise the examination papers set, with a view to
improving the future character of the examination, I would allow no
hand to the teacher of any subject in setting a paper in that subject,
Consciously or unconsciously, his foreknowledge of the coming examina-
tion would influence his teaching, the standard of knowledge be lowered,
and the examination become no real test.

S 4. Might be done with advantage ; but it could not be done with an
expectation that there would be no unfairness.

S 13, Seems impossible so long as the ideal isan examination uniform
all over the country. It seems to me that this is, therefore, a wrong
ideal, and that where possible a real local examining board should be
formed by the local University representatives of local schools. In this
ease (6) the collaboration of schoolmasters might become possible and is
desirable ; the idea that this would lead to unfairness should be dis-
countenanced

1903, &@a

450 REPORT—1903.

U 19. Does not favour this.

U 8. A clumsy attempt to do what was formerly done by getting a
good honest examiner to go down to a school, making him (not a board)
responsible, and letting him report unbowdlerised.

U 13. The real way to prevent the evil mentioned in 4 is to be found
in some such method as is indicated in 5 and 6, in that the examination
should be suited to the teaching, and that the teachers should thus have
a freer hand,

U 10, It is very desirable for teachers to be represented on examining
bodies and to have opportunities of seeing the work sent in by their
pupils, Much conscientious labour on the part of examiners is at present
almost thrown away for lack of suitable opportunities of discussing weak
points with teachers and taught. The formal report helps but little in
this,

6, The possibility of arranging so that examinations conducted on the
basis of papers set so as to suit individual schools with the answers
marked in the first instance by the Teachers, subsequently criticised and
standardised by outside authority, shall serve, when passed above
a certain standard in a given range of subjects, as equivalent to the
Entrance Examination for a University or for a Profession.

8 6. Would rejoice if this were carried out.

S 33. Theoretically admirable, but hopeless in view of the number of
bodies to be catered for and their different standards. Danger that
standard would be lowered to the bottom level.

S18. If it were not for the multiplicity of examinations schools
would run in parallel groups, and it ought to be easy to standardise

apers,

S 5. Such an arrangement both feasible and desirable.

U 19. The Cambridge Higher Certificate is accepted by a variety of
bodies.

U 2. The suggestion should be carefully considered.

7. The extent to which certain subjects are to be regarded as neces-
sary and others as optional. In particular, how far do University entrance
examinations tend to promote a good all-round education ?

There seems to be but one opinion with regard to the entrance
examinations at Oxford and Cambridge.

S 11. There should not be a very wide choice of optional subjects.

U 15. Separate examinations at universities do harm, inasmuch as
they tend to encourage undue specialisation. Suggests that separate
examinations should be part of the university entrance examination, and
that a general knowledge on the humanistic as well as on the scientific
side should be demanded.

S$ 19. Does not think a number of options necessary or desirable.

S 18. Thinks that no examinations promote an all-round education
sxcept the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board examinations.

8 5. Thoroughly agrees with the general principles advocated in the
Bishop of Hereford’s Glasgow paper, and in particular would wish to see
Greek no longer a compulsory subject for entrance examinations,

$17. Ought not the University entrance examination to be a test. as
to whether a student is fit to take a particular university course with
advantage ? General culture is most desirable, but you cannot force it ;

-
at

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 45]

and we should not shut out a student desiring special knowledge and fit
to advance on that special study because he has not got general culture.

S 2. Oxford and Cambridge entrance examinations exercise little
influence on education as a whole, The London Matriculation has lent
itself to cram.

S 4, A most depressing circumstance that the Oxford Local exami-
nations make arithmetic optional; our absurd system of spelling com-
pulsory. The London Matriculation unsatisfactory ; ought to have a
wider basis.

S 30. As to subjects necessary or optional. This is where the greatest
mistakes have been made in the past: subjects have been propounded
with the greatest minuteness. What is wanted is that the subjects
should be grouped, and the selection of subjects within the groups left
entirely to the head master ; for instance, the following groups suggest
themselves: Ancient Languages, Modern Languages, Science, Mathematics,
English, Art. Within any one of these groups the students would select
as much or as little as they liked. For instance, in Languages some would
select three languages, others one ; in English some would take Scripture,
history, geography, history of language, &c., others only one of these sub-
jects. Certificates would be given accordingly, and there would be no
competition. The great point to be aimed at is to give absolute freedom
of choice, and the standard reached by each person stated on his certi-
ficate.

S 21. The Universities handicap schools, inasmuch as the entrance
examinations encourage premature specialisation and by failing to insist
upon a respectable standard of general education.

S 20. The range of subjects in entrance examinations (Oxford and
Cambridge and Army) is much too narrow, English and elementary
mathematics should alone be regarded as necessary. Other subjects
should be optional, and a good standard required.

S 8, Dublin seems to encourage an all-round education. J admit with
regret that the conviction has grown on me that Oxford and Cambridge
do not. The pass-man at these two universities ought to be required to
know something of other subjects than classics, mathematics, and a little
divinity. For Honours specialisation after eighteen may not be open to the
same objection as at an earlier age or in the case of pass-candidates. By
an ‘all-round education’ I should understand English (including history
and geography), mathematics of a practical kind in the simpler branches.
Classics : Latin at least, if not Greek ; but I would give Greek the prefer-
ence if it were feasible ; a modern language with colloquial knowledge ;
and some general clementary science. The London Matriculation aims at
this course, and would be a good test of school work if the papers were
not apt to be tricky.

$8 13. On many schools University entrance examinations produce no
effect ; so few boys go on. The particular difficulty in connection with
them seems to be, they must not be too hard or the moderate candidate
would be barred out altogether. Hence they may not be (and are not in
fact) hard enough to draw out the better boys ; ¢.9., if a boy in the Vth
form can pass the university entrance he may either (1) go to the univer-
sity too early, or (2) feel that he has no stimulus when he is in the VIth.

This can probably only be met by relying, not on examinations at all,
hut on the school itself for stimulus.

U 5. Dwells on the neglect of modern languages in the Cambridge
aGg2

452 REPORT—-19038.

entrance examinations. Only four of the colleges allow these asa subject
of their entrance separate examinations. They are entirely excluded
from the general examination for students proposing to take an ordinary
degree.

at 2, The standard required in any university entrance examination
is not high enough to affect any but the weakest candidates,

U 8. A good training in elementary mathematics is one of the
greatest of boons. The endeavour to shirk this is a grave evil in modern
education. It has done harm even in Cambridge. As to university
entrance examinations Cambridge has not got one,

U 12. A paper or papers in natural science should be set in university
entrance examinations.

U 21. As to those for scholarships other than university examina-
tions, and their effect on schools, it is evident that an opinion on this
subject: must depend on the views held by the observer as to the best
subjects of university study for the average man whose abilities are not
up to the standard of scholarships. Leaving out of account the more or
less professional subjects, such as law, medicine, and engineering, I per-
sonally think that the habits of observation and induction which may be
acquired under favourable circumstances by the experimental study of
some branch of natural science, and the power of weighing evidence, and
the knowledge of the present social and political condition of the world
given by the study of historical and economic subjects, are the best pre-

aration for the life of the average man and most likely to make him
useful to the State. As a possible future change I think there is much
to be said for a course of university study which involves both these
subjects, or some one branch of each, as an ideal training for those who
have no intention of taking as their life’s work the study of any branch of
knowledge.

It is a matter of experience that a subject which has not formed the
main part of his school course comes with greater freshness to the average
English public-school boy, and is more likely to awaken a real and effec-
tive interest than branches of learning at which he has, often unwillingly,
spent many hours a week for several years.

If we accept these contentions it follows that the general school
course, besides providing a satisfactory means of mental training, should
be especially adapted to serve as an introduction to historical and scien-
tific studies, free opportunities being given for boys who show definite
tastes or exceptional ability to diverge from the general course. Some
such general scheme as the following might be suggested :—

As preliminary to both history and natural science: English language
and literature, physiography,

As preliminary to historical subjects : classics, modern languages, and
general history.

As preliminary to natural science: mathematics, natural history,
elementary physics, and (perhaps) chemistry.

Such a course comprises practically the same subjects as those which
are already usually taught, but very different relative importance would
be assigned to them, and the method of treating them would undergo
considerable modifications, Classics and mathematics would assume a
less prominent position than they now occupy, except for those boys who
showed special aptitude for either, and mathematics would be treated

ON THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMINATIONS. 453

in the less formal and abstract way which has lately been freely advo-
cated.

The university entrance or previous examinations would require
readjustment to form a fitting conclusion to such a school course ; and
it is probable that this readjustment would be the most effective way
of gradually bringing about some changes in school education. Whether
it would be possible to carry the reforms indicated through the govern-
ing bodies of the universities it is difficult to say. I believe there is
more chance of doing so now than there has been at any previous time.

U 10. University entrance examinations, such as the ‘Previous’ at
Cambridge, are far too narrow in scope.

English subjects (including history and geography), mathematics, one
ancient language, one modern language, and one natural science subject
should be compulsory. Considerable freedom of choice in the matter of
the modern language and of the science subject should be permitted ;
and while a fair average mark should be required for a pass the standard
in any given subject ought not to be fixed too high. At present the
narrow range of subjects required for entrance is unfavourable to the
acquisition of a good all-round education.

U 18. The question as to optional subjects is not simple or easy. The
three human faculties that education must at least deal with are speech,
reason, and observation. The subjects which on an average will best deal
with any one of these can hardly be reckoned optional. A correct use of
languages seems to demand the study of some one language, at least,
other than that which the student speaks instinctively.

For the second object I do not think anything has been found, or is
likely to be found, better than elementary mathematics. How far it is
possible to make some elementary study of physics a compulsory part of
a university first examination I do not feel competent to form an opinion.
I would only say that it seems a subject no less important than the other
two, and that the now almost universal teaching of it in schools might be
greatly improved and made more real if the universities could see their
way to make it as compulsory as languages or mathematics.

U 16. I regard all examinations of a fixed character as objec-
tionable unless necessary for testing professional knowledge or for
selecting men from a number of candidates for posts in the Civil Ser-
vice, &c. In the latter case they are still objectionable, but I fear
unavoidable.

For universities and schools, however, fixed examinations are not
necessary, and are as objectionable as religious tests. They stunt the
minds of all those (the majority) who are not able to excel in the par.
ticular subjects selected ; they have a narrowing effect on the teacher,
and they stop progress in educational matters. The taught ought to be
examined in the subjects which they have studied. Some of these sub-
jects must be compulsory, such as reading, writing, arithmetic, &ec. ; but
in the higher walks of education there should be no compulsion, but
freedom as complete as possible in the choice of subjects, so that each
mind should have a chance of developing its own qualities to the highest
extent.

Curricula ought to be abolished whenever possible ; so ought entrance
examinations at the great natural seats of learning. These places ought
to be free to all who are willing to study; and this willingness and
capacity to study ought to be tested by examinations at stated periods in
subjects or subject selected for study.

A54. REPORT— 1903,

U 1. A good all-round education seems to me very difficult to define ;
but whatever definition we adopt I doubt whether the university
‘ Previous’ examination can be fairly said to promote anything of the
kind.

8. The suitability of the training at present given in schools as pre-
paration for highet studies, (a) at the Universities and (b) in Technical
Schools:

U 4; Boys under tineteen gain scholarships at Cambridge for
chemistry and physics without having a real grounding in mathematics, for
history without possessing a working knowledge of French, to say nothing
of German ; and for Hebrew without first acquiring a real training in
classics. Head masters ask and expect that scholarships should be given
in these special subjects:

U 15. Lack of training of the mind generally noticeable in students
coming to the university.

U 2. The ‘candidates from many schools may not be accepted as
efficiently trained in scientific theory and set to more advanced work.

U 8. It would be better if boys were not put on the strain to gain
open scholarships. There is too much special preparation for these.

U 9. The results obtained in the technical schools are meagre owing
to the want of preparation in the students at the time of entry.

U 20. I have observed two special defects which would appear to
result from the training at present given in schools, One is the inability
to write lucid and correct English. The other is the incapacity for
independent work and thought. The second has, as far as my observation
goes, increased perceptibly during the last fifteen or twenty years. The
majority of undergraduates seem to have no idea of working on their own
lines ; they are dependent on their school tutor for the choice of a college
and on their college tutor for the choice of a profession ; they are even
unable to read a book intelligently for themselves.

9. The suitability of the training given in universities and elsewhere
as a preparation for the teaching profession.

S 3, Universities seem to me to tend too much to specialisation for
their cleverer men to be the ideal training-ground for teachers ; they rate
ability by success in one subject, and a teacher should be cultured all
round. It is, I think, in spite of their curricula that they supply good
teachers.

§ 10. ‘In science, schools are too ready to consider that because a
man has a science degree he can therefore teach science. I find a great
difficulty in making the science teaching as thorough as that in other
subjects. The number of science teachets has increased enormously
during the last few years. The ordinary science master plans out a
course of lectures, and goes through them on the dates he has previously
arranged, so as to get through his cowrse in a given time. He doesn’t
rub i im, and he doesn’t revise enough. We want trained science
teachers.’

S12. My conviction is that (except for brilliant men who will have
to teach brilliant boys) nothing could be much worse than the Degree
examinations, as at present arranged, for men who are to become
teachers.

S 8. The universities do not prepare men for the teaching profession.

ON THE INFLUENCE O# EXAMINATIONS, A55

The best teachers have probably heen produced from university men, but
the university course does not develop the all-round man that a teacher
should be. As a rule the Oxford or Cambridge graduate has no notion
of such subjects as English grammar and language or elocution, seldom of
modern languages, history, or geography, unless a specialist. He is either
a mathematician or a classic, or perhaps a history specialist.

$15. Very unsuitable when a sufficient standard is attained at the uni-
versity. I am probably heretical on this point, but I have very little faith
in ‘Padagogik.’ The best teachers I have known knew or cared nothing
about ‘theory,’ and certainly never thought about it when teaching ; while
theorists, both learned and ingenious, often fail completely in the practical
part. I think a very free ‘probationer’ system would do good, but set no
store by criticism lessons or lectures on method. Real education is being
strangled in Germany at the present time by excess of training and
system, which is more dangerous to the development of individuality and
the power of independent thought than many bad examinations.

U 5. Refers to need of travelling studentships in modern languages
for students who have passed the tripos and intend to become teachers.

U 2. If head masters could be induced to demand men with a sound
teaching knowledge of their subjects it would be of great help to the
universities in encouraging some of the students to do teaching rather
than examining work.

The Conditions of Health essential to the Carrying on af the
Work of Instruction in Schools.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor C. 8. Suerrineron (Chairman), Mr. KH.
Wurre Watuis (Secretary), Mr. EK. W. Brasroox, Dr. C. W.
Kniins, Professor L. C. Mrant, and Miss Marrnanp.

APPENDIX PAG
I. Wotes on the Essentials of School Buildings . : : ; . : - 456

Il. Lyesight in School Children . ‘ : : : : : : : . 460

_ ILL. Need for appointment of Women-inspectors . ‘ j 3 ‘ ‘ » 462

Tue Committee had in co-operation with them in their investigations
and deliberations the valuable assistance of Dr. C. Childs, Mr. Felix Clay,
Dr. Clement Dukes, Miss Findlay, Miss Ravenhill, Dr. Rivers, Mr. J.
Russell, Dr. C. Shelley, and Dr. Sydney Stephenson.

On the presentation of the last year’s report of the Committee at the
meeting of Section L two suggestions were made as to matters for
the special consideration of the Committee. Miss Findlay suggested
inquiry by the Committee into ‘the need for appointment of women-in-
spectors ’ for schools. Professor Armstrong, President of the Section,
suggested the preparation by the Committee of a short treatise on the
conditions most necessary to observe for the maintenance of health in
school life.

On the assembly of the Committee after reappointment by the
Association, both these suggestions were at once taken into consideration,
Sub-committees were appointed which undertook to collect information

456 : REPORT—1903,

on questions on the general problem of school hygiene not dealt with in
the previous year. The Sub-Committee on the Essentials of School Build-
ings have furnished a report which forms Appendix I. in the present re-
port of the Committee. The report thus received forms a condensed
résumé of the subject of a very practical character. It may be regarded
as a contribution toward the realisation of the proposal that a short
practical treatise should be drawn up by the Committee. Its conclu-
sions are of a general character and are applicable to all classes of school
buildings.

The Sub-Committee on Eyesight in School Children has dealt with and
reported on (a) the causes of defective eyesight in school children, and (6)
the conditions requisite for preserving eyesight from injury in school life.
Besides dealing with general principles involved, it makes some practical
recommendations of much importance. One of these is that it should be
required that school books should be ‘passed’ in respect to their typo-
graphic standard and quality by some recognised hygienic authority before
being adopted in schools.

The necessity for a very considerable eye-working distance in all the
exercises and instruction imposed upon young children is a condition
which lies.at the root of school hygiene.

The report of the Sub-Committee forms Appendix II. of the present
report.

The Sub-Committee that undertook the collection of information
regarding the question of need for appointment of women-inspectors to
schools has gathered valuable evidence. The general line of their inquiry
was directed to obtaining authentic instances of reforms that would earlier
have gained attention had the school where the reform was needed been
visited by a competent woman-inspector. The report given forms
Appendix III. to the present report. Considering that in school life
the two sexes in about equal numbers are engaged in teaching and being
taught, the inspection should, it is obvious, theoretically fall under the
charge of men and women in about equal extent. What the report of
the Sub-Committee does clearly show is that such a division of the
responsibility is practically demanded because in certain respects inspec-
tion by women-inspectors possessing the necessary qualifications and
training as indicated in the report is the most likely to ensure satisfactory
control and prompt remediation of certain difficulties,

APPENDIX I,
Notes on the Essentials of School Buildings.

Tn drawing up the following remarks upon school buildings in relation to
health the Sub-Committee had before them the regulations issued by the
Board of Education both for elementary and secondary school buildings.
As these are open to anyone, and give a large amount of detailed instruc-
tion as to the planning and fitting up of both classes of schools, it seems
better to the Sub-Committee to confine themselves to some general
observations applicable to all classes of school buildings, avoiding as far as

GONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION. 457

possible details applicable to particular classés of schools, wich can be
readily obtained from the regulations mentioned above

Generally.—The plan or general scheme of the building should be
arranged with a view to providing for the particular system of organisa-
tion and routine that is intended to be adopted in the school.

The main points to be kept in view are simplicity and directness,
that is to say, narrow corridors or passages are to be avoided ; all parts of
the building and playgrounds should be easily overlooked, so that the
duties of supervision may be reduced to a minimum. There should be no
buttresses or projecting parts of the building to form corners or places
screened from observation.

Every part of the inside should be thoroughly well lighted.

The staircases should be planned so that there is easy and direct access
from every part of the building to the open air, and so distributed that no
part of the building can be cut off by fire ; they should be arranged to
discharge into open places of suflicient size to prevent jostling or crowd-
ing in caseof two or more classes being dismissed at the same time. The
general scheme must provide for rapid and orderly movements of large
numbers and easy accessibility to every part of the building for the
principal.

In the case of large boarding schools, the residential buildings should
be kept separate from the educational block ; in this way each boarding
house may be placed so as to have the most favourable aspect, can be
more easily isolated in case of sickness, and the air can be allowed free
play all round.

The objection to arranging a school in the form of a quadrangle is
that there will necessarily be a certain amount of stagnant air, and that
only two sides can have a favourable aspect,

Stte.—A damp or low-lying ground should be avoided—if possible a
position on the top or side of a hill facing south with a gravel, sand, or chalk
soil, sheltered to the north and east by trees, preferably pines. Ground
water should not come within about 10 or 12 feet of the surface. The
advantages of a good soil, such as sand or gravel, may be entirely neutral-
ised by an impervious layer of clay a little below the surface.

The erection of a school building upon made ground is very unde-
sirable,

In towns care should be taken to place the school away from main or
noisy thoroughfares, the neighbourhood of railways, factories, or any
industries causing dust and smell. A wide street with the houses on the
opposite side low should be chosen, both for light and the avoidance of
noise. Otherwise, unless the building can be put at least 60 feet back
from the street there will be disturbance to the work. In any case the
room where noise is of less importance, such as studios, laboratories,
cloak-rooms, staircases, corridors, and the assembly hall, should be placed
on the street side, aspect having been taken into consideration. Double
windows should only be allowed where there is an effective and complete
independent system of ventilation. The places that the children may
have to pass on the way to school should also be considered when settling
the position of a school.

Aspect.—The building must be placed so that the sun has free acces
to every part that is in constant use. The best aspect is probably
south-east : this allows the morning sun to shine into the room while it is
off before the hot part of the day. Rooms facing due west will be very

A58 kREPORT—1903!

hot in summer, and should if possible be only used in schools where work
is not carried on in the afternoon. It is suggested that on a free site the
best plan will be to place the side of the hall in which the windows
are (in a school on the central hall plan) to the north-west, placing the
studio at the north end and grouping the class-rooms on the south and
east.

Entrances.—In arranging the entrances regard should be had to the
prevailing wind in order to provide shelter ; there should be covered
space for early comers to wait in on wet mornings. They should not
open directly into the hall, nor be used for cloak-rooms. A strong draught
is produced when two entrances open opposite to each other with a
straight corridor between. In mixed schools there must be a separate
entrance for boys and girls.

Cloak-rooms must be large, airy, and well lighted, and placed so
that they are under easy observation from outside. They should be easily
reached from the main entrances, and the doors so arranged as to allow
the various forms of cloak-room drill that are customary in the elementary
schools. The stands should be some distance apart with 12 inches
between the pegs, of which there should be only one row, so arranged
that the clothes can hang clear away from the wall and allow of the proper
circulation of air. In the case of boys’ schools less space will be re-
quired. The best umbrella holders are the ‘turnstiles.’ Cloak-rooms
should be warmed, and special attention be paid to their ventilation,
Lavatory basins should not be placed in the cloak-rooms.

Class-rooms—

(a) Area. The area of the floor space to be occupied by the pupils
should be not less than 18 square feet per child.

(>) Lighting. The main light to be from the left, other windows
being subsidiary and for the purpose of ventilation.

The transparent glass surface should be, if possible, one-quarter of the
floor space to allow for the dark days, and should never, even on the south
side, be less than one-sixth.

The sill of the window should not be more than 3 feet 6 inches from
the floor, but if higher should be bevelled off.

The glass should be carried as near the ceiling as may be construction-
ally possible.

The piers between the windows should be as narrow as possible, and
splayed or bevelled off.

The back row of desks must not be placed behind the last window.
Transoms or heavy mullions should not be allowed even if the requisite
amount of glass area is provided, as they cast shadows. The colour of
the walls is important with regard to lighting. The light yellows and
buffs often found and recommended are not satisfactory, yellow in par-
ticular producing fatigue and nervousness in a marked degree as com-
pared with other colours. Some light shade of green or grey seems on
the whole the most satisfactory colour. Blackboards placed at a height
within easy reach of the children should run round the walls.

Sleeping-rooms.—The most satisfactory arrangement is probably that
of open dormitories containing a moderate number of beds. The cubicle
system is less to be recommended, while that of having rooms for two or
three should be unhesitatingly condemned.

CONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION. 459

Not less than 65 square feet of floor area should be provided for each
occupant.

Playground.—Every school should be provided with sufficient open
space immediately round the school building for the purpose of a play-
ground : this should in no case be less than 50 square feet per head. In
the case of secondary schools this should be in addition to the playing
field for regular games. Boarding schools require considerably more
space than day schools.

Ventilation.—The Committee while feeling to the full the enormous
importance of the subject of proper ventilation in regard to the success of
the school, both as to the mental and physical development of the pupils,
feels some difficulty in offering any suggestions as to how a satisfactory
result can be secured. Many schemes are put forward, both ‘mechanical ’
and ‘natural,’ each of which claims to secure perfect ventilation, but all
of which in actual practice fall far short of their promises. The Com-
mittee would, however, like to utter a word of warning with regard to cer-
tain systems that rely on the introduction of hot air both for the warming
and ventilation of the rooms. Such a system may work well enough in
the case of one or two large rooms, but in a school with its large number
of rooms with an always varying number of occupants the difficulty of
adjusting the pressure becomes very great. The continual movement
and opening of doors is also apt to interfere with the proper working
of the system ; in addition to this there is the breathing of the warmed
air. In winter the incoming air must be raised to a considerable tempera-
ture to allow for the cooling effect of the windows, walls, &c. ; and although
somewhat cooled down by the time it reaches the pupils it must, it would
seem, lose most of its invigorating qualities, even though it has not been
heated sufficiently to burn the organic particles present. Rooms heated
by hot air are apt to have an enervating and debilitating effect. In order
to warm and ventilate a room by hot air only it is, of course, necessary
to introduce the fresh air at the top, extracting the foul air at the bottom.
This, again, is open to several objections : those sitting near the outlets
are in a continuous stream of all the bad air in the room ; the breathed
air is brought down again past all the people in the room (as are the
products of combustion if artificial light is in use); the windows can
never be opened because if they were the whole working of the system
would be upset ; finally, in summer, when the incoming air is cooler than
that in the room, there is a tendency for the entering air to fall straight
down to the outlet below. This system has undoubtedly many strong
supporters, but the unsatisfactory state of things existing in many schools
where it has been installed has induced the Committee to urge that a
good deal more experiment and experience of it is required before it can
be safely recommended. On the whole, it seems that the solution is likely
to be found in some plan by which the fresh air (warmed when the weather
is cold so that it can be freely introduced without discomfort and main-
tained at a temperature of not less than 55°) is brought in at a low level,
the foul air being taken off at the highest point (mechanical power being
used to make sure of sufficient movement) and the actual warming of the
room being done by some form of direct radiation.

Sanitary.—tThe sanitary conveniences in boys’ schools may well be
placed outside the main building ; but in girls’ schools, and where there
are very young children, they must be provided in the main building, but

460 REPORT—19038.

should be cut off by a properly arranged ventilating lobby. This pait of
the school building should be thoroughly well lighted, so as to ensure its
being kept properly clean. Deodorants or disinfectants should not be
allowed, as they take away one certain and easy means of detecting any-
thing wrong. To prevent unpleasantness reliance should be placed on
perfect cleanliness. Frequent inspection by the principal is of the greatest
iniportance, as when these matters are Jef{t entirely to the school-keeper
it is not uncommon to find in schools otherwise splendidly equipped and
managed a very undesirable state of things. In planning a school great
care should be exercised as to the position of lavatories, &c. No windows
in the main building should overlook the approach to them.

APPENDIX II.
Eyesight in School Children.

The Sub-Committee appointed to inquire into the recorded investiga-
tions as to (A) the causes of defective eyesight in school children, and to
give an account of (B) the conditions necessary for preserving the sight
in school life, reports as follows :—

(A) The three principal preventable causes of defective sight in schools
are found to be—

1. Defective and flickering lighting of school buildings and rooms.

2. Faulty positions of scholars with regard to light and with regard
to the work upon which they are occupied.

3. Bad type of print and writing, both in school books and upon
blackboards.

To these may be added causes less under the control of the school,
though definitely affecting the child in its relation to school life,
namely—

Defective nutrition ;

Insufficient sleep and clothing, and home habits and conditions in-
jurious to general health ;

Home lessons conducted under unfavourable conditions of light
position.

(B) The three conditions necessary for preserving the sight in school
life are found to be—

1. That the schoolroom and classrooms should be sufficiently and
steadily lighted, whether by daylight or by artificial lighting.

2. That scholars should maintain correct positions in school, both in
regard to the direction of the light falling upon their work and correct
Pea. and with regard to the books or objects upon which they are at
work.

3. That the paper and type of all books used in school should be
appropriate. Blackboards should be properly prepared and placed, and
the writing upon them clear and of a suitable size. Slates of the ordinary
description should be abolished or replaced by others of a more modern
kind.

CONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION. 461

1 a, A classroom is considered to be sufficiently lighted by daylight !
in all parts in which a portion of the sky is visible by the scholar ; by
artificial light when small type known as brillant can be read in any
part of the room at the distance of 18 inches from the normal eyes,
In place of blinds a sliding screen covering only part of the window
should be arranged so that sunlight may be prevented falling directly
on the scholars, and that with a minimum loss of daylight. Windows
should always be carried as near to the ceiling as possible so as to secure
the largest amount of sky. The height of the window-sill from the floor
also requires careful consideration, Jt should never be so low as to cause
dazzling of the scholars’ eyes,

The window-glass should be perfectly clear without any muffling or
clouding, not only on account of securing the largest amount of light,
but to save the check to the eye-nerve of thwarted vision. Windows
ought not to be broken up by bars where these can be avoided ; and plate-
glass is preferable, where possible, as being a good non-conductor. It
retains the heat of the fire in the room, and also takes the heat out of
the sunlight entering the room. Careful attention should be paid to the
ratio between window area and floor space.

Reflected light from the ceiling becomes well dispersed and is steady.

2 a. The correct position for a child, when sitting at a desk to write,
is such that his feet may be firmly planted on. the floor or foot-rest, the
seat of his chair reaching forward to his knee, the back of the seat
supporting both middle spine and shoulders. The front of the desk
should come well over the knees and be at such a height that both arms
can be laid on it easily without raising the shoulders. The slope of the
desk should be about 30°, and this position will be found to bring the
paper at about the distance of from 18 to 20 inches from the eyes of the
normally proportioned child.

In reading the slope of the book should be 45°; and this exercise
should for the most part be taken sitting rather than standing in order
not to dissipate nervous energy from intelligence and eyesight ; and
great liberty of movement must be allowed within these requirements,
either when standing or sitting, to avoid strain upon the delicate nervous
organism,

Desks and seats must be so placed that light falls from above (dis-
persed light causing no shadows) or from the left. Light must be steady
and not flickering, and must fall upon the work and not upon the eyes of
the worker.

2. School hooks are considered to be appropriate and well printed
when the paper is thick enough to prevent the ink showing through ; the
colour of the paper slightly toned white, not glazed; the ink a good
black ; the size of type pica leaded ; and the length of line about
four inches.

A feeling is expressed by many that school books should be ‘passed’
by some hygienic authority as appropriate to eyesight before being
received in schools from the publishers.

Blackboards should be slated black to receive the white chalk. They
should be at a maximum distance of 30 feet from the observer, should be
well illuminated, and the writing upon them should be well spaced and
not less than an inch depth.

' Special instruments have been devised to measure exactly the amount of day-
light in any part of the room;

462 REPORT—1903.

As while hypermetropia (longsightedness) is generally congenital,
myopia (shortsightedness) is generally acquired. The simple methods
adopted for discovering defective eyesight in its early stages and
maintaining an alertness in observing an increased deficiency are as
follows :—

An examination of the eyes in any case where a child appears to be
stupid ; tends to hold the book or object at which he is set to work too
near his face ; cannot see the blackboard so easily as his comrades ; com-
plains of headache, seeing ‘colours,’ or has watering or redness in the
eye, or squints.

The examination of all children over the first standard annually by means
of Snellen’s letter test, or by tests of broken circles or incomplete squares.
Anything more complex has been found to be misleading except when
used by experts. In the use of Snellen’s letter tests, daylight being
variable, it is desirable to arrange a couple of argand burners or electric
lights so that the types shall be thoroughly illuminated while the lights
are screened from the child under observation. But it should be remem-
bered that the test so conducted only gives the working power of those
eyes under identical conditions in the schoolroom, and it should not be
supposed that a less illuminated or less clearly written blackboard will
be readable at a similar distance.

Children need to be taught and trained to secure for themselves proper
lighting at work, and to maintain proper habits of posture, &c., with
regard to light ; while remembering that the habit may be the result of
eye defects or defects of lighting, teachers should make a point of cor-
recting any tendency to form a mere habit of getting objects close to
the eyes, in order to protect the children against loss of eyesight in school
life.

Separate classes might be arranged in large schools for high myopic
cases. In all cases special attention has to be given to the myopic under
the guidance of the oculist.

It might be well to recommend the appointment of a medical man
skilled in eye disorders to each large school or group of schools, when
all cases of defective sight should be referred to him for examination and
report,

APPENDIX III.

Need for Appointment of Women-inspectors.

The Sub-Committee has confined its inquiry chiefly to the need for
women-inspectors in elementary schools, in pupil teachers’ centres, and in
technical institutes. Information has been sought in country schools, in
town schools, from head teachers, and also from inspectors. The evidence
is of great interest, but naturally of limited extent. No special effort has
been made to restrict inquiries to districts where women-inspectors have
worked, but on the other hand it has not been possible to prosecute
inquiries very widely. The general line of inquiry has been directed to
obtaining authentic instances of reforms suggested by women-inspectors,
and of cases where, in the opinion of the teachers, desirable reforms would
have received earlier and more attention had the school been visited by a
competent woman-inspector, and this under various heads as buildings,

CONDITIONS OF HEALTH ESSENTIAL FOR CARRYING ON INSTRUCTION. 463

sanitary conditions affecting both teachers and scholars, scholastic defects
and difficulties, and morals.

Evidence given by inspectors has mainly referred to points in which
attention has been drawn by women to such defects in girls’ and infant
schools, and cases in which teachers have specially sought advice and help
from a woman-inspector.

An abstract is appended from a valuable letter from Miss Ravenhill
covering nearly all the points of importance that have arisen in the
inquiry. The correspondence with teachers, inspectors, and others has
been of great interest, and the Committee only regret that it is not
possible to print fuller extracts.

It should perhaps be mentioned that while not all teachers are in
favour of having women-inspectors, it seems that it is usually those who
work under the happiest conditions who have not felt the need. Almost
all are glad of the inquiry, and express hopes that it may be acted on,
though many are anxious it should not be known that they have given
evidence. The need is as great, if not greater, in pupil-teachers’ centres
and in science schools for girls as anywhere. One woman, twelve years
member of a School Board, writes that women-inspectors will be more
needed under the Education Act than before.

Stress has been laid by several correspondents on the care desirable in
selecting women to serve as inspectors, and the Committee wish to
emphasise this point. It is most important that inspectors, whether men
or women, should possess a practical knowledge of hygiene, especially as
regards school structures and child-life. Some evidence of such know-
ledge might well be required in the future.

It is earnestly hoped that the attention, both of the Board of Educa-
tion and of the new Local Education Authorities may be drawn to the
importance of the subject.

Extract from Letter from Miss RAvENHILL referring to Returns
obtained by her from School Teachers.

‘Instances of very serious defects in the ventilation and heating of
elementary schools appear in my returns; for example, classrooms
underground, of which the air is always foul, and another case where the
temperature of the babies’ room was rarely above 48° F. for some weeks
in the winter of 1902. It is believed that a woman-inspector would be
more alive than male inspectors have shown themselves to be to the
deteriorating influences exercised upon health by these and similar
conditions of work. A glaring example of insanitary conditions is given
in a school a portion of the foundations of which stand in water: fungus
grows abundantly beneath the school floor, causing an unpleasant odour,
but the only steps taken to remedy the evil is the placing of lime from
time to time under the floor,’

The information collected this year again, as last year, emphasises the
need for and the importance of a greater diffusion among teachers and
among those who have charge of schools, of a true knowledge regarding
the working of the healthy body and mind. As to this knowledge
required by teachers the influence of school habits and of school work

464 REPORT—1903,

upon health, the proper care of sight and hearing and of the muscular
sense and powers, the regulating of sanitary conditions in warming, light-
ing, ventilation, and cleanliness both of rooms and of persons, attention to
clothing, safeguarding against fatigue—all these are duties for which
authorities should encourage the teacher to acquire knowledge and train-
ing to undertake them adequately. Suitable instruction in the principles
and practice of modern hygiene can alone equip the teacher to perform
such duties intelligently. Modern hygiene utilises the sciences of
chemistry, physics, and physiology, and from these it welds together an
applied knowledge devoted ad hoc to the regulation of the conditions
promoting health of body and determining to a large extent that of
mind also. It is not the whole of the wide study of hygiene that is
required for the purposes of the school teacher. It is a knowledge of
hygiene devoted ad hoc to the conditions of school life. This should be
regarded as a conditio sine quad now for those who have the care of
children and the working management of school life. This requirement
has been forgotten by the framers of the Education Acts. It is not for
one moment to be thought that it is the acquirement of any medical
knowledge that we are urging as necessary for the professional equipment
of school teachers and inspectors. The study of chemistry, physics, and
physiology is, it is true, at the basis of medicine as well as of hygiene ;
but the daily routine of the teacher’s supervision of maintenance of health
conditions in the school would not take the place of a skilled expert’s
advice and the opinion of the medical man required at stated intervals or
as occasion arose. The former would, however, most usefully and import-
antly co-operate with the latter. Teachers well and practically instructed
in hygiene would provide an organisation able to co-operate intelligently
with medical advisers. Dr. Kerr in his recent Report as Medical Officer
of the London School Board writes: ‘The definite requirement of
hygienic knowledge as part of the equipment of every teacher is a neces-
sity if a great part of the work of this department is not to be useless in
result. Praiseworthy as are the efforts of head teachers to comply with
all requirements and instructions, zeal cannot replace knowledge ; and
until this knowledge becomes a necessity for qualification as a teacher it
would be well if special importance were attached to its possession in any
future appointments to the headship of departments.’

The Committee in this belief desire to urge the Association to
memorialise the Education Department (1) to adopt or recognise some
more thorough and practical test of a teacher’s knowledge and experience
of the application of health conditions in school life ; (2) to protect
health in school life by making practical knowledge of hygiene as applied
to school life an essential qualification for those to whom it intrusts its
school inspection.

The Committee desire to be reappointed, and ask to he allowed to
use the unexpended portion of this year’s grant.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 465

Corresponding Societies Committee. —Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. W. Wurraker (Chairman), Mr. F. W. Rupier
(Secretary), Sir Joun Evans, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, Dr. VauGHan CornisH, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. T. V.
Hotes, Mr. J. Horxitnson, Professor R. Mrenpoua, Dr. H. R.
Mitzi, Mr. C. H. Reap, Rev. T. R, R. Sressine, dnd Professor
W. W. Warts. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Corresponding Societies Committee have to report that at their
suggestion, since the last meeting, the Council of the British Associa-
tion have resolved to recommend to the General Committee that
the work at present entrusted to the Secretaries of the Sectional Com-
mittees under Rule 10 (p. xxxvii of the last Report) shall henceforth
devolve upon the Organising Committees. The effect of this alteration
will be that the Organising Committee of each Section will transmit to
the Secretaries of Sections, and through these to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates, any recommendations bearing upon matters in
which the co-operation of the Corresponding Societies is desired. It is
hoped that by this means the Organising Committees will specify what
local work can be usefully undertaken by the Corresponding Societies,
with the view of assisting the various scientific Committees of the Asso-
ciation.

The Council of the Association, at the instance of a Committee which
they appointed to consider the relation of the Corresponding Societies to
the Association, have directed that an official invitation should be ad-
dressed to the various Societies, through the Corresponding Societies
Committee, asking them to appoint standing British Association Sub-
Committees to be elected by themselves with the object of dealing with
all those subjects of investigation common to their Societies and to the
British Association Committees, and to look after the general interests of
science and scientific education throughout the provinces and provincial
centres.

For further consideration of these subjects a Conference was held on
June 24 between the Committee of Council and the Corresponding
Societies Committee, when it was decided that the questions raised in
the Report of the Committee of Council should be brought forward for
discussion at the Conference of Delegates at Southport.

The following circular-letter was accordingly addressed to the Presi-
dents, Secretaries, and Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies :—

‘ Burlington House, London, W.,
‘June 24, 1903,

‘Dear Sir,—We are directed by the Council of the British Associa~
tion for the Advancement of Science to suggest to your Society the advan-
tage of securing closer co-operation with the Corresponding Societies
Committee by the appointment of a Special Committee to deal with such
subjects of investigation as are common to your Society and to the Com-
mittees of the British Association. Such an organisation, it is believed,
might be of great use in creating and sustaining local interest in scientific
work and in increasing the scientitic activity of your Society,

1903. ne

466 REPORT—1903,

‘The subject of Scientific Education in relation to the Corresportding
Societies has been under the consideration of a Committee of the Council
of this Asssociation, and that Committee have expressed the opinion that
immense benefit would accrue to the country if the Corresponding
Societies, in addition to their present work, were to take advantage of
the expert knowledge of many of their members to secure adequate
representation for scientific education on the Education Committees now
being appointed under the new Act. The Educational Section of the
Association having been but recently added, the Corresponding Societies
have not had much opportunity for taking part in this branch of the
Association’s work, and in view of the reorganisation in education now
going on all over the country the Committee are of opinion that no more
opportune time is likely to occur for the influence of scientific organisa-
tions to make itself felt as a real factor in national education. They do
not at present think it desirable to formulate any definite scheme by
which the Corresponding Societies might be of service to the cause of
scientific education. Some Societies might prefer to form Educational
Consultative Committees, and to place their services at the disposal of the
Education Authority of their County or Borough. Others might prefer
that individual members of their Societies should be added to the Educa-
tion Committee ; and others again might prefer to act indirectly by
helping to foster public opinion in favour of that kind of education which
it is the chief function of a scientific body such as the British Association
to promote.

‘We are directed by the Council of this Association to invite your
Society to express its opinion on this subject through its representative
at the next Conference of the Delegates of Corresponding Societies,
which will be held at Southport on September 10 and 15, during the
Meeting of the British Association, when the matter will form a specific
subject for discussion.

‘For your fuller information a copy of the Report of the Committee
of Council of the British Association is enclosed herewith.

‘Weare, Sir, yours faithfully,
‘F. W. RupteEr, Sec. Corresponding Soc. Com. ;
J. G, Garson, Asst. General Secretary.’

The Committee have to report that the returns received from the
Corresponding Societies show that in some instances good work is being
accomplished locally, though in most cases only to a very limited extent.
In reply to a Circular of Inquiry, eighteen Societies state that they
have done something during the past year in the way of original investi-
gation. The subjects which have received most attention relate to geo-
logical and botanical research.

A Circular similar to that which was printed in last year’s Report
(p. 863) was addressed to the Secretaries of the various Committees of
the Association and others desirous of obtaining the co-operation of the
Corresponding Societies, inquiring what assistance had been rendered
by the Local Societies. It is unfortunate, however, that the replies to
this inquiry have not been of a very encouraging character.

The Elgin and Morayshire Literary and Scientific Association has been
added to the list of Corresponding Societies ; the Cardiff Naturalists’
Society and the Natural History Society of Glasgow have been replaced ;
and the West of Scotland Marine Biological Association has withdrawn.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 467

The Committee recommend the continued investigation of the various
subjects set forth in last year’s Report (pp. 852, 853), with the addition of
meteorological observations, including especially records of rainfall.

With regard to the attendance of Delegates at the Conference, it is
desirable to point out that each representative is expected to be present
at both meetings. As a matter of fact, however, many absent themselves
from one of the two meetings, whilst in several cases the Delegate fails
to attend either. This was conspicuously the case at Belfast.

The Committee greatly regret that considerable delay arose in the
issue of the Report of last year’s Conference. This delay was due to the
failure of the shorthand writers at Belfast to send in any Report of the
meeting.

Several valuable suggestions as to subjects suitable for discussion at
the Conference of Delegates have been received, and the Committee have
decided that at the Southport Conference the following subjects shall
receive discussion :—

1. The work of the Corresponding Societies in relation to scientific
organisation.

2. The botanical survey of counties.

3. Exploration and registration work for county Local Societies.

Report of the Conferences of Delegates of Corresponding Societies
held at Southport, September 1903.

Chairman. ; . W. Whitaker, B.A., F.R.S.
Vice-Chairman. . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A., F.S.A.
Secretary : : . F.W. Rudler, F.G.S.

_ The Conferences were held on Thursday, September 10, and Tuesday,
September 15, at 3 o'clock P.m., in the Chapel Street Congregational
Schools.

The following Corresponding Societies nominated Delegates to repre-
sent them at the Conferences. The attendance of the Delegates is
indicated in the list by the figures 1 and 2 placed in the margin opposite
to the name of each Society, and referring respectively to the first and
second meetings. Where no figure is shown it will be understood that
the Delegate did not attend.!

List of Societies sending Delegates.

Andersonian Naturalists’ Society . Rev. A. 8. Wilson, M.A., B.Se.
Bath Natural History and Antiqua- Rey. C. W. Shickle, M.A., F.S.A.
rian Field Club,
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club . . Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc.
Belfast Natural History and Philoso- Professor Gregg Wilson, D.Sc.
phical Society.
1 2 Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club . . G. P. Hughes.
Birmingham and Midland Institute C. J. Watson.
Scientific Society.
1 Birmingham Natural History and Herbert Stone, F.L.S.
Philosophical Society.
Buchan Field Club. ; 2 - J. F. Tocher, F.1.C.

—

’ The attendances are taken from the Attendance-Book, which each Delegate
is expected to sign on entering the Conference.
HH 2

468

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REPORT—1908.

Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club

Cardiff Naturalists’ Society :

Chester Society of Natural Science,
Literature, and Art.

Croydon Natural History and Scien-
tific Society.

Dorset Natural History and Anti-
quarian Field Club.

East Kent Scientific and Natural
History Society.

Elgin and Morayshire Literary and
Scientific Association.

Essex Field Club

Glasgow Geological Societ; y

Glasgow Natural History Society.

Glasgow Royal Philosophical Society

Halifax Scientific Society .

Hampshire Field Club and Archeo-
logical Society.

Haslemere Microscope and Natural
History Society.

Hertfordshire Natural History Society

Holmesdale Natural History Club

Hull Geological Society .

Institution of Mining Engineers 3

Isle of Man Natural History and
Antiquarian Society.

Leeds Geological Association

Leeds Naturalists’ Club and Scientific
Association.

Liverpool Engineering Society .

Liverpool Geographical Society .

Liverpool Geological Society

Manchester Geographical Society

Manchester Geological and Mining
Society.

Manchester Microscopical Society

Manchester Statistical Society .

Midland Counties Institution of Ep-

ineers.

Midland Institute of Mining, Civil,
and Mechanical Engineers.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’
Society.

North of England Institute of Mining
and Mechanical Engineers.

North Staffordshire Field Club .

Northumberland, Durham, and New-
castle-upon-Tyne Natural History
Society.

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society

Paisley Philosophical Institution

Perthshire Society of Natural Science

Rochdale Literary and _ Scientific
Society.

South-Eastern Union of Scientific
Societies.

Southport Literary and Philosophical
Society.

South Staffordshire and East Worces-
tershire Institute of Mining Engi-
neers.

Tyneside Geographical Society. .

Professor W. W. Watts, M.A., M.Sc,
Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.
A, O. Walker, F.L.S.

W. F. Stanley, F.G.8.

Vaughan Cornish, D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
A. S. Reid, M.A.

Dr. Wm. Mackie.

¥, W. Rudler, ¥.G.5.

J. Barclay Murdoch.

Peter Ewing, F.L.5.

Professor Archibald Barr, D.Sc.
W. Ackroyd, F.L.C.

Rev. A. G. Joyce.

Hon. Rollo Russell.

John Hopkinson, F.L.S.
Miss Ethel Sargant.

G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S.
Professor Henry Louis, M.A.
Rev. S. N. Harrison, B.A

A. R. Dwerryhouse, M.Sc.
Harold Wager, F.L.S.

Professor H. S. Hele-Shaw, F.B.S.
Captain Phillips, R.N.

Joseph Lomas, F.G.8.

Joel Wainwright.

James Tonge, F.G.S.

F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.S.
Professor 5. J. Chapman, M.A.
Professor H. Louis, M.A.

G. B. Walker.

Frederick Long.

John Gerrard.

Dr. Wheelton Hind, F.G.S.
Professor M. C. Potter, F.L.S,

Professor J. W. Carr, M.A.
William Peattie.

A. S. Reid, M.A.

J. R. Heape.

Rev. R. A. Bullen, B A.

A. H. Garstang.

Professor Henry Louis, M.A.

Herbert Shaw, I.R.G.S,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 469

Warwickshire Naturalists’and Archzeo- William Andrews, F.G.S,
logists’ Field Club.

1 2 Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. Rev. J. O. Bevan, F.S.A.

1 2 Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Professor P. ¥. Kendall, F.G.S.
Society.

1 2 Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . . W. West, F.L.S.

1 Yorkshire Philosophical Society . Rev. W. Johnson, B.A,

First Conference, September 10.

This Conference was presided over by Mr. W. Whitaker. The
Corresponding Societies Committee was represented by Mr. Whitaker,
the Rev. J. O. Bevan, the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Professor W. W.
Watts, Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. Rudler.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee was read.

The Chairman, after some introductory remarks, said that the Con-
ference was honoured by the presence of Sir Norman Lockyer, the
President of the Association, who had kindly promised to address the
Delegates on the necessity of organising science, with special reference
to the question whether the British Association can help in any way, and,
if so, whether the Corresponding Societies could take any part therein,

Sir Norman Lockyer spoke as follows: I should like to say that my
object in asking permission to attend this meeting was to listen, and not
to talk. I have never had the privilege of attending a meeting of the
Delegates before, and I was very anxious indeed to be allowed to follow
the discussion, in order that I might inform myself as to the views of the
Delegates themselves regarding some lines of the work of the British Asso-
ciation which I ventured to refer to last night. My own opinion is that
in all these matters the principle of organic growth should be utilised as
far as possible ; and you may remember I suggested in my address that if
the British Association in its wisdom determines to take any action at
all in regard to the formation of a Guild of Science, which I hold would
be one of the most important things which students of science should do
at the present time, it is important to see whether or not that could best
be done in connection with the existing organisation of the Corresponding
Societies. It is stated in the reports, and I cited it in my address, that
there are seventy societies aftiliated to the British Association, and that
the membership is something like 25,000. I went on to suggest in my
ignorance possibly, that we might very largely increase that number both
at home and abroad, so that ultimately we should have a very large
membership. The reason I ventured to make that suggestion was
that I felt the present moment was very opportune for the formation of
such a body, because you have throughout the kingdom, from Land’s End
to John o’ Groats, a great number of Councils—county councils, city
councils, town councils, district councils, parish councils, and goodness
knows what—andit struck me that if we could manage somehow to influence
the debates of these bodies, it would be very much better for science, and
ultimately, I think, very much to the benefit of the Association. I am a
very humble person, a very hardworking man, and IT have been working
for the last forty years to try in my little way to get adopted some better
views of science in this country. Well, I am a miserable failure, and all
the people who have made similar endeavours are like me—miserable
failures. We have done absolutely nothing. So far as my experience
goes, all the attempts made by individuals during the last forty years—

470 2 REPORT—1908.

T can go back forty years in my own work—have been practically of no
effect, and that was the reason why I thought it was possible that by
some such organisation as I sketched last night we might do something
better. That ‘something better’ is, to put it plainly, looking after votes.
Unless we can control votes in the House of Commons and in the Councils
throughout the country science will not be any better looked after. If we
can control votes science will be benefited ; and scientific bodies from one
end of the country to the other, working with a goal in view, would be
a most important factor in our future national life. Of that I am
perfectly convinced ; but I am only an individual, and therefore I asked
permission to come and listen to you, gentlemen, who have had more
experience than I can claim to have, representing as you do different
societies, familiar with the conditions in your own localities, and therefore
able to say whether it is possible to influence Councils, and gradually
to infuse a scientific spirit into the county councils, the town councils,
and the district councils of England. I would, therefore, if you will
allow me, sit down and listen to what any of you may choose to say with
regard to the possibility—or the absurdity—of attempting to carry out
this thing.

The Chairman: I am sure we all thank Sir Norman Lockyer for
coming and speaking to us to-day, and for his address of last night. It
shows his confidence in the scientific societies of the country and his
feeling that the local societies might do some good work in helping on
the object he has in view. Our various societies are very differently
placed, and it is quite possible some of the societies may feel that they
cannot do anything, while others may be in a position to influence local
opinion very considerably in educational matters. There must be great
differences in these matters, and I hope you will enter into the discussion
from the standpoint of your own local circumstances, so that we may
know the kind of feeling prevailing in different localities, the difficulties
in the way, and possibly the manner with which something can be
accomplished. Of course there will be difficulties in the way. It is part
of a great controversy ; but the country being waked up, as it were, on
the subject of education on a scientific basis, I am sure you will all agree
with our President when he says that now is the appointed time, and it
is best to strike while the iron is hot. The year before us is just the
time when educational matters can best be pushed forward.

Principal E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. (Cardiff Naturalists’ Society) : I
rise to speak as a member of a local society, though I cannot confine
myself to that point of view, and would venture to take a wider survey,
and say how the matter may be viewed in that part of the country in
which I am most interested, the Principality of Wales. I think T may
claim to have some right to speak on this matter, for I am a member of
several educational authorities in South Wales, and happen at the
present moment to be the Vice-Chancellor of the University. I heartily
agree, from the local college or university point of view, that we can do
something if we all work together. But I have, as some of you know,
some hesitation or doubt as to the best line on which our energies can be
expended: I am not sure whether the subject is so advanced as it
may appear to some of you. What we have to do is to educate the ‘ man
in the street,’ and convince him that pure science is a good thing for him,
ang) then all our difficulties will be swept away, We want to be able to

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 471

go to him and say that the men who are working in the laboratories and
have laid the foundations of the discoveries he uses in his daily life are
men who touch him very nearly and help on his prosperity very greatly.
That is the kind of missionary effort in which I believe every one of our
societies can heartily join. I have given a little attention lately to this
line of public advocacy in my own district, and I have found men,
particularly working men, very willing to listen to such arguments,
and if we can place before them definite examples, showing them, for
instance, in regard to electricity, how much Faraday working in his
laboratory did in preparing the way for them to earn their living, the
work will be easy. That will make them see that science is a real thing
in their daily lives and an important factor in the prosperity of the
country. The first point, then, is to see if our societies cannot act as
missionary societies throughout the country in bringing home to the
working classes the real, live, not sentimental, business benefits which
result from the study of pure science and research. We have the
academic professor who loves and talks about the work, and we have the
‘man in the street’ who takes a peculiar pride in declaring that he is a
practical man ; but there is no one to act as a go-between, bringing the
two together, and showing that, after all, theory is a real and practical
thing. There is a danger at the present moment, when academic fiscal
questions are being so much discussed, of getting entangled in one or
other of the great political parties. If we take part in the discussion,
and back any definite policy, there is great danger of the want of wisdom
of the few wrecking the success of the whole movement, or doing untold
injury for a long time to come. It is very necessary, therefore, that we
should pay particular attention to our steps, and carefully avoid, as our
President so admirably did last night, any reference or assumption which
ean be put down to political views or political advocacy. If it is possible
to frame a line of action in that way we shall keep clear of political
entanglements, and we shall have the opportunity and the power of
securing some of the objects we have in view. I venture, with the
greatest diffidence, to differ from our President as to putting forward our
object so prominently. It is quite true we want to catch votes, but if
we start out with that as our avowed object we shall lessen our chance of
success. Let us appeal to the ‘man in the street’ on the facts which
must convince him that science is of abiding benefit to him in his daily
life. Let us get him imbued with that idea, and votes will follow.

Mr. W. F. Stanley (Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society) :
Principal Griffiths has spoken about the ‘man in the street,’ but if we
could just commence the study of science with the ‘ boy in the street’ we
should be getting a step forward. As long as our schools adhere to the
one simple rule of teaching reading, writing, and arithmetic according to
the old original code, which has been relaxed only very little, we shall
never get a taste for science among our population. [I have noticed
that after teaching the children reading, writing, and the old-fashioned
arithmetic, together with a large amount of grammar—much more than
I ever acquired myself—they develop a taste for a certain class of
literature, and many of these scholars become writers for the penny
journals. Jf we had taken the same amount of pains to give these
children educational tastes as I have seen done in Norway and in Germany
it would have been much better. TI should like to see the children in our
schools tqught the things which surround they, and the principles of

472 REPORT—1908.

those things, for if once a boy is taught these things he takes a violent
interest in them, more so than one would imagine, Any little chemical
experiment greatly interests a boy. If you show him the escapement of
a watch, he will at once take an interest in clocks, and he will have
gained his first taste in the rudiments of mechanics. Teach him a little
about electricity, and he will take a great interest in that subject: he
will spend his pocket money in buying an electric bell for the cottage,
or knock one together for a shilling or so, and that will give him his
start in science. I want to say what we are doing at the present time,
and to call the attention of this Conference to it. A large number of our
societies exist merely for a certain object. Many of them are collecting
societies, botanical or geological, or are interested in photography. We
have in my particular district, the Croydon district, some 2,000 students
studying science at the polytechnics. If the local societies would affiliate
themselves in any way through their committees to the polytechnics,
they would be able in some way to draw the strings together in the
manner Sir Norman Lockyer has suggested. But what strikes me as
being what working men require, and, in fact, what we all require, is to
have some initiatory system in order to gain a taste for science. I have
been much surprised at the very excellent results of our polytechnics,
I am sure anyone who has read or even looked through the papers on
science, will say that very able work is being done in my own particular
district, which is most gratifying. There are 10,000 inhabitants in the
immediate neighbourhood of South Norwood, and we have over 1,200
class entries, which shows that 12 per cent. of the people are taking an
interest in science. I think if our societies can affiliate themselves to the
polytechnics, and have representatives on the committees of these societies,
which, so far as I am aware, are very anxious for their admission, we
shall have begun to unite our societies together, and we shall be able to
draw them to a focus.

Mr. Garstang (Southport Literary and Philosophical Society): As I
have been invited to attend this Conference I will explain what our local
society is doing. Our society is about twenty years old, and we have
done useful educational work. We have influenced the town council,
because in the first instance we started the science and art classes which
have since been taken over by the town council ; and also another work
which is hardly municipal, the University Extension Lectures, which
have recently been taken over by an association formed for the purpose,
with the result that Southport is now one of the most successful centres
in England. After listening to the President’s admirable address, I
thought how we could effect the particular object of influencing public
local opinion. It occurs to me that if local opinion is influenced it
will he principally by local organisations influencing the votes of
members of local bodies. The President subsequently voiced this par-
ticular idea, and I do not see why a scientific society, not associated
with any particular party, should not try to influence local opinion
in this respect. I hope the scheme will be given a very earnest trial,
and that it will be attended with successful results. It seems to me that
in municipalities a great object would be achieved if it were possible to
influence the opinions of the town councils and the district councils—
those bodies which have it in their power to put into force the provisions
of the Technical Instruction and kindred Acts relating to the promotion
and advancement of science in the locality. As to returning special

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 473

members to a town council, I think that might be a difficult matter,
because a member is elected for a particular ward, and you could not
possibly get the scientific opinion of a town focussed on a particular
ward or candidate. The Southport Society is very pleased indeed to have
been able to bring the British Association to Southport, and on behalf of
our local Society I heartily welcome the Delegates

Professor J. W. Carr (Nottingham Naturalists’ Society): It may
possibly be of some use if I state what we have been doing at Notting-
ham for some years past. The Nottingham University College, an
extremely flourishing institution, well equipped with scientific laboratories
and a good natural history museum, really arose out of the efforts of the
old local Natural History Society, which managed to get the corporation
so interested in scientific matters that they ultimately founded what is
possibly the only institution of a university character in this country
which owes its inception to the corporation of the locality. As many of
you know, we have for many years been doing our best to promote
scientific work of all kinds, and I think we may say that we have suc-
ceeded in creating a great deal of interest, and that we have some local
influence on the constitution of the new educational bodies which are
springing up all over the country. Myself and two of my brother-pro-
fessors have been put on the educational bodies of neighbouring boroughs,
and there is a constant demand for advice on such matters as the creation
and equipment of scientific laboratories. At the present moment Ilkeston
is just considering the question of building a large science school with
chemical, physical, and even biological laboratories—a remarkable thing for
a borough of less than 10,000 inhabitants, That is the way of attaining
the object Sir Norman Lockyer has at heart. We are trying to get hold of
the ‘man in the street,’ and also the children. We have a day department
in our college, with 120 students, who come for two years’ training, and
are replaced by a similar number. Almost the whole of these are to
enter on elementary teaching after going through a certain amount of
science work. These people then go out into the public schools of the
neighbourhood, and endeavour in their turn to create an interest in
scientific matters among their pupils. One of the best features of their
work is that they are allowed by the education committee to bring their
scholars once a week to the University College to inspect the museum,
and even the laboratories, and those of us who are able to do so take
them round the institution and point out to them the features of special
interest, as well as things which have a direct bearing on their work and
on the industries and trades of the locality. Further, we supplement
our purely academic work by public lectures on scientific subjects specially
addressed to working men. We get very large audiences, and the men
take a great interest in what we are doing. I believe in that way we
are creating a kind of constituency from which we expect to get good
results in the future.

The Rev, J. O. Bevan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club): We are
all very much indebted to our President for opening the discussion on
this subject. I have a feeling, however, that the proposition is a little
nebulous at present, and before we discuss the matter further I think we
should have before us some suggestion of a definite character, around
which our thoughts might be suffered to crystallise. But one takes a
grain of comfort from the thought that if any Guild of Science be
founded under the auspices he suggests, the British Association and the

474, REPORT—1903.

Corresponding Societies would have a considerable share in the direction
of matters. Apart, however, from all that, it would seem to be the case
that even under existing circumstances a great deal might be done. I am
aware many opportunities have been allowed to slip in the passing of the
Elementary Education Act of 1870, the Welsh Education Act of 1889,
the Technical Education Act of 1891, which gave local authorities power
to spend enormous sums of money, the Education Act of 1902, and, last
year, the London Education Act. These all provide for the constitution of
a large number of new bodies, and the collaboration of work in connection
with existing bodies, and as matters now stand one would be inclined to.
believe that, if concerted effort of an intelligent character could be arranged
in different neighbourhoods, it might be possible to obtain extended powers.
Some of these bodies have technical committees, and to these outsiders
are sometimes co-opted, so that there is no reason at all why some concerted
effort could not be made by persons, scientific and otherwise, in a neigh-
bourhood in order to provide for the co-operation of all persons well-
disposed towards science. Sir Norman Lockyer is disappointed that so
little has been done during the last forty years. We all share that
disappointment, for itis very real, but Iam afraid our present effort is
ten or fifteen years too late. Schemes are now being formulated and
elaborated, but it is a difficult matter to interfere with the constitution of
existing schemes. It has been suggested that, in addition to these various
bodies, partly elected and partly co-opted, consultative committees should
be formed. I have not much opinion of the value of consultative com-
mittees, for the bodies formed by these local authorities would be jealous
of allowing such a committee to interfere with their deliberations and the
spending of money. They would not be allowed to have a definite voice
in the management of their affairs, and in a few years the consultative
committee would become practically defunct. One thing to be noticed in
relation to this subject is, we are not only concerned with the elementary,
but with secondary schools, and it is a much more difficult matter to deal
with them, because the organisation of secondary schools is not so complete.
There is a third set of schools which present an even greater difficulty,
and that is the private schools. Of these there are something like 8,000,
in which the boys and girls of a large number of our members are
educated, but owing to the lack of organisation it is difficult to effect any
change in the course of instruction introduced into these schools. And
yet it is a most important matter. Why should not these children be
educated in the elementary principles of science? Yet apparently nothing
can be done. If a resolution is formulated some of these eventualities
may be considered. Further, science is often at a discount in the minds
of the public because, as a matter of fact, the science which is taught in
some of our schools is, not to put too fine a point on it, no science at all.
We want it taught by well-trained teachers, rather than that the children
should be crammed with certain facts of science by a teacher who, because
he has just taken a course of twelve lessons in agriculture, for example, is
supposed to know all about the nature of the soil, the value of manures,
the rotation of crops, and so on. As a matter of fact he knows very
little, and parents unite in holding him up to scorn. I do not want a
cook who can present yards of certificates, and yet spoils my dinner.
Science is at a disadvantage. Let us be careful; we not only want
science taught, but we want it taught in a proper scientific way.
Professor W. W. Watts (Caradoc and Severn Valley Field Club) ;

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. A475

As President of the Section of Geology I have been making a strong
appeal for the teaching of geology in technical colleges and univer-
sities, aud I have appealed in this way because I consider it a science
which can be taught with very little apparatus, it leads to a life in the
open-air in its practice, and it is an admirable training in the collection
of facts, and of fact pure and simple. More than half the real work—in
fact the greater part of a scientific man’s work—consists in the collection
of accurate facts, and geology affords an admirable instance of a science in
which there is a host of new facts waiting to be collected. But noscience
stops here. It has to collect the facts, and then pick out those which
are really of use. It is only the exceptional facts which are illuminative,
and from which it is possible to draw hypotheses. In geology one has
the constant opportunity of exercising the faculty of theorising, because
in this science, perhaps more than in any other, one requires a constant
succession of theories, Then I may point out the enormous economical
value of this science to the nation as a whole. The population has
increased five times since the industrial development of our iron and coal
resources commenced. That is entirely due to the development of our
mineral resources, which, sad to say, have been and still are being
shockingly wasted. The waste in looking for coal, in getting it, and in
using it, is appalling. One way of diminishing this will be to stop the
waste of exploration, and for this we want better geological education
of our engineers and others who have to do with the resources at different
stations. Now there are hosts of individuals who have made enormous pro-
fits out of this knowledge. In America they are using this knowledge up
to the hilt, making use of every observation by the United States Survey
and of individuals. These opportunities are being jumped at in every
direction—in the search for coal, iron, gas, water, oil, and precious metals ;
they know that this work is going to bring them wealth, and they encourage
it. Very soon they will put us out of the markets entirely. Let us
put some of the profit back again in the business and develop it further.
It is the knowledge of these facts which has given certain individuals
their profit ; it has given the State profit and brought it into a prominent
position in the world. It seems to me that both the individual and the
State should give back some of these savings, in the form of encouraging
the acquisition of further knowledge of the resources of the country,
because the problems that are going to face us in the future are infinitely
more difficult than those of the past. If we are to make as much use as
possible of the resources remaining a great expenditure will be necessary.
Our national resources should be carefully guarded against the shocking
waste of our previous explorations. The spread of a knowledge of geology
is one of the ways in which this can be done, and we want the State to
help in the matter.

The Rev. W. Johnson (Yorkshire Philosophical Society), said : It
may be of interest to hear some of the difficulties which beset the heaa
master of a science school. There is, first, the difficulty with the boy.
Unless you can interest boys in science they are unwilling to take up any
scientific subject ; but if you can convince them that there is a post
waiting for them at the end of their school career, they will give them-
selves to the study of science with considerable zeal. But there is a
strong opinion that the only subjects which should be taken are those
which are necessary to enable them to enter on one particular profession.
Where a scientific subject comes in they will work hard, but if you

4.76 REPORT—1908.

introduce a subject from a pure desire to improve the mind and better
the quality of the education you cannot get them to do well. In my
school you can divide the boys into two distinct classes—those who pay
fees and those who come with scholarships from the elementary or other
schools. The dividing-line is very distinct. When we present them for
examinations, the boys who come from the schools do us credit, and those
who do not are for the most part the sons of parents who pay fees. There
is in the minds of the lower middle-class people the belief that educa-
tion ought to lead to success in life, and that only such subjects should
be taken as will fit them to take a useful place in business. One of the
heads of an important railway company came to me some time ago, and
asked what education I would give his boy. When I told him, he said
scientitic subjects were useless ; what he wanted was typewriting, short-
hand, bookkeeping, and commercial correspondence. Thus we have the
example of a man in a high position who at once cuts the ground from
under your feet by saying, ‘Dwarf down my boy, and only fit him for
taking a place in my office and working his way to a position under me.’
If there are many in the country like that we have not much chance of
giving a scientific education. Another difficulty is in regard to the
co-optive member for secondary schools. Judging from the action of the
committee to which I have been co-opted, [ think they intend me to be
a sleeping partner, but I need hardly say that that is not my intention,
I think it is a great mistake in the Education Bill that the care of scientific
education is committed to town councils. It is a mistake to suppose that
German secondary education is so much better than that given in England.
I have a friend in Bavaria who was recently sent by the Bavarian
Government to inspect our science schools. He lived with my brother in
Dublin for some time, and then with me in Yorkshire, and he has this
year been lecturing in Vienna and elsewhere on scientific education, with
pictures of laboratories of English schools. He has had views taken of
the Leeds Higher Grade School, my own, and those he saw in London.
All these, he says, are in advance of those in Germany, so that we need
not be dismayed. We should endeavour to get pressure from the
Legislature on the county councils and the town councils, and thus
make provision for secondary and technical education. The Societies
we represent have been much to blame in not developing a liking for
science among the young. You have thousands of specimens in your
museums which you can put before your children. You have able men
who can lecture to them in the halls of your museums on its botanical,
geological, or other features. There has been an excellent use made of
the Leeds Museum by its librarian, Mr. Crowther, and myself, and if you
have not read any accounts of the work before, I advise you to put
yourself into communication with someone in Leeds, and see what is being
done there.

The Chairman ; Iam glad to hear that the polytechnics are doing
such good work. The remark that we have not developed science
among the young is true generally, but it is not true in every case. At
Croydon we have started a junior class of members, and hope it will work
well. The young members pass into the society when they attain
a certain age ; they become full members without any process of election,
merely by doubling their subscriptions. That is a point societies may
take up in getting hold of the young. If you can offer prizes for collec-
tions of photographs or natural objects you will do well. On the whole

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. AV7

we seem to have had a very good discussion, and I hope you will continue
it in your several societies. In approaching your winter sessions bring
this before the standing committees, and you will be able to do a great
deal of good.

The Chairman then read the following resolution, which, he said, had
been passed by every Section that morning: ‘That, as urged by the
President in his address, it is desirable that scientific workers and persons
interested in science be so organised that they may exert permanent in-
fluence on public opinion, in order more effectively to carry out the third
object of this Association, originally laid down by its founders, viz. “To
obtain a more general attention to the objects of science and the removal
of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress,” and that
the Council be asked to take steps to promote such organisation.’

The motion was then put from the Chair and carried unanimously.

Mr. J. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society) : I should
like to refer to a practical matter connected with this resolution. To
make it more widely known the delegates should be asked not only to
bring this before their Societies, but to see that it is printed in the
proceedings or transactions of their Societies. I hope this will be an
effective way of bringing this resolution before the notice of the 25,000
members represented by the Corresponding Societies Committee.

Mr. W. M. Rankin then read the following Paper :

The Methods and Results of a Botanical Survey of Counties.
By W. Munn Ranuin, B.Sc. (Lond.)

During the current year two papers dealing with the Distribution of
Vegetation in the West Riding of Yorkshire have been published.
These constitute the first instalment of a Botanical Survey of England
and Wales. The late Robert Smith, of Dundee, similarly issued two
maps dealing with the Edinburgh District and North Perthshire ; a
third, treating Forfar and Fife, will be published early. Surveys of areas
in Westmorland and Somerset are in an advanced state. In all, the
survey of over 4,000 square miles has been completed. It will be seen,
therefore, that the project on which four or five of us have embarked is
no untried venture. On the contrary, the main ground-lines of the
research have been established, the values of numerous factors have been
weighed, and the significance of a vast number of problems has been
grasped. The present time, following so soon on the completion of the
two Yorkshire areas, seems most opportune for endeavouring to interest
the great body of naturalists in our work, not only passively, but also
actively, so that throughout the kingdom the work may be carried on,

Putting the matter simply, the chief object of the survey of vegetation
is to reduce to certain well-defined terms the vegetation of a county, and
then to examine the biological features of each such term.

The most unscientific observer on a visit to some district new to his ex-
perience, and, better, when forming a memory-picture of his own homeland,
states the scenery in more or less general terms of geology and botany. He
remarks the hills with their crags and glens covered with heather or
grass, the valley-slopes strewn with rock débris and thin woods, the broad
alluvial river-‘ bottoms,’ in which stand extensive park woods, or the
gently undulating plains, rich with cereals, luxuriant hedgerows and

478 REPORT—1903.

wooded commons. Descriptions of scenery found in novels and books of
travel are constructed on these lines.

Of late years much has been written concerning the causes of scenery,
regarded almost entirely from the aspect of the geologist. To us, working
amongst the mountains of the Grampians and the Pennines, this view has
been extended, and a method has slowly evolved itself of regarding the
scenery as a function of the vegetation as well as of the rocks. Nor is
this all ; further points of view have presented themselves. There is that
of the meteorologist, who thinks of plant-life as affected by climate, by
sunshine, by elevation ; that of the geologist, who notices startling varia-
tions of vegetation accompanying changes in subjacent soil or rocks ; that
of the geographer, who sees in woods and pasture items building up a
landscape ; that of the agriculturist and forester, who seeks to get the best
value out of his land, be it meadow, hill, pasture, or cragside ; that of the
economist, who sees one-time wheat-fields pasturing for sheep, and fields
running back to the moorland from which a century ago they were won ;
and, finally, there is the point of view of the scientist, comprehending most
of the above, who draws deductions arising from a consideration of the
climatic, geologic, and human influences on the one hand, and, on the
other, of the numerous biological laws governing the growth, food, repro-
duction and dispersal of the ultimate units, the individual plants them-
selves.

Probably to a stranger it would seem next to impossible to disentangle
the medley of plant-groupings which constitute the vegetation of a country-
side. Still, in that somewhat difficult area, the West Riding, one can dis-
tinguish some fifteen groupings or associations, whose limits are generally
well marked. Regarding, in the first place, the well-known moorlands, five
types are seen : these are the bilberry summit, the cotton-grass moss, the
heather moor, the grass heath, and the limestone hill-pasture. Woods
are divisible also into five groups : coniferous, upland and lowland oak,
ash-hazel copse, and beech. The areas of cultivation are the lowland wheat
and the upland oats. In a few places a lowland swamp-vegetation is
developed.

Most of the fifteen or so groupings can be recognised easily by the
dominant plant ; others by the circumstances and conditions of their
positions. An example of the former is the heather moor, in which
Calluna or ling is the predominant shrub. Under its shelter are many
other species, such as bilberry, cross-leaved heath, cranberry, ecrowberry,
mat-grass, bracken, ke. Calluwna is termed the dominant plant ; the
others are sub-dominant. Examples of the groupings which are not repre-
sented with that comparative ease observed above‘are the wheat and oat
areas. The farmland is subdivided into these two zones, wheat being
taken as the indicator plant, following its general recognition as such in
existing vegetation-maps on much smaller scales. The distribution does
not depend on soils alone, and one must look more to climatic factors as
determining its range ; these are chiefly the average summer-temperature
and annual rainfall. By actual observations of high-placed wheat-fields,
investigation of parish-records, the cataloguing of arable weeds, and with
the help of meteorological data, the limit of the wheat-area and oat-area
has been fixed, though not with that accuracy possible with upland vege-
tation. In lowland districts, it seems as if whole counties must come
under the designation of the wheat-type. This brings me to a chief point,
which must not be lost sight of. The mapping of a large area is not the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 479

only end sought. In surveying any district, moorland, woodland, or
wheatland, extensive notes are taken of the nature of the plant-associa-
tions and the various conditions under which they exist. In order that
our conclusions may be sounder, excursions are taken at all times of
the year. Notes taken in one district are compared with those taken
in another, and similar one. Thus a general list of plants representative of
the association or area is finally arrived at. In a similar way are built
up the lists of plants for all associations, and information obtained con-
cerning their biological conditions.

It will readily be seen that by our methods the plant-species inhabiting
a district are arranged in the associations as they are actually found, and
not, as is almost invariably the case in local floras, in the groupings of the
Natural Orders. In certain ways this alternative point of view is very
advantageous, alike to the beginner whom it is sought to interest in
Nature study as to the maturer naturalist, who can find in the solution of
cecological problems motive for endless study and enjoyment. There is a
danger of thinking that the robbing a countryside of its rarest plants, to
be carried home, dried, labelled, and buried in sheets of paper, is the
beginning and end of botany. The present method puts no premium on
this ; the commoner plants are the most observed, and yet there is a place
in our scheme for the rarest. By regarding the trees, shrubs, flowers,
grasses, mosses, and moulds as individuals of one- community, dependent in
a variety of ways upon one another, rather than as items meet to be
labelled and put into compartments, one is led to study the biology of the
vegetable kingdom, to use the microscope, and through it to see visions of
a thousand problems, some answered, many awaiting answer. And yet:
the systematic side of the science is not obscured.

The areas recently studied by us—the hill regions in Scotland and the
heath of England—are especially suited for testing the scheme. They
present all varieties of conditions, geologic and other. The results of the
surveys are now published, and we wish that similar attempts may be made,
either by societies or by individuals, to bring the whole country under a
vegetation-survey. It may be started at any season of the year and on
any area, no matter how small. A wood of a few acres, month by month,
each square yard, each species of plant, can be studied with every degree
’ of minuteness, and yet, to a true naturalist, without wasting a minute.

It would have been foolish on my part to have attempted more than a
running glance at the investigation. The chief points can be grasped
during a study of the published maps ; if these are not sufficiently clear
to the reader, an attempt on some new area within easy reach of his
heme will do more than anything else to clear up the idea,!

The Chairman: This is a communication eminently fitted for this
Conference to discuss. Itisjust the kind of subject that Delegates should
bring before their respective societies.

Mr. J. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire Natural History Society) : It appears:

1 See Smith, Robert (1900), Botanical Survey of Scotland.
I. Edinburgh District. II. Northern Perthshire.
Smith, W. G., Moss, C. 2., and Rankin, W. M. (1903), Botanical
Survey of England.

TI, Leeds and Halifax (Smith and Moss).
II. Skipton and Harrogate (Smith and Rankin),

480 REPORT—1908.

to me that it is not merely the compilation of the flora of a county that
should be aimed at, but we should seek to get a general idea of its vegeta-
tion—which is a very different thing indeed. There are certain difficulties
in mapping I should like to see discussed before the suggestions are put
into print.

Mr. T. W. Woodhead (Huddersfield) : This mapping system has come
to stay, and I would suggest that the local societies commence on the
6-inch scale. There is, naturally, a difficulty in dealing with the 1-inch
scale. The first difficulty of the beginner is to draw the line between the
region of wheat and oats ; but on the 6-inch scale the matter becomes
simpler, and can be adopted by local botanists with much greater success.
Tf a particular crop is growing in one field, it is easy to indicate it, and
then, when once started, there is a fascination, which will be carried on
from season to season, in building up the scheme definitely. This can be
carried on in smaller areas on the 25-inch scale, and if local societies
would devote their attention to this line of work they would find a
renewed interest. The picture of the flora on this plan will appeal to us
as it has never done before.

Mr. Ewing (Glasgow) : I have listed eleven counties in the West of
Scotland, and when we have considered all the plants found in a county
we can fall back on listing them in this other way.

Professor Kendall (Yorkshire Geological Society) : These two objects
are not incompatible, but there has been so much list-making that in the
minds of many people the collecting botanists are put on much the same
level as the collector of postage-stamps or postcards. There are many
extremely interesting problems to be solved. We cannot say how this
will eventuate, or what important deductions may be drawn, but I can
say this, I have seen Dr. Smith and his brother come down a mountain
side with a botanical map, and, putting it alongside a geological map, the
two are almost identical. That shows how one science assists the other.
For example, there is a distinctive shape of a woodland—whether it is on
the Millstone Grit, where deep and narrow gorges are cut, or in the Coal
Measure country, where the rocks are not so durable, and where you have
woodlands of a more expansive character. That is an illustration by the
way, but I think such a survey as this will, among other benefits, tell us |
something of what is happening to our country from a climatic point of
view. There is a remarkable fact, to which Dr. Smith has called atten-
tion—that our Pennine hills were once well wooded. In peats at heights
of from 1,200 to 1,400 feet I have seen remains of large trees, but there
are no trees growing there now. We want to know why these trees
disappeared, and observations such as these may give us the answer, if
not in this, in the next generation. Our children will thank us for it.
It may be a climatic cause. What about reafforestation? We have
thousands and thousands of acres of land available, and we have an
unquestioned demand for timber. Can that demand be satisfied by any
well-considered scheme of reafforestation? The answer must naturally
come in a large measure from the botanist, and the man who works on
these lines will be able to tell us why these forests disappeared. I should
like to suggest another point of view, that of a sanitarian. We have com-
mittees on the investigation of town-atmospheres. What is the cause of
the destruction of vegetation by town-smoke? In one district I found
that if the evergreens in my garden were to bear out their characters, it
was necessary to scrub the leaves so as to remove the soot, By the

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 481

observation of this soot it would be possible for a botanist to make out
something like a distribution of smoke. There is also the distribution of
the lichens and mosses. I have suggested to the Yorkshire Naturalists’
Union that we should have an advisory committee, selected from the
different bodies—geologists, botanists, biologists, and so on—who should
initiate or suggest lines of research in their different sections. Geologists
have many questions which the zoologist and the botanist might answer,
and this would be a sort of clearing-house, which would be of great
advantage.
The Secretary then read the following note :—

Note on Maps of the Ordnance Survey. By T. V. Houmns, £.G.8.

I enclose two pieces of the 6-inch-to-the-mile map of Kent, showing
Greenwich Park, Blackheath, and a little of the adjoining country, which
I have had in my possession twenty years or more. Also a much newer
map, showing the same district! on the same scale. On the older map,
in the gardens behind the houses which face Blackheath at its north-
eastern end, are the words, ‘Roman remains found here,’ and the words
‘Roman remains’ appear in the adjacent part of Greenwich Park. A
glance at the old map eastward of these spots reveals the fact that the
line along which these Roman remains have been found points to their
being on a westerly continuation of the Watling Street. And I may add
that where the words ‘ Roman remains’ appear in Greenwich Park there
is a slight ridge, the direction of which is that of the words, and which is
not traceable beyond them to the west.

On the newer map all this information about Roman remains is
omitted. Such an omission might, of course, be almost or wholly un-
avoidable where an open space has become covered by houses since the
earlier map was made. But in this case there has been no alteration
whatever as regards the part in question. The omission is the more
noticeable as, towards the south-western corner of Blackheath, ‘Camp,
supposed remains of,’ appears on the older map, and ‘supposed Roman
Camp’ on the newer, at the same spot. In short, there is no sign of any
desire to minimise archeological information pervading the newer map
generally.

Possibly some of the Delegates may have met with omissions on the
newer maps of their own districts.

The Chairman: It is a pity the Ordnance Survey should take off
something from the old map. There are, undoubtedly, Roman remains in
Greenwich Park, and it is to be regretted that the reference to them should
have been omitted from the new map. I think we should write to the
Ordnance Survey and call attention to the omission. The more common
defect is to put down ‘Roman remains’ where none ever existed. I have
had to ask them to remove the reference in a Gloucestershire map; but in
this case there is little doubt that the old map is correct. There is a row
of some twenty houses in the gardens of which Roman remains might be
found at any time, and it is rather hard on the owners or tenants, who
have not had their attention called to it. Besides that, the engraving
is not nearly so well done as in the old map.

1 Lendon: Sheet 12, N.W. Edition of 1894-96.
1903. II

482 _ REPORT—1908.

Tt was resolved that an application should be made to the Committee
of Recommendations, asking for the reappointment of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, with a grant of 25/,

Second Conference, September 15.

Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S., in the chair, followed by Rev. J. O.
Bevan, M.A.

The Chairman: Before proceeding to deal with the agenda I would
like to say a few words on a conversation I had with the President of the
Association yesterday. He asked me how I thought the Conference
would take the suggestion he had laid before the meeting last Thursday.
I said I had not had an opportunity of discussing it privately with any
of the members, but judging from the discussion in the Conference [
thought they were very much disposed to take it up. He said, if any-
thing is done, it should be done quickly. He believes there is or may be
a rival organisation in the field, so that it would be distinctly best to
strike while the iron is hot. I would ask you to bring the matter which
Sir Norman Lockyer introduced to us before your Societies at the first
convenient opportunity, and get them to act if they can.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing asked for more definite information as to
what was required of the local Societies.

The Rev. R. Ashington Bullen said he was not quite clear as to what
was intended, and he asked whether it was a question of forming a Guild
of Science or of capturing votes.

The Chairman: Both ; and certainly the appointment of an acting
committee which would be ready to take up any questions referred to it
without any delay. I think that would be rather an important matter,

The Secretary then read the following paper :—

A Suggestion with respect to Exploration and Registration Work for
County Local Societies. By Wiuu1am Cows, P.L.8., Hon. Sec. Essex

Ield Club.

Having been Secretary to a registered local scientific Society during
the whole period of the life of the Corresponding Societies Committee of
the British Association, I have been impressed with the number and
variety of the subjects recommended to the attention of local Societies
by the Committee from year to year. I have also been struck with the
lack of practicability of many of these recommendations from my point
of view—that is, of one having the success and progress of his Society at
heart. Such matters as the ‘Collection of Statistics concerning Trained
Chemists employed in English Chemical Industries’ ; investigations con-
cerning ‘The Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction,’ or the ‘ Considera-
tion of means by which better practical effect can be given to the Intro-
duction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884,’ and
the like, although subjects of professional importance, are but little adapted
to enlist the co-operation of a body of amateur biologists, geologists, and
archeologists. It seems to me that the subjects most likely to prove
attractive to the members of the greater number of our local Societies
are those connected with such branches of science as are within the oppor-
tunities and abilities of amateur observers, and which at the same time

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 483

are such as will arouse the enthusiasm and ‘county-patriotism’ of the
supporters of the Societies. It is difficult at all times to obtain a suf-
ficient number of members to permit of the carrying out of the necessary
work of the Societies (meetings, publication, &c.), and it is still more
arduous to collect funds for any piece of work supplemental to the
routine business. I suggest that local Societies will best aid in their
humble way the progress of science by confining their energies to the
acknowledged three main objects of their existence—the minute study of
the natural history and archeology of the counties ; in educational work
of a propagandist character ; and in assisting in the formation of well-
lanned local museums and scientific libraries in their own districts.

All holding similar views will cordially approve of such pieces of
work as the photographic survey of a county, or of the botanical survey
advocated in a paper placed upon the agenda at the present meeting.
And to be welcomed is the project for the preparation of a map-index to
prehistoric remains, so ably advocated by Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., at the
Belfast meeting of this Committee. I should like to expatiate briefly
upon these ideas, and, as I have no authority to speak for other counties,
I will confine my remarks to Essex.

In Essex considerable changes in the flora and fauna may be antici-
pated in consequence of rapid extension of building, the cutting down of
woods and hedges, alterations on the coast brought about by the draining
and cultivation of salt marshes and the silting up of estuaries, &e. Dr.
Sorby has described the changes in the shallow-water fauna of the coast
during the last fourteen or sixteen years. Inland and near the towns,
the destruction of raptorial birds and mammalia by gamekeepers, and the
increase of insectivorous birds consequent upon the enforcement of the
Wild Birds Acts, are causes which apparently determine the disappearance
of many insects and mollusca which is so regrettable. These are strong
reasons for the preparation of more detailed floral and faunal catalogues
than any yet produced, of the character which I understand Dr. Smith
and Mr. Rankin will advocate in their paper. If such work is not done
soon it will be too late, as the rapid changes of environment and food
will exterminate some species and modify the habits of others. And I
would emphasise the importance of our local museums being furnished
with extensive and accurately localised sets of plants, animals and fossils
before destructive influences have blotted out for ever many rare forms
and variations. The sea has washed away a great part of our fragment
of Waltonian Crag, and the builder has covered up or carted away our
river-terraces and brick-earth deposits.

This scientific collecting and registration, if done systematically and
thoroughly, will need not only much careful work, but also the expenditure
of considerable sums of money.

The desirability of carefully registering and systematically exploring
the prehistoric remains in Essex has engaged our attention ,for many
years past. As long ago as 1883 our Vice-President, Professor Meldola,
F.R.S., read a paper before this Conference on ‘Local Societies and the
Minor Prehistoric Remains of Britain.’ The paper was printed in extenso
in the ‘Transactions of the Essex Field Club,’ vol. iv. pp. 116-122. The
destruction of some of these remains, and the precarious tenure of exist-
ence of such as remain, have often been the subject of remark, as in the
noteworthy address of Mr. Read referred to above. Iam very glad to
say that the suggestions of these gentlemen with regard to cataloguing

112

484 REPORT—1903.

and mapping these interesting relics is now being carried out in Essex.
Our Vice-President, Mr. Chalkley Gould, has prepared for the first
volume of the ‘ Victoria History of Essex’ a very complete list of them,
accompanied by a map. But a catalogue, however excellent, is only
a preliminary step. Accurate plotting down, on large-scale plans, of the
outlines, geographical positions and elevation of these works, and their
careful scientific exploration, so as to determine their probable periods
and motives, still remain to be undertaken. I venture to submit that
this is work which must be done by local Societies if it is to be done at
all. Great London associations may undertake the ‘reconstruction’ of
Silchester ; a fortunate county may possess a Pitt-Rivers to plan and
munificently carry out archeological explorations ; we may find the study
of the physical and life conditions of the North Sea becoming a matter
of Government and international importance. But the patient tasks of
collecting and registering plants, animals and fossils, and the examina-
tion of minor earthworks, camps, red-hills, deneholes, &c., should be
the duty and pleasure of local enthusiasts.

The councils and officers of many of our local Societies hardly need
committees of the British Association to indicate these lines of activity.
They have been fully alive to them ever since their Societies were called
into existence. But, as we in the Essex Field Club know full well, such
work is very costly, and in most cases quite in excess of the slender
balances at our bankers. We have the will, but we lack themeans. And
this is the position with very many of our local Societies.

Is there any escape from this difficulty? I think it can be shown
that there is a way out.

Everyone knows that our county councils have very considerable
annual sums entrusted to them for purposes summed up in the very
elastic phrase ‘technical instruction.’ This is in addition to any rate
for primary or secondary education. The allocation of this technical
education money is in the hands of the councils, subject to some sort of
revision by the Board of Education. The annual income from this source
in Essex is considerably over 20,000/.

My proposal is that the county council of each county in which
a recognised scientific Society exists should be asked to allocate a small
annual sum (say from 100/. to 200/.) for the purposes alluded to, in
accordance with some such scheme as the following :—

1. That the local Society should in each year lay before the education
committee of the county council proposals and plans for any explorations
or investigations which, in the opinion of the expert committee of the
Society, are worthy of being undertaken, and that on approval the
estimated sum required for the work and for the publication of the
report be allocated to the Society.

2. The committee of the Society having accomplished the work, should
prepare a detailed report, with such maps and illustrations as may be
necessary. This report might be printed in the journal of the Society,
copies being struck off for sale. Or the reports might be issued on
a uniform plan for the whole kingdom. In any case the reports should
be issued at a very cheap rate for distribution to the public.

3. Any sum unexpended might be returned to the council, or carried
to the next year’s work. Speers

4, In selecting the subjects proper for such a series of investigations

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 485

the peculiar conditions and requirements of each county will be considered.
Taking Essex as an example, the following may be suggested :—

(a) The accurate surveying and plotting down on large-scale plans of
typical prehistoric remains, particularly of such as may be in danger of
destruction, and the careful exploration of the same under expert
direction.

(6) The preparation of accurate lists and of maps of the county, showing
the positions and mode of occurrence of any relics of prehistoric age
hitherto found therein, with indications of the museums or collections in
which they are preserved, and references to any published details and
figures.

(c) Exploration work in the shallow-water districts of the North Sea
and in our estuaries and rivers, so as to collect materials for full and
accurate lists of the marine and fresh-water fauna and flora, and to study
the conditions regulating the occurrence of each form where possible.

(¢) The mapping out of the distribution of inland plants and animals,
having like regard to the conditions of their occurrence ; the study of the
varying conditions of agriculture and gardening in different parts of the
county.

(e) The exploration of interesting geological deposits, so as to accu-
mulate, before they disappear, as perfect sets as possible of characteristic
fossils. Examples: our Walton Crag, brick-earths and terrace gravels.

(f) The study and registration on large-scale maps of coast erosion
and the formation of sandbanks and the silting up of our estuaries.

(g) Any special investigations which may be suggested by the county
council itself, or by the British Association Committee.

5. All specimens, plans, &c., thus obtained or made should be
deposited in the county museum, the museum authorities undertaking to
suitably preserve and register them for future study.

6. As above indicated, all the reports should be published at a cheap
rate, and copies deposited in local libraries and in the principal public
libraries in the kingdom. The British Association might well be asked
to catalogue these reports from the several counties as an Appendix to
the Report of the Local Societies Committee.

Such is a rough sketch of my proposal. I have assumed that a county
scientific Society exists in each county. Where this is not the case, a
joint committee of the smaller Societies of the county might be formed for
this business. I may be permitted to observe that, in my humble opinion,
it is most desirable that such Societies should at once unite to form
strong county units. Each county should have one scientific Society
and one archeological Association, with local sub-committees, if thought
necessary.

I have left the primary difficulties until the last. Would our county
councils consider the subjects mentioned and the suggested method of
treating them of educational value? If so, would they assist ? and, finally,
Is such an allocation of educational funds legal ?

I submit that the small annual sum mentioned would, if expended im
this way, produce results of considerable educational value. We spend
vast sums in teaching modern history, and ought we to consider the
‘buried history of Britain’ (as it has been happily termed) of no import-
ance? The work of collecting information respecting plants, animals,

4.36 REPORT—1903.

fossils, encouraged and directed by the local committees, Would certainly
be of direct educational value to all taking part in it ; and the reports,
when issued, would be admirable object-lessons, serving to show how
much of interest our own counties possess. And now that the importance
of museums in education is recognised by scores of thoughtful writers and
speakers, would not the sets of specimens, accurately named, localised and
described, ve of real use to students and investigators ? Of the scientific
importance of the results from the work advocated it is unnecessary to
speak before this Committee. And we must not forget that there is a
strong feeling of local patriotism, which appeals to all, scientific or others.

Of the legal aspect of the question I am not qualified to speak ; the
problem might be submitted in the first instance to the Board of Education.
Should it be found that the present law would not permit of such allocation
of funds, it might not be difficult to induce the Government to introduce
a two-line clause into some ‘omnibus’ Educational Bill (there are sure to
be a few in the near future) permitting the county councils to act as
indicated above.

I would suggest, if the proposals meet with the approval of the
Scientific Societies Committee, that a small sub-committee be appointed,
to meet in London and consider the steps that may be necessary to bring
the matter before the public and the authorities. Perhaps the British
Association itself would aid in bringing the matter prominently before
those in authority and the public generally, and it might not be difficult to
enlist the sympathies and co-operation of a few Members of Parliament
favourable to scientific education, supposing any parliamentary action is
necessary.

I should like to see some active, practical steps taken ; in my opinion,
the local Scientific Societies Committee could not confer a greater benefit
on the Societies, nor aid more the progress and study of natural science
and archeology in the counties by the numerous amateurs now existing
than in promoting some such scheme as that I have advocated.

The Chairman (Rev. J. O. Bevan): Mr. Cole’s paper is now open for
discussion, and there are many points of importance suggested by it which
will, no doubt, receive your consideration.

Dr. W. R. Scott (Delegate from Section F): I feel considerable
diffidence in saying anything on this sebject, because I am afraid in this
meeting I am somewhat of an outlander, representing as I do the
Economic Section. But I would like to recommend to the consideration
of the members of the Committee the work indicated in the paper in one
direction particularly arising out of my own personal experience. One of
the subjects of economical investigation which is going to come most
prominently before the public in the near future is that of economic
history, and in the investigations in connection with this I had occasion
to examine the records of local societies with reference to a question of
considerable practical and theoretical importance, viz., the localisation of
industry, finding out how certain industries sprang up or died out in
certain places. In compiling information of the kind indicated under the
head of archeology, I am certain investigators will come across records
of old industries and callings, and things of that nature, which are
frequently passed over. I should like to suggest to those who are engaged
in the study of economics, that if they would make a note of these things it
would be of very great assistance to us.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.87

Mr. W. F. Stanley (Croydon): In our local Society we have two
subjects which seem to be very appropriate, at least for such Societies, and
one of them would aid very materially what Mr. Cole has put before us.
Photography is very popular with our Society. The observations we
record by means of drawings are often very poor, but we can record
them correctly by means of photography in much less time. Another
thing which is very popular with these Societies is meteorology. There
are many elderly people to whom it is a source of pleasant occupation to
make daily observations of meteorological conditions. I would mention,
with regard to the polytechnics, in which I take a very great interest
that the Government money is suggested to be for technical education,
and it is really so applied in many instances. But the money is so
thoroughly taken up and so usefully employed in that direction that I
think there would scarcely be any to spare for a learned society in which
knowledge is the sole aim. It is generally technical knowledge that is
required—knowledge which will be of value to students in life, and will
greatly aid in elevating the classes for which it was originally intended.

The Hon. Rollo Russell (Haslemere): I was going to suggest before
the previous Delegate spoke that possibly meteorology might be added to
the subjects mentioned in the paper; and though this might not come
within the view of many Societies, observations might be made of the
diseases of plants, and of the relations of plants to meteorology. Meteoro-
logy furnishes an enormous field for investigation, and if this were added
to the subjects mentioned it would help towards getting grants from
county councils and town councils. Experiments might be made on
plant-life in relation to soils, weather, and various other conditions.

Professor Weiss (Owens College, Manchester, Delegate from Sec-
tion K): I am rather sceptical of getting a grant from the county
council for the purposes suggested in the paper. I think aid would come
better from the British Association grants, which I am sorry to say are
decreasing, while the demands are increasing considerably. I doubt very
much whether we are getting further forward by resting our hope on the
county council, but I do not see why we should not make a trial. It
might be useful, though I doubt whether all county councils will have it
in their power to give grants. Section K might bring this up in con-
nection with the registration of botanical photographs. A pamphlet will
be sent to each Society giving particulars about photography. We are
very desirous of getting records of plant-life, both as regards the natural
plants which we find in different parts of England, and also in regard to
the acclimatised plants. For example, there are districts in the south of
England where we have tropical plants grown under favourable condi-
tions, and it is worth recording by photographs. Then, as to plant
diseases, we are desirous of getting photographs of these, when we have
crops destroyed, as we have had to deplore from time to time. It would
be necessary and desirable to have records from different districts
recording statements which can be referred to afterwards. ‘Then curi-
ously injured trees, trees injured by lightning, wind, or other causes,
trees of great age or possessing other peculiarities, are well worth putting
on the records of each district, and should secure the attention of local
Societies. It is only by getting local Societies interested and taking up
this work that we can hope to obtain a series of records such as we
should get in this country. I am glad that several Societies have
already undertaken this work for the coming season.

488 REPORT—1903.

Dr. Herbertson (Delegate from Section E): I should like to empha-
sise the necessity of putting on the maps as many observations as possible.
Cartographers feel the necessity for having data put in a more convenient
form than is done in tabular schemes. One of the first duties of local
Societies should be to undertake a map of the district of all objects of
study, whether fossils or plants. A great advance has been made in
botanical mapping by the adoption of the morphological or physiological
classification and in other ways. It is found that this applies not
merely to botanical specimens, but also to the geological phenomena
and to economical phenomena. I was glad to hear Dr. Scott insist on
the necessity for observing the distribution of local industries, and I
would suggest that the distribution in space be considered as well as
the distribution in time. The value of any description by local Societies
is to express the data on the map as well as in tabular form, and to aid
in the interpretation of them, for that is the object of the study of
distribution. The Societies would find great assistance by having a
geographer on their committees.

Mr. W. Ackroyd (Halifax Scientific Society): As to our Society, its
work has a direct bearing on this subject. We have a bi-monthly publi-
cation, which has been carried on at a very slight loss for something like
ten years, and no doubt will be carried on for a number of years further ;
for, on account of the interest of the subjects with which it deals, it will
command a wider circulation. The subjects dealt with are similar to
those mentioned in the paper this afternoon. The geologists have been
interested in the well-sinking in the neighbourhood, and through the
kindness of the gentlemen who have sunk these wells they have been
able to take the cores in succession and make up vertical sections,
forming a valuable record. Another subject has been afforestation ; and
here the Society has been of very great use to the corporation, which
has consequently planted trees around their reservoirs, and no doubt this
work will be increased. With regard to funds, I do not think any cor-
poration where there are Labour members, Conservatives, and Liberals
fighting against each other will permit anything illegal to be done ; but
we have got funds for certain lines of work. We have two museums—
one at Bankfield given up to anthropological subjects, and another at
the other end of the town given up to geology and mineralogy mainly,
and for these museums honorary curators are appointed from the local
scientific Societies. When funds are required they put down the amount
wanted and the purpose for which it is required, and a representative of
these curators goes before the committee of the council and makes a
recommendation, So far we have been able to get all the money we have
wanted. The grants made from time to time have been from 100/. to
200/., and even as much as 300/. at a time. I do not know exactly why it
becomes legal for this money to be advanced to us, but I think it is under
the Free Libraries Act, Here is the paragraph in the ‘ Year-book’ relating
io the Technical Instruction and Public Library Committee, and it is
under one of these Acts that the money I allude to is granted : ‘ The
duty of the committee is to manage the free libraries and museums, and
to carry into effect the provisions of the Free Libraries Act, the Gymna-
siums and Museums Act of 1891, the Libraries Act Amendment Acts of
1891 and 1898, and the Halifax Corporation Act of 1898 relating to the
library rate.’ I have no doubt that what we do in Halifax, Delegates
will in time be able to do in other places.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 489

The Chairman: I should like to say it is the desire of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committee to take the general sense of the Conference
on this subject. There is no doubt that the proposal made by Mr. Cole
is a very important one, but it requires to be worked out, and worked
out with far greater detail than I think is possible in the present dis-
cussion. It would be necessary, in the first place, to know the limits of
the county councils, for these do not cover the whole of the county,
seeing that the county includes County Boroughs. Then the funds
required would have to be considered. The Government’s money, the
‘whisky money,’ might be devoted to purposes not strictly educa-
tional, and we should also want to know the way in which the boundaries
of the local Societies would be involved. If the principle meets with the
approval of the Conference, it might be thought well to refer the whole
matter to the Committee, which would consider it in London and take
into account all those matters which have been suggested this afternoon.
Of course we are quite in the hands of the Delegates, and are prepared
to welcome any other suggestion ; but, speaking on behalf of the Com-
mittee, they will be glad to take your acceptance of the principle for
granted, and enter into as full a consideration of the details of the matter
as may be possible.

Replying to Principal Griffiths, who asked what was meant by the
principle of the matter, the Chairman said: The principle that the work
should be undertaken, and that the ways and means should be afterwards
considered—that we thought the work was a necessary work. That
seems to be the important thing to get hold of. Other things would
have to be dealt with by independent investigation.

Mr. J. Hopkinson (Hertfordshire) : Allow me to give you the expe-
rience of the Hertfordshire Society on the question of museums. We
endeavoured to establish a museum in connection with the Society, but
could not do so for want of funds. Several members of the Society
approached the county council, Sir John Evans especially. We got up a
public meeting, and then collected sufficient funds to build a small
museum. Lord Spencer gave us the land, and the museum is managed
by a board of honorary curators, with one for each department. The
whole of the grant that we are able to get from the county council,
although we have very considerable influence there, seeing that many of
its members are members of our Society and that we have the enthusiastic
support of Sir John Evans, has been 300/. for the building fund, and
115/. per annum towards the expenses of the museum, on the condition
that we give free lectures on such technical subjects as come within the
scope of the powers for which they can devote this money. We have to
subscribe towards the keeping up of the museum. As tv the maps, no
doubt they are very useful, as it enables you to see things at a glance ;
but I presume all these investigations are not of very much use unless
they are published, and it is a very much more expensive thing to pub-
lish maps than to publish tabular statements. We, like other Societies,
I suppose, frequently overdraw our banking account, and it is with the
greatest difficulty that we keep up our Society owing to the want of
funds.

On the motion of the Hon. Rollo Russell, seconded by Mr. Stanley,
and supported by Principal Griffiths, the suggestions made by Mr. Cole
were referred to the Corresponding Societies Committee.

490 REPORT—1908.

Railway Fares for Members of Scientific Societies.

The Secretary read the following letter from Mr. Herbert Stone,
F.LS., F.R.C.1., President of the Birmingham Natural -History and
Philosophical Society, and Delegate to the meeting :—

With the assistance of my colleague, Mr. Richard Hancock, I have
recently been engaged in getting up a petition to the great railway
companies, on behalf of the scientific and photographic Societies of the
Midlands, asking for the same privileges as are enjoyed by anglers,
namely, the ‘picnic’ rate, or fare and a quarter, to certain specitied
places upon presentation of the Association ticket at the booking: office.
The joint committee formed for the purpose of gaining this end, and of
which Mr. Hancock and I are joint Secretaries, represents twenty-two
Societies, with a membership of 1,700. Our petition has met with a
refusal, after being before the periodical meetings of the managers of the
various railway companies. At these meetings all questions affecting
railways in general are discussed, and amongst more important matters
a petition such as ours would naturally get scant attention, and I doubt
if the meeting was put in possession of the arguments for our side as set
forth in our letter.

My object is to ask if the British Association can aid us. An applica-
tion from the Association would at least be considered, whereas the
curtness of the replies to our petition shows that the companies consider
that we are a negligible quantity.

Of course it would be unreasonable to suppose that the Association
would act for a limited body of Societies, but I imagine from the support
given to the project from those already organised that it would not be
dithicult to obtain the assistance of the whole of the Societies of the same
nature in Great Britain. In this work I should be pleased to take my
share.

Copy of Letter referred to.

Bracebridge Street, Birmingham :
The Superintendent of the Line, June 23, 1903.
—— Railway.

Sir,—On behalf of the Societies enumerated below, for whom we are
authorised to speak, we take the liberty of asking if you can see your way
to grant to the members of those Societies the ‘ picnic’ arrangement as at
present enjoyed by the Birmingham and District United Angling Associa-
tion. We wish to point out that naturalists and amateur photographers
work singly, and not in bodies, and that the ordinary method of arranging
for parties of ten rather discourages excursions amongst this class than
otherwise. The privilege of booking at a fare and a quarter to the
stations at present set out on the anglers’ cards would, we are confident,
result in a large increase of traffic both in point of number of excursions
and of distance travelled. In 1884, when the anglers’ societies were
federated, their membership was about 300. At the present time it is
many thousands. It is fair to assume that angling per se would never
have produced such numbers without the stimulus of the reduced rate,
and we believe that a similar increase would take place in the traffic if
the same concession be made to our own body, as the localities near at

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.91

hand are for the most part worked out, and our members are in need of a
larger field for their energies.

We beg you to take into consideration the fact that every naturalist
or photographer who visits a place on your line becomes an advertising
agent for that place, and we venture to say that, in view of innumerable
addresses, lectures, exhibitions of specimens, photographs and lantern-
slides, there is no better medium of advertisement for your line than the
body which we represent.

We can assure you that this concession would not be abused in any
way. One of the Societies affiliated with us, the Longton and District
Photographic Society, which already enjoys the concession we now ask
for from the North Staffordshire Railway Company, has never heard of
any attempt whatever on the part of any of its members to use the
privilege for any other purpose than that for which it was granted.

We are, Sir, yours very truly,
(Signed) HeErsertr Srone,
Ricuarp Hancock,
Hon. Secs. to the Committee.

(Here followed list of Societies. )

Mr. Hopkinson: There is only one Society that I know which has
been able to get this privilege from the railway companies, and that is the
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. Any member can join any of the excursions
of the Association on reduced fares by simply producing his card of
membership, on which his name is signed, and the excursion circular.
The card is issued on the payment of the subscription. Ido not think that
any other Society has succeeded in doing this. Our Hertfordshire Society
has tried, but we must have at least ten members to enable us to get a
joint-ticket ; but if the railway companies were approached by an otticial
body representing the whole of the Natural History Societies of the
country, we might get for them what the Yorkshire Union has done.

Mr. W. Parkin and Mr. Lamplugh pointed out that the privilege
had been modified.

Dr. W. R. Scott: As to the Irish Societies, I may point out, as a
member of the largest of them, the Royal Society of Antiquaries of
Ireland, that they get tickets at practically single fares ; at all events it
is not more than a fare and a quarter, and the procedure is this: Any
member wishing to attend an excursion must, within ten days of the excur-
sion, get a form from the secretary of his Society ; it is presented to the
railway company, and the secretary then gets the ticket at reduced rates.

Mr. G. W. Lamplugh: I was going to raise a point as to the Irish
railways, as it shows an advance on anything in England. Not only does
this privilege extend to the excursions, but to any work carried on by a
field club. On two occasions, when I have gone across to see excavations
in the West of Ireland, the Secretary had it in his power to give mea
warrant authorising me to get a ticket for field-club business at single
fare for the double journey. If this privilege can be wrested from the
English railways it will be a great advantage.

Captain Dubois Phillips, R.N. : Golf-tickets are made out in exactly
the same way. You get your ticket from the secretary, sign it at the
bottom, and carry out the same routine. I do not think it would be
difficult to get if we were all to come together.

4.92 REPORT—1908.

Reports of Delegates from the Sections.

The Chairman : The next thing is to hear the Delegate from Section A,
who will give us an idea of what is suggested by his committees.

No response was made, however, nor to the call for the Delegate from
Section B ; but the Secretary of the Conference read the following com-
munication from Mr. W. Marriott, Assistant Secretary of the Royal
Meteorological Society :—

I should be glad if you would bring to the notice of the Conference
of Delegates of Corresponding Societies the fact that the Council of the
Royal Meteorological Society have undertaken to furnish for the ‘ Inter-
national Catalogue of Scientific Literature’ the titles of papers bearing on
meteorology which are published in the British Isles.

As this work cannot be complete unless the Society is in possession of
all the publications containing meteorological papers, the Council would
be glad if the Delegates of Corresponding Societies would assist them in
this matter, by requesting all the local scientific Societies printing papers
or reports bearing on meteorological subjects to forward a copy of the
same to the Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria Street, West-
minster, 8.W. (if they do not already do sv), to insure the titles being
included in the ‘ International Catalogue of Scientific Literature.’

Section C, Geology.

Mr. Lamplugh said: The Section has several Committees at work,
and is being greatly aided by the local Societies. The first is the Section
for the registration of geological photographs. The second Committee is
that on the registration of erratic blocks, and there the local Societies
send in their reports to the central Committee. In printing the reports
of the Committee the Societies are mentioned, together with the amount
of work each has done towards the common object. The exploration of
the Irish caves is being carried on under the auspices of the local Societies
in the same way. Recent explorations at Kirmington, in the East
Riding of Yorkshire, were originated by the Hull Societies. In all these
cases the aid of the local Societies has been very great towards the
work of the Section. The work of the Triassic Committee is proceeding
on similar lines, and, in fact, in all the Committees of Section C the idea
is to get local Societies to aid in the work of the central Committees.

Section D, Zoology.

The Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing said: I may mention, with regard to
this Section, that the Committee hope when next year the Association
meets in Cambridge a great effort may be made for the organisation of
zoological science and zoologists in general, and perhaps our Delegates
will bear that in mind, and if they have any contribution to offer it will
be very useful. I have an axe of my own to grind, because for some
years past I have been the Committee appointed, through the kindness of
the Conference of Delegates, for the investigation of the underground
fauna of Great Britain. The subject of well-boring has been already
alluded to by Mr. Ackroyd. Well-shrimps can only be got by well, or
at least continually boring you and other Associations on this subject.
In my own neighbourhood I had to work for some years before I could

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.93

get hold of these well-shrimps. At length I got a supply, some from
various parts of the country through my own pupils, and some from a
working man close by. I happened to give a lecture which this man
attended, and next day he brought me a supply from the bottom of his
well. They are little creatures, transparent, with several legs, and from
half to a quarter of an inch in length, according to the species. They are
rarely found, and yet people in many parts of England say they are
very common. It is difficult to persuade people that they are worth
collecting. On the Continent they have several species, and in England
we may have more of these interesting fresh-water crustaceans than are
yet known. Unless the Delegates will help me it is next to impossible
to make a report as a Committee. These little creatures are most com-
monly found when the well is tolerably empty. They live at the bottom,
and have feeble swimming powers. Well-owners generally keep their
presence dark, because they are afraid the sanitary inspector will come
and declare the water impure. Asa matter of fact, these creatures are
a testimony to the purity of the water, so that I hope you will not think
a record of them any injury to the reputation of the well. Specimens in
methylated or other spirit or in formalin, addressed to Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells, will be very acceptable. In every case
the place of capture should be specified.

Section K, Botany.

Professor Weiss, speaking on behalf of the Botanical Section, said :
This Committee is being greatly aided by local Societies. The Committee
wishes to draw attention to two other pieces of work in which they
might assist. The first is that the Committee has appointed Mr. Alfred
Friar to prepare a monograph on the species of the British Potamogeton.
Then, Miss Sargant has asked me to mention that she is investigating the
British Orchids, as to which she would like to have some suggestions and
assistance.

Miss Sargant (Holmesdale Natural History Club) : The points are in
relation to plants with underground growth. In the case of the orchids,
people regard them for their flowers, which are open for only three or
four weeks ; naturalists tell us that the leaves die about the same time,
but I fancy they may last longer. Further, are the plants reproduced to
any extent by seed? I shall be glad if natural history Societies can give
me any assistance on the following specific points :—

1. Particulars as to the length of time in the year during which the
leaves of any native orchid are above ground. [The leaves are commonly
80 inconspicuous that they escape notice out of the flowering season. ]

2. Information as to the reproduction of such species by means of seed
under natural conditions.

(a) What species produce seed freely or at all ?

(6) In the case of each species examined, are seedlings found in the
neighbourhood of the parent plants, and do they seem to survive the first

. Winter ?

(c) In the case of young plants—that is, those which have not flowered
—can those which have grown from seed be easily distinguished from
vegetative shoots, when such occur ?

(d) In general, what proportion of the young plants in each species
are seedlings ?

4.94, REPORT—19038.

Of course I should like the information to be obtained, as far as
possible, without rooting up the clumps, which is rather like killing the
goose which lays the golden eggs. I should be glad of drawings of
germinating seeds. ;

Section LE, Geography.

The Secretary of the Conference read the following list of subjects for
research in connection with local geography, which he had received from
Mr. E. Heawood, M.A., the Recorder of the Section :—

Correlation of Physical Surface Features with Geological Structure.

Evolution of River Systems,

Relation of Physical Factors to Distribution of Population.

Distribution of Vegetation, and the Relation of Plant-formations to
their Environment.

The Distribution of Zoological Groups in Connection with Environ-
ment.

The study of representative types of Insecta and Mollusca from this
point of view is specially recommended by biologists, but it may be made
equally interesting from the point of view of geography.

American Handbook of Learned Societies.

Mr. J. David Thompson, who had just arrived in England from
Washington, made the following remarks : I want briefly to say that the
Carnegie Institute founded in the city of Washington, D.C., U.S.A., has
recently allotted a sum of money to prepare a comprehensive ‘ Handbook
on the Learned Societies of the World.’ Ihave been appointed editor, and
have sent out circulars and leaflets to the secretaries of the societies
included in the British Year-book. The historical, literary, and archzo-
logical are included with the scientific, and as these circulars were sent
out only two weeks ago, they would arrive during the meetings of this
Association, so that the secretaries will find them when they return home.
I want to ask you to favour us with accurate replies to these circulars as
soon as you are able to do so. This will be a rather important and useful
handbook to all of you, particularly in relation to the foreign societies
with which you may wish to exchange publications ; and perhaps very
many have discovered already that it is rather difficult to get into
communication with some of them ; and I suppose they find the same
difficulty.

There is a British ‘Year-book’ which is a current handbook, but only
describes the publications of the current year, and we wish to give a
complete geographical statement of our societies, and of those who are in
the position of secretaries, delegates, and other officials. I would esteem
it a favour if you would ask your secretaries when you return home to
kindly look into this matter carefully.

The following is an outline of information desired for use in the
preparation of the ‘ Handbook to Learned Societies ’ :—

1. Name.—Official name at the present time.

2. Address.—Postal address of the society, and the name of the per-
manent official (if any) to whom communications should be
addressed.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 4.95

3. History.—Brief historical note, giving date of foundation or in-
corporation, changes of name or organisation (e.g., fusion with
other societies), with bibliographical references to sources of fuller
information.

4, Meetings.—Time and place.

5. Membership.—Number of members (active, honorary, corresponding,
&e.), with the fees paid by each class.

6. Publications.—a, Serial. The exact title of each serial publication
issued by the Society since its foundation, giving for each series
of such publications change of title (if any), number of volumes
(or brochures), period covered, place and dates of publication,
size and frequency of publication.

£.g. ‘ Proceedings,’ v. 1-12 (1897-1902), London, 1898-1903.
8vo, half-yearly.

B. Special.—If a printed list exists, kindly refer to it, and send a
copy if one can be spared.

c. Distribution.—(i.) Conditions of exchange ; (ii.) prices and place
of sale.

7. Research Funds and Prizes.—Brief statement indicating field
covered, amount and conditions of grants in aid of research, and
conditions of competition in the case of prizes.

The information should be addressed to: ‘‘ Handbook to Learned
Societies,” c/o Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.’

On the motion of the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, seconded by Mr.
Stanley, a vote of thanks was tendered to the Chairman, the Vice-
Chairman, and the Secretary, and the proceedings terminated.

Addenda.

At a meeting of the Corresponding Societies Committee held on
November 9, 1903, the following Resolution which the Rev. E. P. Knubley
was desirous of moving at the Southport Conference, but was unable to
move through inability to be present at the second meeting, received
consideration :—

‘That the members of the Corresponding Societies be requested to
give as much help as they can to teachers in those Elementary and
Secondary Schools which are taking up the subject of Nature Study.’

This Resolution was carried, and it was resolved to recommend it to
the favourable consideration of the various Corresponding Societies, leavin g
‘the exact form in which assistance could be rendered for future dis-
cussion.

At the same meeting Mr. W. Coles’s paper was discussed, and the
following Resolution was carried :—

‘That the Corresponding Societies be recommended to enter upon the
6-inch Ordnance maps any unrecorded natural features and archxo
logical remains.’

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CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 4.99

Catalogue of the more important Papers, and especially those referring
to Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1908.

* * This catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section AA—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

ALAN, H. Sranury. The Photography of Sound Waves and other
Disturbances in Air. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 71-80.
1902.

—— The Potential Difference necessary for a Double Spark Gap.
‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxm. 215-218. 1902.

Beatriz, Dr. J. C., and J. T. Morrison. The Magnetic Elements at
the Cape of Good Hope from 1605 to 1900. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil.
Soc.’ xiv. 1-27. 1903.

Bicxuam, S. H. Local Rainfall for the past Twenty Years. ‘Trans.
Woolhope N. F. C. 1900-1902,’ 245-247. 1908.

Brack, J. M. Heat Wave, United States. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’
xvi. 229. 1902.

Buaven, W. Weuts. Report of the Meteorological Section. ‘ Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxvir. 109-113. 1903.

Buytu, Prof. James. Note on Additional Experiments with the Electric
Sonometer. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxim. 267-268. 1902.

BricHton AND Hove Natura History AND PHILOSOPHICAL Socrery.
Meteorology of Brighton, July 1901 to June 1902. ‘ Rep. Brighton
N. H. Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 55. 1902.

Brown, M. Watton. Barometer, Thermometer, &c., Readings for the
Year 1901. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxim. 763-772. 1908.

Burton-on-Trent Narurat History anp ARCHHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Rainfall at Burton-on-Trent for the Years 1900, 1901, 1902. ‘Trans.
Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ v. 66. 1903.

CAMPBELL-Bayarp, F. Meteorological Report for 1901. ‘Trans. Croy-
don M. N. H. C. 1901-1902,’ 1-4, and Appendices of Tables, 58 pp.
1902.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Frenp Cius. Meteorological Notes, 1902.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 12, 49-61. [1903.]

Cuark, J. Epmunp. The York Rainfall. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for
1902,’ 59-63. 1902.

CornisH, Dr. VAucHAN. The Snows of Canada. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H.
A. F. C.’ xxii. 58-66. 1902.

CressweLL, Aurrep. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at
the Observatory of the Birmingham and Midland Institute, Edgbaston,
1902. ‘Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc.’ 380 pp. 1908.

Dickinson, JosEpH. Finding Mineral Veins by Electricity. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 126-1380. 1903.

Eaton, H. S. Returns of Rainfall, &e., in Dorset in 1901. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxim. 184-145. 1902.

Fietpine, Henry. Photographic Enlargements and the Kind of Nega-
tive Needed. ‘Trans. HK. Kent §. N. H. Soc.’ 1. 7-10. 1902.

K K2

500 REPORT—1903.

FourcapE, H.G. On a Stereoscopic Method of Photographic Survey-
ing. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 28-35. 1903.

GarpNEeR, H. Dent. The Scenery and Exploration of the Atmosphere.
‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ 11. 808-318. 1903.

and H. M. Wuitney. The New Star in Perseus. ‘Trans. East-
bourne N. H. Soe.’ 111. 295-297. 1903.

Git, Sir Davip. Annual Address. [The Work done at the Royal Observa-
tory, Cape Town.| ‘ Proc. 8. African Phil. Soe.’ xrv. xxxvii-lsix. 1903.

GREENWOOD, Capt. W. Neuson. The Life of a Wave from its Cradle to
its Grave. ‘ Journ. Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvu. 197-221. 1902.

Gruss, Sir Howarp, and Henry Davis (Mid. Count. Inst. Eng.). The
Grubb Sight for Surveying Instruments. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Enig.’
xx. 118-125. 1902.

Gurney, Principal H. P. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Crumlin Meteorite.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 274-275. 1903.

Heywoop, H. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District,
1901. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxtv. 1-21. 1903.

HotmespaLe Naturat History Crus. Meteorology at Redhill, 1898,
1899, 1900, and 1901. ‘Proc. Holmesdale N. H. C. 1899-1901,’
43-46. 1902.

Hopkinson, JoHN. The Climate of Hertfordshire, deduced from Meteoro-
logical Observations taken during the Twelve Years 1887-1898.
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ xr. 121-184. 1902.

—— Meteorological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Year
1901. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 145-154. 1902.

— Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year 1901. ‘ Trans,
Herts N. H. Soe.’ x1. 155-164. 1902.

Lanper, A. The Wind and the Weather. ‘Trans. EH. Kent §. N. H.
Soc.’ 11, 10-12. 1902.

— Meteorological Notes for the Year ending September 30, 1902.
‘Trans. E. Kent 8. N. H. Soe.’ 1. 48-51. 1902.

Lynam, G. T. Some Notes on Local Rainfall. ‘ Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’
v. 45-55. 1908.

Marxuam, C, A. Meteorological Report—Observers’ Notes. ‘Journal
Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1. 180-184, 220-228, 255-260, 270-276.
1902, 1903.

Mawtey, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in
Hertfordshire during the Year 1901. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x1.
135-141. 1902.

Meyrick, E. Meteorological Observations, 1902. ‘Report Marlb. Coll.
N. H. Soe.’ No. 51, 80-89, 117-128. 1903.

Mircuetn, Rey. J. C. Results of Meteorological Observations taken in
Chester during 1901. ‘Report Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1901-1902,’
12-18. 1902.

Peck, J. W. Thermal Emissivity. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’
xxx. 110-123. 1902.

Puowricut, Dr. C. B. On the Silver Thaw and Glazed Frost observed
at King’s Lynn, December 20-21, 1901. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soe.’ vir. 8346-848. 1902.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1901. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soc.’ vir. 872-878. 1902.

Roperts, Dr. A. W. Variation of the Star C.P.D. —41°4511, ‘Trans,
§. African Phil. Soe.’ x1v. 36-41. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 501

Roorrr, F. E. Notes on the Flood at Glyn, December 30-31, 1901.
‘Report Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1901-1902,’ 25. 1902.

Scuuster, Prof. A. The Evolution of Solar Stars. ‘Proc. Glasgow R.
Phil. Soc.’ xxxitr. 1-35. 1902.

Scort, Dunspar D. Mine-surveying Instruments. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xx. 575-620. 1902.

SumRwoon, Dr. A. P. Bubbles and Drops. ‘Trans. Kastbourne.N. H.
Soe.’ 11. 348-844. 1903.

Surton, J. R. Some Pressure and Temperature Results for the great
Plateau of South Africa. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ x1, 243-318,
1902.

Results of some Experiments upon the Rate of Evaporation.
‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 43-65. 1903.

Wuitetey, J. Meteorological Table for the Year 1902 (Halifax).
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ viz. 115-116. 1903.

Wuirton, James. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather
during the Year 1900, with its General Effects upon Vegetation.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ vi. 198-218. 1902.

YorKSHIRE PuHinosopHicaL Society. Meteorological Record for the
Year 1902. ‘Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for 1902,’ 16-21. 1903.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Ackroyd, Wm. The Presence of Salt in Fresh Waters. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ vir. 11-14. 1903.

Bepson, Dr. P. Puinures (N. Eng. Inst.). The Gases enclosed in Coal
and Coal-dust. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 27-40. 1902.

Broockmann, Dr., translated by Prof. H. Lotis (N. Eng. Inst.). The
Gases enclosed in Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv. 18-26.
1902.

Dickson, Haminton C. Crucible Assaying of Gold-Ores. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xx1. 673-690. 1903.

Goopwin, W. L. The Mining, Concentration, and Analysis of Corun-
dum in Ontario, Canada. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiu. 446-455.
1902.

Hosxoxp, C. A. L. Deposits of Hydroborate of Lime: its Exploitation
and Refination. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 456-471. 1902.
LisoMan, G. P. The Analytical Valuation of Gas Coals. ‘Trans. Inst.

Min. Eng.’ xx. 567-574. 1902.

Muir, J.J. Treatment of Low-grade Copper Ores in Australia. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 517-524. 1902.

Muspratt, Max. Some Aspects of Chemical Engineering. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxmt. 122-181. 1902.

Peters, Dr. E. D. (N. Eng. Inst.). Treatment of Low-grade Copper
Ores. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxrv. 315-821. 1908.

Prowrieut, Dr. C. B. On the Tinctorial Properties of our British Dye
Plants. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 886-394. 1902.

Stewart, James (N. Eng. Inst.). The Valuation of Gas-Coals. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv. 307-310. 1903.

THompson, BrEsy. How to interpret a Water Analysis. ‘Journal
Northants N. H. Soc.’ x1. 161-168. 1902.

502 ; REPORT—19038.

Section C.—Gxonoey.

Ackroyp, WittiAM. On the Circulation of Salt and its Bearing on
Geological Problems, more particularly on that of the Geological Age
of the Earth. ‘ Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x1v. 401-421. 1902.

Apams, Dr. James. Presidential Address, with a Description of ‘ Raised
Beaches.’ ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ m1. 287-292. 1903.

Bare, F. Report of the Geological Section. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’
xxxvil. 107-108. 1903.

Barnes, J. On a Metamorphosed Limestone at Peak Forest. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvir. 317-820. 1902.

— On a Change in the Mineral Deposit in a Stream that passes
through the Yoredale Shales near Mam Tor. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvir. 826-828. 1902.

— Further Observations on the Change brought about by the Intru-
sion of Igneous Matter into the Carboniferous Limestone at Peak
Forest. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxvit. 866-369. 1902.

— On a Calcareous Sandstone from Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxvrir. 102-105. 1903.

Barrowman, JAMES (Mining Inst. Scot.). Slipsina Sandbank. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 154, 1902.

Beasutey, H.C. On Two Footprints from the Lower Keuper, and their
relation to the Cheirotherium Storetonense. ‘ Proce. Liverpool Geol.
Soc.’ 1x. 288-242. 1902.

Bonney, Prof. T. G. Fragmental Rocks as Records of the Past. ‘ Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ 1x. 220-237. 1902.

Bower, Louis P. Notes on the Gold Coast of West Africa. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxrv. 418-414. 1908.

CapDELL, Henry M. Note on the Buried River Channel of the Almond.
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vit. 194-196. 1903.

CaRADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Fintp Cxius. Geological Notes, 1902.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No, 12, 45-48. [19038.]

Copr, THomas H. Note on the Titaniferous Iron Sand of Porth-
Dinlleyn. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ rx. 208-219. 1902. -
Corpert, H. H. Glacial Geology of the Neighbourhood of Doncaster.

‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 47-50. 1903.

Coy, Frepx. Ichthyosaurus acutirostris ? ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soe.’ x1. 248, 1902.

Dautton, W. H. Walton and Frinton, Essex, in 1902. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x11. 217-221. 1902.

Davis, Paun (translated by). The Geology of Loso, Anholt, and North
Jutland. ‘Trans. Hull. Geol. Soc.’ v. 87-40. 1902.

Dickinson, JosnrH. Blackpool and the Subsoil. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvul. 872-375. 1902.

—— Heaton Park Borehole, near Manchester, with Notes on the Sur-
roundings. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 69-84. 1903.

Dron, R. W. The Gold-Field of North-Western Ontario, Canada.
‘Trans. Glascow Geol. Soc.’ x1r. 58-60. 1902.

—— The Carboniferous Limestones of Scotland, with their Coals.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1r. 66-73. 1902.

East Ripina BouLDER Commirrer. Report, July 26,1899. ‘Trans.
Hull Geol. Soe.’ v, 80-31. 1902.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 503

Epwarvs, W. The Drift in the Neighbourhood of Crewe. ‘Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soe.’ 1x. 197-207. 1902.

GERRARD, JoHN. On the Pagoda Stone of the Chinese. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 822-823. 1902.

— Bann Clay. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 423. 1902.

GoopcuiLpD, Dr. J.G. The Geognosy of Scottish Tourmalines. ‘Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 182-186. 1903.

— The Scottish Ores of Iron. (Presidential Address.) ‘ Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vit. 200-219. 1903.

— On some Pseudomorphs after’ a Lime-Soda Felspar. ‘Trans,
Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vir. 260-265. 1903.

—— Further Remarks on some recent Exposures of Rock in EKdin-
burgh. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 266-272. 1903.

—- The Nepheline Algerine Pegmatite of Cnoc na Sroine. ‘ Trans.
Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vit. 278. 1903.

—— The Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Northern Britain. ‘ Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xm. 16-38. 1902.

Gorpon, Dr. Maria M. O. The Geological Structure of Monzoni and
Fassa. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vim. Special Part, 180 pp.
1903.

Grunpy, James. Mineral Production in India. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvirt. 11-14. 1903.

Hawirax Sormntiric Socinty. Local Records in Natural History, 1902.
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vit. 110. 1903.

Hatse, Epwarp (N. Eng. Inst.). Some Silver-bearing Veins of Mexico
(continued). ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 2438-257, 1902; xxtv.
41-60, 1902.

Harker, ALFRED. Glacial Observations in Skye. ‘Trans. Hull Geol.
Soc.’ v. 40. 1902.

—— Notes on the Igneous Rocks of the English Lake District. * Proc.
Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 487-493. 1902.

—— List of the principal Publications dealing with the Petrology of the
English Lake District. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xiv. 494-496.
1902.

Harze, Eminm. The Coalfield of Northern Belgium. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxit. 668-684. 1903.

Heppte, M. Forster. The Mineralogy of the Farée Islands. ‘Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x11. 1-15. 1902.

Hepsurn, Dr. Davin. On the Association of Human Remains with
those of the Red Deer and the Ox in Hailes Quarry, Midlothian.
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ virt. 197-199. 1908.

Hincg, J. pp W. (Dublin N.F.C.). A Contribution to the Glacial Geology
of County Dublin. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ x1. 229-236. 1902.

Hinp, Dr. WHEELTON. On the Characters of the Carboniferous Rocks
of the Pennine System. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x1v. 422-
464. 1902.

Hormus, T. V. Geological Notes on the New Railway between Ilford
and Woodford, Essex. ‘ Hssex Naturalist,’ x11. 202-206. 1902.
— Additional Notes on the Sections shown at the New Reservoirs in
the Valley of the Lea near Walthamstow. Evidence of the Puddle-

Trenches. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 224-231. 1902.

Howarp, F.T. The Reservoirs of South Wales. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.

Soc.’ xxxiv. 42-44. 1903.

504 REPORT—1903.

Howarp, F. T, Geological Notes on the Old Red Sandstone Country
of Monmouth and Brecon. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxtv. 45-47.
1903.

Hupteston, W. H. Creechbarrow: an Essay in Purbeck Geology.
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxii. 146-190. 1902.

Hueues, Prof. T. McK. Ingleborough: Part I].—Stratigraphy. ‘Proc.
Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xrv. 823-348. 1902.

James, C. H. Presidential Address. [The Geological Lessons of the
Taff Valley.] ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxrv. 22-31. 1903.
Jounson, J. P. Notes on a Manganiferous Seam in the Thames Valley
Drift at Ilford, Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 135-136. 1902.
Kenpatt, Percy F. The Brockrams of the Vale of Eden and the
Evidence they afford of an Inter-Permian Movement of the Pennine

Faults. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 805-808. 1902.

and J. H. HowarrH. The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and its

Fifteenth Year’s Work, 1900-1901. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 211—

216, 1902; Sixteenth Year’s Work, 1901-1902. ‘The Naturalist for

19038,’ 72-77, 1903.

and H. B. Murr. On the Evidence for Glacier-dammed Lakes in
the Cheviot Hills. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vim. 226-230. 1903.

Kerr (Mr.). Note on Agate Specimens frem Monzie. ‘Trans. Edinb.
Geol. Soe.’ virt. 287-239. 1903.

Kipston, Rospert. The Flora of the Carboniferous Period. Second
Paper. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x1v. 844-399. 1902.

Kryawan, G. H. Some Irish Laccolithic Hills. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvul. 805-815. 1902.

Krirxsy, Ricnarp (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Dysart, Wemyss, and
Leven Coalfield. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 291-808. 1902.
Lexsour, Prof. G. A. The Marl-Slate and Yellow Sands of Northumber-

land and Durham. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxrv. 370-888. 19038.

Livinaston, Conrn. Boulders and other Evidences of Ice-action in
Lochaber. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soe.’ x11. 39-51. 1902.

Lomas, J. On some Antarctic Rock Specimens. ‘Proc. Liverpool
Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 248-246. 1902.

Lort, F. E. Geological Notes, Burton-on-Trent. ‘Trans. Burt. N. H.
Arch. Soe.’ v. 22-26. 1908.

Macxiz, Dr. Wm. The Saltness of the Sea in relation to the Geological
Age of the Earth. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 240-255. 1908.

—— Note on the Occurrence of Traces of the Heavy Metals in the
Sandstones of the Moray Firth Basin. ‘ Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soe.’ vit.
256-259. 1903.

Macnarr, Peter. Notes upon the Development of ‘ Ausweichung’ or
aaa 4 in Schistose Rocks. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 89.

—— The Geology of Creag-na-Caillich and the District round Kellin.
‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ mr. 155-175. 1902.

McPuerson, Wm. The Zones of the Chalk near Brighton, with an
Introductory Sketch of the existing Zones of Life in Brighton. ‘Rep.
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 19-88. 1902.

Mappock, Canon H. E. The Formation of Flint. ‘Trans. Hull Geol.

Soe.’ v. 42-45. 1902.

Mitne, Dr. Jonn. Old Red Sandstone in Aberdeen and the Neighbour-

hood. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 221-225. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 505

Moors, C.C. The Study of the Volume Composition of Rocks, and its
Importance to the Geologist. (Presidential Address.) ‘ Proc. Liver-
pool Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 129-162. 1902.

Natu, Rev. W. The Alston Mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 392-
404. 19038.

Party, Coarp §. Some Notes relating to Specimens of Volcanic Rock
found in the Canary Islands. ‘Trans. Liverpool EK. Soc.’ xxry. 181.
1903.

Picxstonr, WinuiAM. The Coal Measures in the Parishes of Prestwich
and Bury, illustrated by a Cross Section between Ringley and Bury.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 270-280. 1902.

-—— Recent Geological Changes in the Peninsula of Wirral, Cheshire.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvur. 115-121. 1903.

Reave, T. Metuarp. Glacial and Post-Glacial Features of the Lower
Valley of the River Lune and its Estuary. With List of Foraminifera,
by Joseph Wright. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ 1x. 168-196. 1902.

Rep, Cuement. East Norfolk Geology—Wells at Mundesley, North
Walsham, and Metton. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vu. 290-298.
1902.

RicHarpson, Huan. Sea Sand. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for 1902,’
43-58. 1903.

Ricwarpson, L. On the Estheria bed in North-West Gloucestershire,
and the Organic Associations of Hstheria minuta, var. Brodieana.
‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x. 72-76. 19038.

Rogers, ArrHuR W. On a Glacial Conglomerate in the Table Moun-
tain Sandstone. ‘Trans. §, African Phil. Soc.’ x1. 236-242. 1902.

and HK. H. L. Scuwarz. The Transkei Gap. ‘Trans. S. African
Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 66-75. 1908.

Sawyer, A.R. The Tarkwa Goldfield, West Africa. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxi. 527-531. 1902.

Scuwarz, EK. H. L. The Volcanoes of Griqualand East. ‘Trans.
8. African Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 98-112. 1903.

SHEPPARD, Tuomas. A ‘ Striated Pavement’ at Withernsea. ‘Trans.
Hull Geol. Soc.’ v. 41. 1902.

—— Bibliography, Geology, &c., of the East of Yorkshire and North
Lincolnshire, 1899. ‘'Trans. Hull Geol. Soe.’ v. 47-48. 1902.

—— The Yorkshire Boulder Committee and its Work: a Retrospect.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 217-221. 1902.

——- Yorkshire Naturalists at North Grimston. ‘The Naturalist for
1902,’ 295-301. 1902.

—— Bibliography : Geology and Paleontology, 1899. ‘The Naturalist
for 1902,’ 317-336. 1902.

Bibliography : Geology and Palxontology, 1900. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 141-160. 1903.

S[zrparp], T., and J. W. S[varuer]. Field Meetings during 1899.
‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ v. 32-36. 1902.

SHort, A. R. The Structure of the Gully, Durdham Downs. ‘ Proc.
Bristol Nat. Soe.’ x. 68-71. 1903.

Simpson, Wivuiam. The Physiographical Geology of Shaw Syke.
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ viz, 81-88. 1902.

Smaty, Evan W. Recent Progress in British Geology, with special
reference to South Wales, North Devon, and North Somerset. ‘ Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxiv. 82-41. 1908.

506 REPORT—1908.

Smiru, JouHn. On a Flexed Structure in the Pitchstone of Corriegills,
Arran. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 61. 1902.

— On Drawn-out Spherulitic (?) Structure in a Trap Dyke near
Balloch Pier, Great Cumbrae. ‘ Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x11. 62.
1902.

—— On Globular Structure in a Trap Rock near Neilston, Renfrewshire.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xu. 62-63. 1902.

— On Voleanic Ash with Beds of Sand and Gravel, near Neilston,
Renfrewshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x11. 68-64. 1902.

— Ona Freshwater Limestone underlying a Marine Limestone, near
Paisley. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x11. 64-65. 1902.

— On the Boulder-clay at Hamilton Hill, North of Glasgow. ‘Trans.
Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 65. 1902.

— The Geology of the Elvanfoot to Wanlockhead Railway (with
special reference to the Drift). ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 81-
88. 1902.

Soutawextt, THomas. An Unpublished Letter from Dr. Thomas
Browne to Mr. William Dugdale. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’
vil. 8360-3863. 1902.

Stark, JAMES. The Surface Geology of the Falls of Clyde District.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x11. 52-57. 1902.

—— The Shore Section at Portincross, Ayrshire. ‘Trans. Glasgow
Geol. Soe.’ xm. 74-78. 1902.

SrarHer, J. W. Teredo amphisbena at South Ferriby. ‘Trans. Hull
Geol. Soc.’ v. 41-42. 1902.

— The Bridestones. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ v. 45-46. 1902.

—— A Striated Surface near Sandsend. ‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’
xiv. 484-486. 1902.

STIRLING, JAMES. The Coalfields of the Colony of Victoria. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxvii. 289-296. 1902.

Sropss, J. T. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Notes on the Map and Sheet
Memoir of the North Staffordshire Coal-field, recently published by
the Geological Survey of Great Britain. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xxv. 52-60. 1903.

SrRacHan, J. Notes on some Agates from the Pentlands [Hillend].
‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 220. 1908.

Traut, J.J.H. The Life History of a Mountain Range. ‘ Report Nott.
Nat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 25-36. 1903.

THompson, Brensy. The Junction Beds of the Upper Lias and Inferior
Oolite in Northamptonshire. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1,
197-216, 235-244. 1902.

THRESH, Miss May. Manganiferous Nodules in the Boulder-clay of
Essex. ‘ EKssex Naturalist,’ x1. 187-140. 1902.

Van Hise, Prof. C. R., and H. Foster Bary. Lead and Zine Deposits
of the Mississippi Valley, U.S.A. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxin.
876-423. 1902.

VauGuan, A., and J. W. TurcHer. The Lias of the Neighbourhood of
Keynsham. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x. 83-55. 1908.

Wattack, JoHN. Notes on a recent Excavation in Sauchiehall Street.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ x1. 79-80. 1902.

WELLBURN, EpGar D. On the Fish Fauna of the Pendleside Limestones.
‘Proc. Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ xiv. 465-473. 1902.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 507

Wetteurn, Encar D. On the Genus Celacanthus as found in the
Yorkshire Coal Measures, with a Restoration of the Fish. ‘ Proc.
Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc.’ x1v. 474-488. 1902.

Wuiraker, W. Kentish Wells and Deep Borings in the Neighbourhood
of Canterbury. ‘ South-Hastern Naturalist for 1902,’ 47-60. 1902.

Wooprurre-Pracock, Rey. EK. A. The Fenland Soils. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1902,’ 177-188. 1902.

Woopwarp, Dr. H. William Smith, LL.D., ‘Father of English Geo-
logy.’ ‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F.C.’ x. 1-14. 1902.

Woopwarp, H. B. The Soils and Subsoils of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vit. 401-414. 1902.

Sectiow D.—Zooxoey.

Armitt, Miss Mary L. The Birds of Rydal. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’
237-256. 1902.

Bayrorp, K.G. Beetles and Electric Light. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
166-167. 1903.

Bickerton, Winu1aAM. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during
the Year 1901. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 142-144. 1902.

BirKENHEAD, G. A. The Elan Valley, Radnorshire: Notes on its
Natural History and Physical Features. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
xxxIv. 48-52. 1903.

BuasHinu, THomas. Annual Address. [The Origin and History of the
Club.] ‘Trans. Woolhope N.F.C.’ 1900-1902, 288-299. 1903.

Bostock, E. D. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F.C.’ xxxvur. 76-80. 1903.

BrapsHaw, W. Presidential Address. [The Origin and Work of the
Society.] ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 21-24. 1903.

Brapy, Dr. G. 8. On Copepoda and other Crustacea taken in Ireland
and on the North-East Coast of England. ‘Trans. Northumb. N. H.
Soc.’ xiv. 54-68. 1902.

Report on Dredging and other Marine Research off the North-East
Coast of England in 1901. ‘Trans. Northumb. N. H. Soe.’ xry. 87-
101. 1902.

Brett, Cyrm. Gall Insects found at Alton in September, 1902.
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxvi. 92-93. 1902.

Broom, Dr. R. The Leg and Toe Bones of Ptychosiagum. ‘ Trans.
S. African Phil. Soc.’ x1. 2838-235. 1902.

Buuxen, Rey. R. A. A Holocene Deposit at Reigate. ‘Proc. Holmes-
dale N. H. C. 1899-1901,’ 5-12. 1902.

Cairp, W. J. Zoophytes, with special reference to the Buchan Coast.
‘Trans. Buchan F. C. 1902-1903,’ 75-90. 1903.

Carapoc AND SEVERN VaLLEY Firnp Cuus. Zoological Notes, 1902.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 12, 33-41. [1903.]

—— Entomological Notes, 1902. ‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 12,
49-44, [1903.]

Carr, Prof. J. W. Some Nottinghamshire Isopoda. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 55. 1903.

Carter, C. 8. Lincolnshire Ramble in Search of Clausilia rolphit.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 225-228, 1902.

508 REPORT——-19038.

Casrecuain, A. Birds and Flowers of Bath and its Neighbourhood,
with the Periods of their First Singing and Flowering in the Year
1901. ‘Proc. Bath N. H. A. F. C.’ x. 88-90. 1902.

CHaRBoNNIER, H. J. On a Variety of the Pipistrelle. Occurrence of
Great Grey Shrike. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x. 61. 1903.

Curster Society or Natrurat Scrence. Report of the Zoological
Section. ‘Report Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. 1901-1902,’ 19. 1902.

CuarKk, Percy. Notes on the Blackheaded Gull in Essex in 1901.
‘Bssex Naturalist,’ xr. 120-128. 1902.

[Couz, W.] Petricola pholadiformis in Essex and Kent. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ xm. 168-171. 1902.

Coox, E. Notes on Wiltshire Insects outside the Marlborough District.
‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 51, 97. 1908.

Corsert, Herspert H._ Terrestrial Mollusca of Doncaster. ‘The
Naturalist for 1902,’ 205-207. 1902.

— Yorkshire Naturalists at Bawtry. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’
373-875. 1902.

CraBTREE, A. White’s Thrush in Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vit.
101-103. 1903.

CrowrHer, J. E. The Natural History of Tag Lock: V. Fresh-
water Snails. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 78-80. 1902. VI. Land and
Fresh-water Snails. Jb. 97-98.

Crump, W. B. The Roosting Habits of Rooks. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
vi. 5-8. 1908.

-—— and others. A Spring Diary, 1901. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vu.
35-388. 1902.

Day, Gxorce O., and others. A List of the Lepidoptera found in the
counties of Cheshire, Flintshire, Denbighshire, Carnarvonshire, and
Anglesea. ‘Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.’ No. v. 120 pp. 1908.

Excrr, Frank. Lepidoptera in Kensington Road, Middlesbrough,
during the Years 1898-1900. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 1938-196.
1902.

Enocu, F. Insect Architects and Engineers. ‘Rep. Brighton N. H.
Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 17-18. 1902.

Epps, JAmes, jun. The Life of Thomas Edward. ‘Proc. Croydon
N. H. Sei. Soc. 1901-1902,’ Ixxxy—xeili. 1902.

Frrcusson, ANpeRsoN. Additions to the List of Scottish Coleoptera.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ vi. 214-216. 1902.

Frienp, Rev. Hinpertc. Notes on Derbyshire Annelids. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1908,’ 21-22. 1908.

Grorcs, C. F. Lincolnshire Fresh-water Mites. ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 83-84, 111-112. 1908.

Gipss, A. EK. Notes on Lepidoptera observed in Hertfordshire during
the Year 1901. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 165-172. 1902.

Giucurist, Dr. J. D. F. History of the Local Names of Cape Fish.
‘Trans. 8. African Phil. Soc.’ x1. 207-232. 1902.

Grikve, the late Dr. Jonn. Extracts from an unpublished Ornithology
of Glasgow, by; with Noies by John Paterson. ‘Trans. Glasgow
N. H. Soe.’ vi. 181-190. 1902.

Grirritus, G. C. A Few Notes on Local Lepidoptera. ‘ Proc. Bristol
Nat. Soc.’ x. 59-61. 1903.

Gurney, J. H. Ornithological Notes from Southern Norway. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vu, 8367-871. 1902.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 509

Harirax Screntiric Socrrry. Bird Notes. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir.
81-82, 60. 1902.

—— Local Records in Natural History, 1902. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’
vit. 105-107. 1908.

Hatsteap, T. The Natural History of Tag Lock: IV. Pond Life,
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ viz. 28-31. 1902.

Hurrect, H. E. List of Rotifera from Yarmouth District. ‘Trans,
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 383-885. 1902.

JeFrrrey, W. R. Entomological Notes from Ashford. ‘Trans. EK. Kent
S. N. H. Soe.’ 11. 88. 1902.

JourDAIN, Rev. F.C. R. Staffordshire Aculeate Hymenoptera. ‘Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxvir. 81-87. 1903.

Kennarp, A. §., and B. B. Woopwarp. The Non-Marine Mollusca of
the River Lea Alluvium at Walthamstow, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xu. 138-21. 1908.

Kew, H. Watuis. Lincolnshire Non-Marine Mollusca. ‘The Naturalist
for 1902,’ 261-270. 1902.

Leicuton, Dr. GeraLp. The Reptilia of the Monnow Valley. ‘ Trans.
Woolhope N. F, C. 1900-1902,’ 93-94. 1903.

Lewis, K. J. The Oak Galls and Gall Insects (Cynipide) of Epping
Forest. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 267-286. 1902.

Lone, Sypney, H. A Preliminary List of the Mosquitoes of Norfolk.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vit. 358-854. 1902.

MaAnsEL-PLEYDELL, J. C. Anniversary Address. (Reptiles and Birds.)
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxutt. lxxiti-cxvi. . 1902.

— The History (Recent and Paleontological) of the Roe Deer
(Capreolus caprea). ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xxm. 1-15. 1902.

MASEFIELD, J. R. B. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxvu. 61-66. 1903.

— Additions to the Staffordshire List of Lepidoptera. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxvu. 88-91. 1903.

MarrHews, C. G., and B. L. Oswenn. The Microscopic Life of the
River Trent. ‘Trans. Burt. N. H. Arch. Soc.’ v. 31-34. 1903.

Mayrietp, ArtHur. The Mollusca of a Suffolk Parish. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vir. 848-852. 1902.

Metpoua, Prof. R. The Coming of Age of the Essex Field Club: a
Record of Local Scientific Work, 1880-1901. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xu. 73-116. 1902.

Meyrick, E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Report Marlb.
Coll. N. H. Soe.’ No. 51, 88-72. 1908.

—— Ornithological List. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 51,
73-76. 1903.

Miupurn, C. E. Occurrence of the Little Bunting at Tees Mouth,
co. Durham ; an Addition to the North Country Avi-Fauna. ‘The
Naturalist for 1902,’ 358. 1902.

Mostry, 8. L. Tree-Wasps and their Nests. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vit.
113-118. 1903.

Movutz, H.J. The Seeing Power of Beasts and Birds. ‘ Proc. Dorsct
N; H. A: F.C) xem 62-57... 1902:

PatmMER, Mervyn G. A Lepidopterist’s Summer Holiday. _‘ Rochester
Naturalist,’ m1. 156-164, 165-178. 1903.

PATTERSON, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth, 1901- 1902
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 895-400. 1902.

510 : REPORT—1903,

Peacock, Max. The Birds of North-West Lindsey. ‘The Naturalist
for 1902,’ 197-204. 1902.

Prarcey, F. G. Notes on the Marine Deposits of the Firth of Forth,
and their relation to its Animal Life. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’
vi. 217-251. 1902,

PERInGNEY, L. Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera of South Africa
(conclusion). ‘ Trans. 8. African Phil. Soe.’ x11. 561-920. 1902-03.

—— Annual Address: Some Phases of Insect Life in South Africa.
II. Phonation in Insects. ‘Proc. §. African Phil. Soe.’ xtv. i—viii.
1903.

Petcn, T. Notes on Holderness Birds. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
87-45. 1908.

Pettigrew, W. W. Notes on the Hatchery and Fish Hatching at Roath
Park. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxiv. 58-62. 1908.

PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, Rev. O. On New and Rare British Arachnida.
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxi. 16-40. 1902.

Picktes, Haroup. The Stickleback. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 33-34.
1902.

—— Bird Life in Cragg Vale. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 58-54. 1902.

—— A List of the Mammals, Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fishes in the
Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ viz. 95-96. 1902.

—— The Long-tailed Field Mouse. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir.96. 1902.

Pittry, JAmes B. On the Abundance of the Pale Yellow Clouded
Butterfly (Colias hyale) in England in 1900. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C. 1900-1902,’ 171-173. 1908.

PurcexL, Dr. W. F. On the South African Therophoside, or ‘ Baviaan’
Spiders, in the Collection of the South African Museum. ‘ Trans.
S. African Phil. Soe.’ x1. 319-847. 1902.

New South African Trap-door Spiders of the Family Ctenizid@ in
the Collection of the South African Museum. ‘Trans. S. African
Phil. Soe.’ xr. 848-882. 1902.

Pycrart, W. P. The Bird’s Wing, and the Problem of Diastataxy.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 8312-827. 1902.

ReEvE, H. C. Some Notes on Heredity and Evolution. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxvir. 67-75. 1908.

RicHarpson, Nenson M. The Nesting of a Pair of Missel Thrushes
from the Observations of Mrs. N. M. Richardson. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 67-86. 1902.

—— Report on First Appearances of Birds, Insects, &c., and the First
Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1901. ‘Proc. Dorset N.H.A.F.C.’
xx. 209-217. 1902.

Ropcer, Arex. M. A Visit to North Germany and Denmark. ‘ Proce.
Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ m1. exii-cxvii. 1902.

Ropwett, W. M. Note on Hymenoptera. ‘Trans. E. Kent. §. N. H.
Soc.’ 11. 89. 1902.

Ross, G. The ‘Squid’ and the Belemnite. ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’
v. 40-41. 1902.

SAUNDERS, JAMES. Notes on the Fish of the Upper Lea. ‘ Trans. Herts
N. H. Soe.’ xr. 119-120. 1902.

SaunDErs, Sipert. The Marine Aquarium, without Circulation or
Change of Water. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1902,’ 41-46,
1902.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 511

Scriven, R. G. The Past and Future Work of the Natural History
Society. (Presidential Address.) ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1.
154-160. 1902.

SHEPPARD, THomas. Yorkshire Naturalists at North Grimston. ‘The
Naturalist for 1902,’ 298-301. 1902.

—— Beaversin East Yorkshire: Note on Mr. Speight’s Paper on Beavers
in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 109-110. 1903.

Stater, Henry H. The Birds of Northamptonshire and Neighbourhood.
Report for 1901. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ x1. 141-148. 1902.

Smaty, I’. A.. and §. W. Wess. Notes on Lepidoptera [for 1902].
‘Trans. E. Kent §. N. H. Soc.’ 1. 39. 1902.

Smitn, ArtHur. Infusoria of the Grimsby District. ‘The Naturalist
for 1902,’ 209-210. 1902.

Half a Day’s Ramble at Mablethorpe. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’
803-304. 1902.

SmirH, Frank P. The Spiders of Epping Forest. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
xu. 181-201. 1902.

-— Notes on the Spiders observed at the Meeting in Epping Forest,
July 26, 1902. ‘ Kssex Naturalist,’ xm. 22. 1903.

Syetu, F. C. Photography of Birds’ Nests and other Natural Objects.
‘Trans. E. Kent 8. N. H. Soe.’ 1m. 138-14. 1902.

Sorpy, Dr. H. C. Note on a Small Shark (Galews vulgaris), seen in
Brightlingsea Harbour, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 166. 1902.

SouTHWELL, Tuomas. Ancient Records of the Occurrence of certain
Cetaceans on the Norfolk Coast. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vm.
3803-312 1902.

—— The Great Bustard in Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vu.
328-330. 1902.

Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1901. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 864-866. 1902.

SPEIGHT, Harry. Beavers in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1903,
108-109. 1903.

Storer, G. H. Notes on the Occurrence of the Red-necked Grebe near
Burton-on-Trent. ‘Trans. Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ v. 56-57. 1903.

—— Our Reptiles and Amphibia: their Distribution in the Counties of
Stafford, Derby, and Leicester. ‘Trans. Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ v.
60-65. 1908.

Sykes, Mark L. Evolution in Butterfly Scales. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soc.’ 1902, 82-87. 1902.

Tuomrson, M. L. Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1901. ‘The Naturalist for
1902,’ 285-287. 1902.

Tuomson, A. EK. The House Fly (Musca domestica). ‘Trans. Manch.
Mic. Soc. 1902,’ 44-58. 1902.

THORNEWELL, Rey. C. F. Some Experiences in Moth Hunting. ‘Trans.
Burt. N. H. Arch. Soe.’ v. 27-80. 1903.

THornuEY, Rev. A. Equipment of the Field Naturalist. ‘The
Naturalist for 1903,’ 117-120. 1903.

Tuck, W.H. Aculeate Hymenoptera at Tostock, near Bury St. Edmunds.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 330-332. 1902.

Viner, Miss M. E. Life in Sea and River. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H.
Soe.’ 11. 292-294. 1903.

Wart, H. B. The Seals, Whales, and Dolphins of the Clyde Sea Area.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ vr. 191-198. 1902.

512 REPORT—1903.

Wiaec, J. T., and A. Parrerson. Notes on the Herring Fishery of
1901. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vit. 354-359. 1902, —

WoopruFFE-PsaAcock, Rey. E. A. Lincolnshire Naturalists at Spalding.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 189-191. 1902.

—— Lincolnshire Naturalists at Scunthorpe. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’
875-880, 1902.

Section H.—GEroGRAPHY.

Apamson, Davin B. Iquitos, Peru. ‘ Journal Liverpool Geog. Soe,’ x1.
78-81. 1908.

Curisty, Minter. Polar Problems—Arctic and Antarctic. ‘ Rep.
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 9-10. 1902.

Cocks, Joun. Notes ona Visit to the West Indies. ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xviir. 65-77. 1903.

Conte, W. Further Additions to Epping Forest. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
xii. 23-25.

— A New Forest of Waltham. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xin. 25-29. 1903.

ForpHamM, Hersert Gerorce. Hertfordshire Maps: a Descriptive
Catalogue of the Maps of the County, 1579-1900. Part IT. 1673-
1794. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 173-212. 1908.

Heywoop, Rev. J. W. Life in China. ‘Journal Manch. Geog, Soe.’
xvii. 88-49, 1902.

LampLAw, Frank F. The Malay Peninsula. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.
1902,’ 76-81. 1902.

LeeEcH, Sir Bospin. Notes of a Journey Round the World. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xvi. 1-387. 1902.

LeecH Winuram B. Notes on a Visit to Mogador, ‘ Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 57-64. 1903.

Martin, H.C. The Lakes of Killarney. How to reach them, what to
see, and how to see it. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 120-1386.
1908.

RussELL, Col. C. J. Notes on the Reading of Contoured Maps. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxur. 41-52, 1902.

Sykes, Major P. Monesworrn. Southern Persia and Baluchistan.
‘ Journal Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ x1. 69-78. 19038.

THompstonge, M. W. Through Connemara with a Camera. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 109-119. 1903,

Section F.—EconomMic SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

AinswortH, Jonny. Commercial Report on Ukamba. ‘ Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xvir. 50-56. 1902.

ArrkEN, Henry (Mining Inst. Scot.). Presidential Address. [Our Coal
Supply.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xx. 144-149. 1902.

CaruiLeE, W. W. The Relation of Economics to Numismatics. ‘ Proc.
Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 81-92. 1902.

Davies, T. J. (E. Staff. Inst. Eng.) Presidential Address. [The Past
History of the Coal Trade and the Altered Conditions of the Mining
Industry.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxrv. 218-231. 1903.

Dovenas, W. Minner. The Criminal: Some Social and Economic
Aspects. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxx1n. 93-109. 1902.

Evans, Lewis. Progress during the Nineteenth Century. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. Soc.’ x1. 105-118. 1902. Se

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 513

Fraser, Winuiam. Rents and Ground Rents: Facts and Figures
bearing upon the ‘ Housing Problem.’ ‘ Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’
xxx. 124-148. 1902.

Harper, Winuiam. Glasgow and some of its Industries. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xvi. 87-100. 1908.

Hesse, Max. On the Effective Use of Charitable Loans to the Poor
without Interest. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 1-28.
1902.

Hovunpsworts, Sir W. H. Public House Licenses. ‘ Trans. Manch.
Stat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 29-55. 1902.

Jones, Danret (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Legislation and the Ownership of
Properties containing Coal. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. ing.’ xxi. 272-278.
1902.

Lawson, Dr. Witu1Am. Licensing and Public House Reform in Ireland.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x1. 106-119. 1902.

Nevins, Dr. J. Brrkrneck. Liverpool Past and Present : from Domes-
day Book to 1903. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ x1. 21-68. 1903.

OxupHam, C. H. Technical Education for Commerce. ‘Journal Stat.
Soc. Ireland,’ x1. 98-106. 1902.

PicksTonE, Wi~n1aAM. On the National Interest in the Future Coal
Supply. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvu. 357-363. 1902.

RotHwELL, Wm. TuHos. Present Difficulties in connection with our Art
Gallery, our Reference Library, and our Royal Infirmary. ‘ Trans,
Manch. Stat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 60-82. 1902.

SHaw, Judge J. J. Municipal Trading. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x1.
77-92. 1902.

STANUELL, CuHas. A. The Arterial Drainage of Ireland. ‘Journal Stat.
Soc. Ireland,’ x1. 119-126. 1902.

Swan, C.H. An International Gold Coinage. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat.
Soc. 1901-1902,’ 109-122. 1902.

TuHomson, Prof. R. §., and R. Funtarton. A Summary of Statistics
relating to Vaccination and Smallpox as observed in the cases
admitted to the City Smallpox Hospital, Belvidere, between April 10,
1900, and June 80, 1901. ‘Proc, R. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxxuz. 287-
318. 1902.

Wess, Water H. Refrigeration and its Effect upon Civilisation,
‘Trans. Liverpool EK. Soc.’ xx. 192-199. 1902.

Wetton, THomas A. On the Distribution, Growth, and Decay of
English Towns in 1801, and since that date. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat.
Soc. 1901-1902,’ 189-159. 1902.

Woottmer, H. EK. The Metric, Decimal, and Imperial Systems of
Weights and Measures, and the Decimal System of Coinage. ‘Trans.
Manch., Stat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 88-108. 1902.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Apamson, Tuomas (N. Eng. Inst.). Working a Thick Coal Seam in
Bengal, India. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 10-18. 1908.

AitkEN, Henry (Mining Inst. Scot.). Four Old Labour-saving Ideas.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 211-213. 1908.

Arnott, THomas (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Working of Contiguous, or
nearly Contiguous, Seams of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Eng.’ xxim.
288-290. 1902.

1903. LL

514 REPORT—1908.

AsuwortH, Jamus (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). The Gray Type of Safety-
lamp. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 62-72. 1908.

Arxinson, A. A. Working Coal under the River Hunter, the Pacific
Ocean and its Tidal Waters, near Newcastle, in the State of New
South Wales. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxim. 622-660. 1903.

Barrp, JAMES (Mining Inst. Scot.). Description of Underground Haul-
age at Mossblown Colliery, Ayrshire. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xx. 155-162. 1902.

Benr, F. B. High-speed Electrical Railways and the proposed Mono-
rail between Manchester and Liverpool. ‘ Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xx. 76-92. 1902.

Buackert, W.C. Underground Stables. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv.
482-486. 1903.

—— (N. Eng. Inst.). Improved Offtake Socket for Coupling and
Uncoupling Hauling-ropes. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 61-62.
1902.

Buarr, MarrHew. The Drainage of the Nile Valley. ‘Trans. Glasgow
Geol. Soc.’ x11. 90-91. 1902.

BuakemoreE, W. The Fernie Explosion. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv.
450-461. 1905.

Briagutmore, Dr. A. W. A New System of Motor Traction. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool KE. Soe.’ xxrv. 27-88. 1903.

Bromury, A. H. A Native Lead-Smelting Furnace, Mexico. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi1. 669-672. 1903.

Brown, Epwarp (Midland Inst. Eng.). An Apparatus for Lighting
Miners’ Safety and other Enclosed Lamps. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xx. 186-188. 1902.

Cuaruton, Winti1amM (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.). A Method of Working the
Thick Coal-seam in Two Sections. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx1u.
112-115. 1902.

CLAGHORN, CLARENCE R. The Campbell Coal-washing Table. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 485-445, 1902.

Crarke, R. W. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Coal-cutting by Machinery.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 96-102. 1902.

Cooper, W. R. Electric Traction on Roads and Mineral Railways.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxim. 544-559. 1902.

Griauton, J. Duncan (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Central Condensing-plants
for Collieries. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 77-83. 1903.

Daruine, Fenwick (N. Eng. Inst.). Electric Pumping Plant at South
Durham Collieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 267-268. 1902.

Davipson, Jonn. High-speed Steam Engines. ‘Trans. Liverpool E.
Soc.’ xxi. 41-63. 1902.

Dixon, James S. Presidential Address. [Mining in Scotland.] ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 357-3874. 1902.

Exutson, A. R. The Great Orme Tramway. ‘ Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xxiv. 162-172. 1903.

Forp, Marx (N. Eng. Inst.). Sinking by the Freezing Method at Wash-
ington, County Durham. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxry. 293-304.
1903.

Forster, T. E. Undersea Coal of the Northumberland Coast. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 421-429. 1903.

Fowuer, A. F. The Study of Engineering from a Business Point of
View. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxty. 48-49. 19038,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 515

Fox, C.J. Halifax Water Supply in 1761. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vi.
49-52. 1902.

Fox, Francis. Some recent Engineering Developments. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxrv. 16-22. 1903.

GarrortH, W. KE. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Application of Coal-
cutting Machines to Deep Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxm1.
312-844. 1902.

Gippines, ALFRED H. The Conveyance of Goods on Electric Trolley
Lines. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxi, 98-114. 1902.

Gopert, A. Sinking by Freezing. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi.
699-701. 1903.

Grunpy, JAMES. Indian Mines and Mining People. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvit. 380-355. 1902.

Haswe tt, F. J. Notes on Hydraulic Machinery and the Distribution of
Hydraulic Power. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxiv. 84-104. 1903.

Hensuaw, A. M. (N. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address.- [The
present Position of the Coal and Iron Industry of Great Britain.]
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 140-156. 1903.

Hoae, JoHn (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Working of Contiguous, or
nearly Contiguous, Seams of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx11.
280-281. 1902.

HueuHes, OWEN. On Coal-cutting by Machinery. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Min. Soe.’ xxvirt. 168-189. 1903.

Hurp, Frepertck W. (Mining Inst. Scot.). Electrical Coal-cutting
Machines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 108—- . 19083.

Hurcuinson, J. W. On Experiments with Duplicate Ventilating Fans
at Bamfurlong Collieries. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvit. 406-
412. 1902.

Kenyon, G. C. Temporary Dams. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxiv.
113-132. 1908. .

Krrpy, M. R. Steam Generation by the Gases from Beehive Coke
Ovens. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 441-444. 1903.

Krrxup, Puinie. Improved Railway-rail Fastener. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xxrv. 478-480, 1908.

Leacu,C. C. Corliss-engined Fan at Seghill Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxtv. 445-447. 1908.

Leicuton, ArtHUR. Notes on Concrete Construction, George’s Dock.
‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xxi. 204-216. 1902.

Lippetu, C. (N. Eng. Inst.). Apparatus for Closing the Top of the
Upeast Shaft at Woodhorn Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx1mr.
195-197. 1902.

Lonepen, G. A. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Changing Headgears at Pleasley
Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 348-855. 1902.

Martin, Rosert. Sinking on the Seashore at Musselburgh. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv. 126-180. 1902.

Merysey-Toompson, A. H., and H. Lupron (N. Eng. Inst.). Some of
the Considerations affecting the Choice of Pumping Machinery.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxtv. 276-287. 1908.

Miter, J. D. (Mining Inst. Scot.). Apparatus for Controlling Railway-
wagons while Loading at Colliery Screens. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
XXIv. 122-124. 1902.

Mitter, THomas L. Comparison between Steam Plant and Auxiliary
Electrical Plant. ‘Trans. Liverpool. E. Soc,’ xxiv. 176-177. 1903.

LL2

516 REPORT—1908.

Mirton, A. Dury. Notes on Coal-cutting by Machinery. ‘Trans.
Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxviu1. 87-94. 1903.

Moopre, THomas (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Working of Contiguous, or
nearly Contiguous, Seams of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi.
282-287. 1902.

Musser, ArntHurR. Inaugural Address (1901). The Utilisation of Waste
and By-products in Manufactures and the Refuse of Towns. ‘Trans.
Liverpool EK. Soc.’ xxi. 1-11. 1902.

Nasu, H. B. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address. [The South
and West Yorkshire Coalfield: its Past and Future.] ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 187-199. 1903.

Nicnotson, JAs. N. Water Supplies for Small Communities. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 156-174. 1902.

Norman, F. J. Boring in Japan. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi.
685-697. 1903.

Oxiver, Dr. THomas. A Visit to the Simplon Tunnel: the Works and
Workmen. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxi. 200-218. 1902.

Parkin, Joun H. The Fisher Tarn Works for the Water Supply of
Kendal. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxiv. 68-76. 1903.

Parkinson, F. B. Irrigation on the Orange River. ‘Trans. S. African
Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 76-78. 1903.

Payne, F. W. Gold Dredging in Otago, New Zealand. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xxi. 582-542. 1902.

Pickerine, W. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Notes on Systematic Timber-
ing. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 95-100. 1902.

PicksToNEe, Wi~LIAM. Our Underground Water Supply. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 147-152. 1903.

Powuirzer, S. J. (N. Eng. Inst.). A Measuring Tape and its Use in
Mine Surveying. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 17-21. 1903.

The Underlay Table. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 24-38. 1903.,

Priest, Frank EK. Description of Sewer Construction as carried out in
London after the Great Fire (1666). ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’
xxry. 178-180. 1903.

PrircuarD, P. M. Economy of Fuel in Factories. ‘Trans. Liverpool
RK. Soe.’ xxi. 185-146. 1902.

Ratreau, Prof. A. Remarks on Mr. M. Walton Brown’s Report on
‘Mechanical Ventilators.’ ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’ xxim. 472-477.
1902.

—— (N. Eng. Inst.). The Utilisation of Exhaust Steam by the Combined
Application of Steam Accumulators and Condensing Turbines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv, 822-351. 1908.

RepMAYNE, Prof. R. A. §. (EK. Staff. Inst. Eng.). The Training
of Ms Mining Engineer, ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 248-254.
1903.

Ricuarpson, N. M. An Experiment on the Movements of a Load of
Brickbats deposited on the Chesil Beach. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
xxuI. 123-183. 1902.

Rovusier, E. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Max Electric Mining Lamp. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 386-87. 1908.

Scor1, Wiiu1aM (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Craig Coal-washer. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xx. 179-183. 1902.

SouTHERAN, ARTHUR. Surveying, Levelling, and Contouring. ‘Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxiv. 142-155. 1903.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 517

Steve, F. W. Modern Hydraulic Machine Tools and Labour-saving
Appliances worked by Hydraulic Pressure. ‘ Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’
xxu. 12-27. 1902.

Toner, ALFRED J. On the Erection and a few Tests of a Turbo-fan and
Generator at Hulton Colliery. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii.
382-394. 1902.

Wuirraxker, J. H. (S. Staff. Inst. Eng.). Sparkless Electric Plant for
Use in Mines and Ironworks. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxim.
170-178. 1902.

Witcox, E.§. Inaugural Address. [The Progress of Engineering Works
in the Port and City of Liverpool during the last Quarter of the
Nineteenth Century.] ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xxiv. 1-14. 19038.

Woon, Sir Linpsay (N. Eng. Inst.). Presidential Address. [Accidents in
Mines.] ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Eng.’ xxiv. 68-78. 1902.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Batpwin, Water. Some Prehistoric Finds from Ashworth Moor and
Neighbourhood. ‘ Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvii. 108-118. 1903.

Banoxs, Rev. Gerarp W. The Men and Implements of the Old Stone
Age. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’ m1. 117-128. 1902.

Briscor, A. E. Proposals for Photographic and Pictorial Survey of
Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xm.1-5. 1903.

Bunuen, Rev. R. A. LEolithic Implements: their Use and Meaning.
‘Proc. Holmesdale N. H. C. 1899-1901,’ 18-19. 1902.

Cuatmers, Rev. A. A Survey of Buchan Progress. (Presidential
Address.) ‘Trans. Buchan F.. C. 1902-1903,’ 3-52. 1908.

Cote, H. W. Notes on ‘Dug-out’ Boats in the Ancient Marshes of the
Lea and the Thames. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xu. 163-166. 1902.

CrossnANp, C. Place Names in the Parish of Halifax in relation to
surrounding Natural Features. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vi. 41-48,
65-71. 1902.

FREcKELTON, Rev. T. W. Are there any Indications of Paleolithic Man
in the immediate Neighbourhood of Northampton? ‘Journal North-
ants N. H. Soe.’ x1. 149-153. 1902.

Govutp, J.C. Additional Objects from the Romano-British Settlement at
Chigwell, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 288-240.

Gray, H. St. Georce. The ‘Walter Collection’ in Taunton Castle
Museum. ‘Proc. Somersetsh. A. N. H. Soc.’ vim. 24-78. 1903.
Excavations at the Glastonbury Lake Village in July 1902. ‘ Proc.

Somersetsh. A. N. H. Soe.’ vitr. 102-121. 19038.

Harrison, E. R. Eolithic Flint Implements. ‘South-Eastern Natu-
ralist for 1902,’16-27. 1902.

Hinton, Martin A. C. Onsome Teeth of Rhinoceros from Ilford, Essex,
with Remarks on the Distribution of Rhinoceros in the Thames Valley
Deposits. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 231-236. 1902.

Jounson, J. P. Neolithic Implements from the North Downs near
Sutton, Surrey. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 117-119. 1902.

— Kolithic Implements from the Plateau Gravel around Walderslade,
Kent. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 207-217. 1902.

Jouuey, J.T. Local Place Names; ‘Hollock Lea.’ ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
yil, 4-55, 1902.

518 REPORT—1903.

Lamp, Davip. Notes on Rural and Suburban Life in Scotland in the
‘Thirties.’ ‘Proc. R. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 250-266. 1902.
Lonasporrom, JoHn. Upper Saltonstall: an Old-World Hamlet. IT.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 21-27. 1802.

— An Old-Time Winnower. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 75-77. 1902.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 51, 129-152. 1908.

Moore, H. Cecin. Arthur’s Stone, Dorstone. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.
1900-1902,’ 194-199. 1903.

Perriz, Prof. Fuinpers. Excavating in Egypt and its Results. ‘Rep.
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 5-8. 1902.

Rinewoop-Pracu, H. Irish Folk and Fairy Lore. ‘Trans. Kastbourne
N.H. Soe.’ m1. 805-807. 1908.

Sr. Cuarr,G. Fabulous Animals. ‘Trans. Eastbourne N. H. Soe.’ 11.
302-803. 1903.

THompson, BrEesy. Discovery of a Romano-British Pottery Kiln at
Corby. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1. 261-264. 1902.

Tocuer, J. F. The Physical Characteristics of Eskimo of Southampton
Island. ‘Trans. Buchan F. C. 1902-1903,’ 65-74. 1908.

Toms, H. §8. Some Prehistoric Camping Grounds near Brighton. ‘ Rep.
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 38-52. 1902.

Water, W.C. Anent a Forest Lodge in 1444. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
145-147. 1902.

Warp, Joun. The Roman Fort of Gellygaer in the County of Glamor-
gan. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxv. 111 pp. 1908.

Wuattey, Peter. A Flint Workshop on Boulsworth Hill. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ vir. 61-64. 1902.

Woon, James G. Notes on the portions of Offa’s Dyke called the Stone
Row and Row Ditch. ‘Trans. Woolhope N, F. C, 1900-1902,’ 148~
151. 1908.

Section I.— PHys1oLoGay.

Boyce, Prof. Rupert. Recent Methods of Sewage Purification. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool E. Soe.’ xx1m. 181-187. 1902.

Bucwanan, R. M. Plague in some of its Historical and Present Day
Aspects. ‘Proc. Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxim. 163-179. 1902.

Hourcuinson, Dr. JonaATHAN. Leprosy in the Middle Ages. (Presi-
dential Address to the South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies.)
* South-Eastern Naturalist for 1902,’ 1-8. 1902.

JEFFERISS, F. B. Microscopic Foes. ‘Rochester Naturalist,’ 11. 141-
147, 1902; 152-155, 1908.

Section K.—BorTany.

Baker, J. G. Biographical Notes on the early Botanists of Northumber-
land and Durham. ‘Trans. Northumb. N. H. Soe.’ x1v. 69-86. 1902.

Barker, T. Bulbiferous Forms of Webera annolina. ‘The Naturalist
for 1902,’ 235-286. 1902.

Barnes, J. The Potato—Solanwm tuberosum—its History, Micro-
scopical Characters, and Structure. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxvu.
96-106. 19083.

Bennett, Artuur. Distribution of Hypocheris maculata in England.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 369-872. 1902.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 519

Bennett, ArtHuR, James Morley and his Herbarium at Swansea.
‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 4. 1903.

— Liparis loeselii and Teucriwm scordiwm in England. ‘ Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 833-338. 1902.

Bipwetu, W. H. Presidential Address. |The Fragrance of Flowers.]
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 277-289. 1902.

BrnstEaD, Rev. ©. H. Holiday amongst Northern Mosses. ‘The
Naturalist for 1903,’ 113-116. 1903.

Buarxre, J. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’
xxxvul. 94-95. 1908.

Bouncer, G.§. Sea-side Plants. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 125-127. 1902.

— The Preservation of our Indigenous Flora, its Necessity, and the
Means of Accomplishing it. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1902,’
28-35. 1902.

BrapsHaw, A. P. The Distribution of Fruits and Seeds. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902,’ 65-75. 1902.

Britton, 0. E. Orchis maculata, sub-species ericetorum, Linton, in
Epping Forest. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 123-124. 1902,

Bropg, Rev. T. A. Yorkshire Naturalists at Coxwold and Kilburn.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 277-284. 1902.

Brown, N. E. The Island of St. Helena and its Vegetation. ‘Proc.
Holmesdale N. H. C. 1899-1901,’ 24-25. . 1902.

Bunman, G. W. The Origin of the British Flora. ‘Trans. Hastbourne
N. H. Soe.’ m1. 819-827. 1903.

CaRaDoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Fiexp Cxus. Botanical Notes, 1902.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 12, 5-32. [1908.]

Cavers, F, Some Points in the Biology of Hepatice. ‘ The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 169-176. 1908.

CureEsMAN, W.N. Jew’s Ears Pie and other Dainties. ‘The Naturalist

for 1902,’ 273-275. 1902.

—— Christmas Afternoon’s Fungus Ramble. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
101-104. 1908.

Cuark, Percy. The Two Forms of the Sea-Aster (Aster éripolwwm).
‘Hissex Naturalist,’ xu. 286. 1902.

Coates, Henry. Seasonal Notes. (Opening Address.) ‘Proc. Perths.
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 11. ciii-cxi. 1902.

Cotz, W. The Cryptogamic Herbariums of the late Mr. E. G. Varenne.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 167-168. 1902.

Connotp, E. T. British Vegetable Galls. ‘Rep. Brighton N. H. Phil.
Soc. 1901-1902,’ 12-16. 1902.

Cooke, Dr. M. C. Notes on the larger Fungi observed in Epping Forest,
October 12,1901. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 127-128. 1902.

—— A Fungoid Cucumber Disease in Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x11.
130. 1902.

— Notes on Fungi, Forestal and others. Mainly Corrigenda to the
‘Illustrations of British Fungi.’ ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 131-134.
1902.

— Work in the Field amongst the Fungi, with Additions to the Flora
of Epping Forest. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 5-12. 1903.

Cornroot, J. B. The Functions of Plants. ‘Trans. EK. Kent S. N. H.
Soc.’ 1. 14-15. 1902.

CROSSLAND, CHarLEs. The Flora of Halifax. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’
App. 177-232. 1902-1903.

520 | REPORT—1903.

CROSSLAND, CHARLES. Fungus Foray at Egerton Bridge and Arncliffe
Woods, near Whitby. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 355-365. 1902.
—— Fungi of Masham and Swinton. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 177-181.

1903.

— and J. NeepHam. Woodland Studies: I. The Flora of a Boulder
in March. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vim. 8-10. 1908.

Crump, W. B. The Halifax Autumnal Gentians. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’
vul. 72-74, 1902.

— Afforestation at Ogden and Mixenden. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ viz.
103-104. 1903.

Dixon, H. N. Liverworts. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’ x1. 192-
196. 1902.

Dunston, T. F. A List of Plants found in Div. IX. of Preston’s Flower-
ing Plants of Wilts. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 51, 91-
107. 1903.

Fawcett, J. W. Orchids of the Derwent Valley. ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 121-122. 1903.

GREEN, C.T. A Plea for the Study of Micro- ‘Fungi. ‘ Report Chester
Soc. Nat. Sci. 1901-1902,’ 24. 1902.

Hauirax Screntiric Society. Local Records in Natural History, 1902.
‘Halifax Naturalist,’ vir. 107-110. 1903.

Hammonpb, W. H. Botanical Notes relating to the Summer of 1902.
‘Trans. E. Kent. 8. N. H. Soc.’ 1m. 39-40. 1902.

Hannan, W. L. Aquatic Plants. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902,’
35-37. 1902.

Howuann, J. H. Economic Fungi. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 51-54.
Supplementary Note. Jb. 77. 1903.

IncHAam, Wruwiam. Additions to Sphagna of Yorkshire. ‘ The Natu-
ralist for 1902,’ 381-383. 1902.

Mosses and Hepatics of Baugh Fell. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
79-82. 1903.

Inman, T. F. The Elm, with a Notice of some remarkable Varieties in
the Victoria Park, Bath. ‘ Proc. N. H. A. F. C.’ x. 19-88. 1902.
Keraan, Dr. P. Q. The Hazel (Corylus avellana). ‘The Naturalist

for 1902,’ 809-3138. 1902.

Lees, F. Arnoup. Lathyrus ochrus: a new Yorkshire Colonist.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 815-316. 1902.

Lesuiz, J. History and Culture of the Grape Vine: Part IJ.—Culture.
‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 11. 184-190. 1902.

Lister, ARTHUR. Mycetozoa observed at the Fungus Foray, 1902.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 12. 1903.

Martin, Epwarp A. Protection and Preservation of Plants. ‘ South-
Eastern Naturalist for 1902,’ 36-40. 1902.

MAssEE, GEorGE. Notes on Micro-Fungi observed in Epping Forest,
12 October, 1902. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 128. 1902.

— Amanita citrina, Gon. and Rab. A Fungus new to Britain in
Epping Forest. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 129. 1902.

— The Modern Method of Studying Agarics. ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 17-20. 1903.

—— and ©. Crossnanp. The _Pungus-Flora of Yorkshire. ‘Trans.
Yorks. Nat. Union,’ Part 28, 5-52. 1902.

Menziss, JAmus. Notes on certain Perthshire Fungi. ‘Trans. Perths,
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 111, 175-184, 1902,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 521

Meyrick, KE. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll.
N. H. Soc.’ No. 51, 27-37. 1908.

Moss, C. E. Moors of South-West Yorkshire. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ vu.
88-94. 1902.

Nicuotson, W. A, Variations in Ranunculus ficaria, with some Statis-
ties. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 8379-382. 1902.

Peacock, Max E. The Pollard Willow. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
182-185. 1908.

Perry, §. Lister. North Lancashire Gall Notes in 1902. ‘The
Naturalist for 19038,’ 56-57. 1908.

— North Lancashire Botanical Notes in 1902. ‘The Naturalist for
1908,’ 84-86. 1903.

PickarD, J. F. Additions to the Bowland Flora. ‘The Naturalist for
1902,’ 289-291. 1902.

—— Undescribed British Variety of Cistus. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
45-46. 1903.

Prowse, Dr. A. B. A Pear-tree Puzzle. ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x.
56-58. 1903.

RIppDELSDELL, Rev. H. J. North of England Plants in the Bicheno
Herbarium at Swansea. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 337-342. 1902.

— North of England Plants in the Motley Herbarium at Swansea.
‘The Naturalist for 1902,’ 348-851. 1902.

Further Notes on Yorkshire Plants in the Bicheno Herbarium at
Swansea. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’ 167-168. 1903.

Rosrnson, J. F., and J. J. MarsHauyu. The Flora of the East Riding of
Yorkshire, including a Physiographical Sketch; and a List of the
Mosses of the Riding. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. N. F. C.’ m. 1-253. 1902.

Rorueray, Lister. West Yorkshire Botanical Notes. ‘The Naturalist
for 1903,’ 188-140. 1903.

S[aumon], C. E. Plant Records in Surrey, 1899, 1900, and 1901. ‘Proc.
Holmesdale N. H. C. 1899-1901,’ 87-42. 1902.

Savery, G. B. Mosses of Pool, Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1902,’
229-234. 1902.

Suenton, J. P. Photo-Synthesis. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902,’
54-64. 1902.

Smppat, J. D. The Appearance of Spring Flowers, &c. ‘ Report Chester
Soc. Nat. Sci. 1901-1902,’ 25. 1902.

Suir, Miss A. Lorraty.. Mycorhiza, the Root Fungus. ‘South-
Kastern Naturalist for 1902,’ 9-15. 1902.

Suirn, ArtHuR. Diatoms near Grimsby. ‘The Naturalist for 1903,’
122. 1903.

Smirx, Wintiam G. Botanical Survey for Local Naturalists’ Societies.
‘The Naturalist for 1908,’ 5-13. 1903.

Tuomas, T. H. Note upon Meconopsis. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
XXxIv. 63-64. 1908.

TurNER, CHARLES. The Relationship of Plants to Light. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mice. Soc. 1902,’ 38-48. 1902.

Waitt, James W. Bladderworts. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ x. 78-79. 1903.

Wixrnson, Henry J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.—PartIX. ‘Report Yorks. Phil.
Soc. for 1902,’ 83-42. 1903.

WooprurrE-Pracock, Rev. E. A., and Miss §. C. Stow. Lincolnshire
Galls. ‘ The Naturalist for 1908,’ 185-186. 1903.

522 REPORT—1903.

Section I.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Cuapman, Prof. 8. J. On Education for Business and Public Life.
‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc. 1901-1902,’ 123-138. 1902.

Fuint, Rev. Dr. W. The Legal and Economic Bases of some Colonial
Teaching Universities, with a local application, ‘Trans. §. African
Phil. Soe.’ xrv. 79-97. 1903.

Fores, ALEXANDER (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Technical Instruction
of Working Miners, with Suggestions as to Mine Managers’ Examina-
tions. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xxv. 101-107. 1903.

Hatt, Henry. Industrial Education. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’
xxvil. 47-58. 1908.

Knicut, JAmMes. The Training of Teachers in Scotland. ‘Proce.
Glasgow R. Phil. Soc.’ xxxin. 86-70. 1902.

Neate, Percy J. The Educational Value of Scientific Societies.
(Presidential Address.) ‘ Rochester Naturalist,’ m1. 149-155. 1903.

WERTHEIMER, Prof. J. The Training of Industrial Leaders. ‘Trans.

OBITUARY.

Arey, Duke of. By J. G. Goodchild. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vu.
176-181. 1903.

Bennikz, JAMES. By Dr. Horne. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vi. 187-
193. 1903.

Bros, W. Law. By G. A[fbbott]. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist for 1902,’
XXIII.-xxIv. 1902.

BuruinenaM, the late D. C., of King’s Lynn. By Dr. C. B. Plowright.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vir. 414-421. 1902.

Durrant, Epmunp. By W. Cole. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x11. 171-172. 1902.

HENDERSON, JoHn. By J. G. Goodchild. ‘Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’
vir. 165-175. 1908.

Hopxirk, CHarues P.. By R. ‘ The Naturalist for 1903,’ 105-108. 1903.

Krirpy,J.W. By Dr. Horne. ‘ Trans. Edinb. Geol. Soc.’ vir. 231-236. 1903.

MANSEL-PLEYDELL, JOHN CLAVELL. By the Hon. Morton G. Stuart-
Gray. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xxi. lxii-Ixiii. 1902.

NicHouson, Rev. Georcr. By W. D. Crick. ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soc.’ x1. 185-191. 1902.

Prior, Dr. R. C. A. By C. Tite]. ‘Proc. Somersetsh. A. N. H. Soe.’
vit. 127. 1903.

SANFORD, WILLIAM AYSHFORD. By C. T{ite]. ‘Proc. Somersetsh. A. N. H.
Soc.’ vir. 122-125. 1903.

SHIPMAN, JAMES. By Prof. J. W. Carr. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc. 1901-
1902,’ 19-20. 1903.

Tuomas, JoHN, Punt-Gunner. By A. Patterson. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soe.’ vir. 839-345. 1902.

WatkER, Henry, F.G.S. By W. Cole. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xm. 173-
175. 1902.

Warp, Epwarp. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc. 1902,’ 94,95. 1902.

WiaHam, Rosert. By W.H. Bidwell. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’
vi. 298-308. 1902.

Wiuuiams, Rey. W. P. By C. Tlite]. ‘ Proc. Somersetsh. A. N. H. Soe,’
vi. 126. 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS,

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—CHARLES VERNON Boys, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue first duty of every occupant of this Chair isa sad one. Year by year the
record grows of those who have devoted their lives to the development of mathe-
matical and physical science, of those who have completed their work, The past
— has added many names to the record—more, it seems, than its fair share.

he names include some of the most brilliant and active of our race, of those to
whom this Association is deeply indebted, and also of our fellow workmen in other
countries whose loss is no less to be deplored.

Lord Salisbury’s devotion to the empire, of which this is not the occasion to
speak, left him but little time for those scientific pursuits in which he took so keen an
interest. Once, however, as President of this Association, he showed our members
that, unlike the majority of our statesmen, science was not tohim a phantom. His
Address at Oxford will remain in the memories of all who heard it. The eloquence,
the humour, the satire, the subtlety provided an intellectual treat of the rarest kind.

Of Sir George Gabriel Stokes and his work it is not possible for me to speak.
Any attempt on my part to appreciate or gauge the value of the work of such a
giant would be an impertinence. This can only fitly be done by one of our leaders,
and Lord Kelvin has paid a fitting tribute in the pages of ‘ Nature.’ I can only
record the fact that Stokes was for seven years Secretary, and twice President of
this Section, and in 1869 was President of the Association.

Dr. Gladstone, for fifty-three years a member of this Association, was not only
an unfailing attendant at our meetings, but an active member whose steady stream
of original communications on subjects connecting physics and chemistry earned
for him the designation of Creator of Physical Chemistry. His investigations on
spectroscopy, refractivity and electrolytics are known to every student of physics.
His researches upon early metallurgical history, while of less importance to the
progress of science, are none the less interesting. An ardent apostle of education,
he was for twenty-one years a member of the London School Board, and three
years vice-chairman. Dr. Gladstone was the first President of the Physical Society.
He has heen President of the Chemical Society, and at the last meeting of the
British Association at Southport—as also in 1872—he was President of the Chemical
Section. So long ago, he said, in urging the importance of science as a factor in
education, that the so-called educated classes were not only ignorant of science,
but had not arrived at the knowledge of their own ignorance.

It is not possible to pass on without paying a tribute, in which all who knew
Dr. Gladstone will share, to his character no less than to his genius.

Sir William Roberts Austin was probably one of the most active members that
this Association has known. Not only had he for many years made the subject of
metals and alloys his own, but he worked for the Association in many ways, At

526 REPORT—1908.

three meetings have audiences been charmed by his fascinating and brilliant evening
lectures, all relating to metals. He was President of the Chemical Section at the
Cardiff meeting in 1891, and not only did he perform these duties, but he accepted
the more laborious and more thankless task, for which his unfailing courtesy and
tact so well fitted him, of acting as our General Secretary for four years. Hislabours
in the important field of research which he tilled were appreciated by numerous
technical societies and institutions of which he was an honorary member, or had
been president or vice-president. Many branches of the public service had the
advantage of his skill and experience, which received the official reward in 1899.

Dr. Common’s skill as a designer and constructor of instruments was well
known. His instinct or judgment in producing planes and figured concave
mirrors of great dimensions was rare, for this is an art almost unknown in the
laboratory. His generosity and his valuable advice have been appreciated by
many besides myself.

Rev. H. W. Watson, Second Wrangler and Smith’s Prizeman in 1850, was
a Vice-President of the British Association in 1886. Mathematical physicists
are familiar with the joint work of himself and Burbury on ‘ Generalised Co-ordi-
nates,’ and with his mathematical articles.

In Otto Hilger, the brother of the late Adam Hilger, who between them
brought to this country German thoroughness and French skill in instrument
manufacture, we have lost one of our first and most valuable constructors. Noted
for the high class of all the optical work turned out by the firm, Otto Hilger was
not afraid of attacking the problem of manufacturing the Michelson echelon
grating. This little bundle of glass plates requires for its success perfection and
precision commensurable only with the genius of the inventor. This Otto Hilger
supplied.

ican Farrar, a life member of the British Association, whose activity lay in
another direction, showed his appreciation of the value of science in education by
appointing the first science master at Marlborough when he became headmaster in the
year 1870. As Iwasa boy at the school at that time, I can speak of the incredulity
with which such an announcement was at first received and of the general feeling
that such an action was akin to a joke. I was, however, by no means the only boy
who hailed the news with delight. We devoured the feast of chemistry and
physics put before us by Rodwell and the books which at once became available.
Out of gratitude to the late Dean of Canterbury I recall this episode.

James Wimshurst, the inventor of the influence machine which has carried
his name into every corner of the scientific world, was not a member of this
Association, but he fostered and encouraged the scientific spirit in young men who,
by good-fortune, came to know him. I do nut think I have heard anyone spoken
of with such gratitude and appreciation as Wimshurst, by men who in their younger
days were allowed the run of his well-equipped workshop.

James Glaisher, best known as a balloonist in the sixties, has died at the |
great age of ninety-three. The balloon ascent with Coxwell on September 5,
1862, when they attained the altitude of 37,000 feet, will long remain in the
popular imagination, not on account simply of the great altitude, but by reason
of the sensational account of their haying been paralysed with cold, and of their
being able to stop the ever-increasing ascent only by the presence of mind of
Coxwell, who, with his limbs frozen, seized the valve rope with his teeth, and so
let out the gas,

While this event remains in everyone’s mind, the more prosaic work of
Glaisher in astronomy, meteorology, and photography, when most of us were
children, and many yet unborn, led to his being elected president of various
learned societies.

He gave one of the evening lectures of the British Association in 1863, the
subject being balloon ascents.

A. F. Osler, the inventor of the self-recording direction and pressure anemo-
meter and rain gauge, whose active meteorological work was carried out in the
first half of the last century, when he contributed papers to the British Associa-
tion and the Literary and Philosophical Society of Birmingham, has died at the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 527

still greater age of ninety-five. He was Vice-President of the British Association
in 1865.

Of other countries, America has lost Professor J. Willard Gibbs, a mathe-
matical physicist whose very learned and original contributions to the knowledge
of the world on the thermodynamical properties of bodies, on vectors, the kinetic
theory of gases, and other abstruse subjects, have received the highest recognition
that the learned societies of this country can bestow. Professor Harkness, the
astronomer, and Professor Rood, the. skilled experimental physicist of Troy, have
also maintained the high standard that we now look for in American science.

Germany has lost Professor Deichmiiller, Professor of Astronomy at Bonn,
at an early age. Sweden has lost Professor Bjerknes, whose hydrodynamical
experiments showing attraction and repulsion were so much admired when he per-
formed them at a meeting of the Physical Society some twenty-five years ago.
Switzerland has lost Professor C. Dufour, the astronomer; and Italy has lost
Professor Luigi Cremona, a foreign member of this Association, Principal of the
Engineering School in Rome, whose contributions to pure geometry and to its
applications have made him famous.

Of the events of the last year, one stands out beyond all others, not only for
its intrinsic importance and revolutionary possibilities, but for the excitement that
it has raised among the general public. The discovery by Professor and Madame
Curie of what seems to be the everlasting production of heat in easily measurable
quantity by a minute amount of a radium compound is so amazing that, even now
that many of us have had the opportunity of seeing with our own eyes the heated
thermometer, we hardly are able to believe what we see. This, which can
barely be distinguished from the discovery of perpetual motion, which it is an
axiom of science to call impossible, has left every chemist and physicist in a state
of bewilderment. Added to this, Sir William Crookes has devised an experiment,
characteristic of him, if I may say so, in which a particle of radium keeps a screen
bombarded for ever, so it seems, each collision producing a microscopic flash of
light, the dancing and multitude of which forcibly compel the imagination to
follow the reasoning faculties, and realise the existence of atomic tumult. Thanks
to the industry and genius of J. J. Thomson, Rutherford and Soddy, Sir William
and Lady Huggins, Dewar and Ramsay, and others in this country, besides Pro-
fessor and Madame Curie and a host of others abroad, this mystery is being
attacked, and theories are being invented to account for the marvellous results
of observation; but the theories themselves would a few years ago have seemed
more wonderful and incredible than the facts, as we believe them to be, do
to-day. An atom of radium can constantly produce an emanation, that is some-
thing like a gas, which escapes and carries with it wonderful properties; but
the atom, the thing which cannot be divided, remains, and retains its weight.
The emanation is truly wonderful. It is self-luminous, it is condensed by
‘extreme cold and vapourises again; it can be watched as it oozes through stop-
cocks or hurries through tubes, but in amount it is so small that it has not yet
been weighed. Sir William Ramsay has treated it with a chemical cruelty that
would well-nigh have annihilated the most refractory or permanent known
element; but this evanescent emanation comes out of the ordeal undimmed and
undiminished.

Not content with manufacturing so remarkable a substance, the radium atom
sends out three kinds of rays, one kind being much the same as Réntgen rays,
but wholly different in ionising power, according to the experiments of Strutt.
Fach of these consists of particles which are shot out, but they have different
penetrative power; they are differently deflected by magnets and also by electri-
city, and the quantity of electricity in relation to the weight is different, and yet
the atom, the same atom, remains unchanged and unchangeable. Not only this,
but radium or its emanations or its rays must gradually create other bodies
different from radium, and thus, so we are told, one at least of those new gases
which but yesterday were discovered has its origin.

Then, again, just as these gases haye no chemical properties, so the radium

528 REPORT—1908.

which produces them in some respects behaves in a manner contrary to that of
all proper chemicals. It does not lose its power of creating heat even at the
extreme cold of liquid air, while at the greater degree of cold of liquid hydrogen
its activity is found by Professor Dewar to be actually greater.

Unlike old-fashioned chemicals which, when they are formed, have all their
properties properly developed, radium and its salts take a month before they
have acquired their full power (so Dewar tells us), and then, for anything we
know to the contrary, proceed to manufacture heat, emanations, three kinds of
rays, electricity, and gases for ever. For ever; well, perhaps not for ever, but
for so long a time that the loss of weight in a year calculated, I suppose, rather
than observed, is next to nothing. Professor Rutherford believes that thorium or
uranium, which act in the same kind of way, but with far less vigour, would last
a million years before there was nothing left, or at least before they were worn
out ; while the radium, preferring a short life and a merry one, could not expect
to exist for more than a few thousand years.

In this time one gramme of radium would evolve one thousand million heat
units, sufficient, if converted into work, to raise five hundred tons a mile high ;
whereas a gramme of hydrogen, our best fuel, burned in oxygen, only yields thirty-
four thousand heat-units, or one thirty-thousandth part of the output of radium.
I believe that this is no exaggeration of what we are told and of what is believed
to be experimentally proved with regard to radium; but if the half of it is true
the term ‘the mystery of radium’ is inadequate: the miracle of radium is the
only expression that can be employed.

With all this mystery before us, which I must confess myself wholly unable
to follow, I feel sure that members of the Association who are interested in the
work of this Section will welcome the discussion, for which our secretaries have
been able to arrange, and hear from the lips of Professor Rutherford the con-
clusions to which his researches have at present brought him. No one is more
fitted than Professor Rutherford to open such a discussion, for no one has attacked
the theoretical side with such originality and daring, or with such ingenuity of
experiment.

As an example of the activity of mind and of research to which the activity
of radium has given rise, 1 may mention the fact that the last number of the
‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ is wholly concerned with radium, there being
four papers, all of the first importance, dealing with entirely different phenomena.

It is not my purpose to review these or the subject of radium generally; 1
am in no way fitted to do so, But I cannot well let the present opportunity pass
of referring to another mystery of which a conspicuous example is now leaving
us. I refer to the mystery of the comet and its tails, What is a comet? of
what does its tail consist ? Gravitational astronomy has told us for many years
past that compared with the planets or their satellites a comet does not weigh
anything. It weighs pounds or perhaps hundreds, thousands, or millions of tons ;
but in comparison with inconspicuous satellites it weighs nothing. Yet some of
them as they approach the sun from remote regions begin to shoot out streamers
which pour away as though repelled by the sun, not being left as a trail behind
the comet, as is so often supposed. These streamers, ejected towards the sun,
bend round and pour away at speeds which are enormous compared with that of
the comet itself, thus producing the tail. Now these streams separate very often,
and give rise to comets with two or three tails.

The comet’s tail is still a mystery. Let me take the most recent explanation,
which was set forth only three months ago in the ‘ Astrophysical Journal’ in the
United States. Those admirable experimentalists Nichols and Hull have for
some years been investigating the back pressure exerted by the action of light
upon bodies on which it falls. In this they have followed the Russian physicist
Lebedew, but in minuteness and delicacy of measurement, and in their successful
elimination of disturbances, their results are unequalled. It is sufficient to say
that, difficult and minute as the experiment is, their success is such that the
discrepancy between the calculated force and that which they have found is under
1 per cent. Perhaps I may express some satisfaction that in this measurement
use was made of the quartz fibre.

TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION A. 529

Having now definite and accurate confirmation of the existence of the force
produced by the action of light, or rather radiation, Nichols and Hull proceed to
examine the question as to how far such repulsion may be competent to overcome
the gravitative attraction of the sun and drive away the matter which pours out
from the comet, It is interesting to note here that Kepler put forward this very
idea, and that Newton, the inventor of the corpuscular theory of light, looked
upon the suggestion with some favour. :

Coming now to this recent paper of Nichols and Hull, we find first the
consideration of the relation of the attraction by gravitation, and the repulsion by
light upon particles of different sizes and densities. Density has no influence on
the action of light, while it is favourable to gravitation, and therefore unfavour-
able to tail formation. Size is favourable to both, but more to gravitation than to
light, for ifthe, diameter of a particle be doubled, one is increased eightfold and
the other only four., So size favours gravitational attraction. Conversely, of
course, smallness favours repulsion by light, which relatively should get greater
and greater as the particles diminish in size. At last, then, a degree of smallness
may be reached in which the repulsion by light will actually be equal to the
attraction by gravitation, and such a particle would remain in space, its motion
unatiected by our sun. Let the diminution of ,size. continue, and then the
repulsion will be in excess, and. if the law.were to continue it would with
sufficient diminution become relatively as Jarge as we. please.

The law,-however, does not continues. Schwarzschild bas-shown that when the
particles, are. small enough, light. does not, act. upon.them. in the same way.
Owing to diffraction, the effect of light.is unduly great for a.certain very small
size of particle, while it fails almost. entirely when the particle is made much
smaller... Thus it is that the indefinite increase in the repulsion by light as
compared with the attraction by gravitation with diminution of size of particle is
checked, and when, according to theory, with a particular density of particle, the
light pressure is about twenty times as great as gravitational attraction, further
diminution) of size ceases to fayour the action of light, and it begins to fall otf
again. ‘The distance of the particle from the sun has no influence upon the
relation between the two kinds of forces, for they rise and fall together. Nichols
and Hull, therefore, while not denying that other causes may operate, believe
that light pressure is adequate to account for the phenomena, and that where
the material coming from the head or comet proper is of two or three kinds,
whether of density or of size of particle, the separation of the two or three tails
should naturally follow.

This theory presupposes that the nucleus of a comet will be able, owing to the
evolution of gas under the sun’s heat, to send out enormous quantities of dust, the
finer and lighter the better, so long as it is not unduly small with respect to
a wave-length of light. Such dust would account for any reflected solar light
that the spectroscope may show, but it is not easy to see how the spectrum of
hydrocarbons, of sodium, and of other metal, should be produced for lack of
temperature. It is not easy to see why fortuitous dust should be graded of such
sizes as to give well separated and defined tails; it is not easy to see how the
dust could be produced in sufficient quantity to provide visible illumination to
millions of millions of cubic miles of space through which it may be passing at
ultra-planetary velocity, even though in looking through a million miles or so one
grain of dust in a hundred miles might suffice to supply the light.

Other theories of the comet’s tail require an electrified sun, the existence of
which is explained by Arrbenius as being caused by the emission by the sun of
negatively charged electrons which, picking up condensing gases as Aitkins’s dust
picks up moisture from the atmosphere, are driven away by the light pressure.
Arrhenius believes that these acting on the matter in the tail would give rise
to the bright line spectra which have been observed, The result of all this
escape of negative electricity is a positively charged sun, but what limits the
charge in the sun itis difficult to see, as it is, why the electrostatic attraction
helped by gravitation does not ultimately stop the action.

Nichols. and. Hull, while calling to their aid the researches of Schwarz-:

1903, MM

530 REPORT—1908.

schild to give them a repulsive force some twenty times as great as gravita-
tive attraction, do not seem to have given due weight to the extremely small
range of size of particle for which this high effect is available. The maximum
effect for any wave-length according to Schwarzschild is produced, when the size
is such that a wave-length will just reach round it; that is, with ordinary light
when the diameter is between one hundred thousandth and one hundred and
fifty thousandth of an inch. If the diameter is two-and-a-half times the wave-
length the action of light is only equal to gravity with a material of the density
of water ; or again, if it is reduced to one-eighth of a wave-length it again becomes
equal, and in these two cases there is no resultant action. With either larger or
smaller particles gravity rapidly gets the better of light, while the high advantage
of light over gravity is confined to very narrow limits.

What the sifting process can be that will give rise to such a quantity of this
microscopic dust we can hardly expect to be told, nor why even if the material
should in some mysterious way be graded, the ungraded wave-lengths of the solar
spectrum should allow of the marked separation in some instances of comets’
tails.

One thing, however, they do assert, and that is that the light pressure can have
no action on a gas, so that if what we see is considered to be gaseous the light
pressure theory must be thrown over for some other.

I cannot leave this excursion of Nichols and Hull into a speculative domain of
science without expressing my admiration of the experimental work which they
have accomplished, or of my appreciation of the ingenuity and daring with which
they have attempted the hitherto unheard-of feat of making a comet.

While the theory just referred to may be the most recent it must not on that
account be supposed to displace all that has gone before; the authors themselves
do not suggest this; it is the last thing that would occur to them. They have
referred to the researches of Bredechin that oceupy so large a proportion of the
annals of the Observatory of Moscow.

It is impossible to read even a tithe of these without feeling that the subject
of comets and their tails is one which Bredechin, by his amazing industry, has
made his own property, and that any stranger casually passing by and taking a
random shot should receive the severe penalty awarded to poachers in this
country. Bredechin has dealt unmercifwlly—I do not say unjustly—with the
author of at least one such random theory.

It is therefore with the greater diffidence and more urgent plea for forbear-
ance that I venture to draw certain parallels and hazard certain suggestions
which I admit freely have not reached a stage at which detailed comparisons with
known comets are possible.

It does not seem possible now to contemplate the phenomena of the comet, of the
divided tails, of their tenuity and transparency, of the pale luminosity, partly
reflected solar light, partly light as from a glowing gas; of the gradual wearing
out and disappearance of those comets which constantly pay visits to solar regions,
with all the mysteries of radium now so much in evidence without tracing the
features in which they resemble one another. By radium, of course, I mean any
material with the remarkable radio-active properties that radium exhibits with
such pre-eminent splendour, whether known in the laboratory or not.

How many physicists have been peering at comets through radium spectacles,
or how many astronomers detect the sparkle of radium in the fairy tresses of
their hirsute stars I know not. One writer, however, T. C. Chamberlin, so long
ago as July 1901, looked upon a connexion between radio-active materials such as
were then known and comets as at least worth considering. Chamberlin’s paper
in the ‘Astrophysical Journal’ was mainly on the tidal disruption of gravitating
bodies and the possible evolution of comets, nebulee and meteorites, and he did not
pursue this consideration in any detail ; indeed, the enormous accumulation of new
properties of radium was not then available.

Whatever may be imagined as to the constitution of a comet, difficulties still
remain, All I suggest now is that the curious properties of radium and of
similar bodies should be kept in mind. Radium at least supplies the means by

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 531

which, if the increasing warmth or the tidal action of the sun should awaken its
activity, Rutherford’s a-rays should be shot out at the speed that he has measured
of a thousand million inches a second, 7.c. one-twelfth the velocity of light. These
a-ray particles, according to Rutherford, consist of helium; they weigh each twice
as much as a hydrogen atom, and so the same weight of comet matter that would
make one of Nichols and Hull’s best particles, z.e. one that would be just visible
with a microscope, would be sufficient for about 400 millions of Rutherford’s a-ray
particles, an advantage surely where diffuseness seems so miraculous.

These particles, shot out at a velocity one-twelfth that of light, go so fast that,
if they were to start horizontally on the surface of the earth, the gravitative
attraction of the earth would curve their path to the infinitesimal extent of a
curve with a radius of forty-thousand million miles. Yet so great is the electric
charge they carry that a visible curvature can be imposed upon them in a practicable
electrostatic field.

Now imagine these transferred into space at a distance from the sun, for
instance, equal to that of Venus. Gravity there due to the sun is only one-thou-
sandth of what it is here, so gravity there would be, to the same extent, less
able to impose visible curvature on their paths. But their electric charges are
still available, and unless I have made an arithmetical blunder of a considerable
order, it would require no very heavy electrification of the sun to bend these rays
round in a curve with a radius of 1,000 miles. An electrostatic field of under
two ten-thousandths of a unit should be sufficient, a field which would be produced
if the sun were only charged with a surface density of one electrostatic unit on
every three square centimetres.

Whether these figures are correct or not—and I know the risk of getting just
thirty-thousand-million times too large or too small a result-—does not much matter.
An electrified sun, which after all others besides Arrhenius have postulated, would
be sufficient to turn the rays and send them away at rapidly increasing speed so as
to form the tail. The speed would in a short time reach the velocity of light if it
were not for the change in properties of matter which supervenes when any such
velocity is nearly reached. Thus, according to the ratio of charge to mass, particles
such as those in Rutherford’s a-rays would be sent away each with its limiting
velocity, giving rise to streaks more or less well defined, and double, triple, or
multiple according to the number of kinds of ray which the various radio-active
materials were able to generate.

Not only should streaks pointing away from the sun be formed, but any nega-
tively charged rays such as radium is said to give out should form a tail directed
towards the sun. Perhaps this might be expected to be general, but while not
common one was described by Hind in the comet of 1823-24, and three or four
more have been observed.

The head or coma would be the envelope of all the independent orbits, leaving
the nucleus in all directions—orbits which while their velocities are still of the
Rutherford order would be hyperbolas convex to the sun.

If this should not appear to ke absolute nonsense it would seem as if another
difficulty should become less than it has been. I refer to the visibility, luminosity,
and spectral character.

Lodge, as an interpreter of Larmor, tells us that an electrified ion subject to
acceleration, whether transverse or in the line of motion, radiates energy. The
streamers from the nucleus subject to the greatest acceleration may be bright almost
as the nucleus itself; then, as they have become dissipated into regions where far
less acceleration becomes possible, the radiation falls off and the tail is lost in
space.

The observations made last month by Sir William and Lady Huggins of the
spectrum given by a piece of radium in the air may have some bearing upon the
luminosity of the comet. It is possible that the internal motions set up by the
separate parts, each pursuing its individual orbit, may produce collisions numerous
and violent enough to account for all the light that is seen, and for temperature
sufficient. to ,bring out the spectral lines that, have been identified. Whether this

is so, or not, radio-active bodies and their emanations can produce light indepen-
MM 2

532 REPORT—1908.

dently of such action; and now these observers have found that in*the case of
radium in air this light gives the spectrum, line by line, of nitrogen. Is it possible
that the enveloping nitrogen has had its atoms so harried by the activity of the
radium as to give a response hitherto only awakened by electric discharge? The
ability to obtain such a response opens up a new possible interpretation of
these spectra, which hitherto have been assumed, with our laboratory experience
only to guide us, to have required for their production temperature above a red heat.
If further observation should confirm this, the hydrogen, the hydrocarbon, and
possibly even the sodium or iron spectrum that has been observed, may have come
from cold atoms; and it is not even quite beyond the limits of imagination to picture,
not from the comet matter itself, but from loose residual and highly attenuated
matter through which the comet is passing.

There is one other feature of this remarkable observation of equal’ interest:
The lines of the spectrum were not exactly in their proper place, but were all
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum about twice the distance between the
D lines. If only one or two lines had been so observed a different origin might
well have been suspected; but when the whole series are faithfully reproduced
it is reasonable to look upon the spectrum as modified to that extent as though
the works of the nitrogen atom had not only been set in movement, but had’ been
loaded with the radium emanation.

Before dismissing these random speculations on the possible connexion
between radio-activity and comets I would ask your leave to refer once more to
Bredechin’s conclusions. He has found that it is merely necessary to postulate
three kinds of matter, issuing from the nucleus with three initial° velocities,
and subject to repulsion from the sun with three sets of forces of repulsion—z.e,
as compared with ordinary gravitative attraction—for the whole of the phenomena
of all sorts of comets to be very completely accounted for. His highest initial
velocity is only about five miles a second, and his lowest about a quarter of a mile
asecond. His highest repulsion, after deducting gravitative attraction, is only
eleven times gravity, and his lowest only a fifth of gravity. If, then, with such
velocities and forces the phenomena can be exactly accounted for, it would seem
futile to consider the possibility of initial velocities from 4,000 to 80,000 times as
great and effective repulsions of a corresponding order being able to produce
effects with anything in common. This is not necessarily the case, for with the
comparatively slow separation of the atoms of Bredechin’s matter from the nucleus,
each one describing its own hyperbola convex to the sun, the tail at any moment
represents the then position of any number of atoms which left the nucleus for
some distance back, whereas with the enormous velocities and effective forces now
discussed the comet moves so slowly in comparison that the tail would practically
represent the path at the time,

It has taken me far longer to throw out this not very luminous ray than 1 had
expected or than it is worth. I fear that it is a sort of ray in which the ratio of its
dead weight to its vitalising charge is too small to enable it to penetrate the
lightest screen of examination.

These ore the days of rays, and now before we have quite become familiar
with the rays of radio-active bodies Blondlot has presented us with N rays, which
issuing from the mantle of an incandescent gas burner penetrate wood or
aluminium, and then increase the light without increasing the heat of hot bodies
on which they fall.

Passing now from the amusement of speculation to more serious duties, I find
myself confronted with the difficulties that prevent us in this country from
succeeding as we used to do in the international struggle—a struggle the issue of
which is daily becoming more and more a question of brains, of education, of skill
and enterprise in manufacture—and finally of that great virtue extolled by the
President of the United States, strenuousness.

It is the duty of everyone who sees the way in which we are being outstripped
in the race to do what in him lies to scrape off the rust which is clogging our
aducational machinery. I now refer to the defects which hamper the intellectual

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION A; 533

progres of the majority of our youth. I believe the public school mathematics in
this country stands on a level of its own, well below that of any other. In
England, owing to our complicated system of weights and measures, which our
Ministers and our Parliament dare not abolish for our own good, the scanty hours
allowed for mathematics are devoted to the learning of tables which should never
have to be learned at all, to compound reductions designed merely to puzzle but
not to lead. to any new step; and, even if our.present system were not futile
enough, to learning lists of antique values which serve the useful purpose of
giving the boys something to do, The result is that beyond having time to
acquire afew elementary algebraical rules the boy is never introduced to algebra
proper; he has no idea of algebraical reasoning; his trigonometry often does
not exist, and the very sound or suggestion of coordinate geometry or of the
differential calculus, which might be well within his reach, produces.a shiver
of dismay. Geometry is presented for the first. time in the form of Euclid, a
form as repulsive to most boys as it well could be. I must confess to having
been attracted and not repelled by Euclid; but the boy does not care for time.
Now that I look at Euclid again I have also to confess that any lingering regard
for an old friend vanishes before the archaic language and the unnecessary
circumlocution. If Kuclid must be retained let it be translated into English, the
English that any parent would use in explaining the ideas to his son; let it be
illustrated by constant reference to real things so as to appeal to the boy who does
not reyel in the abstract, Let the ideas and the terms first be presented in the
form of experiments and of measurements with instruments; let the schoolmaster
dare to throw over the intolerable conservatism which prevents our doing anything
ten times as well lest some item should prove to be a trifle worse ; in fact, let us take
somé heed of the possibly extreme, but none the less genuine, and valuable preaching
of Professor Perry, I have so far referred only to the miserable use that is made
of the odd hours grudgingly given. to what is called mathematics. Is it any use
to repeat the long-standing complaint of the way in which the schoolmaster insists
upon overdoing his Latin and Greek under the belief that they are at, least
essential to intellectual development if, indeed, they do not supply the only
stimulus? As society is constituted they are essential to education as en extensive
knowledge of Confucius is essential to.an educated Chinaman, so that we may mix
one with another, appreciate the works of our great authors, understand the same
allusions, and have the same kind of knowledge of the development of our
civilisation. Few men of science, perhaps none, wish to see all of this, some of
which is,.essential to a general education, abolished; all that we ask is that the
schoolmaster shall not continue to impose upon the community the unbalanced
learning which corresponds to mathematics and science without letters. The time
given to classics is exorbitant ; more must be reserved for those pursuits which
draw out the habit of independent thought, creation and originality. It would
be well if every schoolmaster could read an admirable article by James Swinburne
on the two types of mind fostered by the two complementary, types of educa-
tion, but this is buried away in an inaccessible number of the ‘ Westminster
Review.’

The classic is unfortunately still in possession, and where, as is still often the
ease, he is innocent of any appreciation of the educational value of post-Newtonian
studies it is not surprising that he thrusts into odd moments the subjects he does
not understand, and which he therefore, despises, and that the boys committed to
his, charge and living in such an atmosphere are half ashamed of showing any
interest in the scanty science which is within their reach. It is almost. impossible
to believe that. such can be the case, but I have referred to the impression to which
the appointment of the first science master at my own school gave rise. I now
refer to the contribution to a discussion on education but a year or two ago by
that experienced teacher, Principal Griffiths. Fortunately our public schools are
not the only ones in the country. Smaller and less fashionable schools pay more
attention to education and suffer less from what, in defiance of all rule, I can only
call didactatorial method,

Tam not aware that the result of this almost total. exclusion of tabooed. sub-

534 REPORT—19098.

jects in favour of Latin and Greek is producing a standard of classical attainment
in our youth greatly in advance of that to be found in other countries, but it is
certain that in history, modern languages, mathematics, and science the product
of our public schools is sadly deficient.

There is another point related to our deficient general scientific training on
which I wish to offer some remarks, and that is in relation to manufacture. It is
the fashion among some of our scientific people to talk of our manufacturers as if
they were a very ignorant lot and to suppose that one word from some professor
who has never seen outside a laboratory would be sufficient to put them right.
Now in my somewhat varied experience I have had occasion to become acquainted
with corners of our great manufacturing areas, and while my experience is small
and not enough to generalise upon, it is nevertheless several times as great as that
of some who are ready to adopt the superior attitude, but have none.

The loss of one industry after another is only too patent. In so far as this
may be due to want of enterprise in our men of business we are not concerned
with the cause in this Section; in so far as it may be due to want of that little
assistance which the fiscal arrangements in other countries make possible for our
rivals again we are not concerned in this Section; in so far as our patent laws
are unique among those of manufacturing nations in allowing the foreigner to
manufacture in his own country under the protection of our patent law, so that
the most valuable school we possess, the manufactory, as well as the manu-
facture, is conducted to the advantage of our rivals—a point which I suppose it is
unnecessary to commend to the notice of Mr. Chamberlain—with this, too, we have
no concern in this Section; but in so far as this, or the want of enterprise or of
foresight that leads to it, is due to ignorance and to want of appreciation of scien-
tifie advance we are very much concerned with it. If I may refer to my own
limited experience, there is a lamentable contrast in the manner in which a great
number of our own countrymen look at any proposition put before them and that
in which the alert American does. It is useless to explain that which would be
self-evident to a man with a moderate knowledge of chemistry and physics such
as our schools ought to supply, or for which they should at least lay the foun-
dation, for the words have no meaning; they are merely words.’ He distrusts
anything new; he has heard of a new process before that did not work out well;
experience_on the Continent to him is no experience at all, for he believes the
inhabitants in such distant parts of the earth are not capable of knowing as well as
the enlightened Englishman whether a thing is properly done or not, and so he
goes on as he did before, perfectly content. This attitude would not be possible
with the most elementary understanding of common principles, *

But there is another side to this picture. Anyone who has discussed any
scheme with the board of directors, the manager, the engineer, and the chemist of
one of our great manufactories must have been struck with’ the concentrated
ability there found in harness, It has often seemed to mé that it is a great
misfortune that our professors of mechanics, of physics, and of chemistry are in
so many instances precluded from a better acquaintance with the working of these
great machines—a misfortune not for the works, at least directly, but for the
professors, and more especially for their pupils.

Nowhere are scientific problems of greater complexity constantly having to be
solved than in a great manufactory ; nowhere is such concentrated talent necessary
as in a works organised and carried on in competition with all the world. I look
upon these as our most valuable schools, and the closer the touch between them
and those whose province it is to teach, the better for the teacher and the pupil.

It is, perhaps, hardly desirable to mention any one where there are so many.
I am tempted to dwell upon the problem which has been at last successfully
solved by Parsons, this being the joint product of the school and of the works ; but
there is one picture—a contrast, I will not say of light and shade, but of colour and
colour—to which I must refer. I remember in my early days, in the surroundings
of aclassical atmosphere, the general feeling of contempt for the manufacturer, the
intellectually inferior creature who only made money, but who knew nothing of
TUnrw or Térvppat, Tam notsure that some such feeling does not still exist among

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 535

those whose horizon is limited to the Latin and Greek that they have learned—or
should I say limited dy instead of to? This recollection came back to me when
not long ago I was visiting one of the best organised and most skilfully conducted
works in the country—I mean Willans & Robinson—when I remembered that
another great manufactory, conducted on American lines, was near by, and when
across the road I saw the walls of one of our most famous English schools. I
pictured the old contrast: on the one hand the conviction impressed upon me when
a boy that there is something intellectually superior in the struggle with a paragraph
of Xenophon or a page of Homer, while manufacture is merely mechanical,
sordid and base, with what I believe to be the reality on the other. I wondered
in what spirit the erection of these works was viewed at the school and to what
extent the high intellectual attainment there so essential and so evident is properly
appreciated.

Of the last of the three headings, Strenuousness, we have plenty, but at school
it is most apparent in cricket and football, and in after life in various expensive
ways of murdering defenceless animals.

However, a change is already beginning to be felt. The public schools no
longer withhold the elements of chemistry and physics, and those who have
benefited, even in small degree, are taking responsible places vacated by those
who had no such opportunity. The numerous polytechnics are providing more
serious instruction to thousands of our young men, and it may be hoped that in
time even the official—I mean the mere official whose only conception of activity
is centred in obstructing progress and enlightenment—will have some appreciation
of things as well as of words,

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Electro-ethereal Theory of the Velocity of Light in Gases
Liquids, and Solids. By Lord Kevin, 0.11, G.C.V.O.1

This communication is an advance proof of the last five pages of Lecture XX.,
as written afresh for a long-promised volume of twenty lectures, given originally
in the Johns Hopkins University, of Baltimore, U.S.A.,in October 1884, and now
nearly ready for publication by the Cambridge University Press. It is founded on
two recent contributions to ‘ electro-ethereal’ theory referred to as ‘ Appendix D’
and ‘ Appendix A,’ previously published in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ (1902,
Ist half-year, and 1900, 2nd half-year), under the titles ‘ Aepinus Atomized,’ and
‘On the Motion produced in an Infinite Elastic Solid by the Motion through the
Space occupied by it of a Body acting on it only by Attraction or Repulsion.’
The long title of Appendix A contains virtually a complete statement of the
theory which constitutes its subject.

2. Discussion on the Nature of the Emanations from Radium. Opened
by Professor E. RutTuErrorp.

Contribution by Lord Kxtvin, 0.11, G.C.V.O.

Let us first consider the mere fact, now known as a result of observation and
experiment, that radium has been found to emit three types of rays:—

a, Positively electrified, and largely stopped by solid, liquid, or gaseous screens.
B, More penetrative than a, and negatively electrified.
__ ¥ Electrically neutral, and much more penetrative than either a or 8; passing
with but little loss through a lead screen 1 centimetre thick, which is an almost
perfect screen against a and B rays.

‘A simple prima facie view is to regard the ‘ y rays’ as merely vapour of radium.

‘ Appeared in full in Phil. Mag. vol. ii. October 1902.

5386 > REPORT—1908. *

The ‘8 rays’ seem certainly to be atoms of resinous electricity—electrions; as T
have called them (to specialise Johnstone Stoney’s ‘electron,’ which might be
either a vitreous or resinous atom of electricity, or an atom of matter deprived of
its natural quantum of electricity). The ‘a rays,’ according to»my proposed
atomic resuscitation of Aepinus’s doctrine, are atoms or molecules: of matter,
probably atoms of radium, or perhaps molecules of bromide of radium, either
deprived of electrions, or having less than their neutralising quantum,

The electro-ethereal hypothesis, referred to in my communication of last
Thursday to Section A, affords a ready explanation of the relative penetrativities
of the three radiations, and of the fact that each one of them makes: its existence
known tous by conferring electric conductivity on air or any ordinary gas in which
it is present.

Taking the y rays first, we have to explain the free penetration of unelectrified
radium molecules through dense liquid or solid matter... An easy assumption suffices:
let the Boscovichian mutual forces (that is, the chemical affinities and the repul-
sions) between an atom of radium and the atoms of lead and other permeable
substances be absolutely zero, or small enough to allow the known permeation.

Taking, next, the a radiation. The apparent great absorption of ‘the vitreous
electric emanation from radium is only apparent ; it means that an atom shot
from radium with less than its neutralising quantum of electrions cannot go far
through a solid or liquid without acquiring the neutralising quantum,

The 8 absorption may be regarded as probably real, Atoms of resinous
electricity’shot from radium-cannot be expected to enter a screen of metal, or
glass, or wood, or liquid, and leave at the other side, irrespectively of the insulation
of the screen and of the radium. The full consideration and experimental
investigation of the emission of atoms of resinous electricity from radium
hermetically sealed in a glass bulb or tube is forced upon us, It has,I believe, led
to surprising and interesting results, As to the y rays, there is no, difficulty in
supposing that non-electrified vapour of radium passes very freely through glass
or metals without any electric disturbance. It has been published, on authority
so, far as I know unquestioned, that loss of weight in the course of a few months
has been proyed. Full information on all that is known on this subject, will no
doubt be brought forward in the course of the discussion to be opened by
Professor Rutherford, I regret much that Iam not able to be present, and I
shall look forward with eagerness to the earliest published reports,.of the
discussion,

Returning to Becquerel’s original discovery in respect to uranium and salts of
uranium, the electric conductivity induced in air and other gases by a radio-
active substance; we have a ready explanation in, my atomic resuscitation of the
old doctrine of Aepinus, The ordinary thermal motions within any solid, or
liquid, or gas, must cause occasional shootings out of the electrions from, the
substance, and the motions of these electrions under the influence of electrostatic
force must contribute to the electric conductivity of the gas; must, in fact, con-
stitute all of it which is not due to transport of atoms of the gas carrying lese
than the neutralising quantum of electrions. Thus every substance, solid, liquid,
or gas, must possess radio-activity. It is exceedingly interesting to find in Strutt’s
short paper ‘On Radio-activity of Ordinary Materials,’1 that the electric conduc-
tivity of dry air contained in a cylinder of solid material differs largely for
different materials (1:3 for glass coated with phosphoric acid, 1-4 aluminium,
2 to 3°83 various ordinary metals, 3°9 platinum); and to be told’ that radium ‘is
300,000,000 times more active than,the most active common material thathe ex-
perimented with. How ate we to explain this enormous radio-activity of radium ?
I venture to suggest. that it may be because it is exceedingly poly-electrionic ;
that the saturating quantum of electrions in an atom of radium may be hundreds,
or thousands, or millions of times as many as those of atoms of ‘ ordinary material.’

But this leaves THE mystery of radium untouched: Curie’s discovery that it
(perpetually?) emits heat at a rate of about,.90.Centigrade, calories. per gramme

1 Phil, Mag, June 1903,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 5387

per hour.’ If emission of heat at this rate goes on for little more than a year, or,
say, 10,000 hours (13$ months), we get as much heat as would raise the tempera-
ture of 900,000 grammes of water by 1° C. It seems to me utterly impossible that
this can come from a store of energy lost out of the gramme of radium in the
10,000‘hours. It seems to me, therefore, absolutely certain, that if emission of
heat ‘at the rate of 90 calories per gramme per hour found by Curie at ordinary
temperatures, or even at the lower rate of 38 found by Dewar and Curie from
a specimen of radium at the temperature of liquid oxygen, can go on for month
after month, energy must somehow be supplied from without to give the energy
of the heat getting into the material of the calorimetric apparatus.

» TI yenture to suggest that somehow ethereal waves may supply energy to the
radium while it is giving out heat to the ponderable matter around it. Think of
a piece of black cloth hermetically sealed in a glass case, and sunk in a glass vessel
of water exposed to the sun; and think of another equal and similar glass case
containing white cloth, submerged in an equal and similar glass vessel of water,
similarly exposed to the sun. The water in the former glass vessel will be kept
very sensibly warmer than the water in the latter. This is analogous to Curie’s
first experiment, in which he found the temperature of a thermometer, with a little
tube containing radium kept beside its bulb, in a little bag of soft: material, to be
permanently about 2°C. higher than that of another equal and similar thermo-
meter, similarly packed with a little glass tube not containing radium beside its
bulb.

By observing the temperature of the water in our two glass vessels, a calori-
metric investigation might be made,showing how much heat is given out per hour
by the black cloth to the surrounding glass and water. Here we have thermal
energy communicated to the black cloth by waves of sunlight, and given out as
thermometric heat to»the glass and water around it. Thus we actually have
energy travelling inwards through the water in virtue of waves of light, and out-
wards through the same space in virtue of thermal conduction.

' My suggestion respecting radium may be regarded as utterly unacceptable, but
atiall events it will be:conceded that experiments should be made comparing the
thermal emission from radium wholly surrounded with thick lead with that found
with the surroundings hitherto used.

3: Uber die in der Atmosphire und im Erdboden enthaltene radioaktive
Emanation, Von T, Exster uw. H. Grirer,

Wir beehren uns der British Association hiermit eine kurze Ubersicht der
Ergebnisse, von, Versuchen vorzulegen, deren Gegenstand die, wie es scheint,
allgemein verbreiteten radioaktiven Kigenschaften der natiirlichen atmosphirischen
Luft) und gewisser Bestandteile des Erdbodens bilden ; sie beweisen i ihrer
Gesamtheit die Existenz einer adioaktiven Emanation in der Atmosphire, die,
wenn nicht aussehliesslich, so doch zu einem wesentlichen Teile aus dem Erdkirper
herstammt, Kine Mitteilung dariiber diirfte im Zusammenhange mit der heutigen
Diskussion uber die Natur der aktiven Emanationen vielleicht niche ohne Interesse
sein.

Die Versuche bezogen sich:

1. Auf den Betrag der inducierten, Aktivitit, die. man auf einem beliebigen
Leiter (am besten einem Drahte von unveriinderlicher Liinge) dadurch erzeugt,
dass man ihn eine gemessene Zeit lang in freier Luft zu einem bestimmten Potentiale
negativ geladen hilt.

2. Auf Vergleichung des Gehaltes an radioaktiver Emanation in der an
verschiedenen Orten im Erdboden enthaltenen Luft.

3. Auf die radioaktiven Higenschaften der mineralischen Bestandteile des
Erdbodens selber.

In Betreff des ersten Gegenstandes haben wir gefunden, dass die unter gleichen
Bedingungen durch die freie Luft inducierte Aktivitit in der Nahe der Meereskiiste

538 REPORT—19039.

kleiner ist, als an unserem etwa 250 Kilometer davon entfernten Wohnorte, und
hier wiederum kleiner als am Fusse der Alpen. Die Betrage der Aktivierung
verhielten sich an diesen Orten (im Mittel aus zahlreichen Hinzelmessungen)
etwa wie 1: 4: 30.

Weiter zeigte sich, dass die aus der Erde angesaugte Luft im Allgemeinen einen
abnorm hohen Gehalt an radioaktiver Emanation mit sich fiihrt. Dieser ist
indessen nicht an allenOrten derselbe; so erwies sich Luft aus Kalkboden
stammend schwicher aktiv als solche, die aus tonigen Erdschichten entnommen
war. Auch die natiirliche Kohlensiure, die aus altem vulcanischen Boden am
Nieder-Rhein aufsteigt, ist mit Emanation beladen. Es ist kein Zweifel, dass
auch die Radioaktivitat der in gewissen Brunnenwiissern enthaltenen Luft, die
von Herrn J. J. Thomson konstatiert ist, von derselben Natur ist.

Hiernach wiirde der Reichtum an Emanation in der Luft des Binnenlandes
wahrscheinlich darauf zuriickzufiihren sein, dass diese in unmittelbarem Austausche
mit der in den Kapilliiren des Erdbodens eingeschlossenen Luft steht. In
Einklang mit dieser Auffassung steht die Erfahrung, dass im Allgemeinen bei
sinkendem Barometer (d.h. wihrend des Einstrémens von Erdbodenluft in die
Atmosphire) eine gréssere Aktivierung fiir exponierte Drahte beobachtet wurde,
als bei stationérem oder steigendem.

Ferner fanden wir dass Proben von Erde, von der Oberfliiche entnommen, bei
der Bertihrung mit abgeschlossenen Luftmengen an diese eine deutlich nachweis-
bare Menge einer radioaktiven Kmanation abgeben. Mit festem Gesteine erhielten
wir diese Wirkung nicht; ebenfalls nicht mit reinem Humusboden und Quarzsand.
Am deutlichsten war sie beim Ton; wurde derselbe durch verdiinnte Salzsiure
vom Calciumcarbonat befreit, so blieb die Wirkung an dem ungelisten Riick-
stande haften. Kine Abnahme der Wirksamkeit im Laufe der Zeit konnte an
aufbewahrten Proben von Erde bis jetzt noch nicht (wihrend eines Jahres)
nachgewiesen werden. Sehr gut zu erkennen ist die Erscheinung bei dem
sogenannten Fangoschlamme, der zu Heilzwecken aus Italien importiert wird;
eine Menge von etwa 5 Kilogramm davon in trocknem Zustande in einen Raum
von etwa 3 Kubikmeter gebracht verbreitet in der eingeschlossenen Luft 8o viel
an aktiver Emanation, dass diese leicht nach der Methode der Herrn Rutherford
an der Aktivierung eines eingefiihrten negativ geladenen Metalldrahtes nachgewiesen
wird.

Die Abnahme der go inducierten Aktivitit in der Zeit erfolgt nach einem
Exponentialgesetze, das von dem fiir die Thoriumemanation giiltigen durchaus
verschieden ist, dem fiir das Radium bekannten aber sehr nahe steht. Auch die
in freier Luft inducierte Aktivitiit befolgt dasselbe Gesetz der Abnahme.

Die Ergebnisse sind mit der Annahme vertriglich, dass ein primiir aktiver
Stoff in den Gesteinen der Erdoberfliche allgemein verbreitet ist, wenn auch nur in
dusserst geringer Menge. Solange ein Gestein chemisch intakt ist, vermag die von
jenem Stoff ausgehende Emanation nicht auszutreten, erst die verwitterte
Substanz, gleichsam aufgeschlossen durch die Einwirkung des Wassers und der
Luft, giebt a-Strahlen und Emanation aus. Die letztere hiuft sich in den
Capillaren des Erdbodens an, lést sich im Grundwasser auf und verbreitet sich
durch Diffusion in die Atmosphiire.

4, Cosmical Radio-activity. By Professor ArTHUR ScuusteER, /.R.S.

The fact that every physical property hitherto discovered in one element hasalways
been found to be shared by all suggests the possibility that radio-activity may be
a common property of all matter. If that is the case the so-called radio-active
bodies may only be distinguished from others—like iron in the case of magnetism—
by the enormously exaggerated form in which they possess the property. The
apparently inactive metals may possess radio-activity, but to so small a degree that
our powers of observation are insufficient to detect it. But the question arises
whether in that case the effect is cumulative and should appear in the large
cosmic aggregations of matter.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 539

There is indeed at first sight some analogy both in the case of the sun and of
the earth between the effects observed in their immediate surroundings and those
noticed in the neighbourhood of radio-active bodies. The earth we know must be
charged with negative electricity, and attention had already for some time been
drawn to the fact that this charge must constantly be renewed, as the leakage due
to the spraying of ocean waves and the hot gases escaping from every chimney
would ultimately dissipate the charge. But the normal electric conductivity of
the air has only recently been measured, and, according to Elster and Geitel, is,
under normal conditions, such that a body loses about 13 per cent. of its charge
per minute. If the air in the immediate neighbourhood of the ground has this
conductivity (which is not quite certain) the earth would lose about half its charge
in an hour.

We are living therefore—and there can be little doubt about the point—in an
electric field through which negatively charged particles are constantly driven
outwards (kathode rays), and which possesses an electric conductivity similar to
that found in the neighbourhood of radio-active bodies. The yadio-activity of air
rising out of the ground or of water drawn out of wells may be the consequence
of emanations from a radio-active earth.

The similarity of the rays of the solar corona to kathode rays has often been
pointed out, and I have maintained for a long time now that the assumption of a
greater conductivity of space at times of maximum sun-spots furnishes a simple
explanation of the connection between sun-spots and terrestrial magnetism. The
sun, therefore, like the earth, must be taken to discharge rays which seem to
possess all properties of kathode rays."

The analogies I have pointed out are not complete, and may he found to be
false; but we must, I think, keep our mind open to the possibility of a collective
radio-activity of matter which becomes apparent in celestial bodies.

The continuous discharge of negative electricity from the earth renders it
necessary to find a cause leading to a continuous renewal, and it is extremely
difficult to see what that cause can be.

Though it is not directly connected with the subject under discussion, I may in
conclusion digress by recalling an old discussion on the cause of gravity. Lesage’s
explanation involved the presence of ‘ corpuscles,’ such as are now believed to exist
by some physicists. Maxwell’s objection to Lesage’s explanation, which at the
time seemed fatal, was that gravitation ought to be, but is not, accompanied
by a rise in temperature. Whatever we may think of the explanation on other
grounds, this particular objection would seem to lose its weight at present, when,
in the case of one body, at any rate, a rise in temperature above that of its sur-
roundings has actually been discovered, and when it is considered that the energy
which in one case accumulates as heat may in other cases be dissipated through
other channels.

5. Intensification of Chemical Action by the Emanations from
Gold and Platinum. By G. T. Betsy.

When a piece of gold or platinum foil is heated on a glass slip in an atmosphere
containing the products of combustion of coal gas, a halo is formed on the glass
surface surrounding the foil. This halo does not to any considerable extent
consist of metallic particles, but is chiefly made up of the products of decomposition
of the glass. Ifthe halo is breathed on, the slight condensation of moisture on
the surface dissolves the soluble salts, and sets free silica or an insoluble silicate in
the form of thin films and spicules. When the water has evaporated a crystalline
deposit is left on the surface.

By prolonged heating in the above atmosphere the whole of the exposed

1 The slight diminution of temperature at times of maximum sun-spots, which
seems to be indicated by recent discussion of thermometer readings, may be a result of
the increased absorption in space which we must expect to be caused by the presence
of a sufficient number of electrons.

546 REPORT—1908.

surface of the glass slip is slightly attacked, but the intensity of this attack is not
to be compared with that which occurs in the near neighbourhood of the metal.
The chemical action to which the formation of the halo is due is, therefore, directly
influenced by the presence of the hot metal.

It was at first thought that the metal foil might be acting simply by arresting
radiant heat in its passage through the transparent. glass, and thereby localising
its effects ; but this view is not supported by the subsequent experiments.

A number of experiments were made before it was sufficiently realised: that a
fairly free circulation of the atmosphere surrounding the metal is necessary if
well-marked halos are to be produced. It was also found that the partial
exclusion of the products of combustion from the air bath adversely affected the
formation of halos.

When the glass slip with the metal foil is covered by another slip which is in
contact with the metal, the halo is reduced to a sharp narrow outline of the foil.

If the cover-slip is supported just out of contact with the metal, the halo is
still a sharp outline, but now an image of the foil, less sharp, but also in outline,
is formed on the under surface of the cover-slip. As the distance between the
cover-slip and the foil is increased the halo widens and the image on the cover-
slip becomes a smooth patch without sharp outlines. These effects are obviously
influenced by the more or less ample supply of the active constituents of the
atmosphere which results from the greater or less freedom of circulation,» This, in
turn, is affected by the nearness of the cover-slip to the metal.

A piece of platinum foil, 7 millimetres square, was used in a series’ of éxperi-
ments in which the distances of the upper slip from the metal were 0:2.mm,,
15 mm.,3mm.,and 7 mm.; an experiment was also made in which no:cover-
slip was used. The temperature employed was about 500°, and the time of
heating 80 minutes. At 0-2 mm. distance halo! and image were both in outline:
At 15mm. the halo was a band round the foil about 1 mm, wide; the image
showed no outline, but was in size and form similar to the foil, At 8mm. the
halo had widened to over 2 mm., part of this being got by encroaching on the
area covered by the foil; the image was now circular, its diameter being equal to
the diagonal of the square of the foil. At 7 mm. the halo had widened to! 8 to
4 mm. on three sides, and to 8 mm. on the fourth side; its general form was oval.
The image was of the same form, and only a little smaller... Itwas evident in
this case that the stream of emanations from the platinum had drifted across the
slip under the influence of a current in the atmosphere of the air-bath. . This
evidence of drifting of the stream of emanations at once disposes of the idea that
the formation of the halo and image is due in any way to the radiation or
reflection of heat by the metal foil. The forms and dimensions of the halos and
images strongly suggest that the emanations from the platinum are thrown
upwards like a fountain, which spreads, and descends on and around. the: foil.

hen the cover-slip is at the maximum distance, it is struck by the apex of the
stream, and a large but faintly defined image is produced. When the distance of
the cover-slip is small, the stream is intercepted before it has spread’ much and the
halo and image are small and well defined.

The decomposition of glass in the neighbourhood of hot metals appears to be a
case of accelerated or intensified chemical action, induced by the energy of the
particles shot out from the hot metal. It occurred to me that some of the cases
of catalytic action by platinum and other substances might be accounted for by
the existence of active emanations surrounding the catalyte, and not merely by
the actual contact of the molecules of the re-agents with its surface. Experiments
are now in progress to test this question.

* Throughout this Paper the term ‘halo’ is applied to the effect’ produced on the

lower slip, on which the metal lay, and ‘image’ to that on the under surface of the
cover-slip.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 541

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,
SUB-SECTION—ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.
CHarrMAN: W. N. SHaw, Sc.D., F.R.S.

The Chairman delivered the following Address :—

Methods of Meteorological Investigation.

In opening the proceedings of the Sub-section devoted to Cosmical Physics,
which we may take to be the application of the methods and results of Mathe-
matics and Physics to problems suggested by observations of the earth, the air, or
the sky, I desire permission to call your attention to some points of general
interest. in connexion with that department which deals with the air. My
justification for doing so is that this is the first occasion upon which a position in
any way similar to that which I am now called upon to fill has been occupied by one
whose primary obligations are meteorological. That honour I may with confidence
attribute to the desire of the Council of the Association to recognise the subject
so admirably represented by the distinguished men of science who haye come across
the seas.to deliberate upon those meteorological questions which are the common
concern of all:nations, and whom we are specially glad to welcome as members of
this Sub-section. « Their presence and their scientific work are proof, if proof is
required, that meteorologists cannot regard meteorological problems as dissociable
from Section A ; that the prosecution of meteorological research is by the study of
the kinematics, the mechanics, the physics, or the mathematics of the data compiled
by laborious observation of the earth’s atmosphere.

But this is not the first occasion upon which the Address from the Chair of the
Sub-section has been devoted to Meteorology. Many of you will recollect the
trenchant manner in which a university professor, himself a meteorologist, an
astronomer, a physicist, and a mathematician, dealt candidly with the present
position of Meteorology. After that Address I am conscious that I have no
claim to be called a meteorologist according to the scientific standard of Section A.
Professor Schuster has explained—and I cannot deny it—that the responsible duty
of an office from which I cannot dissociate myself is signing weather reports; and
I conld wish that the duty of making the next Address had been intrusted to one
of my colleagues from across the sea. But as Professor Schuster has set forth the
aspert of official meteorology as seen from the academic standpoint with a frank-
ness and candour which I think worthy of imitation, I shall endeavour to put
before you the aspect which the relation between Meteorology and academic
science wears from the point of view of an official meteorologist. whose experience
is not long enough to have hardened into that most comfortable of all states of
mind, a pessimistic contentment.

Meteorology occupies a peculiar position in this country. From the point of
view of Mathematics and Physics, the problems which the subject presents are
not devoid of interest, nor are they free from that difficulty which should
stimulate scientific effort in academic minds, They afford a most ample field for
the display of trained intellect, and even of genius, in devising and applying
theoretical and experimental methods. And can we say that the work is unim-
portant? Took where you will over the countries which the British Association
may be supposed to represent, either directly or indirectly, and say where a more
satisfactory knowledge of the laws governing the weather would be unimportant
from any point of view. Will you take the British Isles on the eastern shores of
the Atlantic, the great meteorological laboratory of the world, with the far-
reaching interests of their carrying trade; or India, where the phenomena of the
monsoon show most conspicuously the effects of the irregular distribution of land,
the second great meteorological cause,and where recurring famines still overstrain
the. resources ‘of administration. Take the Australasian colonies and the Cape,
which, with the Argentine Republic, where Mr. Davis is developing so admirably

542 REPORT—1903.

the methods of the Weather Bureau, constitute the only land projections into the
great southern ocean, the region of ‘planetary meteorology’; Australia, with
its periods of paralysing drought; the Cape, where the adjustment of crops to
climate is a question of the hour; or take Canada, which owns at the same time a
granary of enormous dimensions and a large portion of the Arctic Circle; or take
the scattered islets of the Atlantic and Pacific or the shipping that goes wherever
ships can go. The merest glance will show that we stand to gain more by scientific
knowledge, and lose more by unscientific ignorance of the weather, than any other
country. The annual loss on account of the weather would work out at no
inconsiderable sum per head of the population, and the merest fraction of success
in the prevention of what science must regard as preventible loss would compensate
for half a century of expenditure on meteorological offices. Or take a less selfish
view and consider for a moment our responsibilities to the general community of
nations, the advantages we possess as occupying the most important posts of
observation. Ifthe meteorology of the world were placed, as perhaps it ought to
be, in the hands of an International Commission, it can be no exaggeration to say
that a considerable majority of the selected sites for stations of observation would
be on British soil or British ships. We cannot help being the most important
agency for promoting or for obstructing the extension of meteorological. science.
I say this bluntly and perhaps crudely because I feel sure that ideas not dissimilar
from these must occasionally suggest themselves to every meteorologist, British or
foreign ; and if they are to be expressed—and I think you will agree with me that
they ought to be—a British meteorologist ought to take the responsibility of
expressing them.

And how does our academic organisation help us in this matter of more than
parochial or even national importance? There was a time when Meteorology was
a recognised member of the large physical family and shared the paternal affection
of all professors of Physics ; but when the poor nestling began to grow up and
develop some individuality electricity developed simultaneously with the speed of
a young cuckoo. ‘The professors of Physics soon recognised that the nest was not
large enough for both, and with a unanimity which is the more remarkable because
in some ot these academic circles utilitarianism is not a condition of existence,
and pure science, not market value, might be the dominant consideration—with
singular unanimity the science which bears in its left hand, if not in its right,
sources of wealth beyond the dreams of avarice was recognised as a veritable
Isaac, and the science wherein the fruits of discovery must be free for all the
world, and in which there is not even the most distant prospect of making a
fortune—that science was ejected as an'Ishmael. Electrical engineering has an
abundance of academic representatives ; brewing has its professorship and its corps
of students, but the specialised physics of the atmosphere has ceased to share the
academic hospitality. So far as I know the British universities are unanimous in
dissembling their love for Meteorology as a science, and if they do not actually
kick it downstairs they are at least content that it has no encouragement to go
up. In none is there a professorship, a lectureship, or even a scholarship, to help
to form the nucleus of that corps of students which may be regarded as the
primary condition of scientific development.

Having cut the knot of their difficulties in this very human but not very
humane method, the universities are, I think, disposed to adopt a method of
justification which is not unusual in such cases; indications are not wanting
which disclose an opinion that Meteorology is, after all, not a science. There
are, I am aware, some notable exceptions; but do I exaggerate if I say that
when university professors are kind enough to take an interest in the labours
of meteorologists, who are doing their best amid many discouragements, it is
generally to point out that their work is on the wrong lines; that they had
better give it up and do something else? And the interest which the univer-
sities display in a general way is a good-humoured jest about the futility of
weather prophecy, and the kindly suggestion that the improvement in the pre-
diction of the next twenty-four hours’ weather is a naturallimit to the orbit of an

Ishmaelite’s ambition.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 543

Under these circumstances such an Address as Professor Schuster’s is very
welcome: it recognises at least a scientific brotherhood and points to the responsi-
bility for a scientific standard ; it even displays some of the characteristics of the
Good Samaritan, for it offers his own beast on which to ride, though it recommends
the unfortunate traveller to dispose of what little clothing the stripping has left to
provide the two pence for the host.

It is quite possible that the unformulated opinion of the vast majority of people
in this country who are only too familiar with the meteorological vagaries of the
British Isles is that the weather does just as it pleases; that any day of the year
may give youan August storm or a January summer’s day; that there are no laws
to be discovered, and that the further prosecution of so unsatisfactory a study is
not worth the time and money already spent upon it. They forget that there are
countries where, to judge by their languages, the weather has so nearly the regu-
larity of ‘old time’ that one word is sufficient to do duty for bothideas. They forget
that our interests extend to many climates, and that the characteristics of the
eastern shores of the North Atlantic are not appropriate to, say, western Tropi-
eal Africa. That may be a suflicient explanation of the attitude of the man in the
street, but as regards the British universities dare I offer the difficulty of the
subject as a reason for any want of encouragement? Orshall I say that the general
ignorance on the part of the public of the scientific aspirations and aims of meteoro-
logists and of the results already obtained is a reason for the universities to keep
silence on the subject ? With all respect I maysay that the aspect which the
matter presents to official meteorologists is that the universities are somewhat °
oblivious of their responsibilities and their opportunities.

Ihave no doubt that it will at once be said that Meteorology is supported by
Government funds, and that alma mater must keep her maternal affection and
her exiguous income for subjects that do not enjoy State support. I do not wish
just now to discuss the complexities of alma mater’s housekeeping. I know she
does not adopt the same attitude with regard to astronomy, physics, geology,
mineralogy, zoology, or botany, but let that pass. rom the point of view of the
advancement of science I should like to protest against the idea that the care of
certain branches of science by the State and by the universities can be regarded as
alternative. The advancement of science demands the co-operation of both in their
appropriate ways. As regards Meteorology, in my experience, which I acknowledge
is limited, the general attitude towards the department seems to be dictated by the
consideration that it must be left severely alone in order to avoid the vicious
precedent of doing what is, or perhaps what is thought to be, Government work
without getting Government pay, and the result is an almost monastic isolation.

There is too much isolation of scientific agencies in this country. You have
recently established a National Physical Laboratory, the breath of whose life is its
association with the working world of physics and engineering, and you have put
it—where ? At Cambridge, or anywhere else where young physicists and engineers
are being trained? No; but in the peaceful seclusion of a palace in the country,
almost equidistant, academically speaking, from Cambridge, Oxford, London, and
everywhere else. You have:established a Meteorological Office, and you have put
it in the academic seclusion of Victoria Street. Monastic isolation may have its
advantages, but I am perfectly certain it is not good for the scientific progress of
Meteorology. How can one hope for effective scientific development without
some intimate association with the institutions of the country, which stand for
intellectual development and the progress of science ?

I could imagine an organisation which by association of the universities with a
central office would enable this country, with its colonies and dependencies, to
build up a system of meteorological investigation worthy of its unexampled
opportunities. But the co-operation must be real and not one-sided. Meteorv-
logy, which depends upon the combination of observations of various kinds from
all parts of the world, must be international, and a Government department in
some form or other is indispensable. No university could do the work. But
whatever form Government service takes it will always have some of those
characteristics which, from the point of view of research, may be called bondage.

544 REPORT—1903.

On the other hand, research, to be productive, must be free with an academic
freedom, free to succeed or fail, free to be remunerative or unremunerative, with-
out regard to Government audits or House of Commons control. Research looks
to the judgment of posterity with a faith which is not unworthy of the Churches,
and which is not among those excellent moral qualities embodied in the Controller
and Auditor General. Die academische Fretheit is not the characteristic of a
Government department. The opportunity which gave to the world the ‘ Philo-
sophie Naturalis Principia’ was not due to the State subvention of the Deputy
Mastership of the Mint, hut to the modest provision of a professorship by
one Henry Lucas, of whose pious benefaction Cambridge has made such wonderful
use in ber Lucasian professors.

The future of Meteorology lies, I believe, in the association of the. universities
with a central department. I could imagine that Liverpool or Glasgow might
take a special interest in the meteorology of the sea; they might even’ find the
means of maintaining a floating observatory; and when I say that we know
practically nothing of the distribution of rainfall over the sea, and we want. to
know everything about the air above the sea, you will agree with me that there is
room for such an enterprise. Edinburgh might, from its association with Ben
Nevis, be desirous of developing the investigation of the upper air over our Jand;
in Cambridge might be found the author of a book, on the principles of atmospheric
physics, worthy of its Latin predecessor ; and for London I can assign no limited
possibilities. Fr

If such an association were established I should not need to reply to: Professcr
Schuster’s suggestion for the suppression of observations... The: real requirement
of the time is not fewer observations, but more men and women to interpret them.
I have no doubt that the first expression of such an organisation would be one of
recognition and acknowledgment of the patience, the care, the skill, and the public
spirit—all of them sound scientific characteristics—which furnish at. their own
expense those multitudes of observations. The accumulated readings appal. by
their volume, it is true, but they are, and must be, the foundation upon which the
scientific structure will be built.

So far as this country is concerned when one puts what is in comparison with
what might be it must be acknowledged that the tendency to. pessimistic com-
plaisance is very strong. Yet I ought not to allow the reflections to which my
predecessor’s Address naturally give rise to be too depressing. I should remember
that, as Dr. Hellmann said some years ago, Meteorology has no frontiers, and each
step in its progress is the result of efforts of various kinds in many countries, our
own not excluded. In the presence of our guests to-day, some of whom know by
practical experience the advantages of the association of academic liberty with
official routine, remembering the recent conspicuous successes in the investigation
of the upper air in France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and the United States,
and the prospect of fruitful co-operation of meteorology with other branches of
cosmical physics, I may well recall the words of Clough:

Say not, the struggle nought availeth . . .
And as things have been, they remain.

If hopes were dupes, fears may be liars;
It may be, in yon smoke concealed
Your comrades chase e’en now the fliers,
And, but for you, possess one field.

For while the tired waves, vainly breaking,
Seem here no painful inch to gain,

Tar back, through creeks and inlets making,
Comes silent, flooding in, the main.

An 1 not by eastern windows only,
When daylight comes, comes in the light ;
In front, the sun climbs slow, how slowly,
But westward, look, the land is bright.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 545

Official meteorologists are not wanting in scientific ambitions and achievements.
It is true that Professor Hann, whose presence here would have been so cordially
welcomed, left the public service of Austria to continue his services to the world
of science by the compilation of his great handbook, and Snellen is leaving the
direction of the weather service of the Netherlands for the more exclusively
scientific work of directing an observatory of terrestrial physics; but I am
reminded by the presence of Professor Mascart of those services to meteorological
optics and terrestrial magnetism that make his place as President of the Inter-
national Committee so natural and fitting ; and of the solid work of Angot on the
diurnal variation of the barometer and the reduction of barometric observations for
height that form conspicuous features among the many valuable memoirs of the
Central Bureau of Paris.

Of the monumental work of Hildebrandsson in association with Teisserenc
de Bort on clouds, which culminated quite recently in a most important addition
to the pure kinematics of the atmosphere, I hope the authors will themselves
speak. Professor Willis Moore’s presence recalls the advances which Bigelow
has made in the kinematics and mechanics of the atmosphere under the auspices
of Professor Moore’s office, and reminds us of the debt of gratitude which the
English-speaking world owes to Professor Cleveland Abbé, of the same office,
for his treatment of the literature of atmospheric mechanics.

If General Rykatcheff had only the magnificent climatological Atlas of the
Russian Empire to his credit he might well rest satisfied. Professor Mohn’s
contributions to the mechanics of the atmosphere are examples of Norwegian
enterprise in the difficult problems of Meteorology, while Dr. Paulsen maintains
for us the right of meteorologists to share in the results of the newest discoveries
in physics, Davis’s enterprise in the far south does much to bring the southern
hemisphere within our reach, while Chaves places the meteorology of the mid-
Atlantic at the service of the scientific world. Need I say anything of Billwiller’s
work upon the special effect of mountains upon meteorological conditions, or of
the immense services of those who cooperate with Hann in the production of the
‘Meteorologische Zeitschrift,’ Professor Pernter, of Vienna, and Dr. Hellmann, of
Berlin ; of Palazzo’s contributions to terrestrial magnetism? The mention of Eliot’s
Indian work, or of Russell’s organisation of Australian meteorology, will be sufficient
to show that the dependencies and colonies are prepared to take a share in scientific
enterprise. And if I wished to reassure myself that even the official meteorology of
this country is not without its scientific ambitions and achievements I would refer
not only to Scott’s many services to science but also to Strachey’s papers on Indian
and British Meteorology and to the official contributions to Marine Meteorology.

There is another name, well known in the annals of the British Association,
that will for ever retain an honoured place among the pioneers of meteorological
enterprise—that of James Glaisher, the intrepid explorer of the upper air, the
Nestor of official meteorologists, who has passed away since the last meeting of the
Association.

I should like especially to mention Professor Hergesell’s achievements in the
organisation of the international investigation of the upper air by balloons and
kites, because it is one of the departments which offers a most promising field for
the future, and in which we in this country have a good many arrears to make up.
I hope Professor Hergesell will later on give us some account of the present posi-
tion of that investigation, and I am glad that Mr. Rotch, to whose enterprise the
development of what I may call the scientific kite industry is largely due, is present
to take part in the discussion.

Yet with all these achievements it must be confessed that the progress made
with the problems of general or dynamical Meteorology in the last thirty years
has been disappointing. When we compare the position of the subject with
that of other branches of Physics it must be allowed that it still lacks what
astronomy found in Newton, sound in Newton and Chladni, light in Young or
Fresnel, heat in Joule, Kelvin, Clausius, and Helmholtz, and electricity in Faraday
and Maxwell. Above all, it lacks its Kepler. Let me make this clear. Kepler's
contribution to physical astronomy was to formulate laws which no heavenly body

1903, NN

546 REPORT—1908.,

actually obeys, but which enabled Newton to deduce the law of gravitation, The
first great step in the development of any physical science is to substitute for
the indescribably complex reality of nature an ideal system that is an effective
equivalent for the purposes of theoretical computation. I cannot refrain from
quoting again from Plato’s ‘ Republic’ a passage which I have quoted elsewhere
before. 1t expresses paradoxically but still clearly the relation of natural philo-
sophy to natural science. In the discussion of the proper means of studying
sciences Socrates is made to say,‘ We shall pursue astronomy with the help of
problems just as we pursue geometry ; but we shall let the heavenly bodies alone
if it is our design to become really acquainted with astronomy.’ What I take to
be the same idea is expressed in other words by Rayleigh in the introduction to
his ‘Sound.’ He there points out as an example that the natural problem of a
sounding tuning-fork really comprises the motion of the fork, the air, and the
vibrating parts of the ear; and the first step in sound is to simplify the complex
system of nature by assuming that the vibrations of the fork, the air, and the ear
can be treated independently. In many sciences this step is a most difficult one to
take. What student of nature, contemplating the infinity of heavenly bodies and
unfamiliar with this method of idealism, would imagine that the most remarkable
and universal generalisation in physical science was arrived at by reducing the
dynamics of the universe to the problem of three bodies? When we look round
the sciences each has its own peculiar ideals and its own physical quantities:
astronomy has its orbits and its momentum, sound its longitudinal vibration, light
its transverse vibration, heat its energy and entropy, electricity its ‘ quantity ’ and
its wave, but meteorology has not yet found a satisfactory ideal problem to substi-
tute for the complexity of nature. I wish to consider the aspect of the science
from this point of view and to recall some of the attempts made to arrive at a
satisfactory modification of reality. I do not wish to refer to such special applica-
tions of physical reasoning as may be involved in the formation of cloud, the
thermodynamics of a mixture of air and water vapour, the explanation of optical
or electrical phenomena, nor even Helmholtz’s application of the theory of gravi-
tational waves to superposed layers of air of different density. These require
only conventions which belong already to physics, and though they may furnish
suggestions they do not themselves constitute a general meteorological theory.

The most direct efforts to create a general theory of atmospheric circulation are
those which attempt to apply Newtonian dynamics, with its more recent develop-
ments on the lines of hydrodynamics and thermodynamics. Attempts have been
made, mathematical or otherwise, to determine the general circulation of the
atmosphere by the application of some form of calculation, assuming only the
sun and a rotating earth, with an atmosphere, as the data of the problem. I con-
fess that these attempts, interesting and ingenious as they are, seem to me to be
somewhat premature. The ‘problem’ is not sufficiently formulated. When
Newton set to work to connect the motions of the heavenly bodies with
their causes, he knew what the motions of the heavenly bodies were. Mathe-
matics is an excellent engine for explaining and confirming what you know. It
is very rarely a substitute for observation, and before we rely upon it for telling us
what the nature of the general circulation of the atmosphere really is, it would
be desirable to find out by observation or experiment what dynamical and elastic
properties must be attributed to an extremely thin sheet of compressible fluid
rotating about an axis with a velocity reaching 1,000 miles an hour, and subject to
periodic heating and cooling of a very complicated character. It would be more in
consonance with the practice of other sciences to find out by observation what the
general circulation is before using mathematics to explain it. What strikes one most
about the mathematical treatises on the general circulation of the atmosphere is
that what is true about the conclusions is what was previously known from
observation. Itis, I think, clear that that method has not given us the working
idsal upon which to base our theory.

Consider next the attempts to regard atmospheric phenomena as periodic. Let
me include with this the correlation of groups of atmospheric phenomena with each
other or with those of the sun, when the periodicity is not necessarily regular, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 547

the scientific process consists in identifying corresponding changes, This method
has given some remarkable results by the comparison of the sequence of changes
in the meteorological elements in the hands of Pettersen and Meinardus, and by
the comparison of the variation of pressure in different parts of the globe by Sir
Norman Lockyer and Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer; as regards the earth and the sun
the subject has reached the stage of productive discussion. As a matter of fact, by
continuing this Address I am preventing Sir Norman Lockyer from telling you all
about it.

For the purpose of dealing with periodicity in any form we substitute for
nature an ideal system obtained by using mean values instead of individual
values, and leaving out what, from this point of view, are called accidental
elements. The simplification is perfectly legitimate. Passing on to the con-
sideration of periodicity in the stricter sense the process which has been so
effective in dealing with tides, the motions of the liquid layer, is very
attractive as a means of attacking the problems of the atmosphere, because, in
accordance with a principle in dynamics, to every periodic cause there must
correspond an effect of the same period, although the relation of the magnitude of
the effect to the cause is governed by the approximation of the natural period of
the body to that of the cause.

There are two forms of the strict periodic method. One is to examine the
generalised observations for periodicities of known length, whether it be that of the
lunar rotations or of sunspot frequency, or of some longer or shorter period. In
this connexion let me acknowledge a further obligation to Professor Schuster for
tacking on to his Address of last year a development of his work on the detection
of hidden periodicities by giving us a means of estimating numerically what I may
call the reality of the periodicity. The other method is by harmonic analysis of a
series of observations with the view of finding causes for the several harmonic
components, I may say that the Meteorological Office, supported by the strong
opinion of Lord Kelvin, has favoured that plan, and on that account has for many
years issued the hourly results for its observatories in the form of five-day means
as representing the smallest interval for which the harmonic analysis could be
satisfactorily employed. Sir Richard Strachey has given some examples of its
application, and the capabilities of the method are by no means exhausted, but as
regards the general problem of dynamic meteorology harmonic analysis has not as

et led to the disclosure of the required generalisation.

I ought to mention here that Professor Karl Pearson, with the assistance of
Miss Cave, has been making a most vigorous attempt to estimate the numerical value
of the relationship, direct or inverse, between the barometric readings at different
places on the earth’s surface. The attempt is a most interesting one as an entirely
new departure in the direction of reducing the complexity of atmospheric pheno-
mena. If it were possible to find coordinates which showed a satisfactory corre-
lation it might be possible to reduce the number of independent variables and
refer the atmospheric changes to the variations of definite centres of action in a
way that has already been approached by Teisserenc de Bort and Hildebrandsson
from the meteorological side.

Years ago, when Buys Ballot laid down as a first law of atmospheric motion
that the direction of the wind was transverse to the barometric gradient and the
force largely dependent upon the gradient, and when the examination of syn-
chronous charts showed that the motion of air could be classified into cyclonic
and anticyclonic rotation, it appeared that the meteorological Kepler was at hand,
and the first step towards the identification of a working meteorological unit had
been taken-—the phenomena of weather might be accounted for by the motion and
action of the cyclonic depression, the position of the ascending current, the baro-
metric minimum. The individual readings over the area of the depression could
be represented by a single symbol. By attributing certain weather conditions to
certain parts of the cyclonic area and supposing that the depression travelled with
more or less unchanged characteristics the vagaries of weather changes can be
accounted for. For thirty years or more the depression has been closely watched,
and thousands of successful forecasts have been based upon a knowledge of its

NN2

548 - REPORT—19038.

habits. But unfortunately the travelling depression cannot be said to preserve
its identity in any sense to which quantitative reasoning can be applied. As long
as we confine ourselves to a comparatively small region of the earth’s surface the
travelling depression is a real entity, but when we widen our area it is subject
to such variations of path, of speed, of intensity, and of area that its use as a
meteorological unit is seriously impaired, and when we attempt to trace it to
its source or follow it to its end it eludes us. Its origin, its behaviour, and its end
are almost as capricious as the weather itself.

Nor if we examine other cases in which a veritable entity is transmitted can we
expect that the simple barometric distribution should be free from inexplicable varia~
tions. We are familiar with ordinary motion, or, as I will call it, astronomical
motion, wave motion, and vortex motion. Astronomical motion is the motion of
matter, wave motion the motion of energy, vortex motion the motion of matter
with energy, but the motion of a depression is merely the transmission of the
locus of transformation of energy; neither the matter nor the energy need
accompany the depression in its motion. If other kinds of motion are subject
to the laws of conservation of matter and conservation of energy, the motion
of the depression must have regard also to the law of dissipation of energy.
An atmospheric disturbance, with the production of rainfall and other thermal
phenomena, must comply in some way with the condition of maximum entropy,
and we cannot expect to account for its behaviour until we can have proper
regard to the variations of entropy. But the conditions are not yet in a form
suitable for mathematical calculation, and we have no simple rules to guide
us. So far as Meteorology is concerned, Willard Gibbs untortunately left his
work unfinished.

When the cyclonic depression was reluctantly recognised as too unstable a
creature to carry the structure of a general theory Mr. Galton’s anticyclones,
the areas of high pressure and descending currents, claimed consideration as
being more permanent. Professors Képpen and van Bebber have watched their
behaviour with the utmost assiduity and sought to find therein a unit by which the
atmospheric changes can be classified ; but I am afraid that even Dr. van Bebber
must allow that his success is statistical and not dynamical. ‘ High pressures’
follow laws on the average, and the quantity we seek is not an average but an
individual.

The question arises, whether the knowledge of the sequence of weather changes
must elude us altogether, or will yield to further search. Is the man in the
street right after all? But consider how limited our real knowledge of the facts
of atmospheric phenomena really is. It may very well be that observations on the
surface will never tell us enough to establish a meteorological entity that will be
subject to mathematical treatment; it may be that we can only acquire a know-
ledge of the general circulation of the atmosphere by the study of the upper
air, and must wait until Professor Hergesell has carried his international organisa-
tion so far that we can form some working idea therefrom of general meteoro-
logical processes. But let us consider whether we have even attempted for surface
meteorology what the patience of astronomers from Copernicus to Kepler did for
astronomy.

Do we yet fully comprehend the kinematics of the travelling depression ; and
if not, are we in a satisfactory position for dealing with its dynamics? I have
lately examined minutely the kinematics of a travelling storm, and the results
have certainly surprised me and have made it clear that the travelling depressions
are not all of one kinematical type. We are at present hampered by the want of
really satisfactory self-recording instruments. I have sometimes thought of
appealing to my friends the professors of physics who have laboratories where the
reading of the barometer to the thousandth of an inch belongs to the work of the
‘elementary class,’ and of asking them to arrange for an occasional orgy of simul-
taneous readings of the barometer all over the country with corresponding
weather observations for twenty-four consecutive hours, so that we might really
know the relation between pressure, rainfall, and temperature of the travelling
depressions; but I fear the area covered would even then hardly be large enough,
and we must improve our self-recording instruments,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 549

Then, again, have we arrived at the extremity of our knowledge of the surface
circulation of the atmosphere? We know agreat deal about the average monthly
distribution, but we know little about the instantaneous distribution. It may be
that by taking averages we are hiding the very points which we want to disclose.

Let me remind you again that the thickness of the atmosphere in proportion
to the earth’s surface is not unsatisfactorily represented by a sheet of paper. Now
it is obvious that currents of air in such a thin layer must react upon each other
horizontally, and therefore we cannot @ priori regard one part of the area of the
earth’s surface as meteorologically independent of any other part. We have daily
synoptic charts for various small parts of the globe, and the Weather Bureau
extended these over the northern hemisphere for the years 1875 to 1879; but who
can say that the meteorology of the northern hemisphere is independent of that of
the southern? ‘To settle that primary question we want a synchronous chart for
the globe. As long as we are unable to watch the changes in the globe we are to a
certain extent groping in the dark. A great part of the world is already mapped
every day, and the time has now arrived when it is worth while to consider what
contributions we can make towards identifying the distribution of pressure over
the globe. We may idealise a little by disregarding the local peculiarities without
sacrificing the general application. I have put in the exhibition a series of maps
showing what approximation can be made to an isochronous chart of the globe
without special effort. We are gradually extending the possibility of acquiring a
knowledge of the facts in that as in other directions, With a little additional
enterprise a serviceable map could be compiled; and when that has been reached,
and when we have added to that what the clouds can tell us, and when the work
of the Aéronautical Committee has so far progressed that we can connect the
motion of the upper atmosphere with the conditions at the surface, when we know
the real kinematics of the vertical and horizontal motion of the various parts of a
travelling storm, we shall, if the universities will help us, be able to give some
rational explanation of those periodic relations which our solar physics friends are
_identifying for us, and to classify our phenomena in a way that the inheritors of
Kepler’s achievements associated with us in this Section may be not unwilling to
recognise as scientific,

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Simultaneous Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena.’
By Sir N. Lockyer, £.2.S.

2. On the Relation of the Rainfall of Scotland to the Sun-spot Periods,
1855-98. By A. Bucuan, ILA. LL.D., PRS. PRS EL,

3. Etudes sur les Dépressions Barométriques & Diverses Hauteurs.
Par L. Tr1ssERENC DE Bort.

Il y a dix-sept années maintenant que j’ai montré pour la premiére fois que
lorsqu’on construit la carte des isobares moyennes des différents mois & diverses
altitudes, en partant des pressions et de la température au sol, on voit s’effacer la
ae des maxima et minima de pression. Ces aires entourées de courbes fermées

ont place 4 de simples inflexions des isobares qui se disposent en pente depuis les
régions tropicales jusque vers les régions polaires.

Si l’on considére par exemple la carte moyenne des isobares de janvier on voit
que les grandes aires de haute pressions de Sibérie et de |’Amérique du Nord, qui
commandent la circulation sur la plus grande partie des continents, sont déja
trés amoindries a l’altitude de 2 et disparaissent 4 peu prés complétement 4 4,000 m.

’ Printed as an Appendix to the Report of the Southport Meeting of the In
national Meteorological Committee.

550 REPORT—1908.

Le minimum barométrique des Océans Atlantique et Pacifique Nord est reporté
plus au nord en méme temps qu'il s’étend 4 droite et 4 gauche de facon 4 former

won plus une aire limitée en longitude mais une simple zone de basse pression
entourant la terre entiére.

Mais la construction de ces diverses cartes supposait que la formule baro-
métrique qu’on emploie est bien applicable et qu’on connait assez exactement la
décroissance de température avec Valtitude aux divers points.

Lexactitude de la formule employée, outre qu’elle était déja vérifiée par les
observations faites sur les montagnes, a en outre recue une confirmation directe par

{TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 551

les déterminations des hauteurs d'une série de ballons sondes (lancés dans ces
quatre derniéres années & ’observatoire de météorologie dynamique) faites simul-
tanément par le barométre et par triangulation. Le ballon était visé au théodolite
par deux observateurs placés aux extrémités d’une base reliées par téléphone.

La comparaison des deux méthodes a montré que les hauteurs déduites du

NER

U4
a

barométre sont ordinairement exactes jusqu’a 8 ou 10 kil. & =, prés. A une
altitude de 4,000 kil. l’incertitude est donc négligeable.

Quant a la décroissance de la température, son influence est assez grande. Les
déterminations faites en ballon, et en particulier en ballon sonde, montrent qu’elles
varient ordinairement entre 0°45 par 100 m. et 0°90. Pour une altitude de 4,000 m.,
partant d’une température donnée, on obtient une température qui peut. différer
d’environ 8 4 9 degrés, ce qui pour la température de la couche moyenne du sol &

) spat NC
OTN
GaN

Dek ST

4,000 m. correspond & une différence de 4°'5, et introduit une incertitude d’environ
5 millimétres dans les isobares calculées pour la hauteur de 4,000 m.

Mais les sondages par ballon sonde ont montré que ces différences de dé-
croissance sont extrémes et qu’ordinairement les nombres calculés se rapprochent
beaucoup des nombres observés.

Une fois en possession de ces résultats vérifiés par les observations des cirrus,

552 ; REPORT—1908.

je me suis demandé si les isobares de nos cartesjournaliéres ne seraient pas modifiées
notablement &4 mesure qu’on s’éléve dans l’atmosphére.

J’ai donc essayé de calculer les isobares dans certain nombre de cartes typiques
a l'altitude de 4,000 m.

Les résultats ont 6té analogues 4 ceux obtenus pour les cartes moyennes, avec
cette différence notable cependant qu’un certain nombre de minima de pression ont
présenté une plus grande persistance et se retrouvent ainsi sur les cartes des
isobares & 4,000 m.

Nous donnons ici quelques exemples de ces diverses cartes.

:
2

Les vérifications directes des conclusions tirées de nos cartes se trouvent dans les
observations des points d’aterrissage des ballons sondes.

Ces derniers nous montrent que les ballons lancés au §.S.E., E., non loin
d’un centre de dépression, quand ils se maintiennent 4 une hauteur moyenne de 6 a
7 kilométres tombent en un point situé 4 une latitude supérieure et la plupart du
temps en des lieux ot la pression est inférieure & celle du point d’ou ils sont
partis, ce gui montre que la convergence de Vair vers le centre est réelle.

Les ballons qui atteignent une assez grande altitude, 11 a 14 kil., et font un
séjour de quelques heures dans les hautes couches tombent en des points situés sur

Vavant de la dépression et témoignent ainsi qu’il ya un mouvement divergent bien
marqué dans les hautes régions.

Ces résultats sont bien d’accord avec ceux que M. Clément Ley et surtout
M. Hildebrandsson ont mis en lumiére par l'étude des mouvements des nuages.
Mais ils prouvent que méme dans les portions oii le ciel est tout A fait couvert, et
par conséquent l’observation des nuages éleyés ne peut pas nous renseigner, on a
surtout 4 l’avant une circulation convergente en bas et divergente en haut.

Vers le bord des dépressions la divergence & la région supérieure est trés
marquée et les ballons atteignant de hautes couches tombent en des points ou le
barométre est bien plus haut qu’a leur point de départ.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 553

La divergence de l’air du minimum dans les hautes régions est donc trés
accentuée & mesure qu’on s’approche de la zone des pressions plus fortes vers
lesquelles converge l’air supérieur.

Mais le fait le plus intéressant est celui que les trajectoires des ballons nous
montrent dans la partie N.W. et W. des dépressions de nos régions.

Les ballons au lieu de tomber & ’ouest, au S.W. ou au sud de leur point de

départ, comme la direction générale du vent semblerait l'indiquer, tombent au
nord ou au N.W., montrant ainsi clairement que le mouvement de rotation autour
du centre de dépression ne se prolonge pas dans la hauteur.

Ce résultat montre que la dépression n’est pas fermée vers le nord, ce qui est
bien d’accord avec ce que les cartes d’isobares caleulées nous indiquent.

Mais ils montrent en outre que le vent supérieur a Varritre de la dépression
vient du sud ou du S.W.

554 REPORT—1903.

Ces conclusions ont été tout & fait confirmées par un cas oi ayons-nous pu
suivre par des visées de deux théodolites un ballon sonde parti de l’observatoire
de Trappes dans la portion N.W. d’une dépression. — j

Ce ballon aprés avoir marché avec le vent inférieur pendant un certain temps
et jusqu’a une altitude de 5,000 m, s’arréta dans son mouvement vers le S.W.
pour rebrousser chemin et marcher vers le N.N.E., direction qu’il conserva ensuite
pendant presque tout son parcours.

Il a aterri en Belgique. ; :

La carte ci-jointe indique la situation générale des isobares, le matin du lancer
et la trajectoire suivie par le ballon. .

Les observations par ballon sonde et par cerf-volant nous renseignent d’une

isobares vents a OKil. Coupe verticale vents— '*°
10"

CAS ROG gee

— Sol
0 12*
babies -59\= 80
ls AG Bet
ers
220
‘50°%™""\755". 6*
Gs) eh YL
760%" as ae
ae (+5
ea a.
AN 765m" “~_Tsothermes
, = - Coupe verticale

maniére trés intéressante sur la distribution verticale des températures dans les
dépressions et dans les maxima barométriques.

Le point le plus saillant et général dans les dépressions de nos régions est la
rapide décroissance de température dans le corps méme de la dépression jusqu’a
une altitude variable, mais qui atteint ordinairement 7 kilométres.

Le point de savoir s'il fait plus chaud ou plus froid dans la partie basse de la
dépression que dans la portion correspondante du maximum barométrique n’est
pas bien élucidé—il est d’ailleurs dépendant dans une large mesure de la saison et
des circonstances géographiques, En hiver la partie inférieure du maximum est
ordinairement plus froide, parce que le ciel est clair, le rayonnement intense et les
vents continentaux. En été c’est ordinairement le contraire, la pureté du ciel
déterminant un échauffement du sol par insolation, pendant que la dépression

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 555

qui s’accompagne de temps couvert et de pluie empéche le réchauffement du
sol.

Dans ce qu’on peut appeler la région d’altitude moyenne, c’est-a-dire au-dessus
de 4,000 m. dans la région occupée le plus souvent par les alto-cumulus, la
dépression est notablement plus froide que le maximum ; plus haut la différence tend
i s’égaliser, parce qu’alors la décroissance de température devient au moins égale
dans le maximum 3 ce qu’elle est dans le corps de la dépression.

Couches Isothermes.—Un phénoméne particulier que nos observations par
ballon nous ont permis de découvrir joue un réle important dans la décroissance de
température dans différentes situations.

Nos lancers faits de nuit pour nous soustraire aux erreurs provenant de
Vinsolation ont permis dés 1899 d’étudier la température au-dessus de 10 kilo-
métres jusqu’d 13 et 14 kilométres,

Nous n’avons pas tardé 4 reconnaitre qu’d partir d’une hauteur variable avec la
situation du temps, mais ordinairement supérieure 4 10 kil., la température cessait
de descendre, ou méme présentait une légére élévation, avec quelquefois un léger
abaissement ensuite.

D’une maniére générale on arrive 4 une couche ot la température reste & peu
prés uniforme et que pour cela nous avons appelé la zone zsotherme. Cette zone
présente souvent une épaisseur de plusieurs milliers de métres.

Le second fait auquel nos observations nous ont conduit c'est que la hauteur
out on pénétre dans la zone isotherme varie de 8,000 4 14,000 métres au moins.

Cette zone est la plus basse au-dessus des dépressions barométriques, et se tient
@une plus grande altitude au-dessus des maxima de pression et sur le bord avant
des grandes dépressions barométriques.

Tl résulte de ce fait que dans les couches élevées, au-dessus de la dépression, la
température cesse de diminuer & une altitude qui est ordinairement de 10 kilométres,

endant que la température dans les régions de hautes pressions voisines continue
2 diminuer pendant plusieurs kilométres encore.

La température plus froide qui se remarque dans la dépression tend done a
ségaliser avec celle du maximum barométrique et elle finit par devenir
superiéure.

Ce dernier fait est démontré directement par la constatation que les tempéra-
tures les plus froides se trouvent au-dessus des régions de maxima barométriques.

En résumé aprés le tracé des isobares dans l’atmosphére, et d’aprés les mouve-
ments des ballons et les déterminations de température faites avec ces sondages
nous pouvons représenter les dépressions de nos régions sous la forme suivante:

Comme on le voit par la coupe verticale de l’'atmosphére les isothermes se
disposent de facon 4 ce que la température plus basse 4 l’intérieur de la dépression
dans la région moyenne devienne plus haute 4 la partie supérieure.

Tl est bien entendu dans tout ce que nous disons qu'il s’agit des dépressions et
des hautes pressions de nos régions, les seules que nous ayons pu étudier par
ballon et cerf-volant.

En résumé, les dépressions de nos régions nous apparaissent donc comme formées
sur la pente du grand minimum barométrique (voir carte de janvier 4 4,000 m.)
qui a son centre vers les péles et dont le mouvement des cirrus d’ouest 4 l’est, bien
démontré par M. Hildebrandsson, indique toute V’activité.

L’avenir nous apprendra quelle est la nature des perturbations qui se produisent
sur la pente du grand minimum, donnant naissance 4 nos dépressions tourbillon-
naires dont les sondages aériens permettent de préciser la constitution.

4, The Origin and Forms of Hoar Frost. By Kart Grossmann, JLD.,
F.RCS., F.GS., and JoserH Lomas, 4.R.C.S., F.GS.

Hoar frost is produced by the transition of aqueous vapour direct into the solid
state without any noticeable intervention of the liquid state. Under these circum-
stances H,O solidifies in a highly crystalline form. When solidifying from the
liquid state it is only crystalloid.

556 REPORT—1908.

_ The conditions favourable for the formation of hoar frost occur so abundantly
in nature that it is surprising that the forms of natural hoar frost have been until
recently unknown. In 1892 one of us found the walls of an ice cave in Iceland
coated with some remarkably fine hoar frost crystal, of a shape hitherto unknown,
but since then found by us to be the typical and principal form of hoar frost
crystals, viz., hollow hexagonal pyramids.

It was found that the most favourable conditions for the formation of large
crystals are not only moist air at a low temperature. but also a quite undis-
turbed state of the air. For this reason the finest crystals are formed in cayes or,
generally speaking, in closed spaces.

With regard to the forms of hoar frost, the most typical form, as already men-
tioned, is a hollow hexagonal pyramid. It is built up upon a small flat hexagonal
prism, which springs from a solid wall; round its edges a hexagonal step is formed ;
round the outer edge of this, again, another larger hexagonal step, and so forth,
exactly analogous to the hollow salt hopper crystals of the cubic system. Like
the latter, these hollow hexagonal pyramids are the product of the struggle for
attraction of material from the surrounding atmosphere ; the outer edges, having
a wider area to attract material from, grow more than the central portions, which
remain uncompleted. We have thus ‘skeleton crystals’ formed; the centre re-
mains undeveloped, due to the want of material—to ‘starvation.’ The greater
possibilities of attraction are well exemplified by the additional crystal formations
at i outer angles of the hexagons, quite similar to the ‘hopper’ crystals of
NaCl. 5

The crystalline forms are exclusively those of the hexagonal flat-topped prism ;
never has a terminal pyramid nor a hemihedral shape been observed.

A great variety of forms of skeleton crystals can be observed under favourable
conditions ; amongst others, helix-shaped hollow pyramids, analogous to the cubic
helices of bismuth ; also long solid or helix-shaped hexagonal prisms. The hollow
te ae are built of steps of prismatic rings, invariably with a basal pinacoid
ace.

Often a crystal shows needle-like spikes arranged in decided right angles. This
gives the strongest impression of cubic or other rectangular crystals. On careful
examination, however, it will always be found that in such a case we have to deal
with the incompletely developed rectangular faces of the hexagonal prism, such
as we might expect in a skeleton crystal.

A series of micro-photographs and sketches will illustrate this.

The most favourable conditions for the formation of hoar frost crystals and the
best opportunities for studying them are found in the refrigerating chambers as
used extensively in Liverpool, and through the kindness of the large shipping firm
of Messrs, Nelson an excursion and demonstration will be held there.

DEPARTMENT OF Puysics.

1, Discussion on the Treatment of Irreversible Processes in Thermo-
dynamics. Opened by J. Swinpurne, ALInst. C.L.

The following Papers were read :—

2. Note on the Rate of Combustion and Explosive Pressure of Cordite.
By J. E. PETAvEL.

The research of which a preliminary account was given is being carried out in
the physical laboratories of the Owens College.

’ Mr. Swinburne’s contribution appeared in Hngineering, August and September
1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 557

The subjects under investigation are :—The effect of the diameter of the cordite,
of the charging density, and of the shape of the enclosure.

The curves of rise and fall of pressure are for each explosion automatically
recorded, the high-pressure recorder described at a previous meeting ' being used
for this work.

Attention was drawn to the dangerous vibrations which are set up when the
charge is not uniformly distributed throughout the enclosure.

3. Granular and Spicular Structure in Solids. By G. T. Brtxpy,

In a communication made to the British Association in 19012 I drew atten.
tion to certain facts which had apparently escaped the notice of other observers in
micro-metallurgy. It was shown that transparence in metals is not only found
in such specially attenuated forms as thin leaves or films deposited on glass, but
that it is an intrinsic property of the metal even in its more massive forms. It
was further shown that metal surfaces under obliquely reflected light exhibit a
remarkably uniform granular or spicular structure which appears to be quite distinct
from the crystalline structure revealed by the etching methods of micro-
metallurgy.

During the past two years my study of this subject has been continued and ex-
tended, and some of the results have been already published.*

The object of the present communication is to place on record such confirma-
tion and modification of the original observations and statements as have resulted
from the further study of the subject.

The original statements depended on microscopic observations made by obliquely
reflected light with objectives of moderate numerical aperture. This form of illu-
mination can only be conveniently applied with objectives whose working distance
is not less than 5 mm., and whose front lens is not very large. It was therefore
desirable that the observations by obliquely reflected light should be supplemented
by others in which different methods of illumination could be employed.

A study was made of films of metal which were thin enough to transmit light
freely. By transmitted light, if such films are not too thin, they show a distinct
granular texture, as if the substance had been partly gathered up into minute
mounds. By alternately illuminating one of these films by transmitted and by
obliquely reflected light it is seen that the structure which is granular by one
light is spicular by the other; the spicular appearance, therefore, is caused by a
granular texture. The slightness of this texture is shown by the fact that it is
visible in oblique light in metal films which are less than 10 pp in thickness.

By a parallel study of the surface-layer in metals in their more massive forms
it was found that this layer is in many respects distinct from the mass which it
covers, being in its structure and properties similar to the thin films deposited on

lass.
The character of the material on which the film is supported has a considerable
influence on the appearance by obliquely reflected light. In the case of massive
metal the opaque highly reflecting under-surface adds a light and colour to the
spicular appearance which is absent in that of the thin glass-supported films. But
if due allowance is made for this the correspondence between the appearance of
the two, the surface layer and the thin film, is so exact as to leave no doubt as to
the identity of the structure which causes this appearance.

The transparence of thin films of metal was studied by Faraday, and some of
his conclusions have been confirmed by subsequent observers. His very remark-
able observations on the effect of heat annealing on thin films appear to have
dropped out of sight. The subject has been studied by me with the help of lenses
of a resolving power much greater than any which could be obtained in Faraday’s

‘See Report, British Association, Glasgow, 1901, p. 768, and Phil. Mag. vol. iii.
p. 461, 1902.
* Report, 1901, p. 604. 3 Proc, Roy. Soc. vol. 1xxii. No, 481.

558 REPORT—1903.

time. The results of these recent observations confirm and extend Faraday’s con-
clusions, and it is believed that they also supply an answer to certain questions
which he raised.

The condition of the greatest opacity is found in metal films which are in a
state of strain, and the condition of greatest transparence is found in films which
have been relieved from strain by annealing, Contrary, therefore, to the generally
accepted idea, the metal in gold leaf is in its most opaque condition.

Increase of transparence in metals is accompanied by diminution of reflecting
power, and vice versa. This effect can be seen most distinctly in translucent films,
but it is also quite evident in the surface of the more massive forms of metal.
Films of gold and of platinum 200 pp in thickness have been obtained which are
translucent and optically continuous. Films less than 10 pp in thickness have also
been made which appear to be equally continuous and are perfectly transparent.
The thinner films are practically without metallic reflecting power, while even in
the thicker films the reflection is distinctly inferior to that of gold leaf.

The process of annealing has been watched on the surface of metal, and the
phenomena were found to be similar in kind to those which occur in films sup-
ported on glass or mica. In surface films also the increase of transparence was
well marked, and the return of the metal to the more lustrous but less transparent
condition of burnishing was evident.

From the study of the phenomena observed in cutting, polishing, burnishing, and
annealing I have been led to the conclusion that the disturbance caused by these
operations temporarily confers a degree of freedom upon the molecules of the
surface layer which enables them to act like a viscous fluid subject to the influence
of the molecular forces as they manifest themselves in surface tension. The
dimensions and the forms of the grooves, ridges, and granules on the surface give
a general indication that the layer affected by this freedom and by the surface
tension is many molecules in depth.

It appears probable that the granular structure of the surface is largely a
result of surface tension. A similar structure can readily be developed in a very
thin film of a viscous fluid. If a little oil is spread on a slip of glass and then
almost completely wiped off, so that it is barely visible to the unaided eye, a
granular film is produced which gives a well-marked spicular appearance by
obliquely reflected light. A film of varnish on a non-reflecting support shows
the same structure. A thin film of fuchsin on glass shows a structure and a play
of colour which might almost be mistaken for that of a feebly reflecting gold
film. Films of oxide or sulphide on metal surfaces show the spicular appearance
very brilliantly.

This surface granulation appears to be almost universal, and I have never
failed to produce it in any solid with which I have experimented.

Granular or spicular structure seems to be closely associated with the deposi-
tion of solids from solution. It is seen in thin films of metal deposited either
chemically or electrolytically. In precipitates formed in very dilute solutions,
there are three stages in the appearance of the solid: (1) spicules or spicular films
of extreme thinness, (2) granules, and (8) crystals. Spicules may be formed
singly ; but they often result from the breaking up of the thin films which are
formed at the surface of contact of the two reagents. Their pedetic movements
lead to their agglomeration into granules which sink to the bottom of the con-
taining vessel, where they become centres of attraction to the moving spicules and
grow by their absorption. Till the granule has reached a certain size and mass it
shows no indication of crystalline form or structure, and its form remains, under
the control of surface tension, rounded and granular. When a certain size is
reached the crystallic force begins to assert itself and to overpower surface tension,
and the rounded form begins to develop faces and angles till finally a well-
developed crystal is produced.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 559

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS.

The following Papers were read :-—

1. On the Differential Invariants of Surfaces and of Space.
By Professor A. R. Forsytu, 7.2.5.

2, On Spherical Curves. By Haroutp Hinton, M.A.

If the stereographic projection of a curve on a sphere from any point is a
rational algebraic curve, so is its projection from any other point. One projection
is derived from another by an inversion followed by a reflexion in a straight line.
In general the projection of such a spherical curve is a plane curve intersecting
the line at infinity only in a multiple point at each circule. If the plane curve is
of the n-th degree, the spherical curve is said to be of the n-th degree. If it has
8 nodes and x cusps, touches r great circles in two distinct points, and has z great

‘ 1
circles of curvature, then m= gt —28—3k, n= m(m — 1)—27—81, t= > n(n — 2)
~

—63— 8x, «= 3m (m—2)—6r—8. The deficiency is AG ~2)?—3—n. The foci of

a spherical curve (i.e. the intersections of generating lines which touch the curve)
are (m—n)? in number, m—n being real, and project into the foci of the pro-
jection of the curve. Every focus of a spherical curve is a focus of its evolute.

Very many properties of spherical curves may be deduced from known
properties of plane curves, and wice versa; the simplest cases are the circle and
the spherical quartic with zero deficiency. For instance :—‘ If three small circles
are drawn passing through the cusp of a spherical quartic and touching the curve, a
circle can be drawn through the focus and their other three points of intersection.’

Some striking theorems can be proved for the real intersections of a real cone
and asphere. If the vertex of the cone lies outside the sphere, we can by two
projections reduce the curve to the intersection of a sphere and a cylinder ; if the
vertex lies inside the cone, we can reduce the curve to the intersection of a sphere
and a cone whose vertex is at the centre of the sphere. In either case we can
deduce properties of a spherical curve of the 2p-th degree which lies on a cone by
means of known properties of plane curves of the p-th degree. If the vertex of
the cone is at the centre of the sphere, properties of the curve may be derived
from the fact that the equation of the cone may be put into the shape

Ox ay ay... ap $y (a? +y? + 2”) Bi Bo. « Bp-at Qe (V7 FY +2") "yy Yar ee Yt vey

where the a’s are constants and the a’s, §’s, y’s are real linear functions of 2, y, z.
The foci of the intersection of the sphere and the reciprocal cone are the 2p poles
of the great circles in which the planes a,=a)= ... =a,=0 intersect the sphere.

Projecting on to the plane we have properties of a curve which is its own
inverse with respect to a circle whose centre is real, and whose radius is real or
purely imaginary. In particular many interesting properties of bicircular quartics
whose four real foci are concyclic may be obtained. For example: ‘If P is any
point on a bicircular quartic whose four real foci S, 8’, H, H’ lie on a circle, and
are such that the lines SS’, HH’ meet inside the circle, the circles SPS’, H PH’
make equal angles with the tangent at P.’

To many of the properties of spherical curves correspond properties of curves on
a conicoid. To obtain these we project stereographically from the sphere on to a
plane, project orthogonally on to another plane, and then project stereographically
on toa suitable conicoid. For example: ‘ If two curves of the fourth degree on an
ellipsoid both touch the generating lines through four given real coplanar points,
the tangents at a point of intersection of the curves are parallel to conjugate

diameters of the indicatrix at that point.’

560 REPORT—1908.

3. The Use of Tangential Coordinates.' By R. W. H. T. Hupson.

There are two reasons why it is advisable that a greater use should be made
of tangential co-ordinates in elementary analytical geometry. From an educa-
tional point of view they are useful in drawing out the student’s power of deduc-
tion, and exciting his interest in a way in which the long and difficult problems,
with which our text-books are crowded, fail to do; and, secondly, there are many
theories which find their most natural expression in these coordinates, chiefly
because the absolute has a less specialised form in tangential than in point co-
ordinates. For example, it is an easy exercise to express the equation of a circle
in the form

k(2? + m?) + (Gl + Fm+C)?=0;
and then, from this, the whole projective theory follows clearly. Again, to take
examples from more advanced parts of the subject, the foct of the curve

p(l, m, n) =0
are given by the roots of the equation
p(l, 7, —2)=0,

where s=2+ty. The centre of a curve of class v is best defined as the polar
point of the line at infinity, and has for equation

0”-1p/On -1=0,

From this the property of being the centroid of the points of contact of parallel
tangents follows without further analysis.

Great clearness is introduced into the theory of averages in connection with
areas and volumes by the exclusive use of tangential coordinates. The equation
of the nzdl-conic of an area is

J [fix + my +n)? dv dy=0,

which may, by proper choice of axes and use of the notation of averages, be
written in the form

2? a? + my? +n? =0.

Then the ellipse of gyration is the confocal
I? y? + m22 —n? =0,

and the ellipse of inertia is the conic conjugate to the null-conic
Px? + my? —n? = 0.

Finally, the surface of floatation is a good instance, In this case, as in other
cases of approximation, it is well to take the standard equation of a plane to be
s+n=le + my
so that s and are small quantities of the second order; and then the plane equa-
tion of the surface takes the elegant form—
= [fv + my)? dx dy =0,

the integral extending over the section of floatation and V being the yolume
immersed,

2n+

1 Math. Gazette, No. 42, Dec. 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 561

4. The Determination of Successive High Primes.
By Lieut.-Colonel A. Cunnincuam, 2.L., and H. J. Woopatt.

5. Algebraic Curves on Kummer’s 16-nodal Quartic Surface.
By R. W. H. T. Hupson.

The-chief difticulty in studying algebraic curves traced on a surface is due to
the fact that such a curve is in general not the complete, but only a partial, inter-
section with another surface, and|is, therefore, not representable by only one
algebraic point equation in addition to that of the first surface. When the
surface can be represented parametrically by means of known functions, a single
equation in the two parameters is sufficient to determine the curve, and its proper-
ties follow from the known properties of the functions. M. Georges Humbert has
proved that every algebraic curve on Kummer’s surface can be represented by
equating to zero a certain kind of theta function.1 When certain fundamental
theorems concerning theta functions have been proved, many important geo-
metrical theorems follow immediately. There are two objections to this pro-
cedure. The geometrician who has but a slight acquaintance with transcendental
analysis finds the excursion into the realms of hyper-elliptic functions troublesome,
and, on the other hand, the arithmetician has doubts as to whether the said
fundamental theorems have ever been rigorously proved, ‘The purpose of the
present paper is to remove both these objections.

The matrices

Td Guachnid OL By lve
6-a d-c at Yin he
d e-b-—-a Ste eG rey
-e d a-b té-y -% —v

are obviously orthogonal; they are as familiar as quaternions. The rows of the
first are transformable into each other by the operators of a group, and, similarly,
the columns of the second are related to another group of four operators, iso
morphic with the former, The product of these matrices is an orthogonal matrix
of sixteen linear forms, containing in itself the whole theory of Kummer’s con-
‘figuration of sixteen points and sixteen planes; it is associated with a group of
sixteen members, the product of the two preceding groups, which eaplains the
existence of the configuration.

The theorem which, it is suggested, may replace Humbert’s is as follows:
Every algebraie curve on Kummer’s surface is representable by an equation—homo-
geneous and possessing a certain kind of rsobarity in the square-roots of these six-
teen linear forms. If such an equation is squared, the result can be rationalised
by the aid of the equation of the surface ; whence follows the well-known theorem
that along every algebraic curve an algebraic surface can be inscribed; other
theorems follow in a like elementary and algebraic manner.

Sus-section ASTRONOMY AND METEOROLOGY.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Emploie de VHygrométre & Cheveu au lieu du Psychrometre.
By Horratsu J. M. Pernrer.

* Lionville’s Jour. ser. 4, vol, ix. (1898).
1903. 00

562 ~ REPORT—1908.

2. Was the ‘New’ Star in Gemini Shining Previously as a veri) Faint Stan ?
By Professor H. H. Turner, D.Sc., F.R.S.

1. Of about eighteen stars recorded as ‘new’ in the annals of astronomy, only
one (Z' Corona) is known to have existed previously as a faint star which suddenly
blazed out into prominence. But our records are so incomplete, especially for stars
at all faint, that any or all of the eighteen may have been shining as faint stars

revious to their blazing up. Since the introduction of photography our records

ave been more complete, and of several new stars discovered within the last dozen
years it is known that they cannot have been so bright as the eleventh magnitude
before the outburst ; but still they may have been fainter. No photographs happen
to have been taken, of the region where they appeared, with sufficiently long
exposure to show very faint stars.

2. A ‘new’ star in the constellation Gemini was discovered at Oxford on
March 24 last, and from the splendid photographic records kept at the Harvard
College Observatory it was found that the star had been shining brightly since
March 6, at least. By great good fortune two photographs of the region where it
appeared, showing stars so faint as the fifteenth or sixteenth magnitudes, had
been secured just previously, one by Dr. Max Wolf of Heidelberg, on February 16,
and another by Mr. Parkhurst, of the Yerkes Observatory, on February 19. Both
these show a faint object very close to, if not actually at, the place of the Nova.

3. Copies of these photographs have kindly been sent to Oxford and carefully
measured at the University Observatory. The place found for the faint object
differs from that found for the Nova by the following quantities :—

R.A, Dec.
Max Wolf, Feb. 16 . F a . —48 —27
Parkhurst, Feb. 19 . : : . —6:3 +15

These results leave the question of identity somewhat doubtful. Although
the plates agree in indicating a rather large discrepancy in R.A., the images on
both plates are of such a character that the differences may be accidental ; witness
the discrepancy in declination. Dr. Max Wolf’s plate is on a small scale, and was
magnified five times before measurement; on Mr. Parkhurst’s plate the stars are
near the edge of the plate. The details will be published in the ‘ Monthly Notices’
of the Royal Astronomical Society.

4, The emphatic suggestion of the result is that we must obtain much more
complete records, on a larger scale and showing fainter stars, before we can hope
to establish these important questions of identity. Large scale is even more
important than in spectroscopic work, for in the latter we get help from the
grouping of lines, while with a star all depends on a single coincidence,

3. Sur la Circulation générale de 0 Atmosphere.
Par H. H. Hitprsranpsson.

Pour étudier le mécanisme de l’atmosphére, soit dans son ensemble soit dans les
régions cycloniques et anticycloniques, il faut d’abord, et indépendamment de toute
théorie préconcue, chercher a déterminer avec précision ce qui se passe actuelle-
ment dans l’atmosphére, c’est-i-dire constater par des observations directes quels
sont les mouvements de l’air non seulement a Ja surface terrestre, mais aussi dans
les régions les plus hautes de l’atmosphére. Déji en 1872 Clement Ley a com-
mencé & observer pour ce but le mouvement des nuages supérieurs. I] avait fait
plus de 600 observations sur les mouvements des cirrus, et en les insérant sur les
cartes synoptiques des jours correspondant il a pu démontrer le premier que lair
en haut s’éloigne en général du centre d’une dépression. L’année suivante j’ai
réussi 4 organiser en Suéde un réseau de stations pour Vobservation des mouve-
ments des nuages, et peu de temps aprés j’ai réussi 4 determiner avec une précision
assez grande les mouvements de lair 4 différentes hauteurs dans les minima et les

maxima barométriques.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 563

Grice au concours de mes collégues dans presque tous les pays civilisés du
monde, et au travail organisé par le comité météorologique international, des
masses d’observation de ce genre sont enregistrées pendant les trente années
suivantes, et j’ai essayé 4 présent a calculer les mouvements moyens de lair d diffé-
rentes hauteurs au-dessus des différentes parties du globe terrestre. Toutes les
représentations des mouvements généraux de l’atmosphére publiées jusqu’ici sont
des résultats de considérations théoriques. On a connu assez bien les vents
régnant 4 la surface terrestre, grice aux travaux d’un Maury, d'un Brault et
d’autres, mais sauf quelques observations sur les contre-alizés, faites 4 quelques
points isolés, on a ignoré presque complétement les courants supérieurs de
Yatmosphére. Sur ces courants on a di faire des hypothéses plus ou moins
heureuses, en se fondant sur deux principes fondamentaux :

1°. La température de l’air va en décroissant de l’équateur aux poles; or il
doit constamment exister un vent supérieur ou courant équatorial, soufllant de
Véquateur aux péles, et un vent inférieur ou courant polaire, soufflant des poles &
l’équateur.

2°. Quelle que soit la direction suivie par un courant atmosphérique, la
rotation terrestre dévie ce courant 4 droite dans l’hémisphére boréal, & gauche
dans l’hémisphére austral.

1 Le premier principe fut énoncé par Halley en 1686 et l’autre par Hadley en
35.

La théorie sur la circulation générale de l’atmosphére adoptée jusqu’ici fut ex-
posée par feu James Thomson la séance de 1l’Association Britannique en 1857,
Tl admet au-dessus de chaque hémisphére deux courants principaux superposés.
L’air qui monte en haut au-dessus des environs de l’équateur marche comme
courant supérieur jusqu’aux environs du cercle polaire et retourne comme courant
polaire inférieur vers l’équateur. Cependant les observations ayant montré qu’il
regne en général 4 la surface terrestre dans les zones tempérées des vents du S.W.,
il admet que ces courants n’appartiennent qu’d une couche mince formant une espéce
de courant de réaction entre le courant boréal et la surface terrestre. Tous les
trois courants ainsi superposés auraient une déviation vers l’est et serait S.W.,
N.W. et S.W. Evidemment on pourrait croire que le courant polaire serait un
vent du N.E., selon la théorie de Hadley ; mais Thomson admet qu'il est dévié vers
Vest, ‘in virtue of a revolutional momentum brought from equatorial regions, and
not yet exhausted,’

Ferrel a, comme on sait, construit théoriquement trois circulations générales
de Yatmosphére, dont la derniére de 1889 ne différe de celle de James Thomson
que par quelques détails peu importants.

Cette théorie a été en général adoptée jusqu’d présent. Mais on peut bien se
demander, comment est-il possible que trois courants réguliers puissent se former
de cette maniére dans une couche dont |’épaisseur en comparaison avec l’étendue
horizontale est si petite qu’on peut bien le comparer avec une feuille de papier ?
Pour trouver directement sans aucune théorie concue d’avance quels sont les
mouvements vrais des courants atmosphériques nous avons caleulé toutes les
observations des mouyements des nuages recueillies depuis trente années. Voici
les résultats.

Zone Tropicale.—Les observations de la zone tropicale font toutes voir que les
courants atmosphériques y sont 4toute hauteur et presque sans exception dirigés
de lest & J’ouest.

Zone des Alizés.—On a admis que le contre-alizé est dirigé partout du S.W.
au nord, et du N.W, au sud de l’équateur, et on a prétendu, comme nous venons
de le voir, qu’il est prolongé dans les régions supérieurs jusqu’a vers le cercle

olaire. Des excellentes observations faites 4 Mautice, trés bien situé au milieu de

a zone de l’alizé du S.E. dans la Mer Indienne, on voit en effet par plus de 3,000

observations des cirrus pendant plus de vingt années que le contre-alizé y est

constamment du N.W. Il est done probable que ce vent supérieur souffle du

S.W. au-dessus du milieu de la zone des alizés de l’hémisphére boréal. Mais

Tidée que ce courant continuerait comme courant supérieur du S.W. jneaeey
00

564 REPORT—19038.

cercle polaire est erronée. En effet, le contre-alizé est, comme tous les vents de
Vhémisphére boréal, dévié 4 droite, et aux limites polaires des alizés il est devenu
déja un vent d'ouest. La marche des cirrus en hiver est de W. 15°S. au-dessus de
Ténériffe, et presque toujours de l’ouest 4 San Fernando, situs a peu prés a la créte
du maximum barométrique du tropique de Cancer. La direction des cirrus est
aussi 4 peu prés de V’ouest 4 Lisbonne, et les observations toutes récentes des
Acores semblent donner le méme résultat.

Les alizés et les hautes pressions aux tropiques, par lesquelles ils sont causés,
ont, comme on sait, une oscillation annuelle, se déplacant toujours avec le soleil
du nord au sud et vice versa. Ainsi une large bande au nord de |’équateur ther-
mique est couverte en hiver par l’alizé de N.E. et en été par la zone descalmes aux
vents de l’est tropicaux. En haut il régne ici tantdét le contre-alizé de S. W., tantét
le courant tropical de l’est. C'est la région des moussons supérieures. Cela est
démontré par les observations du square 39 sur l’Océan Atlantique, de Mexique,
de la Havane (Cuba), de Manille (Philippines), etc.

Zones Tempérées.—Le réy. P. Mare Decheverens a démontré le premier en
1885 que la direction moyenne des nuages supérieurs est constamment de Youest
dans les parages de Shanghai, en Chine, et la méme année nous avons trouvé la
méme chose pour |’Kurope.

Depuis ce temps nous disposons d’une quantité trés grande d’observations des
différentes parties de la zone tempérée de l’hémisphére boréal. Partout, en
Amérique, en Europe, en Sibérie, en Chine et en Japon, ¢ régne partout en moyenne
un courant supérieur de Vouest & Test pendant tous les mois de Tannée. Pour
plusieurs stations nous ayons des observations et des vents et des directions des
différentes espéces de nuages flottant 4 des hauteurs différentes. Alors on voit
avec surprise que les grands courants des moussons asiatiques sont des courants trés
minces qui n’existent plus & une hauteur de 4,000-5,000 m. Au-dessus d’eux
le grand tourbillon polaure de Youest 4 lest existe toujours.

En étudiant de plus prés ce qui se passe dans le sein de ce vaste tourbillon qui
embrasse toute la zone tempérée nous avons trouvé que l’air y semeut de la méme
maniére que dans un tourbillon ou un cyclone ordinaire: lair des couches
inférieures s’approche du centre et celui des couches supérieures s’en éloigne de plus
en plus avec la hauteur au-dessus de la surface terrestre. Pour les régions plus
hautes que la couche ow flottent les cirrus nous n’avons plus de nuage. Cependant
nous avons des observations des ballons sondes qui ont dépassé de beaucoup la
région des cirrus et atteint souvent des hauteurs de 15 4 18 kilométres, commu-
niquées 4 nous par M. Teisserenc de Bort. Il résulte qu’en haut, jusqu’aux
hauteurs les plus grandes qu’on ait pu atteindre jusqu’ici, l’air est doué d’un
mouvement de l’ouest 4 l’est avec une compogante de nord croissant avec la
hauteur. ri.

Par conséquent les courants supérieurs du sud indiqués dans les systémes
de J. Thomson et de Ferrel n’ex7stent pas au-dessous de 15 4 18 kilométres, et la
masse de Yair qui se trouve plus haut est vraiment trés petite. Jl faut donc
abandonner une fois pour toutes cette idée d'une circulation verticale entre les
tropiques et les péles—circulation qui, comme nous l’ayons dit plus haut, semble
impossible pratiquement dans une couche dont l’épaisseur est trés petite en
comparaison avec les distances horizontales. Espérons que dés a présent ces
‘courants polaires’ et ‘équatoriaux,’ qui ont fait tant de confusion dans la
météorologie dynamique, disparaitront enfin complétement de la science météoro-
logique, au moins dans le sens dans lequel on les a adoptés jusqu’ici.

Mais si dans le tourbillon polaire l’air dans les couches supérieures s’éloigne du
centre nous devons attendre que les courants supérieurs, sortant de ce tourbillon,
envahissent la pente boréale de la haute pression du tropique, qui serait ainsi
alimentée des deux cdtés: par le contre-alizé du cdté sud et par un courant de
N.W. du cété nord.

C'est. précisément ce quia lieu. A la latitude de 40° environ, 4 Washington,
i Madrid, 4 Perpignan, a Pola, 4 Tiflis et au-dessus du Golfe de Perse, partout la
direction moyenne des cirrus est du N. W.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 565

Résumé,
Nous avons prouvé par des observations directes les résultats suivants :

1°. Au-dessus de l’équateur thermique et les ‘calmes équatoriaux’ il existe
pendant toute l’année un courant de Vest.

2°. Au-dessus des alizés il régne un contre-alizé du S.W. sur l’hémisphére
boréal et du N.W. sur l’hémisphére austral.

3°. Ce contre-alizé ne dépasse pas la limite polaire de Valizé: il est dévié
de plus en plus 4 droite sur ’hémisphére nord et 4 gauche sur l’hémisphére sud
pour devenir un courant de l’ouest au-dessus de la créte du maximum barométrique
des tropiques, ou il descend pour alimenter l’alizé.

4°, Les régions situés au bord équatorial de Valizé entrent avec les saisons
tantot dans Valizé, tantét dans les calmes équatoriaux. Au-dessus d’elles il y a
par conséquent une mousson supérieure: le contre-alizé en hiver et le courant
équatorial de l’est en été.

5°. Des hautes pressions des tropiques la pression de l’air diminue en moyenne
continuellement vers les poles, au moins au dela des cercles polaires. Aussi l’air
des zones tempérées est-il entrainé dans un vaste tourbillon polaire, tournant
de Vouest d Vest.’ Ce mouvement tournant semble étre de la méme nature que
celle d’un cyclone ordinaire: l’air des couches inférieures s’approche du centre et
celui des couches supérieurs s’en éloigne de plus en plus avec la hauteur au-dessus
de la surface terrestre jusqu’aux régions les plus hautes dont nous avons des
renseignements.

6°. Les nappes d’air supérieures des zones tempérées s’6tendent au-dessus des
hautes pressions des tropiques pour y descendre.

7°. Les irrégularités qu’on trouve 4 la surface terrestre, surtout dans les
régions des moussons en Asie, disparaissent en général déji & la hauteur des nuages
inférieures ou intermédiaires,

8°. Il faut abandonner complétement cette idée d’une circulation verticale
entre les tropiques et les pédles de la maniére admise jusqu’i présent selon
J, Thomson et Ferrel.

4. Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means
of Kites.—See Reports, p. 31.

5, Results of the Exploration of the Air with Kites at Blue Hill Observatory,
Mass., U.S.A.. dwring 1900-2, and the Use of this Method on the

Tropical Oceans. By A, Lawrence Rortcu, B.S., WA., Director of
the Observatory.

. The progress of the work at Blue Hill, since its inception there in 1894 until
1901, has been presented annually to this Section of the British Association. The
observations in forty-five flights during 1900-2 have been plotted on the sheets
shown, a study of which forms the chief portion of this paper. Marked inversions
of temperature, accompanied by corresponding changes in humidity and wind-
velocity, are found to occur at all heights, instead of only at the greater heights
observed by aéronauts. An investigation of the decrease of temperature obtained in
twenty kite-flights at Blue Hill, up to an extreme height of 13,000 feet, indicates
that, while the mean decrease of temperature, computed by stages of 1,600 feet, is
slightly greater in areas of low barometric pressure than in areas of high pressure,
yet the rate of decrease of the temperature tends to become less with increasing
altitude. On the contrary, in areas of ,high barometric pressure there appears to
be no diminution in the rate, indicating that at heights greater than 13,000 feet
the temperature of the whole column of air may be colder when the pressure at
the ground is high, than when it is low. During 1901 records were obtained from
the kite-meteorograph in ten flights, the average of the highest points obtained in

566 REPORT—1903.

each of these flights being 7,870 feet above sea-level, and the greatest height being
12,550 feet. Beginning with December 1901, kite-flights, in co-operation with
similar ascents of kites and balloons in Europe, were attempted every month upon
a certain day that was appointed by the International Committee for Scientific
Aéronautics, of which the writer is the American member. During 1902 thirteen
flights were made, of which ten were upon the international days specified.

In two of the flights the upper kites broke away and were lost in the ocean,
but it is probable that the height obtained during one of them exceeded 16,000 feet.
The average height of the flights from which records were obtained is 7,940 feet,
being little more than during the preceding year, but the maximum height of
14,060 feet is considerably greater. The reason that flights were not made on all
the international days was lack of wind at the ground, and sometimes it was
impossible to get higher than the cumulus clouds on account of the wind failing at
that level. Occasionally the strength of the wind at high altitudes was an
obstacle to further progress upward, and caused the accidents already mentioned.
Were it desired to fly kites every day, or with certainty on any pre-determined
day, duplicate kites and apparatus might be installed on board a small steamboat,
which by steaming in Massachusetts Bay could create an artificial wind to raise
the kites or reduce the wind to a suitable velocity.

The possibility of thus becoming independent of the natural wind by flying
meteorological kites from a véssel appears to have been first shown by the writer
in 1901, when he described his experiments to Section E of this Association at
Glasgow. The subsequent successful use of this new method of meteorological
research by European colleagues is related in ‘Science,’ vol. xviii. pp. 113, 114,
The most important application of this method would be to the investigation
of the meteorological conditions above the trade-winds and doldrums, a project
which the author presented to the International Aéronautical Congress at Berlin
in 1902, The accepted theories as to the motion of the upper currents, or anti-
trades, are not sustained by the observations of the movements of voleanic dust
and high clouds,

Moreover, we are ignorant concerning the depth of the trades, and know
nothing about the vertical variations of temperature and humidity over the
ocean, nor whether sudden changes in these elements occur between the trades
and the anti-trades. The author desires to make atmospheric soundings with
kites flown from a vessel between the Azores and Ascension Island, and is
endeavouring to obtain the funds to charter and equip a steamer, believing that
in this way some of the most important problems in meteorology and physical
geography may be solved.

6. Work of the International Aéronautical Committee,
By Professor H. HERGESELL.

Professor Hergesell, als Priisident der internationalen Kommission fiir
Luftschiffahrt, giebt einen Bericht iiber die aeronautische Arbeit, die bisher von
dieser Kommission gemacht ist. Die Kommission, 1896 gelegentlich der Konferenz
der Directoren des Meteorologischen Instituts in Paris ins Leben gerufen, hat die
Aufgabe durch gemeinsame internationale Arbeit die hohen Schichten der Atmo-
sphire zu erforschen. Line ihrer Hauptaufgaben ist die Ausfiihrung simultaner
Aufstiege von méglichst vielen Punkten der Erdoberfliche. Um dieses Werk
durchfuhren waren viele Schwierigkeiten zu iiberwinden. Zunichst galt es
fir diese Auffahrten ein méglichst einwandfreies Instrumentarium zu schaffen.
Ziemlich gelangte man am besten durch gemeinsame Besprechungen, die auf drei
Konferenzen der Kommission, 1898 zu Strassburg, 1900 zu Berlin und 1902 zu
Berlin, abgehalten wurden. Die Sitzungsberichte finden sich in den offiziellen
Berichten, die von dem Prisidenten der Kommission veréffentlicht worden sind.

Professor H. Hergesell concluded his remarks as follows :—

In making prominent at this place the development of our studies, I do so in
the hope that Hnglish meteorologists also will take part in our experiments, I

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 567,

have already mentioned the occasional ascents conducted by Mr, Alexander with
unmanned balloons, but I hope that we shall likewise have the permanent assist-
ance of the great British Empire, The foundation of an aéronautical observatory
and a kite station on these shores is of the greatest importance for our studies.
With the help of ship-motion it would be possible to send up self-recording
instruments every day. I have seen, not without emotion, here in the exhibition,
those classical instruments which were used many years ago by your celebrated
James Glaisher, whom we are proud to have had on the list of our honorary
members. They are to me a sure sign that English science, remembering his
great services, will take a prominent place in our aeronautical investigation of the
upper atmosphere.

7. Photographs of the Orion Nebula. By W.E. Witson, F.R.S.

It is not: possible to produce from a long exposure negative of the Orion
nebula a direct positive which will show at once both the detail in the bright
central portions and the faint extensions. The author has succeeded, by means of
screening off gradually the outlying portions, in obtaining the desired result,
and suggests that the method is in some ways preferable to the method of local
reduction of the original negative.

8. Lightning and its Spectra.
By W.J.S. Locxysr, I.4., PhD., F.R.AS.

This paper consists of a brief reference to the different types of lightning
flashes, such as multiple, band, &e., and an account of the method adopted by the
author in securing their spectra. He showed that by the use of small hand or
stand cameras, with the addition of a Thorpe transparent grating placed before the
objective, not only could the spectra of bright flashes be secured, but an image of
the flash in each case obtained. Two flashes with their spectra were shown, the
latter showing in one case not only bright but apparently dark lines. These photo-
graphs, together with others, were obtained by the author on the morning (3 A.M.)
of May 31, 1903, using in one case a 5 x 4 Cartridge Kodak, and in the other a
84 x 64 Dallmeyer rapid rectilinear attached to a boxcamera. Both spectra, which
resembled each other to a great extent, differed from those secured by Professor
E. C. Pickering. He then illustrated different photographs of the spectra of sparks
in air taken with the same instrument, showing the changes in the spectra as the
air was varied by the addition of small quantities of nitrogen or oxygen, or by
allowing a great number of discharges to occur before analysing the spectrum. A
comparison of these spectra was then made with those of the actual lightning
flashes. The author expressed no definite results of this comparison, as the inves-
tigation was not yet completed,

9. On the Phenomena accompanying the Volcanic Eruptions in the
West Indies. By Davip Burys, C.E.

Armstrong's hydro-electric machine was in its day unrivalled as a source of
high electric power. Faraday ascribed the electricity to the friction of the
particles of water in the issuing steam against the sides of the jet. The author sup-
poses that electricity was likewise created in immense quantity by the friction of
steam and ash against the sides of the vent of the volcano during the eruptions,
and that Mont Pelée and La Soufriére have in their composition beds of low con-
ductivity, so that the mountain becomes intensely electrified, and also the clouds of
steam and ash over them. The two theories that have been put forward of the
‘blast’ are discussed ; the explosive cloud theory is considered untenable, and
calculations are given to show that the gravitation theory of the British Scientifie
Expedition is inadequate. The ‘blast’ is ascribed by the author to the repulsion

568 REPORT—1903.

between the electrified mountain and the similarly electrified incandescent sand ;
and also to the attraction of the mountain for the oppositely electrified cloud
above. The principal cause of death is ascribed to electric shock, and the over-
throw of the cannon and image on the battery hill of St. Pierre is cited as an
instance of destruction that could only have been brought about by electric means,

TUBSDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND Puysics,

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1, Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 33.

2, Note on Carbon and Iron Are Spectra at High Gaseous Pressures.
Ly R, 8. Hurron and J. E. Peraven.

The paper gives an account of a preliminary investigation of arc spectra at
pressures up to 100 atmospheres.

Two points are worthy of note. Firstly, a sharp reversal of the cyanogen
band 3883 in the carbon are spectrum, Secondly, the reversal of a large number
of lines in the ultra-violet part of the iron spectrum.

Incidentally it was found that the discharge of a high-tension alternating
current of large intensity between iron electrodes fills the whole of the partially
evacuated enclosure with a brilliant yellow glow. A study of this glow has shown
a considerable simplification of the iron spectrum.

3. How to Exhibit in Optical Instruments the Resolution of Light into its
Component Undulations of Flat Wavelets, and how to Employ this
Resolution as our Guide in Making and in Interpreting Experiments,
By G. JOHNSTONE Stoney, .A., Hon. Sc.D., PRS.

The present communication is the third of a series of papers on a new method
of dealing with optical problems, based on the fact that, however complex the
light traversing a given space may be, it always admits of being resolved into
components, each of which is an undulation of uniform flat wavelets sweeping
across that space. The chief peculiarity of this resolution is that the components
undergo no change as they advance. This gives the resolution into flat wavelets
an advantage over every other method of resolving light.

The first paper, published in the ‘ British Association Report ’ for 1901, p. 570,
gives a more direct and more easily understood proof of the fundamental theorem
than that which had some years previously been given by the author. The second
paper, of which an abstract is given in last year’s ‘ British Association Report,’ and
which appears in full in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for February 1903, explains
how to construct a reference hemisphere and indicator diagram, which makes it
easy to employ the new method of resolution in the chamber study of optical
problems ; and in the present paper an explanation is given of how to exhibit the
contents of this indicator diagram when making experiments with optical instru-
ments. Thus, in the case of the microscope, the light from the objects upon the
stage has to pass through a stratum of either air, water, or oil before entering the
objective ; and if we conceive the light traversing this stratum to be resolved into
its component undulations of flat wavelets, then portions of these—that is to say,
beams which we may imagine to be cut out of them—enter the objective and are
brought to a focus by it, in an image which may be seen by removing the eyepiece
and looking down the tube of the instrument.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 569

Each optical punctum of this image is the concentrated light of one or of a
small group of these beams; and it can be proved geometrically that the image so
formed is a part of the indicator diagram, and possesses the valuable properties of
that diagram which were explained in the paper read last year. In virtue of these
properties we can, by scrutinising the image seen on looking down the tube, ascer-
tain by observation the directions, intensities, and colours of the component undu-
lations of flat wavelets into which the light, as it travels from the object under
examination to the objective, necessarily resolves itself. This prepares the way
for making and interpreting a great body of valuable experiments.

The full paper will appear in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine.’

4, On the Form of Lagrange’s Equations for Non-Holonomic Systems.'
By Professor Lupwic BoirzMann.

If a system is given of n material points, with the rectangular co-ordinates
Ty» « » Xz, and if between the co-ordinates we have y equations, the system can
be characterised by 3n—y generalised co-ordinates. If some of the » equations
have the form £,dv,+ .. . &,dv,i=0, and if + cannot be reduced to the form
Ap(242,. + + Usp) =, then we call the system non-holonomic of the order r. Then
also at least r equations between the rectangular and generalised co-ordinates must
have the form da, =)dp,+. + »3n-vdPsn—», and Lagrange’s equations are no
longer true. Professor Boltzmann develops the members which must be added
to Lagrange’s equations in this case, and gives a very simple and striking example.
The complete paper will be found in the ‘Sitzber. d. Akademie in Wien,’
Bd. 111, p..1603, December 18, 1902.

5. Wave-propagation in a Dispersive Medium.
By Professor A. Scnustsr, 7. R.S.

6. Discussion on the Use of Vectorial Methods in Physics.?
Opened by Professor O. Henrici, FR.

Contribution by James Swinpurne, J.Jnst.Cl.

Such a question as this does not concern only the writers of mathematical
books ; it is essentially important to physicists. My own unfortunate experience is
probably that of very many others. Coming on the notion of quaternions, or at
any rate of vectors, in Maxwell, one had recourse to Tait. As this was nearly
twenty years ago, Hamilton was not accessible, except in Glan’s German transla-
tion. After working at an idea that promised great. simplicity in the future treat-
ment of electrics, with the notion that it would come into use, I found my trouble
wasted, for Heaviside’s system came along. Then there came all sorts of minor
modifications. I have now forgotten all about both systems, and have no intention
of troubling my head with any of them in future. Until mathematicians settle
among themselves what system is to be adopted, and bury all the others, the
ordinary man will not take up any of them. Working with collections of direction
cosines and differential equations which have a perspective is very tedious. ‘To
follow the meaning of them is great mental labour, and it involves a peculiar sort
of imagination, akin to that necessary for playing chess in a far-seeing way, or
blindfold—a sort of mental imaging. Whether the Cambridge mathematician
pictures these things in his mind, or degenerates into a user of blind mathematics,

* Printed in extenso in the Sitzber. Ak. der Wiss. in Wien, Bd. cxi.
* Professor Henrici’s opening remarks are printed in extenso in the Reports, p. 51.

570 REPORT—1903.

might be left to his own conscience, if he had one, I doubt if ever a Cambridge
mathematician could work either quaternions or vector products blindly, This, in
addition to its simplicity, is a great advantage in either sort of vector method,

But mathematical writers forget that readers are not specialists in their par-
ticular branches ; and if an author has a new notation, or unfamiliar conventions,
the reader simply cannot bother with it. People do not read books; they dip in
and abstract the particular bits of information they want, and if they come across
new conventions, or notation, they cannot read the whole book to find out what is
meant. Mathematical writers, among their other numerous faults, generally omit
to index, and bury definitions in the letterpress, so that they cannot be found except
by reading the book from the beginning. They also forget that their readers do
not spend their whole time at mathematics, and do not keep the subject in a state
of bright polish. An ordinary man, who may be reading physics one hour, and
specifying for sewage pumps or interviewing a town council the next, cannot keep
his head clear about the idiosyncrasies of different writers; they are inessential, and
are a nuisance.

If Professor Henrici can induce a committee of influential mathematicians,
and especially physicists, to discuss the matter and settle what system to adopt,
and stick to it, we may get rid of z, y,and z, and gain simplicity; but as long as
there is continual tinkering there is no chance of the adoption of any system. It
would be better to adopt the worst system than go on as at present. It is for
specialists, not for people like me, to say what is wanted. I may put in a plea as
a possible though ignorant user. I have no religious objection to the square of a
vector being negative. Being an engineer, an ordinary screw is right-handed or
positive ; and for mathematicians there is the corkscrew. I want a system that
fits in with the electric and magnetic circuits, and I want it to make geometrical
sense of 4/—1, Demoivre’s theorem, and the exponential values of the trigonometric
functions and the hyperbolic functions. We do not want several sets of conven-
tions to cover all these points. I do not speak personally, merely as an outsider
representing, probably, many hundreds of physicists. We all want some system—
one system, and only one system.

7. Consideration of some Points in the Design and Working of
Ballistic Galvanometers, By P. H. Powe, B.Sc.

The D’Arsonval type of galvanometer is at the same time one of the most
accurate and one of the simplest of galvanometers, and is exceptionally suitable
for use in the neighbourhood of powerful electromagnets.

A ballistic galvanometer is usually designed to have a certain periodic time
and a certain sensibility; it should be quick-working—z.e. should be able to be
brought to rest quickly at zero after the deflection has been read.

The deflection of the galvanometer is a measure of the quantity of electricity
discharged through the instrument. It is assumed that the discharge takes place
before the suspended coil of the instrument has appreciably moved; consequently
the periodic time must depend upon the time during which the discharge passes,
and can be fixed accordingly. Hence the two data, sensibility and periodic time,
can be easily chosen, the remaining condition being left for further consideration.

Consider a coil whose length is a, breadth 6, mass M, wound with 2 turns of
wire, and suspended between the poles of a permanent magnet which creates a
uniform field of intensity H.

Then, after the impulse has been given,

Mk26= - 06,

neglecting damping (where C is the control), and hence

k?
CG : ; . £ (1)

Time of free oscillation T = 27 A

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 571

From jnitial conditions—
Hnab

90 ie
and hence the deflection
5 HnabQ (2)
max. a7 MEO °

From equations (1) and (2) it is possible to design an ordinary galvanometer ;
the only other consideration is the damping.
Now the retarding couple on the coil due to damping

= (Hnaby 7 (R in C.G.S.)

Introducing this term into the equation of motion,

MO + a +06=0,

and critical damping takes place when

b)? ‘
R= C.G.S. units : ; f pcan aca (33)

In order that the motion of the coil may be effectively stopped by short-
circuiting, its resistance must not be greater than the value given by this equation.
When a deflection is being read, however, in order to render the damping term
inappreciable the total resistance of the circuit must be considerably greater than
this value. This can be readily arranged by suitable connections.

From these equations it is seen that the only method by which it is possible to
decrease the period and still keep the sensibility constant is by decreasing the
control C, If the period is brought down by other means there will be a loss of
sensibility.

In a special case a galvanometer was required to have a very low period with
a fairly high sensibility and quick working, and this investigation was undertaken
in order to obtain a satisfactory instrument.

From calculations founded on the above equations a design was made,
assuming a certain size of coil and shape of magnet, which was sent to a certain
firm of instrument-makers, so that they could inform us of the value of the strength
of the magnetic field in the gap. This was found to be 230 lines per square centi-
metre, and from experiments on the torsion of phosphor bronze strip it was found
that a control of ‘01 would not be difficult to obtain.

Assuming a coil, length 5 cm., breadth 1:72 cm., a control of ‘01 (dyne em.),
a periodic time of 80 secs., and a sensibility of ¢ radiam per microcoulomb (z.e,
4 radiam as motion of coil), then the coil must contain 22 turns of No. 28 wire.

On testing for damping the critical resistance is found to be 7°] ohms, which,
being much larger than the resistance of the coil, indicates that the motion of the
coil could be easily stopped by short-circuiting.

From these results the galvanometer was constructed, and was found to have a
much higher period and much lower sensibility than it had been designed for.
The cause of this was not far to seek, lying in the fact that the copper wire used
in the construction of the coil was magnetic, and it was found that this magnetic
control was very large in comparison with the feeble control of the strip.

To overcome this difficulty various devices were tried, and wire was obtained
from several manufacturers, in the hope that it would prove non-magnetic.
The best results were obtained, however, by depositing copper electrolytically on
a very fine wire. The resulting copper wire was fairly non-magnetic, but so
brittle that it could not be used. To improve the wire it was rolled between
brass rollers and annealed; but in doing so some very fine iron dust floating in the
air of the workshop must have become deposited on it, for it was again found to

572 REPORT—1903.

be magnetic. The attempt to produce pure copper wire was then abandoned, and
in order to reduce the magnetic control a very narrow coil was procured, and by
putting pole pieces on the permanent magnet its field was made as uniform as
possible, since in a perfectly uniform field magnetic particles on the coil would not
produce any control. In order to increase the moment of inertia of the system
a light copper disc was attached rigidly to the coil by a light bone rod.

This arrangement when tried gave satisfactory results as regards sensibility
and periodic time, but did not damp well when short-circuited, This difficulty
was overcome by placing below the copper disc a small electromagnet, which
when excited quickly brought to rest the disc by reason of the eddy currents
induced in it.

There is one point of interest about the method adopted in calibrating the new
instrument. This is done best by the standard solenoid, as the deflections are not
proportional to the quantity of electricity discharged through the coil when the
resistance in the circuit is small. Taking a series of readings, curves can be
plotted showing the relation between flux-deflection for constant resistance and
resistance-deflection for constant flux ; or the three may be plotted isomeirically.
This last is the most convenient method for odd deflections, but when several
readings are taken with the same resistance it is better to plot a separate curve
connecting flux and deflection for each resistance from the set of curves connecting
deflection and resistance for constant flux.

8. On the Use of Capacities as Multipliers for Electrostatic Voltmeters in
Alternating Current Circuits. By Professor E. W. Marcnant, D.Sc.,
and G. W. Worratt, B.Sc.

This arrangement has been devised to enable an electrostatic voltmeter to be
used to measure any alternating voltage higher than that actually existing
between its terminals,

Two capacities having a known ratio are placed in series with each other across
the circuit the P.D. of which it is desired to measure, and the voltmeter is
shunted across one of them. If the resistance of the circuit be very high there
will be an alternating current flowing through the condensers, whose R.M.S, value
for a uniwave is given by

_ EC, Cyp

= jen ae SNOTON,
C,+C, P

where C, and C, are the magnitudes of the capacities in farads.
I is the R.M.S, value of the applied P.D, in volts,
And p = 27 x frequency.

The P.D. between the terminals of C, will be =

Vals Whee
E, .0,+C,.

By adjusting the capacities C, and ©, it is thus possible to obtain any desired
ratio between the voltage at the terminals of the instrument and that on the
circuit.

This relationship has been worked out for a uniwave, which, of course, rarely
exists ; but it may easily be shown that the same ratio between the voltages on the
circuit and the voltmeter holds for all wave-shapes.

There are two conditions which have to be fulfilled to ensure accuracy ;

(1) The insulation resistance of the condenser must be so high as to make the
resistance current very small compared with the capacity current.

(2) The shunting capacity must be large compared with that of the instru-
ment itself.

Hence

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 573

This device cannot be used successfully with direct currents, since though,
theoretically, the voltage distribution would be the same as for alternating
potential differences, the defective insulation of all condensers (unless constructed
with excessive care) allows the charge to leak away, and the actual reading of
the voltmeter depends on the ratio of the resistances of the two branches of the
circuit.

Very high insulation of the condensers is not desirable when they are used with
alternating currents, as an accidental electrostatic charge would be retained and
vitiate the readings.

The two capacities may be combined to form one piece of apparatus. The
condenser is arranged with one set of conducting plates all connected together,
the other set being split into two groups, one of which forms, with the corre-
sponding plates of the first set, one condenser, and the second group, with the
remaining plates of the first set, the second condenser. For high voltages the whole
may be immersed in oil. .

Experiments have bsen made with this device, using various ratios, including
one of 20:1, in which a P.D. of 10,000 volts was measured with an ordinary
500-volt electrostatic instrument.

This method has been previously described by W. Penkert in ‘ Elecktro-
tech. Zeits.’ No. 39 (1898), ‘Eclairage Electrique,’ 17, p. 382 (1898), and ‘Science
Abstracts,’ 1899, p, 294.

SUB-SECTION OF ASTRONOMY AND Mrrroro.oey.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Seismological Committee.—See Reports, p. 77.

2. Hxhibition of Photographs made with the Spectro-Heliograph of the
Yerkes Observatory. By A. R. Hinks, IA.

3, Radiation through a Foggy Atmosphere.
Sy Artuur Scuuster, /.L.S.

In the theoretical explanation of the appearance of dark lines in the spectra of
the sun and the stats a mass of gas is supposed to act on the incident light by
absorption only, When Kirchhoff first furnished this explanation it fitted all the
facts which were then known, and it was not necessary to go beyond the assump-
tion of simple absorption. But difficulties have since arisen. Bright lines are
observed to be mixed with the dark lines in some stellar spectra, and even in
the sun the H and K lines are bright over a great portion of the disc.

According to Kirchhoff's hypothesis a layer of gas in front of a radiating sur-
face can only give bright lines if its temperature is higher than that of the
radiating surface; a supposition which in the case of stellar or solar atmospheres
is not perhaps impossible, but certainly to be avoided if possible.

The presence of bright lines admits, however, of easy explanation if we take
the scattering of light into consideration, which must, to some extent, take place
in a pure gas, and must certainly prevail under the conditions of the condensable
vapour in front of stellar photospheres. The scattering of light acts in a different
manner from absorption, and should therefore be taken into account. I call a
vapour in which scattering plays an appreciable part a ‘ foggy ’ vapour.

The coefficient of scattering (s) is conveniently defined thus: If streams of
radiation of intensity A fall on a plate of infinitely small thickness 2, an amount
of light is scattered by the plate which, per unit surface, may be expressed by
sAh, Of this $ sAd is sent backwards and 4 sAh forward. The amount of radia-

574 REPORT—1908.

tion absorbed is similarly kAh, where x is the coefficient of absorption which is
equal to the coefficient of emission. I shall also write

=(A/1+%+a/%)

if (n/ Pagid 8

We may then express some of the results obtained as follows, the complete investi-
gation being reserved for publication in the ‘ Astrophysical Journal.’

1. A plate of infinite thickness sends out an amount of radiation

Mutcilingy
v.
where R is the radiation of a black body having the temperature of the plate.
Thus if «/s = 4, 1, or 2, (y — 1)/y =°78, °83, or ‘92 respectively.

A great thickness of a foggy vapour therefore does not tend to give a continuous
spectrum, but one of bright lines. The brightest line will be that which has the
greatest emissive power.

2. An absorbing and radiating layer of a foggy vapour placed in front of a
luminous surface of higher temperature may show bright lines as well as dark
lines.

3. The continuous spectrum transmitted through such a layer, if there is no
absorption, has an intensity

2,
2 + st

where ¢ is the thickness of the layer, and A the intensity of the incident light, A
line will be dark or bright according as the intensity belonging to its radiation
value smaller or greater than this.

4, The radiation of the background and the coeflicient of scattering being equal,
the brightest lines belong to the radiations of greatest emissive power. This
explains the absence of the helium line D, from the spectrum of the sun.

5. Under the conditions probably holding in the stars, where in consequence
of lower temperature the ratio of black radiation of the absorbing layer to that of
the photosphere is decidedly greater for the red than for the violet radiations, the
less refrangible rays are more easily reversed than the more refrangible rays, This
probably accounts for the fact that stars are apt to show the less refrangible
hydrogen lines bright, and the more refrangible hydrogen lines dark.

6. If the scattering is due to small particles, so that the short wave-lengths are
much more scattered than the longer waves, the above result may be reversed, and
the most refrangible lines may be those most easily seen as bright lines, This is
apparently the condition which holds on the sun, as the ultra-violet hydrogen lines
do not show as absorption lines in the solar spectrum.

4, Eclipse Observations of Jupiter’s Satellites: a Study of the Ordinary
Observations in Comparison with the Photometric Observations of
Harvard. By Professor R. A. SAMPSON.

5. Solar Prominences and Terrestrial Magnetism.
By the Rev. A. L. Cortin, S.J, FRAS.

The bearing of recent researches by Father Sidgreaves, Dr, Chree, and the
writer upon the question of the relation that exists between sun-spots and terres-
trial magnetism has been to emphasise the general connection of the phenomena, but
to disprove any connection of efficient cause and effect. The results of the

! Published in full in the Astrophysical Journal, November 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 575

inquiries aré moré consistent with the existence of a comition cause, Which affects
the sun and the magnets on the earth. The question, however, was raised some
time since by Professor Garibaldi, and more recently by Sir Norman and Dr.
Lockyer, as to whether prominences may not supply the place of sun-spots in
those cases in which a great magnetic storm is unaccompanied by any spot. The
curve of frequency of great magnetic storms is exactly coincident with that of
solar prominences in high latitudes ; also, sun-spots do not occur in such latitudes.
Hence it would seem that to prominences should be attributed a special eflicacy
in the causation of magnetic storms, But it may be argued, in the contrary sense,
that this coincidence is due to the fact that at times of solar-spot maximum
activity the disturbance on the sun is general, and extends to greater distances
from the actual regions of the spots, both prominences and coronal streams
moving to higher latitudes with the advance of the sun-spot cycle, Moreover, it
is known that the profile area of prominences, and their curve of frequency, con-
forms to that of sun-spots. Hence it would appear that prominences cannot in
general be isolated from sun-spots as phenomena which are particularly active in
influencing terrestrial magnetism. But the question still remains whether particu-
larly large and violently eruptive prominences may not be effective in causing
magnetic storms in the absence of spots. The only method of answering this
question would be to make a detailed study of individual prominences that are in
any way noteworthy, and of the magnetic storms, to see whether any such relationship
subsists. As a contribution to such an investigation, two years have been dealt
with, for which very full observations of prominences have been published by
Father Fenyi, of Kalocsa, with detailed accounts of the larger and more note-
worthy eruptions. The years 1887-88 were also years of minimum sun-spots,
so that it would be easier to trace the connections, if any, which might exist
between prominences and magnetic storms in the absence of spots. A list of
forty-eight prominences was made from the observations, which were either
violently eruptive or distinguished by great displacements of spectrum: lines in the
line of sight, or attained a height of over 100’. It was found that twenty-nine of
these were either immediately associated with spots or facule, or occurred in the
spot-zones, this class including all the metallic prominences. As regards the
magnets, the maximum diurnal range of the declination was measured in each case
from the Stonyhurst curves. On only one of the dates on which a high prominence
was observed was there a magnotic storm, and, allowing three days before and
after each observation of a prominence, there were only nine active disturbances
of the magnets which occurred during such periods. In no single case can a
magnetic storm be with certainty associated with any given prominence, and great
prominences have occurred, with very large displacements of lines and violently
eruptive activity, without any answering swings of the needles. As with the spots,
so too with the prominences, the efliciency in the causation of magnetic storms, if
such exists, is exerted irregularly and capriciously. It is the general disturbance
of the sun and his surroundings which affects the earth’s magnetism, and not any
particular manifestation of spot or prominence,

6. Comparison of the Spectrum of Nitrogen and of the Aurora.
By Dr. A. Pautsen.

On m’a fait lhonneur, pendant mon séjour ici, de me demander de vouloir
présenter i la Section d’Astronomie et de Météorologie de la British Association
une photographie d’un spectre de V'aurore polaire que l’expédition danoise pour
explorer l’aurore polaire a pris pendant son séjour dans le nord d’Islande dans
Phiver 1899-1900,

Avant de vous montrer cette photographie je pense que peut-étre il pourrait
étre utile de faire quelques remarques sur la méthode et les instruments que nous
avons employés et du caractére en général du spectre.

Sur ma demande le gouvernement danois m’a donné des moyens pour explorer

576 REPORT —1908.

Vaurore polaire, phénoméne qui pendant mon séjour au Groenland, il y a main:
tenant 20 années, a attiré mon plus vif iutérét.

Quant au bout de ces recherches, l’examen du spectre de V’aurore polaire était
une recherche du premier ordre. La zone ou se développe les phénoménes
auroraux dans leur plus grande fréquence, leur plus grande intensité et richesse
de forme est loin des observatoires ou on s’occupe des recherches spectrographiques
des phénoménes célestes. L’apparition d’une aurore y est un phénoméne rare, et
Yapparition d’un tel phénoméne pendant quelques heures d’une seule nuit, sous
les latitudes moyennes, ne satisfait pas pour faire des recherches photographiques

de son spectre. Excepté pour la ligne jaune-verdatre découverte par Angstrém,
les longueurs d’onde des autres lignes ne sont pas bien déterminées par des
recherches avec un spectrométre 4 vision directe, Et cela se comprend, be n'est
que la ligne principale qu’on voit toujours quand une aurore apparait; aussi la
longueur d’onde de cette ligne est-elle exactement déterminée, Les autres lignes,
au moins celles qui apparaissent dans la partie lumineuse du spectre, ne se voient
pas toujours. ‘Toujours trés faible elles n’apparaissent généralement que dans
quelques moments pour bientét disparaitre, Aussi la détermination de leurs
longueurs d’onde ditfére tant qu’on pourrait étre porté 4 croire que les différentes
aurores présentent des spectres différents.

A peu prés d’un an ayant mon départ pour l’Islande M. le professeur Pickering
en Amérique avait trouvé par voie photographique deux ou trois lignes dont la
plus intense avait une longueur d’onde de 390 m. environ. M. Pickering n’avait
pas employé pour ses recherches un spectrographe construit particuliérement dans
ce but, ce qui me donna un bon espoir pour mes recherches avec des spectro-
graphes coustruits particuliérement pour la lueur de l’aurore polaire.

Comme spectrographes je me suis servi de deux appareils. Dans l'un des
spectrographes le prisme était en spath d’Islande et les lentilles, non-achromatiques,
en quartz. Je dois aux bons conseils de M, Mascart la bonne construction de cet
appareil. C’est sur la proposition de M. Mascart qu’on a employé un prisme de
spath d'Islande, qui a un grand pouvoir dispersif. Aussi M. Mascart a-t-il trouvé
d’étre bon d’employer des lentilles de quartz non-achromatiques pour éviter la
perte de lumiére provoquée par la réflexion des surfaces des deux lentilles.
Puisque je ne me suis pas préparé 4 Copenhague 4 faire une lecture dans une des
séances de l’Association Britannique je ne puis vous donner la mesure exacte de
la longueur focale de la lentille du collimateur et de celle de l’objectif de la
lunette. La lopgueur focale est la méme pour ces deux lentilles, de sorte que
limage de la fente est de méme grandeur que celle de la fente elle-méme.

Nous nous sommes aussi servi d’un autre spectrographe construit par M. Scheiner
de Potsdam. Les lentilles et le prisme de cet appareil sont d’un flint trés pur,
Le spectrographe de M. Scheiner a une puissance lumineuse plus grande que celui
de l’autre appareil. On peut avec ce spectrographe photographier des lignes
jusqu’a une longueur d’onde aux environs de la ligne O dans le spectre solaire.
Je profite de Yoccasion pour remercier encore M. Scheiner pour cet excellent
appareil. Avant mon départ de Copenhague je n’osais pas a me fier seulement
4 un spectrographe 4 lentilles de quartz, 4 cause du diamétre nécessairement trés
petit des lentilles. Heureusement tous les deux instruments nous ont fourni de
bons résultats.

Les appareils étaient construits de sorte qu’on pouvait toujours diriger par
viser la fente du spectroscope contre le point du ciel ou l’aurore se manifesta avec
la plus grande intensité, Pendant Jes nuits 4’ aurore on était done toujours
occupé 4 tourner le spectrométre. En outre on examinait le spectre des aurores
qui apparaissent aux diverses parties du ciel avec un petit spectroscope de poche,
pour voir dans quelles parties de l’aurore se montraient le plus grand nombre de
lignes.

La premiére fois que nous exposimes les instruments pour prendre des
photographies de l'aurore fut au noél de 1899. Aprés une longue série de
jours & mauvais temps venait une nuit 4 ciel pur; par conséquent nous posimes
les instruments sur place, les fentes cuvertes, Mais on n’apergut toute cette nuit
aucune aurore proprement dit. Vint ensuite une série de jours 4 neige; les

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 577

instruments, qui étaient toujours posés sur un pilier en plein air, furent couverts
d’une caisse. Quand au courant d’une semaine le temps ne s’améliora pas nous
nous estimions pour bon de remplacer les plaques avec de nouvelles. Notre surprise
fut done grande en développant les plaques d’apercevoir quatre lignes dont les deux
étaient découvertes déji par M. Pickering, les deux autres étaient des lignes
nouvelles. Les longueurs d’onde de ces quatre lignes étaient de 426 m., 391 m.,
357 m. et 336 m. environ. On les mesurait par le micrométre de la lunette du
spectrographe en comparant leur position avec celle des lignes de comparaison du
spectre de l’air et de quelques métaux. La ligne de la moindre longueur d’onde
n’était pas provoquée par le spectroscope a lentilles et prisme de flint, et la ligne
d’une longueur d’onde de 336m, n’apparaissait que comme une ligne trés faible
daus le spectre appartenant 4 ce dernier instrument.

Cette provocation inattendue d'un spectre photographique de l’aurore polaire
nous frappa surtout parce qu’on n’avait apergu aucune aurore, si ce n’était que
des traces trés fugitives d’une telle pendant la seule nuit claire dans laquelle les
appareils étaient exposés. Le spectre provoqué par le spectrographe 4 lentilles de
quartz et & prisme de spath d’Islande montra en outre une particularité remar-
quable, savoir celle qu’on avait obtenu par réflexion dans les deux prismes aux
bouts de Ja fente une continuation des lignes qu’on avait obtenues par les
rayons qui avaient entré immédiatement 4 travers la fente. Mais cette nuit le
ciel était d’une clarté particuliére qu’on ne connait que dans les nuits arctiques.
Aussi au Groenland, ot j’ai passé un hiver comme cbef de la station internationale
polaire danoise, au milieu de l’hiver, dans les nuits ow il n’y avait pas de clair de
lune, le ciel paraissait souvent illuminé d’une lueur faible qui permettait de voir
les montagnes 4 une distance de 30 kilométres: dans ces circonstances on pouvait
discerner de petites pierres sur le sol. Cette lumiére de la nuit arctique fait
un contraste remarquable aux ténébres des nuits sous les latitudes basses. Quand,
dans ces circonstances, on dirige le spectroscope vers le ciel on voit la ligne
principale de Yaurore polaire. Cette clarté semble donc étre la manifestation
d’une aurore qui ne se montre que comme une lueur faible repartie sur la plus
grande partie du ciel.

Les quatre lignes surnommées semblent paraitre toujours quand il y a un
phénoméne auroral. La premiére de ces lignes, d’une longueur d’onde de 426 m.,
est située dans la partie violette du spectre de l’aurore; les autres appartiennent &
la partie ultra-violette.

Dans la suite nous avons photographié en tour 21 lignes du spectre dont les
16 étaient inconnues jusque-la. Hors la ligne jaune-verdatre d’Angstrém nous
n’ayons pas pu photographier des lignes d’une longueur d’onde moindre que
de 470 m.

Le temps mauvais pendant notre séjour en Islande, l’abondance des nuages et
le clair de lune empéchaient en haut degré la suite de nos expériences, de sorte
que les spectrographes ont été exposés un temps d’un mois a peu prés pour recevoir
la quantité de lumiére nécessaire pour la photographie des lignes faibles.

En photographiant le spectre de la lumiére bleue-violette qui entoure la
cathode d’un tube Geissler rempli de nitrogéne nous avons constaté une identité
compléte entre les lignes de la partie du spectro-auroral que nous avons photo-

graphié, sauf la ligne d’Angstriém, et les lignes correspondantes dans le spectre
cathodique de nitrogéne. Pour mieux constater cette identité j’ai, 4 mon retour
de V’'Islande, demandé & M. Scheiner de Potsdam de youloir faire des mesures
comparatives des deux spectres avec les instruments de mesure excellents qui sont
4 sa disposition. Le résultat des mesures de M. Scheiner constate parfaitement le
résultat que nous avons déja trouvé en Islande. Ses deux spectres qui ont été
pris par le méme appareil avaient une dispersion une peu différente. En réduisant
le spectre de l’aurore 4 la méme dispersion que celle du spectre de la lumiére
cathodique les mesures de Scheiner démontrent une identité compléte entre les
ae spectres. (Voir ‘ Bulletin de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Danemark,’
01.)

Je vais maintenant vous montrer par projection une image des deux spectres

‘susnommés, On voit sans faire des mesures que la répartition des lignes des deux

1903. ; PP

578 REPORT—1903.

spectres est la méme. Dans le spectre cathodique vous voyez une ligne assez forte
dont la longueur d’onde est de 317 m. environ. Cette ligne ne se trouve pas dans
le spectre de l’aurore polaire. Mais dans ’hiver 1900-1901 M. Ja Cour, qui a fait
toutes les photographies spectrales en Islande, a trouvé cette ligne pendant un
séjour en Finlande. ‘

Le spectre que j’ai l’honneur de vous avoir montré n'est pas le spectre complet
de ’aurore ; nous n’avons pas pu photographier des lignes dans la partie des spectres
dont la longueur d’onde est situé entre A=557 m. et A=470 m. La nature de la
ligne principale d’Angstrém a été inconnu jusqu’d ce dernier temps. Vous savez
que M. le professeur Ramsay, qui a découvert lui-méme le crypton, a constaté

qu'une des lignes de cet air coincide parfaitement avec la ligne d’Angstrém.

7. Discussion on Kite Observations continued.

8. Diurnal Range of the Summer Temperature of the Levant.
By ALEXANDER Bucuan, LL.D., F.RS., PRS EL.

One of the best portions of the sea in which the effects of insolation and
nocturnal radiation on the temperature can be most satisfactorily investigated is
the Levant during the summer months, it being there and then that the sky is
cloudless, or all but cloudless, the air very dry, with little or no rain, and calms
or light winds prevalent, from approximately the same direction.

It was under such favourable conditions that the four magnificent series of
serial temperatures were made in the summers of 1890, 1891, 1892, and 1893
respectively, by the Austrian ship ‘ Pola,’ in the eastern half of the Mediterranean,
at various depths from the surface of the sea to the bottom. These have been
published in extenso, together with the rest of the deep-sea work carried out by
the ‘ Pola,’ in the ‘Transactions of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna.’

The thermometers and the other instruments used for salinity, colour of sea,
&c., were the best that could be procured, and nothing but the highest praise can
be passed on the methods employed and the skill with which the observations were
carried out and printed.

With the temperature observations are also published the hours of the day at
which they were taken, and at the same time the temperature and pressure of the
air, the amount of cloud, and the direction and force of the wind. Hence a novel
and notable addition to science accompanies these observations, viz. the time of
day at which they were made. In truth this observation of time invariably
recorded throughout the four summers presents us with the means of arriving, for
the first time, at a knowledge of the depth to which the sun's heat penetrates so
as to affect the temperature of the water, and also the amount of daily variation
brought about at different depths up to the surface by solar and nocturnal
radiation.

To carry this out two tables were constructed. One table showed the observa~
tions made at those hours of the day which may be regarded as showing the effect
of insolation, and the table for the observations at the hours which may be
regarded as showing the effect of nocturnal radiation. The hours for insolation
were from 2 to 6 p.M., and the hours for nocturnal radiation in the morning till
9 a.M., the mean time of the fifty days for insolation being from 3.14 to
4.30 p.m., and of the fifty days for nocturnal radiation being from 6.30 to
7.45Pp.M. In any one of these 100 cases the least depth of the sea at the place
where the serial temperatures were recorded was 419 metres, but generally the
depth much exceeded this figure, the depth in any case being 4,400 metres.

For the fifty P.M. observations the mean position was 35° 29’ lat. N. and
96° 24’ long. H.; and for the fifty a.m. observations 35° 35’ lat. N. and
26° 31’ long. E. Hence the geographical positions were virtually identical, and
on no particular day was there any material difference between the two positions.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 579

The following are the mean meteorological observations for the days of the two
sets of serial observations respectively :

P.M. AM.

Mean temperature of air (F.) 82:3 78°4

» Cloud (0-10) : 16 si,

» Wind Force (0-12). 21 2:2
5 » Direction N. . 9 8
”» ” ” N.E ® 2 4
” ” ” E. 2 3
” ” ” S.E 2 0
” ” ” 8. 1 2
” ” ” S.W. 6 x
” ” ” W. 8 8
4 4 “n N.W. 18 18
Fr * ‘A Jalms 2 3

The temperature of the air at the time of the afternoon observations was 82°3,
and in the morning 78°-4, the difference, about 4°0 higher, being nearly the
average difference at these times of the day of the temperature of the air over the
ocean where the climate is similar. The amount of cloud in the morning and
evening is virtually the same, and indicates that the observations were taken
under a sky having only a sixth part covered with cloud. The force of the wind
was also nearly the same, the mean force being just a little over 2 on the scale of
0-12, or, say, a light breeze, blowing at the rate of fourteen miles an hour, As
regards the direction of the wind, observations show that nearly the whole of the
winds at this season are west-north-westerly.

The following figures, showing the depths in feet and the temperatures
(Fahr.), present the results of this inquiry in their simplest form :—

Observations
cr See Difference
Morning Evening
io} ° ie}

0 (or surface) 717-4 78°8 14
3 77-2 786 1*4
7 171 78:4 1:3
16 76:8 781 13
33 76°5 717-4 0-9
66 75:0 755 0:5
98 716 719 0°3
164 655 65°4 —-0O1
259 62°6 62°6 0:0
328 60°6 60°6 0:0

Hence in the summer months the sun’s heat penetrates to a depth of about
150 feet. At the surface the temperature in the afternoon is 1°-4 higher than in
the morning, and this difference virtually holds to a depth of 16 feet. At lower
depths it gradually lessens to 0°9 at 33 feet; 0°'5 at 66 feet ; 0°3 at 98 feet; and
vanishes at about 150 feet. Next morning the temperature is lowered to what it
was in the preceding morning, and so on from day to day, the loss during the night
being compensated by an increase of temperature on the following day equal,
depth by depth, to the loss during the night. Thus at each depth the gain of tem-
perature from solar radiation is equal to the loss sustained by nocturnal radiation.

9. Progress of the Magnetic Survey of the United States.
By L. A. Bauer.

In 1899 it was my privilege to lay before this Association the plan, in accord-
ance with which a detailed and systematic survey of the United States had just
Ud 20

580. REPORT—1903.

been inaugurated. This plan, in brief, was to first make a general survey with
stations about 25-30 miles distant from one another, and to occupy about 400-500
stations a year. After the general survey had been completed, additional stations
were to be placed in the locally or regionally disturbed areas developed by the
general survey. On the average there was to be a ‘repeat’ station for an area of
ten stations. A period of ten to fifteen years was expected to be consumed in
the general survey. The area to be surveyed, not counting the adjacent seas,
embraces one-fifteenth of the entire land area of the globe, or an area equal to
that of Europe.

Up to June of the present year nearly one-third of the total number of stations
contemplated for the general survey, viz. about 1,250 stations, have been completed.
Five magnetic observatories have been established—Cheltenham (Maryland), Bald-
win (Kansas), Sitka (Alaska), Honolulu (Hawaiian Islands), and Vieques Island
(Porto Rico). A sixth is contemplated for the north-western part of the United
States. In addition, a variety of miscellaneous preliminary investigations relating
to methods of work and reduction and the standardisation of instruments have
been made, and several publications have been issued. During this year magnetic
work at sea has been commenced on board the vessels of the Coast Survey.
The reduction of the field work has been kept apace with the observational work,
so that the results obtained during any one year are published within a few
months after the close of the year.

With the successful completion of the arduous initial work attendant upon
the inauguration of so vast a magnetic survey, and the systematisation of the
various operations in the field and in the office, and having trained the necessary
observers, we may look forward to the continuation of the work with even greater
rapidity than that of the past four years, and it is confidently believed that the
general maguetic survey will be completed at about the close of the present
decade.

I shall again express the hope that Canada may soon be able to follow the
example of the United States.

The chart exhibited shows the number and positions of the magnetic stations
in the United States up to June 30, 1903.

10. The Earth’s Total Magnetic Energy.| By L. A. Baurr.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. A Probable Relationship between the Solar Prominences and Corona.
By Wiuu1am J. 8. Lockyer, /.A., Ph.D., F.R.AS,

This Paper has already appeared in the ‘ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society’ (vol. lxiii. No. 8, 1903). The object of the investigation is to
suggest that the different forms of the corona are intimately connected with the
latitudes of the prominences. A summary of the conclusions arrived at is as
follows :—

1. The ‘forms’ of coronas may be grouped generally into three classes, here
named ‘ polar,’ ‘intermediate,’ and ‘ equatorial,’ according as the streamers appear
near the solar poles, in mid-latitudes, or about each side of the equator.

2. The sequence of these forms, if sufficient numbers of eclipses occurred,
should be equatorial, intermediate polar, intermediate equatorial, &c.

3. The various forms of the corona are closely connected with the positions
(as regards latitude) of the centres of action of the solar prominences.

1 Published in full in Zerrestrial Magnetism, September 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 581

4. The coronas of the ‘ polar’ or ‘irregular’ type. occur about the times when
the prominences are most abundant near the solar poles,

5. The ‘ equatorial’ coronas when there is ove centre of prominence action
(about latitude + 45) in each hemisphere.

' 6, The ‘intermediate’ type is produced by two centres of prominence action

in each hemisphere, but neither centres near the poles.

7. The peculiar ‘arched’ form of some streamers is produced by the action
of two zones of prominences situated near the extremities of their base.

8. Sun-spot activity has apparently no direct connection with the production
of the coronal streamers.

2. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 56.

3. Electrical Self-recording Instruments.
By Professor H. L, Catuenpar, LF. 2S.

4, Effect of Meteorological Conditions upon Audibility.
By A. Lawrence Rorcn, B.S., IA,

Notwithstanding previous investigations on this subject, the opportunity to
determine the variable influence of a stratum of air 600 feet thick, having a
meteorological station at the bottom and the Blue Hill. Observatory at the top,
caused the writer to institute daily observations of audibility during the year 1901.

The source of sound employed was a steam whistle, distant 2°7 miles on the
plain, which was blown twice a day, and the intensity of the sound at the
Observatory estimated on a four-part scale.

The observations were discussed on the hypothesis that variations in the
intensity of sound are caused by vertical differences in wind-velocity or in tem-
perature and moisture. It is found that differences of temperature and relative
humidity between the two stations had no appreciable effect on the audibility, but
that the variations observed in it could be explained by the action of winds
increasing in velocity with altitude at a known rate, which tilted the sound-wave
over the Observatory when the wind was opposed to the sound, and kept it from
rising high above the ground when the wind blew from the source of sound. Nearly
equal audibility was found for winds blowing at right angles to the above, a
phenomenon that was explained by the late Sir G. G. Stokes to the British
Association in 1857.

Measurements of the velocity of the sound, corrected for the temperature of
the air, showed an acceleration in winds blowing from the whistle to the observer
which approximately equalled the known speed of the air stratum. This investiga-
tion will be published in the ‘ Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard
College,’ vol. xliii, Part III.

5. On some Rainfall Problems. By Huan Rosert Mitt, D.Se., LL.D.

Tn attempting to ascertain the distribution of mean rainfall over a large area it is
necessary to make allowance for the unequal height of the receiving surface of the
rain-gauges above the ground, for the irregular distribution of rain-gauges over the
country, and for the different lengths of the records from the various stations.
When the object is to ascertain the distribution of rainfall for any given day or
month, the hour of reading the rain-gauge and the method of entering the
result have to be ascertained, and varying methods adjusted to a common standard.
The determination of the distribution of rainfall for a given year involves less

582 REPORT—19038.

uncertainty, as any difference of hours of reading or date of entering is proportion-
ally smaller.

In the special case of charting the annual rainfall of the British Isles for a
given year the most serious difficulty is the absence of observations from certain
areas ; in charting the mean rainfall the further difficulty is superadded of the un-
equal duration of the records. Various methods of overcoming these difficulties
are put forward, and maps exhibited showing the distribution of rain-observing
stations at work in 1902 in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 383

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor WALTER Nort Harrtey, D.Sc.,
F.R.S., F.R.8.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The"President delivered the following Address :—

Tue ofttimes laborious method of investigating the relationship of substances by
ascertaining how one form of matter can operate upon another, in other words by
chemical reactions, has of late been supplemented by the examination of their phy-
sical properties, and has been extended to compounds, both organic and inorganic.
in several directions this has led to results of very uncommon interest. Accordingly
I propose to offer a brief account of twenty-five years’ experimental work in that
branch of chemical physics which deals with the emission and absorption of rays
of measurable wave-length, and to review its present position chiefly in relation
to the theory of chemistry, indicating where it may be usefully and profitably
extended.

According to Davy,! Ritter observed chemical action on moist chloride of
silver to be different in different parts of the spectrum, slight in the red, greater
towards the violet, and extending into a space beyond the violet where there is no
sensible light or heat. Wollaston discovered that chemical action was exerted by
refracted rays in a region where they were of a higher refrangibility than any rays
that were visible. Young showed that the invisible rays are liable to the same
affections as visible rays. Hence we have the beginnings of spectrum analysis in
its chemical relations to terrestrial matter, in the infra-red, the visible, and the
ultra-violet regions.

Everyone is more or less familiar with the subject of spectrum analysis. This
was defined by Tait as an optical method of making a diagnosis of the chemical
composition of either (a) a self-luminous body, or (6) an absorbing medium,
whether self-luminous or not. It has now become necessary to enlarge this defi-
nition, and I would suggest that it is the study of the composition and the con-
stitution of matter by means of radiant energy, and recording in the order of their
refrangibilities the rays emitted and absorbed by matter. By this modified state-
ment the infra-red or so-called‘ invisible heat rays,’ the visible or ‘ colour rays,’ and
the ultra-violet or ‘chemical rays’ are included.

Spectra are of two kinds, emission and absorption spectra. It will be conve-
nient if the latter are considered first.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA.
The Infra-red Region.

Abney (1880) by the preparation of a particularly sensitive form of collodion
emulsion containing silver bromide was successful in obtaining very extraordinary
results. Such films as he prepared were so sensitive to invisible radiations of
long wave-length as to be capable of forming a representation of even a kettle of

1 Chemical Philosophy, vol. i. 1812, p. 211.

584 REPORT— 1903.

boiling water, standing in an absolutely dark room. This picture could not of
course be properly referred to as a photograph, though the process by which it was
obtained was such as we are accustomed to term a photographic process. It may with
greater propriety be termed an actinograph, the result not of light, but of dark rays.
The least refrangible of the visible rays lies about wave-length 7,800 ten-millionths
of a millimetre, or Angstrém units; but these rays extend as far as wave-length
12,000, while Becquerel has measured lines in the spectra of metals of as low a
refrangibility as wave-length 18,000.

Abney and Festing (1881) investigated the influence of atomic groupings in the
molecules of organic substances by measuring their absorption in the infra-red
region of the spectrum.

They studied such simply constituted substances as water, hydrochloric acid,
chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and cyanogen, besides many hydrocarbons with
their hydroxyl, haloid, and carboxy] derivatives. Characteristic groups of lines or
very narrow bands were observed in carbon compounds, but they are absent from
carbon compounds, containing no hydrogen, and do not all appear in some of the
hydrogen compounds. The facts observed led to the conclusion that.they belonged
to hydrogen, but are subject to some occasional modifications. Oxygen in hydroxyl,
for instance, modifies two of the lines, since it obliterates by absorption the rays
which lie between them. Oxygen in aldehyde, or when it forms part of the carbon
nucleus of some such compound, presents bands which are bounded by well-defined
lines, or are inclined to be linear. These appear to be characteristic bands indi-
cating the-carbon nucleus of a series of substances. Alkyl radicals, such as ethyl,
exhibit absorption bands, and so does the benzene nucleus. It is a remarkable
fact that bands appear in the solar spectrum which correspond with those of ben-
zene (1881).

Julius (1893) has investigated the absorption in the infra-red caused by many
carbon compounds by means of the bolometer, combined with a prism, and also
with a diffraction grating. He showed that the molecules of compound substances
absorbed the rays which were emitted at the time of their formation. Thus, to take
the simplest case, the emission spectrum of hydrogen burning in air corresponds
with the absorption bands of water vapour, that is to say, the absorption spectra
of the compounds are the counterpart of the emission spectra of the flames which
yield these compounds during combustion. The emission spectrum of carbon
dioxide is found in the spectrum of burning carbon monoxide, cyanogen, methane,
and carbon disulphide; and that of water-vapour in various hydrocarbons. As
early as 1888 Julius, in an Inaugural Dissertation, quoting Tyndall, recognised that
the absorption and emission of rays measured with the thermopile were manifes-
tations of the molecuiar vibrations.

The various absorption spectra examined included those of the alcohols, such
as isopentylic, isobutylic, normal butylic, propylic, ethylic, and methylic, as well
as hydrocarbons, chloroform, and benzene. The study of the maxima of radiation
and the maxima of absorption offers us a means of arriving at a knowledge of a series
of new and valuable physical constants, namely, the vibration periods characteristic
of the molecules. (Tyndall discussed this subject in his usually luminous style on
pages 391 to 402 of his work ‘ Heat as a Mode of Motion.’)

Puccianti (1900) has examined the infra-red absorption spectra of liquids, in-
cluding aromatic compounds and alkyl derivatives, while Donath has examined in
the same region various essential oils. Carbon combined with hydrogen shows
a maximum of absorption with a wave-length about (1:71 » mm.) 17,100 Angstrom
units.

Benzene and pyridine have two other maxima of absorption in common. The
alcohols have very similar maxima of absorption at wave-length 21,000.

The three isomeric xylenes show absorption spectra which are almost identical.
At or about wave-length 23,200 another maximum of absorption is shown.

Julius refers to Langley’s observation that at a wave-length of 27,000 there is
an abrupt termination to the solar spectrum, probably caused by the water vapour
in the atmosphere; but a band extends to 273,000, and at no very great elevation
above the earth’s surface there are rays with a wave-length of 45,700 Angstrém

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 585

units. All radiations of longer wave-length—and Julius has measured down to
149,000 Angstrém units—are likely to be absorbed by the carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.

The Visible Rays or Colour Region.

J. L. Schénn (1879) examined the absorption spectra of substances usually
considered to be colourless in layers from 1:6 to 3°7 metres in thickness and
observed narrow bands in the spectra of methyl, ethyl, and amyl alcohol, lying in
the red, orange, and yellow; methyl alcohol showed two bands, ethyl and amyl
alcohol each three. Gerard Kriiss (1888) calculated the wave-lengths of these
bands, and it appears that the higher members of the homologous series have the
bands displaced towards the red end of the spectrum. Russell and Lapraik (1879)
made similar observations on columns of liquid from two to eight feet in length.
All the substances gave well-defined absorption bands lying between wave-lengths
6,000 and 7,000.

The bands of the different substances differed altogether from the bands of
water. Alcohols give a band which is similar in different alcohols, but the higher
the alcohol stands in’ the homologous series, that is to say, the larger the number
of ay atoms it contains, the nearer is the band to the red end of the spectrum
(1881).

It was definitely established that for each CH, introduced into a molecule of
ammonia or benzene there is a shifting of the absorption bands towards the red
end of the spectrum.

It will, of course, be understood that the liquids examined were perfectly
colourless in the ordinary acceptation of the term; and that they appear so is
owing to the bands of absorption being very narrow, so that the percentage of
luminous rays withdrawn by absorption is but a very small fraction of the whole
spectrum emitted by a source of light when viewed under ordinary conditions.

Numerous observations were made by Melde, Burger, Magnus, H. W. Vogel,
and Landauer (1876-78), which showed that changes in the absorption spectra of
solutions are partly physical and partly chemical, that is to say, they are caused
by changes in the constitution of the solution. Vogel mentions cases where no
chemical change was believed to take place, as, for instance, where naphthalene
red shows different spectra according to whether it is dissolved in alcohol, water,
resin, or is solid or used to colour paper (1878).

This points to some difference in the constitution of the solution. A well-
known instance is that of iodine in alcohol, chloroform, or carbon disulphide.

It must be observed that Vogel’s work referred merely to phenomena observable
in the visible spectrum, to small thicknesses of the absorbing medium, and was
not applied quantitatively. Two solutions may give spectra which are apparently
identical at one concentration, but spectra quite different when submitted to
varying degrees of dilution.

In order to ascertain in what way absorption spectra are related to the
chemical constitution of organic substances, it is necessary to examine a wider
range of spectrum than that included*in the merely visible region, and this may
be done by extending the observations into the ultra-violet.

The Ultra-violet Region.

Stokes in preparing his experiments for a Friday evening discourse at the
Royal Institution observed that the spectrum of electric light when a prism and
lenses of quartz were used extended no less than six or eight times the length of
the visible spectrum. In 1862 he studied the ultra-violet spectra of metals and
executed drawings of the lines exhibited by aluminium, zinc, and cadmium. He
discovered the fact that certain solutions show light and dark bands in the
spectrum of rays transmitted by them, the solutions being colourless; the bands
are invisible unless they fall on a fluorescent screen. It was under such conditions

586 REPORT—1908.

that they exhibited light and darkness. The screen used was of plaster of Paris
saturated with a fluorescent substance, such as uranium phosphate.

William Allen Miller in 1863, simultaneously with Stokes, described his method
of examining the photographic transparency of various saline solutions and organic
substances and of depicting metallic spectra. A sensitised photographic plate
was used for the reception of the rays of the spectrum, so that they were made to
register their own position and intensity. L. Soret invented the fluorescent
eyepiece for the purpose of investigating the ultra-violet rays and ascertained the
best media for the transmission of rays of high refrangibility. Colourless fluor-
spar, a rare mineral, was found to answer best, and quartz lenses were achromatised
with this. Iceland spar was found to absorb some of the more refrangible rays,
and a pure spectrum was difficult to obtain with quartz prisms owing to double
refraction, which caused the lines in metallic spectra to be duplicated. Struck by
the fact that Miller had examined many organic substances without obtaining
evidence of a connection between their constitution and their absorption spectra—
the actual words used by Miller were, ‘I have not been able to trace any special
connection between the chemical complexity of a substance and its diactinic
power’’—it appeared to me desirable that this point should be systematically
reinvestigated. LL. Soret had already proceeded with work in this direction,
by examining and drawing a great variety of organic substances and diagrams of
absorption curves. But it was deemed necessary to make a large number of exa-
minations of substances of a comparatively simple constitution, and according to
theory closely related, and afterwards gradually to proceed to the study of substances
of greater complexity. For such purposes a photographic method alone appeared
a practicable one, particularly when comparisons had to be made between sub-
stances observed at different times, for the reason that none but photographic
records could be absolutely relied upon and stored away for future reference.?

The plan of the proposed investigation was to photograph the rays transmitted
by molecular proportions of hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, and esters, either alone
as vapour or liquid, or dissolved in some neutral and, in comparison with the sub-
stances to be examined, an optically non-absorbent solvent.

' Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. xi. p. 68.

? Clerk Maxwell had calculated for Miller the best focal length of lenses of
quartz which would give an approximately flat field. His computation made this
something over a length of three feet. All Miller’s photographs were taken with the
plate placed normal to the axis of the lens, but Stokes had shown that the locus of
the foci of the different rays formed an arc of a curve or nearly a straight line,
lying very obliquely to the axes of the pencils coming through the lens.

It was obvious from Miller’s photographs that only one or two rays on each plate
were even approximately in focus. ‘o obtain spectra in focus from end to end it
was evidently necessary to incline the plate so that the end upon which the red rays
would fall, which are of longest wave-length, should be farther off than that upon
which the ultra-violet fall which are of shortest wave length. It was also found
experimentally that lenses of much shorter focal length (ten or twelve inches) could
be used, giving perfect definition, and, what is still more important, it was found a
positive advantage not to have them corrected by fluor-spar or calcite. The plate
carrier was adjusted at an inclination of approximately 22° to the normal; in such a
position the rays from the yellow sodium line to the extreme ultra-violet of the
spark spectrum of cadmium were simultaneously in focus on a plane surface.

The prism was of quartz cut on C.rnu’s plan, the method of construction designed
to get rid of all double refraction being communicated to me by M. Cornu in a very
kindly written letter. The first instrument was constructed in 1878 and the
description of it published in 1881. It has been the model for several others. One
with two prisms and lenses of 12 inches focus was exhibited by me in the Inventions
Exhibition in 1882. At the Jubilee meeting of the British Association at York the
spark spectra of iron, cobalt, and nickel, enlarged to twenty-five diameters and
printed by the Autotype Company, were exhibited. They are over eight feet in
jength, and have proved very useful for reference. The photographic process is a
point of great importance ; the then newly invented gelatine bromide films made by
Kennet were alone quite suitable.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. a87

It was considered that the metameric esters would afford much information if
a sufficient number of them were examined and their spectra compared, and if the
acids themselves were not responsive the sodium and potassium salts in solution
would serve the purpose, since the alkalies did not affect the spectrum. The

eneral deductions (1879) are now well known, but two points not generally taken
into account were well established. First, the extraordinary delicacy of the ultra-
violet spectrum in detecting traces of impurities. For instance, pyridine, an
invariable impurity in commercial ammonia, is present in the proportion of about
gvévath. It was proved that the absorption spectra of the normal paraffins
prepared with the greatest care by Schorlemmer contained traces of impurities
which could not be separated. Secondly, some of the normal alcohols could not
be rendered pure by the ordinary methods employed, and great care was necessary
in their preparation. It may well be asked that, if such were the case, upon what
grounds was it concluded that impurities were present? How was it possible to
distinguish between a normal and an abnormal absorption spectrum when no
standards of comparison existed? It may be of interest if this question be now
answered, as no adequate account of it has been made public. All the substances
in any one homologous series were shown to vary in the extent to which the rays
at the more refrangibie end of the spectrum were absorbed, and the different terms
of the series differ solely by the number of CH, groups in the molecule; and the
greater the number of these the greater the absorption. The extent of the
absorption should be proportional to the molecular weight of the substance.
Accordingly if repeatedly purifying and fractionally distilling a considerable
quantity of material failed to give spectra which were constant and identical,
but gave instead spectra which were variable, even in a slight degree, it was
evident that the absorption due to the molecule of the substance was interfered
with by some impurity.

When, however, it became evident that successive quantities of methylic
alcohol, for example, prepared in a certain manner yielded spectra which were
practically identical under different conditions, such as thickness of liquid, and
that they differed but slightly from that of pure water after the type of which the
alcohol is constituted, the conclusion was inevitable that we were dealing with a
pure preparation. In short, the longest spectrum obtained under all circumstances
and under every reasonable condition could not possibly be the result of accident,
more particularly if it could be repeatedly obtained from different specimens of the
same substance. The same reasoning applies to the acids and their salts in the
investigation of which similar difficulties arose.

Soret and Rilliet pointed out that in the rectification and prolonged desiccation
of the alcohols there is often slight oxidation which leads to the production of
impurities which affect the spectra transmitted by them.

They found that ethyl alcohol is nut appreciably less diactinic than methyl
alcohol, and both transmitted a spectrum nearly as long as that of water. This
was shown by Huntington and me when the usual 25 mm. of thickness of the
layer of liquid were tested. By taking columns of liquid 100 mm. in length the
differences are greater, and they increase with coiumns of increased length.

The influence of each additional CH, in the molecule causes a shortening of
the spectrum. This was shown to be due to the carbon atoms and not to the
hydrogen. The acids, containing the same number of carbon atoms as the alcohols,
have a much greater absorptive power, which is due to the carboxyl group
(C:0:OH). By the examination of a number of various substances, such as poly-
hydric alcohols, as glycol, glycerol, mannitol, and various sugars, it was found that,
no matter what its complexity, no open-chain compound causes selective absorption,
z.e, absorption bands.

Shortly it may be stated that in the examination of organic substances we
have three variations in absorption spectra: First, those of substances the rays of
which are freely transmitted, the absorption being at the more refrangible end of
the spectrum, and the spectrum of which is readily increased in length by dilu-
tion; secondly, those in which the spectra are of the same kind, but the absorptive
power is greater, so that they withstand dilution to a much greater extent;

588 REPORT—1903.
thirdly, those spectra which exhibit selective absorption, and which at the same time
exert great absorptive power, or, in other words, can undergo great dilution before
the absorption bands are rendered visible, and still further diluticn before they
are extinguished or obliterated.

Spectra of the First Variety belong to substances which are constructed on
an open chain of carbon atoms, thus: C'C:C*C:C or C=C:C:C:C and
C=C:b+0°>C:

The introduction in place of one or more atoms of hydrogen—of hydroxyl, OH,
carboxyl, COOH, methoxyl, OCH,, CO, COH, or NH,, or of side chains such as
CH,, C,H,, &e.—does not affect the character of the spectra, but merely the
absorptive power, which is increased when oxygen or an oxygenated radical is
introduced.

Spectra of the Second Variety are spectra of substances so constituted that the
carbon atoms form a closed chain, It is immaterial whether the closed chains are

homocyclic or heterocyclic ; thus :—

oes) C N
og oullig 1 Age dhe:
[aie | I | Dalia Ge we C.c
Noapes oni Nat: & gt

zi N
0 s I A \Z
C C
Furfurane, Thiophene. Pyrrol. Diketohexamethylene Piperidine.»
Hydroaromatic
compounds.
H
N Cc Cc Cc
aN, vars a TBS
G Coorhanl? HC CH, OF lag
| | | eal Lt taal | 9 |
N oN c | C HG, (GH; Gy }ee
ee INA \ 7% NZ
Cc C G Cc
Cyanuric Acid Camphor. Dihydrobenzene. Cineol.

They possess greater absozptive power than open-chain compounds, but do not
exhibit absorption bands. It is manifestly the chain or ring structure of the
compounds that gives them greater absorptive power, and not the number of
carbon atoms in the molecules.

Spectra of the Third Variety.— These show absorption bands, and the substances
yielding them are generally constituted on the type of benzene, naphthalene,
anthracene, phenanthrene, &c.; but the rings may be either homocyclic or hetero-
cyclic without the character of the spectra being altered; thus :—

C C Cc C Cc C Cc
Yrdy! 1h cy RE bil prwugto yay x teint Nop Were
C C Cy "_e€ Cc Cc C Cc C Cc Cc 1 i ji
|
ee ened ee eae

i | | |

Ch) ier VEFeN@ yale C C

NIA dire ND enti Qu rrnuHrnuts Ni eiinist No AO YAO Gane
C C C Cc N N C N

Benzene. Benzene. Naphthalene. Pyridine. Quinoline. Pyrazine.

If we say that the compounds which are homocyclic are constituted of at least
three pairs of carbon atoms doubly linked, which: are themselves singly linked
together, we may make use of the formula of Kekulé for benzene as the simplest
expression of their constitution ; if we assume that each of the six atoms is linked
to at least other two atoms we adopt what is practically the prism formula of
Ladenburg, or the same idea expressed in space of two dimensions. It is difficult
to express the physical condition by the Armstrong-Baeyer formula or centric
arrangement because this does not clearly suggest to one’s mind what is manifestly
the fact, namely, that the carbon atoms in the nucleus of benzene are much more

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 589

closely condensed or combined together than those of the hydroaromatic series.
This condensed condition of the carbon atoms is evident from the higher molecular
refractive energy of aromatic compounds and of the specific refractive energy of
the carbon in such combinations.

Side chains such as do not exert selective absorption have no influence on the
character of the spectra, but they slightly increase the general absorption.

Heterocyclic compounds possess greater absorptive power, both as regards the
general and selective absorption, than those which are homocyclic.

The point which I particularly desire to draw attention to here is, that for the
first time Kekulé’s remarkable benzene theory was supported by definite physical
measurements, and the closed-ring formula represented a veritable actuality.

Of Molecular and Intra-molecular Vibrations.

Johnstone Stoney was the first to show that the cause of the interrupted spectra
of gases is to be referred to the motions within the individual molecules, and not
to the irregular journeys or encounters of the molecules with each other; and
this applies to the absorption as well as to emission spectra. He further advised
the use of oscillation frequencies instead of wave-lengths in describing the measure-
ments of spectra. Johnstone Stoney and Emerson Reynolds subsequently examined
the extraordinary absorption exhibited by chlorochromic anhydride, the bands in
which are evidently harmonically related.

It has already been shown that the hydrocarbons of the aromatic series exert
two kinds of absorption, a general and a selective absorption. All the evidence
we possess warrants the belief that the general absorption is caused by the motion
of the molecules, while the selective absorption is due to the motion within the
molecules.

’ When the molecule of a substance is capable of vibrating synchronously with
a radiation, the ray received on this substance is absorbed. The absorption is
complete if the direction of the vibration of the molecule and of the ray is the
same but the phase opposite, and if the number of molecules in the path of the
rays is sufficient to damp all the vibrations.

When the quantity of substance in the path of the rays is reduced, the number
of molecules present is not sufficient to damp all the vibrations and some of the
rays are transmitted. If, however, certain carbon atoms within the molecule are
vibrating synchronously with certain rays, we shall have selective absorption of
these rays after the general absorption has been so weakened by dilution or other-
wise as to allow them to pass.

It is evident, then, that general selective absorption exerted by carbon compounds
is due to the vibration of the molecules because the absorption increases with the
number of carbon atoms in the molecule ; or, in other words, in any homologous
series the greater the molecular mass the lower the rate of vibration of the molecule.

It has not been found possible to associate any of the absorption bands of the
substances examined with any particular carbon atoms; but the bands in benzene
are six in number, or the same in number as the carbon atoms. It has, however,
been shown that the rapidity of the intra-molecular vibrations was dependent
upon the rate of vibration of the molecules. From numbers representing approxi-
mately the mean wave-lengths of the four chief bands of rays absorbed by benzene,
naphthalene, and anthracene, and from the velocity of light, the mean rate of the
vibrations within the molecules was calculated (1881), the numbers being as
follows :—

Molecular

Vibrations,
Benzene ; : - ‘ ‘ . e . 12481
Naphthalene . . ° . ° . . Bee feed
Anthracene . . “ ‘ H e . ae LO!

The mean rate of vibration of the rays absorbed by naphthalene is less than
that absorbed by benzene, and those of anthracene less than those of naphthalene.

590 REPORT—1903.

It follows from this that the vibrations within the molecules are not independent,
but are a consequence, of the fundamental molecular vibrations, like the harmonics
of a stretched string or of a bell.

The term absorptive power has generally been used with respect to the extent
of rays of the spectrum absorbed, but there is intensity of absorption to be con-
sidered. In the case of a vibrating string or tuning-fork greater amplitude of
vibration means a louder note; in the case of molecules greater intensity of
absorption may be caused by a greater amplitude of vibration in the molecules of
the absorbing medium, the number of molecules being constant. But by greater
amplitude it is not to be understood that the rate of vibration is increased.

If this be so then, as the absorption intensity of anthracene and naphthalene
is, molecule for molecule, greater than that of benzene, the amplitude of vibration
of the molecules of these substances is greater, but the rate of vibration is slower.

From the foregoing it will be observed that where A is the wave-length : is

the inverse wave-length, and, omitting the correction for the refraction of air
which is a very small value, it is the oscillation frequency of the ether in a small
unit of time, and the most convenient measurement for use in describing
spectra. Seven years after the publication of these views Gerard Kriiss (1888)
dealt with the subject of coloured substances in a similar manner. From the
undulatory theory of light, deductions may be drawn regarding the inner molecular
movements or inter-atomic movements within the molecules, inasmuch as the
vibrations of the ether, which fills the intra-molecular space, are a resultant within
that space of the velocity and amplitude of the molecular vibrations.

Thus, if \ be the wave-length of a ray emitted by a substance, and v the velocity
of light, the number of vibrations, n, which a molecule sends forth by movements

of it as a whole and of its parts can by determined by the equation z= x

G. Kriiss made a series of calculations for coloured substances similar to those
which I had made for colourless substances and for ozone,

Curves of Molecular Vibrations.

Observations on absorption spectra should, whenever it is possible, be made
with reference to the quantity of substance which produces a given measurable
effect. A molecular weight in milligrams or a milligram-molecule is a convenient
quantity which may be dissolved in 20 c.c., 40 c.c., or 100 c.c. of any non-
absorbent liquid, and observed through thicknesses of the solution varying from
25 mm. to 1 mm. in thickness. When a series of photographs have been
measured a curve is plotted, which shows the general and the selective absorption
of the substance. The oscillation frequencies of the absorbed rays are taken as
abscissee, and the proportional thickness in millimetres of the weakest of a series
of solutions as ordinates. The curves are as often as possible made continuous,
and they are called curves of molecular vibrations.

The curves of the molecular vibrations present very striking features: they are
valuable physical constants which enable one to classify and identify substances.

Position Isomerism.

Isomerides of the .ortho-, meta-, and para-positions in aromatic substances
yield spectra with the absorption bands, differing in position, in width, and in
intensity. There is no distinguishing character to be observed in the different.
isomerides. Isomerism in the pyridine, quinoline, and naphthalene derivatives has
not yet been completely studied. In such cases as have already passed under
review there is nothing that indicates the positions of the substituted hydrogens.

Stereo-isomerism.

Where isomerism is not due to differences in structure, but simply to the
distribution of the atoms in space, we have no means of distinguishing isomeric

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 59L

substances from an examination of their spectra; for instance, benz-syn-aldoxime
and benz-anti-aldoxime yield curves of molecular vibrations which are identical.

Tautomerism.

The possibility of an atom of hydrogen occupying alternative positions in a
compound

(NH:C:02N:C: OH)

so that it may be united to an atom of nitrogen or of carbon in one instance, or to
an atom of oxygen in another, easily gives rise to substances with different charac-
ters, the one that of a phenol, the other that of a ketone. One interpretation of
the facts observed which has been very commonly received may be stated thus.
Certain compounds have in their constitution an atom of hydrogen of a ‘ roving
disposition’ which at one time will attach itself to an atom of oxygen, or to an
atom of nitrogen, and anon it will forsake one of these and unite itself to an atom
of carbon. The consequence of this ‘ instability of character’ is that when a deriva-
tive of the compound is being prepared or sought for by a chemical process, which
according to all previous knowledge ought to yield it, the substance brought forth
is of a different class, but withal of the same composition; it is, in fact, an
isomeride.

According to another theory, the two isomeric derivatives of the parent
substance are present in equal proportions in a solution in a state of equilibrium,
and upon crystallisation one or other of these assumes the solid form, Taking
those cases where a substance has a constitution which it is believed has been
correctly ascertained by chemical reactions, and which yields two isomeric alkyl
derivatives, it becomes a question as to which of these the parent substance has
directly given birth to. The evidence from chemical reactions has in many cases
failed to give a satisfactory answer, but the curves of molecular vibrations of such
substances afford the desired information concerning the relationship of their
constitution to that of their respective derivatives.

Most convincing evidence has been afforded by observations on their spectra,
that several of the parent substances are really not what they seem to be.

Thus, isatin and methyl pseudo-isatin yield curves which are almost identical,
the sole difference between them being due to the substitution of the alkyl radica}
for hydrogen, the nature of which difference might have been predicted.

Clearly the parent substance and the pseudo-derivative are of the same nature
and constitution.

Carbostyril and methyl-pseudo-carbostyril, o-oxycarbanil and its ethyl ether,
obtained by boiling with potash and ethy] iodide, are also similarly related, and
they possess the ketonic or lactam structure.

On the other hand methylisatin, carbostyril, and the other ether of o-oxy-
carbanil yield curves which are essentially different from the foregoing, and are
enolic or of the lactim type. Generally speaking, the ketonic are more stable
than the enolic forms. Dibenzoyl-methane is ketonic, and the tautomeric sub-
stance oxybenzal-acetophenone is enolic, and in this instance the enolic form is
that with the greatest stability. The two substances yield different curves, and
the gradual change of the less stable into the more stable form can be traced by
photographing the spectra of the solutions at intervals.

The ethyl esters: of dibenzoyl succinic acid are of interest in this connection.
There are three isomers known out of the thirteen which are possible, and the
spectra of these have been studied. Knorr has given three formule for what he
designates thea, 8, andy esters. Of these there are two, the 8 and y forms, which
give identical absorption curves: they are of the ketonic type, and structurally
identical, but configuratively different, being stereo-isomerides,

The curve of molecular vibrations of the a ester is quite different from that
common to the 8 and y compounds. The a compound is of the enolic type, and
it changes spontaneously at ordinary temperatures into the ketonic, thus showing
that in this case also the latter is the more stable. The transition from the one

592 REPORT—1903.

form to the other was seen to be in progress, and after an interval of only three
hours the absorption band of the enolic ester had almost entirely disappeared.
In three weeks the transformation had become complete, as was shown by the
molecular vibration curve of the a ester being almost exactly coincident. with
that of the 8 and y forms.

Another interesting example is afforded by the study of phloroglucinol, it
being a substance with a constitution of a somewhat doubtful character, for owing
to the ambiguity of its behaviour towards chemical reagents it is impossible to
arrive at a decision from chemical evidence whether the oxygen atoms are present
in enolic or ketonic groups. Towards some substances it behaves as a phenol,
towards others as a ketone. The doubt also presented itself as to whether phloro-
glucinol from various sources had the same constitution, and, further, whether
there might not be two isomeric forms of the compound present in equal pro-

ortions in a solution of the substance. Specimens of phloroglucinol prepared in

ve different ways from different materials gave curves of molecular vibrations
which were identical: this decided the question absolutely; they are one and the
same substance. If the constitution of the substance is that of a trihydroxy-
benzene or phenol, then the trimethyl ether should exhibit an absorption curve
differing but slightly in detail from that of the parent substance ; and, further-
more, the latter should exhibit a general resemblance to the curves of pyrogallol
and phenol. This was found actually to be the case in both particulars.

Finally, with regard to tautomerism, it may be considered as decided that no
evidence has been obtained based upon either physical measurements or chemical
reactions of, first, the presence of a ‘ wandering’ atom of hydrogen as a
characteristic of compounds which exhibit tautomerism; secondly, that solutions
of tautomeric compounds do not contain equal quantities of the two substances,
or enolic und ketonic forms in equilibrium, and that if both are present one so
greatly preponderates over the other that no trace of any but the one compound
can be detected ; thirdly, it has been observed that some substances do change
spontaneously from one form to another, and that this change sets in very quickly
after the substance has been dissolved; fourthly, that substances change from
one form to another under the influence of different reagents, as, for instance,
cotarnine, as Dobbie and Lauder (1903) have shown, in presence of methyl alcohol
or of caustic soda, and again in presence of potassium cyanide. In fact it appears
that under the influence of different reagents one or other of the two compounds
is the more stable, and the more stable substance is then formed.

A reaction is recorded in the researches of Emil Fischer where it appears that
two tautomeric forms are produced simultaneously from oxycaféine. When the
silver salt of this substance is heated with methyl iodide it yields a mixture of
tetramethyl uric acid and methoxycaféine, the characteristic groupings in which
are -NH—CO- and -N=COH-, the hydrogens being methylated. This is a
singular reaction which has not yet been studied spectrographically.

0 )
C 0
CH CH
CH,—_N/ yong ; CH,—N/ Yon sin
ws Sco | | yo—OCHs
oc, !o—N oct !!o—N
hee iraNRnia ye
x x
| |
CH, CH,
Tetramethyluric Acid. Methoxycaféine.

The Absorption Spectra of Alkalovds.

The interest attached to an examination of the absorption spectra of the alka-
loids is not alone the fact that a means of recognising, detecting, and estimating
3uch substances was devised, but still more that we may learn something of their
chemical constitution. Many of the poisonous alkaloids give no distinctive
chemical reactions, and in certain cases the means of recognising them are

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 593

restricted to observations on their crystalline form and their physiological action,
The physiological action of certain alkaloids of an extremely deadly character is
remarkable enough to prove a means of their identification when the effect on the
human subject is under observation. The first experimental work on the absorp-
tion spectra of the alkaloids arose out of a celebrated trial for murder, which
engaged much attention in the year 1882. It was proved that the lethal drug
administered was aconitine.

To identify this substance, of which-there are several varieties, it was necessary
at that time to resort to physiological tests made upon small animals.

Such a course always affords an opportunity for forensic arguments based upon
the evidence adduced. To substitute absolute physical measurements for physio-
logical tests seemed to present facilities for securing justice by removing any
doubt of the identity of an unknown substance with the nature of one which is
known. Alkaloids yield spectra of two kinds, those which do not and those
which do exhibit absorption bands, the difference between the two classes of
substances being one dependent on the constitution of the nucleus or ultimate
radical of the compound. It is possible not only to identity substances, but also to
determine the quantity present in a mixture or solution, and this has actually been
done.

Alkaloids which are derived from benzenoid hydrocarbons, pyridine, quino-

line, or phenanthrene give evidence of their origin by their spectra. It is
therefore advantageous to make a careful study of the absorption spectra of
the substances themselves and of the various products derived from them when
studying their constitution. It was remarked while the work was in progress
that the quinine spectrum curve was probably due to the conjugation of four
pyridine or two quinoline nuclei. It is known now to be a substance of a compli-
cated structure containing one quinoline nucleus. It differs from cinchonine only
by one methoxyl group in the para-position. Observations made on simple bases
differ from those made on substitution products, such as alkyl derivatives, in this
respect, that the bases are the more diactinic, while addition products, such as
hydrogenised compounds, and also salts of the alkaloids such as hydrochlorides,
are more diactinic than the simple bases. It was shown by the researches of
Alder Wright that different preparations of aconitine can yield substances slightly
differing in constitution. On examining them it was shown that these prepara-
tions yielded different absorption curves the variations in which were due to
differences in the constitution of the different preparations. To state a particular
case of a well-defined character, the aconitine from aconitum napellus and
japaconitine from a Japanese aconite prepared by Alder Wright had practically
the same absorption spectrum and yielded similar curves; but that of japaconitine
was just what might be expected from a substance with a nucleus of a similar
constitution, but about twice the molecular weight of aconitine ; in other words,
a condensation of two molecules of aconitine into one—namely, what was observed
in the spectra of morphine and apomorphine, a much greater absorptive power
with a similar absorption curve.
_ _ It was shown that japaconitine has a constitution modified in such a manner ;
it being, in fact, what was termed by Alder Wright a sesquiapoaconitine ; and the
formule given for these substances are respectively: Aconitine, C,,H,,NO,,;
japaconitine, C,,H,.N,O,,, which is in agreement with the spectrum observations.
nf has, rene been supposed by Freund and Beck that the two substances are
identical.

Strychnine and brucine are two alkaloids evidently closely related, but little
is known about their constitution : both seem to contain a pyridine nucleus united
to what is probably a pyrrolic nucleus, the two constituting a conjugated nucleus
resembling that of quinoline. The difference between brucine and strychnine is
said to be simply that the former contains two methoxyls, The absorption curves
show a wider difference than this, and it was predicted that strychnine appears to
be a derivative of pyridine, but brucine is more probably a derivative of tetra-
hydroquinoline, or an addition product of quinoline of the same character,
since there is a remarkable similarity between the curves of the two substances.

1903. QQ

594. REPORT—1903.

I would suggest that for the future evidence from their spectra be taken into
account in studying their constitution.

Stereo-isomerism in the Alkaloids.

Many alkaloids having the same formula are stereo-isomerides, and those related
in this manner exhibit molecular absorption curves which are identical. The
following examples are quoted by Dobbie and Lauder (1903) as the result of their
investigations: dextro-corydaline and inactive corydaline; narcotine and gnosco-

ine; tetrahydroberberine and canadine. Where two compounds are known to
Favs the same formula, and one of these is optically active, the other inactive, it
may be inferred, as Dobbie and Lauder have pointed out, that they are not
optical isomerides if their absorption curves are different ; thus canadine and
papaverine have the same formula, but their absorption curves show that they are
structurally different.

It is a general rule that substances which agree closely in structure exhibit
similar series of absorption spectra, while those which differ essentially in structure
show absorption curves which are different; and to this rule neither aromatic
compounds, alkaloids, nor dyes and coloured substances form any exceptions.
That this is so is easily understood from the theory of absorption spectra. It
must, however, be distinctly understood that the essential feature of importance in
all such investigations is the quantitative relation of the substance to its spectra,
whether these relations are based upon equal weights of material or equimolecular
proportions in solutions of given volume and thickness.

The relationship of morphine, C,,H,,NO(OH),, and codeine, or methylmor-
pine, C,,H,,NO.(OH)(OCH,), was shown by their spectra, the latter being a

omologue of the former. A similar instance has been investigated recently

by Dobbie and Lauder. The resemblance between the spectra of laudanine,
C,,H,;0,N, and laudanosine, C,,H,,0,N, confirms the view that they are homo-
logous bases. The close agreement of their absorption curves with those of
corydaline and tetrahydropapaverine clearly indicates a similarity in structure
to that of these alkaloids, but the relationship of laudanosine to corydaline is
aaa ied closer than to tetrahydropapaverine, and may be best explained by the
ormulze

OMS DRS pak ols tea gee taale lay = Ae ic

Corydaline. Laudanosine.

The removal of a methyl group from such a compound would scarcely cause
any appreciable change in the curve of molecular vibrations, and very many cases
are known where, when two atoms of hydrogen are introduced into a compound
without altering the close linking of the carbon atoms of the ring formation in the
compound, the alteration in the spectrum is insignificant.

particularly interesting example of tautomerism already mentioned has heen
observed by Dobhie and Lauder in studying the constitution of cotarnine, a sub-
stance prepared from narcotine. Three formule have been proposed for it: one.
represents it as an aromatic aldehyde in which one hydrogen is replaced by an
open change containing nitrogen; a second gives it the character of a carbinol
base ; while a third that of an ammonium base. It has been supposed that in
solution it is a mixture of two or all three such substances in a state of
equilibrium, but as to what is the formula to be assigned to solid cotarnine the
data are insufficient to determine. There are, however, two different solutions of
the substance obtainable: that in ether or chloroform is quite colourless, like
the solid; but a solution in water or alcohol is yellow. From the molecular
absorption spectra of these solutions and of certain derivatives with which they
are compared there is very distinct evidence that a solution in alcohol or water
contains the ammonium base, while under the influence of sodium hydroxide
it assumes the condition of the carbinol form. Moreover, the rate of transforma-
tion and the conditions which influence this isomeric change have been studied.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 595

It suffices here to state that a solution containing entirely the one form may be
converted wholly into the other.
The two formule referred to are given below :—

CH(OH).N.CH, Bun pie te ak
C,H,9. pap Opal. |
R Son, Ep ocomie oe OG gar
Carbinol Form. Ammonium Base.

Emission SPECTRA.
Spark Spectra and their Constitution.

As it became necessary to make accurate measurements of absorption spectra
in the ultra-violet, the work of obtaining the wave-lengths of lines in twenty
metallic spectra was undertaken. They were for the most part in a region
which, except in the case of two or three elements, had not been previously
explored. A small Rutherford grating was employed, combined with quartz
lenses with a focal length of three feet. Experience had shown that it was advisable
in describing these spectra to give measurements in hundredths of an inch of the
positions of the lines on the published photographs of the prismatic spectra in the
‘Journal of the Chemical Society’ (March 1882), and to follow Lecocq de Bois-
baudran by giving a description of the character of each of the lines. In this way
they are easily identified, and the value of the measurements for practical purposes
is greatly enhanced. Prior to the publication of the work (1882), in the prosecution
of which Dr. Adeney was associated with me, Liveing and Dewar, who had been
engaged on a similar investigation, but operating in a different manner, published
an account of the spectra of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths, and
subsequently the lines of iron, nickel, and cobalt. They showed a rhythmic
grouping of the lines to be characteristic of the spectra of the alkali metals.

In connection with the prismatic spectra which were photographed some
remarkable facts were noticed ; for instance, the character of the lines belonging to
different groups of elements was a noticeable feature, as well also their disposition
or arrangement, more particularly in the ultra-violet. Similarities in the visible
spectra of zinc and cadmium, of calcium, strontium, and barium, and in those of
the alkali metals had been observed by Mitscherlich, by Lecocq de Boisbaudran,
and also by Ciamician. As to the grouping of the lines as observed on the
photographs, it appeared that the spectra of well-defined groups of elements had
characteristics in common which were different from those of other groups. For
instance, the alkali metals differed from the alkali earth metals which appeared to
form a group by themselves. Then in marked contrast to these simple spectra
were those of iron, nickel, and cobalt, which though very complicated were seen
to be much alike. Nearest to these but differing from them in certain respects
were the palladium, gold, and platinum spectra.

It was observed how these elements with certain chemical and physical
properties in common could be recognised as being relations owing to their family
likeness when their spectra were photographed. Then it was remarked that the
spectra of magnesium, zinc, and cadmium, had distinctive characters in common ;
for instance, the individual lines in these spectra were marked by similar character-
istics, such as a great extension of the strong lines above and below the
points of the electrodes, This extension was increased with the atomic mass of the
metal, and with the greater atomic mass in this group the volatility of the metal
is also greater. An arrangement of the lines in pairs and triplets was noticed, the
triplets being repeated, but less distinctly than in the first instance, and again
repeated sharply but less strongly, so that there were three different sets of triplets
in each spectrum. The point of greatest interest and importance was the
connection traced between the atomic mass and the numerical differences observed
in the intervals between the lines of different groups when measured by their
oscillation frequencies.

These differences were not in the spectrum of one element, but were in the lines

QQ2

596 REPORT—1908.

of each metal of the group, and were clearly associated with the atomic mass and
chemical properties in each case.

The arrangement of the lines, which was common to all the metals in the
magnesium, zinc, cadmium group, may shortly be described as follows:—Three
isolated lines and one pair of lines in magnesium, with four sets of triplets ; one
isolated line and one pair of lines in zinc, with three sets of triplets; one isolated
line and one pair of lines in cadmium, with three sets of triplets.

Besides the arrangement of these lines there were in the spectrum of each
element two groups of the most refrangible lines, consisting one of a quadruple
group and the other of a quintuple group, the groups and the lines composing
them being similarly disposed in each spectrum. It was, however, not distinctly
proved that these particular groups were strictly homologous, the most refrangible
lines in the zinc spectrum being very difficult to photograph even on specially
prepared plates, though the lines are strong. It was furthermore observed that
with an increase in the atomic mass the distances between the lines. both in
pairs and triplets were greater. The same was the case with the quadruple and
quintuple groups. In the magnesium spectrum, if we compare the first with the
second group of triplets, we find the intervals extending from the first line in the
first group to the first line in the second group, and from the second line in
the first group to the second line in the second group, and from the third line in the
first group to the third line in the second group, when measured in terms of
oscillation frequencies to be 677°1, 677:0, and 677°4. Similarly taking the second
and third groups it is $91:2, 391-1, and 391-1. Between the third and fourth
groups in like manner it is 230-9, 233, and 233; so that the intervals diminish
with increase of refrangibility of the lines.

In the zinc spectrum the intervals between the lines in the first and second
groups are 910, 910, and 910; in the second and third groups 582, 581, and 583.

In the cadmium spectrum the corresponding intervals are 801-5, 800, and 800;
in the second and third groups 588, 589, and 587. The more accurately the lines
are measured the more exactly do these differences correspond. It is scarcely
necessary to point out that the differences in the atomic masses of the elements
are in round numbers where H=I, Mg 24, Zn 65, and Cd 112.

The Law of Constant Differences rendered it evident that the spectra of the
elements were subject to a law of homology, which was closely connected with
the atomic mass and with their chemical and physical properties.

It was, in fact, found, in accordance with the periodic law, that the spectra of
definite groups were spectra similarly constituted, from which it was deduced that
they are produced by similarly constituted molecules. It is evident that there is
periodicity in their spectra. The metals studied being all monatomic in their
molecular condition, the conclusion was inevitable that the atoms were of
complex constitution, and that not only was the complex nature of these atoms
disclosed, but it was also shown that groups of elements with similar chemical and
physical properties, the atomic weights of which differed by fixed definite values,
were composed of the same kind of matter, but the matter of the different elements
was in different states of condensation, as we know it to be in different members of
the same homologous series of organic compounds. If this were not the case, the
mass or quantity of matter in the atom would not affect in the same manner its rate
of vibration—which the facts observed lead us to conclude that it does—and the
chemical properties of the substances would differ more widely from one another,
and the differences between them would not be gradational, which in fact they are.
It was thus impossible to believe that the atoms were the ultimate particles of
matter, though so far as chemical investigations had proceeded they were parts
which had not been divided. Here the conviction was forced upon one that matter
might exist in a state which had hitherto been unrecognised by those who
accepted the atomic theory without searching beneath it. All that the atomic
theory enabled the chemist to take account of were the laws of combination and
decomposition of the forms of matter that are ponderable and of sufficient mass to
be weighable on the finest balances, which after all are but crude and imperfect
instruments for the study of matter, since they are capable only of determining

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 597

differences between masses of tangible size. It became conceivable that matter
in the state of gas or vapour might become so attenuated that repulsion of the
molecules would be greater than the attraction; that they would then no longer
form aggregates, and in consequence would cease to be weighable. In such a
condition they may be imagined to constitute the ether, and in view of this
conception there may be recognised four physical conditions of material substances,
namely, solid, liquid, gas, and ether.

It is more than twenty years ago since the study of homology in spectra led
me to the conviction that the chemical atoms are not the ultimate particles of
matter, and that they have a complex constitution.

That the atoms of definite groups of chemically related elements are composed
of the same kind of matter in different states of condensation is not a dream or a
view of a visionary character, for it is based upon definite observations controlled
by exact physical measurements, and is therefore in the nature of a theory rather
than an hypothesis. Batchinski (1903) regards the atoms as being in a state of
vibration, and the periods of vibration of related elements appear to stand in a
simple relation to their properties. ‘lhe mass of an atom is proportional to the
square of its period of vibration, and conversely the vibration period of the atom
may be calculated from the square root of the atomic weight. These values have
been calculated and arranged according to Mendeléef’s classification, whereby it is
shown that there is a decided tendency to form harmonic series in the vertical
columns. The deviations are probably capable of explanation, as the author
believes, on the ground that the atom is not to be regarded asa material point,
but as a material system. It is well to remember that the precursor of the
Periodic Law was Newland’s Law of Octaves.

I have always experienced great difficulty in accepting the view that because
the spectrum of an element contained a line or lines in it which were coincident
with a line or lines in another element it was evidence of the dissociation of the
elements into simpler forms of matter. In my opinion, evidence of the compound
nature of the elements has never been obtained from the coincidence of a line or
lines exclusively belonging to the spectrum of one element with a line or lines in
the spectrum exclusively belonging to another element. This view is based upon
the following grounds :—First, because the coincidences have generally been shown
to be only apparent, and have never been proved to be real; secondly, because the
great difficulty of obtaining one kind of matter entirely free from every other kind
of matter is so great that where coincident lines occur in the spectra of what have
been believed to be elementary substances they have been shown from time to time
to be caused by traces of foreign matter, such as by chemists are commonly termed
impurities; thirdly, no instance has ever been recorded of any homologous group of
lines belonging to one element occurring in the spectrum of another, except and
alone where the one has been shown to constitute an impurity in the other; as, for
instance, where the triplet of zinc is found in cadmium and the triplet of cadmium
in zine ;. the three strongest lines in the quintuple group of magnesium in graphite,
and so on. The latest elucidation of the cause of coincidences of this kind arises
out of a tabulated record from the wave-length measurements of about three
thousand lines in the spectra of sixteen elements made by Adeney and myself.
The instances where lines appeared to coincide were extremely rare; but there was
one remarkable case of a group of lines in the spectrum of copper which appeared
to be common to tellurium ; also lines in indium, tin, antimony, and bismuth which
seemed to have an origin in common with those of tellurium.

It is difficult to separate tellurium from copper, and copper from tellurium, by
ordinary chemical processes. Dr. Kéthner, of Charlottenburg, has succeeded in
obtaining very pure tellurium from the spectrum of which these lines and also
several others have been almost entirely eliminated, which shows that they are
foreign to the element, and that his specimen of tellurium is probably purer than
any previously obtained. For determining the atomic weight of tellurium it is of
course necessary to obtain it in the greatest possible state of purity; and it may
be mentioned that the material which Staudenmaier employed for this purpose
was found, from Kéthner's photograph of its spectrum, to be a very pure specimen.

598 REPORT—1903.

The prosecution of researches in connection with the constitution of spectra was
initiated by Johnstone Stoney, by Balmer with respect to hydrogen, and continued
by Rydberg, Deslandres, Ames, and, above all, by Kayser and Runge, who by an
elaborate and exhaustive investigation of the arc spectra of the elements have
given us formule by which the wave-lengths of lines in the spectra of different
elements in certain definite groups may be calculated from their atomic masses.
They also showed the spectra to be constituted of three series of lines, the principal
series and two subordinate series, one sharp and the other diffuse. Lately, Ramage
has given us a simpler formula, which applies to several groups, and he has
co-ordinated the spectra of several of the elements with the squares of their atomic
masses, and also their atomic masses with others of their physical properties.

It may here be remarked that the homology of the spark spectra in the magne-
sium, zinc, and cadmium series was at first called in question by Ames, though he
proved the arc spectra of zinc and cadmium to be strictly homologous.

Preston decided the question by demonstrating by means of beautiful photo-
graphs that corresponding lines such as the pairs, triplets, and the quadruple
groups in the spark spectra of the three metals when under the influence of a very
powerful magnetic field underwent the same kind of change; for instance, each
quadruple group changed to sextuple, the second and fourth lines in each group
becoming double. lines in spectra which have not the same constitution
behave differently. Recently Runge and Paschen have arrived at the same
conclusion ; and, furthermore, have established homology in the spectra of
sodium, copper, and silver; also between aluminium and thallium. Indium
is almost certainly homologous with aluminium and thallium, but it was
probably not investigated on account of its rarity. Marshall Watts has pointed
out that a relationship exists between the lines in the spectra of some elements and
the squares of their atomic weights, from which it is possible to calculate the
atomic weight of an element if that of another in the same homologous series is
known, and the oscillation frequencies of corresponding lines are known. This
enables the determination of atomic weights to be controlled with quite as much
efficiency and certainty in many instances as by specific heat or vapour-density
determinations of the metals.

The first application of the observed homology in spectra was directed towards
the question of the atomic mass of beryllium, for which purpose the lines in the
ultra-violet spark spectrum of this element were first photographed and measured,
The nature of the evidence on the subject adduced at the time was in outline as
follows :—

‘If, as Nilson and Petterson suggest, the position of beryllium is at the head
of a series of triad rare earth metals, the element scandium (at. wt. 44) and
yttrium (at. wt. 89) must be members of the same group. If this be the case
the spectra of the three elements must have certain characters in common, for the
series of which aluminium and indium are the first and third terms yield strictly
homologous spectra. Asa matter of fact no two spectra could be more dissimilar
than those of beryllium and scandium.’

Having compared the photographs and wave-length measurements of a large
number of spectra of the elements, I felt justified in making the following
remarks :—

‘The spectrum of beryllium exhibits no marked analogy with the calcium, the
magnesium, or the aluminium spectra, all of which are members of well-defined
homologous series. There is nothing similar in it to the boron, silicon, or carbon
spectra, nor to those of the scandium, yttrium, or cerium. The spectrum of
lithium is most closely analogous to that of beryllium in the number, relative posi-
tions, and intensities of the lines. This leads to the conclusion that beryllium is the
first member of a dyad series of metals, to which in all probability calcium, stron-
tium, and barium, as a sub-group, are homologous, its atomic mass being 9°2, its
place is above magnesium.’

Subsequently Nilson, and also Humpidge, by chemical evidence and from
vapour-density determinations of certain compounds, substantiated the conclusion

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 599

previously arrived at by Emerson Reynolds, that the atomic mass of beryllium
was not 13°8 but 9:2.

The next practical application of the spark spectra was to the analysis of
rhabdophane, a mineral found many years ago in Cornwall and described by
Heuland in 1837 as a zinc blende of a peculiar character.

This mineral I found to contain neither zinc nor sulphur, and therefore it is
not a blende. It is, in fact, a phosphate of the formula R,O,.P,0,.2H,O, in which
the oxides of cerium, didymium, lanthanum, and yttrium may wholly or in part
replace each other. The didymium absorption spectrum is well seen both by
reflection from the surface and transmission through thin sections of the mineral.
The spark spectrum of the yttrium chloride obtained from rhabdophane was
compared with that observed by Thalén and ascribed toyttrium. Of the fifty-one
lines in the spectrum of yttrium thirty-eight were absent from the yttrium
obtained from rhabdophane, and it was concluded that the purest yttrium was
that which yielded the simplest spectrum, This was the first occasion of the
finding of yttrium in any British mineral. Quite recently a confirmation of this
view has been obtained by comparing this spectrum with lists of the arc lines of
yttrium and ytterbium which have just been published by Kayser (1903).

Penfield analysed a mineral found in the United States which he named
scovellite: it proved to be identical in species with rhabdophane.

Flame Spectra at High Temperatures.

What are commonly known in the chemical laboratory as flame spectra are
chiefly those of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths; also of gallium,
indium, and thallium. The researches of Mitscherlich and Lecocq de Boisbaudran
first showed that copper, manganese, and gold gave flame spectra. Lockyer,
Gouy, and Marshall Watts also investigated flame spectra.

In 1887 I used iridium wires one millimetre thick, twisted into loops upon which
fragments of minerals were heated in the oxygen blowpipe flame. Natural silicates
yielded spectra not only of alkalies but of the alkaline earths, and also distinct man-
ganese spectra. Baryta, strontia, and lime gave spectra when insoluble compounds
such as the sulphates were thus examined at high temperatures. Iron, cobalt, and
nickel gave spectra even when compounds such as the oxides were heated strongly.
But iridium, though infusible, is somewhat volatile, and contributes a line spectrum
to the flame. In 1890 thin slips of the mineral kyanite and even pieces of tobacco
pipe were used instead, Experience with this method of working went to show
how the flame spectra of oxides of calcium, strontium, and barium could be sepa-
rated from those of lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium, as observed
in the Bunsen flame. Furthermore, that even the most volatile of these substances
could be made to yield a continuous coloration from a single bead of salt for a
period exceeding fifteen minutes, and extending to one or two hours, so that
measurements of the lines might be made with some degree of certainty.

In order to study the flames emitted from furnaces during metallurgical
operations, and particularly from the mouth of Bessemer vessels, it became
necessary to ascertain what really were the lines of the elements observed under
different conditions at a high temperature, and accordingly systematic methods of
study were developed from the previous somewhat tentative experiments.

In all the flame spectra obtained by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe the ultra-violet
line spectrum emitted by water vapour which had been discovered by Huggins
‘and by Liveing and Dewar was visible on the photographs by reason of the
combustion of the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon, cr the hydrogen gas itself, when
burnt along with oxygen. The flame spectra are always shorter than those
obtained from the arc or from condensed sparks. After an extended examination
of spectra produced by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe from solid substances, the
knowledge obtained was applied to the examination of the flames coming from the
Bessemer vessel during the ‘blow’ during all periods from the commencement to
the termination. These observations were made at the London and North-
Western Railway Steel Works at Crewe; and at Dowlais, in South Wales. In

600 REPORT—1903.

collaboration with Mr. Ramage, a large number of these complicated spectra were
photographed at the North-Eastern Steel Works, where the Thomas-Gilchrist
process is carried out. The spectra were fully described and measured, with the
result that every one of the lines and bands was accounted for. A new line belonging
to potassium was discovered to have peculiar properties. Gallium was proved to be
present in the Cleveland ore from Yorkshire, in the finished metal, in clays and in
all aluminous minerals, even in corundum. Also, by very accurate determinations
of the wave-lengths of its principal lines, gallium was proved to be a constituent
of the sun. Moreover it was tound in several meteorites. Pure gallium oxide
was separated, by analytical methods, from iron ores and other materials; and the
proportion of the metal in the steel rails made by the North-Eastern Steel
Company, of Middlesbrough, was determined and found to be one part in thirty
thousand. This Yorkshire steel is richer in gallium than any other substance
from which it has been extracted; for instance, the Bensburg blende, supposed
hitherto to be the richest ore, contains only one part in fifty thousand.

By observations on the spectra, the thermo-chemistry of the Bessemer process
of steel manufacture was studied, and the temperatures attained under varying
conditions were estimated. The demonstration of the great volatility of most
metals, and of many metallic oxides in an undecomposed condition, at the
temperature of the oxyhydrogen blowpipe and of the Bessemer flame was of
special interest. The metals chiefly referred to are copper, silver, lead, tin,
manganese, chromium, iron, cobalt, nickel, palladium, gold, and iridium. Several
of these, such as silver and gold, have lately been distilled zx vacuo by Krafft.

Banded Flame Spectra.

Well-defined groups of elements yield banded flame spectra which have
asimilar constitution ; thus magnesium, zinc, and cadmium yield bands composed of
fine lines, degraded towards the violet, while fluted band spectra of beryllium,
aluminium, and indium were found to be degraded towards the red. Thallium
also yields a fluted spectrum; gallium gives a line spectrum; lanthanum gives
bands degraded towards the red; palladium gives bands in the nature of flutings
composed of fine lines; germanium gave very faint indications of bands; rhodium
and iridium both lines and bands. It became manifest that elements belonging to
the same group in the periodic system of classification exhibited banded spectra
which are similarly constituted, and hence similarly constituted molecules of the
elements have similar modes of vibration, whether at the lower temperature of the
flame or at the higher temperature of the arc or spark. Banded spectra are thus
shown to be connected with the periodic law.

A great advantage is to be derived from an investigation of banded spectra
froma theoretical point of view, as well as from the application of this method to the
analysis of terrestrial matter. While the spectra are easily obtained, they can be
applied in a very simple manner to the chemical analysis of minute quantities of
material, and may readily be made quantitative.

M. Armand de Gramont has described a method of obtaining spectra of
metals and metalloids by means of a spark, and has given the analysis of eighty-
six mineral species. The novelty and importance of his work lies in the method
of obtaining spectra of such constituent substances as chlorine, bromine and
iodine, sulphur, selenium and tellurium ; also phosphorus and carbon when in a
state of combination, as sulphates, phosphates, carbonates, &c.

There is a possibility of utilising this method for the quantitative determina-
tion of carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus in iron and steel during the process of
manufacture.

Definition of an Element.

In a discussion on the question of the elementary character of argon in 1895
it was pointed out by me that argon gave a distinct spark spectrum by the action
of condensed sparks, and therefore, on this evidence alone, it must be regarded as
anelement. The fact that it gave two spectra under different conditions was not

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 601

opposed to, nor did it invalidate, this evidence, because such an element as nitro-
gen not only emits two spark spectra, but the two spectra can be readily photo-
graphed simultaneously from the same spark discharge.

It was proposed by M, de Gramont at the International Congress in Paris in
1900, and agreed, that no new substance should be described as an element until
its spark spectrum had been measured and shown to be different from that of
every other known form of matter.

This appears to me to have been one of the most important transactions of
the Congress. The first application of this rule has resulted in the recognition
of radium as a new element: it is characterised by a special spark spectrum of
fifteen lines which have been fully studied and measured by Demarcay. Itshows
no lines of any other element.

Another application of this rule has recently been made by Exner and
Haschek with preparations of the oxide of an element obtained by Demargay, and
named europium. It exhibits 1193 spark lines and 257 arc lines.

I have already mentioned that one feature strikingly shown in the spectra of
chemically related elements was the wider separation of the lines in pairs, triplets,
or other groups; and that this was in some way related to the atomic mass, since
the separation was greater in those elements whose atomic weights were greater.
Kayser and Runge, and also Rydberg, have shown that in the series of alkali metals
the atomic weights are very nearly proportional to the squares of the differences
between the oscillation frequencies of the lines, that is to say, the squares of
the intervals between the lines. Runge and Precht have recently shown that
in every group of elements that are chemically related the atomic weight is
proportional to some power of the distance separating the two lines of the pairs
of which the spectrum is constituted. In other words, if the logarithms of the
atomic weight and distance between the lines be taken as coordinates the corre-
sponding points of a group of elements which are chemically related will lie on a
straight line. Applying this law to the determination of the atomic weight of
radium they find that the strongest lines of the new element are exactly analogous
to the strongest barium lines, and to those of the closely related elements mag-
nesium, calcium, and strontium. The intervals between the two lines of each pair
in the principal series, and in the first and second subordinate series, if measured
on the scale of oscillation frequencies, are equal for each element, and the same
law holds good for the spectrum of radium. From this the value 257-8 was found
for the atomic mass of the element. This does not quite accord with the number
obtained by Madame Curie, who found it to be 225. It will be interesting to see
which number will eventually be proved to be the more correct.

It is now many years since I first pointed out that the absolute wave-lengths
of the lines of emission spectra of the elements are physical constants of quite as
great importance in theoretical chemistry as the atomic weights; in the light of
recent discoveries this statement may be said to be now fully justified.

Radio-active Elements.

From the study of rays of measurable wave-lengths we have iately sailed
under the guidance of M. Henri Becquerel into another region where it is doubtful
whether the rays conform to the undulatory theory. In fact the rays are believed
to be charged particles of matter, charged, that is to say, with electricity. Beyond
doubt they are possessed of very extraordinary properties, inasmuch as they are
able to penetrate the clothing, celluloid, gutta percha, glass, and various metals.
They are, moreover, endowed with a no less remarkable physiological action, pro-
ducing blisters and ulcerations in the flesh which are difficult to heal. It is an
established fact that such effects have been caused by only a few centigrams of
a radium compound contained in a glass tube enclosed in a thin metallic box
carried in the pocket.

From this we can quite understand that there is no exaggeration in the
statement attributed to the discoverer, Professor Curie, by Mr. W. J. Hanmer, of
the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, that he would not care to trust

602 REPORT—19038.

himself in a room with a kilogram of pure radium, because it would doubtless
destroy his eyesight, burn all the skin off his body, and probably kill him.

It remains for me to express regret that without an undue extension of the
time devoted to this Address it would have been scarcely possible to afford
adequate treatment to the absorption spectra of inorganic compounds, particularly
those of the rare earths, and such also as afford evidence of the chemical constitu-
tion of saline solutions; or of organic compounds closely related to coloured sub-
stances and dyes, the investigation of which leads to the elucidation of the origin
of colour, and serves to indicate the nature of the chemical reactions by which
coloured substances may be evolved from those which are colourless.

Chemistry is popularly known as ascience of far-reaching importance to specific
arts, industries, and manufactures ; but it occupies a peculiar position in this respect,
that it is at one and the same time an abstract science, and one with an ever-
increasing number of practical applications. To draw a line between the two and
say where the one ends and the other begins is impossible, because the theoretical
problem of to-day may reappear upon the morrow as the foundation of a valuable
invention.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Apparatus for Determining Latent Heat of Evaporation.
By Professor J. CAMPBELL Brown, D.Sc.

The apparatus exhibited furnishes a direct method of determining the latent
heat of evaporation, at the boiling point, of any volatile substance of which
something approaching 50 grammes can be obtained. None of the substance is
lost, and no comparison with any other substances is required. The amount
evaporated is accurately weighed and the amount of heat employed in evaporating
it is accurately measured.

From 15 to 20 grammes of the substance are placed in a tube about 10 cm.
long and 23 mm. wide, which is closed at one end and drawn out at the
other end to an orifice 15 mm. wide. The tube contains in its lower third a
spiral of fine platinum wire welded at its extremities to thick platinum wire
terminals. These terminals pass through the bottom of the tube and dip into
mercury contained in U-shaped projections from the expanded neck of a flask of
30 to 50 c.c. capacity. This tube is heated to the boiling point of the liquid in the
manner about to be indicated and is then closed temporarily by a cap and care-
fully weighed. It is then replaced in the flask. A glass cap is ground on to the
neck of the flask, and is provided with an orifice through which vapour can escape
into an outer jacket. The space between the tube and the cap and neck of the flask
forms the inner jacket. A long glass cap having an escape tube for the condensed
liquid is fixed over the whole expanded neck of the flask by means of a ring of
cork or indiarubber.

A convenient quantity of the liquid is placed in the flask and boiled by a
suitable bath. Its vapour passes into the jacket above and raises the temperature
of the tube and its contents to the boiling point of the liquid. When the weighed
tube and its contents have been replaced and the temperature is constant, a current
of electricity is passed through the spiral by means of the mercury in the U-tubes.
The time is noted and an ammeter in the circuit is watched and recorded every
two minutes. A yoltmeter is also switched into the circuit every two minutes
and read. At the end of, say, twenty minutes, the average ampéres and volts are
recorded. From these data the heat expended in evaporation is calculated. The
tube is taken out and re-weighed to ascertain the weight of substance evaporated
by this quantity of heat. The double jacket of its own vapour keeps the tempe-
rature constant at the boiling-point and prevents loss of heat into the room.

The ammeter and voltmeter should be accurate to at least 345 of the total
reading employed; and must therefore be more accurately calibrated than are the
best instruments usually supplied by the trade.

The first experiments should be rejected. With practice the results are
accurate and the method easy. The variations in different experiments by
different operators are usually a small decimal figure.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 603

As an example the results with benzene are given. a is Trouton’s formula ;

6 is the critical temperature.
Latent Heat of Benzene.

Correct weight |
‘ E.M.F.| of substance | Latent | ML ML
Time Current | Amp. | (volts) evaporated heat | Mean | ar =
(grms.) | |
10 min.| 3cells | 0°885| 5:15 6904 95:08) |
10 min.| 4cells | 1:174| 6:92 12°341 94°82 | |
with
1 ohm
resistance |

* 94-4 Griffith and Marshall; 93°45 Schiff.

2. On some Derivatives of Fluorene. By Miss IDA SMEDLEY.

3. Action of Diastase on the Starch Granules of Raw and Malted Barley.
By Artuur R. Line, LLC.

The whole of the published data referring to the hydrolysis of starch by
diastase have been derived from the study of the action of the enzyme on potato-
starch paste, and the application of these to practical purposes has led to mislead-
ing and erroneous conclusions, The starches of barley and other cereals differ from
that of the potato in being readily attacked by a solution of diastase in the ungela-
tinised condition.

The author has carried out a series of mashes with barley and malt starch of
various origin, the starch being mixed with the diastase preparation in the dry
state and mashed with water at different temperatures for two hours.

The following table illustrates the results obtained :—

Mashing

Starch employed Temperature [a]D 3:93 R*3'93

Barley1899sample . . . . 60 1408 887
” ” ” . . 5 ° 65'5 143°4 88-2

” ” ” . . . . el 1451 80°6

», » 1902 sample 5 , : 60 150°7 84:2

” ” ” . . . ° 65°5 152°3 79:0

” ” » . - m . 71 163°8 G78
Kilned malt . A é A : P 60 150°9 84:4
” ” . . . - ' “9 65:5 15671 80°6

” ” . . . . . e 71 | 1613 67:2
Low-dried malt. y é F 4 . 60 151°6 85:3

” ” . . ° . . 65°5 152°5 83°3

” ” . . . . . 71 165°7 66°6
| Barley starch (paste) . é i : 65°5 1686 52-4
Potato starch (paste) . ; é 4 60 1545 81:8
” ” ” 3 : y 65°5 155°6 71:5

” ” ” . . . . 71 167:1 55:3

* The symbol R denotes the percentage of apparent maltose, determined by the
capric reduction method, on the dissolved matter in solution. The symbols
[a]D 3:93 and R 3:93 indicate that the total solids have been calculated from the
specific gravity of the solution by the divisor 3-93,

604 REPORT—1903.

The very great differences between the constants yielded by the starch mashes
and the starch paste conversions are apparent. It is also to be noted that the
starches from different barleys give different constants, and the author hopes to
continue his work in this direction. He brings forward evidence showing that in
the process of mashing, as conducted in breweries, the starch granules are dissolved
directly by the diastase and are not gelatinised prior to hydrolysis, as it is usually
stated they are. It is probable that the products formed in these starch mashes are
different from those resulting from the hydrolysis of starch paste; and it is hoped
that a study of the former may yield results of both theoretical and practical
importance.

4. Action of Malt Diastase on Potato-starch Paste.
By Artuour R. Line, PLC.

Brown and Millar have shown that the so-called stable dextrin—one of the
products of the hydrolysis of potato-starch paste by diastase—is converted by the
further action of diastase into a mixture of about equal parts of d-glucose and
maltose. The observation of Davis and Ling (next abstract), that no d-glucose
is formed when unrestricted diastase acts on starch paste, stands in apparent
antithesis to this. However, the author has confirmed the result of Brown and
Millar, and has found further that other isolated products of diastatic action
yield a proportion of d-glucose when submitted to the further action of un-
restricted diastase ; thus the maltodextrin, a of Ling and Baker, when treated in
3 per cent. solution with an active preparation of diastase at 55° for 140 hours,
gave the constants [a]D 3:93 127-6°, R 3-93 105-6, corresponding approximately
with maltose 90 per cent., d-glucose 10 percent. The presence of 10° per cent.
of d-glucose in the product was proved by weighing the phenylglucosazone formed
under standard conditions. Taking into account the fact that potato-starch
paste is never completely converted into maltose, although the final product has
the constants of that sugar, and that a substance is always present which is
identical with the isomaltose of C. J. Lintner, the simple dextrin of Ling and
Baker, and the dextrinose of Syniewski, which when isolated and submitted
to the action of diastase yields d-glucose, the author suggests that the reason
no d-glucose can be detected among the products of the action of un-
restricted diastase on starch paste is that that sugar is immediately condensed by
the action of the enzyme forming dextrinose. When, however, diastase is pre-
heated, its condensing action is weakened, and the d-glucose formed can be
isolated. Attempts to condense d-glucose or mixtures of it with maltose have
not been successful,

5. Action of Malt Diastase on Potato-starch Paste.
By Bernarp F. Davis, B.Sc., and Artuur R. Line, LLC.

In a previous paper! it was shown that when malt diastase is heated in
aqueous solution above the temperature at which the activity of the enzyme is at
its optimum, namely 55°, the reaction with potato-starch paste at about 55° is not
only slower, but different products are formed; thus d-glucose can be readily
isolated from them after the reaction has been allowed to proceed for several
hours. Special experiments, employing the same quantities of diastase which has
not been heated in solution above 55°, show that d-glucose is not formed either
from starch paste or from maltose. It therefore appears that the produc-
tion of this sugar is connected with the preheating of the hydrolytic agent in
solution above 55°. As a result of a very large number of new experiments,
which will be published shortly, the authors have arrived at the following
conclusions.

1 Journ. Fed. Inst. Bren. 1902, 8, 475.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 605

The effect of heating a solution of diastase as above indicated is to weaken
its action and also to produce an alteration in the enzyme molecule, which is
moreover a permanent one, for the diastase retains its altered properties when
reprecipitated from its solution by alcohol and allowed to act on starch paste at
or below 55°. The alteration of the diastase is assumed by the production of
d-glucose when it acts on starch paste, and it appears to commence when a
solution of the enzyme is heated below 60°; although, judging from the smali
amount of d-glucose formed by its action, the change at the last-named tem-
perature isnot complete. As the temperature of preheating the solution is increased,
the amount of d-glucose it is capable of producing also increases, the maximum
amount being obtained by the action of diastase which has been preheated in
solution at 68° to 70° for fifteen to thirty minutes. Abcve this temperature the
destruction of the enzyme is so rapid that a much larger proportion of it has to be
employed to attain the stage of the reaction at which d-glucose appears. Still
d-glucose is formed by diastase which has been restricted at temperatures up to
78°, and probably above this. It has been observed in all cases that when, after
the maximum amount of d-glucose has been formed, the solution is kept at the
temperature of hydrolysis, usually 54°, the sugar just mentioned diminishes in
amount, and the occurrence of this apparent condensing action of the enzyme may
probably explain the failure in several cases to detect d-glucose among the products
of hydrolysis (compare the previous abstract). The maximum amount of d-glucose
formed in any case does not exceed about 12 per cent. of the total hydrolytic
products.

6. The Chemical and Physical Characters of the so-called ‘ Mad-stone.’
By Dr, H. C. Waite.

It is a widespread current superstition in the Southern States of America that
the sting of a venomous snake and the bite of a rabid animal (dog, &c.) may be
detected and discriminated from an innoxious wound, and the venom of the wound
extracted, by application of what is called the ‘mad-stone.’ Several of these stones
came opportunely into the hands of the author, and an examination of their
character was made.

The ‘mad-stone’ of current superstition is a very rare concretionary calculus
found in the gullet of the male deer, As extracted it resembles a water-worn
pebble, oblong in form, varying in size, but not greater, perhaps, than 3 inches in
length by 1} inch in thickness. A smooth flat surface is given to one side by
rasping. The examination was directed to the following points :—

1. Chemical Composition.—Found to be chiefly tri-calcic phosphate. Exact
figures of analyses given.

2. Adherence to Cut and Torn Flesh-wounds.—Found to vary with the
mechanical character of the wound and the mode of application of the stone,
without regard to venomous or non-venomous character of the wound.

3. Absorbing Power—Immersed in water the stones were found to absorb to an
extent of 5 per cent. of their weight. Applied to fresh wounds and carefully
adjusted, blood and other fluid absorbed to a maximum extent of 2°3 per cent. the
weight of the stone.

4, Character of Matter absorbed.—The stone after application to the wound
is boiled with water, or mk (in accordance with the superstition). The fluid is
discoloured, and is shown to be toaic in the case of a known venomous wound, No
difference in discoloration is observable in venomous and non-venomous wounds.
That the stones are not curative is shown by the death of animals from venomous
wounds after application of the stone.

The literature of the subject has been examined. The ‘mad-stone’ super-
stition seems quite ancient. It was current in New England in Puritan times.
The author has in his possession an authenticated ‘mad-stone’ dating from 1654.
This, however, is a moderately porous sandstone, entirely different from the

606 REPORT—1903.

modern ‘ mad-stone’ of the Southern States. It is peculiar in form, and appears
somewhat as a water-worn pebble.
Specimens of the current ‘mad-stone’ were exhibited in illustration of the

paper.

7. On the Reduction of Nitrates by Sewage. By Professor E. A. Letts,
D.Sc., Ph.D., R. F. Buaxe, £L.C., and J. 8. Torron, B.A.

The object of this investigation was to ascertain to what extent, and with what
rapidity, the nitrogenous constituents of sewage can be broken down by a suitably
arranged scheme of purification, so that their nitrogen is evolved inthe gaseous
state. It is well known that in the most efficient systems of sewage purification
by natural methods the resulting effluent is comparatively free from ammonia and
organic nitrogen, but is charged with nitrates. These latter, however, do not
correspond in amount with the quantities of the two former originally present, but
are always less, and two of the authors have shown that during the treatment of
sewage by the so-called ‘ contact’ or ‘ bacteria’ beds a considerable quantity of the
combined nitrogen escapes as free nitrogen.

The researches of Gayon and Dupetit, Tacke, Adeney, and others have shown
that nitrates are themselves decomposed when in contact with sewage with evolu-
tion of nitrogen or its oxides, and carbonic anhydride.

It therefore seemed possible that by a judicious combination of the two pro-
cesses, te. production and destruction of nitrates, a considerable proportion and
possibly most of the combined nitrogen present in sewage might be converted
into free nitrogen, and as a consequence the resulting effluent be deprived of its
fertilising properties in relation to vegetation.

Such a result might appear useless, and even wasteful, under ordinary circum-
stances, but in the case of the sewage of Belfast, and probably in that of other
towns similarly situated, it is really necessary. At Belfast, at all events, one of
the authors has shown that the growth in enormous quantities of the green sea-
weed Ulva latissima and the resulting nuisance which occurs when it is washed
ashore and putrefies—as happens each summer—is directly due to the fertilising
properties of the sewage of the city, which is poured into the lough in an un-
treated condition.”

The experiments conducted by the authors consisted of—(I.) a study of the
changes which occur when potassium nitrate is added to the effluent from a
septic tank, and the speed with which they occur; (II.) an investigation as re-
gards the cause of these changes; (III.) the action of pure cultures of specific micro-
organisms in broth containing potassium nitrate.

I. The Chemical Changes occurring when Potassium Nitrate is added to the
Effiuent from a Septic Tank.

The method of experiment consisted in completely filling two similar bottles
(which were then tightly stoppered), one with the septic-tank effluent alone and
the other with the same effluent p/vs an accurately measured volume of a strong
standard solution of potassium nitrate (1¢.c. = 10 mgs. nitric nitrogen). Allowing
the two bottles so filled to remain at the temperature of the laboratory for a given
interval of time, their contents were examined quantitatively as regards (a) dis-
solved gases, (b) nitrates, (c) nitrites, (d) free and albuminoid ammonia.

Practically all the experiments (which were eight in number) were made with

1 ¢On the Chemical and Biological Changes occurring during the Treatment of
Sewage by the so-called Bacteria Beds,’ by Professor Letts, D.Sc., Ph D., and R. F.
Blake, F.C.S., B.A. Rep. 1901.

? This used to be the case, but works for the purification of the sewage are being
pass on rapidly, and at the present time a considerable proportion is being
purified.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 607

mixtures of potassium nitrate and septic-tank effluent containing 2°5 parts of
nitric nitrogen per 100,000 in the case of the nitrated samples. The chief
general conclusions arrived at were as follows :—

(1) Potassium nitrate (and no doubt any other nitrate likely to be produced in
a sewage effluent) is decomposed by the septic-tank effluent, and the nitric
nitrogen is evolved, sometimes entirely as free nitrogen, sometimes partly as nitric
oxide. Nitrous oxide may also be formed, but the evidence on that point is not as yet
conclusive. The action seems to vary with different samples of septic-tank effluent,
but in four of the eight experiments the theoretical quantity of nitrogen (corre-
sponding with the added nitrate] was found either as free nitrogen alone or along
with nitric oxide.

There is no evidence from the authors’ experiments to show that any con-
siderable quantity of these gases is produced from either the free ammonia or the
organic nitrogen present in the septic-tank effluent.

(2) The general character of the change is that of combustion, the oxygen of
the nitrate eventually appearing either partly or entirely in the form of carbonic
anhydride.

(3) In some of the experiments a little nitrite was produced, but in the
majority none was found at their conclusion.

(4) The destruction of the nitrate occurs with remarkable rapidity, and in
most of the experiments the whole of the added nitrate—equivalent to 2°5 parts of
nitric nitrogen per 100,000 of mixture—was decomposed in twenty-four hours.

(5) In addition to the decomposition of the nitrate and evolution of carbonic
anhydride the fermenting liquid experiences other changes.

There is always a Joss of free ammonia, and as arule a gain in albuminoid
ammonia, but the former generally exceeds the latter. Thus in six experiments
the average loss of free ammonia amounted to 0°266 part per 100,000, while the
corresponding gain in albuminoid ammonia was only 0:166, or rather more than
half the preceding figure.

It may also be mentioned that in two of the experiments marsh gas was found,
not only in the septic tank effluent, but also in the nitrated fluid, and it is some-
what remarkable that more of the gas was found in the latter than in the former.

Towards the end of the investigation the effects of aération were studied.
Parallel experiments were made, in one of which the septic-tank effluent was
thoroughly aérated before mixing it with the nitrate, while in the other the
same quantity of nitrate was added to the non-aérated effluent. In both experi-
ments the whole of the nitrate was decomposed in twenty-four hours with evolu-
tion of the equivalent quantity of nitrogen gas.- In the aérated sample no marsh
gas was formed, but a considerable excess of carbonic anhydride was produced, the
total volume per litre of fluid being 57°1 c.c., whereas the amount corresponding with
the added nitrate plus the oxygen dissolved from the air was 49°3 + 5°53 = 55:33.
In the non-aérated sample some marsh gas was formed, but considerably less
carbonic anhydride.

The results obtained in this investigation suggest in part, at all events, an
explanation of the production of free nitrogen in the ‘contact’ beds commonly
employed in the purification of sewage. These during the period they are in con-
tact with air no doubt become charged with nitrates, and the latter are then de-
stroyed when the beds are filled with sewage.

II. Cause of the Decomposition of Nitrates when in Contact with a
Putrefying Liquid.

In order to ascertain whether the action was brought about entirely by the
vital processes of micro-organisms, and was not due to enzymes excreted by them
or to purely chemical changes, an apparatus was devised in which the septic-tank
effluent was passed through a Chamberland filter and thence into a sterilised flask

1 Gayon and Dupetit found all three gases.

608 REPORT—1903.

from which it was drawn by a vacuum pump into two sterilised tubes of sufficient
capacity, one of which contained a measured volume of the nitrate solution, and
these tubes when filled were closed by pinch-cocks applied to indiarubber junc-
tions. At the end of sixty-six hours analyses were made of the dissolved gases
contained in the contents of both tubes, when it was found that they were practi-
cally identical, and that the nitrate had not been decomposed. The results of this
experiment appear to be conclusive. The septic-tank effluent deprived of the
micro-organisms which it contains has no action upon a nitrate. The decom-
position of the latter must therefore be caused entirely by the vital processes of
certain micro-organisms, and not by enzymic or chemical action.

Ill. The Micro-organisms which reduce Nitrates with Evolution of Nitrogen
Gas or Oxides of Nitrogen.

Gayon, Springer, Deheraine, Maquenne, and others have isolated organisms
from putrefying liquids which decompose nitrates with evolution of nitrogen or
its oxides, but so far as can be judged from the printed abstracts of their work
the identification of the species with known forms was either wanting or was
incomplete. It occurred to the authors that as the action is one of reduction it
would be worth while to study the effects of those micro-organisms which are
known to cause the evolution of hydrogen, such as B. Amylobacter, B. butyricus
(Botkin), B. Lactis aérogenes, and B. Coli communis, and as pure cultures of the
latter happened to be available experiments were made with them.

An apparatus was constructed which permitted the introduction of pure cul-
tures into a vessel filled with sterilised broth containing potassium nitrate from
which the dissolved gases had been removed by boiling out in a vacuum.

With this apparatus experiments were first made on the action of pure cultures
of B. Coli communis and B. Lactis aérogenes on broth alone. These were con-
ducted at ordinary temperatures, and the fluid examined for dissolved gases as soon
as a few bubbles of liberated gas had made their appearance. The dissolved gases
were found (after removing carbonic anhydride) to consist entirely of hydrogen.

Experiments were then made with cultures of the same organisms and nitrated
broth, and although they are not as yet completed the results so far obtained
show that B. Coli communis liberates nitrogen from a nitrate in broth culture;
B. Lactis aérogenes does not do so.

The authors desire to express their thanks to Professor Lorrain Smith, who
supplied the pure cultures and gave most valuable assistance and advice during the
bacteriological part of the investigation.

8. Ona Method Jor the Separation of Cobalt from Nickel, and the Volumetric
Determination of Cobalt. By R. L. Taytor, £.2.C.

It has been long known that cobalt is precipitated from its solutions as a higher
oxide by the carbonates of barium, strontium, and calcium, in presence of chlorine
or bromine. Long ago Rose proposed this as a means of separating cobalt from
nickel, but he made the mistake of using a strongly acid solution. Of course the
excess of acid was neutralised by the added carbonate, but the carbon dioxide
thus produced retards enormously, if it does not altogether prevent, the complete
precipitation of the cobalt. The author has found? that if a perfectly neutral and
not too concentrated solution is used, cobalt is precipitated quantitatively as a
black oxide in five or ten minutes by either barium or calcium carbonate in pre-
sence of bromine water. The two carbonates appear to act equally well, but the
former is to be preferred if the subsequent removal of the added metal is desired.
Whichever carbonate is used it should be in the precipitated form, and it is best
made into a paste with water. If the liquid from which the cobalt is to be pre-

1 Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, vol. xlvi. 1902,
No, 11, and vol, xlvii. 1903, No. 12.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 602

cipitated is acid, the acid may be neutralised by adding excess of the carbonate,
but the liquid must then be well boiled to expel all the carbon dioxide, and then
cooled before the bromine water is added. Not only does free carbonic acid pre-
vent the precipitation of the cobalt, but zinc also considerably interferes with the
reaction. A very small amount of that metal seriously retards the precipitation
of the cobalt, and a large amount almost stops it altogether.

The author has ascertained the composition of the precipitated black oxide of
cobalt by dissolving it in a mixture of hydrochloric acid and potassium iodide, and
determining the amount of iodine liberated. It is fairly constant in composition,
and approximates closely to the formulz Co,O,, and Co,0,,. Which of these
more correctly represents its composition he is unable to decide, but he suggests
that its composition is sufficiently uniform to enable it to be used as a means for
the volumetric determination of cobalt, by finding the amount of iodine which it
liberates. The process has been tested by Mr. J. H. Davidson, B.Sc., in the assay
of cobalt ores, and he finds it far more rapid than the processes generally in use,
and at the same time quite sufficiently accurate for assay purposes.

9. Report of the Committee on Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of
Benzene.—See Reports, p. 85.

10. Report of the Committee on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.
See Reports, p. 174.

11. Report of the Committee on the Possibility of making Special Reports
more available than at present.—See Reports, p. 169.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Investigations at Low Temperatures :—(a) Densities of Solid Hydrogen,
Nitrogen, and Oxygen ; (b) Methods of producing Solid Hydrogen and
Nitrogen ; (c) Latent Heats, Specific Heats, and Coefficient of Expansion
of Liquid Hydrogen. By Professor James Dewar, LL.D., L.R.S.

2. The Application of Low Temperatures to the Study of Biological
Problems. By Autan Macrapyen, M.D.

The cellular doctrine lies at the basis of modern biological research, Living
matter in its simple and complex conditions consists essentially of protoplasm with
a contained body or nucleus. The two elements, plasmon and nucleus, constitute
the elementary organism—the cell. The lowest individual forms of life are
represented by a single cell, and such unicellular organisms may be either of a
vegetable or animal type. The cells in each instance exist as free living and
independent organisms, The higher forms of life are built up of parts in which the

1903. RR

610 REPORT—1903.

structural unit remains the cell, despite the modifications the cell necessarily under-
goes as a fixed element in the various tissues and organs. All phases of animal
and plant life are demonstrably of cellular origin and organisation, and their vital
manifestations represent the summed-up activities of cells. Every vital problem
therefore is ultimately a cellular problem, and a direct study of the cell, in so far
as may be possible, is the keynote of the problem it is desired to investigate.
A histological technique, aided by the microscope, will naturally be employed
where it is desired to study the relations of parts and the structural organisation
of the tissues and their cellular elements. The soluble products of the living cell
spontaneously present themselves for examination by chemical and other means.
It is otherwise with regard to the agencies acting and the processes occurring
within the confines of the cell. These are naturally beyond the range of the
ordinary methods of observation. ‘The essential processes of life are intra-cellular
and intimately bound up with the living substance of the cell, and of these but
few data are possessed. The importance of the problems involved is as great as
their investigation is difficult. The cell exercises its vital functions in virtue of a
specific physical and chemical organisation of its molecular constituents. The
ordinary methods of biological and chemical research modify or destroy this
organisation, and do not admit of an intimate study of the normal cell constituents.
For this purpose it is essential to eliminate or to reduce to a minimum the influence
of external modifying agents on the cell or its immediate products. An intra-
cellular physiology can only be based on a direct study of intra-cellular consti-
tuents apart from their secretions and products. This, under ordinary circum-
stances, is impossible, with respect to actively functionating and intact cells. It
is obvious, therefore, that the first desideratum is a suitable method of obtaining
the cell plasma for experimental purposes,and it is only recently that this has
been successfully accomplished. The most feasible means of procedure appeared
to be the use of mechanical agents which, whilst bringing the cell substance
within the field of observation, would at the same time be least likely to
affect its character and constitution. The method consists in a mechanical rupture
of the cells and the release of their contents under conditions favouring the
conservation of their properties. The first successful application of this descrip-
tion of method was made by Buchner in the particular instance of the yeast cell,
and with brilliant results. The researches of Buchner were of wide biological
significance, and were suggestive of much more than a cell-free alcoholic fermen-
tation of sugars. They demonstrated the possibilities of the new methods with
regard to more general vital problems. ‘The Buchner process consisted in a
mechanical trituration of the yeast celi with the aid of sand, and a subsequent
filtration of the resultant mass under pressure through Kieselguhr. The filtrate
contained the expressed constituents of the yeast cell which were capable of
passing through Kieselguhr, and the product in virtue of its fermentative properties
was termed ‘ Zymase.’

The writer and his colleagues have during the past four years been engaged in
investigating the application of cognate methods to biological research. The
advice and help generously afforded by Professor James Dewar materially
forwarded the progress of the research.

It was considered that by the employment of low temperatures a disintegra-
tion of living cells might possibly be accomplished, and a wide field of inquiry
opened to investigation in the biological laboratory. For this purpose the methods
of mechanical trituration required refinement in several directions.

The conditions it was desired to fulfil were, a rapid disintegration of the fresh
tissues and cells, an avoidance of heat and other modifying agents during the
process, and an immediate manifestation of the cellular juices obtained.

It had likewise been noticed that ordinary filter pressing through Kieselguhr
removed physiologically active substances from the cell juices. Liquid air appeared
to be the most convenient means of obtaining the necessary cold, and it presented
the advantage of a fluid freezing medium, in which the material to be manipulated
could be directly immersed. The temperatare of this reagent (about —190°C.)
would in addition prevent heat and chemical changes, whilst reducing the cells

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 611

to a condition of brittleness favourable to their trituration without the addition of
such substances as sand and Kieselguhr, which might modify the composition of
the resultant product.

The method, if successful, would meet the conditions desired for the subse-
quent study of the intracellular juices. It may be briefly stated that by the
application of low temperatures a mechanical trituration of every variety of cell
per se has been accomplished, and the fresh cell plasma obtained for the purpose
of experiment. A number of control experiments have demonstrated that
immersion in liquid air is not necessarily injurious to life—bacteria, for example,
having survived a continuous exposure for six months to its influence. The actual
trituration of the material is accomplished in a specially devised apparatus, which is
kept immersed during the operation in liquid air.

The normal and diseased animal tissues have been treated in this manner, and
their intracellular constituents obtained—e.g. epithelium, cancer tissues, &c.

Moulds, yeasts, and bacteria have been rapidly triturated under the same con-
ditions and the respective cell juices submitted to examination.

The severest test of the capabilities of the method was furnished by the
bacteria, an order of cells for which the standard of measurement is the mikron.
The experiments proved successful in every instance tested. The typhoid bacillus,
for example, is triturated in the short space of two to three hours, and the demon-
stration has been furnished that the typhoid organism contains within itself a
toxin. From these and other researches it has become evident that there exists a
distinct class of toxins and ferments which are contained and operate within the
cell or bacterium, in contradistinction to the now well-known class of toxins, which
are extra-cellular—z.e. extruded during life from the cell into the surrounding
medium. ‘To this latter class belongs the diphtheria toxin, which has been so
successfully used in the preparation of diphtheria antitoxin. A number of infective
organisms do not produce appreciable extra-cellular toxins, and the search must
therefore be made within the specific cells for the missing tcxins to which the
intoxication of the body in the course of the disease in question is probably
due. The practical utility of investigating these intracellular toxins has already
become evident in the preparation from the intra-cellular toxin of the typhoid
bacillus of a serum having antitoxic value as regards this toxin.

The experiments made with the pus organisms have already shown that intra-
cellular toxins exist in this important order of disease germs. The cell juices
of other types of pathogenic bacteria such as the tubercle and diphtheria bacillus
present characteristics of equal interest.

The application of low temperatures has aided the investigation of certain
other biological problems.

The photogenic bacteria preserve their normal Juminous properties after
exposure to the temperature of liquid air. The effect, however, of a trituration at
the same temperature is to abolish the luminosity of the cells in question. This
points to the luminosity being essentially a function of the living cell, and depen-
dent for its production on the intact organisation of the cell.

The rabies virus has not yet been detected or isolated, although regarded as an
organised entity. The seat of the unknown rabies virus is the nervous system.
If the brain substance of a rabid animal be triturated for a given length of time at
the temperature of liquid air, its infective properties as regards rabies are abolished.
This result appears to be a further indication of the existence in rabies of an
organised virus.

The method described admits of a fresh study of the question of immunity
from an intra-cellular standpoint.

The intra-cellular juices of the white blood-cells have been obtained, and
tested with regard to bacteriolytic properties, and the natural protection that may
thus he afforded to the body against the invasions of micro-parasites.

The application of low temperatures to the study of biological problems has
furnished a new and fruitful method of inquiry.

RRQ

612 REPORT—19038.

3. Report of the Committee on securing Duty-free Alcohol for Scientific
Research.—See Reports, p. 170.

4, The Cause of the Lustre produced on Mercerising Cotton wader Tension.
By Juuws Hisner, F.C.S., and Wiiu1aM J. Pops, £28.

It is generally supposed that the production of a lustre on treating stretched
cotton yarn with strong caustic soda is conditioned by only two factors—namely,
by the simultaneous swelling and shrinking of the fibres. The authors show,
however, that a third effect is essential to the production of any appreciable silky
lustre: this consists in an uncoiling of the naturally twisted ribbon constituting
the cotton-fibre.

On immersing a loose cotton-fibre in strong caustic soda on the microscope
stage, it is seen to rapidly untwist, to swell, and at the same time to shorten in
length; the untwisting generally continues until the natural twist has nearly
completely disappeared, after which the fibre presents the appearance of a round
irregularly curved rod with a comparatively smooth surface. If the fibre is fixed
at one end and treated with caustic soda, it twists either to the right or to the
left, according as it was originally coiled towards the left or towards the right; in
the most generally occurring case, that, namely, in which the fibre is coiled partly
to the right and partly to the left, the untwisting attending the treatment with
soda takes place first towards the left and then towards the right, or wce versa.
If the fibre is prevented from contracting by being held at the two ends in a
stretched condition it still untwists when treated with soda; since, however, the
whole of the untwisting does not take place simultaneously, the untwisting of
one part causes another part, which has already become unwound and attained
the condition of a gelatinous rod, to become tightly twisted in the opposite
direction to its original twist.

The stretched fibre thus again acquires a corkscrew-like appearance, part of the
twist being right- and part left-handed, with the difference, however, that whilst
the raw fibre forms a twisted ribbon creased or folded at the turns, treatment
with soda converts it into a rod of circular cross-section which has been twisted
whilst in a gelatinous state. The twisting of the fibre under these conditions
results in the production on the rounded surface of spiral ridges possessing smooth
curved contours, which reflect the light at all angles of incidence and reflection
just as do the coils of a polished corkscrew. The fibre, therefore, becomes
lustrous. bs

The high degree of transparency possessed by the cotton-fibre introduces
difficulties into the microscopic examination of the changes referred to above. But
although the fibre is amorphous, it is doubly refracting owing to internal strain ;
the authors therefore find it convenient to conduct the microscopic examination of
the fibre between crossed Nicol prisms, and to accentuate the difference in tint of
the various parts by introducing a one-eighth wave-length retardation plate of
mica between the Nicols in such a way that its principal directions make an angle,
of 45° with those of the prisms. This enables the internal canal, cracks in the
surface, and differences in thickness to be made out with great ease. The
correctness of the explanation now given of the lustre is shown by a series of
photomicrographs taken in natural colours in elliptically polarised light under the
conditions just referred to. The authors have to thank their colleague, Mr. Charles
W. Gamble, Director of the Photographic Department in the Manchester Municipal
School of Technology, for having assisted the work by the production of these
photographs. A further confirmation of the correctness of the conclusions now
arrived at is afforded by the observation that whilst cotton-fibres mercerised loose
have a practically circular cross-section, fibres treated under tension with soda
show cross-sections shaped like polygons with rounded corners.

An independent proof of the authors’ conclusions that the untwisting of the
fibre is as essential a factor in the production of the gloss as are the swelling and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. «66138

the shrinking, is afforded by an examination of the action of reagents on cotton
yarn. Thus, hanks of a long staple yarn having a mean breaking strength of
417'4 + 2'1 grams were immersed loose in caustic soda (sp. gr. 1°342) and saturated
barium mercuric iodide solution, and the following changes in the breaking load of
the yarn and the lengths of the hanks were found to result :—

Caustic Soda.—Mean breaking load, 526-3488 grams; shrinkage, from
66:0 to 44°8 cm.

Barium Mercurie Iodide.—Mean breaking load, 526-6 + 3:3 grams; shrinkage,
from 66:0 to 48°9 em.

Although the shrinkage and the increase in the breaking load brought about
by these two reagents are so nearly the same, yet on immersing hanks under tension
in these solutions and washing whilst still under strain the hank treated with
soda acquires a brilliant lustre, whilst that treated with the iodide exhibits only
a trace more lustre than the untreated yarn. The explanation of this result is
found in the fact that caustic soda causes rapid untwisting of the fibre, whilst
barium mercuric iodide does not cause untwisting.

The authors give a list of reagents which bring about two of the three effects
shown to be essential to the production of lustre—namely, swelling, shrinking, and
untwisting—and find that ‘lustreing’ cannot be effected with such reagents;
several solutions are known, however, which cause the three effects, and with the
aid of such liquids the lustre can always be produced.

5. Stead’s recent Researches as to the Causes and Prevention of
Brittleness in Steel. By Professor T. Turner, M.Sc.

After briefly referring to the nature of a eutectic, and the characteristic
microstructure of such bodies, as pointed out by Osmond, the author outlined the
structure of steel. Special reference was made to the properties and distribution
of ferrite and pearlite in metal, when used in its natural state for constructional
purposes, and containing about 0°45 per cent. of carbon. A short summary was
then given of the work of Brinell, Heyn, Stansfield, and of Stead and Richards in
reference to brittleness caused by heating steel either for a short period to a high
temperature, or for a longer time at a lower temperature (900° C.). The crystalline
character and brittleness so produced can be at once removed, in most cases, by
heating to slightly under 900° C. The structure of steel of good quality is,
therefore, largely dependent on the rate of cooling through the point Ac,. Details
were also given of the work of Stead and Richards on the production of sorbite in
steel. The maximum quantity of sorbite is obtained by cooling the heated steel
rapidly until its temperature is below the critical points, and then tempering
either by external heat, or, in the case of rails and other similar large objects,
by the internal heat of the partly cooled steel. Rails which have been rendered
sorbitic in this way have a higher tensile strength and greater wearing power
than ordinary rails. Sorbitic steel, when tested by repeated reversals of stress,
also shows much greater toughness and endurance. A number of photographs
were exhibited which showed very plainly that the microstructure of the sorbitic
portion of a steel rail is quite different from that of the rest of the steel. The
normal portion consists of a heterogeneous mixture of ferrite and pearlite, while
the sorbitic portion is almost perfectly homogeneous.

The papers to which special reference was made were read at the Iron and
Steel Institute, September 1903, and are as follows :—

1. The Burning and Overheating of Steel, by A. Stansfield.

2. The Restoration of Dangerously Crystalline Steel by Heat Treatment, by
J. E. Stead and A. W. Richards.

3. Sorbitic Steel Rails, by J. E. Stead and A. W. Richards,

614 REPORT—1903.

6. The Colowrs of Iodides. By Witt1am Ackroyp, F.I.C.

The general law of the relation of colour to chemical constitution was stated
by the author in 1892." Briefly it is that in related compounds of the general
formula, A;B,, as B increases in weight (either in atomic mass or multiple of
atomic mass) there is increase of absorption of light in definite manner, so that the
visible effect is progression in the metachromatic scale from the white towards the
black end. With one colour vision this would appear like a gradual darkening—
an aspect of the phenomenon which the author? regards as being presented by
X rays in the photographic effects produced by them after passing through equal
thicknesses of the members of a series A,B,. That this generalisation is reasonably
fact-embracing is seen when it is stated that there are only about 2-27 per cent. of
exceptions in a survey of some 616 correlated inorganic coloured compounds, and
many of these exceptions are of a doubtful nature.

Iodides conform to the law ; the more heavily weighted molecules have colours
nearer the black end of the scale, while the lighter ones, on the other hand, come
nearer the white end. Thus in vertical series of the periodic classification arsenic
triiodide is orange as compared with the red of antimony and bismuth triiodides ;
magnesium, zinc, and cadmium iodides are white, while mercuric iodide is yellow
orred. In the periodic groups there are forty-one examples of iodides; only three
are apparently unconformable, two of these being doubtful exceptions.

‘When there is more than one iodide of the same metal we have again con-
formity to rule, thus :—Hg,I, is olive green, and Hel, yellow or red.

The iodides have also a normal colour when compared with the other halides
of the same radical as in the series AsF,, AsCl,, AsBr,, and AsI,. In the tabula-
tion of these relations conformity to the law is seen both in horizontal as well as
vertical groups, and 270 colour facts are presented in such a tabulation which give
less than 3 per cent. of exceptions.

Finally the result of recent research shows that the element iodine has also a
normal colour among the other liquid and solid halogens; their absorption increases
from fluorine to iodine through the extremes of white to black.

It is amply apparent, therefore, that in a comparable series of compounds
having similar molecular structure as represented by the same general formula we
may have colourless or white bodies at one end and coloured substances at the
other end. Hence it is contended that Professor H. E. Armstrong’s view that
colour is an indication of ‘quinonoid structure does not hold for iodides as main-
tained by Miss I. Smedley,’ nor for inorganic bodies generally.

Tables are given illustrating these various observations.

7. On Essential Oils. By Dr. O. SILBERRAD,

The production of essential oils, although of extreme antiquity, has only
recently been made the subject of scientific research. The earlier methods of
extraction from the plants were exceedingly crude, and it was only in the early
part of the nineteenth century that the industry received a new impulse by the
introduction of steam distillation for the recovery of these essences. Chemical
research has in recent years led to the replacement of the natural oils to some
extent by products artificially prepared. As an instance of this, the author's recent
discovery that caryone, C,,H,,O, the active principle of carraway oil, could be

1 Chem. News, 1893, Ixvii. 27.

* On Opacity to the Rintgen Rays. W. Ackroyd and H. B. Knowles, Jour. Soc.
Dyers and Colourists, vol. xii. April 1896.

* Brit. Assoc, Report, 1902, p. 582.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 615

obtained direct from limonene by autoxidation was referred to. The mechanism
of the reaction is probably expressed as follows :—

CH, , hie
, +H.,0+0 C(OH) —H,0 ~ +H,0+0
\ os S
of, tH CH, CH(OH) CH, C(OH)
| | <a | 7 | | me
CH, CH, CH, CH, CH, CH,
wit fesse ers
CH C CH
CH,:C : CH, CH, C : CH, CH,'C: CH,
CH, CH,
C(OH) —2H,0 Cc
A ON
CH, C(OH), > CH CO
age
CH, CH, CH, CH,
ae OL
Cc C
CH,,;C : CH, CH,°C : CH,

The above explanation is confirmed by the fact that the author has recently
succeeded in isolating a monatomic alcohol as an intermediate product to which
he assigns the formula

Cc
cH,” Sc(oH)

|
CH, CH,
PNA 2
CH
CH,-C : CH,

which corresponds to the hitherto unknown carveol. A specimen of the acetate
of this alcohol was exhibited.

Other substances investigated by the author are the active principles of Ylang
Ylang, Neroli, Carnation, and Oil of Myrrh.

The specimens shown illustrate how nearly the synthetic products approach
to the natural perfumes. A new and much more economical method for the
manufacture of terpineo}, recently discovered by the author, was briefly referred
to. One great advantage claimed for this method was that the ingredients
generally considered necessary for the reaction are replaced by much less costly
reagents.

The author then went on to consider the various ways of obtaining essential
oils, and showed that the methods of extraction differ for the various natural oils.

(1) Turpentine, the source of terpineol, is obtained from pine trees in America
by the process of ‘ boxing,’ succeeded by steam distillation. Venetian turpentine
is obtained by drilling holes in the trees, while Strasbourg and Laurentine tur-
pentine is still collected in certain districts by means of small pointed cans.

(II) A second method is that of direct distillation from the plant, used for
instance in the preparation of camphor and the recovery of camphor oil from the
wood of the Laurus camphora in Japan. Further treatment of the distillate
leads to its separation into camphor, light camphor oil (mainly pinene), phellan-
drene, and dipentene) and heavy camphor oil, which latter is interesting as the
source of safrol, from which piperonal is now commercially obtained under the

616 REPORT—1903.

name of heliotropin. Investigations by the author have facilitated this con-
version and very considerably reduced the cost of production of heliotropin.

The conversion of safrol to vanallin by treatment with sodium methylate and
subsequent oxidation is also interesting ; the chief source of vanillin is, how-
ever, eugenol, obtained from oil of cloves. Eugenol is associated in oil of cloves
with a sesqui-terpene, cariophylene, from which the author has recently obtained
an acid containing eleven carbon atoms.

(III) A process of expression is used for the extraction of oils which are
decomposed by steam, such as bergamot (linalool acetate). The artificial
preparation of this ester presents considerable difficulties, as linalool undergoes
decomposition or isomerisation on coming in contact with acids and gives only
very small yields of the desired esters, but investigations by the author have led
to its manufacture on a commercial scale. A laboratory method whereby the
difficulty may be overcome, worked out by the author, was also described, and
consisted in treating a pyridine solution of the alcohol with the required acidyl
chloride. The investigator of linalool has hitherto laboured under the difficulty
that no solid derivative of this alcohol could be obtained. It is hoped that the
author's recent preparation of a crystalline compound of linalool—the hexanitro-
diphenylurethane—will be of assistance in this direction. Geraniol, an isomer of
linalool, is important as the chief ingredient of otto of rose. Its acetic and
butyric esters are also valuable as scents.

([V) A fourth and very ancient method for the extraction of essential oils is
illustrated by jasmine oil, which is obtained by exposing the flowers over odourless
petroleum, whereby the perfume is absorbed and subsequently extracted with
acetone. This oil is a mixture of a number of compounds, the distinctive odour
being, however, due to jasmone, which is present to only a small extent in the
oil. Peach oil contains also a large number of constituents; among these the
author has isolated the ethyl ester of an undecylenic acid, the presence of which is
interesting as being a case of the natural occurrence of a fatty acid containing an
odd number of carbon atoms.

The sesquiterpene alcohol, santalol, from sandal-wood oil, irone from orris
oil, the oxygenated products from orange oil, lemon vil, and lime oil were briefly
discussed. The specimens of these various compounds illustrated their valuable
properties as perfumes. A few brief remarks throughout the paper illustrated the
costliness of these oils; thus it was shown that about three tons of roses were
required to yield 1 1b. of otto, the cost of peach oil is between three and four
times as great, whilst to prepare 1 lb. of jasmone about 200 tons of jasmine
flowers would be required.

8. The Cholesterol Group. By R. H. Pickarp, D.Se.

Numerous compounds of the empirical formula C,,H,,O have been described and
have all at some time been called cholesterins or cholesterols. Only a few of these
have been well characterised, and their separate identity requires further proof.

The best known of these compounds, ‘animal cholesterol,’ of which the best
source is human gallstones, is a very stable compound. The presence of an
hydroxyl group, of at least one asymmetric carbon atom, and of an ethylene
linking in the cholesterol molecule have been proved. The molecule is composed
of a normal chain of nineteen carbon atoms attached to a complex nucleus,

Attempts to reduce cholesterol by chemical means were unsuccessful, but a
dihydrocholesterol has been separated from human feces.

9. On Acridines. By Professor A. Senter, Ph.D.
I. Acridines.
In 1871 Graebe and Caro isolated from crude anthracene a yellow crystalline

base, which on account of its irritating action on the skin and mucous membrane
was named acridine. The base when in solution exhibited a beautiful blue

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 617

fluorescence. The subsequent researches of Graebe, Riedel, and others, led to the
view now adopted of its constitution as a heterocyclic anthracene derivative of the
formula

The resources of synthetical chemistry were not long in bringing to light
methods for building up this interesting fluorophoric molecule from compounds of
simpler structure. A phenyl derivative was first obtained and the base itself by
Bernthsen and Bender in 1883.

The numerous methods which have led to the formation of acridines may be
arranged into two classes—Ist, those starting from diphenylamine

H H

and its derivatives ; and 2nd, those starting from o-amino-diphenylmethane

3Ss oH

CH,

and its derivatives.
As illustrations of the first method may be taken (a) condensation by means of
aldehydes, for example formaldehyde :—

NH NH

> >

HCHO CH,
N

™.

+H,0+H,

CH
(Unstable dihydride)

and (b) condensation by means of methylene diiodide; a method discovered by

Mr. Goodwin and myself. For example, using y-cumidine the following represents
the reactions which take place :—

Me Me Me NH Me
NH,H,N aes
2 as >
Me Me Me ser iH Se iat a
Me Me Me

618 REPORT—19038.

+NH,I
Me NH Me Me N Me +HI
+H,
>
Me Me Me Me
Me CH, Me Me CH Me
+ HCHI, Wz S13 425 6 ts —

Hexamethy] acridine.

The related acridones and thio-acridones furnish an instance of ketonie and
enolic tautomerism which it would be interesting to investigate by spectroscopic
methods as described by Professor Hartley in his Address to this Section.

Another class of compounds formed from the acridines by the addition of two
atoms of hydrogen—acridine hydrides or ‘ hydro-acridines ’—are very unstable,
and on oxidation, even by boiling with water, in some cases lose their hydrogen
and revert to the original base. They are not fluorescent, a property characteristic
of the acridine ring with its para linking, and may therefore have the struc-
ture :—

CH,

_ Mr. Goodwin and I, in an inquiry not yet quite completed, have obtained a

similar class of dihalides. We have prepared chlorides, bromides, and iodides of
BNB aNa

hexamethylacridine, | -naphthacridine, and | -naphthacridine (for notation
a Cc a B C 3

see Naphthacridines, below). Like their hydrogen analogues, these compounds

are unstable and are not fluorescent. Their constitution is therefore in the case

of simple acridines :—

SSC LSSSES.

CH Cl CHI

The salts and alkhaloids of the acridines are fluorescent, and may be regarded,
a hewing Bernthsen and Bender, as true acridines with pentavalent nitrogen,
thus :—

H H
NC NZ
| Nc es
oi
CH CH
H Me
NC x0.80,.0m
l \oH —V.50,,.0 Me

CH CH

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 619

II, Di-Naphthacridines.

The following formule represent all the possible di-naphthacridines :—

N =
- N
5
CH
CH
aCa 5 i B
(Reed) (Ullmann)
N
eo
CH
B ia B
BCB
(Unknown)
eee
CH
B 7 B BNa
| |
BCa BCB
(Strohbach) (Unknown)

The notation adopted is, I think, more convenient than either that of Graebe,
adopted by Ullmann, or that of Strohbach, adopted by Méhlau. The numbering
is taken from Méhlau and Haase.

The naphthacridines are obtained by methods analogous to the acridines,
including especially the aldehyde and the methylenediiodide reactions with
naphthylamines. The naphthacridine of Reed and that just announced by
Ullmann, both obtained originally by the use of formaldehyde, [ have prepared
by the methylenediiodide method. There is every reason to hope that the two
unknown types of this group of acridines or derivatives of them will soon be
discovered.

620 REPORT—19038.

Ill. Phenonaphthacridines.

The phenonaphthacridines have been chiefly investigated by Ullmann. There
are three possible types :— ;

10 10
N
CH
9
a B ; NB
C B é a
(Schopff) (Nalband-Ullmann)
N
OH
Na

UB
(A dihydroxyacridone of
this type -— Lagodzinski
and Hardine) sss;

The notation is a modification of that which I have suggested for dinaphth-
acridines, and the numbering is that of Ullmann.

Numerous derivatives of phenonaphthacridines are known, and they all possess
the characteristic physiological properties and the fluorescence which characterise
acridines generally. The remarkable tendency to the formation of the acridine
grouping hes recently been shown by Ullmann and Baezner. These inquirers find
that aleohol may replace aldehyde in acridine synthesis, oxidation taking place in
the course of the reaction.

IV. New Experiments.

Experiments now in progress indicate the possibility of new acridine types and
also the generality of the methylene diiodide reaction. With the assistance of
Miss Micklethwait I have already obtained fluorescent products indicating the
formation of a dianthracridine and a naphthanthacridine and of other acridines
not previously obtained by the methylene diiodide method.

10. Sur le Spectre de ‘Self-induction’ du Silicium et ses Comparaisons
Astronomiques. Par le Comte A. DE Gramont, Doctewr és Sciences
Physiques.

Plusieurs raies du silicium reconnues dans les spectres stellaires ont été
considérées comme caractéristiques d'une haute température, et j’ai cru intéressant
d’étudier leur maniére de se comporter sous ]’influence de la ‘ self-induction,’ et de
donner ici la partie du spectre susceptible de comparaisons astronomiques. Les
spectrogrammes portaient 4 la partie supérieure, le spectre d’étincelle condensée
ordinaire du silicium obtenu avec une bobine d’induction donnant 15 c/m

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 621

détincelle et un condensateur de 0:009 microfarad, et en coincidence avec
ce spectre étaient photographiés successivement ceux obtenus avec des ‘ self-
inductions’ variant depuis 0400002 jusqu’é 0703000 Henry. Les spectres ont
été produits avec deux prismes en flint lourd, puis avec un prisme en spathcalcite
et des objectifs de quartz. Le spectre du silicium a présenté ainsi deux caté-
gories trés différentes de raies :

1° Raies résistant 4 une ‘ self-induction’ de 9°#05 Henry, ou méme renforcées
par elle.

2° Raies commencant 4 s’affaiblir avec de faibles ‘ selfs’ de 070002 Henry, et
disparaissant 4 peu prés simultanément pour 0-#0062 Henry.

Subsistent avec 6370 Forte.

la ‘self’ {a} 6349 Forte.
Disparaissent B 5879 Bien visible.

avec la ‘self’ (| 5960 Bien visible.
Subsistent avec ; 5059°8 Forte.

la ‘ self’ \ 5045°5 Forte.

4574:5 Bien marquée.

Trouvées dans les étoiles
trés chaudes 4 hélium,
telles que B Crucis, «
Canis Majoris, Bellatrix.
Trouvées dans Sirius, a
Cygni, Rigel, Bellatrix,
e Canis Majoris, Procyon,
Algol, etc.

|
= dans Sirius, a
{
|

4567:0 Forte.

5
Disparaissent 4552°5 Forte.

avec la ‘self’
4131:0 Trés forte, diffuse.
i {4198-0 Trés forte, diffuse.

Cygni, Rigel, dans les
étoiles des groupes VI
& VIII de la classifica-
tion de Harvard College,
ov elles accompagnent le
doublet précédent e.

3905°5 Trés forte, étroite.
Plutot renforcée { ( Visible dans le
par la ‘self’ ¢4 spectre solaire.

| sse2s Assez forte, étroite.

3856°0 Forte, étroite.

: . 3835:0 Faible.
oan ’ 3807:0 Assez forte.
n {37960 Assez forte.

3791°5 Faible.
3094°5 Assez forte.
3087'2 Assez forte.

Trouvées dans e Canis Ma-
joris avec les groupes 6
et e.

Les doublets a et 8 ont été mesurés a la vue seulement, avec un spectroscope
& vision directe. II serait intéressant de rechercher si le groupe 8 accompagne les
groupes 6 et ¢ dans les étoiles chaudes.

Le triplet 6 (4674 a 4552) avait été reconnu par M. E. Demarcay! comme
appartenant au silicium en solution fluorhydrique, et par moi-méme? avec le
silicium libre, et dans les silicates fondus. Malgré cela ces mémes raies, rencon-
trées par divers observateurs dans les spectres des étoiles, n’avaient pas été encore
attribuées au silicium jusqu’en 1900, ou M. Joseph Lunt ® a identifié & son tour
leur origine.

Le doublet ¢ (4131 ; 4128) est considéré par Sir Norman Lockyer comme les
plus remarquables ‘enhanced lines’ du silicium. Sous J’influence de la self
elles sont les derniéres 4 disparaitre; les spectrogrammes montrent qu’elles se
raccourcissent en se concentrant au voisinage des électrodes, se réduisent a
des points et s’6vanouissent pour une ‘self’ de 0°#0062 Henry.

La raie 3905 du triplet ¢est trés forte avec la ‘self’ maximum employée
(0-403), tandis que les deux raies voisines, 3862; 3856, 4 peine visibles pour
0-#0006, ont disparu avant d’atteindre 0-#0062.

1 Spectres Electriques. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. 1895.

* “Spectres des Métalloides dans les Sels Fondus: Silicium,’ Comptes Rendus
de V Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 25 janvier 1897.

3 Roy. Soc. Proceed. vol. \xvi. p. 44.

622 REPORT—1903.

Le triplet 7 (8807 4 3791) parait s’effacer pour une ‘ self’ plus faible encore.

La partie plus réfrangible du spectre ne présente plus d’intérét astronomique,
car elle est arrétée par absorption atmosphérique. Je l’ai étudiée avec un spectro-
araphe a partie optique toute en quartz; la raie 2542 disparait pour les mémes
valeurs de ‘ self-induction ’ que ci-dessus, c’est-’-dire pour moins de 0-20062. Toutes
les autres lignes, notamment le groupe caractéristique de six raies (2529 4 2507)
et le groupe (2217 a 2208), résistent absolument 4 la ‘ self-induction’ maximum.
J’ai enfin reconnu que la ligne extréme 1930-0 n’appartient pas au silicium mais
bien a aluminium.

Ces recherches ont été faites avec du silicium cristallisé en petits octaédres et
en lamelles, puis avec le silicate de sodium fondu au chalumeau, sur des fils de
platine. Comme je l’avais déja signalé? l’action de la ‘self-induction’ est la méme
sur les corps solides ou les sels fondus.

Les longueurs d’onde ont été mesurées par comparaison avec celles des raies
d’un alliage plomb-cadmium, photographiées sur chacun des spectrogrammes.

ll. The Theory of Dyeing. By Professor G. von GEORGIEVICS.

The author gives a brief historical introduction to the subject of tinctorial
chemistry, and observes that the study of this branch of applied science has been
greatly complicated by the publication of large masses of incompletely observed
facts. He further remarks that practical unanimity prevails as to the nature of
the dyeing process in so far as concerns the application of colours such as chrome
yellow, nitraniline red, and the mordant colours; these colours, or compounds of
the colours with the mordant, are deposited as such upon the fibre.

The theories, or, more properly, the hypotheses, concerning the nature of dyeing
refer more particularly to the so-called substantive colours—that is, to dyeing with
acid colours, basic colours, and direct colours. The principal theories of the pro-
cess of dyeing are two in number—namely (1) the chemical theory, and (2) the
mechanical theory. In accordance with the first, the dyeing of wool and silk with
basic and acid colours is due to the formation of chemical compounds between the
colour and the fibre; the chemical combination is supposed to be of a loose, salt-like
nature, because the combined colour exhibits a chemical behaviour identical with
that of the free colour.

The chemical theory offers no plausible explanation of dyeing with direct cotton
colours (salt colours).

The mechanical theory describes the process of dyeing as one of absorption or
of solution. Some writers attempt to compromise by describing the dyeing pro-
cess as partly chemical and partly mechanical in nature, whilst others are of the
opinion that the dyeing changes in character with the dye-stuff and the fibre.

In discussing what is required of a theory of dyeing, the author states the view
that such a theory can be nothing more nor less than an expression of all the
hitherto known facts concerning the process. The supporters of the mechanical
theory of dyeing do not deny the possibility of the existence of chemical combina-
tion, more especially as all colours are of acid or basic nature, and the animal
textile fibres, at least, are not chemically indifferent ; they claim, however, that the
existence of such a chemical combination has not been hitherto proved in any single
case, whilst all the observed facts tell in favour of the chemical theory. The sup-
porters of the chemical theory of dyeing put forward as specially important pieces
of experimental evidence two statements, both made by E. Knecht, the one refer-
ring to the dyeing of basic colours on wool and silk, the other to dyeing with acid
colours. In accordance with the first statement, wool and silk play the part of
acids towards basic colours, and the corresponding coloured compounds must be
regarded as salts of the colour with keratin or fibroin respectively, because in such
dyeing processes the acid is quantitatively split off from the colouring matter and
only the colour base is taken up by the fibre. It is further suggested that the

1 Comptes Rendus de VAcad. d. Sciences ad. Paris, 5 et 26 mai 1902.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 623

colourless rosaniline base can only give rise to the fuchsine-red colour by formation
of a salt.

Since this time, however, the author has shown that in dyeing chemically
indifferent substances, such as glass and china-clay, which cannot play the part of
acids, the acid of the basic colour remains quantitatively in the dye-bath; he has
further shown that the rosaniline base exists in a coloured form. The full force of
this contradiction of the chemical theory is not admitted, it having been objected
that many kinds of glass are slightly attacked by water, and are thus not chemi-
cally indifferent. The author showed many years ago, however, that this objection
is founded upon a total disregard of the fact that the results are of a quantitative
nature.

The author remarks that whilst the attack has been directed against the strong
part of his work, its weak point—which is as follows—has not hitherto been
noticed. The fact that in the dyeing of chemically indifferent substances with
basic colours the acid part of the latter remains quantitatively in the bath is only a
proof that one has to deal with the same phenomenon which is observed in the
dyeing of silk and wool, and is not an indication that salt formation has taken
place between the colour base and the fibre substance; the dyeing of glass and
china-clay is, at any rate, a process of absorption, and its external similarity with
the dyeing of silk and wool with the same colours is not necessarily a proof of the
identity of the two processes. The author’s work was directed solely against the
validity ascribed to the argument repeatedly brought forward in support of the
chemical theory, and still leaves open the question of the nature of the processes
concerned in the dyeing of animal fibres with basic colours. Should it ever be
possible to prove the existence of chemical compounds between colour and fibre, it
will be most probably done in the case just referred to, but such information could
certainly not be obtained in the manner only lately attempted by Knecht.

Knecht boiled out with alcohol wool and silk dyed with night-blue, and believed
himself forced to the conclusion that the extract contained chemical compounds of
the night-blue base with keratin or fibroin respectively. If the conclusion were
correct, it would be possible, by prolonged repetitions of the operations of dyeing
and extraction with alcohol, to bring about a gradual destruction of the fibre.
The improbability of this is obvious, and the author clearly proves the incorrect-
ness of Knecht’s final conclusions by repetition of the work upon which they are
based. After precipitating the colour base and eliminating the alcohol, Knecht
prepared aqueous solutions from the above-mentioned alcoholic extracts, which,
according to his statement, possessed the property of precipitating magenta and
night-blue, and which he therefore supposes to contain keratin or fibroin respec-
tively, or chemical compounds formed from these two substances during the pro-
cess of dyeing. On repeating these experiments the author finds that the solutions,
if perfectly pure fibre material puritied with alcohol has been used, precipitate
solutions of magenta only, and that but very slightly indeed. The same preci-
pitate may, however, be obtained if wool and silk are entirely left out of the experi-
ments; he finds that, hy precipitating the colour base from an alcoholic solution
of night-blue with barium hydrate and by afterwards removing the latter from
the solution, a liquid is finally obtained which has the property of precipitating a
solution of magenta.

In this instance it is naturally quite out of the question that keratin or fibroin
play any part in the precipitation.

The second principal support upon which the chemical theory rests has also
been given by Knecht. It was observed at an early date that molecular propor-
tionality between colour and fibre seems non-existent in dyeing trials; the results
thus differ from those obtained in cases of ordinary chemical combination. By
dyeing wool in very concentrated solutions of picric acid and similar acid colours,
Knecht supposed that he had established the existence of chemical compounds
formed in definite molecular proportions. The repetition of these experiments by
Perger and Ulrich has, however, shown that Knecht, in his desire to make the
fibre take up as large a quantity of the colour as possible, used such an excess of
colour that part of it was deposited as crystals upon the dyed fibre. It is therefore

624 REPORT—1903.

clear that under such conditions it is absolutely impossible to ascertain, even with
a small degree of accuracy, the amount of colour which has been actually taken
up by the fibre.

The author considers himself justified in stating that these two fundamental
supports upon which the chemical theory of dyeing rests cannot withstand any
searching criticism.

A considerable number of facts have accumulated during recent years which
tend to strengthen the view that the processes of dyeing are uniform and of a
mechanical nature. The author showed in 1894 that, in dyeing silk with indigo-
disulphonic acid, the distribution of the colour between the residual solution and
silk dyed in it is governed by a law which may be expressed by the formula

a/ C in solution _ j¢
Cinfibre ”

in which C refers to the concentration of the colour solution and K is a constant
independent of the concentration. Later experiments have shown that this law
of the distribution of the colour is applicable to dyeing on silk and wool of other
acid colours, and also to the dyeing of direct cotton colours (salt colours) on cotton.
It is thus proved, first, that the processes of dyeing with the acid colours on
the one hand and with the direct cotton colours on the other are identical in kind ;
and, secondly, that these processes cannot be of a chemical nature. Ifa chemical
compound were formed, the distribution of the colour between the two media
would be of an entirely different character, just as Walker and Appleyard have
recently indicated. The author has only lately shown that picric acid and
oxyazobenzene are deposited on the fibre in a free state during dyeing with these
colours: this seems to be of especial importance in the case of picric acid, in view
of Knecht’s statement, recalling the fact that picric acid forms compounds with such |
great readiness ; chemical combination, if at all possible, might have been expected
in this instance.

Binz and Schréter have lately endeavoured to show that dyeing with oxyazo-
benzene differs materially from that of the other acid colours. On account of the
fastness exhibited by dyeings with oxyazobenzene these authors assumed that this
colour forms a stable compound with the substance of the wool as the result of
condensation.

As regards the dyeing of acid colours on animal fibres, and that of the direct
cotton colours on cotton, we may therefore safely say that we possess distinct proof
that these processes are identical and of a mechanical nature.

The further question as to whether substantive dyeings should be considered
as solid solutions or as resulting from adhesion is still open for speculation,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Slow Combustion of Methane and Ethane.
By Witu1am A. Bone, D.Sc., Ph.D.

I may perhaps be allowed] to explain my reasons for reopening what I am
well aware is one of the most controverted questions in the whole domain of
Chemistry. Let me say at once that I have no new general theory of hydro-
carbon combustion to bring forward; but during the past three or four years I
haye, in conjunction with two of the research students at Owens College,’ been
engaged upon an investigation on the slow combustion of methane and ethane at
temperatures below their ignition-points, the results of which throw some new

1 Messrs, R. Y. Wheeler and W. EK. Stockings.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 625

light on the question at issue. It is my intention to extend the work to other
typical hydrocarbons in the hope that the gradual accumulation of experimental
facts may at some future time provide a sure basis for a general theory of hydro-
carbon combustion. Meanwhile, it seemed to me that the meetings of the
Chemical Section afforded a fitting opportunity of communicating and discussing
these new observations, of obtaining suggestions for future work, and possibly,
also, of arranging some form of co-operation among those workers who are specially
interested in this field of inquiry.

It seems to me unnecessary to make more than a passing reference to the
theories which up to the present have been advanced to explain the mechanism of
hydrocarbon combustion. I must, however, say a word with regard to two of
them which involve the idea of the ‘ preferential’ combustion, either of hydrogen
or of carbon. The older idea, that in a defective oxygen supply the hydrogen of
a hydrocarbon burns preferentially to the carbon, is unsupported by experimental
evidence, and I suppose now hardly finds acceptance among chemists at any rate.
On the other hand, the opposite view, that the carbon burns preferentially to the
hydrogen, was put forward, originally by Kersten in 18611 believe, to explain
the well-known fact that when such a hydrocarbon as ethylene is exploded with
just sufficient oxygen to burn the carbon to carbon monoxide, the cooled products
consist of carbon monoxide and free hydrogen—

C,H, + 0, =2C0 + 2H,.

Professor Smithells in 1892 was led to indorse this view as the result of his
analyses of the interconal gases of hydrocarbon flames.

It seems to me that the idea of ‘ preferential combustion,’ whether of hydrogen
or of carbon, is closely allied to the old doctrine of ‘ elective affinity, and that it is
hardly to be reconciled with modern concéptions of the nature and conditions of
chemical change in a homogeneous system. Furthermore, it may be pointed out
that the evidence usually adduced in support of the contention that carbon bums
preferentially to hydrogen is wholly derived from experiments on the oxidation
of hydrocarbons at very high temperatures, either in the flame, or in the explosion
wave. Under these conditions it is practically impossible, by any means at our
command at present, to distinguish the character of the primary oxidation in the
case of a hydrocarbon, for since the velocities of all the reactions concerned
are enormously great, the firal state of equilibrium is almost instantaneously
established.

The experiments on the slow combustion of methane and ethane, which have
led me to make this communication, have been carried out at temperatures far
below the ignition-points of the gases—that is to say, at temperatures where the
oxidation velocities are sufficiently small to allow of their being easily measured.
It is also important to observe that either of the hydrocarbons in question
interacts with oxygen at temperatures below those at which the velocities of any
of the undermentioned possible secondary changes become appreciable :—

(i) 2H, +0, =2H,0.
(ii) 2C0 + 0, =2C0,.
(moist)
(ii) CO+H,0 2 CO, + H,O.
(iv) Reduction of CO,, or of H,O, by carbon.

Therefore, by suitably choosing our temperature conditions we have been able
to exclude the possibility of these reactions occurring, and so to prevent the com-
plete masking of the primary reaction by secondary changes.

The details of these experiments either have been, or shortly will be, pub-
lished elsewhere,! and we need therefore only here indicate the general character
of the results.

In the first place, we should say that the mixtures of methane (or ethane) and
oxygen employed usually contained just sufficient oxygen to burn the carbon of

? Trans. Chem. Soc. (1902), 81, 535; 88, 1903.

1903, Ss

626 REPORT—1908.

the hydrocarbon to carbon monoxide (e.g. mixtures of two volumes methane with
one volume oxygen, or of equal volumes of ethane and oxygen).

The lowest temperature at which such mixtures of methane and oxygen
interact, when sealed up in a borosilicate glass bulb at atmospheric pressure, and
afterwards placed in a constant temperature air-bath, is somewhere about 300°;
in the case of the mixtures of ethane and oxygen it is about 225°. At all tem-
peratures ethane is oxidised much more rapidly than is methane, other conditions
being equal.

Under such conditions a portion of the hydrocarbon is burnt to, finally, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, and steam, without any liberation of free hydrogen or
separation of carbon, while a portion of the original hydrocarbon always remains
intact.

Below are tabulated the analyses of the products from two typical experi-
ments :—

Products from mixture CH, = 669, Products from mixture C,H, = 49'8,
0,=33':1, maintained 7 days 0, = 50:2, maintained 15 hours
at 350°. at 250°.

CO weak. 5 . . ot LAO, (\-COS, wi z : 7) Lb
CO : : é APSR TP CLO NE : : - nay Le,
Mg Pi lain Whos pesos ES OKs 7 alg ork Wankel Oe
CHiwe. : - - i) O8i8: =|, CHG * : : 5 . 42°9

Per cent. contraction in
volume on opening Hoy é
Fe eae ai cut der | early S20 lw ul Sa gabe, buch othe, Raa
mercury

We next devised an apparatus in which the reacting gaseous mixtures can be
continuously circulated day and night, at a practically uniform rate, (1) over a
surface maintained at a constant temperature; and (2) through suitable washing
and cooling arrangements for the removal of soluble or condensable intermediate
products. A manometric arrangement enables us to take pressure records of the
gas in the apparatus at regular time-intervals throughout a given experiment,
which may often extend over many consecutive days and nights. The records so
obtained show, in the case of both methane and ethane, a regular and continuous
fall of pressure throughout the oxidation.

The experiments with methane reveal the fact that formaldehyde plays an
important 7-dle as an intermediate product; that, indeed, the oxidation involves at
least two distinct stages, namely :—

1. A primary oxidation to formaldehyde and steam—

H iH
H:C:H+0:0=H:'C:0+H,0
H

2, The subsequent further rapid oxidation of the formaldehyde to carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, and steam. This may best be considered as the result
of two simultaneous reactions, namely :—

H
(a) H:C:0+0:0=0:C:0+H,0
i H

(0) H+ 6:0+0:0+H+C:0=200 +2H,0.

Possibly the latter may involve the formation and very rapid decomposition of
formic acid. Thus

H H H
0/66 Hmo s040-0.042l.0% e-i0EM = 2C0 + 2H,0.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 627

In the case of ethane we are able to distinguish the successive formations of
(1) acetaldehyde, and (2) formaldehyde, as intermediate products. The experi-
mental results are consistent with the following view of the case, namely :—

1, That the primary oxidation involves the formation of acetaldehyde and
steam—
CH, ‘CH, + O, = CH,'CHO + H,0.
2. That the acetaldehyde is further rapidly oxidised to carbon monoxide,
steam, and formaldehyde—
H H
Ep ve ire OM ee eee O

| Oeinn Simran
0O:C°'H CO | H,O
3. That the formaldehyde suffers further oxidation as indicated above.

These views, it may be stated, are supported by experiments on the oxidation
of acetaldehyde.

I wish it to be understood that I have provisionally adopted the explanations
just given of the oxidation stages of methane and ethane as a convenient working
hypothesis because they express most simply the observed facts. Professor
Armstrong has recently given us! a very suggestive general theory of combustion
which embodies his dictum that chemical interchange and electrolysis must be
regarded as interchangeable equivalent terms. Applied to hydrocarbons (e.g.
methane) the theory involves the successive ‘ hydroxylation’ of each hydrogen by
an indirect process, the oxygen being transferred electrolytically across ‘conduct-
ing’ water, as indicated by the following scheme :—

(1) CH, + OH, +0, = CH,(OH) + H,0,
(2) CH,OH+0H,+0, =CH,(OH), + H,0,
(3) CH,(OH), + OH, +0, = CH(OH), + H.0,
(4) CH(OH), + OH, +0, =C(OH), + H,0,

The hydrogen peroxide formed being in part decomposed by heat, and in part

acting as depolariser.
The hydroxylated molecules thus produced may decompose, as for instance :—

(5) CH,(OH), =CH,0 + H,0
formaldehyde ;

and then the formaldehyde is further indirectly oxidised to (1) formic acid
(2) carbonic acid, thus :—

(6) 0:0: H,+0H,+0, =")>c:0+H,0,
(7) 22Sc : 04+0H, +0,=f0>C : 0+H,0,
The formic and carbonic acids thus produced then decompose, as follows :—
(8) Hc : 0=00+H,0
HO 3
(9) HoQ>e : 0=00, + H,0
It does not come,within the province of this paper to discuss this electrolytic
theory of chemical change; it should, however, be pointed out that Professor
Armstrong’s views demand the formation of an alcohol in the primary oxidation

of a saturated hydrocarbon. Although I have never failed to obtain a marked

1 Trans. Chem, Soc. 1903, 88, 1088.
ss2

628 REPORT—1903.

formation of aldehydes in my experiments on methane and ethane, I have so far
searched in vain for alcohols; if the latter are produced during the primary
oxidation, they are very rapidly further oxidised to the corresponding aldehyde,
which must be presumed to be more stable under these conditions.

The question now arises whether these reactions which undoubtedly occur at
low temperatures also occur at the higher temperatures of hydrocarbon flames. My
own view is this: the velocities of these ‘low temperature’ reactions will rapidly
increase as the temperature rises, and so long as aldehydes can exist, aldehyde
formation will occur. But aldehydes themselves decompose at high temperatures ;
thus acetaldehyde is known to yield carbon monoxide and methane—

CH,-CHO + CH, + CO

and similarly formaldehyde yields carbon monoxide and hydrogen—
HCHO =CO+H,

and possibly within certain temperature limits these reactions are reversible.

The production of formaldehyde in the oxidation of methane, for example,
will only be limited by the temperature at which formaldehyde is incapable of
existence, whatever that may be.

We shall have to take into account similar considerations in discussing other
probable changes, as, for example, (1) the further oxidation of aldehydes, and
(2) the purely thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons. All these possible
reactions call for further careful investigation. As yet we have so few well-
established data that it seems premature to formulate general theories. The
subject is very complex, and is beset with many and great experimental difficulties,
but it is surely within our power to overcome them, especially if a sufficient
number of workers will co-operate.

2. Fluorescence as related to the Constitution of Organic Substances.
By Joun Toeopore Hewirv.

A distinction must be made between substances which are simply coloured and
those which exhibit the phenomenon known as fluorescence. Whilst both classes
of substances select radiant energy of certain wave-lengths, the fate of this energy
is different in the two cases. A merely coloured substance degrades the energy it
absorbs to a confused mixture of relatively slow vibrations, so that the substance
or its solution tends to rise in temperature. A fluorescent solution largely trans-
forms the absorbed energy and emits it with an altered frequency, in most cases
still sufficiently high for the emitted energy to appear as light.

Both the absorption and the fluorescent spectrum are composed of bands
which in the fluorescent spectrum are usually broader than in the absorption
spectrum. Dark-line absorption spectra or bright-line fluorescent spectra are not
to be expected in the case of a solution; the molecules of the solvent must exert
an influence on the vibrations of the molecules of dissolved coloured substance, and,
this influence not being uniform for all the molecules of dissolved substance, both
spectra can only be expected to consist of bands and not of lines.

In the case of a gas the emission spectrum varies with the pressure; should
the gas be sufficiently rarefied, the molecules perform their vibrations in an
unfettered manner and the spectrum consists of bright lines corresponding to
definite rates of vibration. But on increasing the pressure of the gas the molecules
must mutually influence one another, with the result that their rates of vibration
are affected. Since at any instant different molecules will not be affected to the
same extent, they will execute their vibrations at somewhat varying rates and the
lines in the spectrum will broaden into bands, A fluorescent-line spectrum could
only be found in the case of a gas; whether any sufficiently fluorescent rarefied gas
exists appears very doubtful.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 629

The ultimate cause of fluorescence has naturally attracted attention. Stokes 1
was inclined to attribute a peculiar sensibility to the molecules of substances
exhibiting this phenomenon. Lommel? started with the assumption that light of
a certain frequency may give rise to vibrations of varying amplitudes in the mole-
cules of a substance. If the frequency depends on the amplitude, the emitted
light will not be homogeneous and the substance may be considered as fluorescent.
Two grave objections to Lommel’s theory are, that there seems to be no possi-
bility of a source of light remaining homogeneous whilst it fades in intensity, and
that all coloured substances should be fluorescent. Both deductions are at
variance with actual facts.

Fluorescence must of necessity attract the attention of organic chemists, chiefly
on account of the fact that so many fluorescent substances are organic compounds
of known constitution. Richard Meyer* attempted to connect the fluorescence
of organic dyestuffs with the presence of certain atomic groupings which he termed
‘fluorophors.’ Amongst such fluorophors, the pyridine, pyrone, and paradiazine
rings may be mentioned. For fluorescence to be developed it is necessary that
the fluorophor be attached to heavy carbon groups, usually aromatic nuclei.
Meyer’s theory gives no explanation of the influence of solvents and of the differ-
ences frequently observed in the case of isomeric compounds.

The present author * has started from a fundamentally different point of view,
which may be stated as follows. If in the case of a tautomeric compound the
passage from one to the other configuration can be effected by two equal but
opposite atomic displacements, the molecules will vibrate between the two extreme
positions of less symmetry, passing through the intermediate more symmetrical
configuration. Energy absorbed when the molecules possessed one configuration
could then be emitted when they had the other configuration; and as the two
configurations would certainly correspond to different vibration frequencies, one
has the necessary conditions for the exhibition of fluorescence.

Consider the fluorescence phenomena in the case of the following compourds :-—

I, Fluoran,> C,,H,,0.,

)
STAY

II. 3:6-Dihydrovyfluoran or Fluorescein, C,,H,.0,.
III. Tetrabromofluorescein (Hosine), O,,H,Br,0..
IV. Tetraiodoflucresceiin, C.)H,1,0..

V. 4:5-Dinitrofiuorescein,® OC H,,(NO,)0,.
VI. 4:5-Dinitro-2-7-dibromofluorescein, C,,H,(NO,),Br,O..

VII. 2°7-Dinitro-45-dibromoftuorescein,’ C,,H,(NO,),Br,0..

Of these substances, I. is colourless, and in neutral solvents gives colourless,
non-fluorescent solutions. It fluoresces, however, if dissolved in strong sulphuric
acid. II. III. and IV. all fluoresce, especially in alkaline solution.

The alkaline solutions of V. VI. VII. do not fluoresce at all. Meyer's theory
gives no explanation of these differences. The theory now brought forward agrees

Phil. Trans., 1852, 463. 2 Wied. Annalen, 3, 268.
Zeitschr. physikal. Ch. (1897), 24, 468.

Proc. Ch, Soc. (1900), 16, 3; Zeitschr. physikal. Ch. (1900), 34, 1-19.
Berichte (1891), 24, 1412; (1892), 25, 1385; Annalen (1882), 212, 349.
* J. Chem. Soc. (1900) 77, 1324 ; (1902), 81, 893.

7 Thid, (1902), 81, 893.

aoe wm

630 REPORT—1903.

with the observed facts. Fluoran, though not itself tautomeric, might give tauto-
meric fluorescent oxonium salts; these have been isolated. The non-fluorescence
of the nitro- derivatives of fluorescein is readily explained ; the nitro- groups enter
into the ortho- positions to the hydroxyl groups, and since compounds of the type
—C(NO,) = C(OH)—yield sodium salts which are, in all probability, of the general
tormula—C(NO,Na) —CO—the fluorescence which depends on a doubly sym-
metrical tautomerism is necessarily inhibited.

Whilst in the greater number of cases the theory propounded agrees with the
observed facts, exceptions such as the following must not be overlooked.

1. Substances having the necessary constitution, but not exhibiting fluorescence.

A secondary tautomerism might inhibit the vibration between two extreme
similar configurations; this case has been considered in dealing with the nitro-
derivatives of fluorescein.

In some cases it is possible that fluorescence has not been detected owing to
the emitted radiant energy corresponding to an invisible part of the spectrum.

Another cause which may preclude the necessary vibration is that the sym-
metrical intermediate configuration may correspond to more molecular free energy
than the extreme unsymmetrical configurations. The molecule would then have
no tendency to vibrate regularly, the case being analogous to that of an inverted
pendulum,

2. Substances which fluoresce but cannot possess doubly symmetrical tautomeric
formule.

The author does not think the occurrence of such substances can be taken as a
serious argument against-his theory, which may be formulated as follows:

If the molecules of a tautomeric substance possess such a structure that the
passage from the configuration of least free energy to the less stable configuration
may be effected by equal and opposite atomic displacements, the molecules will
vibrate between the extreme positions and the substance exhibit the phenomenon
of fluorescence.

That fluorescence may be due to other causes is not negatived by this assertion.

3. Preliminary Note on some Electric Furnace Reactions under High
Gaseous Pressures. By J. E. Peravet and R. 8. Hurron.

The paper gives an account of some work carried out in an inclosed electric
furnace constructed to work with gaseous pressures up to 200 atmospheres.
The power employed has been usually about 15 kilowatts per hour, the furnace
containing a charge of about 20 Jb. of material and 1,000 to 2,000 litres of gas.
A second furnace of about one-tenth the capacity was used for gas reactions with
high-tension current. 4

The reactions at present under investigation include the direct reduction ot
alumina by carbon, the conditions of formation of calcium carbide, particularly as
modified by the change of gaseous atmosphere, and the formation of graphite.
With regard to gaseous reactions a study of the production of nitric acid and
cyanogen compounds has already been commenced.

The preliminary experiments have shown that under pressure alumina is
reduced to the metallic condition, but in all cases accompanied by a large amount
of aluminium carbide. This reaction is most unfavourably influenced if the carbon
monoxide which is formed be retained, whereas it is favoured by the rapid removal
of the gaseous products of reaction. So far as calcium carbide is concerned,
eontrary to expectation, the yield is in no way diminished by the presence of
carbon monoxide gas even at high pressures. An important difference in the
methods of working is necessary in those cases where it is desired to effect purely
gaseous reactions. Here a high-tension current is required. For instance, the
formation of nitric acid, even at pressures of 100 atmospheres, is only accomplished in
appreciable amount where the electromotive force used is of several thousand volts.

The account includes a general description of the plant employed for preparing
and compressing the various pure gases required in quantity for this work.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 631

4. The Atomic Latent Heats of Fusion of the Metals considered from the
Kinetic Standpoint. By Hottand Crompton.

According to the kinetic theory, if a fluid is composed of monatomic molecules,
the kinetic energy given to the particles of the fluid on heating, if no external
work is done, is equivalent to 2:96 x T calories for the gram-molecule, If it is
assumed that in the solidification of such a fluid the process consists mainly in
bringing the molecules (in this case atoms) to rest, or in largely restricting their
motion, kinetic energy approximately equivalent in amount to 2:96 x T calories
should be lost by the gram-molecule. Hence in the above case the molecular
(atomic) latent heat of fusion Av should approximate to 2°96x T calories, or
Ar/T =2:96.

is a matter of fact, the values of A7/T in the case of fourteen different metals,
presumably of monatomic structure, vary between 1:82 for potassium and 3:05 for
tin, the average value being 2'4._ Up to the present only two cases have been met
with among the metals in which the determined values of 2 do not bring Av/T
within these limits, these being gallium and bismuth, for which the values of
Ar/T are 4-67 and 4:82 respectively.

5. The Influence of Small Quantities of Water in bringing about Chemical
Reaction between Salts. By Evesar Puiip Perman, D.Sc.

Many experimenters have investigated the influence of traces of moisture in
reactions between gases, but so far as I am aware no one has hitherto made similar
experiments with solids,

The substances chosen for experiment were salts of lead or mercury, and salts
of potassium, usually the iodide, which would show the occurrence and progress of
a reaction by a colour change.

a. Experiments with Lead Chloride and Potassium Todide.—Equivalent quanti~
ties of the two salts were dried over strong sulphuric acid in a suitable apparatus,
and then mixed; it was found that after forty-eight hours’ drying no visible change
took place on mixing the salts, but on keeping the mixture for a week (in a sealed
flask) a faint yellow colour appeared, which gradually deepened, until after some
months it became a bright yellow.

Attempts were made to discover how much water was necessary in order to
make the reaction immediately visible; the results were not very concordant, but
indicated about ‘5 mg. as the amount necessary in the conditions of the experi-
ment, viz. two grams of potassium iodide and an equivalent quantity of lead
chloride were mixed in a glass flask of about 100 c.c. capacity.

b. Experiments with other Lead Salts and Potassium Todide—Lead formate
and lead nitrate were found to act in a similar way to the chloride.

Lead sulphate reacts much more slowly, although exposed to the air, while
the carbonate and the oxide react very slowly indeed.

c. Experiments with Mercurie Chloride and Potassium Todide.—Mercuric
chloride and potassium iodide treated in exactly the same way as already described
gave a strong red coloration on mixing; the same result was obtained when
commercial phosphoric anhydride was used as a drying agent. By drying with
specially prepared phosphoric anhydride, however, the mixture obtained has been
kept for some months without change.

d. Other Experiments with Mercuric Salts——Mercuric cyanide showed no
reaction with potassium iodide.

Maetsaelils chloride and potassium chromate reacted very slowly, although exposed
to the air.

Discussion of Results—There is no reason for thinking that these reactions
take place in any way essentially different from similar reactions in solution, and
I believe that the only difference is the extreme slowness of the reaction. It is

632 . REPORT—1908.

noteworthy that the velocity of the reaction between mercuric chloride and potas-
sium iodide is enormously greater than that between lead chloride and potassium
iodide when dried in the same way. The factors to which this difference may be
referred are (1) solubility, (2) volatility, (8) degree of ionisation, (4) specific re-
action velocity. We will consider these in order.

(1) Mereuric chloride is about ten times as soluble as lead chloride in cold water,
but this alone would not account for the difference; c.g. mercuric cyanide is still
more solubie, but does not react at all.

(2) Judging from the boiling-points, mercuric chloride would appear to be
more volatile than lead chloride, the boiling-point of the former being 800° C. and
that of the latter about 900° C.; but I find that on aspirating air over each salt
and then over potassium iodide, the vapour from the lead chloride affects the
potassium iodide much the sooner.

The difference in the speed of the two reactions (a and c) cannot therefore be
caused by the difference in volatility.

(3) The degree of ionisation cannot be the cause of the difference noted, for
mercuric chloride is known to be very slightly ionised in solution, while lead
chloride may be taken as completely ionised.

(4) The specific reaction velocity appears to be the real determining factor, and
the reaction is probably of the form AB+CD=AD+BC. If it is only free ions
that react (which seems to me improbable), then the velocity of ionisation in the
case of mercuric chloride must be extremely great.

There may also be other factors not yet understood.

6. Report of the Committee on the relation between the Absorption Spectra
and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—See Reports,
p. 126.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Freezing-point Curves for Binary Systems.
By James C. Puiuip, If.A., Ph.D.

When a liquid mixture of two components is cooled, a point is reached at
which separation of solid takes place. For complete interpretation of the pheno-
mena, it is necessary to know not only (1) this temperature of initial freezing,
but also (2) the composition of the separating solid, and (3) that of the liquid
from which it separates. The varying character of the relation between (2) and
(8) is best demonstrated graphically by plotting the one against the other ina
square diagram. It is then found that the cases experimentally known fall into
one or other of two classes, according as the composition of the solid varies con-
tinuously with that of the liquid, or is constant for certain ranges of concentration,
and to that extent independent of the composition of the liquid. To the former
class belong systems of two components that form mixed crystals; the components
of systems in the latter class do not form mixed crystals, and the definite solids
that separate out, each within its own range, are either the pure components or
compounds of these. If consideration is confined to the latter class of cases, it is
found that on the freezing-point curves (7.e. the curves obtained by plotting the
temperature of initial freezing against the composition of the liquid) there is a
branch corresponding with each range of concentration over which the separating
solid is definite and constant. With the intersection of two branches on the
freezing-point curve, there corresponds a vertical line on the square diagram, and
where the freezing-point curve has an intermediate branch with a summit, there is

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 633

on the square diagram a horizontal line cutting the diagonal. Further, the compo-
sition at a summit point on the freezing-point curve is exactly that of the definite
solid separating out over that branch of the curve. Experimental examples of
these relationships are supplied, for example, by Roozeboom’s work on the hydrates
of ferric chloride, Stortenbeker’s work on iodine and chlorine, Heycock and
Neville’s work on gold and aluminium, and the author's work? on the freezing-
point curves for mixtures of organic substances. Two cases are specially referred
to: (@) where the freezing-point curve exhibits a branch that does not reach a
summit ; (b) where the two components form a compound that is dimorphous, and
the corresponding freezing-point curve exhibits two intermediate branches, the
one enveloping the other. Examples of case (a) are furnished by the freezing-
point curve for gold and aluminium, and, to a certain extent, by that for phenol
and urea.? Examples of case (5) are found in the freezing-point curve for iodine
and chlorine, and in that for phenol and p-toluidine.®

2. A Contribution to the Constitution of Disaccharides.
By Tuos. Purpin, /.2.S., and James C. Irvine, Ph.D., D.Sc.

It is shown in a recent communication to the Chemical Society that tetra-
methyl a-methyl glucoside, obtained by the action of methyl iodide and silver oxide
on a-methyl glucoside, yields on hydrolysis a well-defined crystalline tetramethyl
glucose possessing the ordinary properties of an aldose. The reactions of this
substance prove that its unmethylated hydroxyl group is in the y position, and
direct evidence is thus obtained of the correctness of Fischer’s formula for the
parent methyl] glucoside.

The authors have extended their experiments to the hydrolysable sugars, and
the present paper deals with the results obtained in the methylation of cane-sugar
and maltose.

Methylation of Cane-sugar.

An aqueous solution of cane-sugar was mixed with methy] alcohol and alkylated
as usual by the addition of silver oxide and methyl iodide. The product, which
was readily soluble in alcohol, was then treated as in the alkylation of methyl
glucoside, two further alkylations in alcoholic solution and one in methyl iodide
being necessary to complete the reaction.

The alkylated cane-sugar is a viscid neutra] syrup readily soluble in ether,
alcohol, or methyl iodide, and showing no action on Fehling’s solution.

The compound has not yet been obtained in a state of purity, but combustions of
the substance dried at 100° in a vacuum and methoxy! determinations by Zeisel’s
method showed that the alkylation was practically complete. On hydrolysis, which
was effected by boiling with dilute hydrochloric acid, the initial dextro-rotation
though not inverted was much reduced, and the cane-sugar ether was resolved
into a mixture of methylated glucose and fructose. The former proved to be
identical with the tetramethyl glucose (m.p. 81°-84°) above referred to; in one
experiment the compound crystallised spontaneously from the oily product of the
hydrolysis, whilst in other cases it was obtained only after fractional distillation
of this product, being then found in the higher boiling distillate. The more vola-
tile fractions, judging from their lower dextro-rotatory power, contained the
methylated fructose, but the substance did not crystallise, and it was found impos-
sible to effect a complete separation by vacuum distillation.

At our suggestion, Mr. D. M. Paul undertook the preparation of tetramethyl
fructose from methyl fructoside, in the hope of establishing the identity of the
substance with the methylated fructose produced in the above hydrolysis. The
preparation yielded tetramethyl methyl fructoside as a colourless mobile oil
pene at 132°-136° under 10 mm. pressure and having no action on Fehling’s
solution.

1 Journal of the Chemical Society, 1903, 83, 814. 2 Loe. cit. 3 Loc. cit.

634 REPORT—1903.

The hydrolysis of this compound gave a colourless liquid (b.p. 153°-156°
under 13 mm. pressure), which readily reduced Fehling’s solution and showed in
approximately 5 per cent. alcoholic soiution a specific rotation of —21:7°. The
substance was evidently comparatively pure tetramethyl fructose. No crystalline
derivative of the compound being obtained, we have thus so far no direct evidence
of its production in the hydrolysis of alkylated cane-sugar.

The production from cane-sugar of the cdentical tetramethyl glucose previously
obtained from methyl glucoside shows that the linking of the glucose residue in
the former is the same as in the latter compound, and consequently Fischer’s
formula,!

—————(.) —————
| |
CH,OH * CHOH - CH : (CHOH), * CH
|
O
|
CH,OH + CH - (CHOH), - C: CH,OH
| |
O

so far as the glucose half of the molecule is concerned, is proved to be correct.

Alkylation of Maltose.

The method adopted was similar to that already described for cane-sugar, save
that no solvent water was required. The process was at first attended with an
appreciable amount of oxidation, and after the first treatment the syrup obtained
was acid in reaction. The final product was a thick neutral syrup without action
on Fehling until hydrolysed. The assumption is that the free aldehyde group had
been oxidised, and subsequently methylated. The substance was hydrolysed by
boiling for an hour with 13 per cent. hydrochloric acid. The solution was neutra-
lised exactly with barium hydrate, evaporated in a vacuum at 60°, and the residue
extracted with boiling alcohol. A mixture of the methylated glucose with the
barium salt of the oxidation acid was thus obtained, from which the alkylated
sugar was extracted with ether. From this extract tetramethyl glucose was ob-
tained on distillation im a vacuum, and the substance, after removal of a trace of
organic acid and some incompletely alkylated glucose, was finally obtained crystal-
line. After recrystallisation from ligroin the compound melted sharply at 84°, and
its identity was further confirmed by analysis.

The acid produced by the oxidation was recovered from the barium salt. It
distilled in a vacuum apparently without decomposition, and the figures obtained
from combustions and methoxyl determinations agreed approximately with those
required for tetramethyl gluconic acid.

The above results show that the linkage of the glucose residues in maltose is
not of the acetal, but of the glucosidic type, and are in agreement with the
formula

CHO : (CHOH), - CH,-O-—CH * (CHOH), : CH : CHOH : CH,OH
feta a |

suggested by Fischer.”

The alkylation of polysaccharides and glucosides, and the identification of the
alkylated products obtained by hydrolysis, seem to furnish a general method for
elucidating the constitution of these compounds, and the authors are continuing
their experiments in this direction.

) Ber. (1893), 26, 2405. 2 Loc. cit.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 635

3. Mutarotation in relation to the Lactonic Structure of Glucose.
By E. Frankianp Armstrone, Ph.D.

Experiments have been made which show that the hydrolysis of 8-methyl-
glucoside by emulsin in its initial stages proceeds faster than the change of
rotatory power of the glucose formed ; it is accordingly possible to make optical
determinations of the hydrolysis at given time intervals, and then by the addition
of alkali stop the action of the enzyme, and at the same time rapidly convert the
glucose into its stable form. On doing this a considerable rise in rotatory power
was observed, proving that the 8-glucoside yields on hydrolysis the modification
of glucoside of low rotatory power corresponding to Tanret’s solid y-glucose.
Similarly, a-glucosides yield the modification of high rotatory power corresponding
to Tanret’s solid a-glucose. These two compounds are thus lactones and differ
only in respect of the groups attached to the terminal carbon atom. The mani-
festation of mutarotation is therefore dependent on the conversion of one or other
lactone modification into a mixture of both in equilibrium, which, as the rotatory
power of glucose is unaffected by small changes of temperature, is a constant at
ordinary temperatures.

Glucose in solution is thus a mixture of two lactones; it is possible that the
aldehydic form may also exist, but doubtful, as glucose does not show under
ordinary conditions many of the milder aldehydic reactions. It has been possible
to extend these results to other sugars—viz. galactose and maltose—with similar
results.

From this point of view it is clear why, on the addition of hydrogen cyanide to
glucose, two glucoheptose derivatives are formed in unequal quantities. It is no
lonrer necessary to assume that the hydrogen cyanide combines selectively, as
must be done if it be supposed that it is directly added to an aldehyde.

Horace Brown has suggested that there may possibly be a difference in the
physiological behaviour of a sugar in its initial and final optical condition. In the
case of the lactone formula, however, this is improbable, as the groups attached to
terminal carbon atoms, which undergo rearrangement, are not concerned either
in fermentation or enzyme action.

Thus, experiments made on the hydrolysis of milk sugar by lactase failed to
reveal any change in the initial velocity of hydrolysis, whether a fresh solution or
one which had been boiled and stood overnight was used.

4, Synthesis of Glucosides. By W. Stoan Mitts, J/.4.

The first known instance of the synthesis of a glucoside occurring in nature
was effected by Michael, who, having prepared helicin from acetochloroglucose and
sodium salicylic aldehyde in absolute alcohol solution, reduced it with sodium
amalgam and obtained salicin. _Eugenol and phenol glucosides and also methyl-
arbutin were prepared by Michael.! His method was somewhat modified by Ryan,?
who prepared o- and p-cresol glucosides, and also carvacrol glucoside, which con-
tains an unchanged phenolic hydroxyl group. Glucosides of the alcohols and
mercaptans have been prepared by Fischer* by the action of the alcohol or
mercaptan on the sugar in presence of hydrochloric acid. A series of crystalline
a and 8 acetochloro- and acetobromo-glucoses have recently been obtained by
Fischer and Armstrong,t by which the synthesis of many alkyl and phenol
glucosides has been effected. They have also prepared acetodibromoglucose,
which Professor Fischer allowed me to use with a view to preparing glucosides
containing a bromine atom in the glucose rest, and also amidoglucosides.

1 Compt. Rend. (1879), 89, 355; and Am. Chem. J. 5, 6, 336.
2 J. C. S. (1899) 75, 1054.

3 Ber. (1893) 26, 2400; (1894) 27, 674, 2483, 2985.

4 Thid. (1901) 34, 2885.

636 REPORT— 19038.

Preparation of Phenolbromoglucoside (C,H,0.(0H), Br.O.C, H,).

A solution of potassium phenolate in absolute alcohol was allowed to act on a
solution of acetodibromoglucose in chloroform for fourteen days. The solution
was filtered, and the residue obtained on spontaneous evaporation. was neutralised
with acetic acid and extracted with ether. When the ether was evaporated a
residue was obtained which, when recrystallised from dilute alcohol, gave beauti-
ful white needle-shaped crystals of phenolbromoglucoside, melting at 165° C.
The glucoside reduces Fehling’s solution. It is easily soluble in ether, acetone,
and ethyl acetate, soluble in alcohol, and somewhat soluble in chloroform, It is
easily soluble in concentrated sodium hydroxide, and the solution, when carefully
neutralised, gives a precipitate which melts at 170°-180° C., and which reduces
Fehling’s solution only after being hydrolysed by boiling with dilute acids.
The bromine in phenolbromoglucoside is not precipitated by silver nitrate solution.

It is hoped to replace the bromine atom in this compound by an amido-group,
and then by splitting off the phenol rest to obtain an amidoglucose, and thus
determine the position of the second bromine atom in acetodibromoglucose.

5. Preparation of Oximido-compounds. By W.Stoan Mitts, M.A.

As it seemed desirable that the work described in the paper on ‘The Action of
Oxides of Nitrogen on Oximido-compounds’ should be extended to other oximido
compounds, m-nitrobenzalisonitrosoacetone and cuminalisonitrosoacetone and some
of their derivatives were prepared.

Molecular proportions of isonitrosoacetone and m-nitrobenzaldehyde were con-
densed to m-nitrobenzalisonitrosoacetone (C,H, NO,;CH =CH:CO'CH:NOH) by
means of sodium hydroxide. A theoretical yield was obtained. When recrystal-
lised from absolute alcohol it gave slightly yellow coloured crystals, melting at
164° C., which were easily soluble in acetone, ether and glacial acetic acid. It was
soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide. When treated with phenylhydrazine a
yellow crystalline hydrazone was formed melting at 99°-100° C. When heated
on a water-bath with excess of phenylhydrazine a dark-red insoluble precipitate was
obtained, which melted at 206°-207°C., and proved to be the dihydrazone of m-nitro-
benzalmethylglyoxal {C,H,(NO,);CH = CH:C(:N'NH-C,H,)‘CH(N:-NH'C,H,)}.

m-Nitrobenzalisonitrosoacetoxime (C,H,(NO,)‘CH =CH:C = NOH'CH = NOH)
was isolated when the ketone was treated with free hydroxylamine. It is soluble
in glacial acetic acid, insoluble in absolute alcohol, and melts at 220° C. By the
action of semicarbazide on the ketone m -nitrobenzalisonitrosoacetone semi-
earbazone {C,H,(NO,);CH =CH’C(=N:-NH'CO'NH,)'CH =NOH} was obtained
which melted at 196°-197° C.

Cuminalisonitrosoacetone {(CH,).°CH'C,H,CH =CH:-CO‘CH=NOH)} was
prepared by the condensation of cuminol and isonitrosoacetone. It was recrystal-
lised from benzene, giving beautiful sulphur yellow rectangular plates melting at
162°-163° C. It does not give readily a crystalline hydrazone. It is easily
soluble in ether and acetone, soluble in benzene, and insoluble in petroleum ether.
By the action of semicarbazide cuminalisonitrosoacetone semicarbazone
{(CH,),CH-C,H,CH = CH -C(N'NH'CO:NH,)‘CH=NOH} was obtained, which
melted at 176° C. when recrystallised from dilute alcohol. It is easily soluble in
acetone and soluble in ethyl acetate and ether. When the ketone was treated
with free hydroxylamine in methyl-alcohol solution a beautiful white crystalline
oxime {(CH,),CH'C,H,-CH =CH’'C = NOH:CH = NOH} was precipitated on the
addition of a little water. It melted at 192° C., and was easily soluble in ether
acetone and ethyl acetate, soluble in alcohol and benzene, and somewhat soluble in
chloroform.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 637

6. The Action of Oxides of Nitrogen on Oximido-compounds.
By W. Suioan Mints, J/.A4.

In connection with the study of the chemistry of indiarubber, in which
Professor Harries, of the University of Berlin, is at present engaged, and which
takes the form in the first place of an investigation into its behaviour towards
oxides of nitrogen, I was intrusted with the simpler preparatory problem of investi-
gating the action of oxides of nitrogen on oximido-compounds. For this purpose
benzalisonitrosoacetone was prepared, which on being treated with free hydroxyl-
amine under certain conditions in methyl-alcohol solution yielded long colour-
less _prism-shaped crystals of benzalisonitrosoacetoxime (C,H.CH =CH‘C
= NOH-CH = NOH) melting at 201°-202°C. These were sparingly soluble in alcohol,
chloroform, and acetone, soluble in glacial acetic acid, and insoluble in absolute
ether. When the oxime was suspended in absolute ether, and treated at a low
temperature with nitrogen peroxide, a light flocculent precipitate of the nitrate of
benzalmethylglyoximehyperoxide

C,H;CH : CH,’ C: CH
Moto
f NOR HINGON

was formed, which melted when pure at 101°-102°C. It was insoluble in dilute so-
dium hydroxide and did not reduce Fehling’s solution in the cold. When this sub-
stance was slightly heated in benzene solution, or in glacial acetic-acid solution, it
was decomposed with the evolution of red fumes and the formation of benzalmethyl-
glyoxalketoxime (C,H,CH=CH*C=NOH:CHO). When recrystallised from
absolute alcohol, and subsequently from benzene, benzalmethylglyoxalketoxime
separated in the form of slightly brown needle-shaped crystals melting at
103°-104° C. It was easily soluble in chloroform, acetone, benzene, and glacial
acetic acid, and was soluble in ether. It reduced Fehling’s solution in the cold
and was soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide and in dilute nitric acid. When
acted on by semicarbazide it yielded two isomeric semicarbazones, one of which
was easily soluble in glacial acetic acid, and melted at 225°-226°C., and the other,
which was insoluble in all the usual organic solvents, melted at 242° C.

Hence by preparing the oxime of benzalisonitrosoacetone, treating this with
nitric peroxide and decomposing the resulting compound by heating it in benzene
solution, the interesting transformation of benzalisonitrosoacetone (C,H,CH
= CH: CO-CH = NOH) into the isomeric benzalmethylglyoxalketoxime (C,H,CH.
=CH-:C=NOH-: CHO) was accomplished. +

When benzalisonitrosoacetone was dissolved in absolute ether and treated ina
freezing mixture with nitrogen peroxide benzalisonitrosoacetone pseudonitrole
(C;H,CH =CH+*CO: CHNO:NO,) was formed. It was obtained crystalline
from benzene in the form of yellow plates, melting at 123°-124° C., and was very
soluble in most organic solvents. It gave Liebermann’s nitroso-reaction, and did
not reduce Fehling’s solution in the cold.

Isonitrosoacetone semicarbazone (CH,:C(=N:NH:CO: NH,): CH= NOH)
was prepared and gave white crystals, melting at 219°-220° GC. It gave Lieber-
mann’s nitroso-reaction, and was insoluble in concentrated sodium hydroxide and
soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide. When heated on a water-bath with acetic
anhydride acetylisonitrosoacetone semicarbazone was obtained » Which when
recrystallised from glacial acetic acid gave cubic crystals melting at 186°C, It
dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide, and when reprecipitated with dilute sul-
phurie acid needle-shaped crystals melting at 218°-219° C, separated. Hence it
was reconverted into the original semicarbazone by elimination of the acetyl
group. When isonitrosoacetone semicarbazone was treated with nitrocen peroxide
at_a low temperature the pseudonitrole of isonitrosoacetone semicarbazone
(CH,C (=N: NH :CO:NH,):CH=NO-NO,) was formed. It melted at 163°
164° C, with sudden decomposition and gave Liebermann’s nitroso- reaction. It

638 REPORT—19038.

was soluble in dilute sodium hydroxide, giving a yellow solution which was
decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid with evolution of nitrogen and oxides of
nitrogen.

When isonitrosoacetone (CH,CO - CH = NOH) in absolute-ether solution was
acted on by nitrogen peroxide at a low temperature and the residue left on evapora-
tion of the ether heated with benzene red fumes were evolved and diacetylgly-
oxime hyperoxide

CH, CO: C=NO
Penge
CH,CO- C=NO

was produced as a yellow oil. On treating this with phenylhydrazine the
monohydrazone

CH,: C(=N + NHC,H,): C=NO
CH, CO: C=NO

was obtained in the form of yellow rhombic plates, melting at 161°-162° C,
When the monohydrazone was heated with phenylhydrazine, or when the oil was
treated with excess of phenylhydrazine, pale yellow rhombic plates of the
dihydrazone
CH, ((=N + NH- C,H;): C=NO
CH.C(=N “Nig “UHC _nb

were formed, which melted at 176° C.

7. Further Investigation on the Approximate Estimation of Minute Quan-
tities of Arsenic in Food. By Wiuu1am Tuomson, /.C., PRS.

The author finds the use of copper foil for wrapping around the portion of the
tube to be heated (in the Marsh-Berzelius test), which modification was recom-
mended by the Joint Committee of the Society of Chemical Industry and the
Society of Public Analysts, to be disadvantageous, more distinct mirrors being
obtained by heating the naked glass tube. =)

Although arseniuretted hydrogen is said to be decomposed at a temperature of
900° ©., the author made experiments by heating the tube through which the gas
from the Marsh-Berzelius apparatus was passing to 393° C., but got no trace of
@ mirror.

The best results were obtained by heating the tube to the highest temperature
possible, and cooling the portion of the tube on which it was desired to deposit
the mirror with a stream of cold water. This was best accomplished by folding
over the thin part of the tube a single fold of tissue-paper to direct accurately the
stream of water over the portion of the tube on which it is desired to deposit the
arsenic. This point is most readily found by the aid of a long wire, thinner at
one end than the other : the drawn-out portion of the tube is slightly conical, the
thicker end of the wire is inserted, and at this point the tissue-paper is adjusted.
The thinner end of the wire becomes arrested when pushed in about a quarter of
an inch beyond the part at which the thicker end was arrested, so that the mirrors
are all deposited on exactly the same internal diameter of tube. By this cooling
process only one mirror is formed, leaving a brown metallic appearance. When
the tube is not thus cooled two or more deposits of arsenic frequently take place
the first having a metallic appearance and the other being black.

It has been suggested that this behaviour is due to the presence of a trace of
oxygen in the hydrogen ; but it 1s probable that the black deposit is caused by the
excessive amount of heat produced by the combustion of these two gases evapo-

- rating the brown metallic mirror, which at first forms and again becomes deposited
as a black powder further on in the tube.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 639

If the metallic mirror be gently heated by waving the Bunsen flame over it in
a current of hydrogen, it evaporates, and again deposits as a black powder. In
this form it is not so easily compared with other deposits as the brown metallic
form. These deposits, and more especially those in the form of black powder, fade
when exposed to the light. The fading is most marked when the deposits are
exposed in atmospheres of oxygen or nitrogen, and least in hydrogen and carbon
dioxide.

The process as described (after destroying ail organic matter with nitric and
sulphuric acids) will show a distinct mirror with 5,45 of a grain per gallon, and
the half of this can be distinctly detected.

The Marsh-Berzelius test is much more delicate than the electrolytic method
recently devised by the Select Committee appointed by the Government. The
platinum kathode will not give a mirror with a smaller amount than 545 of a
grain per gallon when working on 50 c.cs. of liquid; if a pure zine kathode be
used much greater delicacy can be attained, but even this is not equal in delicacy
to the ordinary Marsh-Berzelius process.

8. Report of the Committee on the Study of Hydro-Aromatie Substances.
See Reports, p. 179.

9. Report of the Committee on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the
Elements and Compounds.—See Reports, p. 87.

10. Experiments and Observations with Radiwm Compounds,
By Wituiam Acxroyp, /.J.C.

The telluric distribution figure for radium is ‘0003 when gold = 1. The
effects produced by rays from radium compounds simulate those of sensible heat
in a very remarkable manner.

Phosphorescence.—Attention was early paid te diathermanous common salt,
NaCl, under the influence of radium rays. This body was found to become ina
few hours remarkably phosphorescent, and the phosphorescence lasts for hours
after the removal of the exciting cause.? Slides of the photographic results are
shown of—

1. A radium bromide tube alone containing 5 milligrams of the pure sub-
stance. Exposure, two minutes.

2. A radium bromide tube plus the sodium chloride in which it is imbedded.
Exposure, two minutes.

3. Sodium chloride alone after action of radium rays. Exposure, thirty
minutes.

The table salt experimented with was of slightly alkaline reaction to red
litmus with traces of the usualimpurities. The compound was therefore prepared
(1) by precipitation from its solution with hydrochloric acid gas and (2) by the
neutralisation of caustic soda solution with hydrochloric acid. In each case the
sodium chloride became phosphorescent under the radium rays. The chloride
with a trace of moisture in it gave better results than salt kept carefully dry in
a desiccator after ignition. Salt moistened with hydrochloric acid solution, a
little over normal strength, also exhibited phosphorescence.

Phipson in his ‘ Phosphorescence,’ p. 20, says common salt is phosphorescent
only at a temperature of about 200° C., and Sir D. Brewster observed phospho-
rescence when a solution of common salt was poured into a cup of heated iron.®

1 B.A, Report, 1902, p. 581. 2 Nature, July 23, 1903.
8 Blackie’s Pop. Ency, xi. p. 49.

640 REPORT—1903.

Lithium chloride prepared from the carbonate, and then fused and ground up
into a fine powder, exhibited phosphorescence; when, however, the trace of
moisture present became excessive it ceased to phosphoresce.

Colour Change.—Sodium chloride is changed in a few hours to an orange or
buff colour ; the freshly ignited substance turns somewhat pinker in tint. Lithium
chloride is not changed under the same circumstances. The absence of change in
the lithium chloride and the change of colour of the sodium chloride, and also
the order of the change in sodium chloride, are all colour facts of the same
character as those which the author has grouped under the term ‘ metachromatism,’
where inorganic bodies are changed in colour in the order of the metachromatic
scale under the influence of sensible heat, and where the tendency to this change
is least evident in the lightest members of a comparable group.! Bicarbonate of
soda is changed to a light violet tint in twenty-four hours. This has direet
bearing on the now well-known change of soda glass which was first: observed by
the Curies, but which the French observers usually attribute to the presence of a
trace of manganese.

Emission of Heat.—An experiment has been devised in which the usual con-
ditions of observation are reversed. A radium bromide tube is inclosed in a
cylinder of filter paper which has been painted with one of Meusel’s sensitive
colour-changing salts. It was argued that in a medium of gradually risiny
temperature the heat from the radium compound within plus the heat from
without would cause the transition colour change of the paper to be observed
earlier in those parts in contact with the radium salt than in those not in contact.
The result looked for was not observed. It was in several repetitions of this
experiment that the fact was ascertained that a mixture of barium chloride and
radium chloride placed in a moist atmosphere loses its remarkable properties of
phosphorescing and of exciting phosphorescence in barium platinocyanide.? These
facts appear to the author to be opposed to the doctrines of the electronists and to
support the hypothesis that one of the sources of the energy of radium com-
pounds is obscure heat coming from surrounding bodies,

' Chem. Nens, xxxiv. p. 76; Phil. Mag., Dec. 1876; Chem. News, lxvii. pp. 27
and 64.
? Compare F, W. Branson, Nature, July 30, p. 302.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION C, §41

Sxection 0O,—GEOLOGY,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor W. W. Warts, M.Sc,, Suc.G.S,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The President delivered the following Address :—

THERE are two circumstances which invest the fact of my presidency of the
Section this year with peculiar pleasure to myself. The first public lecture I ever
gave was in the Town Hall at Birkdale in 1882, and the first of the fifteen
meetings of the British Association which I have attended was that held in
Southport in 1883.

There is still a third reason, that this meeting is in many respects a geological
meeting. A paleobotanist is presiding over Section K, and the Council has
invited, for the first time for many years, one geologist to deliver an evening dis-
course and another to give the address to artisans. I need hardly say that we are
all looking forward to the lectures of Dr. Rowe and Dr. Flett with keen anticipa-
tion. To the one for his successful use of new methods of developing fossils and
his scientific employment of the material thus prepared in stratigraphic research ;
to the other for his prompt, daring, and businesslike expedition to the scene of
recent volcanic activity in the West Indies, during which he and his colleague,
Dr. Tempest Anderson, collected so many important facts and brought away so
much new knowledge of the mechanism of that disastrous and exceptional volcanic
outbreak.

The Functions of Geology in Hducation and in Practical Life.

At the meeting in 1890, at Leeds, my old friend Professor A. H. Green de-
livered an address to the Section which has generally been regarded as expressing
an opinion adverse to the use of the Science of Geology as an educational agent.
Some of the expressions used by him, if taken alone, certainly seem to bear out
this interpretation. For instance, he says: ‘ Geologists are in danger of becoming
loose reasoners’; further he says: ‘I cannot shut my eyes to the fact that when
Geology is to be used as a means of education there are certain attendant risks
that need to be carefully and watchfully guarded against.’ Then he adds: ‘ Infer-
ences based on such incomplete and shaky foundations must necessarily be largely
hypothetical,’

Such expressions, falling from an accomplished mathematician and one who
was such an eminent field geologist as Professor Green, the author of some of the
most trustworthy and most useful of the Geological Survey Memoirs, and above all
one of the clearest of our teachers and the writer of the best and most eminently
practical text-book on Physical Geology in this or any other language, naturally
exercised great influence on contemporary thought. And I should be as unwise as
Iam certainly rash in endeavouring to controvert them but for the fact that
{ think he only half believed his own words. He remarks that ‘to be forewarned

1903, TT

642 REPORT—1908.

is a proverbial safeguard, and those who are alive to a danger will cast about for
a means of guarding against it. And there are many ways of neutralising what-
ever there may be potentially harmful in the use of Geology for educational ends.’

After thus himself answering what is in reality his main indictment, Professor
Green proceeds with the rest of an address crammed full of such valuable hints as
could only fall from an experienced and practical teacher, showing how much
could be done if the science were only properly taught.

And then he concludes by asking for ‘that kindly and genial criticism with
which the brotherhood of the hammer are wont to welcome attempts to strengthen
the corner-stones and widen the domain of the science we love so well.’

I think the time has now come to speak with greater confidence ; and, although
the distance signal stands at danger, to forge ahead slowly but surely, keeping our
eyes open for all the risks of the road, with one hand on the brakes and the other
on the driving gear, secure at least in the confidence that Nature, unlike man,
never switches a down train on to the up track.

Accessibility and Interest.

Those of us who haye been teaching our science for any considerable time
have come to realise that there are many reasons why Geology should be more
widely taught than at present; that there are many types of mind to whom this
science appeals as no other does; and that there are abundant places and
frequent circumstances which allow of the teaching of it when other sciences are
unsuitable.

To begin with, there is no science in which the materials for elementary
teaching are so common, so cheap, and everywhere so accessible. Nor is there
any science which touches so quickly the earliest and most elementary interests.
It was for this reason that Huxley built his new science of Physiography on
a geological basis. Hills, plains, valleys, crags, quarries, cuttings, are attractive
to every boy and girl, and always rouse intelligent curiosity and frequent inquiry ;
and although the questions asked are difficult to answer in full, a keen teacher
can soon set his children to hunt for fossils or structures which will give them part
of the information they seek. Of course the teaching cannot go very far without
simple laboratory and museum accommodation, and without a small expenditure
on maps and sections ; but the former of these requirements can soon be supplied
from the chemical laboratory and by the collection of the students themselves,
while the latter are every day becoming cheaper and more accessible and useful.
The bicycle and the camera, too, are providing new teaching material and
methods, while at the same time they are giving new interests. ‘The bicycle has
already begun to create a generation to whom relief maps are not an altogether
sealed book, and for whom the laws which govern the relief of a country are
rapidly finding practical utility ; and the camera, at the same time that it quickens
the appreciation of natural beauty, must give new interest to each scrap of know-
ledge as to the causes, whether botanical or geological, to which that beauty is
due. And it is this new knowledge which in turn develops the esthetic sense.
Mente, manu, et malleo sums up most of what is required in the early stages of
learning; but to round off the motto we still require words to express the camera
and bicycle.

Feld-work.

Another reason is the open-airness of the practice of the science. The delight
of the open country comes with intense relief after the classroom, the laboratory,
or the workshop.. In education generally, and especially in geological education,
we have reached the end of the period when

‘all roads lead to Rome
Or books—the refuge of the destitute.’

Of course I realise fully the vital necessity of laboratory and museum work in the
stages of both learning and investigation, and quite freely admit that there is an

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 643

immense amount of useful work being done and to be done in these institutions
alone. But what I think I do right to insist upon is that all work in the laboratory
and museum must be mainly preparatory to the field-work which is to follow ;
every type of geological student must be sent into the field sooner or later, and in
most cases the sooner the better. I have generally found that students in the
early stages have a great repugnance to the grind of working through countless
varieties of minerals, rocks, and fossils; but once they have gone into the field,
collected with their own hands, and seen the importance of these things, and the
inferences to be drawn from them, for themselyes—once indeed they have got
keen—they come back willingly, even eagerly, to any amount of hard indoor work.

But it is when they leave ordinary excursion work and start upon regular
field training that one really feels them spurt forward. As soon as they begin to
realise that surface-features are only the reflex of rock-structure and can ke
utilised for mapping, that to check their lines and initiate new ones they must
search for and find new exposures, and that each observation while settling
perhaps one disputed point may originate a host of new ones, when above all they
can be trusted with a certain amount of individual responsibility and given
a definite point to settle for themselves, it is then that their progress is most rapid,
and is bounded only by their powers of endurance.

I have often watched my students through the various stages of their field
training with the deepest interest as a study of the development of character. At
first they look upon it merely asa relief from the tedium of the classroom and
laboratory, and as a pleasant country excursion. But gradually the fascination of
research comes over them, and as they feel their capacity increasing and their grip
and insight into the structure of the country deepening, one can see them growing
up under one’s eyes, ‘They come into the field a rabble of larky boys; they begin
to develop into men before they leave it.

And what is true of students is more than ever true of the working geologist.
J hold that every yeologist, whatever his special branch may be, should spend a
portion of every year in the field. Though a petrologist may have specimens sent
to him from every variety, even the common ones, in a rock mass, and have their
relations and proportions properly explained to him, it is quite impossible for him
to feel and appreciate these proportions and relationshyps so well as if he had
studied and collected in the field and gained a personal interest inthem. Besides
this the conclusions drawn in the field are the crystalline and washed residuum, so
to speak, left on the mind after the handling of dozens of specimens, weathered
and unweathered, and the seeing them in a host of different lights and aspects.
The rock is hammered and puzzled over and its relations studied until some con-
clusion is arrived at which bears the test of application to all the facts observed in
the field.

Again, once a paleontologist is divorced from the field he loses the significance
of minute time variations, the proportion of aberrant to normal forms, and the
value of naked-eye characteristics which can be ‘spotted’ in the field. Huxley
once asked for a paleontologist who was no geologist; I venture to think we
have now had enough of them. What we want above all at the present time is
the recognition of such characters as have enabled our field paleontologists to
zone by means of the graptolites, the ammonites, and the echinids, so that
every rock system we possess may be subdivided with the same minuteness and
exactitude as the Ordovician, Silurian, and Jurassic systems, and the Chalk.

If this is once done the biological results will take care of themselves, and we
may feel perfect confidence that new laws of biological succession and evolution
will result from such work, as indeed they are now doing—laws which could never
be reached from first principles, but could only come out in the hands of those to
whom time and place were the factors by which they were most impressed. It is
only by field work that we shall ever get rid of the confusion which has been
inevitable from the supposed existence of such so-called species as Orthis cali-
gramma, Atrypa reticularis, and Productus giganteus.

As for the geological results, it is only necessary to read the excellent and
workmanlike Address delivered to this Section at Liverpool in 1896 by Mr. Marr

64:4 REPORT—1908.

to realise how many problems of succession and structure, of distribution and
causation, of ancient geography and modern landscape, are still awaiting solution
by the application of minute and exact zonal researches.

On the other hand it goes without saying that the more a field geologist knows
of his rocks and fossils the better will his stratigraphical work become ; but this is
too obvious to require more than stating.

Recreation.

Geology, again, is of value as a recreative science, one which can be enjoyed
when cycling, walking, or climbing, even when sailing or travelling by rail.
Indeed it is difficult to find a place in which to treat the confirmed geologist if
you wish to make him a ‘total abstainer.’ There are others than those who must
make use of their science in their professions ; those in need of a hobby, those
interested in natural scenery, veterans who have seen much and now have leisure
and means to see more, and those fortunate ones who have not to earn their
bread by the sweat of their brain or brow. Many of these have done and are
doing good work for us, and many more would find real pleasure in doing so if
only they had been inoculated in those early days when impressions sink deep.
Mr. A. 8. Reid, who has had much and fruitful experience in teaching, tells me
that he has often seen seed planted in barren ground at school spring up and grow
and blossom as a country-holiday recreation after schooldays, or bear the good
fruit of solid research after lying dormant for many years.

Observation.

We may next look upon Geology as an educational medium from quite a
different point of view. If more than half the work of the man of science is the
collection of fact, and of actual fact as opposed to the result of the personal equa-
tion, Geology is perhaps the very best training-ground. There are such hosts of
facts to be still recorded, so many erroneous observations to be corrected, and so
much hope of extending observations on already recorded facts, that there is
plenty of work even for the man who can snatch but limited leisure from other
pursuits and the one who is a collector of fact and nothing else, as well as those

‘under whose command
‘Is Earth and Earth’s, and in their hand
‘Ts Nature like an open book.’

But in the collection of facts a wise and careful selection is constantly necessary
in order to pick out from the multitude those which are of exceptional value and
importance in the construction of hypotheses. Nature, it is true, cannot lie; but
she is an expert witness, and it takes an astonishing amount of acute cross-examina-
tion to elicit the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.

There is no science which needs such a variety of observations as Field Geology.
When we remember that Sedgwick and Darwin visited Cwm Glas and carried
away no recollection of the features which now shout ‘ glaciation’ to everyone
who enters the Cwm, it is easy to see how alert must be the eyes and how agile
the mind of the man who has to carry a dozen problems in his mind at once, and
must be on the look-out for evidence with regard to all of them if he would work
out the structure of a difficult country ; and who is not only looking out for facts to
test his own hypothesis, but wishes to observe so accurately that if his hypothesis
gives way even at the eleventh hour his facts are ready to suggest and test its
successor. There is no class of men so well up in what may be called observa-
tional natural history generally as the practised field geologist, because he never
knows at what moment some chance observation—a mound, a spring, a flower, a
feature, even a rabbit-hole or a shadow—may he of service to him. Not only
should he know his country in its every feature and every aspect, but he must
have, and in most cases soon acquires, that remarkable instinct, which can only be
denoted as an ‘eye for a country,’ with which generally goes a naturalist’s know-
iedge of its plants and of its birds, beasts, and fishes.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 645

ELxperiment.

At the present time many educationists are in favour of teaching only the
experimental sciences to the exclusion of those which collect their facts by obser-
vation. This attitude may do some good to Geology in compelling us to pay more
attention to that side of our science which has been better cultivated hitherto in
France than in our own country. But whether we think of education as the
equipping of a scientific man for his future career or as the training of the mind to
encounter the problems of life, we must admit that it would be as wrong to ignore
one of the only two ways of collecting fact as it would be to teach deductive
reasoning to the exclusion of that by induction. Indeed this is understating the
case, for in the vast majority of the problems which confront us in everyday life
the solution can only be reached if an accurate grasp of the facts can be obtained
from observation. The training of the mind solely by means of experiments care-
fully designed to eliminate all confusing and collateral elements sayours too much
of ‘ milk for babes’ and too little of ‘strong meat for men.’

Theory.

Mr. Teall in his masterly Address to the Geological Society in 1901 pointed out
‘that the state of advancement of a science must be measured, not by the number
of facts collected, but by the number of facts coordinated.’ ‘Vheory, consistent,
comprehensive, tested, verified, is the life-blood of our science as of every other. Ii
is what history is to politics, what morals are to manners, and what faith is to
religion.

It is almost impossible to collect facts at all without carrying a working
hypothesis to string them on. It is easy to follow Darwin’s advice and speculate
freely ; the speculation may be right, and if wrorg it will be weeded out by new
facts and criticism, while the speculative instinct will suggest others. In hypo-
thesis there will always be an ultimate survival of the fittest.

And it is not only easy but absolutely necessary, because in Geology, more
perhaps than in any other science, hypotheses are like steps in a staircase: each one
must be mounted before the next one can be reached ; andif you have no intention
of coming back again that way, it does not matter if you destroy each step when
you have made use of it. Every new hypothesis hes something fresh to teach,
and nearly all haye some element of untruth to be ultimately eliminated. But
each one is a stage, and a necessary stage, in progress,

In physics and in chemistry the chief difficulties are those which surround the
making of experiments. When these have keen successfully overcome the right
theory follows naturally, and verification is not usually a very lengthy process, In
Geology, on the other hand, theory is more quickly arrived at from the numerous
facts ; but the price is paid in the patience required for testing and the ruthless
refusal to strain fact to fit theory. Every hypothesis leads back to facts again and
again for verification, extension, and improvement.

Principles,

Many of the leading conclusions of our science have not yet become part of the
common stock of the knowledge of the world; indeed they are not even fully
realised by many men eminent in their own sciences. The momentum given by
Werner and Playfair, Phillips and Jukes, Sedgwick, Darwin, and Lyell, and other
pioneers of the fighting science, has died down, and in the interval of hard work, de-
tailed observation, minute subdivision, involved classification, and pedantic nomen-
clature which has followed, and which I believe to be only the prelude to an epoch
of more important generalisation in the immediate future, it has been difficult for
an outsider to see the wood for the trees. He has hardly yet realised that facts
as vital to the social and economic well-being of the people at large, and conclusions
of as great importance in the progress of the science and of as far-reaching conse-
quence in the allied sciences, are being wrung from Nature now as in the past.

646 REPORT—1903.

‘he unimaginable touch of Time,’ the antiquity of the globe as the abode of
life, the absolute proof of the evolution of life given by fossils, the evidence of change
and evolution in geography and climate, the antiquity of man, the nature of the
earth’s interior, the tremendous cumulative effect of small causes, the definite
position of deposits of economic value, the rdle played by denudation and earth-
movement in the development of landscape, the view of the earth as a living
organism with the heyday of its youth, its maturity, and its future old age and
death, to mention but a few of our great principles, furnish us with conceptions
which cannot fail to quicken the attention and inspire the thought of students of
history, geography, and other sciences.

Now that these things are capable of definite proof, that they are of real
significance in the cognate sciences and of actual economic value, above all now
that the nineteenth century, the geological century, has closed, that the heroic
age is over, that we have passed the stages of scepticism and religious intolerance,
and reached the stage ‘when everybody knew it before,’ it might be expected that
a fairly accurate knowledge and appreciation of these principles should form part
of the common stock of knowledge, and be a starting-point in the teaching of
allied sciences,

Topography.

Another feature which adds to the attractiveness of geological observations is
their immediate usefulness from many points of view. The relief and outline of
any area is as closely related to its rocky framework as the form of a human being
is related to his skeleton and muscles. The geological surveyor recognises how
every rise and fall is the direct reflex of some corresponding difference in the under-
lying rocks; he seeks to observe and explain the ordinary as well as anomalous
ground-features, every one of which conveys some meaning to him.

A geological basis for the classification and grouping of surface-features is the
only one which is likely to be satisfactory in the end, because it is the only one
founded on a definite natural principle, the relation of cause to effect. It is not
without good reason that the topographic and geological surveys of the United
States are combined under one management, and nowhere else are the topographic
results more accurate and satisfactory. Landscape is traced back to its ultimate
source, and consequently sketched in with more feeling for the country and greater
accuracy of knowledge than would otherwise be possible. Geologists were among
the first to cry out for increasing accuracy and detail in our government maps,
and they have consistently made the utmost use of the best of these maps as fast
as they appeared. With the publication of each type of map, hachured, contoured,
six-inch, twenty-five inch, the value and accuracy of geological mapping has
advanced step by step. Wherever the topography is better delineated than usual,
the facilities are greater for accurate geological work, and the best geological maps,
and those in greatest demand, are always those based on the most minute and
detailed topographic work. On the other hand geologists are training up a class
of men who can read and interpret the inner meaning of these maps, and make the
fullest use of the splendid facilities given by the minute accuracy of the ordnance
work.

Lord Roberts has recently complained that the cadets at Woolwich are unable
to read and interpret maps, and he ‘strongly advised them to set about improving
themselves in this respect, or they would find themselves heavily handicapped in
the future.’ In his evidence before the War Commission he has emphasised the
same disability among staff officers. I believe that the only training in this subject
before entering the Royal Military Academy and the Royal Military College has
been that given to those candidates who have taken up Geology for their entrance
examination. By encouraging these students to study and draw maps and sections
of their own districts, and to explain and draw sections across geological maps
generally, thus accounting for surface-features, the examiners have compelled this
small group of candidates to see deeper into a map than ordinary people. If only
this training had been encouraged and advanced and made use of later, the Com-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C | 64:7

mander-in-Chief would have had no cause of complaint with regard to these par-
ticular men. Looking at a map is one thing; working at it, seemg into it, and
getting out of it what is wanted from the vast mass of information crammed into
it, is quite another; and Geology is the very best and perhaps the only means of
compelling such a close study of maps as to enable students to seize upon the salient
features of a country from a map as quickly and accurately as if the country itself
were spread out before them. The geologist is compelled to work out and classify
for himself the features he observes on his maps, such as scarps and terraces, crags
and waterfalls, streams and gorges, passes and ridges, the run of the roads, canals,
and railways, the nature and accessibility of the coast, and all those features which
make the difference between easy-going and a difficult country. When he has
worked his way over a map in this fashion that map becomes to him a real and
telling picture of the country itself.

Experience, bitter experience, in South Africa has shown the necessity not only
for good maps and map-reading, but for that which is the most priceless posses-
sion alike of the best stratigraphers and of the best strategists, a good ‘ eye for a
country.’ It has been said that the Boer war was a geographical war; but it was
even more, and, especially in its later stages, a topographic war. Again and again
the Boers aroused our astonishment and admiration by the way in which their
topographic knowledge and instinct enabled them to fight, to defend themselves,
and to secure their retreat, by the most consummate ability in utilising the natural
features of their country. This was due to two things. In the first place they
took care to have with them in each part of the country the men who knew that
particular district best in every detail and in every aspect. But in the second
place there can be no doubt that they made the utmost use of that hunter-craft by
which the majority of them could take in at a glance the character of a country,
even a new one, as a whole, guided by certain unconscious principles which each
man absorbed as part of his country life and hunter's training. They possessed,
and had of necessity cultivated to a very high degree, an ‘eye for a country.’

Now the study of the geology of any district, and especially the geological
mapping of it, goes a long way towards giving and educating the very kind of eye
for a country which is required, partly by reason of the practice in observation
and interpretation which it is continuously giving, and partly because it delibe-
rately supplies the very kinds of classification and the principles of form which a
hunter-people have unconsciously built up from their outdoor experience.

Any geologist who thinks of the Weald, the wolds and downs of Kastern
England, the scarps and terraces of the Pennine, the buried mountain structure
of the Midlands, even the complicated mountain types of Lakeland and Wales,
will remember how often his general knowledge of the rock-structure of the region
has helped him as a guide to the topography ; and as his geological knowledge of
the area has increased he will recall how easy it has become to carry the most com-
plicated topography in his mind, or to revive his recollection of it froma glance
at the map, because the geological structure, the anatomy, is present in his mind
throughout, and the outside form is the inevitable consequence of that structure.
Indeed the reading of a good geological map to the geologist is like the reading of
score to a musician.

Surely it would be most unwise if the Committee on Military Education were
to cut out of their curriculum the only subject which has exercised and educated
this faculty, and one which is at the same time doing a great deal to counteract that
degeneration of observing faculties inseparable from a town life. Some cadets at
least ought to be chosen from amongst those men who have been trained by this
method to see quickly and accurately into the topographic character and possibilities
of a country, and provision should be made for educating their faculties further
until they become of genuine strategic value.

Then I believe it would be correct to say that no class of men get to know
their own district with anything like the minuteness and accuracy of the geological
surveyor. The mere topographer simply transfers his impressions on the spot as
quickly as may be to paper, and has no further concern with them. The geologist
must keep them stored in his mind, watching the variation and development of

648 REPORT—1903,

each feature from point to point for his own purposes. He must traverse every
inch of his ground, he must know where he can climb each mountain and ford
every brook, where there are quarries or roads, springs or flats; what can be seen
from every point of view, how the habitability or habitations vary from point to
point; in short, he must become a veritable walking map of his own district.
Why not scatter such men in every quarter of the globe, particularly where any
trouble is likely to arise? They are cheap enough, they will waste no time, and
they will be so glad of the chance for research that they will not be hard to satisfy
in the matter of pay and equipment. Thus you will acquire a corps of guides,
ready wherever and whenever they are wanted; and when trouble arises they
may do agreat deal by means of their minute knowledge of topography to save
millions of money and thousands of lives, and to prevent the irritating recurrence
of the kind of disaster with which we have become sadly familiar within the last
five years,

Geography. :

In dealing with the relationship of Geology to Geography geologists are
frequently charged with claiming too much. On this point at least, however,
there can be no difference of opinion, that the majority of geological surveyors and
unofficial investigators have kept their eyes open to this relationship, and have
often contributed new explanations of old problems, They have been compelled to
observe, and often to explain, surface-features before making use of them in their
own mapping, and in doing so have often hit upon new principles. It is hardly
needful to mention such examples as Ramsay’s great conception of plains of marine
denudation, Whitaker’s convincing memoir on sub-aérial denudation, Jukes’s explana-
tion of the laws of river adjustment, Gilbert’s scientific essay on erosion, Heim’s
demonstration of the share taken by earth-movement in the modelling of landscape
features, and the exceedingly valuable proofs of the relation of human settlement
and movement to underground structure, worked out with such skill and diligence
by Topley in his masterly memoir on the Weald—the jumping-off place, if I may
so term it, of the new geography.

No one is more pleased than geologists that geographers have ceased to draw
their knowledge of causation solely from history, and that they have turned their
attention to the dependence and reaction of mankind on nature as well. But
while hoping that geographers will continue to study, so far as they logically can,
the relationship of plants, animals, and mankind to the solid framework of the
globe on which they live, we must draw the line at the invention of new geological
hypotheses to explain geographic difficulties on no better evidence than that
furnished by the difficulties themselves; on the other hand, we must insist that
each new geological principle must take its place among geographic explanations
as soon as it is freely admitted to be based on a sound substratum of fact.

I must confine myself to a fewinstances of what 1 mean. Mr. Marr's geological
work on the origin of lake-basins has led to some remarkable and unexpected con-
clusions with regard to the history and origin of the drainage of the Lake district.
Some of the very difficult questions raised by the physical geography of the North
Riding of Yorkshire have received a new explanation from the researches of
Professor Kendall and Mr. Dwerryhouse, an explanation which is the outcome of
purely geological methods of observation of geological materials, Again, the simple
geological interpretation of a well-known unconformity between Archean and
Triassic rocks has made it extremely probable that many of the present landscapes,
not only in the Midlands but elsewhere, may be really fossil landscapes, of great
antiquity and due to causes quite different from those in operation there
at the present day. In mountain regions, too, it can only be by geological obser-
vation that we shall ever determine what has been the precise direct share of
earth-movement in the production of surface relief. Such examples seem to indi-
cate that many of the principles must be of geological origin but of geographic
application,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 649

Economics,

While Geology has been of direct scientific utility in topography and geography
there is another domain, that of Economic Geology, which is entirely its own. The
application of Geology extends to every industry and occupation which has to do
with our connexion with the earth on which we live. Agriculture, engineering,
the obtaining of the useful and precious metals, chemical substances, building
materials, and road metals, sanitary science, the winning and working of coal, iron,
oil, gas, and water, all these and many more pursuits are carried on the better if
founded on a knowledge of the structure of the earth’s crust. Indeed a geological
map of this country, showing rocks, solid and superficial, of which no economic
use could be made, would be nearly blank. Yet so much has this side of the
science been neglected of recent years that our only comprehensive text-books on
it are altogether out of date.

But in teaching Geology as a technical science, or rather as one with technolo-
gical applications, one of the greatest difficulties before us is to steer between two
opposing schools, the so-called theoretical school and the practical school.

There are those who say that there is but one geology, the theoretical, and that
a thorough knowledge of this must be obtained by all those who intend to apply
the science. Others think that this is too much to ask—that the time available is
not sufficient—and that it is only necessary to teach so much of the subject as is
obviously germane to the question in hand.

The best course appears to me to be the middle one between the two extremes.
If the engineer or miner, the water-finder or quarryman, has no knowledge of
principles, but only of such facts as appear to be required in the present posi-
tion of his profession, he will be incapable of making any improvement in his
methods so far as they depend upon geology. If, on the other hand, he is a purely
theoretical man without a detailed practical and working acquaintance with the
facts which specially concern him, he will be put down by his colleagues as un-
practical; he will have to learn the facts as quickly as he can and buy his experi-
ence in the dearest market.

1t seems to me that there is certain common ground which must be acquired
by all types of professional men. The general petrographic character of the
common rocks, enough of their mode of origin to aid the memory, the principle of
order and age in the stratified rocks, the use of fossils and superposition as tests
of age, the nature of unconformities, the relation of structure to the form of the
ground, the occurrence of folds and faults, and above all the reading of maps and
sections, and sufficient field work to give confidence in the representation of
facts on maps—these things are required by everybody who makes any use of
geology in his daily life.

But when so much has been acquired it should be possible to separate out the
students for more special treatment. The coal-miner will require especially a full
knowledge of the coal-bearing systems, not in our own islands merely, but all over
the world; a special acquaintance with the effects of folds and faults, and an
advanced training in the maps and sections of coal-bearing areas. The vein-miner
should be well up in faulting and all the geometrical problems associated with it,
and he should have an exhaustive acquaintance with the vein and metalliferous
minerals,

The water engineer needs to know especially well the porous and impervious
rock types, the texture and composition of these rocks, the nature of their cements
and joints, and the distribution of water levels in them. Further, he must know
what there is to be known on the problems of permeability and absorption, the
relation of rain to supply, the changes undergone by water and the paths taken by
it on its route underground, and the varying nature of rocks in depth. He must
also understand the effects of folds and faults on drainage areas and on underground
watercourses, the special qualities of water-yielding rocks, of those forming the
foundation of reservoir sites, and those suitable for the construction of dams.

The sanitary engineer will need to be acquainted with the same range of

650 REPORT—- 1903.

special knowledge as the water engineer, but will naturally be more interested in
getting rid of surface water without contaminating it more than he can help than
in obtaining it; he will also need a more detailed acquaintance with superficial
deposits than any other class of professional men,

The quarryman and architect ought to know the rocks both macroscopically
and microscopically, in their chemical and mineralogical character, their grains
and their cements. But he ought to be well acquainted with the laws of bedding,
jointing, and cleavage, with questions of outcrop and underground extent, and all
those other characters which make the difference between good and bad stone, or
between one desirable and undesirable in the particular circumstances in which a
building is to be erected. Further, he should make a particular study of the action
of weight and weather on the rocks which he employs.

The road engineer and surveyor, now that it has been discovered that it is
cheaper and better to use the best and most lasting road-metal. instead of any that
happens to be at hand, requires to have an extensive acquaintance with our igneous
and other durable rocks, He needs, however, not only petrographic and chemical
knowledge, but also a type of information not at present accessible in England, the
relative value of these rocks in resisting the wear and tear of traffic, the cementing
power of the worn material, and the surface characters of roads made from them,
in order that he may in each case select the stone which in his particular cireum-
stances gives the best vaiue for money. It would surely pay the county councils
to follow, with modifications, the example of the French and Americans, and
carry out a deliberate and well-planned series of experiments on all the material
accessible to them in their respective districts.

The teaching of the application of Geology should therefore take some such
form as the following :— First, the principles should be thoroughly taught with the
use for the most part of examples drawn from the economic side; thus cementing
might be illustrated on the side of water percolation, jointing from the making
of mine roads and from quarry sites, faulting from effects on coal outcrops and
veins, unconformity from its significance to the coal-miner; while in teaching the
sequence of stratified rocks the systems and stages could be mainly individualised
by their economic characters. When this has been done the class must be divided
into groups, each paying special attention to the points which are of essential im-
portance to it.

The teaching at all stages should be practical and, so far as can be, experi-
mental, and in all cases where possible a certain amount of field work should be
attempted. Jor the field after all is the laboratory of the geologist, where he can
observe experiments being made on a gigantic scale under his eyes.

The aim of the teaching should be to give to students the equipment necessary
to deal with the chief geological problems that they will meet with in their
varied professions ; it should show them where to go for maps, memoirs, or descrip-
tions of the areas with which they are dealing; and in cases of great difficulty
should enable them to see where further geological assistance is required, and to
weigh and balance the expert evidence given them against the economic and other
factors of the problem before them.

From men educated thus Geology has the right to expect a valuable return.
There is a vast amount of knowledge on economic subjects in existence but not
readily accessible. It has been obtained by experts, and after being used is locked
up or lost. And yet it is the very kind of knowledge which is wanted to extend our
principles further into the economic side of the subject. So well is this recognised
that many geologists are attracted to economic work mainly because of the wide
range of new facts that they can only thus become acquainted with. It is possible
to make use of many of these facts for scientific induction without in any way be-
traying confidence or revealing the source from which they are obtained ; and even
if they cannot be used directly they are often of great service in giving moral
support, or the contrary, to working hypotheses founded on other evidence.

lor’
Cr
—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Resources.

The knowledge of our mineral resources is of such vital consequence to our-
selves and to our present and future welfare as a nation, and yet it is a matter of
so much popular misconception, that I feel bound to dwell on this subject a little
ionger. ‘To anyone who studies the growth and distribution of population in any
important modern State the facts and reasons become as clear as day,

It is easy to construct maps showing at a glance the density of population in
any country. Perhaps the most effective way to do so is to draw a series of
isodemic lines and to gradually increase the depth of tint within them as the
number of people per square mile increases until absolute blackness represents, say,
over 2,000 people per square mile. Such maps are the best means of displaying
the geography of the available sources of energy in a country at any particular
period. Population maps of England and Wales in the early part of the eighteenth
century would be pale in tint with a few rather darker patches, and would show
a distribution dependent solely upon food as a source of energy working through
the medium of mankind and animals. Such maps would be purely agricultural
and maricultural, dependent upon the harvests of the land and sea. Maps made at
a later period would show a new concentration round other sources of energy, par-
ticularly wind and water, but would not be perceptibly darker in tint as a whole;
for although we are apt to think that we have in this country too much wind and
water, they are not in such a form that we can extract any appreciable supply of
energy directly from them.

But maps representing the present population, while still mainly energy maps,
at once bring out the fact that our leading source of energy is now coal and no
longer food, wind, or water. The new concentrations, marked now by patches and
bands of deepest black, have shifted away from the agricultural regions and
settled upon and around the coalfields. The map has now become geological.

The difference between the old and the new map is, however, not only in kind ;
it is.even more remarkable in degree. The population is everywhere much
denser. Not only are the mining and manufacturing areas on the new map more
than eight times as densely populated as any areas on the oldér map, not only is
the average population five times greater throughout the country, but the lightest
spot on the new map is nearly as dark as the darkest spot on the old one. The
sparsest population at the present day is as thick on the ground as it was
in the densest spots indicated on the older map, while at the same time the stan-
dards of wages, living, and comfort, instead of falling, have risen.

The discovery of this new source of energy, coal, immediately gave employment
toa much larger number of people; it paid for their food and provided the means of
transporting it from the uttermost parts of the earth. Under agricultural condi-
tions the map shows that the population attained a given maximum density, and
no further increase was possible, the density being regulated by the food supply
raised on the surface of the land. Our dwelling-house was but one story high.
Under industrial conditions our mineral resources can support five times the
number. Our dwelling-house is of five stories—one above ground and four below it.

At the same time the type of distribution is altered. The agricultural areas
are now covered by a relatively scanty population, and the dense areas are
situated on or near to the coal and iron fields, the regions yielding other metals,
those suitable for industries which consume large supplies of fuel, and a host of
new distributing centres, nodal points on the new lines of traffic, either inside the
country or on its margins where the great routes of ocean transport converge, or
where the sea penetrates far in towards the industrial regions.

It has been the good fortune of this country to be the first to realise, and with
characteristic energy to take advantage of, the new possibilities for development
opened up by the discovery and utilisation of its mineral wealth. We were ex-
ceedingly fortunate in having so much of this wealth at hand, easy to get and
work from geological considerations, cheap to transport and export from geogra-
phical considerations. So we were able to pay cash for the products of the whole

652 REPORT—1908,

world, to handle, manufacture, and transport them, and thus to become the traders
and carriers of the world.

But other nations are waking up. We have no monopoly of underground
wealth, and day by day we are feeling the competition of their awakening
strength. Can we carry on the struggle and maintain the lead we have gained ?

In answering this question there are three great considerations to keep in
mind. ITirst, our own mineral wealth is not exhausted; secondly, that of our
colonies is as yet almost untouched ; and thirdly, there are still many uncolonised
areas left in the world.

The very plenty of our coal and iron, and the ease of extracting it, has been
an economic danger. There has been waste in exploration because of ignorance
of the structure and position of the coal-yielding rocks; waste in extraction
because of defective appliances, of the working only of the best-paying seams and
areas, of the water difficulty, and the want of well-kept plans and records of areas
worked and unworked ; waste in employment because of the low efficiency of the
machinery which turns this energy into work. With all this waste our coaltields
have hardly yielded a miserable one per cent. of the energy which the coal actually
possesses when zz svt.

Engineers and miners are trying to diminish two of these sources of waste,
and Geology has done something to reduce that of exploration. This has been
done by detailed mapping and study, so that we now know the areas covered by
the coal-seams, their varying thickness, the ‘ wants,’ folds, and faults by which
they are traversed, and all that great group of characters designated as the
geological structure of the coalfields. It could not have been accomplished unless
unproductive as well as productive areas had been studied, the margins of the
fields mapped as well as their interiors, and unless the geological principles
wrested from all sorts of rocks and regions had been available for application to
the coal districts in question. We no longer imagine every grey shale to be an
index of coal; we are not frightened by every roll or fault we meet with under-
ground; nor do we, as in the past, throw away vast sums of money in sinking for
coal in Cambrian or Silurian rocks.

We cannot afford, hard bitten as we are in the rough school of experience and
with our increased knowledge, to make all the old mistakes over again, and yet
we are on the very eve of doing it. Up to the present it is our visible coalfields
that we have been working, and we have got to know their extent and character
fairly well. But so much coal has now been raised, so much wasted in extraction,
and so many areas rendered dangerous or impossible to work, that we cannot shut
our eyes to the grave fact that these visible fields are rapidly approaching exhaus-
tion, The Government have done well to take stock again of our coal supply
and to make a really serious attempt by means of a Royal Commission to gauge
its extent and duration; and we all look forward to that Commission to direct
attention to this serious waste and to the possibility of better economy which
will result from the fuller application of scientific method to exploration, working,
and employment.

But we still have an area of concealed coalfields left, possibly at least as large
and productive as those already explored and as full of hope for increased indus-
trial development. It is to these we must now turn attention with a view of
obtaining from them the maximum amount possible of the energy that they
contain. The same problems which beset the earlier explorers of the visible coal-
fields will again be present with us in our new task, and there will be in addition
a host of new ones, even more difficult and costly to solve. In spite of this the
task will have to be undertaken, and we must not rest until we have as good a
knowledge of the concealed coalfields as we have of those at the surface. This
knowledge will have tv be obtained in the old way by geological surveying and
mapping and by the coordination of all the observations available in the pro-
ductive rocks themselves and in those associated with them, whether made in the
course of geological study or in mining and exploration. But now the work will
have to be done at a depth of thousands instead of hundreds of feet, and under a
thick cover of newer strata resting unconformably on those we wish to pierce and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 653

work. When we get under the unconformable cover we meet the same geology
and the same laws of stratigraphy and structure as in more superficial deposits, but
accurate induction is rendered increasingly difficult by the paucity of exposures
and the small number of facts available owing to the great expense of deep
boring. How precious, then, becomes every scrap of information obtained from
sinkings and borings, not only where success is met with, but where it is not; and
how little short of criminal is it that there should be the probability that much of
this information is being and will be irretrievably lost !

Mr. Harmer pointed out in a paper to this Section in 1895 that under present
conditions there was an automatic check on all explorations of this kind. The
only person who can carry it out is the landowner. If he fails he loses his
money and does not even secure the sympathy of his neighbours. If he
succeeds his neighbours stand to gain as much as he does without sharing in the
expense. The successful explorer naturally conceals the information he has
acquired because he has had to pay so heavily for it that he cannot afford to put
his neighbours in as good a position as himself and make them his rivals as well ;
while the unsuccessful man is only too glad to forget as soon as possible all about
his unfortunate venture. And yet in work of this kind failure is second only to
success in the value of the information it gives as to the underground structure
which it is so necessary to have if deep mining is to become a real addition to the
resources of the country.

Systematic and detailed exploration, guided by scientific principles and
advancing from the known to the unknown, ought to be our next move forward:
a method of exploration which shall benefit the nation as well as the individual,
a careful record of everything done, a body of men who shall interpret and map
the facts as they are acquired and draw conclusions with regard to structure and
position from them—in short a Geological Survey which shall do as much for
Hypogean Geology as existing surveys have done for Epigean Geology, is now our
crying need. Unless something of this sort is done, and done in a systematic and
masterful manner, we run a great risk of frittering away the most important of
our national resources left to us, of destroying confidence, of wasting time and
money at a most precious and critical period of our history, and of slipping down-
hill at a time when our equipment and resources are ready to enable us to stride
forward.

We do not want to be in the position of a certain town council which kept
a list of its old workmen and entered opposite one, formerly sewer inspector, that
he possessed ‘an extensive memory which is at the disposal of the corporation.’

Even supposing the scheme outlined by Mr. Harmer cannot be carried out in
its complete form, a great deal will be done if mining engineers can receive
a sufficient geological training to enable them to realise the significance of these
underground problems, so that they can recognise when any exploration they are
carrying out inside their own area is likely to be of far-reaching geological and
economic significance outside the immediate district in which they are personally
and immediately concerned.

Turning to our colonies it is true that in many of them much is being done by
competent surveys to attain a knowledge of mineral resources, but this work
should be pushed forward more rapidly, with greater strength and larger staffs,
and above all it should not be limited to areas that happen to be of known
economic value just at the present moment. It is almost a truism that the
scientific principle of to-day is the economic instrument of to-morrow, and it will
be a good investment to enlarge the bounds of geological theory, trusting to the
inevitable result that every new principle and fact discovered will soon find its
economic application. Further, it is necessary that we should obtain as soon as
possible a better knowledge of the mineral resources of the smaller and thinly
inhabited colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence: This is one of the
things which would conduce to the more rapid, effective occupation of these areas.

With regard to areas not at present British colonies, it seems to me that no
great harm would be done by obtaining, not in any obtrusive way, some general
knowledge of the mineral resources of likely areas. This at least seems to be what

654. REPORT—1908.

other nations find it worth their while to do, and then, when the opportunity of
selection arises, they are able to choose such regions as will most rapidly fill up
and soonest yield a return for the private or public capital invested in them.

Summary.

To sum up, I consider that the time has come when geologists should make
a firm and consistent stand for the teaching of their science in schools, technical
colleges, and universities. Such an extension of teaching will of course need the
expenditure of time and money; but England is at last beginning to wake up to
the belief, now an axiom in Germany and America, that one of the best invest-
ments of money that can be made by the pious benefactor or by the State is that
laid up at compound interest, ‘where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt,’ in the
brains of its young men.

This knowledge has been an asset of monetary value to hosts of individuals
who have made their great wealth by the utilisation of our mineral resources, and
to our country, which owes its high position among the nations to the power
and importance given to it by its coal and iron. It is surely good advice to
individuals and to the State to ask them to reinvest some of their savings in
the business which has already given such excellent returns, so that they and we
may not be losers through our lack of knowledge of those sources of energy which
have made us what weare, and are capable of keeping for many years the position
they have won for us.

And in our present revival of education it would be well that its rightful posi-
tion should be given to a science which is useful in training and exercising the
faculty of observation and the power of reasoning, which conduces to the open-air
life and to the appreciation of the beautiful in nature, which places its services at
the disposal of the allied sciences of topography and geography, which is the hand-
maid of many of the useful arts, and which brings about a better knowledge
and appreciation of the life and growth of the planet that we inhabit for a
while, and wish to hand on to our descendants as little impaired in vitality and
energy as is consistent with the economic use of our own life-interest in it.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The Geology of the Country round Southport.
By J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.GS.

Looking towards Southport from the sea we notice three platforms rising in
gigantic steps towards the east.

The first is low, varying in height from 9 to 20 feet above Ordnance datum,
and is fringed on the seaward side by sandhills which rise to an elevation of from
50 to 90 feet. On the north the broad estuary of the Ribble separates this plain
from a similar platform known as the Fylde district, and the Mersey on the south

cuts off another fragment which forms the north end of the Wirral. Two less -

significant streams, the Douglas and the Alt, flow across the platform into the
Ribble Estuary and the Crosby Channel respectively.

The whole of this plain is the gift of the Irish Sea glacier, which formerly
overrode the district, the solid rocks only reaching the surface in the case of a few
islands, while the bulk is below sea level.

in the immediate neighbourhood of Southport, Keuper marls occur. These are
of great thickness, and contain bands of gypsum and pseudomorphs of rock salt.
‘Yo the north, in the Fylde district, where similar rocks oceur,salt is obtained from
the beds, and the boulders of gypsum which occur in great profusion in the local
drift have evidently come from this formation.

The Bunter rocks of the Trias succeed to the east, and are in places capped by
Keuper sandstones. Where these occur we reach the second platform.

At Ormskirk, distant about eight miles from Southport, several interesting
sections show the Keuper resting on the Upper Bunter, At Scarth Hill, near the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 655

Water Tower, the relations beween Keuper and Bunter are well displayed, and
the quarries are worth visiting. Probably nowhere in the district do the Bunter
sandstones display such clear evidence of their xolian origin. They consist of
sand grains perfectly rounded and polished, each bed containing grains of uniform
size. So perfect is this sifting that it looks as if the layers had been passed
through sieves of varying meshes. In some layers the grains are 2 mm. in
diameter, and in others they are exceedingly fine. A comparison of these sands
with others from the Sahara and sand dunes shows clearly the distinction between
the deposition by wind agency and in water. Faults traversing the Triassic
rocks conform to the general N. and 8. direction so characteristic of Lancashire
and Cheshire, and these are joined by E. and W. faults, which, as a rule, have
little or no throw. It seems as if the N. and S. buckling which caused the
main faults had cut up the rocks into blocks, and the EK. and W. faults mark the
units which dropped successively in the individual blocks.

Further to the E. the Bunter rocks give place to Coal-measures, but at one or
two places in the area, as at Skillaw Clough and Bentley Brook, thin beds of
Permian age intervene.

Succeeding the Coal-measures, Millstone Grit appears in the next platform
which forms the hills above Chorley and Horwich. An outlier of Millstone Grit
also occurs at Parbold, further to the west.

The disposition of the rocks already given indicates an approach towards the
arch of the great Penine anticline, and on crossing the Penine chain a similar
succession, in the reverse order, is met with in Yorkshire.

The matter is complicated, however, by the occurrence of another line of
folding which shows itself in the Rosendale anticline, running E.N.E. to W.S.W.;
and it is owing to this cross folding that the Millstone Grit is brought to the sur-
face on Anglezark Moor and at Parbold.

As a result of this folding the main faults in the Carboniferous area run
parallel with the anticline, and the cross faults at right angley to the faulted
blocks are characterised by having only a slight throw.

Returning now to the first platform we find the chief interest lies in the glacial
and post-glacial deposits which cover the area. The surface of the boulder clay is
very uneven, and in the hollows meres have been formed. Many of these have
since been filled with peat, and tree trunks, both prone and erect, are found
inclosed in it. A great number of these meres, or mosses, are seen, not only about
Southport, but in the Fylde, in South Lancashire, and the northern part of
Cheshire.

Tn all cases they either drain eastwards or formerly did so. Borings in the
peat show that they often extend below sea-level, and there must have existed
barriers which prevented the waters from reaching the Irish Sea. It has been
estimated that the coasts in the neighbourhood are being eroded, in some places at
the rate of five yards ayear; so that 400 years ago the land would extend more
than a mile seawards; and if the same rate of waste has obtained since the glacial
period there would be a land of meres and mosses extending as far as the Isle of
Man. It is possible that the Irish elk found in the Isle of Man crossed by this
lost land.

Along the coast meres can be seen in all stages of decay. Immediately to the
east of Southport lies Martin Mere, which is only separated from the sea by a
narrow bank at Crossens. At the Alt mouth, at Jeasowe, in Cheshire, and in
other places, the ancient meres have been cut in two by the sea, and we have peat
and tree trunks on the coast below high-water level. ‘These are usually spoken of
as ‘submerged forests,’ and their occurrence in the places mentioned may indicate
a lowering of the surface of the land since the trees grew.

The present mouths of the Mersey, Alt, Douglas, and Ribble have all been cut
through ancient meres, and as there is evidence that these formerly drained to the
east it is probable that the breaching of the meres has resulted in a reversal of
flow since glacial times, and the present mouths are of comparatively recent date.

The sandhills on the coast only occur in districts adjacent to rivers. It is
probable that they owe their origin to the material brought down by the rivers,

656 REPORT—1908.

forming a bank of sand in the slack water at each side of their channels. These
banks drying at low water, the sand has then been blown inland by the prevailing
S.W. winds. No dunes existed in this district 400 years ago, and they are probably
subsequent to and result from the reversal of the drainage of the Mersey and
Ribble.

2. Martin Mere. By Haroxip Broprick, M.A.

Martin Mere, a lake situated inland of and to the N.E. of Southport, was, at
the end of the sixteenth century, about four miles long by two in width, its
length extending from Crossens to Rufford. It was one of a number of lakes
which formerly existed in this district, such as the lake on the site of Chat Moss
and others in the Wirral Peninsula. The glacial period left the whole of this
district and part of the Irish Sea between the present coast line and the Isle of
Man coyered with a deposit of boulder clay with an undulating surface. The
district under consideration seems to have formed a portion either of a large lake
basin, which stretched seawards, or of an estuary, as a deposit of grey clay is
found underlying the western portion of the mere; the lacustrine or estuarine
character of this clay is not at present fully determined. Subsequently to this
deposit a good drainage system came into existence, and a forest sprang up con-
sisting of gigantic oaks and Scotch firs, the roots of which trees penetrated
through the grey clay, and in some cases imbedded themselves in the underlying
boulder clay. ‘This forest covered a considerable area of South-west Lancashire
and the Wirral Peninsula and extended seawards of the present coast line. The
drainage of this district became obstructed by a bank of tidal alluvium at Crossens,
and a lake was formed killing the trees, which fell mostly pointing in a N.E,
direction. ‘This lake slowly became smaller owing to the growth of sphagnum
and other peat-forming plants; the shores, with the exception of that on the north,
were shallow and marshy, and favourable to such growths. The old basin is
filled with peat, the lowest layers of which are of a dense black nature containing
the trunks of trees; the upper portions of the peat are of a light colour, and con-
tain no tree trunks for the most part, although a layer of hazel trees occurs within
a few feet of the surface over the greater portion of the area; shallow layers of
sand occur in various places in the peat, and are probably of similar origin to that
of the Shirdley Hill sand of the district. The greatest depth of the peat so far
ascertained is nineteen feet. Imbedded within a few feet of the surface fifteen
canoes, each hollowed out of a single tree trunk, have been found. The earlier
maps (¢.g., Blaeu, 1662) all show three islands: of these the boulder clay knol] on
which Berry House windmill stands is one. It is possible that Wyke Farm
occupies a second and Clay Brow a third. Berry House Island was never more
than five feet above the highest waters of the mere. The lake prior to the arti-
ficial drainage flowed into the Douglas near Rufford ; but it is likely that in times
of floods the reverse took place, and the flood waters of the river and of the lake
found their way into the sea at Crossens. In 1692 the first artificial drainage
works were commenced, and consisted of a canal, cut through the banked
alluvium at Crossens, and flood gates. It was not until about 1850 that the lake
was efliciently drained. Previous to that date the area was frequently flooded,
partly owing to the blocking of the flood gates by sand, partly to incursions of
the sea, and partly to floods from the Douglas. The present area of the old lake
is now below the high-water mark of sprin tides, which have been known, within
living memory, to flow up as far as Berry House.

3. Report of the Cominittee on the Registration of Type Specimens of
Fossils.

4, Report of the Committee on the Structure of Crystals,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 657

\FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papet's and Reports were read :—

1. On the Lakes of the Upper Engadine. By ANDRE DELEBECQUE.

One of the most striking instances of a long depression forming a pass between
two valleys, and occupied by a series of lakes, is to be seen in the strip of land
which extends between St. Moriz and the Maloja.

It is occupied by the four lakes of Sils, Silva Plana, Campfer, and St. Moriz,
with a depth of 71, 77, 34, and 44 metres respectively.

The level of these lakes ranges between 1,771 and 1,800 metres.

The lake of St. Moriz is obviously in a rock-basin,

As to the other three lakes, an opinion currently prevails which, though sup-
ported by the high authority of Professor Heim, is believed by the author to be
unjustified. It is generally thought that the river Inn, weakened by the capture
of some of its tributaries by the river Maira, has been unable to sweep away the
deposits of the torrents descending from lateral valleys, and that consequently its
waters have been dammed up into the three lakes in question.

An attentive survey of the region shows that, on the contrary, these lakes for-
merly constituted a single sheet of water in a rock basin, which extended from
the Maloja to the village of Campfer, in both of which places ledges of gneiss are
visible, and that the lateral torrents, far from contributing to the formation of the
lakes, have partly filled them up by their deposits, and have divided into three
what was originally a single basin.

The length of the original lake was remarkable, as it measured no less than
12 kilometres (73 miles), and it must be borne in mind that, though mountain
lakes are often very deep, their horizontal dimensions are generally limited.

As to the origin of the lake, the author is of opinion that it cannot be
attributed to tectonic movements or to aqueous erosion, and that very probably
glacial excavation has come into play. i

2. On a Preglacial or Early Glacial Raised Beach in County Cork. By
H. B. Murr, B.4., 2.G.S., and W. B. Wriaut, B.A., of HM. Geo-
logical Survey.

[Communicated with the permission of the Director of H.M. Geological Survey.]

The existence of a raised beach formed, and probably elevated, before the
deposition of the boulder-clay has already been demonstrated in South Wales +
and Yorkshire.’ During the progress of the Drift Survey of the country sur-
rounding Queenstown Harbour a beach of similar age was observed along the
shores of the harbour, and was subsequently traced at intervals along the adjoining
coast of Waterford and Cork from Ballyvoyle Head, Dungarvan, to Clonakilty, a
distance from east to west of about sixty miles.

The relation of this beach to the well-known submerged river valleys of the
south of Ireland is a point of considerable interest. The finding of glacial drift
and strie within the valleys led at once to the recognition of their preglacial
excavation, but the subsequent tracing of the raised beach beneath the boulder-
clay along their banks showed that their submergence was also preglacial.

The most persistent relic of the raised beach is a water-worn rock-platform, of

1 k. H. Tiddeman, M.A., F.G.S., ‘On the Age of the Raised Beach of Southern
Britain as seen in Gower,’ Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1900, p. 760. See also Summary of
Progress of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom for 1899, pp. 154, 155.

* G. W. Lamplugh, F.G.S., ‘ Report of the Committee appointed for the Purpose
of investigating an Ancient Sea-beach near Bridlington Quay,’ Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1890,
p. 375. See also Proc. Yorkshire Geol. and Polytechnic Society, 1887, p. 381; and
‘The Drifts of Flamborough Head,’ Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc, xvii. p. 384

1903. uu

658 REPORT—19058.

varying width, sloping gently seaward and terminated at its landward side by a
rocky cliff against which the deposits overlying the beach are banked. The
higher portions of this platform, just at the foot of the cliff, are from five to ten
feet above high-water mark—that is, perhaps seven to twelve feet above the
higher portions of the corresponding plane of erosion in process of formation at the
present day.

The overlying deposits, where completely developed, exhibit the following
succession of strata :—

. Upper ‘head.’

. Boulder-clay.

Lower ‘ head,’

. Blown sand.

Raised-beach shingle and blocks from cliff.
Rock platform.

Mitocoh on

The ‘head’ is composed of angular fragments of rocks similar in character to
those forming the clifis above. It has a bedded appearance, like that of a tip-heap,
but there is no sorting of material. By far the greater proportion of it lies below
the boulder-clay. The upper ‘head’ often contains rounded stones derived from
the drift.

The boulder-clay contains well-scratched subangular stones, all local, but much
more miscellaneous than those in the ‘head.’

The blown sand is found banked against the cliff behind the ‘ head,’ which has
the appearance of having slipped down little by little over it. The rock cliff often
has a polished appearance, probably due to the action of the wind-borne sand.

The shingle lies upon the platform among the blocks, which have evidently
fallen from the cliff above. The blown sand is heaped over and among these
blocks, which are absent in sections further from the old cliff. The shingle in
these seaward sections is often replaced by fine stratified beach-sand.

As the present coast-line recedes from the old cliff, the ‘ head,’ both upper and
lower, is seen to thin out and finally disappear. The boulder-clay, on the other
hand, thickens at first to seaward, until it replaces the ‘head’ and comes to lie
directly on the rock platform, which is often beautifully glaciated beneath it.
When sufficiently preserved, however, it can be seen to thin out further seaward,
having in section a somewhat lenticular shape.

The sections are, of course, not always as complete as indicated above. Some-
times one member is absent, sometimes another, but the relative succession is
invariable. With the exception of a few fragmentary shells no fossils have up to
the present been found in any of the deposits.

The superposition of the boulder-clay and the glaciation of the rock platform
are taken to prove the preglacial—or, more strictly, the pre-houlder-clay—age of
the beach.

The occurrence of blown sand and lower ‘head’ indicates an elevation of the
beach prior to the deposition of the boulder-clay.

The preponderance of the lower over the upper ‘head’ is no doubt due to the
greater steepness in preglacial times of the dominating cliff or slope from which
the ‘head’ was derived. It is as a consequence not to be taken as any indication
of a longer lapse of time between the elevation of the beach and the period of
glaciation than between that period and the present day. On the contrary,
the occurrence of flints in the beach near Clonakilty points to the presence of
floating ice during its formation, and indicates a beginning of glacial conditions
even before the commencement of the elevation.

In Ballycroneen Bay a section of more than usual interest is exposed. The
‘head,’ which here rests immediately on the rock-ledge, is overlain by two distinct
boulder-clays. The lower of these contains shell-fragments, chalk flints, and
houlders of Wexford and Waterford rocks, and is obviously the boulder-clay of
the Irish Sea Ice. The upper is the ordinary local boulder-clay of the district
laid down by the ice which moved from west to east oyer Cork. The beach -is
therefore prior to hoth these ice-flows,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 659

The relative succession of events for which evidence has been obtained appears
to have been as follows :—

1. Land higher than at present—erosion of valleys now submerged.

2. Land depressed to about eight or ten feet below present leyel—formation
of preglacial raised beach.

3. Elevation of land—accumulation of blown sand, and subsequently of lower
‘head.

4, Advance of the Irish Sea Ice from the east at least as far as Power Head,
and deposition of marly boulder-clay, followed by advance of ice from West Cork
and deposition of upper ‘local’ boulder-clay.

6. Accumulation of upper ‘ head.’

Finally we would call attention to the complete similarity of the preglacial
beach to that of Gower in South Wales described by Mr. Tiddeman. The only
difference worthy of notice is the apparent absence of fossils in the Cork beach—.
a difference which is easily accounted for by the quantity of spring water which
issues along the platform through the gravel and sand of the beach.

3. Land Shells in the Infra-Glacial Chalk-rubble at Sewerby, near
Bridlington! By G. W. Lamexuen, 2.G.S.

The Chalk-rubble which underlies the glacial drifts of Flamborough Head has
not hitherto been known to contain organic remains. In a recent exposure of this
material on the foreshore between Bridlington Quay and Sewerby the writer
found numerous small fragile land-shells contained principally in intercalated
streaks of brown earth. These shells belong mainly, if not entirely, to the species
Pupa muscorum, Linn. The level at which they were found was about 8 feet
below the top of the Sewerby Infra-Glacial Sea-beach, and the Chalk-rubble is
known to descend to at least 25 feet below this level.

The rubble usually rests directly upon the Chalk, but at Sewerby it overlies the
Infra-Glacial blown sand which is banked against the buried cliff of chalk. The
presence of the land-shells proves that the rubble is a sub-aérial rain-wash, and that
it was formed when the sea stood at a lower level than when the Infra-Glacial
Beach was deposited. The conditions thus indicated are strikingly similar to those
which obtain in the deposits associated with the Infra-Glacial buried shores of
South Wales aud co. Cork, where the old marine beaches and the accompanying
blown-sand are covered by local rain-wash or ‘ head’ and then by boulder-clay.

The Chalk-rubble at Sewerby contains many small pieces of flint, though no
flint is present in the Chalk within two miles of this locality; a few small
fragments of yellow grit or quartzite foreign to the neighbourhood, along with one
subangular boulder of similar rock 18 inches in diameter, and two or three small
decomposed pebbles of basalt, were also found in it. Part of the material was
probably deposited almost immediately before the glaciation of the district.

4. Preliminary Report of the Committee on the Estuarine Deposits at
Kirmington, Lincolnshire.—See Reports, p. 218.

5, Report of the Committee on Erratic Blocks.—See Reports, p, 231.
6. Report of the Committee to Explore Irish Caves.See Reports, p, 183.

' The full text of this paper will be published in Prove, Yorks, Gol. and Polytech.
Society.
uv2

660 REPORT—19038.

7. Report of the Committee on Underground Waters of North-west Yorkshire.
See Reports, p. 192.

8. Report of the Committee on Geological Photographs.
See Reports, p. 197.

9. On the Practical Value of certain Species of Molluscs in the Coal
| Measures. By Wurrtton Hinp, U.D., F.R.CS., F.GS.

10. Report of the Committee on Life Zones in the British Carboniferous
fiocks.—See Reports, p. 185,

1]. On some Igneous Rocks near Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire.
By W.S. Bourton, B.Sc, AL.C.S., LGS.

The Paper dealt with a summary of the results obtained by the author after a
study of the basaltic lava flow in the carboniferous limestone at Spring Cove,
Weston-super-Mare, the evidence for the contemporaneity of which was first pub-
lished in the Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey for 1898.

After referring to the complex character of the flow, and its relation to the
carboniferous limestone beds above and below, with the contact phenomena and
the metasomatic changes in the limestone subsequent to the consolidation of the
basalt, three characters were emphasised and described: (1) the ‘ pillow’ struc-
ture; (2) the tuffy or agglomeratic structure within the flow; (8) the included
lumps and masses of limestone.

In general, the pillowy masses, themselves often compound, are embedded in
a tuffy material of the nature of volcanic sand, while in some parts great lenticular
bands occur, made up of coarse agglomerate, containing lumps of slagey basalt and
limestone, and with a pronounced fluxional structure. In all cases the tuff, within
the limits of the sheet, behayes as a lava and has flowed, and was not the result
of sedimentation.

Illustrations were shown of irregular masses of oolitic and fossiliferous lime-
stone up to 12 feet across in between the spheroidal masses of basalt, and evidence
was adduced to show that this included limestone was derived from the underlying
calcareous floor, when a sea-bottom, probably in a powdery or plastic condition,
and was rolled in or picked up by the lava, and was able to accommodate itself in
between the moving and distending spheroidal masses.

In conclusion, reference was made to other pillowy lavas containing sedi-
mentary material, and the author emphasised the difficulty of distinguishing such
submarine flows from sills or intrusive sheets, where, as Professor Lapworth has
suggested, we may get tufts, lava, and included masses of sedimentary material
confusedly mixed and drawn out into lenticles as here described.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The following Papers and Report were read :—
1. On Dedolomitisation. By J. J. H. Teatt, JLA., F.R.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey.

The Durness dolomites as they approach the plutonic complex of Cnoc-na-Sroing
become transformed into a white marble which generally contains one or more of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. p 661

the following minerals: forsterite, or serpentine after forsterite, tremolite,
diopside, and brucite. The dominant carbonate of the marble is calcite, but
dolomite occurs in variable quantity. The amount of dolomite decreases as the
total amount of the magnesian silicates and brucite increases, The original
dolomite contains a variable amount of silica in the form of chert.

When the altered rocks are examined under the microscope it is seen that
forsterite, serpentine, and tremolite are invariably associated with calcite, but
that diopside is sometimes associated with dolomite. These facts of paragenesis
can be easily accounted for if we assume that the silica of the original dolomitic
rock has combined with the bases of the carbonate, and preferably with the
magnesia, for diopside is rare. Thus forsterite, a magnesian silicate, cannot have
been formed in the dolomite without the liberation of lime, and consequently we
find either detached crystals of forsterite surrounded by aureoles of calcite in
a matrix of dolomite, or, when forsterite is abundant, a simple aggregate of
forsterite and calcite; the formation of tremolite in which the ratio of CaO : MgO
is 1 : 5 also implies the separation cf lime from magnesia; and it is invariably found,
like the forsterite, in direct contact with calcite. But in diopside the ratio of
CaO : MgO is the same as in dolomite; so that in accordance with the principles
above explained we should expect to find these two minerals in contact, and this
has been observed.

The above facts clearly point to the conclusion that the cherty dolomites have
been dedolomitised by the formation of magnesian silicates. Carbonic acid has
been driven off, but the ratio of the bases has not been disturbed. ‘he ratio of
* CaO : MgO in the altered as in the unaltered rocks is approximately 1 : 1.

But dedolomitisation has also been produced in another way. Certain
varieties of the marble are composed of calcite and brucite. ‘The brucite is pro-
bably a pseudomorph after periclase, just as the serpentine is a pseudomorph after
forsterite. We are therefore compelled to conclude that, under the conditions
which prevailed during the intrusion of the plutonic rocks, the carbonic acid freed
itself more readily from the magnesia than from the lime; thus, in the absence of
silica, giving rise to the formation of periclase and converting the original dolomite
into an aggregate calcite and periclase, the latter mineral subsequently being
changed to brucite. The resulting rock is identical with the well-known predazzite
of the Tyrol, which was probably formed in a similar way.

2, Fossil Floras of South Africa. By A, C., Sawanp, BS,

1. Uitenhage Flora.—tThe plants from the Uitenhage series of Cape Coloryv
include types characteristic of Wealden and others more closely allied to Jurassic
species. On the whole there is a balance of evidence in favour of a Wealden
horizon.

Onychiopsis Mantelli (Brongn.)

Cladophiebis Browniana (Dunk.)

Cladophlebis denticulata (Brongn.)
forma Atherstone.

Sphenopteris Fittoni, Sew.

Sphenopteris sp.

Teniopteris sp.

Zamites recta (Tate).

Zamites Morrisit (Tate).

Zamutes africana (Tate).

Zamites Rubidger (Tate).

Missonia Tatei sp. nov.

Cycadolepis Jenkinsiana (Tate).

Benstedtia sp. (ef. Coniferocaulon
Columbeeforme, Vliche),

Carpolithes sp.

Araucarites Rogersi sp. nov.

Taxites sp.

Brachyphyllum sp.

Conites sp. a al

Conites sp. B .

Coniferous wood.

Planta incert@ sedis.

2. Stormberg Flora.—The plants from the Stormberg series point to a flora of
Rhetic age, The Rhetic vegetation, of which remnants have been recorded from
Scania, Franconia, and other parts of Germany, North America, New Mexico,

662 REPORT— 1908.

Honduras, Tonkin, China, Turkestan, India, Australia, South America, and else-
where, was characterised by its uniform character throughout the world.

Schizoneura Krassert sp. nov. | Chiropteris cuneata (Carr.)
Strobolites sp. Chiropteris Zeilleri sp. nov.
Thinnfeldia odonopteroides (Morr.) | Baiera stormbergensis.
Thinnfeldia rhomboidalis, Ett. | Baiera Schencki, Feist.
Cladophiebis sp. (Feistmantel). Phenicopsis elongatus (Morr.)
Callipteridium stormbergense sp.nov. Stenopteris elongata (Carr.)
Taniopteris Carruthersi, Ten.-

Woods. |

53. Permo-Carboniferous Flora of Vereeniging.—The conclusion to be drawn
from the Vereeniging plants is that they belong to a flora which flourished in
South Africa, India, South America, and Australia during some portion of the
Permo-Carboniferous epoch. On the whole, it would seem probable that the age
of the plant-beds corresponds most nearly with the Upper Carboniferous period as
represented in Europe. It is of necessity difficult to attempt to express the
geological age or homotaxy of South African beds in terms of the geological
chronology of the Northern Hemisphere, but the close correspondence of some of
the Vereeniging types with Indian and South American species points to their
correlation with the Karharbari beds of the Lower Gondwana system. The
occurrence of such types as Sigillaria, Bothrodendron, and Psygmophyllum shows a
closer correspondence between the South African flora and that of the Northern
Hemisphere than occurs in the Indian vegetation. We have evidence of an over-
lapping or commingling of the northern and southern botanical provinces in South
Africa and in South America that is not afforded by the Lower Gondwana floras
of India and Australia.

Glossopteris Browniana, Brongn. | I *sygmophyllum Kidstoni sp. HOV.
hderthie head Leuidied Sigillara Brardi, Brongn.
a 1 : oe Seats eos Ware Bothrodendron Leslii sp. nov.
gr er pee en Om On es == Naegyerathiopsis Hislopi, Bunb.

G. indica and G. angustifolia.
Gangamopteris cyclopteroides, Feist.
Sphenopteris sp.

Neuropteridium validum, Feist.

Conites sp.
Cardiocarpus sp.
Phyllotheca sp.
Schizoneura sp.

A detailed account of the above species will be published in a forthcoming
volume of the Annals of the South African Museum.! ‘The writer is indebted to the
oiticers of the Geological Survey of Cape Colony for the opportunity of examining
the collections from which these lists have been compiled.

3. On a Carboniferous Acanthodian Fish, Gyracanthides.
By A. Smita Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S.

The author exhibited and described a restored drawing of Gyracanthides from
the Carboniferous of Victoria, Australia. The fossil had pectoral fin-spines much
lixe those named Gyracanthus from the Carboniferous of the northern hemisphere,
but these spines lacked posterior denticles. The fish was either toothless or with
minute teeth which had escaped observation. It was covered with dense shagreen,
but there were no enlarged plates round the eyes. The body was depressed and
broad in front, with a small and not very stout tail. The pectoral fins were
relatively large, with almost sickle-shaped spines, while the pelvic fins were rather
small, with straighter spines, and situated very far forwards. There were two
pairs of peculiar free spines near the base of the pectoral fins. The two dorsal
fins and the anal fin were provided with much smaller spines. Gyracanthides was

Annals S, African Museum, vol. iv. 1903.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 663

evidently one of the most highly specialised Acanthodians, and showed that among
these primitive fishes, as among modern Teleosteans, there was a tendency for the
pelvic pair of fins to become displaced forwards in the higher types. The author
had already described the same phenomenon in the typical family Acanthodide,

4. On some Dinosaurian Bones from South Brazil.

By A. Suita Woopwarn, LL.D., RS.

The author had received from Professor H. von Jhering a few cervical vertebra
and phalangeal bones of a reptile discovered by Dr. Fischer in red rocks in the
province of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. He described these remains, and suggested
that they belonged to a short-necked Dinosaur, The ungual phalanges were
especially remarkable, apparently unique, in being deeply concave on their inferior
face and having a very sharp rim. Comparison seemed to show that, among known
Dinosaurs, the cervical vertebra most closely resembled those of Luskelesaurus
from the Karoo Formation of South Africa. The newly discovered bones were
therefore probably the first traces of the Gondwana-land terrestrial fauna, the
discovery of which had long been expected in South America,

5. On Polyzoa as Rock-cementing Organisms.
By J. Lomas, ABC S., £.G.8.

Among the specimens of sea-bottoms recently brought from the Gulf of Manaar
by Professor Herdman were about twenty samples of ‘calcretes.’ They were
broken off by pearl divers from the parent masses which form rocky platforms,
locally cailed ‘paars,’ in many parts of the gulf. They all occur in shallow water
at depths varying from 2} to 10 fathoms.

The majority of the specimens were sandstones cemented by carbonate of lime,
but occasionally compact limestones, sometimes phosphatic, and coral rock were
brought to the surface.

AJl the stones were thickly incrusted with organisms such as polyzoa, nulli-
pores, worm tubes, sponges, &c.

While the importance of nullipores as agents in binding grains of sand has
been recognised, the work of polyzoa has not hitherto been recorded. The thin
calcareous walls of polyzoa so readily break up and lose their structural characters
that it is only when very recent samples are at hand we can obtain criteria which
determine their former presence.

On examining a thin slice of calcrete with recent colonies on the outside we
find the surface layer shows sections of the cells arrayed like bricks in a wall and
containing the zooid in the interior. The spines and avicularia bordering the cells
entrap and retain sand grains drifting over them, only retaining those which fit
into the spaces they provide. ‘Thus a sifting takes place, and we see above the
outer layer of cells grains of sand and foraminifera of fairly uniform size caught in
the manner described. The cells forming the next layer below are nearly all filled
with grains: the base and side walls are complete, but the top covering has brolien
down tc admit the sand grains, carrying with it the thin calcareous wall and the
chitinous operculum. Several layers of this kind succeed towards the interior, but
as we proceed further, the walls become less prominent owing to secondary calcite
being deposited, which grows in tiny scalenohedra towards the interior of the cells,
and finally fills up all the corners and other spaces. When this stage has been
reached we only have a thin dark line marking the junction of the double side
walls, the roughly linear arrangement of uniform grains and occasional remains of
the chitinous opercula to indicate the former presence of polyzoa

Further towards the interior ot a thick block even these guides become less
distinct ; but the grains still retain a rudely linear arrangement, and cells which
escape being occupied by a grain are filled with calcite,

664 REPORT—1908,

Nullipores also enclose sand grains in their stony tissues, but they are spo-
radic in their arrangement, and can readily be distinguished from those cemented
by polyzoa.

In some cases alternate growths of nullipores and polyzoa colonies give both
types in the same section.

Some of the blocks of calcrete brought up were of large size, 2 or 3 feet in dia-
meter; and these are but samples of the rocks now being formed which extend in
some of the paars over a distance of many miles.

6. On the Igneous Rocks of the Berwyns.
By T. H. Corr and J. Lomas.

Owing to cross folding a dome-like structure has been impressed on the Ber-
wyns. From the axis which lies about Llanrhaiadr-yn-Mochnant and Craig-y-
Glyn the beds dip outwards on every side. The arch of the dome has been
denuded, so that we get shales and limestones of Llandeilo age occupying the
central area, while slates, grits, and limestone of Bala age form an almost con-
tinuous ring of hills on the margins.

Ieneous rocks are associated with the sedimentaries. Three bands in the peri-
pheral series can be traced continuously for a distance of thirty miles from the
Mountain Limestone beds which overlap the series on the east, through the hills
above Corwen and Bala to the Vyrnwy watershed. A fourth band also occurs in
this series about Llanarmon.

In the central area other igneous rocks are exposed, generally of a more acid
type.

YP The igneous series have been regarded as contemporaneous volcanic ashes, and
recorded as such in the Survey maps. We have failed to find any instance of
undoubted contemporaneous action, and regard all the igneous as intrusive. In
places they are seen to cut across the sedimentaries at right angles to the strike.

In this paper we only deal with a small part of the peripheral series as dis-
played about Llansantflraid-Glyn-Ceiriog where the river Ceiriog in cutting a deep
gorge across the strike of the beds has exposed magnificent sections.

Sheet No. 1.—The outermost bed is well seen in the quarries at Coed-y-Glyn,
on the west side of the valley, and in a small cutting on the hillside on the east
side. It is 45 feet thick on the level of the road, but thins out rapidly to the
north, as at a short distance away it only measures 28 feet. Baked slates lie in
contact on both its upper and lower surfaces.

The rock consists of a felted aggregate of felspar microliths, and is aphanitic in
texture. The upper margin for 5 feet and the lower part for 2 feet are amygda-
loidal. Near the upper surface the microscope reveals flow-brecciation, broken
fragments of the rock lying in a bond of grey translucent chalcedony.

Sheet No. 2.—This band, about 165 feet thick, has been quarried extensively on
the face of the steep crags overlooking Pandy, at Cae Deicws, and in the large
quarry opposite Coed-y-Glyn. Indurated slates and grits border the sill on both
surfaces, and large masses of slate occur as inclusions. A band of white rock of
very varying thickness occupies the middle, which under the microscope shows
large idiomorphic quartz and orthoclase felspar crystals in a felsitic ground mass.
The margins are intensely sheared, grey in colour, and include a great number of
slate and limestone fragments along with augular pieces of the white uncleaved
central portion.

Sheet No. 3.—This sheet is well seen in Coed Errwgerrig and can be traced
across the bed of the river to the east side of the valley at Cwm Clwyd. While the
main mass resembles Sheet No. 2 in composition, it includes fragments of quartz
felsite, felsite breccias, and nodular rhyolites arranged in parallel bands.

Tt is 190 feet thick, and has caused intense metamorphic action on the grits
above and slates below.

Sheet No. 4 is best seen at Ilendre Quarry, where it is worked extensively, and
locally known as the Glyn ‘ Granite,’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 665

It is an analcite-diabase, 96 feet thick, of coarse texture in the middle and
finer grained towards the margins. The slates in contact are converted into com-
pact spotted slate.

Intrusions of similar age and alraost identical character have been described
from Counties Donegal, Armagh, W icklow, and other parts ef Ireland, and a
close parallelism can be drawn between these rocks and those in the Berwyns.
The intrusions of Sheets Nos. ], 2, and 3 probably date from the interval between
the deposition of the Bala series and the overlying slates and grits of Wenlock
age. No. 4 may be of a later date.

7. The Llanvirn Beds in Carnarvonshire. By W.G. Frarnsipes.!

The author gave a brief account: of the occurrence of beds with tuning-fork
graptolites from the following new localities in Carnarvonshire, which practically
encircle the west.and south-west sides of the so-called Snowdon Syncline :—
(1) 100 yards N. of the house Tan-y-rhiwan, 4 mile E. of Criccieth ; (2) 50 yards
S.I. of farm Llewyn-y-mafon-uchaf, 1 mile S.E. of Dolbenmaen ; (3) 100 yards
N. of bridge over Dwyfawr, 1 mile N. of Llanfihangel-y-pennant ; (4) 200 yards
from outlet of Llyn-cwm-dulyn on both sides of lake ; (5) tips from mine workings
near Ffald, 2 miles 8. of Nantlle; (6) manganese workings near Llyn-cwm-silyn ;
(7) and also in Cwm Tal-y-mignedd; (8) gully on S. side of Llyn Cwellyn,
300 yards N.W. of river entry ; (9) Snowdon Ranger Hotel ; (10) bifurcation of
paths to Llanberis and Snowdon from Snowdon Ranger Hotel ; (11) Bwlch-y-
maes-cwm and the flanks of Moel-cynghorion and of Moel-goch for about a mile
from the Bwlch; (12) Cwm Brwynog, 1 mile N. of Bwlch-y-cum-brwynog ;
(13) slate quarry trial about 200 yards N.W. of the halfway house on the
Snowdon-Llanberis track,

8. On the Fossil Flora of the Ardwick Series of Manchester.
By EB. A. Newent Arser, IA, F.L.S., V.GS

The Ardwick Series of Manchester forms the highest portion of the Coal-
measures of the great South Lancashire Coal-field. The plant remains in the
shales associated with the Spirorbis Limestones of this series have been already
mentioned or described by Williamson, Salter, and especially by the late HE. W.
Binney. A revision of these records has been recently undertaken with a view to
determining the true position of the Ardwick Series in the Coal-measures as indi-
cated by the character of the flora. For this purpose Binney’s collection, now in
the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, has been re-examined, and several further
identifications have been made. The flora is found to belong to a palzeobotanical
horizon known as the Upper Transition Series, which is antecedent to the true
Upper Coal-measures, and which is represented in several English and Welsh
Coal-fields. The Lower Pennant Grits in the South Wales, and the New Rock
and Vobster Series in the Somersetshire Coal-fields belong to this horizon,

9. Report of the Committee on the Fauna and Flora of the Trias of the
Gritish Isles,—See Reports, p. 219.

10. On the Base of the Keuper in South Devon. — By Avex. Somervaln.

The author, while appreciating and agreeing with the work of Dr. Irving and
Professor Hull * on ‘The Red Rocks of Devon,’ takes exception to one point relating
to the case of the Keuper,

1 The Paper will be published in full in the Geological Magazine,
? Quar. Jour. Geol. Soe. vols, xliv., xlviii, and xlix,

666 REPORT—19038.

Both of these observers agree in regarding certain breccias occurring at the
mouths of the rivers Otter and Sid as the base of the Keuper, the former of
which the author accepts. The latter is explained as being the same breccias
again brought up by the fault at the Chit Rock.

The writer regards the Sid section as on a far higher horizon than the
Otterton one for the following reasons :—The Otterton breccias are overlaid by a
great thickness of sandstones seen between Otterton Point, Ladrum Bay, the base
of High Peak Hill, and even further east.

The fault at the Chit Rock only brings up the upper portion of these sand-
stones, the highest portions of which are continued to the east side of the Sid.

The alleged river Sid breccias here have no occurrence; they are only the
uppermost beds of the red nobbly or concretionary-like sandstones which are
almost immediately overlaid by the Keuper marls,

Between these alleged Sid breccias and the Otterton breccias there should
intervene about 150 feet or more of the mottled or current-bedded sandstones seen

in the localities already referred to. :

TUESDAY, SEP?EMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Disturbance of Junction Beds from Differential Shrinkage and
similar Local Causes during Consolidation. By G. W. Lampiuan,

£F.GS.

Upon returning to the investigation of comparatively undisturbed Mesozoic
strata after having studied distortion-structures produced by earth-movement ir
Older Paleozoic rocks, the author’s attention has been frequently arrested by local
disturbances of the original bedding which cannot be assigned to the agency of
deep-seated earth-movement, but are clearly due to minor stresses arising from
some local cause in tracts limited in extent both horizontally and vertically.

These disturbances are most noticeable where thin bands of one kind of
material are imbedded in thick deposits of another kind, and along the junctions
where thick masses of different lithological character occur in stratigraphical
sequence.

Examples of the first-mentioned condition are abundant in the Hastings beds
of the Wealden formation, where thin layers of clay or shale interbedded with
thick sands and sandstones are often disrupted into irregular patches and partly
mixed with the enclosing sands. The second condition is frequently illustrated in
junctions of the Lower Greensand with underlying clays, where strips have been
torn from the irregular surface of the clay and dragged up for a few inches into
the sands, as was seen in the recently widened railway cutting at Redhill and in
the pit-sections at the Dover Colliery. Similar effects have often been supposed
to denote the breaking-up of the surface below the junction by erosive agencies,
but this explanation is rarely adequate.

While some of these loéal disturbances may have been caused by unequal
loading. within limited basins of sedimentation, in the manner discussed by
Ik. Reyer,’ the author is of opinion that in most cases they may be assigned to
local stresses resulting in part from tke differential contraction of sediments of
diverse composition while losing their water of sedimentation, and in part from
their unequal yielding under equal superincumbent load. Masses of peat, sand,
clay and calcareous sediments accumulated under normal conditions must pass
from the wet state to the consolidated or partly consolidated state with different
time-rates and with different physical results; and we may expect to find signs of
local tension and readjustment along the boundaries of such masses.

In thick wedges of strata which thin out rapidly, as, for example, in the

1K. K. Geol. Reichsanstalt Wien ; Jahrbueh, xxxi, 1881, pp. 431-144.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 667

Triassic rocks of many localities and the Wealden and Lower Greensand of the
south of England, differential shrinkage may be responsible for many of the
amaller vertical displacements by which the beds are readjusted. Faults are some-
times found to dwindle and die out downward, and in certain cases these may be
explicable as the result of unequal contraction in masses of irregular thickness,

2, On some Contorted Strata occurring on the Coast of Northumberland,
By J, G, GoopcwiLp,

3. Some Facts bearing on the Origin of Eruptive Locks.
By J. G. GOODCHILD.

The author exhibited a number of photographic slides in order to demonstrate
that intrusive masses, as a rule, replace their own volume of the rocks they invade
and do not cause displacement to any important extent. Hughes, and also Clough,
had already published evidence to the same effect. Several of the hand-specimens
that had been photographed were exhibited at the Meeting. In the course of
nearly forty years’ field experience he had never met with any intrusive rock whose
mode of occurrence could not be explained by the theory that the rocks in question
had been substituted for those whose place they had occupied. The older rocks
had, obviously, been gradually removed, and the newer ones had been, concurrently,
left in their place. He thought that it was only in those cases in which the pressure
to be overcome had been below a certain (unknown) amount that actual displace-
ment occurred. This might happen where a viscid magma was being forced into
the loose materials in the outer parts of a volcano. ‘hese, however, are the parts
of a volcano which rarely survive subsequent geological changes.

The mode of attack of the erosive magma was next illustrated by a series of
views representing various unfinished stages in the process. These demonstrated
that the intruding magma ate its way along any divisional planes in the rock
invaded, and by physico-chemical processes the advancing wedges enlarged and
extended forward, solely by peripheral solution, which ended by surrounding the
part attacked by the fluid magma, and thus permitting the detached portions to
float into the trunk stream.

Further stages in the process of mastication, digestion, and assimilation were
shown by other slides, as well as by specimens exhibited at the Meeting.

Three or four slides of pseudo-dykes and sills were shown. These occur within
fragmentary materials of volcanic origin. He considered that these clastic rocks
had been softened in place and had subsequently reconsolidated in the massive
form without change of position.

Finally, to account for the facts, he advanced the hypothesis that the chief
agent concerned in bringing about these changes was water operating under
pressure and at a moderately high temperature, in which were held in solution
the substances dissolved in sea-water. These underwent concentration by the
action of volcanoes, and in that state were competent not only to dissolve the
constituents of rocks, but to add to sedimentary or other rocks the substances in
which their composition is deficient as compared with that of the eruptive rocks.
Slow diffusion and a circulatory movement of the whole magma equalised the
composition of the compound. He thought that the sedimentary rocks thus
affected could furnish the materials for those rocks in which felspar containing
lime and soda predominate, while the acid series might have arisen in like
manner from the solution of the granitic foundation of the Harth’s Crust,

668 REPORT—1908.

4. On a Possible Cause of the Lethal Effects produced by the Dust emitted
during the Recent Volcanic Hruptions in the West Indies. By J. G.
GOOoDCHILD.

When volcanic materials are expelled into the air in the form of either lava
streams or ejected fragments, some of their component minerals may be in a
chemical state in which they are capable of combining with a higher percentage
of oxygen than they contained when they left the volcanic vent. Two results
would follow from such oxidation—one being the rise of temperature due to the
heat of combination, the other, correlative to it, an abstraction of oxygen from the
surrounding atmosphere proportionate in amount to the surface acted upon.

In the cases in which a large quantity of finely divided materia] in a more or
less pumiceous state is suddenly discharged into the air the aggregate surface
exposed to the atmosphere must be extremely large, and it appears likely that a
quantity of oxygen proportionately great may be abstracted. The loss of oxygen
is, of course, soon made good by diffusion from the areas around ; but, for the time
being, it appears possible that the air carried forward along with heavy discharges
of volcanic dust, such as were ejected during the late eruptions in the West Indies,
may have sustained their initial temperature for some time through oxidation,
and may consequently have raised the temperature of the surrounding air to a
very high point. Furthermore, the abstraction of so large a quantity of oxygen
may have also helped to make the air around the stream of dust unsuitable for the
support of life,

5, Notes on the Metalliferous Deposits of the South of Scotland.
By J. G. GoopcriLp and Witsert Goopcuitp, JLB,

6, Notes on the Glacial Drainage of the Forest of Rossendale,
Ly A, Jowert,

7. A Theory of the Origin of Continents and Ocean Basins.
By Wiuu1aM Macxig, M.A., M.D.

Whatever the conditions at present obtaining in the interior of the earth, it
is naturally supposed to have originally passed through a stage in which the
conditions would be represented by a solid, or potentially solid, nucleus, a slowly
forming and slowly thickening acid crust, with a liquid and more or less basic
interstratum. At first the crust would be sufficiently flexible to accommodate
itself to the tidal movements of the subjacent liquid interstratum, but when it
became too rigid to admit of this tidal movement it would bo broken up, the
fracture probably following certain fairly defined and assignable lines. It is
argued that the fragments would not have ‘gone under,’ but would have remained
with their surfaces at a considerably higher level than the surface of the magma,
and have become so fixed by consolidation of the magma around them.

It is suggested that the first great breach in the crust followed the outline of
the tidal protuberance, and was, in all probability, effected at some conjunction
of the sun and moon with cataclysmal suddenness, the intervening crust being
shivered into small fragments, these fragments being subsequently disposed of
by fusion in and incorporation with the magma. The first oval breach thus
caused is the prototype of the Pacific Ocean. Further fractures, along definite
lines, gave rise to the other oceans, and caused the separation of the continents.
Under the influence of tidal retardation the fragments as thus blocked out became
separated and finally moored at their respective distances by the solidification of
the magma around them.

With the resolidification of the crust, a series of stresses is set up between
the ocean basins, which consist of the more basic, consequently specifically heavier,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 669

more quickly conducting material, and the more acid, specifically lighter, more
slowly conducting continental masses. The former are, in consequence of their
character and composition, the more stable portions of the resolidified crust.
Further, cooling therefore leads to their sinking down on the cooling and shrink-
ing nucleus, and their elbowing aside of the continental masses, which come to
be elevated in lines parallel to and extending along their margins. With further
cooling the superficial layers of the continents are thrown into folds and over-
folds, which would tend to find relief along the ocean margins and the central
axis of the Old World by over-thrusting of these layers. Central uplifts in the
continental areas may also have resulted from such pressure.

The tendency of the ocean to become deeper and the continent to become
more elevated as time goes on, leads more and more to the withdrawal of the
waters of the ocean (which might at first almost or altogether have covered the
continental areas) from these areas, and hence to greater and greater restriction
in the limits of the areas of deposit as traced from earlier to later geological
times.

The origins of the Mediterranean and of the central axis of the Old World
are directly deduced from theory, and the unequal distribution of land and sea
in the northern and southern hemispheres is also brought into line with it.

Though the contraction of the ocean basins has been the main cause of the
deformation of the crust, the contraction of the continental areas has also had
some share in the result. The central ridge of the Atlantic bottom may be an
earth fold caused by pressure of the contiguous continental masses; but it may
also be due to longitudinal fissures permitting volcanic action and consequent
accumulation of volcanic products, the fissures in such case marking the relief
of tension arising from the same cause.

The formation of secondary ridges parallel to the oceano-continental margins
but at some distance towards the continental side, seems to have played an im-
portant part in the evolution, Extending oceanwards in their operation they
appear in some instances to have raised up portions of the ocean bottom into
continuity with the land surface. In this way, with the aid of volcanic action,
the ocean basins appear, in not a few instances, to have been successfully bridged.
As the permanency of the master-features of the globe in much their present
form is a necessary corollary of the theory, such bridging of the ocean basins
also becomes a necessary part of the theory, and is fairly met on the lines
indicated.

Explaining as it does the general outlines of continents and ocean basins, as
well as a large number of facts both in geography and geology, it is contended
' that the theory as sketched does represent in a general way the actual process by
which the permanent features of the globe took origin,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on Changes in the Sea Coast of the United
Kingdom.—See Reports, p. 258.

2. Notes on the Sarsen Stones of the Bagshot District.
By Horace Woottaston Moncxton, /.L.8., FG,

The blocks of sandstone or quartzite known as Sarsen Stones are found in
many parts of the south of England. They occur at or near the surface of the
ground, as well as in or at the bottom of the gravels. They.are usually believed
to be derived from the Bagshot or Reading Beds, but there does not seem to be
definite evidence of the discovery of a Sarsen Stone zm stu in these or in any
other formation.

670 REPORT—1903.

Probably the best-known examples are the great stones which form the outer
circle at Stonehenge. Sarsens are, however, frequently to be seen as gate-posts or
corner-stones, and in some districts they have been used as building stone to a
considerable extent.

Sarsens are very abundant in the neighbourhood of Bagshot. They have been
observed by the author firstly, and most frequently, at the bottom of or close to
the bottom of beds of gravel; secondly, and rather less often, at or near the
surface of the ground where there is no gravel; and thirdly, but only seldom, in
gravel some height above the bottom of the gravel. The author has never seen a
Sarsen Stone zm sttu, for though he has seen many partially uncovered stones,
they have in every case shown signs of wear by either water or weather. At the
same time he has noticed that the corners are frequently angular, and many of the
stones have been very slightly worn and certainly not rolled by water currents or
streams. The country around Bagshot is formed of the Bagshot Beds, largely of
Upper Bagshot Beds, which are shown by their fossils to be of Lower Barton age,
and the author suggests that soon after their deposition this part of England rose
somewhat above sea-level, and remained as a wide, fairly level, and low-lying flat
covered with marsh and vegetation for a very long period. The Sarsen Stones
are, he believes, indurated portions of this old land surface. If this is correct, it
accounts for all the above-mentioned facts, and also for the presence of numerous
rootlet tubes in the Stones, and for the absence of marine shells or of casts thereof.

If after a long period of repose an elevation of the land took place, the
streams would rapidly cut channels in the sandy soil and leave the indurated
fragments of the old surface scattered about at various levels, and many of these
would become buried in the beds of gravel, thus accounting for the presence of
the Sarsen Stones in the gravels.

It was suggested long ago by Mr. Hudleston that the concretionary action
which formed the Sarsens was due to the decomposition of vegetable matter, and
a somewhat similar opinion has been expressed by the Rey. Dr. Irving.

3. On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in the Thames Valley between
Reading and Maidenhead. Dy Liumwuttyn Treacwmr, 1.4.8,

Many neolithic celts have been obtained from the gravel of the bed of the
present river at Tilehurst, Bourne End, and Maidenhead, but few at any inter-
vening place. Surface finds are also more numerous in those localities than any-
where else in the district. There may have been fords or hunting resorts at these
places in neolithic times, and the axe-heads may have been lost in the stream.

Paleolithic implements have been found abundantly in terrace grayels at
hei¢hts of from 60 to 120 feet above the river on both sides of the valley. The
places where they occur in greatest numbers are near Caversham, 115 feet ; Grove-
lands, Reading, 75 feet ; Sonning, 95 feet to 60 feet; Ruscombe, 60 feet ; Cook-
ham, 85 feet ; and Furze Platt, near Maidenhead, 75 feet. From each of these
localities more than 100 implements have been obtained, besides flakes and broken
specimens. Flakes were very abundant at Caversham and at Furze Platt, while
at Grovelands many bones and teeth of mammoth, horse, and deer were found.

Although there is considerable difference in the types of the implements from
the various localities in the district, there is little evidence to show whether there
was any progress or otherwise in their manufacture during the time their makers
lived here. Those from Caversham at the highest level, and presumably the
earliest, are more symmetrical in shape and have finer chipping on them than those
from Furze Platt, 40 feet lower down, which often appear to have had only a few
well-directed strokes given them to bring them to the desired shape. Taking. the
district as a whole, palzeolithic implements occur together in groups in the older
gravels, much in the same way as the neolithic ones do in the newer deposits,
Caversham and Furze Platt may well have been palolithic working sites.

1 See Proc. Geol. Assoe vol vii. p. 138, and vol. viii, p. 153.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 671

4. On the Origin of certain Quartz Dykes in the Isle of Man.
By J. Lomas, 4.2.C.8., PGS.

About Foxdale, 1.0.M., the ground is strewn with blocks of quartz, and
numerous quartz veins traverse the altered slates which form the structural
anticline of the island. In nearly all cases these veins are accompanied by acid
dykes having the same general trend.

Where the quartz traverses the granite mass at Foxdale, it is locally developed
into a coarse pegmatite with idiomorphic crystals of felspar 3 inches long and
mica over 1 inch in diameter.

Away from the granite the quartz is clear or milky, rudely columnar in struc-
ture, and on the joint faces sericite is common.

It is suggested that the quartz is a true injection resulting from an overplus of
silica in the magma from which the granite crystallised.

5. Supplementary List of Minerals occurring in Ireland.
By Henry J. Seymour, B.A., £.GS.

The following species may be added to the list of Irish minerals published Jast
year in the Report of the Belfast Meeting of the Association: Minium, Wad,
Xanthosiderite, Strontianite, Nephelite, Scapolite, Orthite, Brewsterite, Zinnwaldite,
Ripidolite, Halloysite, Mimetite, Retinite.

6. The Average Composition of the Igneous Rocks.
By ¥. P. Mennewt, 2.G.8. 4

The author has calculated the average composition cf the igneous rocks
occurring in a given district—that surrounding Bulawayo—taking into considera-
tion the bulk of each type of rock present. Owing to the great preponderance in
bulk of the granitic intrusions, despite their inferiority in mwmber to those of other
rocks, the result obtained. for the average composition shows a silica percentage
of 69°88, a number sensibly equal to that assumed for the granite (70 per cent.)
The author considers that the same would certainly hold good for the whole of
Rhodesia, and probably in general for any large representative area, and draws
the conclusion that granite represents substantially the magma from which even
the most basic rocks haye been developed by some process of differentiation.

672 REPORT—1908.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

PresipeENt oF THe Section—Professor Syoney J. Hickson, M.A,
D.Sc., F.RB.S.

The President delivered the following Address on Friday, September 11 :—

At the last meeting of the British Association which was held in Southport, the
President of Section D, Professor EH. Ray Lankester, delivered an impressive
address on the provision in this country for the advancement of Biological
Science, in which he pointed out the very inadequate encouragement which existed
at that time for those who, by education and inclination, were fitted to pursue
original investigation in Zoology and Botany. Twenty years have passed since
that Address was written, and yet we have to acknowledge that, notwithstanding
the important part which our branch of Science has played in contributing to the
sum of useful human knowledge during the last two decades, the progress made
in the direction indicated by Professor Lankester is far from satisfactory. I do
not propose in this Address to make any detailed statement of the number of posts
in this country that are now open to zoologists, or of the amount of the present-
day endowments for the encouragement of Zoological Science as compared with
those of twenty years ago; but I wish to point out that neither in the older
Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, nor in the Colleges and National Institutions
situated in London, nor in the newer Universities and Colleges of the provinces,
have any new posts been created or adequately endowed which enable the holder
to devote a reasonable amount of his time to the pursuit of biological knowledge.
It is true that there are a few more posts now thau there were, in which a small
stipend or salary is offered to young trained zoologists for their services as teachers
of Elementary Biological Science to medical students and others; but the emolu-
ments of such posts are so small, depending, as they do, almost entirely upon a
share of the fees paid by the students, and the duties so arduous and prolonged,
that they really offer very little inducement to the pursuit of continuous and
systematic original research.

In one respect, however, we may notice and acknowledge, with gratitude, an
improvement in our position. In the laboratory accommodation, both in our
Universities and on the sea coast, we are a good deal better off than we were.
Twenty years ago there was no biological laboratory on the whole of the long line
of the British coast. Now, thanks to the efforts made by biologists and their
friends, we have at Plymouth an institution for the study of the marine fauna and
flora under favourable conditions, and similar institutions at Port Erin in the Isle
of Man, at Piel, at Millport, and at St. Andrews, and a provisional laboratory for
the study of fishery problems at Grimsby. New laboratories for the study of
zoology have also been built at Oxford, at Cambridge, at the University of Man-
chester, at Edinburgh University, and elsewhere, and I may add that a fine new
laboratory is now in course of construction for the department of Zoology in the
University of Liverpool.

These new institutions, however, only emplasise, tLey certainly do not amelio-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 673

rate, the weakness of our position in having so little encouragement to offer to
competent and well-trained men who wish to devote their lives to the advancement
of Zoological Science. Moreover, I would point out that these institutions have
been built and are being maintained almost entirely by funds supplied by private
benefactors, or out of the inadequate resources of the Universities.

The Treasury has made a provisional grant of 1,000/. per annum towards the
maintenance of the work done by the Marine Biological Association, and it may
be supposed that a small share of the annual government grant made to the
University Colleges and Scotch Universities goes to the support of the zoological
departments ; but, apart from this, there has been no increase in the support given
to us from public funds.

If we were to compare our progress in the matter of the public appreciation of
our science during the past two years with that in other countries, we should find
that our position is by no means satisfactory. In Germany, France, Belgium,
Holland, and more particularly in the United States of America, progress has been
rapid and continuous. The number of persons in these countries who by the aid
of university or public endowments are able to devote themselves to original work
in zoology has considerably increased of late years, and the number of magnifi-
cently equipped institutions that have been built for their accommodation and
convenience makes our efforts in the same direction appear very small.

It would not be difficult for me to bring facts and figures before you in support
of these general statements; but my object is not so much to lament over the past
and to mourn for the present position of our science in this country, as to suggest
directions in which we may work together for its development and progress.

Upon one matter, however, I think we may congratulate ourselves. If the
research done by English zoologists has not been as great in amount as it might
have been, I think it may be truly said that we have fully maintained its standard
as regards quality.

The contributions that have been made to the Science of Zoology by our
countrymen during the past twenty years in general interest and in theoretical
importance are of such a nature that any civilised race might well be proud
of them, and I venture to say they compare favourably with those of any other
country. I may remind you that the discovery and description of the Okapi,
Cznolestes, Nyctotherus Rhabdopleura, Cephalodiscus, Limnocodium, and Pelago-
hydra, the rediscovery of Lepidosiren and Ctenoplana, the most important
features of the development of Balanoglossus, Lepidosiren, Amphioxus, Peripatus
Hatteria, and some of the Marsupialia, and that the discovery of the important
character of the fauna of the deep seas involving the discovery of many new genera
and species, were the work of British zoologists. Moreover, that the prolonged
and painstaking investigations carried on in our laboratories have thrown much
light upon the character and relations of coelomic cavities, the homologies of the
nephridia and genital ducts, and many other important morphological problems.

In the field of evolutionary theories we have done much important work in
the study of the facts of protective and aggressive mimicry in insects, in the
statistical estimation of variations, and in the experimental inquiry into the value
of current theories of heredity.

The list is far from complete; but with such a record of good work done
with the scanty means at our disposal there is no reason to suppose that the
science is on the decline in this country, or that our countrymen are not as capable
as any others of grasping the importance of biological problems and ultimately
wresting from Nature the secrets that are hidden.

Whilst we may thus congratulate ourselves upon the achievements of the past
and upon our strength and ability to carry on good work in the future, I cannot
help feeling that the time has come for us to make a united effort to place before
the general public of this country, and more particularly the educated and
influential part of it, the disadvantages under which we suffer, and our need for
help in the further development of our subject.

We have all realised that in this country, more than in any other that is called
civilised, there prevails among all classes an extraordinary ignorance of the first

1903.’ [xx

674 REPORT—19038.

principles of biological science. It is this ignorance on the part of the general
public, I believe, which prevents us from gaining that sympathy for our aims and
that assistance for our efforts which we think is necessary not only for the
reputation, but also for the welfare of our country. We must remember that
the science of Natural History is as a closed book to most of those who after a
public school and university education have attained to positions of trust and
responsibility in the government of our country and our cities. Moreover, and
this is perhaps the most serious aspect of the question, there are many who
have gained a high position as men of science, and whose opinion is frequently
quoted as authoritative on questions affecting science in general, who are more
ignorant of the first principles of the science of biology than the Dutch schoolboy
of fifteen years of age.

It appears to me, then, that it is of fundamental importance for the zoologists
of this country to consider and report upon the necessity for the extension and
improvement of the teaching of Natural History in our schools and colleges. We
shall have to meet the objections that there is not time for Natural History in the
school curricula, and that it is not a suitable subject for the instruction of boys
and girls. These objections can be met, I believe, and overcome.

In many foreign countries Natural History is a compulsory school subject for
allscholars. In Holland, for example, by the law of April 28, 1876, all scholars of the
gymnasia during the first and second years devote two hours per week to the study
of Natural History, and in the fifth and sixth years all students preparing for
natural, mathematical, and medical sciences courses devote two hours per week to
the science. In the superior middle-class schools one hour a week is devoted to
the science in the first and second classes, and two hours per week in the remain-
ing three years. If, therefore, time can be found in the middle and upper class
schools for the study of Natural History in a country like Holland, where the
general education is so excellent, surely time can be found for it here.

It is also a matter for general regret that some course of Elementary Biology
is no longer compulsory for those who are proceeding to degrees in science in our
universities, and I cannot help feeling that a very retrograde step was taken a few
years ago by the authorities of the University of London, when Biology was made
an optional subject in the Intermediate Examination for the degree of Bachelor of
Science. We cannot expect to receive that sympathy in our pursuits and
appreciation of our discoveries which we expect from our fellow-men of science
if we tacitly admit that an elementary knowledge of the laws of living bodies is
not a necessary part of the equipment of a man of scientific culture.

I think we must all admit that the time is ripe for a full discussion by biologists
of the particular form of teaching and study which is most suitable for schools
and elementary university examinations. It is a matter in which we are all
interested ; it is a matter affecting most intimately the interests of those who will
be our pupils in the future, and we should be careful to see that no ill-considered
or fantastic schemes of study are thrust upon the authorities by unauthorised
persons at this very critical period in the educational history of our country.

There are other matters, however, which also demand our careful attention.
The growth of our great cities and the improvement in our ideas of sanitation have
brought forward as important problems for consideration the purity of the water-
supply and the disposal of sewage. The municipal authorities at last realise that
these problems can only be satisfactorily met by elaborate scientific investigation,
and they have found that it is not only desirable for sanitary reasons, but also—
and this has probably the greater weight—profitable to call in men of science for
consultation and advice. At present, however, these problems are approached
from only two points of view—the chemical and the bacteriological—the effect or
effects of other organisms than bacteria upon the character of the sewage effluent
and the purity of water for drinking purposes being, so far as I have observed,
neglected. I was very much impressed with the fact that at the meeting of the
Sanitary Institute last year in Manchester the speakers used the expression
‘bacteriological examination’ and ‘biological examination’ as if they were
synonymous, and no mention was made either of the animals or plants which ure

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 675

invariably present, and materially assist if they are not actually necessary for
the maintenance of the most suitable balance of life in these waters. The time
has come when an inquiry should be made of the organisms other than bacteria
that are normally present both in the waters at the sewage works and in the large
reservoirs which supply cities with drinking-water.

IT may be allowed here to quote two cases that have recently come under my
notice which will show the kind of work that might be done and the nature of
the results which may be expected to follow such an inquiry.

Some years ago complaints were made that the water supplied by the borough of
Burnley had an offensive smell. This smell was of such a nature that it was
impossible to use the water for the manufacture of soda-water.

The smell was traced to the Hecknest reservoir, where the common water snail,
Limnea peregra, was present in enormous numbers. The problem to be solved
was how to destroy or reduce the numbers of the Limnza without interfering in
other respects with the purity of the water. The authorities of the corporation
asked the advice of a trained zoologist, who made certain recommendations which
were adopted, and at a minimum cost the nuisance was abated, and during the six
years that have elapsed has not recurred. I will not detain you with a full
description of the cause and the cure of this particular pest, but I may say that
the recommendations that were made were based on the knowledge of the life habits
and reproduction of the Limnzea, and were therefore of a purely zoological character.

Two years ago the Chairman of the Water Committee of the Corporation of
Manchester reported that the mains had become partially choked by the growth
of an organism which he called a ‘moss.’ No less than 700 tons of this
‘moss’ were removed from the mains by a laborious and expensive process.
It is not necessary for me to inform this Section that the organism was not a moss.
It was probably not even a vegetable, but an animal belonging to one of the
genera of fresh-water Polyzoa. In this case, however, so far as I am aware, not
only were no steps taken to identify the organism, but no investigations were
made to discover its origin or to prevent the return of the trouble in the future.
I could give you several other examples which show that our ignorance of the
general balance of animal and vegetable life in the large reservoirs is profound,
and that a systematic inquiry conducted by competent persons would most
certainly lead to knowledge which would be of great scientific importance, and in
the long run remunerative to the community.

I do not think that we can expect that any one of the municipal authorities
will feel justified in bearing the cost of such an investigation. The problems that
one corporation has to face are very much the same as those that others have
met; and each corporation hopes to profit by the successful and neglect the
unsuccessful experiments of its neighbours. An investigation such as this, which
is really for the benefit of the whole community, should be conducted by a central
authority at the public expense.

The scientific investigation of the problems that are connected with the
maintenance and extension of our sea fisheries is another matter that requires
the very careful attention of the zoologists of the present day. The valuable work
that has already been done by the officers of the British Marine Biological
Association, the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee, the Scottish Fishery Board,
and other bodies is of a nature sufficiently encouraging to justify us in asking for
the necessary means and appliances for still further developments of the inquiry.
There is, however, a great need for a free discussion by those who are competent
to speak on the subject to determine and, if possible, to come to some conclusion
upon the question of the best and most profitable lines that the inquiry should
take in the immediate future, and the establishment of such co-operation as is
necessary by the different authorities to prevent duplication where it is unnecessary,
and simultaneous observations of similar phenomena on different parts of the
coast when it is considered desirable. The report of the Committee on Ichthyo-
logical Research, 1902, has shown that there is already in this country a good
deal of activity in various branches of investigation of the fisheries problems, but
the authorities are not on all points in agreement as to the best plan or course to

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676 REPORT—1903,

pursue in the future. I cannot but hope that if some conference were held, at
which those zoologists who have made a special study of these matters were
present, the principal differences of opinion might be cleared up and a unanimous
report presented to the authorities.

I have felt very strongly for some time past, and I know there are many of my
colleagues who agree with me, that the zoologists of this country are under some
disadvantage in not being provided with the necessary machinery for full dis-
cussion of matters which affect the welfare of the science asa whole. There are
several societies which receive, discuss, and publish papers on various branches of
zoological research, but they do not, and from the nature of their constitution
cannot, give effective utterance to the general or unanimous opinion of professional
zoologists on matters of their common interests, There is no society which all
serious students and teachers of zoology feel is the one society which it is their
duty and in their own interests to join, Some join the Zoological Society of
London, others the Linnean Society, others, again, the Royal Microscopical,
Entomological, or Malacological Societies, or some combination of two or more of
them. There is no common ground on which we meet for the discussion of such
subjects as those I have just mentioned in this Address. In the early days
of the British Association this Section supplied the needs which we feel now. It
was the Society, if I may call it such, which all the zoologists of the time made
a special effort to attend. Important matters were fully discussed by the most
competent authorities, and people felt that the prevalent opinion on any subject
expressed by Section D was the prevalent opinion of men of science throughout
the country.

In concluding this portion of my Address, I may express the hope that when
the Association meets next year at Cambridge some steps may be taken to render
the organisation which we already possess in connection with this Section more
generally useful and more efficacious than it is at present. '

In the opening sentences of my Address I used an expression which some of
my hearers may have considered open to criticism. Let me take this opportunity
of saying, then, that by using the expression ‘ useful human knowledge’ I did not
intend to express an opinion that there is any knowledge of the character that is
expounded and discussed in these sections of the Association which can be called
useless knowledge.

A. distinction, however, is frequently drawn between knowledge that can be
directly applied to the arts and crafts and knowledge which, on the face of it,
appears to us at present to be only of general scientific interest. For example, in
the award of the Exhibition (1851) Scholarships and Bursaries, the candidates
must still give evidence of capacity for advancing science or its application by
original research in some branch of science, the extension of which is especially
important to our national industries, We can rejoice most cordially in the suc-
cessful developments of the technical institutions in the country, we can heartily
join hands with our colleagues in other sciences in urging upon the authorities the
encouragement of those branches of science which have a direct bearing upon our
industries, but we have a no less important duty to perform in claiming for those
branches of sciences that have apparently no such direct application the needful
sympathy and encouragement. I venture to say that at the time the Association
last met in Southport no one would have ventured to predict that the study of
the anatomy and life history of the Diptera, or the general biology of the minute
sporozoa, would have any direct bearing upon the development of our industries.
But to-day, by our knowledge of the mosquito Anopheles, and the sporozoan
parasite it carries, we are in a position to destroy or ameliorate the malaria pest
which has hindered the commercia] development of so many of our colonies in
tropical countries, and by encouraging the development of such countries we are
assisting to a very material extent our home industries and the general trade of
the country. In this, as in so many other cases, the benefit to industry and
commerce has come from an unexpected quarter of the field of zoological research.
Those who were working within the narrow limits of what is called applied
science could have never discovered the facts which we now regard as of extreme

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 677

importance, however well equipped they were with laboratcries and appliances
and endowments for research.

It will be of very little profit to this country to endow munificently the
technical institutions and those branches of science to which the adjective
‘applied ’ is given, to build British ‘ Charlottenburgs,’ and to attract by handsome
salaries the most distinguished professors to the study of the application of
science, if at the same time we starve and allow to sink into insignificance the
fundamental sciences upon which the whole superstructure rests. It does not
need a prophet to foretell that a great disaster will occur if we add story to story
of our house of education without widening and broadening the basis upon which
it rests.

Many of us, I am afraid, are too much inclined to believe that the intellectual
portion of the community has at last, awakened to the importance of the work in
the fields of pure science, that the old prejudice against us who indulge what is
called our harmless curiosity is dying out, and that our science is bound to receive
a fair share of encouragement and attention in the progress of the modern develop-
ments of science and learning.

The distinction that is drawn between pure and applied science is, however, in
danger of being broadened and deepened rather than diminished by the recent
activity in the foundation of schools and colleges for technical instruction. There
are, it is true, several eminent and distinguished persons who recognise the
danger and do their best to avoid it, but this fact is not in itself sufficient to
justify us in any relaxation of our efforts on behalf of the maintenance and develop-
ment of those branches of the sciences which are usually supposed to have no
direct or technical application. :

In the wide field of zoological research there are many subjects now being
investigated and discussed which, at present, seem to us to have but a remote
bearing upon any practical problem of industry or medicine. Of all these subjects
there are two which have excited during the past ten years extraordinary interest,
and are from many points of view subjects of greatest possible importance. Irefer
to the subject of the natural variations of animals and plants, and the problem of
the hereditary transmission of characters from generation to generation.

At present there appears to be some doubt whether the workers in these sub-
jects are really agreed as to the general propositions of the problems, the defini-
tions of the terms employed, and the standard of proof that is requisite in each
step of progress. It is true that in most, if not in all, biological problems we are at
the disadvantage of being unable to define or measure anything with the same
mathematical accuracy that our friends, the chemists and physicists, are accus-
tomed to. We cannot say for example that the chela of a particular species of
crab is so many millimétres in length, in the manner the chemist determines the
atomic weight of a new metal, as the length of the chela is found to vary within
a certain range in all species that have been investigated ; nor can we define such
common expressions as a species, a variation, or even a cell with the same con-
ciseness as a physicist defines the ohm, the volt, specific gravity, or the mechanical
equivalent of heat. Asa consequence it is not surprising that when our problems
have been studied and a solution reached the resultant ‘laws’ exhibit so many
exceptions that they are really not worthy to be called ‘laws’ at all. We may
see the truth, but we see it as through a glass, darkly.

There is perhaps no word in the whole of our vocabulary which is used in so
many different senses as the word ‘ variation,’ and yet when it is used an attempt is
only rarely made to define the sense in which it is employed.

When we study the adult progeny of a single pair of parents we notice that
they differ from one another as regards any one particular chafacter within a
certain range. Thus the eight children of a single pair of human parents may
vary in weight from, say, 130 lbs. to 200 lbs., and we may find that the average
weight of the eight children is approximately the same as the average weight of
the two parents. If parents and children were all of exactly the same weight—
an impossible supposition—it would be said that they exhibited no variation in
this respect, but, as they always do vary in weight, it is said that they exhibit

678 REPORT—1903.

‘ variations’ in weight. Now, such variations may be due partly to differences in
the muscular training, the nourishment, the general health, and other post-natal
causes ; but it is assumed, and there are doubtless good reasons for the assumption,
that if all these post-natal influences had been equal throughout life there would
still remain variations in weight of lesser amplitude than is usual, but nevertheless
substantial.

The variation of the adult in weight, therefore, is a compound quantity, partly
due to the influence of external conditions upon the growing body, and partly due
to a quality or character present at birth and usually supposed to be inherited
with the germ-plasm from one or both parents. The former may be called the
artificial part of the variation, or for brevity the artificial variation, and the latter
the natural or inherited variation. In the character of weight in human beings
there can be no doubt that artificial variation is predominant, the character being
a very fluctuating one and liable to profound modification in the varying vicissi-
tudes of civilised human life.

In the character of stature the artificial variation is probably much less pre-
dominant. The children of tall parents grow into tall men and women, however
handicapped in early life by ill-health or insufficient nourishment, and the children
of short parents remain short in adult life, however healthy and well fed in their
youth. Nevertheless, he would be a bold man who would assert that the character
of stature is uninfluenced by the environment, and that the short people would not
have been taller had the conditions of their life in childhood been more favourable,
or the tall people shorter if the conditions in their early life had been less
favourable.

Finally, we have, in the colour of the iris, the shape of the ear, and the size of
the teeth, characters which are usually considered to be unmodified by post-natal
conditions, or at least so slightly modified by them that the differences observed
in them may be regarded as almost pure natural variations. Now, if we turn our
attention to characters such as weight, which we feel certain are influenced very
profoundly by the environment, we might be tempted to exaggerate the import-
ance of the environment in moulding or forming the characteristic features of the
adult organism, as, in the opinion of many authorities, Lamarck did, and many of
his followers are still doing. If, on the other hand, we confine our attention to
such characters as the colour of the iris or the shape of the ear, we might be
tempted to under-estimate the influence of the environment.

This brings us to the important question whether the characters of the adult
that are due to the influence of the environment, and that part or degree of any
character which is more or less modified by the conditions of the earlier stages of
life are or are not transmitted by parents to their offspring. Time will not permit
me to discuss this difficult problem here. Rightly or wrongly, I agree with those
who maintain that acquired characters are not inherited, and I intend to assume
for the purpose of the argument that follows that they are not inherited. I will
also assume, and I must say that the facts seem to be conclusive in favour of this
assumption, that the characters which are usually supposed not to be influenced,
or ae only slightly influenced by, the environment are capable of transmission by
heredity.

We have, then, in most variations a part that can be transmitted anda part
that cannot be transmitted by heredity from parents to offspring, and we find in
every plant and animal an enormous difference in the proportions of these two
parts in different organs. It is not difficult to see the general reasons for these
differences. It is clearly important that some organs should be plastic—z.e. capable
of changing in form and size to meet the varying changes in the environment, and
that others should remain relatively constant in spite of changes in the environ-
ment, ‘Thus the shape and size of the branches of an oak in a plantation will vary
enormously, according to the light and space they have for their development,
whereas the anthers, the pistils and fruit, will be relatively constant in form and
colour, It is clearly important for a chameleon that the colour of its skin should
vary according to the colour of its environment; but it is none the less important

that the shape and muscular organisation of its tongue should remain relatively
constant throughout life,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION De 679

An essential point, however, for us to consider is whether there are any
characters in animals or plants upon which the environment exercises no influence
at all or exercises such a slight influence that it may be safely neglected.
The method to adopt in order to settle this point would be to compare at a definite
period of their lives the statistics of variation in a family or population which
has been brought up under identical circumstances with a similar family or
population at the same period of life which has been brought up under differing
circumstances. If this were done we could determine with considerable accuracy
the proportion of the variation of any character of the individuals that is due to
the environment and that which is natural and inherited.

Unfortunately it is impossible to bring up a population under identical circum-
stances. If we take, for example, the individuals of a single hive of bees, which
have the same parents, pass through the early stages of their development in cells
which are almost identical in size and are regularly fed by the workers during
the whole of their larval life, there is still a considerable probability that the
individuals do not have a treatment which can, with any pretence to accuracy, be
called identical. The food that is collected by the worker-bees frequently comes
from varied sources or from flowers in different stages of their growth, and it is
impossible to believe therefore that it has always identical nutritive properties ;
the laryze are not of the same age, and seasonal changes may affect the larve
differently, some being checked in the early stages of their development more
than others.

But even if we could, with justice, assume that the conditions of life for the
individual bees in a hive are identical from the time of hatching up to the time
when the adult characters are assumed, there still remain two sets of variable
conditions which must affect the development independently of the influences
brought by the two parents in the germ-plasms.

In the egg of the bee there is a considerable quantity of yclk, and this yolk is
the food material upon which the embryo is nourished throughout the earlier stages
of its development. There is no evidence that the yolk in the eggs of this or of
any other animal is constant either in quality or quantity, On the other hand,
the extraordinary variations or abnormalities, as they are usually termed, which
the embryologist meets with in the segmentation of the egg suggest that there
are considerable differences in these respects between the eggs laid by a single
parent in a single act of oviposition. Moreover, the manner in which the young
eggs of the insects are nourished in the tubular oviduct before they are ready for
fertilisation gives very little support to the view that the amount of yolk deposited
in each egg is identical.

The second consideration under this heading is possibly of even greater import-
ance. Vernon! has shown that the size and other characters of echinoderm larvee
vary very considerably according to the freshness or staleness of the conjugating
ova and spermatozoa. For example, he found that when the fresh spermatozoa
of Strongylocentrotus fertilised the eggs which had been kept eighteen hours of
the same animal, the larve differed from the normal larvee, —17°6 in body length and
—15 per cent. in arm length, and when the fresk eggs are fertilised by spermatozoa
which had been kept eighteen hours the resulting larve differed from the normal
by +11 per cent. in body length and by —32°8 per cent. in arm length.

This consideration is practically eliminated in the case of the worker-bees by
parthenogenesis, but it cannot be set aside in the case of the drones nor in the
cases of the broods of other animals which do not exhibit the phenomenon of
parthenogenesis. A comparison of the curve of variation of some character, common
to both, in drones and worker-bees from one hive would perhaps throw some light
on the general importance of this character.

Before leaving this part of the subject, I must call attention to two results
bearing upon it, obtained by De Vries in his botanical investigations, and related
by him in his very important work entitled ‘Die Mutationstheorie.” This ob-

1 H. M. Vernon: ‘ The Relations between the Hybrid and Parent-forms of Echinoid
Larve. Phil. Trans. 1898, B. p, 465,

680 : REPORT—1908.

server found that the younger the seedling is the greater is the influence of external
circumstances upon its adult characters, and in the second place that an even
greater influence is exerted upon the characters of a plant by the external circum-
stances affecting the mother-plant. If these results hold good for animals as they
do for plants, we should expect to find, then, that the external circumstances affect-
ing the mother at the time she is maturing the eggs in her ovaries and the external
circumstances affecting the embryo before and during the larval period are of
far greater importance in affecting the curve of variation of the adults than are
the external circumstances affecting the young in their period of adolescence. We
must come to the conclusion, from these considerations, that the general varia-
bility of a brood or progeny of a single pair of parents must be very largely the
effect of the varying conditions affecting the gametes from the earliest stages of
their genesis in the gonophore, the fertilised ovum, and the early stages of develop-
ment. We find, however, as I have already pointed out, that some characters are
much more influenced by external circumstances than others. Weight and stature
in human beings, for example, are probably much more influenced than the colour
of the iris or the shape of the fingers. We may, indeed, recognise two kinds of
characters, connected, of course, by a complete series of intermediate links, which
may be called, for convenience sake, plastic characters and rigid characters,

Now, in some animals, the characters that are rigid are much more numerous
than they are in others. For example, adult salmon or perch are much more
variable in size and weight than adult herrings or mackerel ; some species of butter-
flies are much more variable in the colour and pattern of their wings than other
species ; some species of birds are much more variable in their plumage than others
are. Several other examples could be chosen to illustrate this point from the
higher groups of animals; but I wish particularly to call your attention to several
instances found in the Coelenterata, because it was the special study of this group
of animals that led to the train of thought I have ventured to put before you.

In all the sedentary forms of Coelenterates the mouth is surrounded by a circlet
of tentacles. These organs are used for catching and paralysing the prey and
passing it to the mouth to be swallowed. They are also very delicate, and indeed
the only specialised organs of sense performing a function similar to that of the
feelers orantenne of Arthropoda. There can be no exaggeration in saying, there-
fore, that they are of the utmost importance to the animal. In some groups of
Coelenterata, however, we find that they are fixed in number, but in others that
they are variable.

In the Alcyonaria, for example, the number of tentacles of the adult polyp is
eight. Ihave examined many thousands of polyps belonging to the suborders
Stolonifera, Aleyonacea, Gorgonacea, and Pennatulacea, and I have not found a
single example of an adult polyp with either more or less than eight tentacles.
This is a character, then, which is remarkably well fixed in the Alcyonaria. It
does not fluctuate at all. The tentacles of the Hydrozoa, and of many of the
Zoantharia, on the other hand, fluctuate considerably in number. In some forms,
such as Tubularia among the Hydroids, and Actinia among the Zoantharia, the
number of tentacles is considerable, and it is not, perhaps, surprising to find varia~
tions in their number. But in many cases, when the number of tentacles is small,
there is also frequent variation. In Hydra viridis, for example, the number of the
tentacles is 6, 7, or 8, and more rarely 5 or 9.

Again, in the Alcyonaria, the number of mesenteries of the adult polyp is
always eight; never more and never less.

In the Zoantharia, on the other hand, the number varies not only in different
sub-orders and families, but even in different individuals of the same species from
a single locality. Parker found, for example, that the number of non-directive
mesenteries in the sea-anemone Metridium marginatum, collected at Newport,
R.1., varied from four to ten pairs in those forms with the normal number (2) of
directive mesenteries, and that there were further variations in the number of
non-directive mesenteries in those forms with an abnormal number of directive
mesenteries. In fact, of the 131 adult specimens collected, only 40 or about
33 per cent. exhibited the arrangement of mesenteries which is regarded as normal

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 681

for the species. On the other hand, Clubb found that of the specimens of another
common sea-anemone, Actinia equina, only 4:24 per cent. showed variations from
the normal mesenterial arrangement for the species. We have then, in these
examples, a set of organs which are very variable in one genus (Metridium), much
_ less variable in another (Actinia), and perfectly fixed or rigid in another series of
genera (the Alcyonaria).

Passing on, now, to the character ‘shape.’ Not many years ago the systematic
zoologists, who directed their attention to the sedentary Ccelenterates, based
their specific diagnoses very largely on the shape of the colonies. Thus we
have introduced such names as Millepora alcicornis, M. ramosa, M. plicata,
Madrepora cervicornis, M. prolifera, M. palmata, Alcyonium digitatum, A.
palmatum, &c. &e. Zoologists are now agreed, however, that the shape of these
colonies is so variable that in most genera it is of very little value for the separa-
tion of species. In fact, I have elsewhere given reasons for holding the view
that the widely distributed and very variable genus Millepora is represented by
only one true species. But what is true for most sedentary Ceelenterates is not
true for all colonial Ccelenterates. In most of the genera and species of Pen-
natulida, for instance, the shape of any one individual of a species is almost
identical with that of any other. A Funiculina quadrangularis, from the west
coast of Scotland, is similar in shape to one of the same species from the coast of
Norway. A Pennatula murrayi, from the reefs of Funafuti, is similar in shape
to one from Ceram. In other words, the character ‘shape’ is extremely plastic in
Millepora and Madrepora, but very slightly plastic or almost rigid in Pennatula
and Funiculina.

This difference in the plasticity of the character ‘shape’ in Millepora and the
Pennatulids must be associated with the fact that the young Millepora colony is
unable to move from the spot where the larva settles, whereas the Pennatulid is
capable of moving from place to place throughout life. The Millepora colony
must either accommodate itself to the environment in which it begins life or
perish, but the young Pennatulid can, within certain limits, travel to the environ-
ment that suits itself. :

The shape of a growing coral or sedentary Aleyonarian on a reef must accommo-
date itself to the depth of water, the position of neighbouring zoophytes to
itself, the direction of the tides, and other influences; and such a power of
accommodation is essential for the species in the struggle for existence on the
coral reef. But in the case of the Pennatulid, the natural or normal shape is adapted
to a less variable series of environmental conditions, and it has sufficient power of
movement to shift itself into localities where the environment is suitable for it.
In other words, the power of movement is associated with a loss of plasticity of the
character ‘shape.’

But the growth of corals may be affected in other ways. A great many of
these forms of life harbour a small fauna of epizoic crustacea, mollusca, and worms,
and the ramification or surface is often affected by these in a remarkable way. I
have elsewhere pointed out that the character of certain specimens of Millepora,
which is known as verrucose, is due to a modification of the growth round epizoic
barnacles. Semper has shown that the curious cage-like growths seen on the
branches of Seriatopora and Pocillopora are galls produced by the action of certain
species of crabs. In a recent paper I have also given reasons for believing that
the tubular character of the stem and some of the branches of the genus Soleno-
caulon is due to the action of certain crustacea belonging to the family Alpheide,
and that when these Alpheids are not present the form with a solid stem hitherto
known as the genus Leucoella is produced.

But whilst some genera of corals and Alcyonaria are plastic in this way, others
are not. These coral galls may be found on the Milleporas and Madreporas of
a certain portion of a reef and be absent from all the other genera of neighbouring
corals. The crab-galls that are found so commonly and in such abundance upon
Pocilloporas and Seriatoporas in certain parts of the Pacific and elsewhere are
found only in cases of extreme rarity in other corals.

Many other cases could be given to show that in some genera the ccenenchym

682 REPORT—19038,.

is remarkably plastic or accommodating to these epizoites, whereas in others it is
resistent and rigid.

The size and shape of the spicules have been taken as characters for the
determination of the species of Alcyonaria. It is true that in some species the
spicules are remarkably constant in size and shape, but in others they are extremely
variable. The remarkable torch-like spicules of the eccoenenchym of Eunicella
papillosa, the club-shaped spicules of Acrophytum, and the needle-shaped spicules
of many species of Pennatulids are remarkably constant in size and shape, but
in Sarecophytum, the new genus Sclerophytum, Siphonogorgia, Spongodes, and
a great many others, the size and shape of the spicules are extracrdinarily vari-
able, In the matter of colour, too, we find the same thing. The genera Tubipora
and Heliopora are widely distributed in the shallow waters of the tropical
seas and are very variable in many of their characters, and yet there is not a single
specimen of Tubipora known that is not red, nora single specimen of Heliopora
that isnot blue. The same may be said for several other species. On the other
hand, many species of Alcyonaria are extremely variable in colour. Thus,
Muricea chameleon is, according to Von Koch, sometimes yellow, sometimes
red, and in some cases specimens show both red and yellow branches. The
specimens of Melitodes dichotoma in Cape waters are sometimes red and some-
times yellow. In a small species of Melitodes from the Maldive Archipelago
there is a very remarkable degree of variation in colour both in the nodes and
internodes, the details of which I have briefly described in vol. ii. of Mr. Gardiner’s
Results. In the genus Chironephthya, also from the same Archipelago, the
variations in colour are very remarkable, the spicules of the general coenenchym
showing various shades of red, pink, yellow, and orange, and the crown and
points purple, yellow, and orange colours which sometimes agree, but usually
do not agree, with the general colour of the cenenchym. The variability of the
genus is particularly interesting, as in Siphonogorgia, the genus which comes
nearest to it, and is, in fact, difficult to separate from it, the colour of the
coenenchym is almost invariably red.

To summarise this knowledge of variability in the Coelenterata we may say
that we find either extreme plasticity or remarkable rigidity in many of their most
important characters. Such important and essential organs as the tentacles,
stomodzum, mesenteries, &c., are in some groups very variable indeed, and in
others as stationary or fixed ; we find the same with organs such as the spicules of
Aleyonaria, which are, so far as we can judge, of less essential importance, and in
characters, such as colour, which must be, in the sedentary forms at least, of minor
importance.

If we compare this with what we find in the higher groups of animals we
observe a great contrast. In fishes, to take an example at random, we may find
that in such characters as the size and weight of the adults, there may be great or
considerable variability, but in the essential organs, such as the heart, brain, and
stomach, there is almost complete rigidity. I do not mean by using the expression
‘rigidity ’ to imply: that minor variations in size and shape do not occur, but that
major variations, such as a doubling of the stomach, a bifurcation of the cerebral
hemispheres or other variations, which it would be considered grotesque to sug-
gest even, do not and cannot occur. But even in minor characters, such as colour,
the possible range of variation in a fish is far less than in Coelenterates. We may
find in the mackerel, for example, that individuals differ in the shade and range of
the green pigment, but we do not find in any species of fish that some individuals
are red,some yellow, some purple, &c.

The contrast in this respect between the Coelenterate and the fish must be
associated with their different degree of complexity of structure. In a complicated
organisation such as that of a fish, the brain, heart, and stomach must
mutually work together; they must be co-ordinated in form and action. Any
profound variation or abnormality of one would interfere with the action of the
others and would therefore be incompatible with continued existence. In the
Coelenterate, however, the doubling of the siphonoglyph, the duplication or quad-
tuplication of the mesenteries does not, in some cases, interfere materially with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 683

the action of the other organs of the body. If we were to alter the size or shape
of some part of a simple machine it might be able still to do its work the better
or the worse for the change, but if we were to alter the corresponding part of a
complicated machine it would probably throw it out of gear and prevent any work
being done at all.

From this consideration we gather that in the process of the evolution of the
higher forms of life there has been a gradual diminution in the range of variation
of the different characters of the body, a gradual diminution of the response of
these characters to changes of the environment. Characters which, in the early
stages of evolution, were probably plastic become rigid.

The gradual evolution of the power of co-ordinated movement has been un-
doubtedly accompanied by a loss in the variability of the shape of the body, the
gradual evolution of a blood vascular system and nervous system has led to a loss
of variability in the alimentary canal with which they are associated. In the
majority of cases, however, we are much too ignorant of the facts of the co-ordi-
nation of the parts of the body or of the co-ordination of any one part to the
environment to be able to frame an hypothesis as to why any one character has be-
come rigid. It is difficult to see the reason why the number of the tentacles and
mesenteries in Alcyonian polyps has become fixed at eight, while in other Ceelen-
terates these characters are so variable, or why the colour of Tubipora is always
red, and of Melitodes variable.

The study of species, however, teaches us that, in all cases, except perhaps
in some examples of degeneration, the plastic condition of the characters was
antecedent to the rigid, that in the earlier stages of evolution the conditions of
extreme plasticity and ready response to changing external conditions were neces-
sary for the survival of the species; and that in the later stages, when special
adaptations to special circumstances were developed, a certain rigidity or indiffer-
ence to changing external conditions was equally necessary for its survival.

Now, the study of the various orders of Coelenterates conveys a very strong
impression that the part played by the environment in the production of the
variations of the adult is much greater in proportion than it is in the higher groups
of animals. It is true that direct proof of this is wanting. Such a direct proof
can only be obtained by experiments in rearing and breeding under varying
conditions, and there are at present many serious difficulties to overcome before
experiments of this nature can be satisfactorily made.

Nevertheless, the circumstantial evidence in favour of the truth of this impres-
sion is, to my mind, so strong that we are justified in considering its bearing upon
the general question. It is quite impossible for me on this occasion to set before
you at all adequately the general nature of this circumstantial evidence. To do
so would involve statements concerning the actual variations of a large number of
species already observed in one locality and in several widely distributed localities,
with a discussion of the possible direct influence of the conditions of such localities,
so far as they are known, upon each of the principal variations. Such statements
would necessarily be of such a special and technical kind that, even if time per-
mitted me to make them, they would not be suitable for an Address of this character.
I may be permitted to say, however, that I am collecting and preparing the
evidence for publication on this point at a later date. There can be no doubt,
however, from the evidence I have already submitted to you in part, that some
species are far more influenced by changes in the environment, or, to simplify the
expression, are far more plastic than others; and we may conclude that in the
evolution of other groups of animals the earlier forms were far more plastic than
their modern descendants. In the earlier stages of evolution there must have
been in the first instance a lessening of the power of change in structure according
to change of environment. The fixity or rigidity of certain characters thus pro-
duced enabled a more elaborate co-ordination both in form and action to occur
between one set of organs aud another. It permitted a further localisation and
specialisation of functions, or, in other words, further differentiation of the animal
tissues.

Accompanying this differentiation there was a loss in the power of regeneration,

684 REPORT—19038.

As Trembley showed many years ago, a Hydra can be cut into many pieces, and
each by the regeneration of the parts that are missing will give rise to a complete
individual. The Earthworm can, when cut in half, regenerate a new tail but not
a new head region. An Arthropod dies when cut in half, but has the power of
regenerating new appendages in place of those that are lost. But in Vertebrates
there is very little power of regenerating new appendages, and the general powers
of regenerating new parts are reduced to a minimum.

Now, whether the loss in the plasticity of characters was the cause of the loss
in the power of regeneration of lost parts, or the loss in the powers of regeneration
was the cause of the loss of plasticity, is a problem upon which I do not feel we are
competent to express a definite opinion; but that the two series of phenomena are
intimately associated is, I believe, a generalisation that is worth a good deal of
further thought and study.

In Vertebrates, however, although the power of regeneration of lost parts is at a
minimum, it is not by any means entirely wanting. The muscles, nerves, epithelia,
and other tissues, are able to repair injuries caused by accident and disease.
And similarly, although the power of response of various organs to the changes
of external conditions in Vertebrates is very much diminished as compared with
that in the lower groups of the animal kingdom, it still remains in an appreciable
degree. Whether the curves of variation of the so-called fluctuating characters of
Vertebrates represent simply or solely the influence of the environment on the
organism cannot at present be determined with any degree of certainty; but it
appears to me that zoological evidence, confirmed as it is in such a remarkable
way by the recent researches of the botanists, points very strongly to the
conclusion that the major part of each such curve is, after all, but an expression of
the influence of the environment. In venturing to put before you these considera-
tions, I am quite conscious of the vastness and complexity of the problems involved
and of the many omissions and imperfections which a short Address of this kind
must contain. Not the least of these omissions is that of any reference to the
distinction that might be drawn between continuous and discontinuous variations
in the simpler forms of life. This is a matter, however, which involves so many
interesting and important questions that I have felt it to be beyond the scope of
my Address to-day.

We are still in need of further systematic knowledge of the widely distributed
rpecies of Coelenterates; we want to be able to form a more definite opinion than
we can at present upon the value of specific distinctions, and we need still further
observations and descriptions of the phenomena of irregular facies, abnormal
growths, and meristic variations. But more important still is the need of further
researches in the field of experimental morphology.

When we have accumulated further knowledge on these lines in a group of
animals such as the Coelenterata, of relative simple organisation, we shall be in a
better position than we are now to deal with the problems of heredity and
variation in the far more complicated groups of Arthropoda and Vertebrates.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Some Results on the Morphology and Development of Recent and
Fossil Corals.' By J. EK. Durrpen, Ph.D., A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.)

The paper gave a brief account of the results obtained from a morphological
study of the polyps of over thirty species of West Indian corals collected by the
author while Curator of the Museum, Jamaica; also a preliminary note upon the
relationships of the extinct Tetracoralla to living Zoanthids.

' Has appeared in Mem. of Nat. Acad. of Sciences, Washington, vol. viii.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 685

Decalcification of the coral stocks has revealed the general occurrence of boring
filamentous alge of both green and red species. Their corrosive activity was shown
to result in the ultimate destruction of coral masses, and has an important bearing
upon theories of the disappearance of coral rock. The colours of West Indian
living polyps are mainly due to the presence within the endoderm of symbiotic
yellow cells—zooxanthelle: this colour may be modified by pigment cells, accumu-
lations of pigment granules, or superficial deposits.

The colwmn-wall never exhibits more than a feeble diffuse endodermal sphincter
muscle, and in most species the wall can overfold the tentacles and disc. The
tentacles are mostly knobbed and in close alternating hexameral cycles, but in
some forms they are widely apart. The stomodeum is without true siphonoglyphs
or gonidial grooves; in some the walls are deeply ridged and grooved all round.
The mesenteries in genera reproducing by budding contorm to the cyclic hexameral
plan, while this is altogether departed from in forms increasing by fission. The
mesenterial filaments are simple, never trilobed as in most Actinians; they can be
extruded through any part of the polypal wall along with the mesentery to which
they are attached. The skeleton or corallum is an ectoplastic formation laid down
within a mesoglcea-like matrix.

Asexual reproduction is by gemmation and fissiparity. In gemmation each new
polyp reproduces all the essential features of the larval polyp; in fission no new
individuals are produced, the original polyp merely becomes more and more com~
plex and multioral. The enlarged polyps sometimes met with in a state of fission
on gemmiferous colonies are shown to represent a specialised form of reproduction
termed jissiparous gemmation.

Coral polyps are hermaphrodite, but protogyny and protandry seem to occur.
The narrow aboral pole of the larva is usually provided with a special nervous
development which seems to represent a larval sense organ. The primary six pairs
of mesenteries (protocnemes) arise as bilateral pairs in a succession which is ap-
parently the same in all species; the six pairs constituting the secondary cycle
arise bilaterally as unilateral pairs in a dorso-ventral sequence; the twelve pairs
forming the tertiary cycle also appear as unilateral pairs in a bilateral manner
from the dorsal to the ventral aspect, but in a two-fold succession.

The studies so far conducted on the Tetracoralla or Rugosa indicate that the
primary septal plan is hexameral. The metasepta appear as successive bilateral
pairs from a single region within only four of the six exoccelic chambers, the corallite
retaining in the adult a bilateral symmetry, not the multicyclic radial condition.
The septal development is such as would be followed in polyps with a mesenterial
growth similar to that in recent Zoanthids, except that here additional mesenteries
arise within only the two ventral exoccelic chambers.

2. The Coral Formations of Zanzibar and East Africa.
By Cyrit Crossianp.

Although the land fauna of Zanzibar and Kast Africa is already well known,
very little attention had been paid to that of the sea until Sir Charles
Eliot, K.C.M.G., was appointed H.M. Consul-General at Zanzibar, and Commis-
sioner for British East Africa, when he generously provided for the author to
accompany him.

The island of Zanzibar is 60 miles in length by 20 in breadth. The outline
of the east coast is very regular, its only prominent features being an outlying
reef, called Mnemba, in the north, and Chuaka Bay at about the middle
of its length. The whole extreme part of the island is composed of coral lime-
stone or ‘rag,’ low and deeply undermined cliffs which form the greater part of the
east coast and of Pemba and the mainland. Below these is a very regular fringing
reef from 1 to 8 miles wide, upon the edge of which the surf breaks, leaving
a sheltered boat channel along the shore. Beyond the edge of the reef the depth of
the water drops almost at once 10 or more fathoms. The larger features of the
reef are eam ibed in previous accounts as being of the usual kind, and due to the

686 REPORT—1903.

continuous growth of corals and nullipores. “When examined in detail their structute
negatives this conclusion, and shows them to have been carved out by the sea
from the dead mass of crystalline coral limestone whose upheaval formed the
island of Zanzibar and the adjacent coasts of the mainland. Growing corals are
almost totally absent from the reef edge, and nullipores do no more than thinly
cover at most half its surface. Further, stones of exactly the properties of the
rock of the cliffs occur on the reef edge, and their presence in this situation is
inexplicable, except by the supposition that they are the hardest remnants of the
mass of rock removed by the sea during the formation of the reefs.

In a few places corals and nullipores flourish in the boat channel either as
cylinders of Porites or as irregular blocks formed by the co-operation of several
coral genera with a vigorous growth of nullipores, the appearance of the whole
block being wonderfully rich and beautiful. In one place the growth of these
has continued until their coalescence has produced a continuous surface in appear-
ance like that of the old reef rock, but distinguishable from that by its softness
and appearance when broken.

The island of Pemba is very similar in structure to that of Zanzibar, and it has
along its eastern coast a fringing reef, but very much narrower, and its boat
channel is rudimentary. The reef edge is similar to that of Zanzibar, except in its
flora and fauna, which are strikingly different. Instead of the areas being
covered by brown filamentous seaweeds, there is on the Pemba reef edge a
vigorous growth of nullipores which cover every available space. Stunted corals,
Alcyonaria of various genera are also abundant. Even if nothing is being added to
the mass of the reef by these organisms, their presence affords a perfect protection
from wave action to the underlying rock.

The theory of the origin of these reefs by the erosion and solution of elevated
coralline limestone is corroborated by the state of the shore where it is sheltered
from the surf by the outlying Mnemba reef. The definite reef form is lost, the
shore not only becoming narrow, but consisting of irregular patches of sand and
rock as in the shores of temperate seas.

The Mnemba reef itself bears a proportionately tiny sand islet, interesting as
having been in the past a rendezvous for pirates, as evidenced by a most carefully
built well, every stone of which must have been imported from the reef edge three
miles away or from Zanzibar. It is quite certain that no natives of this district,
in which a stone house is a rarity, would ever dream of such exertions as this
structure must have required, especially for the water supply of an island now
inhabited but temporarily by octopus fishers.

The pear-shaped reef has a raised edge like that of the reefs of Zanzibar along
its exposed eastern and southern sides, within which is a succession of pools and
channels just passable afoot at low spring tides.

If this reef had been situated in the open ocean, so that with the change of the
monsoons every side would be exposed to the surf, it would have a raised
edge all round, the centre becoming a shallow lagoon. Thus would be produced a
typical atoll formed, not by growth of organisms zn stfu, but’ by the solvent and
eroding action of the sea upon a mass of upheayed long-dead coral limestone.

Other reefs which have assumed the atoll form by the action of the same
forces are found in every stage of formation in the immediate neighbourhood
of Zanzibar town and elsewhere. ‘The first stage, that of an island of rock
standing on a flat much larger than itself, is exemplified by Prison Island.
The original purpose of the building upon this is explained by the name, but the
prisoners petitioned so earnestly against their removal to the island, lest they
should die of cold, that it was never used for its original purpose, and has become
one of the segregation houses of the quarantine station. Obviously a continuation
of this process of erosion will result in the total removal of the island, leaving a
rock flat level with the surface of the water at low spring tides. The edges of
this are protected from further destruction by the growth upon them of organisms,
including in many of these cases vigorously-growing corals. The central parts
are, however, removed by solution, forming a miniature lagoon as shown in the
charts exhibited.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Db. 687

The island of Pemba possesses a barrier of reefs and limestone islands off its
west coast, inside which are long bays which penetrate into the heart of the
island, and were famous in the days of the slave trade as secure hiding-places for
Arab dhows from our cruisers’ boats. Along the mainland coast is a succession of
reefs and islets, forming a continuation of the barrier system of which the island
of Zanzibar is a swollen portion. The channel portion between it and the main-
land, though much narrower than that of Zanzibar, is like it in its depth of from
15 to 30 fathoms. At Chale Point, and again to the north of Mombasa, this
barrier becomes curiously regular and narrow, almost like an artificial breakwater.
But here, as elsewhere, coral is quite absent, the reef being formed of elevated
limestone. The conclusions reached are summarised as follows :—

1. There are here no reefs due to growth of corals and nullipores zn situ.

2. There have been, in geologically recent times, great growing reefs, the
upbeaval and crystallisation of which have formed the rock of the whole coast
and outlying islands and reefs.

3. That all the forms characteristic of growing coral reefs have been carved
out of this upheaved limestone by the eroding and solvent action of the sea.

Examples: Fringing reefs, east coasts of Zanzibar and Pemba. Barriers, off
the mainland and west coast of Pemba. Atolls, Mnemba and certain reefs from
Zanzibar Channel and elsewhere.

3. Wotes on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean.
By J. STANLEY GARDINER, JA,

4. Septal Sequence in the Coral Siderastrea.
By J. HE. Durerven, Ph.D., A.R.C.Sc. (Lond.)

The six members of the first cycle appear simultaucously within the entocceles
of the first cycle of mesenteries. Shortly after six septa appear in a dorso-ventral
manner within the six primary exocceles ; later they become bifurcated peripherally,
either by direct extension of the original septum or by the production of separate
nodules, which afterwards fuse.

The second cycle of mesenteries having appeared, new septa arise peripherally
within their entocceles in the same radii as the six primary exosepta. Later
these second-cycle entosepta fuse with the original primary exosepta, and become
the secondary septa of the mature corallite, while the bifurcations of the six
primary exosepta now form the third cycle of twelve exosepta. The exosepta of
the third cycle afterwards bifurcate, and on their appearance the third-cycle
mesenteries are included by them. New septa then arise within the entocceles of
the third-cycle mesenteries, fuse with the third-cycle exosepta in the same radii,
and constitute the adult third-cycle septa. The twenty-four exosepta of the
fourth cycle are formed from the bifurcations of the temporary third-cycle septa.

Exosepta are thus present at each cyclic stage in the growth of the corallite,
alternating in position and corresponding in number with the sum of the entosepta.
They never become entosepta, but always constitute the outermost cycle of shorter
septa; only the entosepta have any ordinal significance. The developmental
relationships between the entosepta and exosepta are closely comparable with
those first established by Lacaze-Duthiers for the entotentacles and exotentacles
of actinians. With the exception of the first, the members of each septal cycle
follow a dorso-ventral succession, display a bilateral symmetry for some time, and
ultimately assume an approximate radial plan.

ten

688 REPORT—1908.;

5. Polymorphism in the Pennatulida.!
By Professor SypNrey J. Hickson, F.2.S.

Pennatula Murrayi was obtained by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ off the coast of
Ceram, and was first described by Kélliker. Recently Moroff has described some
specimens of the same species from Japanese waters.

The Dutch Siboga expedition obtained several fine specimens in the Moluccas
which have been placed in my hands for examination.

A characteristic feature of the species, recognised by Kolliker and Moroff, is
the presence of a single large siphonozooid at the base of each pinnule, in addition
to numerous other siphonozooids of a smaller size on the dorsal and lateral sides
of the rachis.

The large siphonozooids can be easily recognised with the naked eye, and are
distinguished in well-preserved specimens by their open mouths and by a single
pair of papilliform verruce hanging over each of them.

On turther examination the large siphonozooids are found to differ from the
ordinary ones in the large size of the stomodzeum, the rudimentary condition of
the siphonoglyph, and the extraordinary development of the muscles on the lateral
mesenteries.

There can be little doubt that these large siphonozooids are adapted to some
special function, and should be regarded as a distinct form or type of zooid in the
colony. Nothing similar to them has hitherto been described in the Pennatulida.

6. The Assimilation and Distribution of Nutriment in Alcyonium
digitatum. By Epira M. Pratt, M.Sc.

When working out the comparative anatomy and histology of several genera
of the <Alcyonide certain interesting features presented themselves in those
oe of the zooids which are apparently devoted to the digestive function.

was therefore led to a study of the British genus Aleyonium in the living as
well as the preserved condition, and subjected numerous specimens of the species
digitatum to a series of feeding experiments with the view of ascertaining
(1) the nature of the food supply, (2) the manner and course of digestion, and
(3) the subsequent distribution of nutriment.

The principal results of these experiments, which were carried out at the
Biological Station of Port Erin, may be summarised as follows :—

1. The Food of Alcyonium.—(a) The zooids of freshly taken colonies of
Aleyonium only in rare cases contained food material, which consisted of frag-
ments of minute crustacea. (/) Apparently healthy and hungry colonies refused,
with one or two exceptions, to feed on ova of the cod, plaice, whiting, flounder,
and extremely small embryos of the crab ‘ Galathea.’ (c) When the same colonies
were placed in a concentrated tow-netting containing Nauplii, Copepods, and
Daphnids, they fed on these small crustacea with great avidity. (d) Similar
colonies also readily fed on the pounded flesh of plaice, whiting, and cod.

From these experiments one would conclude that the coral exercises con-
siderable choice in the selection of food material.

2. Course and Digestion of Food.—By staining the pounded flesh of fish with
borax carmine the course of the food could be very easily observed through the
transparent body-walls of the expanded zooids.

The food is captured by the tentacles, If living it is killed by the poisoned
threads of the nematocysts, which are extremely numerous on the pinnate ten-
tacles. It is then transferred to the mouth by the tentacles and swallowed. In
passing through the stomodeum it receives the somewhat scanty secretion from
the gland cells lining its walls. It then passes into the ccelenteric cavity, where
it is enfolded and squeezed by the ventral and lateral mesenterial filaments, which
also pour on to the food a copious secretion from their gland cells, which are

? Will be published in eatenso in the Reports of the Siboga expedition.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 689

identical in appearance with those of the stomodeum. With the exception of
the genus Xenia the occurrence of gland cells in the stomodzum has not hitherto
been recorded in any other member of the family. I have, however, observed
them in every other genus which I have had the opportunity of examining ; it is
therefore very probable that they occur throughout the family.

The secretion from the gland cells, combined with the pressure exerted by
_ the mesenterial filaments, breaks up the food into minute particles, which are

ingested and subsequently digested by the ameboid endoderm cells of the ventral
and lateral mesenterial filaments. Particles of food which escape the filaments
are apparently taken up by the amceboid endoderm cells lining the ccelentron
and canals.

3, Distribution of Nutriment.—I have observed the stellate cells, which com-
pose the so-called ‘mesogloeal nerve-plexus,’ to withdraw and thrust out the
processes which have been called ‘ nerve-fibrils,’ and by this means change their
shape and position. These cells therefore are ameboid.

After squirting clouds of finely powdered carmine about the extended tentacles
of expanded zooids for several days, particles of carmine were observed to be
present: (1) in the amceboid endoderm cells of the ventral and lateral mesen-
terial filaments and ccelentron; (2) in the amceboid cells of the endodermal
canals; (3) in the stellate cells comprising the so-called ‘ nerve-plexus,’ which
I have observed to be amoeboid.

The amoeboid endoderm cells containing carmine particles were observed to
thrust out processes into the mesogloea and to assume a condition identical in
appearance with the stellate cells composing the ‘ nerve-plexus.’

I would therefore suggest that the distribution of nutriment is effected in the
following manner. Certain amceboid endoderm cells loaded with nutriment
wander or have wandered into the mesogloea, where they form an amceboid
plexus of cords and strands of cells which extends throughout the colony. The
intimate connection between the digestive endoderm cells of the zooids and the
plexus is maintained. If we suppose that throughout the plexus the nutritive
protoplasm may be transferred from cell to cell—and the presence of carmine
particles in the mesoglceal plexus atfords substantial evidence for believing this
to be the case—then this system of amceboid cells must be regarded as a nutritive
plexus, and by its means nutriment may be conveyed from the digestive endoderm
cells of the zooids to every portion of the colony.

7. On the Origin of the Epiphysis in Amphibia as a Bilateral Structure.
By Joun Cameron, 1LB--—--—-—

In very early embryos of Amphibia (Rana, Bufo, Triton), the epiphysis is found
to develop in the form of two small recesses or outgrowths from the roof of the
fore-brain, which are placed on either side of the mesial plane. The right recess
terminates its existence by blending with the more rapidly developing left recess.
This active growth on the part of the latter causes the epiphysial opening to
become situated to the left of the mesial plane in the majority of cases, These
above observations in the case of the amphibia, correspond in many ways with
those of Béraneck, Dendy, Gaskell, and Locy in other vertebrate types. During
the later stages of development in amphibia there are distinct evidences of the
bilateral origin of the epiphysis; for the portion in relationship to the superior
commissure (fibres from which form the nerve-supply of the pineal eye), along
with the part distal to this, together correspond to the pineal eye of Hatteria,
while the remainder of the proximal portion which communicates with the thala-
mencephalon, corresponds to the epiphysial stalk of Hatteria, The degenerative
condition of the amphibian epiphysis is probably due to this blending together of
the right and left primary recesses—the result of this being that they mutually
interfere with one another’s growth. This observation is supported by the fact
that the left epiphysial outgrowth in Hatteria (according to Dendy) remains

1903. YY

690 REPORT—1903.

distinct from the one on the right side, and becomes developed into a well-formed
pineal eye.

In the lower vertebrate classes the epiphysis is to be recognised as a bilateral
and not as a mesial structure, and in addition to this it may be noted that the
ae of vertebrates probably possessed a pair of parietal eyes (Gaskell and
Dendy).

8. Final Report of the Commuttee on the Migration of Birds.
See Reports, p. 289.

9, Report of the Committee on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples.—See Reports, p. 282.

10. Report of the Committee on the Index Animalium.
See Reports, p. 288.

11. Report of the Committee on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.
See Reports, p. 305,

12. Fourth Report of the Committee on Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.
See Reports, p. 305.

13. Interim Report of the Plymouth Marine Laboratory Committee.

14, Report of the Millport Marine Laboratory Committee.
See Reports, p. 308

[DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY.
The following Reports were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Microchemistry of Cells.
See Reports, p. 310,

2. Report of the Committee on the State of Solution of Proteids.
See Reports, p. 304.

3. Interim Keport of the Committee on the Physiological Effects of Peptone.

4, Interim Report of the Committee on the Functions of Visual Purple on
the Retina.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 691

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER lt.

After the President had delivered his Address (see p. 672), the following Papers
were read :—

1. The Bionomics of Convoluta roscoffensis, with special reference to its
Green Cells.| By Freperick KEEste, J/.A., and F. W. Gamsie, D.Sc.

Convoluta is remarkable for its green cells. Geddes showed that these cells
assimilate and form a reserve of starch. V. Graff, failing to find any trace of gut
or food in Convoluta, concluded that the animal is wholly dependent on the green
cells for its food. Geddes’ observation that Convoluta dies within two days if kept
in darkness is also taken as indicating the same dependence of theanimal, Haber-
landt investigated the histology of the green cells and discussed their origin
without coming to any well-founded conclusions, leaving it uncertain whether the
ereen cells enter the animal from without or arise within it.

Our researches deal with the relation between green cell and animal and with
the question of the origin of the green cell. We tind that Convoluta feeds vora-
ciously, taking up diatoms, algze, spores of various kinds, litmus, indigo, lamp-black,
and potato-starch ; that Convoluta lives for three weeks in darkness without any
especial precautions ; and that the store of starch is reduced very slowly, not dis-
appearing until after eight days. From these conclusions it would appear that
Convoluta is less completely dependent on the green cell than was supposed.
Nevertheless under certain circumstances the animal digests its own green cells.

With respect to the origin of the green cells Georgevitch has shown that the
larvee of Convoluta are colourless, and that they die in two days if kept in filtered
water. We show that the earliest stage of the green cell is a colourless or almost
colourless cell; that colourless larvze may be kept in filtered water for upwards of
a month; and that when sea-water is added infection follows, whereas when main-
tained with sufficient precautions in filtered sea-water no infection occurs. We
conclude that the green cell is an alga, a stage in the life-history of an organism
widely distributed in sea-water; that it makes its way into the body of Convoluta,
multiplies there, and almost invariably dies with its host. From the characters of
the green cell we conclude that it is a hypertrophied zoospore.

Questions of considerable interest still remain, as in all cases of symbiosis. For
example, the origin of the proteid food material required by both animal and plant ;
the question as to whether the animal may avail itself of the carbohydrates of the
green cell otherwise than by destroying that cell.

2. Note on the Skull of Grampus griseus found on the Coast near Galway.
By Professor Ricuarp J. AnpERson, J.D.

A grampus of considerable size got stranded on the coast near Galway a few
years ago. ‘The carcass was lost, but the skull was found last winter; and as this
cetacean is far from common in Ireland, a few points with reference to the structure
of this fragment may be noted. The skull is much smaller than that of Globio-
cephalus melas, and much less massive, and the sockets for the teeth in the upper
jaw are small and inconspicuous. It is evident that the sockets have been filling
up for years. The number of teeth in Grampus griseus varies from two to six in
the lower jaw. They are more numerous in the young mature than in the old, and
the upper jaw seems to be edentulous; the teeth are deciduous. A young skull
found on the beach, some time ago, which belonged to a small specimen washed .
ashore, was considered to be that of a Grampus griseus (Rissoanus) by Professor
D’Arcy Thompson, in all probability the offspring of the specimen here noted.
The length of the animal was probably about 12 feet. This size corresponds
to that of Lissoanus. This is borne out by the dental groove, traces of which, as

? Will appear in the Proc. Roy. Soc, London.

692 REPORT—1903.

well as of three tooth-sockets on one side and four on the other, still persist.
The pterygoids touch. The premaxille show an elongated triangular surface in
front of the blow-holes,

3, Note on the Peritonewm in Meles taxus.
By Professor Ricuarp J. ANDERSON, J.D.

The peritoneum in a badger examined some time ago presents some points of
interest.

The vena cava posterior occupies. the usual position behind the level of the
anterior end of the right kidney. The-vein, however, after recsiving the right
renal becomes separated from the posterior abdominal wall, and with a simple
investment of peritoneum goes forward to the liver.

- So marked was this venous cord that the space between it and the abdominal
wall was fora moment mistaken for the foramen of Winslow, which, however,
was immediately seen lying to the left.

A cord was found on the left side reaching from the kidney to the omentum,
and this trabecular band seems to have been generated in a somewhat similar
manner to that in which the right one arose.

The question arose here whether the foramen of Winslow may not be aided in
forming by the growth of the upper part of the liver, which may induce a separa~
tion of the vessels included in the omentum.

4, The Skull of Ursus ornatus.
By Professor Ricuarp J. ANDERSON, J.D.

The bear of the Cordilleras, Ursus (?) ornatus, was at one time regarded as an
ally of Ursus malayanus. The nasal bones in both genera are short, and whilst
the swollen parietal region in malayanus suggests a more elevated position, the
greater depth of the skull is equally suggestive of a higher type in Ursus ornatus.
The great crest of the skull in the latter type is not unlike a similar structure in
Cebus, a monkey which the greater depth of the skull brings the bear to resemble ;
and it is necessary to prop the skull by a wedge introduced beneath the occipital
in order to display the parts to the best advantage, and to make the skull rest on
the inferior margin of the lower jaw. In Ursus polaris the skull, it will be
remembered, lies flat upon a table.

The plane of the nasal apertures meets the alveolar plane at a high angle.
The sagittal ridge, which goes directly back, is placed at an angle of 45°
to the plane of the anterior nares. The ridge is parallel to the plane passing
through the lower border of the mandible.

The coronoid process is 43 inches above the level of the angle of the lower jaw,
and the angle is inflected.

The line joining the summit of the occipital bone with the angle of the lower
jaw is nearly paratlel to the line joining the inter-premaxillary suture to the
nasals. The skull is thus rhomboidal.(or rhombohedral) in profile.

The summit of the nasals is directly above the first molar. Compared with a

Howler monkey the nasal summit was found to be directly above the anterior
premolars. The length of the skull is 24 cm., height 14 cm., breadth 16 cm.
between the zygomata, and 9 cm. between the most prominent parts of the
parietals.
_ _ The capacity of the cranial cavity in the skull examined is greater than that
of Ursus americanus, of Ursus thibetanus (torquatus), and of an adult lioness,
It is, however, less than that of Ursus malayanus, and that of polaris with a
longer skull. Ze

Ornatus saems, therefore, to be a composite type.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 693

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Significance of Progamic Nuclear Divisions.
By Professor Marcus Harrtoa,

2. Nuclear Changes in the Egg of Alcyonium.
By M. D. Haut, M4.

3. The Function of Chromatin in Cell Dwision (Part I. Heterotype).
Ly Professor Marcus Harroa.

4. Discussion on Fertilisation, in which the following took part :-—
Professors Hickson, Farmer, Harroc, and Messrs. W. Bareson,
M. D. Hitz, and J. W. Junkinson.

5. On the Tentacles of Suctoria. By Professor Marcus Harroa.!

6. Demonstration of Slides showing Conjugation in Dendrocometes,
By Professor §, J. Hickson, 7.4.8.

7. The Effect of Solutions of Salt and other Substances on the Develovment
of the Frog. By J. W. Jenxinson, JA.

O. Hertwig and others have shown that the course of development of frogs’
eggs grown in certain solutions of salt and other substances is abnormal. The
abnormalities consist in the formation of a large persistent yolk-plug, due to the
failure of the lips of the blastopore to grow over the yolk and in the incomplete
closure of the medullary folds.

The following investigation was undertaken in the hope of determining whether
the effects observed are due entirely, as has been maintained, to the increase in
the osmotic pressure or to the change in the chemical composition of the medium
as well.

The eggs were placed in a solution of ‘625 per cent. sodium chloride, and in
aoe solutions of cane-sugar, grape-sugar, urea, potassium chloride, and lithium
chloride.

During the first two days development was sensibly similar in all the eggs,
but slower than in the normal controls. Subsequently, however, while the mal-
formations which were produced were in all cases similar in kind they differed
greatly in degree.

In urea the blastopore closed at a later period than usual, but in other respects
development was fairly normal. The tadpoles died. In cane-sugar and dextrose
the blastopore was late in closing, and the medullary groove remained open, in the
latter case widely open. In the chlorides of potassium and lithium the yolk re-
mained almost entirely uncovered, and the embryos died almost before the
formation of the medullary folds. In sodium chloride they lived longer; the

? Published in the Archiv fiir Protistenkunde, Bd. I. 1902, pp. 372-374.

694. REPORT—1905.

medullary folds either remained open, in front only or throughout, or else closed.
The yolk-plug was large.

It appears, therefore, that other factors besides the increase in osmotic pres-
sure must be taken into account in explaining the phenomena.

8. Some recent Observations on British Reptiles.
By Geratp Letcuton, W.D., PRSE.

1. It has long been a matter of dispute and doubt whether the British adder
(Vipera berus) ever took to the water as a matter of ordinary habit. Most
ophiologists denied this, or at any rate had not observed it. Years of observation
in English counties had failed to bring forward a single case, but the result of
some correspondence indicated that in Scotland the habit was not unusual.
Investigations and experiment with adders in the Scottish Highlands proved
that in that district adders were in the habit of swimming the streams and
rivers, a habit which has become incorporated in some of the folklore of the
Ilighlands.

2. Fatal cases of adder-bite are by no means so rare in Great Britain as most
people suppose. One was reported last year, and a few weeks ago there was
another in South Wales. Both were in young boys.

3. In addition to the very restricted distribution of the smooth snake (Corenella
austriaca) in Surrey, Hants, and Dorset, it is known that Berkshire was also a
habitat twenty years ago. For years, however, no specimen has been seen in that
county, and it was supposed to have become locally extinct. During the present
summer it has reappeared, one specimen haying been taken near Wellington
College. Probably this species is more widely distributed than we know of, its
close resemblance to the adder causing it to be destroyed without recognition at
the hands of those who encounter it.

4. Associated with the smooth snake in its distribution is the sand lizard
(Lacerta agilis). This rare lizard is found in the same parts of the counties above
mentioned, and is the staple food of the smooth snake. But the sand lizard also
occurs in yery considerable numbers in the neighbourhood of Southport, and
practically nowhere else than the places stated. Here, however, the smooth snake
has never been known to occur, and it is curious that this lizard should be so
common locally and absent from all other places north of the Thames.

9. Notes on the Coloration of Malayan Reptiles
By N. ANNANDALE, B.A.

10, Note on the Walking Fish of the Malay Peninsula,'
By H. C. Rosryson.

11. Lxhibition of Convergent Series of Malayan Butterflies}
Sy H. C. Ropinson.

— fs eS

1 Will appear in the Fuscteuli Malayenses.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 695

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Note on Pearl-formation in the Ceylon Pearl Oyster.
By Professor W. A. Hurpman, D.Sc., L.LS., and JAMES HORNELL.

Professor Herdman and Mr. Hornell have had two cruises of several weeks
each amongst the pearl-oyster banks in the Gulf of Manaar, and have had the
experience of the three consecutive inspections of March and November 1902 and
March 1903, and also the successful fishery of 1903, from which to draw conclu-
sions. Many hundreds of oysters have been examined, and large numbers of
pearls have been decalcified. As a result of this work they have come to the
conclusion that there are several distinct causes that lead to the production of
pearls in the Ceylon pearl ‘ oyster’ (Margaritifera vulgaris, Schum.).

1. Some pearls or pearly excrescences on the interior of the shell are due to
the irritation caused by Clione, Lewcodore, and other boring animals.

2. Minute grains of sand and other inorganic particles only form the nuclei
of pearls under exceptional circumstances. Probably it is only when the shell is
injured, e.g. by the breaking of the ‘ears,’ thus enabling sand to get into the
interior, that such particles supply the irritation that gives rise to pearl-
formation.

3. Many pearls are found in the muscles, especially at the levator and pallial
insertions, and these are formed around minute calcareous concretions, the
‘caleospherules,’ which are produced in the tissues and form centres of irritation.

4, Most of the fine pearls found free in the body of the Ceylon oyster contain
the remains of Platyhelminthian parasites, so that the stimulation which leads
to the formation of an ‘ Orient’ pearl is, as has been suggested by various writers
in the past, due to the presence of a minute parasitic worm, In all cases, what-
Pe its nucleus may be, the pearl, like the nacre, is deposited by an epithelial
ayer.

These pearls may be conveniently classified as—

I. Ampuilar pearls, where the nucleus and resulting pearl lie in a pouch, or
ampulla, of the ectoderm projecting into the mantle. The others lie in closed sacs.
IL. Muscle-pearls, formed around calcospherules near the insertions of muscles.
III. Cyst-pearls, formed around encysted parasites. The parasite in the case
of the majority of the cyst-pearls of Ceylon is the larva of a Cestode which
appears to be new, and will be described under the name Tetrarhynchus uniont-
actor, The younger larval stages have been found free-swimming in the Gulf
of Manaar and on the gills of the oyster; later stages are common in the liver,
mantle, and gills; and a more advanced Tetrarhynchus is found in the file fishes,
Balistes mitis and B. stellatus, which feed upon the oysters. The sexually mature
Cestode has not yet been found, but we may expect it to occur either in one of
the large Elasmobranchs (such as Trygon uarnak) which abound on the pearl
banks, or possibly in one of the smaller cetaceans, which may also feed upon such
fishes as Balistes.

2. On a Phosphorescence Phenomenon in the Indian Ocean,
By Professor W. A. Herpmay, D.Sc., /R.S.

Professor Herdman described how during his recent expedition to Ceylon,
as they lay at anchor in the Gulf of Manaar, on March 138, 1902, about 9 P.m.,
the sea was seen to be dotted with bright phosphorescent lights, of considerable
size, singly placed at some distance apart. These for over an hour continued to
glow with a pulsating appearance in harmony, all shining brightly at the same
moment, and then all flickering out together, to reappear simultaneously a few

696 REPORT—1908.

seconds later. On going out at once with a net a sample of the plankton was
obtained, but it was not certain that any of the pulsating forms had been caught.
The gathering contained Sagitta (very many), Appendicularia, Copepoda, several
common species and Sapphirina sinwicauda, Pontella fera, Calocalanus pavo,
and some smaller forms, along with half-a-dozen one-inch-long Heteronereids of
a reddish-brown colour. The light was thought to be probably due to the last
named, and if that is so possibly the periodicity was a result of the epitocous
condition, and was accompanied by a simultaneous discharge of genital products.
The matter, however, could not be made certain at the time, and the above
explanation is only suggested.

3. Note on Birds now rare in the British Isles.
By G. P. Hucuss, /.4.G.S8.

The author gave a brief account of a male and female Bittern shot at the base
of Cader Idris last winter, and of a Common Crane he lately saw in the valley of
St. John, Isle of Man, species now rare in the British Isles,

4, Demonstration of Visual Combination of Complementary Colours.
By C. A. Greaves, I.B., LLB.

The author showed that the difficulty in visually combining different colour
sensations go as to perceive the resultant is overcome in the case of green + red = grey
by the use of the present halfpenny and penny stamps, stereoscopically super-
posed, these stamps being identical in design and of gocd complementary colours.

5. The Epithelial Islets of the Pancreas in Teleostet.
By Joun Rennie, D.Sc.

It has been found that in all the leading divisions of this group there exist
in more or less intimate relation to the pancreas epithelial bodies similar to the
‘islets’ present in higher forms. In a large proportion of cases there is an islet
in the mesenteric fold anterior to the spleen, which is of constant occurrence. It
is also the largest. As similar constancy has not been made out for the others it
has been termed the ‘ principal islet.’ These bodies are an epithelial tissue con-
sisting of masses of very small polyhedral or cylindrical cells well supplied with
blood capillaries. In many cases two types of cell are evident within the islet,
which may be two distinct tissues or the same tissue in different functional
states. A comparative study of their relations to the zymogenous tissue of the
pancreas suggests that they are blood glands which have entered into a secondary
relation to the pancreas. It is likely that they maintain their primitive function
as glands possessing an internal secretion.

6. On the Echinodermata of the Firth of Clyde and Variation in
Ophiocoma nigra.! By D. C. McInrosu, JA.

In this paper, which dealt with the Echinodermata of the Clyde area, notes
were given on the frequency of the occurrence of the different genera and on some
of the most obvious variations exhibited by certain of the species. The daily
dredging expeditions of the steam yacht ‘Mermaid,’ which is run in connection
with the West of Scotland Marine Biological Association Station at Millport,
afforded one ample opportunity for making the necessary observations.

It was pointed out that while forty-two species are recorded for the Clyde
(against at least thirty-five for the Irish Sea), there were actually found during

! Published in Biometrika, vol. iv.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION PD, 697

the autumn of 1902 thirty-three species, viz. Holothuroidea 8, Orinoidea 1,
Asteroidea 11, Ophiuroidea 7, and Echinoidea 6, the most common genus
of each of these orders being Synapta, Antedon, Asterias, Ophiocoma, and Echinus.
Note was taken of the very considerable variations in the shape of the test of
Echinus esculentus and in the number of arms of certain of the Asteroidea.

The remaining part of the paper was taken up with a discussion on the
variation of Ophiocoma nigra (O. I’. Miiller), and an account was given of the
results obtained from an examination of certain external features of 3,000
specimens of this Brittle-star. An attempt was made by means of diagrams
to classify the shape and colour variations of the disc. It was found that
the disc tends to become circular in the more fully developed animals, but
that it is in general pentagonal and not round. Twenty-four per cent. showed no
colour variation, while 64 per cent. had a pentagonal yellowish central disc
marking. In 12 per cent. of cases this marking was small and circular. The
correlation between arm-length and disc-breadth was worked out by the methods
followed in ‘Biometrika,’ and a table was given showing the number of animals
having a certain disc-breadth associated with a certain arm-iength. The equation
to the ‘ Line of Regression’ of arm-length on disc-breadth was

y = 4896232 + 1:17469962,

and this was shown by means of a diagram to represent very closely the observed
facts. The mean disc-breadth and arm-length were respectively 10-106 mm. and
50°656 mm,, a relationship which is very noteworthy in view of the important
part which the number jive plays in the arrangement of the organs of the Echino-
dermata, A ‘ Polygon of Frequency’ based on the disc-breadth was given, and
also the curve whose equation is

pe v 12°6050 v 28°8705
drnlee o7(1 ~ 93264 ‘ (1 He sours)

which best fits it, Tables were added showing that ‘13 per cent. had more than
one madreporic plate, and that out of 3,000 specimens thirteen had an abnormal
number of rays, there being one Brittle-star with only four arms and twelve
with six arms each,

7. Note on the Eggs of the Shanny (Blennius pholis, Z.).
By Professor W. C. McInrosu, .D., F.RS.

In the life-histories of the British food-fishes, published by Dr. Masterman and
the author in 1897, it is stated that the eggs of this fish had not hitherto received
satisfactory attention. In June of this year an adult female, 4% inches in length,
was captured with enlarged ovaries. On the morning of June 5 it was found to
have discharged a number of golden eggs, each having a faintly pinkish disc for
fixing it to stones and other surfaces. As attached to glass, each ege was circular
in outline with a distinct hyaline zona, the contents being dull pinkish or pale
salmon. This tint was enlivened by a series of bright yellow granules and masses
(oil-globules), The egg formed an oblate spheroid, the vertical diameter being
‘7630 mm., whilst the transverse diameter ranged from 11811 mm. to 1:2192 mm.
The breadth of the pale pinkish rim for attachment wa’ about 3048 mm. Many
of the discs had a finished appearance, whilst in others the edge was spongy, with
projecting processes. In minute structure the whole is granular. Allusion is
made to the observations of Dr. Scharff on the structure of the peculiarly modified
ovarian follicle of the shanny and the remarkable hardihood of the ‘fish, which
can be kept for a week at least in fresh water. The proportion of males and
females is also mentioned. The food of the shanny at St. Andrews largely con-
sists of the stunted small and young mussels, Balani, small uniyalyes, such as
young Littorine and adult Rissox, with fragments of limpet.

698 : -REPORT—1908,

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY.

1. A Physiological Theory to Explain the Winter-whitening of Birds and
Mammals in Snowy Countries, and the most Sirtking Points in the
Distribution of White in Vertebrates generally. By Captain G. E. H.
Barrerr-Hamizton.!

The subject of the winter-whitening of animals, though of much interest to
zoglogists, is very imperfectly understood. Most writers are satisfied to believe
that the colour change originated somehow under the action of natural selection
for the protective purposes of adaptation to environment,

The author finds, however, that the change has a deep physiological significance.
There is, for instance, in mammals a definite sequence in which the various parts
of the body whiten. This sequence, on tke whole, corresponds to the summer
accumulation of fat in the panniculus adiposus. Thus the belly, where peripheral
fat is thickest, is permanently white, and the rump, often the next thickest area
of fat accumulation, is usually the first part to whiten in winter.

Many northern mammals and birds not usually regarded as of this category are
lighter in winter than in summer. The white assumed in the former season cor-
responds to the fat-tracts, and they may be therefore regarded as subject to the
same process.

In the northern summer most animals accumulate fat, always in a definite
manner as regards the regions where it is deposited. This fat is indicative of
deficient oxidisation and sluggish metabolism, and the process of its accumulation
is therefore one of atrophy. ‘The fat-accumulation and atrophy is most marked in
autumn, at which season metabolism is lowest. Under the onset of winter cold the
atrophy may extend to the hairs. Their pigment (as observed by Metchnikoff) is
then removed, always, however, first in those parts where peripheral fat is thickest,
and atrophy therefore greatest. Should there be a change of coat at this time the
new hairs are influenced by the same conditions. In very cold countries they
come up white all over the animal; in more temperate regions the parts only where
fat is thickest are white.

Although a pigmented hair can thus undergo atrophy and loss of pigment, the
author knows of no case where the colour is replaced. Animals once whitened
remain so until the spring moult.

These facts apply broadly to birds and mammals, but the variable hare and
stoat are those which have been studied especially.

The same Jaw is responsible for much of the distribution of the white colour
throughout the vertebrate phylum, wherein the connection between the white
colour and the peripheral fat-tracts (thus indicating local atrophy) may be widely
traced. Thus domestic animals, nearly all of which are prized most for their
power of accumulating fat, exhibit a strong tendency to the development of white
patches. In both these and in wild animals the belly, where occurs the principal
fat-tract, is the most frequently white part; next follow the rump, neck, and parts
of the limbs and of the head.

Marked exceptions are no doubt frequently due to unusual arrangements of the
panniculus adiposus. Thus in the badger, a representative of a family in which the
back is usually whiter than the belly, a correspondingly exceptional arrangement
of the fat-tracts occurs.

The white of the head—the ‘blaze’ of horses and the facial stripes of the
badger, for instance—affects regions, not of fat-accumulation, but where the skin
immediately overlies bone and membrane (frontals, nasals, and zygomatic arches),
which thus seem to produce an atrophy similar to that caused by underlying fat.

In many animals the hair-atrophy assumes the form, not of whitening, but of
baldness. Marine mammals are hairless in proportion to their fatness ; fattening
cattle lose their hair, while the baldness of man corresponds in position to the
‘blaze’ of horses, and the bare buttocks of monkeys to the white rumps of other
mammals,

? Will appear in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 699

Yellow and red frequently follow the same rules of distribution as white. They
are well known to be fat-pigments.

The author carefully guards himself against the extension of his theory to all
cases where white occurs in vertebrates. It is obvious that not ali animals are
subject to this atrophy, and there must be other causes for absence of pigment. It
seems highly probable from what the author has written that the known uneven-
ness of animal coloration is but the external indication of uneven nutrition in
different regions of the body.

2. A New Form of Osmometer for Direct Determinations of Osmotic Pres -
sure of Colloids. By Professor Buysamin Moore, M.A., D.Sc.

This form of osmometer has been specially designed to avoid leakage and pro-
vide a large surface for ditfusion compared to the volume of solution employed, so
that the influence of crystalloids is made slight and transient. ‘To effect the first
purpose the instrument is made in metal in two halves which can be tightly
screwed together by a collar, and the two halves are further made up of two
shallow cells, to hold the solution and solute, so that the influence of admixed
crystalloids is rapidly eliminated by diffusion.

The instrument essentially consists of two flattened circular cells of platinum !
5 cm. in diameter and 1 cm. in depth, with flat flanges at their rims which fit
into corresponding thick flanged cases of silver-plated brass, The brass cases can
be screwed tightly together by a brass collar with a female screw at one edge, which
engages with a male screw on one of the brass cases, and a flange on the other edge
which catches on the flange of the other brass case.

A diaphragm of platinum bored closely with holes about 3 mm. in diameter is
placed between the two cells, and serves to support the membrane of parchment
paper which separates them.

The instrument is made pressure-tight by two rings of thin indiarubber sheeting
placed on either side of the diaphragm, and when the collar ‘is securely screwed
home has in all cases been found free from any trace of leakage.

A platinum tube of about 4 mm. diameter leads, at right angles, from the
centre of the back of each cell, and is used to connect up for filling and registering
the pressure.

The large surface provided for diffusion compared with the volume of solution
assures an early equilibrium of crystalloids. When a 1 per cent. solution of
sodium chloride is placed on one side and distilled water on the other, there is no
appreciable movement in the attached mercurial monometer, and within twenty-
four hours the amount of sodium chloride on the two sides is equal within the
limits of experimental error.

The connecting tube on the side of the colloidal solution is joined up by rubber
tubing to a T-piece, which is in communication by one arm with a glass funnel and
by the other with a mercurial monometer. On the side of the solute (water) the
cell is simply joined by rubber tubing to a funnel.

In using the apparatus the connections are first filled with the respective
fluids and temporarily clipped off, then the cells are filled in turn and joined up,
all air being expelled by pressure upon the rubber connections.

The two funnels upon either side are fixed at an equal height, of about 20
centimetres in each case, above the instrument, so as to ensure initial equality of
pressure on the two sides of the membrane.

The osmometer is then suspended in a large vessel of water for the purpose of
maintaining a constant temperature, which can be arranged at different levels by a
thermo-regulator.

When the desired temperature has been attained, the osmometer is clipped off
from the funnel connection on the solution side and left in communication with

‘ In earlier experiments the platinum lining was dispensed with and the silver-
plated brass case only used. This makes the instrument much less expensive, and is
effectual unless when the action of reagents, such as alkalies and acids, upon the
colloid is to be tested. :

700 REPORT—1903.

the monometer only. Thus the initial reading of the mercurial monometer gives
the zero pressure, and subsequent readings at different time intervals after the
commencement of the experimnet give the osmotic pressure.

The instrument has been used, up to the present date, with solutions of gela-
tine, starch, and gum acacia.

The experiments with gelatine show that the colloid can be used for experi-
mentation in this osmometer without undergoing change for prolonged periods,
Thus in one experiment which was carried on for eighty-six days the gelatine was
recovered at the end as a clear jelly, setting at 21°-22° C., which showed no signs
of alteration from that which was originally placed in the osmometer. Even after
such a prolonged dialysis the pressure obtained at the end was, at the same tem-
perature, the same as that at the beginning of the experiment. This proves that
the pressure is not due to any diffusible crystalloid, which would have been
equated by dialysis, but is produced by the dissolved colloid. °

The figures for the osmotic pressure at a temperature of 40°C. give for the
molecular weight in solution, or solution aggregate, of gelatine 18,600, which is
ot the same order of magnitude as the solution aggregates of various forms of
proteid.

3. Experiments on the Permeability of Lipoid Membranes.
By Professor Brenzamin Moore, Jf.A., D.Sc.

The theory has been enunciated by Overton that the osmotic properties of
the cell are due to substances termed lipoids, such as cholesterin and lecithin in
the cell membrane, which are supposed to be impermeable to certain crystalloids
such as sodium chloride, but freely permeable to water. So that these bodies act
as semi-permeable membranes, and hence give rise to the osmotic phenomena
shown by cells.

The theory has been extended by Overton and by Friedenthal to explain other
important phenomena such as anesthesia and fat-absorption by assuming that the
lipoids act as solvents, and take up into the cell the anzesthetics and fatty bodies.

Admitting that fats and anesthetic substances. are readily soluble in lecithin
and allied bodies, it is difficult to see why these substances should be given up
again from these lipoids to the active protoplasmic constituents of the cell; and,
further, there is no experimental proof that every cell is surrounded by such a
lipoid membrane.

But such an extensive use has been made of the theory which has received con-
siderable credence that it appeared desirable to test whether membranes composed
of such substances possess the properties which have been assigned theoretically
to them.

Accordingly the osmometer described in the previous paper has been used for
this purpose.

Membranes saturated with lecithin and lanoline have been employed, using
sodium chloride solutions of different strengths on the two sides of the membrane,
and also sodium chloride solution against distilled water. It has been found that
such membranes are distinctly permeable to sodium chloride, as well as distilled
water, and that no appreciable osmotic pressure is developed, showing that the
osmotic phenomena of the cell are not due to such membranes, and that such
membranes, if they did exist, furnish no explanation of the absorptive properties of
the cell or cf the phenomena of anesthesia.

4, The Cerebrum of Apes.'
By Professor Sarrrineron, /.2.S., and A. S. Grinpaum, ILD.

5. The Origin of Water in Saliva. By Josepu Barcrort, I.A., B.Sc.

! To be published in the Journal of Physiology.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 701

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Captain Ertrick Creak, C,B., R.N., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The President delivered the following Address :—-

Or the six distinguished naval officers who have previously presided over this
Section, four were Arctic explorers; and therefore, possessing personal experience
in Arctic regions, they naturally gave prominence to the deeply interesting subject
of the past and future of Arctic discovery in their addresses, whilst not forgetting
other matters relating to the geography of the sea. The remaining officers, from
their immediate connection with all that relates to the physical condition of the
ocean, in its widest sense, coupled with the great importance of giving the fruits
of their knowledge to the world, took that subject as their principal theme.

Valuable as are contributions to our knowledge of the physics of the ocean to
the world in general, and especially to the mariner and water-borne landsman,
I propose to take a different course, and bring to your notice the subject of
Terrestrial Magnetism in its relation to Geography. In doing so, I shall endeavour
to show that much may be done by the traveller on land and the seaman at sea in
helping to fathom the mysteries connected with the behaviour of the freely sus-
pended magnetic needle, as it is carried about over that great magnet, the Earth,
by observations in different regions, and even in limited areas.

I would, however, pause a moment to call attention to the presence of several
distinguished meteorologists at this meeting, who will surely attract many
to the consideration of matters connected with the important science of meteoro-
logy, which already occupies considerable attention from travellers. I feel sure,
therefore, that geographers will be glad to accord a hearty welcome to the mem-
bers of the International Meteorological Congress now assembled in this town,
and especially to the foreign visitors who honour us by their presence.

Some one may ask, What has Terrestrial Magnetism to do with Geography ?
I reply, excellent lectures on that subject of growing importance have been given
under the direct auspices of the Royal Geographical Society ; one in 1878 by the
late Captain Sir Frederick Evans, and another in 1897 by Sir Arthur Riicker. And
I would here quote the opinion of Dr. Mill when defining geography, in my sup-
port: ‘Geography is the science which deals with the forms of the Earth’s crust,
and with the influence which these forms exercise on the distribution of other
phenomena.’ :

We know now that the normal distribution of the Earth’s magnetism for any
epoch is in many localities seriously affected accordingly as the nature of the
country surveyed bs mountainous, or generally a plain, in the form of islands (or
mountains standing out of the sea), and from land under the sea. There is also
reason to suspect that the magnetism of that portion of the earth covered by the

702 REPORT—1903.

oceans differs in intensity from that of the dry land we inhabit. A connection
between the disturbances of the earth’s crust in earthquakes and disturbances of
the magnetic needle also seems to exist, although the evidence on this point is not
conclusive.

Magnetic Surveys.

Previously to the year 1880 there were two periods of exceptional activity on
the part of contributors to our knowledge of the earth’s magnetism, during which
the scientific sailor in his ship on the trackless ocean combined with his brethren
on land in making a magnetic survey of the globe.

The first period was that of 1843-49, during which not only were fixed obser-
vatories established at Toronto, St. Helena, Capetown, and Hobart for hourly
observations of the movements of the magnetic needle, but, to use Sabine’s words,
‘that great national undertaking, the Magnetic Survey of the South Polar Regions
of the Globe,’ the forerunner of our present Antarctic Expedition, was accom-
plished by Ross and his companions almost entirely at sea.

This Antarctic survey was carried out during the years 1840-45, and the
results given to the world as soon as possible by Sabine. The results afterwards
formed a valuable contribution when constructing his maps of equal lines of Mag-
netic Declination, Inclination, and Intensity for the whole world, a great work for
the completion of which Sabine employed every available observation made up to
the year 1870, whether on land or at sea.

Readers of these contributions cannot fail to be struck with the great number
of observations made by such travellers as Hansteen and Due, Erman and Wrangel,
extending from Western Europe to far into Siberia.

The second period was that of 1870-80, during which net only was there much
activity amongst observers on land, but that expedition so fruitful to science,
the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ took place. During the years 1872-76 we find
the sailor in the ‘ Challenger’ doing most valuable work in carrying out a magnetic
survey of certain portions of the great oceans, valuable not only for needful uses in
making charts for the seaman, but also as a contribution to magnetic science.

Prior to this expedition very little was known from observation of the distri-
bution of Terrestrial Magnetism in the central regions of the North and South
Pacific Oceans, and Sabine’s charts are consequently defective there.

Combining the ‘Challenger’ magnetical results with those of all available ob-
servations made by others of H.M. ships, and by colonial and foreign governments,
I was enabled to compile the charts of the magnetic elements for the epoch 1880,
which were published in the report of the scientific results of H.M.S. ‘ Challenger.’
I will venture to say that these charts give a fairly accurate representation of the
normal distribution of the earth’s magnetism between parallels of 70° N. and
40° 8. Beyond these limits, either northward or southward, there is a degree of
uncertainty about the value of the lines of equal value, especially in the Southern
regions, an uncertainty which we have reason to hope will be dissipated when we
know the full results obtained by Captain Scott and the gallant band he com-
mands, for as yet we have to be content with some eddies of the full tide of his
success.

Until the ‘ Discovery’ was built, the ‘Challenger’ was the last vessel specially
selected with a view to obtaining magnetic observations at sea, so that for
several years past results obtained on land have been our mainstay. Thus,
elaborate magnetic surveys with fruitful results have been carried out in recent
years in the British Isles by Riicker and Thorpe. France, Germany, Holland, and
some smaller districts in Europe have also been carefully surveyed, and British
India partially so, by Messrs. Schlagintweit in 1857-58. The latter country is
being again magnetically surveyed under the auspices of the Indian Government.

On the American continent the Coast and Geodetic survey of the vast terri-
tories comprised in the United States, which has heen so many years in progress,
has been accompanied by an extended magnetic survey during the last fifty-two
years, which is now under the able direction of Dr. L. A. Bauer. Resulting
from this some excellent charts of the magnetic declination in the United States

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 703

have been published from time to time; and the last, for the epoch 1902, is based
upon 8,000 observations.

There are other contributions to terrestrial magnetism for positions on various
coasts from the surveying service of the Royal Navy, and our ships of war are
constantly assisting with their quota to the magnetic declination, or variation, as
sailors prefer to call it; and wisely so, I trow, for have they not the declination of
the sun and other heavenly bodies constantly in use in the computation of their
ship’s position ?

This work of the Royal Navy and the Indian Marine is one of great import-
ance, both in the interests of practical navigation and of science ; for besides the
equipment of instruments for absolute determinations of the declination, dip, and
horizontal force supplied to certain of our surveying-ships, every seagoing vessel
in the service carries a landing compass, specially tested, by means of which the
declination can be observed with considerable accuracy on land.

Although observers of many other objects may still speak of their ‘heritage
the sea’ as a mine of wealth waiting for them to explore, unfortunately for mag-
netic observations we can ro longer say ‘ the hollow oak our palace is,’ for wood
has been everywhere replaced by iron or steel in our ships, to the destruction of
accurate observations of dip and force on board of them. Experience, however,
has shown that very useful results, as regards the declination, can be obtained
every time a ship is ‘swung,’ either for that purpose alone, or in the ordinary
course of ascertaining the errors of the compass due to the iron or steel of the
ship.

re an example of this method, the cruise of the training squadron to Spitz-
bergen and Norway in 1895 may be cited, when several most useful observations
were made at sea in regions but seldom visited. Again, only this year a squadron
of our ships, cruising together near Madagascar, separated to a distance of a mile
apart and ‘swung’ to ascertain the declination.

I would here note that all the magnetic observations made by the officers of
H.M. ships during the years 1890-1900 have been published in a convenient form
by the Hydrographic Department of the Admiralty.

The fact remains, however, that a great portion of the world, other than the
coasts, continues unknown to the searching action of the magnetic needle, whilst
the two-thirds of the globe covered by water is still worse off. Amongst other
regions I would specify Africa, which, apart from the coasts, Cape Colony, and
the Nile valley to lat. 53 N., is absolutely a new field for the observer.

Moreover, the elaborate surveys I have mentioned show how much the results
depend upon the nature of the locality. Iam therefore convinced that travellers on
land, provided with a proper equipment of instruments for conducting a land survey
of the strange countries which they may visit, and mapping the same correctly, can,
with asmall addition to the weight they have to carry, make a valuable contribution
to our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism, commencing with observations at their
principal stations and filling in the intermediate space with as many others as
circumstances will permit.

The Antarctic Expedition.

Of the magnetic work of our Antarctic expedition we know that since the
‘Discovery ’ entered the pack—and, as far as terrestrial magnetism is concerned,
upon the most important part of that work—every opportunity has been seized
for making observations.

Lyttelton, New Zealand (where there is now a regular fixed magnetic observa-
tory), was made the primary southern base-station of the expedition; the winter
quarters of the ‘ Discovery,’ the secondary southern base-station. Before settling
down in winter quarters, magnetic observations were made on board the ship
during the cruise to and from the most easterly position attained off King
Edward VIT. Land in lat. 76° S., long. 1524° W., and she was successfully swung
off Cape Crozier to ascertain the disturbing effects of the iron upon the compasses
and dip and force instruments mounted in the ship’s observatory.

704 REPORT—1903.

As a ship fitted to meet the most stormy seas and to buffet with the ice, the
‘ Discovery ’ has been a great success. L2t me add another tribute to her value.
From Spithead until she reached New Zealand but small corrections were required
for reducing the observations made on board. The experience of Ross’s Antarctic
expedition had, however, taught the lesson that two wood-built ships, the ‘Erebus’
and ‘ Terror,’ with but some 3° to 4° of deviation of the compass at Simon’s Bay,
South Africa, found as much as 56° of deviation at their position farthest south,
an amount almost prohibitory of good results being obtained on board.

How fared the ‘ Discovery’? I have been told by Lieutenant Shackleton—for
the cause of whose return to England we must all feel great sympathy—that
a maximum of only 11° of deviation was observed at her most southerly position.
From this we may look forward hopefully to magnetic results of a value hitherto
unattained in those regions.

At winter quarters, besides the monthly absolute observations of the magnetic
elements, the Eschenhagen variometers or self-registering instruments for con-
tinuously recording the changes in the declination, horizontal force, and vertical
force were established, and in good working order at the time appointed for com-
mencing the year’s observations.

I may here remind you that some time previously to the departure of the
British and German Antarctic expeditions, a scheme of co-operation had been
established between them, according to which observations of exactly the same
nature, with the same form of variometers, were to be carried out at their respective
winter quarters during a whole year, commencing March 1, 1902. Besides the
continuous observations with the variometers, regular term-days and term-hours
were agreed upon for obtaining special observations with them at the same moment
of Greenwich mean time. Both expeditions have successfully completed this part
of their intended work.

To co-operate in like manner with these far southern stations, the Argentine
Government sent a special party of observers to Staten Island, near Cape Horn,
and the Germans another to Kerguelen Land, whilst New Zealand entered heartily
into the work. In addition, similar observations were arranged to be made in
certain British and colonial observatories, which include Kew, Falmouth, Bombay,
Mauritius, and Melbourne; also in German and other foreign observatories.

We have all read thrilling accounts of tho journeys of the several travelling
parties which set out from the ‘ Discovery, and of the imminent dangers to life they
encountered and how they happily escaped them except one brave fellow named
Vince, who disappeared over one of those mighty ice-cliffs, upon which all
Antarctic voyagers descant, into the sea. In spite of all this there is a record of
magnetic observations taken on these journeys of which only an outline has yet been
given. Anticipations of the value of these observations are somewhat clouded
when we read in one report that hills ‘more inland were composed of granite rock,
split and broken, as well as weatherworn, into extraordinary shapes. ‘lhe lower or
more outer hills consisted of quartz, &c., with basaltic dykes cutting through them.’
Consequently, we have to fear the effects of local magnetic disturbances of the needle
in the land observations, whilst buoyed up with the hope of obtaining normal
results on board the ship.

Judging from some land observations which have been received, it appears that
considerable changes have taken place in the values of the magnetic elements in
the regions we are considering, but when making comparisons we have to remem-
ber the sixty years which have elapsed since Ross’s time, and that he had nothing
like the advantage of steam for his ships, or of instruments of precision like our
present ship ‘ Discovery.’ His ships also were, as we havealready remarked, much
worse magnetically, causing far more serious disturbance of the instruments.
Hence the changes we note may not be entirely due to changes in the earth’s
magnetism.

The observations made by the officers of the ‘Southern Cross’ at Cape Adare
in 1899-1900 also contribute to this question of magnetic change.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION R, 705

The Magnetic Poles of the Harth.

I will now refer to those two areas on the globe where the dipping needle
stands vertically, known as the magnetic poles. The determination of the exact
position of these areas is of great importance to magnetic science, and I will just
glance at what is being done to so!ve the problem.

Let us consider the North Pole first, the approximate position of which we
know best from observation. If one were asked to say exactly where that pole has
been in observation times, whether it has moved, or where it now is, the answer
must be ‘I do not know.’ It is true that Ross in 1831, by a single observation,
considered he had fixed its position, and I believe hoisted the British flag over the
spot, taking possession thereof; but he may or may not have set up his dip circle
over a position affected by serious magnetic disturbance, and therefore wa must
still be doubtful of his complete success from a magnetic point of view. Although
eminent mathematicians have calculated its position, and Neumayer in 1885 gave
a place to it on his charts of that year, we have still to wait for observation to
settle the question, for one epoch at least.

' Happily, I am able to repeat the good news that the Norwegian, Captain
Roald Amundsen, sailed in June last with the express object of making a mag-
netic survey of Ross’s position and of the surrounding regions, in order to fix the
position of the north magnetic pole. Furnished with suitable instruments of the
latest pattern, he proposes to continue his investigations until 1905, when we may
look for his return and the fulfilment of our hopes.

As far as we can now see, the south magnetic pole cannot be approached very:
nearly by the traveller, and we can only lay siege to it by observing at stations
some distance off but encircling it. We have our own expedition on one side of
it, and now with the return of the ‘Gauss’ to South Africa in June last, we have
learnt that that vessel wintered in lat. 66° 2’ S., long. 89° 48’ E., a position on
the opposite side of the supposed site of the magnetic pole to that of the
‘Discovery.’ We may now pause to record our warm congratulations to Dr. yon
Drygulski and his companions on their safe return, accompanied by the welcome
report that their expedition has proved successful.

In addition to the British and German expeditions, there are the Swedish
expedition and the Scottish expedition. Therefore, with so many nationalities
working in widely different localities surrounding it, we have every reason to
expect that the position of the south magnetic pole will be determined.

The Secular Change.

When in the year 1600 Gilbert announced to the world that the earth is a
great magnet, he believed it to be a stable magnet ; and it was left to Gellibrand,
some thirty-four years later, by his discovery of the annual change of the mag-
netic declination near London, to show that this could hardly be the case. Ever
since then the remarkable and unceasing changes in the magnetism of the earth
have been the subject of constant observation by magneticians and of investi-
gation by some of the ablest philosophers in Europe and America. Year after
year new data are amassed as to the changes going on in the distribution of the
magnetism of the earth, but as yet we have been favoured by hypotheses only as
to the causes of the wondrous changes which the magnetic needle records.

These hypotheses were at one time chiefly based upon a consideration of the
secular change in the declination, but it is now certain that we must take into
account the whole of the phenomena connected with the movements of the needle,
if we are to arrive at any satisfactory result. Besides, it will not suffice to take
our data solely from existing fixed observatories, however relatively well placed
and equipped, and valuable as they certainly are, for it now appears that the
secular change is partly dependent upon locality, and that even at places not many
miles apart differences in results unaccounted for by distance have been obtained.

The tendency of observation is increasingly to show that the secular change of
the magnetic elements is not a world-wide progress of the magnetic needle moving

1903, ZZ

706 REPORT—1903.

regularly in certain directions, as if solely caused by the regular rotation during a
long series of years of the magnetic poles round the geographical poles, for if you
examine Map No. 1, showing the results of observations during the years 1840-80
as regards secular change, you will observe that there are local causes at work in
certain regions, whilst in others there is rest, which must largely modify the effect
of any polar rotation.

Allow me to explain further. The plain lines on Map No. 1 indicate approxi-
mate regions of no secular change in the declination, and the small arrows the
general direction (not the amount) in which the north-seeking end of the horizontal
needle was moving during those forty years. The foci of greatest change in the
declination, with the approximate amount of annual change in the northern hemi-
sphere, are shown in the German Ocean and N.W. Alaska, in the southern
hemisphere off the coast of Brazil, and in the South Pacific between New Zealand
and Cape Horn. The two foci of greatest annual change in the dip are sbown
one in the Gulf of Guinea where the north-seeking end of the needle was being
repelled strongly upwards, the other on the west side of Tierra del Fuego, where
the north-seeking end of the needle was being attracted strongly downwards.

It is remarkable that the lines of no change in the declination pass through the
foci of greatest change in the dip. If the needle be repelled upwards, as at the
Gulf of Guinea focus, it will be found to be moving to the eastward on the east
side of the whole line of no change in the declination from the Cape of Good Hope
to Labrador ; to the westward on the west side. Ifthe needle be attracted down-
wards, as at the Tierra del Fuego focus, it will be found moving to the westward
on the east side of the whole line of no declination from that focus to near
Vancouver Island; to the eastward on the west side.

A similar result may be seen in the line passing through a minor focus of the
dip near Hong Kong.

Judging from analogy there should be another focus of change in the dip in
lat. 70° N., long. 115° E., or about the position assigned to the Siberian focus of
greatest force.

On Map No. 2 are shown lines of equal value of the declination—the red lines
for the year 1880, the black lines for the year 1895. From these, when shown on
a large scale, we may deduce the mean annual change which has taken place in
the declination during the fifteen years elapsed.

In this map we are reminded of the different results we obtain in different
localities, for if a line be drawn from Wellington in New Zealand past Cape York
in Australia to Hong Kong, little or no change will be found in the neighbouring
region since 1840, Again, the line of no change in the declination shown on
Map No. | to be following much the same direction as the great mountain ranges on
the west side of the American continent, has hardly moved for many years accord-
ing to the observations available.

On the other hand, let us now turn to an example of the remarkable changes
which may take place in the declination unexpectedly and locally. The island of
Zanzibar and the east coast of Africa were constantly being visited by our survey-
ing-ships and ships of war up to the year 1880, observations of the declination
being made every year at Zanzibar during the epoch 1870-80. The results showed
that from Capetown nearly to Cape Guardafui the annual change of that element
hardly exceeded 1.

During the succeeding years of 1890-91 observations were made by the Ger-
mans at Dar-es-Salaam and some other places on the neighbouring coasts, with the
result that the declination was found to be changing at first 3’ annually ‘and since
that period it had reached 10’ to 12’ at Dar-es-Salaam. Subsequent Seeeunines
at the latter place in 1896-98 confirmed the fact of the great change, and in addi-
tion our surveying-ship on the station, specially ordered to ‘ swing’ at. different
places in deep water off the coast, generally confirmed the results. It is remarkable
that whilst such great changes should have taken place between Capetown and
Cape Guardafui, Aden and the region about the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb seem to
be comparatively unaffected :

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 707

Local Magnetic Disturbance.

In Map No. 2 normal lines of equal value of the declination are recorded, and
as far as the greater part of the globe covered by water is concerned, we may
accept them as undisturbed values, for we have yet to learn that there are any
local magnetic disturbances of the needle in depths beyond 100 fathoms.

When, however, we come to the land, there is an increasing difficulty in finding
districts of only a few miles in extent where the observed values of the magnetic
elements at different stations therein do not differ more widely than they should if
we considered only their relative position on the earth as a magnet. Take Riicker
and Thorpe’s maps of the British Isles and those of the United States, for example,
where the lines of equal value are drawn in accordance with the observations,
with the result that they form extraordinary loops and curves differing largely
from the normal curves of calculation.

From among numerous examples of disturbance of the declination on land, two
may be quoted. In the Rapakivi district, near Wiborg, a Russian surveying officer
in the year 1890 observed a disturbance of 180°, or, in other words, the north
point of his compass pointed due south. At Invercargill, in New Zealand, within
a circle of 30 feet radius, a difference of 56° was found. Even on board ships in
the same harbour different results are sometimes observed, as our training squadron
found at Reikiavik in Iceland, and notably in our ships at Bermuda.

It is hardly necessary to add that the dip and force are often largely subject
to like disturbance, but I do so in order to warn travellers and surveyors that ob-
servations in one position often convey but a partial truth; they should be supple-
mented by as many more as possible in the neighbourhood or district. Erroneous
values of the secular change have also been published from the various observers
not having occupied exactly the same spot, and even varied heights of the instru~
ment from the ground may make a serious difference, as at Rapakivi before
mentioned, and at Madeira, where the officers of the ‘ Challenger’ expedition found
the dip at a foot above the ground to be 48° 46’ N.; at 3} feet above the ground
56° 18’ N, at the same spot.

All mountainous districts are specially open to suspicion of magnetic disturb-
ance, and we know from comparison with normal observations at sea that those
mountains standing out of the deep sea, which we call islands, are considerably soe
affected.

Magnetic Shoals.

The idea that the compasses of ships could be affected by the attraction of the
neighbouring dry land, causing those ships to be unsuspectingly diverted from their
correct course, was long a favourite theory of those who discussed the causes of
shipwreck, but it was ‘a fond thing vainly invented.’ I can hardly say this idea
is yet exploded, but from what has already been said about local magnetic dis-
turbance on land, it is not a matter of surprise that similar sources of disturbance
should exist in the land wnder the sea, for it has been found that in certain
localities, in depths of water sufficient io float the largest ironclad, considerable
disturbances are caused in the compasses of ships.

An area of remarkable disturbance having heen reported as existing off
Cossack, N.W. Australia, H.M.S. ‘Penguin,’ a surveying-ship provided with
the necessary magnetic instruments, was sent by the Admiralty in 1891 to make
a complete magnetic survey of the locality, with a view to ascertaining the facts
and placing them on a scientific basis. An area of disturbance 3:5 miles long by
2 miles broad, with not less than 8 fathoms of water over it, was found lying
in a N.E. by E. and S.W. by W. direction. At one position the disturbing force
was sufficient to deflect the ‘ Penguin’s’ compass 56° ; in another—the focus of prin-
cipal disturbance—the dip on board was increased by 29°, and this at a distance of
over 2 miles from the nearest visible land, upon which only a small disturbance
of the dip was found.

This remarkable area of disturbance was then called a ‘ Magnetic Shoal,’ a term

Z2Z2

708 REPORT—19038.

which at first sight hardly appears to be applicable. We have, however, become
familiar with the terms ‘ridge line, valley line, peak, and col,’ as applied to areas
of magnetic disturbance on land; therefore I think we may conveniently designate
areas of magnetic disturbance in land under the sea ‘ Magnetic Shoals.’

This year H.M. surveying-ship ‘ Research’ has examined and placed a magnetic
shoal in East Loch Roag (Island of Lewis), but as all our surveying-ships are
practically iron ships, it was impossible from observations on board to obtain the
exact values of the disturbing forces prevailing in this shoal. The reason for this
is that, although we may accurately measure the disturbing forces of the iron of
the ship in deep water, directly she is placed over the shoal induction takes place,
and we can no longer determine to what extent the observed disturbances are due
to the ship’s newly developed magnetism, or to what extent the shoal alone pro-
duces them.

We can, nevertheless, even in an iron ship, accurately place and show the
dimensions of a magnetic shoal and the direction in which a ship’s compass will
be deflected in any part of it by compass observations only. Is it not, therefore,
the duty of any ship meeting with such shoals to stop and fix their position ?

The general law governing the distribution of magnetism on these magnetic
shoals is that in the northern hemisphere the north point of the compass is drawn
towards the focus of greatest dip; in the southern hemisphere it is »epel/ed. The
results at East Loch Roag proved an exception, the north point of the compass
being repelled.

Terrestrial Magnetism and Geology.

I have already referred to the question of local magnetic disturbance as one
of great importance in magnetic surveys. The causes of these disturbances were
at one time a matter of opinion, but the evidence of the elaborate magnetic sur-
veys I have alluded to, when compared with the geological maps of the same
countries, points clearly to magnetic rocks as their chief origin.

Magnetic rocks may be present, but from their peculiar position fail to disturb
the needle; but, on the other hand, as Riicker writes in his summary of the results
of the great magnetic survey of the British Isles conducted by Thorpe and himself,
‘the magnet would be capable of detecting large masses of magnetic rock at a
depth of several miles, a distance not yet attained by the science of the
geologist.

Again, Dr. Rijckevorsel, in his survey of Holland for the epoch 1891, was
convinced that ‘in some cases, in many perhaps, there must be a direct relation
between geology and terrestrial magnetism, and that many of the magnetic
features must be in some way determined by the geological structure of the under-

round,’

; During the years 1897-99 a magnetic survey was made of the Kaiser-stuhl, a
mountainous district in the neighbourhood of Freiburg in Baden, by Dr. G. Meyer.
"xact topographical and geological surveys had been previously made, and the
object of the magnetic survey was to show how far the magnetic disturbances of
the needle were connected with geological conformations. Here, again, it was
found that the magnetic and geological features of the district showed consider-
able agreement, basaltic rocks being the origin of the disturbance. This was not
all, for in the level country adjacent to the Rhine and near Breisach unsuspected
masses of basalt were found by the agency of the magnetic needle.

More recently we find our naval officers in H.M.S. ‘ Penguin,’ with a complete
outfit of magnetic instruments, making a magnetic survey of Funafuti atoll and
assisting the geologist by pointing out, by means of the observed disturbance of
the needle, the probable positions in the lagoon in which rock would be most
accessible to their boring apparatus,

Leaving the geologist and the magnetician to work in harmony for their
common weal, let us turn to some other aspects of the good work already accom+
plished and to be accomplished by magnetic observers,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 709

Magnetic Charts.

Of the valuable work of the several fixed magnetic observatories of the world,
I may remark that they are constantly recording the never-ceasing movements of
the needle, the key to many mysteries to science existing in the world and
external to it, but of which we have not yet learnt the use. Unfortunately many
of these once fixed observatories have become travellers to positions where the
earth can carry on its work on the needle undisturbed by electric trams and
railways which have sprung up near them, and it is to be hoped they will find
rest there for many years to come.

Of the forty-two observatories which publish the values of the magnetic
elements obtained there, thirty-two are situated northward of the parallel of
30° N., and only four in south latitude ; and it is a grief to magneticians that so
important a position as Capetown or its neighbourhood does not make an additional
fixed magnetic observatory of the first order.

Thus, as far as our present question of magnetic charts and their compilation is
concerned, the observatories do not contribute largely, but we should be very
grateful to them for the accurate observations of the secular change they provide
which are so difficult to obtain elsewhere.

Of the value of magnetic charts for different epochs I have much to say, as
they are required for purely scientific inquiry as well as for practical uses. It is
only by their means that we can really compare the enormous changes which
take place in the magnetism of the globe as a whole; they are useful to the
miner, but considerably more so to the seaman. Had it not been for the charts
compiled from the results of the untiring labours of travellers by land and
observers at sea in the field of terrestrial magnetism during the last century, not
only would science have been miserably poorer, but it is not too much to say that
the modern iron or steel steamship traversing the ocean on the darkest night at
great speed would have been almost an impossibility, whereas with their aid
the modern navigators can drive their ships at a speed of 26°5 statute miles an
hour with comparative confidence, even when neither sun, moon, nor stars are
appearing.

Of the large number of travellers by sea, including those who embark with the
purpose of increasing our geographical knowledge of distant lands and busying
tbemselves with most useful inquiries into the geology, botany, zoology, and
meteorology of the regions they visit, few realise that when they set foot on
board ship (for all ships are now constructed of iron or steel) they are living
inside a magnet. Truly a magnet, having become one by the inductive action of
that great parent magnet—the Earth.

How fares the compass on board those magnets, the ships, that instrument so
indispensable to navigation, which Victor Hugo has forcibly called ‘the soul of
the ship,’ and of which it has been written,

‘A rusted nail, placed near the faithful compass,
Will sway it from the truth, and wreck an argosy’?

And if so small a thing as an iron nail be a danger, what are we to say to the
iron ship? Let us for a moment consider this important matter,

If the nature of the whole of the iron or steel used in construction of ships
were such as to become permanently magnetic, their navigation would be much
siniplified, as our knowledge of terrestrial magnetism would enable us to provide
correctors for any disturbing effects of such iron on the compass, which would
then point correctly. But ships, taken as a whole, are generally more or less
unstable magnets, and constantly subject to change, not only on change of
geographical position, but also of direction of the ship’s head with regard to the
magnetic meridian. Thus a ship steering on an easterly course may be tem-
porarily magnetised to a certain extent, but on reversing the ship’s course to west
she would after a time become temporarily magnetised to the same amount, but
in the opposite direction, the north point of the compass being attracted in each
case to that side of the ship which is southernmost.

710 REPORT—1903.

Shortly, we may define the action of the earth’s magnetism on the iron of a
ship as follows: The earth being surrounded by a magnetic field of force differing
greatly in intensity and direction in the regions from the North Pole to the
Equator and the Equator to the South Pole, the ship’s magnetic condition is
largely dependent upon the direction of her head whilst building and the part of
that field she occupied at the time; partly upon her position in the magnetic
field she traverses at any given time during a voyage.

For the reasons I have given, magnetic charts are a necessity for practical
purposes and in the following order of value. That of the magnetic declination
or variation which is constantly in use, especially in such parts of the world asthe
St. Lawrence and the approaches to the English Channel, where the declination
changes very rapidly as the ship proceeds on her course. Next, that of the dip
and force, which are not only immediately useful when correcting the ship’s
compass, but are required in the analysis of a ship’s magnetism both as regards
present knowledge and future improvements in placing compasses on board.

If astronomers have for a very long time been able to publish for several years
in advance exact data concerning the heavenly bodies, is it too much to hope that
magneticians will before long also be able to publish correct magnetic charts to
cover several yeurs in adyance of any present epoch? It thisis to be done within
reasonable time there must be a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull all together of
magnetic observers in all lands, and accumulated data must also be discussed.

On Magnetic Instruments.for Travellers.

Travellers in unsurveyed countries, if properly instructed and equipped, can do
good service to science by observing the three magnetic elements of declination,
inclination or dip, and force at as many stations as circumstances will permit;
hence the following remarks.

For the purpose of making the most exact magnetic survey the best equipment
of instruments consists of the well-known unifilar magnetometer, with fittings for
observing the declination, and a Barrow’s dip circle. To some travellers these
instruments might be found too bulky, and in some regions too delicate as well as
heavy to carry.

Of suitable instruments made abroad, those used by M. Moureaux in his
survey of France may be mentioned, as they are of similar type, but much smaller
and lighter than the instruments above mentioned.

Another form of instrument, called an L.C. instrument, for observing both the
inclination and total force, is shown in the instrument before you. Originally
designed for observations on board ships at sea where the ordinary magnetic
instruments are unmanageable, it has also been found to give satisfactory results
in a land survey, where greater accuracy is expected than at sea. Thus, during a
series of observations extending from the north side of Lake Superior to the
southern part of Texas last year, comparisons were made between the results
obtained with an L.C. instrument and those of the regular unitilar magnetometer
and dip circle, when the agreement was found satisfactory.

I am therefore of the opinion that a traveller furnished with a theodolite for
land-surveying purposes, but fitted with a reversible magnetic needle, can at any
time he observes a true bearing obtain a trustworthy value of the declination.
Dismounting the theodolite from his tripod, the latter will serve for mounting an
L.C. instrument with which to observe the inclination and force. Thus, by
adding to his ordinary equipment an instrument weighing in its box about 21 ib.,
he can obtain valuable contributions to terrestrial magnetism, and at the same
time give useful assistance to geological investigations.

Concluding Remarks.

Although a great subject like terrestrial magnetism, even to exhibit our
present knowledge of the science, cannot be brought within the compass of an
address—for it requires a treatise of many pages-I have brought some of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 711

broad features of it before the Section in order to show its connection with
Geography.

I also entertain the hope that geographers will become more interested in a
subject so important to pure science and in its practical applications, and that it
will, become an additional subject to the instruction which travellers can now
obtain under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society in geology, botany,
zoology, meteorology, and surveying.

There is a wide field open to observers, and where results often depend so
much upon locality we require to explore more and more with the magnetic
needle. To look over the great oceans and think how little is being done for
terrestrial magnetism is a great matter for regret. Yet even there we may begin
to be hopeful, for the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey authorities are
making arrangements to fit out its vessel with the necessary instruments for
determining the magnetic elements at sea.

We wish them all success; but I must again remind you that although we
cannot compel observers to start, there is room for them and to spare.

I would fain make some remarks on the prevailing ignorance of sound geo-
graphy in many quarters, and on the defective methods of teaching the science ;
but I feel that the subject is placed in very able hands, and will be fully discussed
elsewhere during the present meeting.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The recent West Indian Eruptions.'
By Temprst Anperson, JD., B.Sc.

2. The Economic Development of West Africa.? By E. D. More.

Although West African affairs are engaging more and more attention, the
public as a whole continues to display a curious indifference to that part of the
world. Yet there are urgent reasons whya manufacturing nation like ours should
show keener interest in one of the greatest raw material-producing countries
in the world, of which we possess some 700,000 square miles, inhabited by
30,000,000 people. The author of the paper protests against the indifference of
the public: the extent of British commercial interests in West Africa is ignored
by most, and the future potentialities of the country are insufficiently appreciated.
The chief factor which determined the Powers to assume the liabilities they have
in tropical Africa was due to the belief that raw material is necessary to an
industrial and manufacturing nation, and that each nation must find new markets
for the consumption of home manufactures, markets which will pay for such
manufactures in raw material. It follows, therefore, that the economic develop-
ment of tropical Africa is the principal aim which each Power has in view. How
can that economic development be best pursued in a manner profitable to the
people of Kurope and to the people of Africa? If it isto be permanently success-
ful, it must be profitable to both.

The paper goes on to point out that two political conceptions—utterly divergent
and antagonistic, yet both alike concerned with the economical development of
tropical Africa, and therefore both alike arising from the cardinal factor which
led to the partition of tropical Africa among the Powers—are before the world.
The adoption of one or the other conception will decide the future of European
effort in the black man’s country The two conceptions are defined as Coercion
and Commerce: the former is characterised as a revival in aggravated form of the
old culture system of the Dutch East Indies, which had to be abandoned

‘ The subject-matter of the lecture appeared in the Geographical Journal for
March 1903.

* Printed in full in the West African Mail, September 18 and 25, 1903.

712 REPORT—1908.

owing to the ruin and exhaustion it brought with it. This system 1s at present
in operation ina large portion of tropical Africa, It is based upon the repudiation,
or rather the ignoring, of native rights of land tenure; upon the definition of all
land not actually built over or cultivated for food-stuffs as ‘vacant’; and upon
the appropriation of all such land and the produce yielded by it. It tends towards
the enslavement of whole peoples and brings inevitable ruin jn its train, Argu-
ments are adduced to show that, apart from its moral side, this conception is
antagonistic to the development of all legitimate European aimsin tropical Africa,
and that if it is morally pernicious it is also practically short-sighted and
injurious, and should be resisted to the uttermost.

The other conception has, the autbor contends, notwithstanding many material
obstacles, produced results which are obvious and visible to all. It is based upon
the recognition that the inherent rights of a native of tropical Africa to his land
and the produce thereof are the necessary accompaniments of all successful and
permanent development work in the interests both of the European and the negro.
The commercial instincts of the negro are notorious, his adaptability remarkable ;
the theory that he will not work is untenable in face of the positive results of his
labours in the millions of pounds’ worth of produce shipped home annually to
Europe from West Africa. He merely requires instruction and guidance to
prevent wastage and destruction of economic products due to want of knowledge
in the preparation and collection of the raw material. An urgent necessity is
the careful study of native land tenure as an important factor in economic
development, the theory of ‘vacant’ lands being often misleading and open to
grave abuses,

The paper then discusses the best means of improving native industries and
helping the native to construct new ones, laying particular stress upon the great
importance of extending the growth of cotton in, and promoting its export from,
the tropical African provinces of the Empire. Reference having been made to
various measures which might with advantage be taken by Government to secure
these ends, the opinion is expressed that the only right and practical ideal which
should govern European action in tropical Airica (which is, and must always
remain, a black man’s country, where the European cannot colonise and can only
supervise) is to teach the native to take pride in his property; to guarantee him
from molestation in his ownership of his property ; to assist him in developing the
raw products his fertile soil yields for his own advantage and ours; to make it
clear to him that we look upon him, not as a fool, still less as a brute, but as
a partner in a great undertaking which, if properly conducted, will confer lasting
benefit upon his race and the white over-lords who have established themselves
in his midst.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Influence of Ice-melting upon Oceanic Circulation.}
By Professor O. Perrrrsson.

The circulation of oceanic waters has been ascribed partly to physical causes,
such as the heating of surface waters in tropical and the cooling in polar regions,
partly to mechanical causes, such as the influence of the prevailing winds. The
latter is at present regarded as the chief motive power of the currents of the sea,
In either case the vs movendi must be the effect of a thermodynamic cycle of the
free heat in the atmosphere or in the hydrosphere. On the mechanical hypothesis
it is obvious that the primary effect is the generation of surface-currents (wind-
currents) of great intensity, and that the intensity of motion must decrease with
the depth, ‘he general conviction at present is that the movement of the bottom

1 The Paper will probably appear in catenso in the Geographical Journal.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 713

waters of the ocean is extremely slow (vide G. Schott’s description of the results of
the German Valdivia expedition).

In 1878 the author pointed out that a great—and probably the greatest—part
of the oceanic current system must be due to another cause, viz., the thermo-
dynamic cycle of latent heat, consisting in the formation of ice in polar regions
and the melting of ice in sea-water at lower latitudes. In ‘ Petermann’s
Mitteilungen,’ 1900, Heft I. and II., he caiculated the energy generated by the
melting of ice in the sea between Iceland and Jan Mayen to be about 400,000 horse-
power, which energy is employed in accelerating the movement of the waters of
the East Iceland polar current, which makes its way from the sea between Iceland
and Jan Mayen towards the Fiiroes, there to dip under the current of Atlantic
water which sets in between the Shetlands and the Fiiroes, and ultimately
vanishes into the Atlantic depths in the shape of a submarine waterfall over the
Iceland-Firoe and W. ‘Thomson bank. The energy set free on the melting of ice
in sea-water is expended on raising the water from the submerged part of the ice
to the surface, and may be likened to a waterfall where the water, instead of
descending, arises from below to the surface. The heat necessary for this melting
is supplied from undercurrents of warm Atlantic water, which exist wherever the
melting of ice goes on in the ocean. One part (in the case referred to about 4,) of
this warmer and salter water mixes with the ice-water and forms the polar
surface-current, while the greater part (here about 42) is cooled to a temperature
approaching the temperature of equilibrium between ice and salt water, and sinks
to the bottom, there to form the layer of cold water which is known to exist in all
oceans. The temperature and the salinity of this bottom water depend upon the
relation between the quantity of ice which is melted and the amount of warm
water supplied by the undercurrent. In the Atlantic Ocean the temperature is a
little below or above + 2°, which shows that the warm water here is in excess of
the ice. In the Norwegian Sea the bottom temperature is about —1:4° C., which
ts the lowest eristing on the globe. This shows that the warm water supplied by
the Atlantic current is just sufficient to melt the ice which is brought down along
the coast of Greenland by the polar current. It is inferred from this that the
state of this part of the sea is in a very unstable equilibrium. which may account
for the instability of the climate of the northern countries of Europe and the great
variations in the extension of the ice in this sea. In the Polar Sea we meet with
the startling fact, discovered by Nansen, that the bottom temperature is higher
than in the Norwegian Sea, or above —0°9° C. This is explained by the fact that
the ice in the polar sea flcats in a layer of cold water diluted by the admixture of
river-water from Siberia. Thereby the access to the ice of the warm and salt
undercurrent, which Nansen discovered at about 200 m. depth, is more or less
prevented. The ice-melting in the polar sea thereby becomes less intense, the
surface of the sea is filled with ice-floes and pack-ice, which must be carried out
into the Norwegian Sea or the Atlantic in order to melt. Therefore the cooled
bottom layer has a higher salinity and temperature than in the adjacent Norwegian
Sea,

The influence of the thermodynamic cycle of latent heat upon oceanic circula-
tion is characterised by the following circumstances :—

1. The seat of the accelerating force is localised in the meeting places of the
ice-currents of polar origin with warm currents. The most important of these
places are the seas between Iceland and Jan Mayen, W. of Spitzbergen, 8.E, of
Newfoundland, and the ice girdle encircling the Antarctic Sea.

2. In all such places warm undercurrents are found to exist under the ice.
The melting process is maintained chiefly at the cost of the heat stored up in the
waters of the undercurrent. The system of currents and undercurrents of the
Norwegian Sea is represented on a chart prepared by the author.

3. The warm water of the undercurrent, which in the northern hemisphere is
denoted by the name of ‘ Atlantic’ water (alias Gulf Stream water), is modified by

, Ofvers. Kgl. Vetenskaps-Ahademiens Forhandl:, 1878, No. 2, p. 61, and On
the Properties of Water and Ice (Vegaexpeditionens iakttagelser, Stockholm, 1883).

714 REPORT— 1908.

its contact with the ice into ‘Arctic’ water.| One part of this Arctic water
consists of Atlantic water diluted with ice-water. This kind of water rises to the
surface and contributes to the maintenance of the polar currents. The other and
greater part consists of Atlantic water, which has given up its surplus of heat
and sunk to the bottom, there to form the great cold bottom layer of the oceans.

4. The warm undercurrents always follow the trend of the deepest isobathic
lines, while the ice-currents only exist over shallow parts of the sea. As soon a8
an ice-current leaves the coast-bank and takes its way over a deep part of the
ocean, its ice is exposed to melting by the warm undercurrent, which is attracted
by the ice and maintained by the energy set free at the melting process.

5. The above-mentioned chart shows a remarkable example of how north-going
warm currents and undercurrents are deviated to the west inthe Norwegian Sea,
in spite of the powerful influence of the earth’s rotation.

6. The metamorphosis of Atlantic water into Arctic water involves also a
biological change. ‘The foraminifers, &c., of the Atlantic die out (as already shown
by Sir J. Murray) in contact with the cold water and sink to the bottom, there to
form calcareous deposits. Consequently the course of the warm undercurrents
can be traced up to the highest latitudes by a surplus of CaO in the bottom
sediments,

7. The author’s experiments with exact measurements in the Skagerrack and
the Baltic show that the motion of the deeper layers there is by no means
insignificant or slow, as it is judged to be by the advocates of the ‘ wind-theory,’
but is, as a rule, stronger than that of the surface water. How far thisholds with
regard to the deeper parts of the oceans remains to be investigated. Therefore
current measurements in the Atlantic at depths of 800-4000 m. are a pressing
desideratum in oceanography.

8. As the accumulation of polar ice varies with the season, and is influenced
by terrestrial (meteorological) as well as cosmical phenomena (radiation, &c.), it
is evident that the current system set in action by the cycle of latent heat must
show periodical variations with the seasons and also periodical or non-periodical
variations of longer duration. Are there any indications of such variations in the
movement of the undermost layers of the sea? The author's experience is that there
are such indications, and this discovery has led him to propound the present theory.

9. The Antarctic Ocean presents the grandest example of ice-melting and of
variations in ice-melting. It must be borne in mind that the energy liberated by
ice-melting in the ocean is proportional to the depth of the submerged part of the
ice. From an iceberg 500 m. in depth the melting of one kilogram of ice will
produce an amount of work equal to 7 kilogram-metres. Great ‘outbursts’ of
icebergs from the Antarctic are known to happen from time to time (Russell).
Such outbursts, which carry icebergs down to low latitudes in the Indian Ocean,
may exercise influence upon the climate of India, Australia, &e.,as thereby part of
the warm area of the ocean from which the water evaporates, which ultimately
falls as monsoon rain upon the coasts of these countries, may be encroached upon
by cold polar water. It is a matter worth notice that the last great ‘outburst’
from the Antarctic and the last great droughts of India fall within the same
period of years (1891-1898). By means of regular surface observations on board
of liners crossing the Indian Ovean and a few series of deep soundings along the
60th and 100th meridians such yearly variations in the hydrographic state of the
Indian Ocean as can be of meteorological interest might be ascertained.

In order to put the theory of the influence of ice-melting to a test the author
has carried out a series of experiments so arranged as to correspond as nearly as
possible to the natural conditions of the Norwegian Sea, and has compared the
results with the actual results of the Norwegian and Swedish hydrographic research
in this part of the ocean in 1900. A description of the last experiment of the
series, carried out by Mr. J. W. Sandstrém, assisted by Miss A. Palmquist, is
given in the next paper.

1 It is evident that in the course of oceanic circulation there must be a transition
of Atlantic water into Arctic water, and vice versa. The first-named metamorphosis
is effected by the ice-melting process.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 715

2. An Haperiment on the Melting of Ice in Salt Water.
By J. W. SANDSTROM.

At the request of Professor Pettersson the author repeated one of the ice-
melting experiments mentioned in the preceding paper on a larger scale in the
Central Laboratory for Oceanic Research at Christiania, Professor Nansen kindly
placing at his disposal the large tank, 3°5 metres in length by 0:4 metre in height
and 0:7 metre broad, which had served in his own investigations. This tank was
filled to a depth of 35cm. with salt water at 7°C. and 30 per cent. salinity.
The tank was divided into two compartments by a partition 80 cm. high. Above
this wall there was free communication between the water in the two com-
partments.

In the right compartment (which represents the Norwegian Sea) a rectangular
ice block 50 kilogrammes in weight was introduced. While melting it assumed
a very peculiar shape.

In the left compartment (Atlantic) an extra current was set going, carrying
twelve litres per hour of water of the same salinity and temperature in and out
of the vessel at a constant level. The movement of the water in the other
compartment was studied by means of fine jets of KaMnQ, solution which were
made to ascend from capillary tubes at the bottom. The deflection from the
vertical of these jets was measured every ten minutes. Thus a good estimate of
the velocity at ditferent levels was obtained.

Before the introduction of the ice block in the right compartment the jets
indicated an almost entire absence of movement of the waters of this compartment,
although the extra current was circulating constantly in the other (Atlantic).
With the introduction of the ice the conditions changed. Three ditferent currents
could be discerned to the right of the partition wall, which represented the Faroe-
Shetland or Faroe-Iceland ridge. From the left (Atlantic) an under-current was
attracted towards the under-side of the ice, where it reached its maximum
velocity of 0:23cm. per second. From the farthermost side of the ice block, where
the under-current impinged, cold diluted water arose to the surface and formed an
outgoing ‘polar’ current the maximum velocity of which was found to be
0-03 em. per sec. From the ice, cold and dense water descended to the bottom,
where it formed a powerful outgoing current with a maximum velocity of 0-14 cm.
per sec. The bottom current had an upward tendency near the partition wall,
over which it flowed into the Atlantic compartment. All measurements were
made after the conditions had become established, which was found to be the case
after two hours. The volume of water carried by the under-current towards the
ice was about twenty-seven times the volume carried by the returning bottom
~ current, and about twelve times greater than that of the surface current.’

By observation of the motion of small particles of insoluble matter held in
suspension by the water the current lines in the middle vertical section of the
tank were constructed.

Accurate observations of salinity and temperature at all depths were made by
the chemist of the Swedish Hydrographical-Biological Commission (Miss Palm-
quist) and the density im situ of the water computed from Knudsen’s tables.
From these data the accelerating forces of the circulation were calculated according
to V. Bjerknes, ‘ Ueber einen hydrodynamischen Fundamentalsatz und seine
Anwendung besonders auf die Mechanik der Atmosphare und des Weltmeeres.’?
The result was to show that the accelerating forces counteracted the circulation
in the part of the right compartment most remote from the ice, while they aided
the circulation in the neighbourhood of the ice. The aiding forces (= 0°57 c.g.s.
solenoids), however, exceeded those counteracting (=0'18 c.g.s. solenoids), the
difference (=0'39 c.g.s, solenoids) being the resultant of two acting forces.

1 This is according to measurements taken in the central longitudinal section of
the tank. At the sides the motion is more retarded by friction, which accounts for
the fact that the volume of the ingoing and outflowing water was not found to be
equal. 2 K, D. V. Aks. Handi, Bd. 31, 1898.

716 REPORT—1908.,

The same remarkable distribution of forces is found to exist in the sea. In
the longitudinal section of the Norwegian Sea for July and August 1900, con-
structed by Professor Pettersson, there are 10,050 c.g.s. solenoids between lat.
77° and 70° in aid of the circulation and 3025 c.g.s. solenoids counteract-
ing this circulation between lat. 70° and 64°. The accelerating force which
maintains the oceanic circulation in this section of the Norwegian Sea thus is
equal to 7025 c.g.s. solenoids, The seat of these forces is the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the ice.

Putting aside the influence of the earth’s rotation and of friction, we find that
this set of forces is sufficient to increase the velocity of the water by 14cm.
per sec. in one week.

3. Report of the Committee on Terrestrial Surface Waves.
See Reports, p. 312.

4, The British Antarctic Expedition. By Lieut. E. Suackieron.

5. Explorations and Economic Conditions in Western China.
By Lieut.-Col. C, C, MAniFop.

The paper embraced an account of two journeys to the regions of the Upper
Yang-tse immediately before and after the Boxer outbreak. The first journey,
in 1900, lasted for seven months and ranged from Burma to Tibetan territory and
across China to Shanghai; and the second, made in 1901-2, lasted for nine
months and took the author from Peking almost back to the confines of Burma.
The distance covered was nearly 6,000 miles of land travel on foot and 3,000
miles on inland waterways. The starting-point of the first journey was Bhamo,
our frontier garrison town on the borders of Burma and China, likewise the
starting-point of large trains of coolies and mules carrying Indian yarn into China.
A start was made just at the time of the Chinese new year, and on the second
day Chinese territory was entered. The road taken was a well-known trade
route to Teng-yueh, the nearest large trading centre in Yun-nan, a town more
commonly known by the name of Momein. It has been proposed to connect
Bhamo and Teng-yueh by railway, and though it would not be feasible to carry
the line any further, a distance of only 130 miles, even this sort of line would
pay its way and increase our trade and influencein Yun-nan, After touching the
Yang-tse above its great bend, the author went north-west to join Captains Davies
and Ryder, who had started in December 1899, by routes which touched on the
line the proposed railway from Burma to the Yang-tse Valley would have
followed, ‘The advantages which would accrue from such a railway, if it could
be constructed at reasonable cost, are undoubted, but great natural difficulties
exist from the formation of the country, and the cost would be enormous, ‘The
project, however, must not be subjected to sweeping condemnation. Yun-nan-Fu,
the capital of the sparsely populated and at present poor province of Yun-nan, is
the halfway house to the rich regions of the Upper Yang-tse. A French company
has obtained a concession for a railway from the frontier in Tonking to Yun-
nan-Fu, and they hope in time to carry it to the Upper Yang-tse and so divert
the trade to their own port of Hanoi. The construction of the line has already
been started under the guarantee of the French Government. The country of
Yun-nan is mountainous and sparsely populated, but very rich in minerals. After
meeting with great difficulties in crossing the higher passes, some of which
reached an altitude of 13,000 feet or 14,000 feet, and were badly blocked with
snow, the party reached the rendezvous on April 6, at a point where the western
frontier of the province of Sechuan and British India at the eastern frontier of
Assam are separated by a distance of little more than 260 miles, Reaching
Ta-Chien-lu, the travellers found telegrams warning them of the disturbances.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, TAG

They, however, determined to push on and try to effect an exit by the Yang-tse
River. From Ta-Chien-lu, they followed the great tea road between Tibet and
China, so called because of the great traffic in tea carried between Lhasa and Ya-
chou. The lecturer pointed out that if free commercial relations could be esta-
blished with Tibet there was no doubt that the better and cheaper Indian tea would
capture this market. From Ya-chou the route taken was by raft down a tributary
of the Yang-tse, then through the Yang-tse gorges to Ichang, and then by steamer,
900 miles, to Shanghai. Proceeding thence to Tien-tsin, the party were just in
time to join the Peking relief expedition. On September 20, 1901, the author
started again on a journey of some thousands of miles across Central to Western
China. Captain Hunter, R.E., was his fellow-traveller, and each was accom-
panied by a surveyor and three Gurkhas. From Peking they travelled ninety
miles by the French-Belgian controlled line, which is projected to run to the
Yang-tse Valley at Han-kau, and is likely to have a great effect on the develop-
ment and history of China, as it traverses some of the most populous and fertile
districts of the empire. Trains were then running from Peking for 160 miles, and
from Han-kau for 200 miles along the southern section. At Han-kau the line is
connected with one from Canton in course of construction from materials being
supplied by French, Belgian, and American firms. The author’s party marched
to Cheng-ting-Fu, fifty miles further, where evidence of foreign railway enter-
prise was again found. Many bridges would have to be constructed, the largest
across the Yellow River itself at Yung-tse. There it was satisfactory to find
evidence of British energy in a railway 700 miles distant from a seaport; but on
crossing the Yellow River and reaching the city of Kai-feng-Fu, they found
evidence of Continental enterprise, especially German. The Paper then gave a
description of the province of Sechuan, with its 45,000,000 inhabitants and
immense industries, and of the Red River Basin, with an area of nearly 80,000
square miles, and a population of over 40,000,000, the densest agricultural popula-
tion in the world. Every foot of soil is under crops, including rice, wheat, millet,
peas and beans, sugar-cane, and every sort of vegetable. In many places are
brine wells, 2,000 feet deep, salt being a very valuable product in China. In
other parts rich iron ore, copper, and quicksilver, and also gold, are found in great
quantities. The author concluded by insisting on the importance of stimulating
British enterprise in Central and Western China, pointing out what railways had
done for British India, and expressing the opinion that far more might be expected
from them in China, which had much greater resources and undeveloped wealth.
China, too, possessed 400,000,000 of willing customers, whose industry, intelli-
gence, and civilisation give them a high standard of comfort.

6. The Afforestation of Waterworks Catchment Areas,
By Josepu Parry, M.Jnst.C.£.!

The author described the causes that led to the neglect of forestry in this
country and the pressing importance of the subject in view of the falling off in
and increasing cost of foreign and colonial supplies, which have hitherto made up
the deficiencies of home produce. The total imports of timber per annum amount
to 10,104,504 tons, valued at 25,676,988/., and the quantity of home-grown timber
used in Great Britain and Ireland is estimated at 2,000,000 tons, being equal to
about one-sixth the total consumption.

The Departmental Committee appointed last year by the Board of Agriculture
made a recommendation— That the attention of corporations and municipalities
be drawn to the desirability of planting with trees the catchment areas of their
water supply.’

The author estimated the total area of these catchment areas to be about
576,000 acres, of which at least 102,615 acres had been bought and were now

1 The full paper will appear in the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricul=
tural Society,

718 : REPORT—1908.

owned by the corporations. These lands are mostly in upland, thinly populated
parts of the country, and excellently adapted for growing timber. The advantages
of planting would be the preservation of the hill sides, the preservation of the
purity of the water, and an increase in the total yield. At the same time it was
claimed that afforestation conducted systematically and on scientific principles
would be the most profitable use to which the lands could generally be applied.
Stress was laid on the difference between planting for profit and ornamental
planting, and the importance of working plans prepared by qualified experts was
emphasised.

Particulars were given of the work done by the Liverpool Corporation on the
watershed of Lake Vyrnwy, in Montgomeryshire.

The existing plantations around Lake Vyrnwy, old and new, cover 606 acres,
and the total area of the watershed is 18,500 acres. Three nurseries have been
established to enable planting to be carried on more rapidly in the future. Nearly
200,000 young trees now in the nurseries are to be planted out next season, and
operations have already been commenced on that scale. The number of young
trees required per acre is 2,700. The workmen employed in the woods reside off
the watershed, and if they are engaged in operations near the head of the lake,
which is nearly five miles long, they are carried in an oil launch. A sawmill for
converting the timber into marketable sizes is now driven by steam power, but
electric machinery driven by water power is being erected.

In the United States of America the importance of this subject is being recog-
nised, and planting operations on a very extensive scale have been commenced
both on waterworks catchment areas and in old forests which have been destroyed
by fire and by the ravages of the lumbermen and farmers. These operations are
under the direction of the Bureau of Forestry.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,

The following Papers were read :—

1, Notes and Suggestions on Geographical Surveying suited to present
requirements.| By K, A. Reeves, £.R.A.S.

The paper points out in the first place that the advance of geographical
exploration and discovery during recent years has been so rapid that there are
now few parts of the earth’s surface of which we have no knowledge whatever,
although of many regions the best maps we possess are still extremely rough and
inaccurate. The time has now come for replacing these approximate route maps
of the pioneer explorers by more accurate surveys based upon scientific principles,
without attempting the extreme accuracy of a large trigonometrical survey, for
which, in many parts, we must necessarily wait for a long time yet.

It then briefly indicates the best methods of geographical surveying that might
be followed, guided to a great extent by the course of instruction in geographical
surveying arranged by the Royal Geographical Society.

After preliminary remarks as to the necessity of ascertaining what has already
been done in the region to be visited, and as to whether any points have been
definitely fixed which could be used as a basis for the survey, the author describes
the best forms of the more important instruments required—the transit theodolite,
plane-table, half chronometer watch, sextant and artificial hcrizon, barometer, &c.
He then deals with the question of the most suitable scale and projection for
plane-table work in the field, and in connection with the delineation of physical
features on the map calls attention to the necessity of generalising and interpret-
ing the leading characteristics of the physical features of a country, for which
some previous training, not only in map drawing, but also in physical geography

1 Printed in extenso in the Geographical Journal, January 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 719

and the outlines of geomorphology, is a great assistance. Two methods of survey-
ing are then described in outline, viz. (1) the extension of the triangulation by
theodolite angles and the fixing of fresh points from those whose positions have
been previously determined, or by latitudes and azimuths, detail being filled in
with the plane-table ; and (2) that in which no previously fixed points are avail-
able, and the surveyor has to determine the latitude and longitude of his stations
from astronomical observations. The former should always be adopted where
practicable. The most reliable methods, suitable for an ordinary geographical
surveyor, by which the latter can be accomplished, are described, first as regards
the fixing of latitude, and then of longitude. In connection with the fixing of
longitude it is pointed out that it has been found practically impossible for a
traveller to carry a watch or chronometer that can keep its rate sufficiently well
for the determining of longitude with the accuracy that is now required, and
recommends, where it is impossible to obtain Greenwich time without relying
implicitly upon a watch—such as by telegraph or reference to some place of which
the exact longitude is known—that differences of longitude only should be
attempted, either by latitudes and azimuths or by using the watch for the
meridian distance method. As regards the so-called ‘absolute methods’ of
obtaining longitude, that by occultations of fixed stars is to be preferred. A few
remarks follow on photographic surveying, and the necessity of the surveyor being
able to draw his own map instead of merely furnishing the draughtsman at home
with a rough and to a great extent unintelligible sketch, which is often the case.

In conclusion the author lays stress on the importance of travellers obtaining
proper training in geographical surveying before starting on their journeys. He
afterwards mentions that he has brought with him for inspection specimens of
recent surveys of travellers, including a sample of the work done by one of his
pupils for his examination for the Royal Geographical Society’s diploma. He
aiso exhibits a new form of clamp and tangent screw for sextant and other angular
measuring instruments.

2. On Map Projections suited to general purposes. By G. J. Morrison.

3. Henricus Glareanus (Sixteenth-century Geographer) and his recently
discovered Maps.| By Epwarp Hrawoop, M.A.

Heinrich Loriti, one of the most celebrated of the ‘humanists’ of the sixteenth
century, better known by his territorial designation, Glareanus, was born in 1488,
at Mollis, near Glarus in Switzerland. His titie to fame rests principally on
his many-sided contributions to knowledge in the field of literature, philology,
mathematics, music, &c.; but he is known also as the writer of a work on geo-
graphy which passed through many editions from 1527 onwards. In this he
described, for the first time, so far as is known, a convenient method of constructing
gores for a globe, which was much used in his time, though as examples of such
gores are known from considerably earlier than 1527, some doubt has been
expressed whether he was the actual inventor of the method. Ooloured manuscript
maps from his hand have within recent years been discovered in copies of printed
works at the libraries of Munich and Bonn Universities, and have attracted some
attention from the fact that they were, according to their author's statement,
based upon the long-lost map of Martin Waldseemiiller, which has itself been
discovered since. One of the maps was also interesting as the earliest known
representation of a hemisphere on an equidistant polar projection.

At the time of the Elizabethan Exhibition, organised by the R.G.S. early in
1903, a volume of early MSS. was sent in which at once attracted attention
from the fact that the first item, though without a contemporary statement of the
author’s name, was stated in a note by a former owner to be by Henricus Glarea-
nus. Further inspection showed that the handwriting was identical with that

* Will be printed in eatenso in the Geographical Journal.

720 REPORT— 1908.

on the margins of the Bonn maps, and that the MS. was that of the treatise on
geography published in 1527, but that it included a fine coloured set of unpub-
lished maps, closely resembling those at Bonn and Munich, but more in number
and somewhat more carefully executed. Particularly interesting was the fact that
a pair of the maps were evidently copies of the famous map of Johan Ruysch,
issued with the Rome Ptolemy of 1508, while both the northern and southern
hemispheres were shown on an equal scale on the equidistant projection, the
southern having been given on a much reduced scale, and with the continental
outlines reversed, in the Bonn copy. Examination showed that the MS. was
the original MS. of the work (many alterations and marginal additions made
on it having been incorporated in the printed edition), but not the copy from
which the printer had worked, as further corrections and additions appear in the
printed volume. From the great resemblance of the maps to those at Bonn, which
were made in 1510, and the fact that Glareanus was in correspondence with the
Swiss reformer, Zwingli, on the subject of geographical studies in the same year,
it seemed probable that the treatise was first written considerably before 1527, and
this idea is supported by the nature of the additions made in the printed work,
which include references to the ‘eruditus rex’ Henry VIII. of England (whose
reputation for learning would have reached Glareanus at an early date, through
the latter’s correspondence with Erasmus), and to his residence as professor at Paris,
which came to an end in 1521. In this case the existence of gores drawn after
his method in about 1515 would be explained, while in various ways the claim of
Glareanus to originality as a geographer would be heightened, his work being e.7.
prior to the well-known treatise of Apianus, which first appeared in 1524. It may
be noted that one of the editions of the smaller Cosmography, generally attri-
buted to Apianus, incorporates bodily one of the chapters of Glareanus’s work.

The history of the MS. is of interest, as its private ownership can be traced
back some 300 years to a member of the important Swiss family of Ott, from which
the present owner, Major-General E. Renouard James, is descended in the female
line through that of Renouard. Among the other documents contained in the
volume is a letter from Erasmus to Glareanus, written in 1516, but this throws no
light on the subject of the geographical work of the latter. Some or all of the
maps may possibly be reproduced in coloured facsimile by the R.G.S, if sufficient
subscribers appear likely to come forward,

4. The Results of the Expedition to Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri by Mr. W. O.
Grant and Dr. H. O. Forbes. By H. O. Forses, LL.D.

At the meeting of the Association at Bristol in 1898 a committee, consisting
of Dr. Scott Keltie, Dr. Blanford, Professor Weldon, and the author, was
appointed to further an expedition then projected by Mr. W. O. Grant (of the
British Museum) and the author, for the exploration of the islands of Sokotra
and Abd-el-Kuri, situated in the Gulf of Aden, and a sum of money was placed
at their disposal in aid of the project. The Councils of the Royal Society and
the Royal Geographical Society also generously assisted the expedition by grants
of money and instruments, while the Museums Committee of the Liverpool
Corporation gave substantial aid in money and by allowing the chief taxidermist
of the Museum to accompany the expedition. The Museums Committee under-
took in addition the publication of the results in a special volume of the ‘ Bulletin
of the Museums,’ the quarterly periodical of these institutions. The expedition
left England in October 1898 and returned in March 1899. A preliminary
report was presented to this Association at the Dover meeting. Since then the
results of the expedition have been worked out and a volume containing 600
pages, thirty-four coloured plates, and eighty-eight illustrations in the text was
placed on the table. As editor of it the author had the good fortune to have
the co-operation of twenty distinguished specialists (in addition to the con-
tributions by Mr, Grant and himself) in working out the collections. The objects
of the expedition were biological (mainly) and geographical. The volume as

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. ren!

issued is practically a zoological monograph of the islands. A large number of
lane-table and theodolite observations were made, and many anthropological

ata collected. A large scale-map was in process of construction from the plane-
table sheets when these and the instruments which were being employed in the
work were purloined during repairs to the author’s house by some unknown
workman. ‘Their loss was not detected for some weeks, but since then every
effort has been made—not yet hopelessly—to recover them ; in the meantime it is
impossible to proceed further with the construction of the map. As the inclusion
of the historical and anthropological data would have rendered the volume too
bulky, they have been reserved for publication elsewhere.

No new mammals were obtained by the expedition, but specimens of the
interesting wild ass, which proves to be the Nubian and not the Somaliland
species, were obtained. The domestic cattle, a very beautiful diminutive breed,
would seem to be here a long-isolated colony of the Bos longifrons, introduced
probably from Egypt before the Christian era. Sixty-eight species of birds are
now known from Sokotra, of which the expedition added ten species, four of them
new to science and six not previously known to live there. From Abd-el-Kuri,
from which no collections had previously been brought, twenty-two species, three
of them new to science, have been recorded. Of reptiles, Mr. Boulenger has
enumerated twenty-eight species, of which seven are new. Mr. E. A. Smith
has described sixteen new species of Mollusca, and Mr. Pocock eighteen of
spiders and scorpions. Six species of Crustacea are reckoned as new by Mr. A. O.
Walker in quite a small shore-collection from Abd-el-Kuri. Amorg the Insecta
a large number have proved to be new endemic species. Mr. Kirby has described
twenty-seyen among the Hymenoptera, Mr. Gahan twenty Coleoptera; Mr, Grant,
Lord Walsingham, and Sir George Hampson have enumerated twenty-seven Lepi-
doptera, Miss Ricardo twelve Diptera, Mr. Maclachlan three Nemoptera, and
Mr. Burr six Orthoptera. Mr. Pocock has described five new Myriapoda.
Professor I. Bayley Balfour undertook the examination of the botanical speci-
mens, which consisted of living plants, bulbs, tubers, seeds, and Herbarium.
Little new was to be expected among these after the thorough manner he had
himself investigated the island; but he has found they include four species new
to science, and six, otherwise known, new to the flora. The whole of the plants
from Abd-el-Kuri—seventy-eight in number—are recorded here for the first time,
and of these three are new to science, and all but six occur on Sokotra.

The geology, as illustrated by the specimeus collected by the expedition in
these two islands, has been described by Professor Gregory. |

In all, over 150 species have been added to the zoology of the islands.

In conclusion, the institutions concerned in the expedition desire to express
their warmest thanks to the Council of the British Association as well as to the
Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society for the assistance and
encouragement they gave to the expedition.

5. On the Origin of Adam’s Bridge. By J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., 7.G.S

Stretching across from the north partof Ceylon to the south-east coast of India
lies a remarkable chain of low-lying islands and shallow banks known as Adam's
Bridge. Rameswaram Island forms the most westerly link of the chain and is
only separated from Tonitoray Spit (India) by Pambam Straits, a shallow natural
opening which has been deepened in parts by man. Manaar Island, at the extreme
east of the bridge, lies close to the north-west coast of Ceylon. Between these a
number of smaller islands complete the chain. North of Adam’s Bridge extends
Palk Bay, a shallow mud-floored almost currentless sea, and to the south the Gulf
of Manaar stretches as a low platform, deepening fairly evenly to the south at about
the rate of one fathom in two miles to twenty fathoms, after which it sinks more
rapidly to great depths. The platform consists of sands, which in places have been
cemented zz situ into caleareous sandstones or calcretes chiefly by the agency
of Polyzoa and Nullipores. These masses of solid rock, known as ‘ paars,’ are

1903. 3A

722, REPORT—19038.

sometimes accompanied by coral reefs in all stages of decay, from the living forms
to almost structureless limestone.

In places along the west coast of Ceylon spits of sand stretch across the plat-
form mainly near the mouths of rivers. They result from the detritus brought
down by rivers, and their general trend to the north-west may be due to the com-
bined flow of the streams and the prevailing inshore currents on the Indian side,
and in Palk Bay rivers form similar spits of sand which extend towards the north-
east. ‘The coasts of India and Ceylon are swept by strong marine currents running
up or down the coast according to the monsoons, but owing to the longer duration
ot the south-west monsoon this produces greater effects, and all rivers flowing into
the gulf have a tendency to extend their deltas towards the north. Near the
coasts the spits consist of coarse fragments, while further out the sands become
successively of finer grain. Long-continued growth of these spits would result in
the formation of a platform arching to north. The rocky ‘ paars’ arrange them-
selves roughly into three groups running parallel with Adam’s Bridge. The first
line is found at a depth of 33-44 fathoms, the second at 6-8 fathoms, and the third
at 9-10 fathoms. lf an area of this character were raised above the sea level we
should expect the harder ‘ paars’ and limestones to exist as islands, between which
would be areas of loose drifting sand.

Such is exactly the structure of Adam’s Bridge. Rameswaram Island has an
ancient coral reef along its northern border, but the bulk of the island, as well as the
others constituting the bridge, are composed of calcareous sandstones, like those
now forming in the ‘ paars.” Similar sandstones are found all along the east coast
of India from Cape Comorin to Madras, and are represented on the west coast by
the ‘littoral concretes’ which are considered by Oldham to have been originally
sand spits or beach deposits. All these contain none but recent shells exactly like
those living in the neighbouring seas. As no rocks of undoubted Tertiary age are
found on the adjacent coasts, it would appear that all through that period the
district has been in a state of equilibrium. Since Miocene times there has been no
break in the deposition of material, the new beds quietly overlapping the older.
In the absence of any signs of tectonic movements during the Tertiary period we
are driven to the conclusion that the shallow platform in the north part of the
Gulf of Manaar is due to the filling up of the sea by the débris derived from the
land. Suess attributes the emergence of Adam’s Bridge and the ‘littoral concrete’
to a negative eustatic movement of the sea level in post-Tertiary times. This may
have been so recent that the great Hindu epic, the ‘ Ramayana, which treats of
the building of Adam’s Bridge, may be a poetical rendering of events witnessed by
man. Although we have no certain evidence that the Bridge was at any time
continuous, we have historic data to prove that the island of Rameswaram was
ence united with Tonitoray Spit.

If, as I suggest, the various links in the chain of islands represent emerged
‘paars,’ we have no reason to suppose, judging from the distribution of those now
forming, that they were ever united.

The following Paper was read to open a Discussion on the Teaching of Geo-
graphy (joint meeting with Section L) :—

6. Geographical Education. By H. J. Mackinper.

Classics and mathematics are effective educational disciplines largely because,
as the result of long experience, they can be taught by methods which are pro-
gressive from the lower to the higher forms of a school. If geography is to be
generally utilised in secondary education, it must become similarly progressive
rather than merely cumulative of facts. In practice this implies the fulfilment of
three conditions :-—

(1) That the pupils be classed in special ‘ sets’ for geography, lest they omit
stages in the argumeut; .
(2) that the master know the subject thoroughly ; and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 725

(3) that the public examinations be based on some generally accepted sequence
of exposition, as in the case of languages and mathematics.

It would probably be hopeless to expect a general fulfilment of the first two con-
ditions unless the third be practicable. It is well, therefore, to concentrate
attention upon this.

The phenomena of geography are capable of arrangement upon alternative
principles, either according to regions or according to categories. In the one case
the chapter-headings of a text-book would be such as ‘ France,’ ‘ India,’ &c.; in
the other they would be such as‘ volcanoes,’ ‘ climates,’ &c. The former is spoken
of as regional geography, the latter as general, or commonly, but unfortunately, as
physical geography. In the university the general classification may often he
advisable, but in the school it is submitted that the regional basis should in the
main be adhered to, for distribution is of the essence of geography and imparts to
regional geography a unity not possessed by physical geography. Indeed the latter
might be described as a series of chapters treating of the geographical aspects of
other sciences—astronomy, geology, meteorology, botany, zoology, anthropology,
strategy, economics, and history. The separation of school geography into two
subjects, topography and physical geography, has probably done more than any-
thing else to arrest its development as a discipline.

It is suggested that it would be quite possible to weave into the regional treat-
ment so much as is needed of other sciences by taking these in one at a time in the
successive stayes of the strictly geographical argument. This idea will be most
easily conveyed by sketching a possible course of instruction. Let it be divided
into six stages, of which the first will be elementary, the next four secondary, and
the last higher.

Stace | (elementary).—It is agreed on all hands that the teaching of geography
should commence with the home. This, however, involves among other things the
observation of the apparent movements of the sun and stars, and hence their ex-
planation by means of the globe. The lie and names of the continents and oceans
would also be learnt upon the globe, and some idea of their chief contrasts won
from the reading of simple stories of discovery, adventure, and travel, the teacher
everywhere asking the pupil to contrast with the home conditions.!

SraceE 2 (ages thirteen and fourteen).—This, which is usually omitted, should
have for subject such a wider ‘home area’ as would permit of the study of entire
river basins, water partings, coast and hill forms, &c. The real study of the use
of maps as opposed to mere plans and sketch maps would commence here, and
this would be the approximate stage for the introduction of such ideas as the
deposition, folding, faulting, and sculpture of rock strata as explanatory of the
surface forms.

Stace 38 (ages fourteen and fifteen).—Here the ‘home country,’ the British
Isles, would be considered asa whole. The land-forms and essentials of structure
would be quickly yet accurately conveyed by the use of the ideas and terms learnt
in Stage 2, and time would thus be available for a thorough explanation of the
climatic contrasts; a subject unsuited to Stage 2 by reason of the limitation of the
area then studied. Moreover the teaching of elementary physics by the science
master would at about this stage render the fundamental ideas involved more
easily appreciable.

Stace 4 (ages fifteen and sixteen).—Here we come to the comparison of the
home country with the great civilised countries of Europe. The physical facts,
both morphological and climatic, would be conveyed quickly yet accurately by
means of the ideas and terms learnt in Stages 2 and 3, and special stress would
now be given to the political and economical facts. The pupils would be ready
for these by reason both of their progress in history and of their increasing
interest in the newspapers. Care would be taken to correlate the political with
the physical. Problems and essays would be set.

StacE 5 (ages sixteen and seventeen).—This would be devoted to the study

_ _ 1 Inthe case of children not proceeding to secondary schools selected portions
of Stages 2 and 3 must be taken in the latter part of the elefnentary training.
3A2

DA, REPORT—1908.

of the whole globe, especially outside Hurope. It might include more accurate
astronomical ideas (ef. Stage 1), for which the pupils would have become fitted by
reason of their mathematical studies; also the leading facts conditioning plant-
life. Both of these contributions would be pertinent to the treatment of climates-
The history of discovery (ef. Stage 1) would be utilised in explaining the
chief place-names. The pupils would by this time have accumulated a consider-
able background of knowledge which would be appealed to. The increasing
wealth and variety of the data would necessitate firm grip on principles and a
logical method. Therefore a specialist teacher would be advisable in order to
obtain mental discipline, just as a classical sixth form requires a composition
master.

Srace 6 (university and college)—Here we should naturally find both
deeper intension and wider exteusion. By the adoption in part of the general
classification—z.e., by the study of the distribution of particular types of pheno-
mena—the student would become critical and be prepared for original research.
On the other hand, by the complementary effort to construct an harmonious
regional geography out of a great series of varied data he would be inspired with
a broad and philosophical outlook.

Nowhere is the contrast between the general and the regional method more
conspicuous than in the treatment of the wind system, The temptation is great
to commence deductively from an imaginary landless globe. But this is essen-
tially unsound because it implants wrong and unscientific habits of thought.
The trade winds, for instance, should first be learnt of and realised as a great fact
in the description of the North Atlantic, the complementary wind being added in
the description of the South Atlantic. The double system would then be found
again in the Pacific and a generalisation demanded by the pupil which would
presently be limited by the facts of the Indian Ocean. The Sahara Desert would
carry the generalisation a step further and into apparently different phenomena.
Only in the end would deduction from ideal zones or belts of climate be per-
mitted by way of mental stocktaking.

The criticism of the practical teacher for such a scheme as is here outlined
would probably be grounded on limitations of time. Itis submitted that with
the pupils in geographical sets, specialist teachers, and agreement as to examina-
tion bases, very much might be accomplished even with the hours now usually
available. At the risk, however, of appearing visionary it is further submitted
that those hours should be extended on the ground that geography is one of
six elements needed in any liberal as opposed to technical education, These
elements are :—

(1) Language, with reading and writing as its implements, and the mother,
the foreign, and the dead tongues as its varieties.

(2) Mathematics, or training in abstract thought.

(3) Experimental science, or training in thought about concrete things,

(4) History, or outlook through the time covered by human records.

(5) Geography, or outlook through the space accessible to men.

(6) Religion and philosophy.

It is submitted that the inclusion of these six elements in a general education is
more essential than the study of several varieties of any one, e.y., several languages
or several sciences.

Apart, however, from any such theoretical argument, it is claimed that
geographical teaching, if it deals with real conceptions and not merely names,
trains in the mind a distinct power, that of thinking in terms of the map, of
visualising intricate correlations, of ordering complex masses of fact—a power of
the utmost value in the practical affairs of after-life. Geography rightly taught
should tend to correct the academic bias of linguistic and mathematical study,
the specialist bias of scientific study, and the archaic or sentimental bias of
historical study. Its danger lies obviously in superficial knowledge and uncritical
thought. ‘Taught in the past too often by those who knew little of it, geography
has no doubt deserved its inferior position among educational disciplines.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 725

Finally it is submitted that geography can be placed in its rightful position
only by the simultaneous application of a fourfold policy :—

(1) The encouragement of university schools of geography where geographers
shall be made, of whom many will become secondary teachers.

(2) The appointment of trained geographers as teachers in our secondary
schools, either for geography alone or for geography and general help in other
subiects,

(3) The general acceptance of a progression of method in the subject, not
expressed in detailed syllabuses issued by the State or other dominant authority,
which would tend to stereotype teaching, but in a tradition similar to that which
at different times has governed the teaching of language and mathematics.

(4) The setting of examinations by expert geographical teachers.

It is obvious that these four measures must be applied simultaneously, for
schools will not appoint specialist teachers unless there is a supply of them to
select from; and yet a supply will not be forthcoming unless there be a promise
of posts, nor is the teacher independent of the examiner or yet of the general
esteem of his subject based on a belief in the value of its methods.

An Ounce of Fact——The adoption of a new syllabus for geography in the
London Matriculation and of geography as an obligatory subject in the Inter-
mediate Examination of the Faculty of Economics and Commerce, coupled with
the appointment of a holder of the diploma of the Oxford School of Geography
as teacher of the subject at University College School, London, has contributed to
results which are patent in the Pass List issued last month by the London
University.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 135,

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Relation and Importance of Botany to Geographical Science,
By Dr, Orro VY, DARBISHTRE.

Plants play a very important part in the composition of the scenery of our
earth. So much is this the case that a barren desert strikes us as remarkable,
chiefly on account of the absence of any vegetation.

The professional geographer and traveller has generally at most only a very
slight acquaintance with any branch of botany. he problem before us is, Would
an acquaintance with certain branches of botany be of any scientific interest or
practical value to the geographer ?

Botany and geography meet on common grourd in the following branches of
botany :—

(a) The geographical distribution of plant species. The distribution of plants
when grouped according to their natural aftinities into natural orders, genera, or
species is seen to depend very generally on the distribution of temperature over
the earth’s surface, without reference as a rule to local conditions.

(6) The geographical distribution of plant forms, or ecology. The plant form
is an expression of the way in which the plant body has adapted itself directly to
the external conditions under which the plant is living. It affords, therefore, to
a certain extent, an indication of what these conditions are. An association of
similar plant forms is called a formation. The presence of any of the three chief
kinds of formation, namely, forest land, grass land, and desert land, depends almost
entirely on the relation existing between the supply of water available for absorp-
tion by the plant root and the amount of water given off by the plant shoot. The
preponderating influence may be due to the climate (climatic formation) or the soil
(edaphic formation), Temperature genera}ly has nq hand in the making of the
plant form. pod ¥

726 REPORT—-1908.

(c) The influence of the plant world on the earth’s surface. Most sub-aérial
plants penetrate into the soil for purposes of attachment or absorption of food
material. Their action may be a physical one only, or a chemical one in addition.
Plants are as often responsible for the first crumbling away of the solid rock as
for the binding together of loose soil.

‘These three subjects are of great interest to the geographer, but ecology is in
addition of the greatest importance to the traveller.

Ecology teaches the traveller how to analyse and classify the forms of vege-
tation met with. He is enabled through it to make out many of the prevailing
conditions by reference to the plant forms observed. He is also enabled to give a
scientifically accurate account of what he has seen, because he understands the
relation existing between the plants and the conditions under which they are
jiving, A knowledge of ecology should, in fact, be considered a most necessary
part of the scientific equipment of any professional traveller.

2. The Observation of Features of Vegetation in Geographical
Exploration. By Dr. W. G. Suir.

Descriptions or even notes on vegetation are not a feature in the majority of
papers in English relating to travel and exploration. Yet the vegetation of a
country is, after the configuration, the most important factor in a landscape.
There are in existing books and papers descriptions of vegetation which show that
these can be made, and that thereby the utility of the observations is greatly
extended, not only from an economic aspect, but also in the direction of plant
geography. Considerable progress has been made towards representing the
vegetation of a country on maps. This is done by recording the limits of distri-
bution of the most abundant (or dominant) planis, such as trees ; and already the
vegetation of considerable tracts of Britain, Europe, and North America has been
charted. The detail in simple cases shows the region of deciduous trees as
distinct from that of coniferous trees, and the forest lands as contrasted with
treeless. Or greater detail may be shown, as in the series of maps now being
issued in Britain.

Vegetation charts of all parts of the earth would be a distinct gain to plant
geography. The scope of such a survey for any area would depend on the maps
available and on the observer's knowledge of plants. In the case of a party
which included a botanist and traversed a country with fairly complete maps
there should be considerable opportunity of ascertaining and recording the limits
of important dominant plants. Such a survey, accompanied by the collecting of
plants, would furnish material of great value. In the case of an expedition in
an area poorly charted there would still be opportunities of collecting fragmentary
evidence regarding vegetation. Notes on the dominant plants could be made at
places where geographical observations were taken, and where a change occurred
from one type of vegetation to another the limit could be ascertained with as
much accuracy as possible. Even in a case where the dominant plants were
unknown to the observer a small collection of them labelled by numbers for
reference could be afterwards identified. An acquaintance with the methods of
botanical survey followed in Britain and elsewhere would be a useful preliminary
for intending travellers.

3. Botanical Survey of the Basins of the Rivers Eden, Tees, Tyne,
and Wear. By Francis J. Lewis, /.L.S.

The survey was begun during the summer of 1900, and had for its object the
mapping of the various plant associations and observations on the different factors
governing their distribution.

The whole of the work has been done with the aid of the 6-inch Ordnance
maps, the boundaries of the different associations as observed in the field being
drawn on these, and subsequently reduced on to smaller scale maps,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Fe a7

The salient features of the vegetation may be summarised as follows :—

The region of cultivation is very restricted, and chiefly confined to altitudes
below 1,000 feet, and the greater part of it is under permanent pasture, although
cultivation with oats is carried on below 800 feet.

The region of woodland is poorly represented, and may be divided into (1) oak
woods, (2) coniferous woods, (8) birch woods. The oak woods occur only below
800 feet, and coniferous and birch woods only in a few instances reach an elevation
of 1,000 feet.

An examination of the peat on the higher fells shows that the ground has not
always been of its present treeless nature. Remains of birch, alder, and poplar
may frequently be discovered buried about 16 or 18 feet down in the peat, and
the author has observed extensive remains of birch as high as 2,400 feet, being
higher than it grows anywhere in Great Britain at the present time. Remains of
pine also occur as high as 2,600 feet on Cross Fell. Sections are being made
through the peat in areas now covered by heather moors, Eriophorum bogs and
Sphagnum bogs, and sufficient evidence has been collected from these sections to
show that nearly the whole of the high-lying watersheds of the Tees, Tyne, and
Wear have at some former time been covered with extensive woods of birch and

ine.

; Pasture associations are chiefly represented by grass heaths dominated by
either Nardus stricta or Molinia varia, according as they occur in well-drained
or wet situations. The natural pasture is limited to outcrops of limestone frea
from peat, and is generally met with in narrow bands or patches, sometimes
occurring in the midst of extensive grass heaths or heather areas. The heather
associations reach their greatest development in the Mickle Fell district on lime-
stone covered with peat. The Stainmore district, to the south of this, consists of
sandstones, grits, and shales, and the chief associations here are Eriophorum bogs
and Sphagnum bogs. These associations also attain a great development on the
sandstones and shales of the Wear watershed.

The chief artificial agency at work tending to modify the vegetation in some
places appears to be overstocking with sheep, the constant browsing, treading, and
manuring tending to kill the natural heather vegetation. Under these circum-
stances the heather area in a badly drained situation may be changed into an
Eriophorum bog, and in a dry, well-drained position into a poor grass heath chiefly
dominated by Nardus stricta and Juncus squarrosus.

A detailed account of this survey, with maps, will be published in the
‘Geographical Journal,’ and the author hopes to extend the area of observation
northward to the Cheviots and westward to the coast covering the northern
portion of the Lake District.

4. Peat Moors of the Southern Pennines: their Age and Origin.
By C. E. Moss, B.Se.

The present condition of these moors is first considered, and the author
classifies them as (i.) Cotton-grass Moors, (ii.) Heather Moors, and (iii.) Grassy
Moors. The question as to whether or not the Pennines were prehistorically tree-
clad is next discussed, and evidence is considered from (i.) history, (ii.) place-names,
(iii.) buried timber, (iv.) neolithic flints, and (v.) present range of British forest
trees. The conclusion is arrived at that, though the Pennine slopes were tree-clad
so late as Saxon and Danish times, yet at that period the summits were covered
with an extensive morass. This morass was caused by the destruction or decay of
forests which existed on the Pennine summits so late probably as the Roman period.

In order to check the estimate suggested by the above conclusions the mode
and rate of formation of peat are considered. The author discusses (i.) the rapid
formation and (ii.) the slow formation of peat, and (iii.) the plants which form peat
at the present time; and he considers that as a rule the peat moors of the Pennines
cannot date to a period further back than about two thousand years. The paper
concludes with remarks on the possible utilisation of the Pennine peat moors,

728 REPORT—1908.

5. Queensland! By J. P, THomson,

After a brief allusion to some of the main landmarks in the history of Queens-
land the paper proceeds to give a general sketch of the physical features of the
State, describing its mountain and river systems and the three great natural
regions into which it may be subdivided on physical and climatic grounds.
These are (1) the eastern division, lying between the coast and the great dividing
range, consisting of well-watered fertile lands clothed in the northern part with
vegetation of unsurpassed luxuriance ; (2) the watershed of the Gulf of Carpentaria,
wholly tropical, but mainly adapted rather for pastoral than agricultural purposes ;
and (3) the vast western district, embracing the famous downs country, unsurpassed
for richness of soil and magnificence of climate, the only drawback being the
uncertain and scanty rainfall, the want of which is, however, to some extent
supplied by its artesian resources. The geological structure, in regard to which
an entire difference is noticeable between the east and the west of the State, is
next comprehensively described, attention being paid to the influence of geological
facts on the possibilities of artesian development. The mineral wealth—consisting
primarily of gold, but including copper, silver, antimony, and tin ores; coal, opal,
gems, bismuth, wolfram, manganese, and lead—is described as practicaily inex-
haustible, and an account is given of the most valuable deposits yet exploited.
The main characters of the flora and fauna are next described, special attention
being paid to the products of most economic importance. In describing the
climate of Queensland the author points out the special advantages possessed by
the southern districts and the curative properties of the dry and buoyant air of
the western plains. The distribution of the rainfall is discussed, and details are
given of the artesian water supply which supplements this in the interior districts.
Possibilities of storage of river water for irrigation are also touched upon. Coming
next to the industrial resources of Queensland, the author points out the unrivatied
advantages given by its position with regard to the great commercial highways of
the East, its fine natural harbours and its coast protected from the ocean by the
Great Barrier reef. The present population is but a fraction of that needed for its
satisfactory development, and ihe immigration of Polynesians is a necessity for
the cultivation of the tropical portion, At present the pastoral industry is more
fully developed than either mining or agriculture, the sheep, cattle, and horses
numbering some scores of millions when not handicapped by droughts. The
agricultural industry is at present limited to the eastern settled district from
Cookstown south, but with irrigation the rich western region might produce
immense quantities of grain. In addition to sugar the coast region produces
maize, tobacco, coffee, cotton, arrowroot, &c., and fruit-growing might be taken up
with profit. The great need is an enormously larger population to settle on the
land and develop its vast resources,

' The scientific matter will be published in the Geographical Journal.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 729

Section F,—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section—Epwarp W, Braproor, C.B,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is a coincidence, which has great interest for me personally, that the honour of
being President of this Section has fallen to me in the last year of my engagement
in the public service. I am now in the sixty-fifth year of my age and the thirty-
fifth of my connection with the Registry of Friendly Societies, and in a few
months the guillotine of the Order in Council will fall, and the Department and
its present head will be severed. The consequences are not so tragic as they
sound, for the Department will at once find a new head, and the old head will
contrive to maintain a separate existence. I therefore meet the stroke of fate with
cheerfulness; for I am strongly of opinion that the arrangements for retirement
from the Civil Service of the country are as wise as they are liberal. It is a good
thing that the place of a man whose ideas have grown old and become fixed, and
whose long service indisposes him to entertain new ones, should be taken by a
younger man anxious to make his own mark on the administration of his depart-
ment. Again, the prospect of promotion opened up by the limited term of
service of the older men is a distinct inducement to able and ambitious young
men to devote themselves to their country’s service. I have lately had occasion to
give minute and careful attention to one branch of this important question, and
the study of the whole subject which has thus been rendered necessary has
strongly confirmed the conviction I previously entertained that the system of
retirement which now prevails greatly tends to promote the efficiency of the
Civil Service and the interests of the country. Ido not apologise for saying
this much on a subject into which I was led by an observation that concerns
me personally, for the means of securing efficiency in the public service is an
important economic question.

The coincidence to which I refer tempts me to choose as the principal subject
of the Address which I am permitted and enjoined to deliver to the Section on this
occasion that small corner of the great field of Economics in which I have been a
day labourer for so long, and I am not able to resist the temptation. My piece of
allotment ground, if I may so call it, is that which is devoted to the cultivation
of thrift, or of economy in the popular rather than the scientific sense. ‘The
temptation is strengthened by the circumstance that that subject has rarely been
treated by my predecessors. Sir Robert Giffen in his Address of 1887 referred to
it, and Sir Charles Fremantle in 1892 treated it at somewhat greater length. In
old times, when the Chair of this Section was more frequently occupied by the
practical statesman than by the professed economist, there were passing allusions
to it by Henry Fawcett in 1872, William Edward Forster in 1873, and Sir Richard
Temple in 1884; but in more recent years the accomplished econamists who

730 REPORT—1903.

have presided over this Section, notably my immediate predecessor, have delivered
luminous and memorable Addresses on the broad principles of Economics, the
application and potency of its doctrines, and their serviceableness to mankind,
with a comprehensiveness of view that is only attainable as the result of deep
study, and a brilliancy of exposition that belongs to philosophic insight. I may
here, in passing, express the satisfaction we all feel that at Cambridge, where we
are to meet next year, proficiency in Economics and Political Science is now fully
recognised as qualifying for academical honours.

I have spoken of the subject of Thrift as a small corner of the great field of
Economics; and relatively to the broad field itself it is so; but it is a subject that
deals with large figures and intimately affects large numbers of people. The 2,000
Building Societies in Great Britam and Ireland have 600,000 members and
sixty-two millions of funds; the 28,000 bodies registered under the Friendly
Societies Act have 12,000,000 members and forty-three millions of funds; the 2,000
co-operative societies have 2,000,000 members and forty millions of funds; the 600
trade unions have more than a million and a half members and nearly five millions
of funds; in the 13,000 Post Office and other savings banks there are more than
10,000,000 depositors and more than 200 millions invested ; so that upon the whole
in nearly 50,000 thrift organisations with which the Registry of Friendly Societies
has, in one form or other, to deal there are twenty-seven millions of persons interested
and 360 millions of money engaged. ‘These figures, however, possess no signifi-
cance other than that they are very big. Many individuals are necessarily counted
more than once, as belonging to more than one society in one class, or to more
than one class of societies. Some portion of the funds of Friendly Societies is
invested in savings banks, and therefore is counted twice over. Some of the
co-operative societies, as, for example, the wholesale societies, have for capital the
contributions of other societies, which thus are also counted twice over. On the
other hand, the aggregate, large as it is, is necessarily defective. It includes oniy
bodies which are brought into relation with the Registry of Friendly Societies in
one or other of the functions exercised by that department. It does not include,
therefore, many co-operative and other bodies which are registered under the
Companies Act, nor the Industrial Assurance Companies which are regulated by
the Assurance Companies Act, nor does it include the great body of Friendly
Societies which are not registered at all. Among these shop clubs hold a
prominent position, and these are very numerous. The Royal Commissioners of
thirty years ago thought that the unregistered were then commensurate with the
registered bodies; and as one result of the legislation which the Commissioners
recommended has been to diminish the applications for registry made by such
societies as are subjected by it to the necessity of a periodical valuation of assets
and liabilities, there seems no reason to think that unregistered societies are
relatively now any fewer than they were then.

It would seem, then, that the figures we have cited are well within the mark,
and that, used for the mere purpose of indicating the magnitude of the interests
involved, they may be relied upon as not over-estimating it. The observation
just made leads to the question, why should there be so many unregistered
societies? Why, indeed, should there be any unregistered societies? The
National Conference of Friendly Societies, which consists wholly of registered
bodies, has just passed a resolution recommending the enactment of a law that
all societies should be compelled to register. Why not? I think it will not be
difficult to find the real answer to these questions. It was given as long ago as
1825 by a Committee of the House of Commons in these wise words :—‘ It is
only in consideration of advantages conferred by law that any restrictive inter-
ference can be justified with voluntary associations established for lawfnl and
innocent purposes. It is for the individuals themselves to determine whether to
adopt the provisions of the statute, which offers them at the same time regulation
and privilege, or to remain perfectly unfettered by anything but their own will,
and the common or more ancient law against fraud or embezzlement,’ which
common or more ancient law was strengthened in 1868 by the Act known as
Russell Gurney’s Act, ‘For your Committee apprehend that although the Act

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 731

ot 1793 appears to begin by rendering lawful the institution of Friendly Societies,
there neither was at that time nor is now any law or statute which deprives the
King’s subjects of the right of associating themselves for mutual support.’

Upon this principle the Legislature has hitherto proceeded. Kegistration is
voluntary. The subscriptions of the members are voluntary. The conditions of
membership are such as the rules framed by the members themselves impose.
They haye full authority to alter those rules from time to time. Those conditions
may, if the members so please, imply that the subscriptions are to be small and
the benefits large. They may provide for investment of funds on any security
they think fit so long as it is not personal security. They may provide for the
periodical division of the funds so long as they make it clear that all claims
existing at the time of division are first to be met. Up to this point the regis-
tered society and the unregistered are hardly distinguishable. What, then, are the
obligations consequent upon registry ? There is the making an annual return and
the making a quinquennial valuation; but the action to be taken by the society
upon the result of the valuation is wholly in the discretion of the members.
The valuer may demonstrate beyond doubt that the society in order to save itself
from disaster must increase the subscriptions of the members or diminish their
benefits; but neither he nor the Registrar can‘ enforce the recommendation. The
society has its destinies wholly in its own hands. Then, again, the Act contains
certain provisions for the protection of members. Individual members have the
right to inspect the books of the society, to receive copies of its balance-sheets
and valuations, and so forth. A certain number of the members have the right to
apply to the Registrar to appoint an inspector into the affairs of the society or to
call a special meeting of the members. The inspector can only report—there is
no action which the Registrar can take upon his report if the members disregard
it. The special meeting will in no way differ from an ordinary meeting called by
the society itself, except that it may choose its own chairman. The Registrar
cannot in any way control its proceedings. Even these things he cannot do
of his own motion without being set in action by a competent number of the
members. If a society becomes insolvent, members may in like manner apply to
him to wind it up: he may see that a readjustment of contributions and benefits
would set the society on its legs again, and may suspend his award of dissolution
to enable the society to make that readjustment, but he can do no more, If the
society refuse to make it, he has no option but at the end of the period of suspen-
sion to issue the award. Here again he may have the fullest knowledge that a
society is hopelessly insolvent, yet he can do nothing unless a competent number
of the members call in his aid. I confess that I think the Legislature might have
gone further in this respect and conferred upon the Registrar, or at any rate upon
some public authority, the power to deal compulscrily with cases of hopeless
insolvency, and if necessary to appoint a receiver, as such cases are not infrequently
complicated with fraud carried on in circumstances which make it difficult for a
competent number of the members to join in an application to the Registrar.
However that may be, taking the legislation as it stands, it embodies to the
fullest extent the principle laid down by the Committee of 1825.

The surrender of freedom which a Friendly Society is called upon to make in
order to obtain the privileges of registry, which are not inconsiderable, is therefore
exceedingly small; yet it is sufficient, as we have seen, to keep out of the registry
office a large number of societies. It seems not improbable, looking back on the
history of legislation on the subject—and the observation is a curious one—that un-
willingness to register has been closely connected with actuarial considerations.
Thus, in the year 1819, an Act was passed which provided, among other things,
that the justices should not confirm any tables or rules connected with calculation
until they had been approved by two persons at least known to be professional
actuaries or persons skilled in calculation ; but that was repealed in 1829. Again,
in 1846 an Act was passed which provided, among other things, that every regis-
tered society should make a quinquennial valuation; but that was repealed in
1850 before a single quinquennial period had arrived. It was not till a quarter
of a century after 1850 that this most salutary provision again found a place in

732 REPORT—1908,.

the statute book, and the experience of the last twenty-eight years has shown how
valuable it is, and how much it is to be regretted that the Act of 1846 was not
allowed to remain in force. Again, the Act of 1850 provided for the discrimina~
tion of societies into two classes: those which were simply registered and those
which were certified. These latter were to obtain the certificate of a qualified
actuary that their tables of contribution were sufficient for the benefits they pro-
posed to insure. Very few certified societies were established, and that Act was
repealed in 1855, The experience of the Legislature has not been favourable
therefore to endeavours to impose upon Friendly Societies by Act of Parliament
conditions of actuarial soundness.

If, however, the voluntary principle is abandoned, and all societies are to be
compelled to register, it is obvious that there must be a recurrence to the policy
of imposing such conditions. At present a registered society may be as unsound
as it pleases, and so may an unregistered society. Unless registry is to imply
something more than that, there can be no reason for any compulsion to register.
For what does compulsion mean? It means prosecuting, fining, and sending to
prison all persons who associate themselves together for the lawful and innocent
purpose of mutual support in sickness and adversity without registration; and
that, obviously, cannot reasonably be done unless abstinence from registration is
shown to be a moral offence; that is to say, unless the conditions of registration
are such that a registered society shall be necessarily a good one, and an unregis-
tered society necessarily a bad one. We must begin, at any rate, by devising
model tables and insisting that every society shall adopt them. Are they not
ready to hand? Did not my lamented colleague, Mr. Sutton, prepare a Blue Book
of 1,350 pages full of them? That is true; but it is also true that in the brief
introductory remarks which he addressed to me at the beginning of that report
he observed, with great force, that the adoption of sufficient rates of contribution is
not enough to secure the soundness of a society. Those rates are derived from the
average experience of all classes of societies—some exercising careful supervision
over claims for sick pay, others lax in their management—and it is upon care in
the management, rather than upon sufficiency of rates, that the success of a
Friendly Society mainly depends. If the members administer the affairs of their
society with the same rigorous parsimony and watch over the claims for sick-pay
with the same vigilance which a poor and prudent man is compelled to exercise in
the administration of his own household affairs, the society will be more than
solvent, even though they do not pay as high a contribution as the model tables
exact. If they neglect these precautions, there is no model table which will rescue
them from ultimate insolvency. In Mr. Sutton’s happy phrase, it is the personal
equation of the members and of their medical adviser that tells the most on the
prosperity or the failure of a society. Your compulsory registration will impose
unfair conditions on the well-managed societies, and will do nothing to prevent
the inevitable collapse of those which are badly managed. Registration tells for a
great deal while it is voluntary and free; but if you make it compulsory, and add
to it conditions that you suppose will tend to soundness, you will inevitably do
more harm than good. It is, of course, of vital importance that adequate rates of
contribution should be charged for the benefits proposed to be insured; but if
these are imposed by authority, the management of the societies must also be
undertaken by the same authority. It is a curious observation, which has heen
borne out by experience, that in poor societies the claims for sickness are relatively
less than in rich ones. M. Bertillon, the eminent French statistician, has shrewdly
remarked: ‘The truth is, that friendly societies, when they grant sick-pay, attach
less weight to the text of their rules than to the state of their funds. If the
society is rich, it grants relief more freely than if it is poor. Thence, and thence
only, it comes that the great English societies, which are often very old and
generally rich, give more days’ pay than the French societies, for example, which
are bound to a rigorous economy.’ Without necessarily assenting to all that
M. Bertillon says, it is easy to see that if the State were unwise enough to say
that such-and-such rates would be sufficient, it would encourage laxity of manage-
ment, and a¢cept 2 responsibility that does not belong to it, ‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 730

I may now proceed to show that the present voluntary system, unscientific as
it may be supposed to be, works very well on the whole. Its most useful feature
is the valuation, for a society which disregards the lessons of one valuation finds
itself pulled up sharply by the results of a second. A deificiency that is frankly
faced by an increase of contributions, a reduction of benefits, or a levy, or by all
three together, will probably not only disappear, but be succeeded by a surplus ;
but a deficiency that is disregarded not only grows at compound interest, but
increases by the continued operation of the causes which produced it. It is to be
remembered that a valuation deficiency or surplus, as the case may be, in a
Friendly Society is always hypothetical. It means this in the case of deficiency—
if you go on as you are going and do not modify your contracts, you will ultimately
be in a deficiency of which this is the present value. In the case of surplus it
means—if you go on as you are going and do not allow your prosperity to tempt
you to recklessness, you will probably have enough to meet all your engagements,
and this much over together with its improvements at interest.

When Friendly Societies are considered in their economic aspect, they appear to
be an excellent application of the principle of insurance to the wants of the indus-
trial community. Sickness may come upon a working man at any time, and may
disable him from work for an indefinite period. In such an event, if he had
nothing to rely upon but his own savings accumulated while he was at work, they
would before long be exhausted, and he would be left in distress, By combining
with a number of others who are exposed to the same risk, he can fall back upon
the contributions to the common fund which have besn made by those who have
escaped sicixness. It is an essential part of every contract of insurance that the
contributions of all who are exposed to an equal contingent risk are equal ; but the
benefits are only derivable by those of the number in whose experience the contin-
gent risk becomes actual, and they receive more than they have paid, the deficiency
ee made up out of the contributions of those who have escaped the contingent
risk.

This really seems too elementary a proposition to be worth stating, but it is
the fact that the principle of insurance is so little understood that many members
of Friendly Societies look upon themselyes as having performed an altruistic and
charitable act in joining a society when they have been fortunate enough not to
make claims upon it through sickness. Several intelligent witnesses before Lord
Rothschild’s Committee on Old-age Pensions, representing large and well-managed
societies, actually urged upen the Committee that the members of Friendly
Societies were more deserving of old-age pensions than other people because they
subscribed for the benefit of others and not of themselves.

Another economic point of view in which Friendly Societies call for considera-
tion is that of their relation to the Poor Law. The old Act of 1793, which was
the day of elaborate preambies to statutes, affirmed that the protection and
encouragement of such societies would be likely to be attended with very bene-
ficial effects by promoting the happiness of individuals, and at the same time
diminishing the public burdens. he public burden at which this was pointed
was no doubt the Poor Law, which was then administered in a very different
manner from that which has prevailed since the great reform of 1834, and one of
the items of encouragement which the Legislature provided for the societies was
that their members should not be liable to removal under the Poor Law until
they had actually become chargeable to their respective parishes. This exemption
was no doubt of great value at that time, when the law of settlement bore very
severely upon the poor,

It appears to me that the proper relation of the Friendly Societies to the Poor
Law is a negative one. The main object of the societies should be, as indeed it is,
to keep their members independent of the Poor Law. They have done so with
great success. The returns which have more than once been presented to Parlia-
ment of persons receiving relief who are or have been members of Friendly
Societies have frequently been shown to be untrustworthy. The number of actual
members of such societies who seek relief is small absolutely, and still smaller
relatively to the population. It was therefore not without regret that I observed

734 REPORT— 1903.

the passing of an Act in 1894 which empowered Boards of Guardians to grant
relief out of the poor rates to members of Friendly Societies, and if they thought
fit to exclude from consideration of the amount of ‘relief to be granted the amount
received by the applicant from his Friendly Society. That Act has just been
followed in the natural course of events by a bill for taking away from the
Guardians their discretion in the matter, and requiring them to grant full relief to
the applicant in addition to the weekly sum, not exceeding five shillings, which he
receives from his Friendly Society. In other words, they are to provide a pauper
who is a member of a Friendly Society with a free income of five shillings a week
more than they would grant as adequate relief to a pauper who was not a member
of a Friendly Society, however deserving in other respects that pauper might be.
Poor-law relief, instead of being a painful and deplorable necessity, is elevated
into a reward of merit in the one case, in which tbat merit has been displayed
by joining a society. A kind of old-age pension is provided for the member, hut
instead of being an old-age pension without the taint of pauperism, it is a condi-
tion of obtaining it that the man must become a pauper. This seems to me to be
topsy-turvy legislation. The very bodies whose aim and proud boast it should be
that their members never are paupers haye been contented to claim for their
members the rank of privileged paupers.

The discussion of the subject of old-age pensions which has now been proceed-
ing for the last twelve or thirteen years has had one good effect in bringing under
the consideration of the Friendly Societies the practical methods by which they can
obtain these pensions for themselves. The impression that some day and some-
how the State would provide pensions for everybody, or at least for everybody
who is thrifty, bas had a bad effect ; but the wiser members of the societies have
seen that it would be a good thing to substitute for their present plan of continu-
ing sick-pay to the end of life a plan of insuring a certain annuity after a given
age. For this purpose they have had to overcome a natural reluctance on the
part of the members to lock up their savings in the purchase of deferred annuities,
and they have done so with some success, several thousands of persons having agreed
to subscribe for these benefits. It is anticipated that the report of Mr. Alfred
Watson on his investigations into the sickness experience of the Manchester Unity
of Oddfellows will add force to this movement by showing how great a burden
old-age sickness at present is, and how slight an additional sacrifice would secure
a deferred annuity. It need hardly be said that it is more desirable that the
members generally should do this for themselves than that they should get the
State to do it for them.

Registered Friendly Societies are becoming more popular and more wealthy
under the present system. The number of returns from societies and branches
increased from 23,998 on December 31, 1891, to 26,431 on December 31, 1899,
- and 27,005 on December 31, 1901; the number of members from 4,203,601 to
5,217,261 in eight years, and to 5,479,882 in ten years; the amount of funds from
22,695,039/., or 5/. 8s. per member, to 32,751,869/., or 61. 5s. 6d. per member, after
eight years, and 35,572,740/., or 6/. 93. 9d. per member, after ten years. It is
necessary to observe, however, that some of the numerical increase is due to greater
completeness in the later returns. The increase in ratio is not aflected by this.
It may be worth noting that, on the average, the proportion of members under fifty
years of age to those above that age is as 81 to 19; and that of the total aggregate
receipts per annum, 73 per cent. goes in benefits, 11 per cent. in management, and
16 per cent. is added to capital. The average annual contribution per member is
ll. 1s. 6d.

Up to this point I have referred merely to the Friendly Society of the ordinary
type, the sick club and burial fund. Societies of the collecting group, while
registered under the Friendly Societies Act, are also regulated by a separate Act,
and it is convenient therefore to consider them apart. They insure burial money
only. They are only 46 in number, having increased from 43 in 1891. They have
as many as 6,678,005 members, an increase from 5,922,616 in 1899 and 3,875,215
in 1891; but among these each individual above the age of one year im every
family is counted separately, andthe majority, therefore, are young children.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 739

Their funds are 5,973,104/., or 17s. 11d. per member, having increased from
5,207,686/., or 17s. 7d. per member, since 1899, and from 2,713,214/., or 14s. per
member, since 1891. These societies therefore show progress like the others.

The coJlecting societies do a similar business to that of the Industrial Assur-
ance Companies, of which the Prudential is the type. Their ostensible reason for
existence is to answer that instinct of human nature which makes even the
poorest desire that the burial of the dead should be attended with some degree of
ceremony ; but strong as that instinct may be, it does not prompt the poor to
seek out the office of the society and pay their premiums there. They have to be
solicited by canvassers and waited upon by an army of collectors at their own
homes; and the maintenance of this army and the general cost of management
absorb nearly half the contributions, so that the poor insurer pays double the net
price for his insurance. ‘There is reason to believe, moreover, that these societies
are largely used for speculative insurances by persons who have no real insurable
interest in the lives insured. So long ago as 1774 an Act was passed for the
purpose of checking this sort of gambling in human life; but as it only makes the
policy void, the insurer takes the risk of the society repudiating the contract,

nowing that its doing so would discredit it and spoil its business.

A number of other classes of societies are capable of being registered under the
Friendly Societies Act, such as cattle insurance societies, benevolent societies,
working men’s clubs, and societies for any purpose the registry of which the
Treasury may specially authorise. The formation of cattle insurance societies on
a large scale was contemplated by an Act of 1866, when the cattle plague was at
its height ; but in practice only small pig clubs and similar societies in Lincolnshire
and the neighbouring counties have been registered under this head. Benevolent
societies are defined. as societies for any benevolent or charitable purpose, and might
therefore comprise all the charitable institutions of the United Kingdom, but in
fact the registered benevolent societies are few. Working men’s clubs—frequenily
called working men’s clubs and institutes—were first brought under the operation
of the Friendly Societies Act of that day by Sir George Grey as Secretary of
State in 1864, aud were then societies for purposes of social intercourse, mutual
helpfulness, mental and moral improvement, and rational recreation. They are
still so defined by law; what they are in fact has been revealed by the provisions
of the Licensing Act, 1902, as to the registration of clubs. Rules have been sub-
mitted to the Registry Office, and we have been advised that we have no discretion
to refuse to register them as rules for carrying out the excellent purposes just de-
fined, providing for the supply of intoxicating liquors to members and their friends
at hours when the ordinary licensed houses are compulsorily closed, for keeping the
club open every night till midnight, and on nights when there are balls till six
o'clock in the morning, and for other incitements to intemperance. I hope that it
will not be long before an enactment is passed that the registry of a club under the
Licensing Act shall vacate its registry under the Friendly Societies Act. Such
clubs have nothing to do with thrift or with insurance; they are rather instru-
ments of extravagance, improvidence, and dissipation.

Some of the specially authorised purposes are also wide of the mark, which
upon the ejusdem generis rule should, I think, be poimted with strictness in the
direction of provident insurance ; but there has always been a desire liberally to
extend the benefits of the Friendly Societies Act with a view to the encourage-
ment of societies having praiseworthy objects which for want of means or some
other reason are not registered as companies. The large majority of specially
authorised societies are Loan Societies, and though these may in some cases be
fairly good investments for those who lend, they are of doubtful benefit to those
who borrow. An exception must be made to this statement with respect to the
Agricultural Credit Societies, many of which have been established in Ireland by
the exertions of Sir Horace Plunkett, and have been pecuniarily assisted by the
Congested Districts Board. It is a feature of these societies that they not only
lend money to the small farmer, but see that he spends it on improvements to his
farm ; and also that there is no division of profit among the members.

The returns*from all societies under the Friendly Societies: Act other than

736 REPORT—19038.

Friendly Societies proper increased from 557 in 1891 to 1,808 in 1899, and 1,449
in 1901; the number of members from 241,446 in 1891 to 610,264 in 1899, and
649,491 in 1901; and the amount of funds from 594,808/. in 1891 to 1,5238,064Z.
in 1899, and 1,686,656/. in 1901. Here, again, great allowance has to be made for
the want of completeness in the returns of the earliest date.

Allied to Friendly Societies, but having special regulations under other Acts,
are shop clubs and workmen’s compensation schemes. In a vast number of large
industrial establishments the men have their own sick club, sometimes assisted by
the employer; and in a few the employer makes ita condition of employment that
every workman shall join the club. Where this is done it is now enacted, not only
that the club shall comply with the requirements of the Friendly Societies Act as
to registry, but also with other conditions of more stringency. As yet only afew
clubs have been able to satisfy all the requirements of the Shop Clubs Act, 1902,
The workmen’s compensation schemes provide an alternative to the general scheme
of compensation to injured workmen contained in the Act of 1897, and have en-
abled the employers and workmen in several large industries to enter into mutual
arrangements by which the workman gains an equivalent to the compensation
which the Act would give him, and enters into partnership with the employer
for obtaining other benefits. According to the returns, these schemes have hitherto
resulted very favourably to the workmen, and it seems a pity there are not more
of them.

The sentiment of which I have spoken, that it is desirable to extend the benefits
of the Friendly Societies Acts to societies for good objects, even though those
objects may not be purposes of provident insurance, is expressed in the statute of
1834, which allowed of ‘any purpose which is not illegal,’ and in that of 1846, in
which the definition of a Friendly Society was made to include the frugal invest-
ment of the savings of the members for better enabling them to purchase food,
firing, clothes, or other necesaries, or the tools, implements, or materials of their
trade or calling, or to provide for the education of their children or kindred, Under
these Acts the Rochdale Equitable Pioneers and a number of other Co-operative
Societies were registered, and in 1852 an Act was passed specially dealing with
these bodies under the name of Industrial and Provident Societies. They were
made corporate bodies by an Act of 1862, and are now regulated by the Industrial
and Provident Societies Act, 1893. The societies that may be registered under that
Act are societies for carrying on any industries, businesses, or trades specified in or
authorised by their rules, whether wholesale or retail, and including dealings of
any description with land.

This definition indicates pretty clearly the manner in which Co-operative Societies
have worked out their own evolution, The expression ‘Industries’ denotes the
productive form of society, a form which has always embodied the ideal of co-
operation when the combined labour of the members should be engaged in the
production of commodities. ‘The expression ‘ Businesses’ indicates the recognition
of the Legislature that Co-operative Societies ought to cover a wider range than was
allowed by the words ‘labour, trade, or handicraft’ in the Act of 1876, and includes
banking, assurance, and the like. The expression ‘Trades’ denotes the distribu-
tive form of society, a form in which co-operation has gained its greatest successes,
The permission to carry on these functions ‘wholesale’ as well as retail points to
the system of super-association, or co-operation between socisties, which has at-
tained phenomenal proportions in the co-operative wholesale societies of Man-
chester and of Glasgow, and exists ina smaller degree of development in other
societies. The authorising of ‘dealings of any description with land’ relates not
merely to a considerable number of land societies, but is also an indication of the
great extent to which societies for other purposes have applied their profits and
some of their capital to the excellent work of providing homes for their mem-
bers. It is also to be observed that many societies are both distributive and
productive.

What have these societies done for their members? They have reduced the
price of the necessaries of life and have thus enabled persons of limited means to
enjoy some of its luxuries; they have provided a remunerative investment for

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, "37

small savings; they have done much to put an end to the practice of giving and
taking long credit ; they have done as much as in them lies to ensure the purity
of commodities; they have discountenanced (though, perhaps, not with all the
success that might have been hoped for) the practice of taking commissions and
commercial bribery generally; they have raised the standard of comfort and have
helped many members to obtain the coveted possession of a house of their own;
they have devoted a share of their profits to educational purposes with excellent
results, Some of the productive societies, by the practice of giving a bonus to
labour, have improved the economic position of the workman and contzibuted to
the efficiency of his work. On the other hand, co-operative societies generally have
not been so successful as was expected in realising some of the aspirations of the
founders of co-operation ; commercial failure has not been unknown among them ;
losses have occurred, though the simple organisation of the societies has made it
easy to deal with them by adjustments of the capital account; they have not always
had the best of managers, and have sometimes failed to give their confidence
where it was deserved, and given it where it was not. In many places they have
had to contend with opposition from the traders to whose business and profits
their success was unfavourable. Taking all things into consideration, the progress
they have made is surprising.

Comparing the returns for the United Kingdom for the years ending Decem-
ber 31, 1891, and December 31, 1901, the increase in number of societies was from
1,597 to 2,175; in number of members from 1,136,907 to 1,929,628; in amount of
funds from 16,545,138Z. to 40,824,660/.

It has been observed that the Co-operative Societies are largely undertaking
the work of providing houses for their members ; and to that it may be added that
the Friendly Societies are more and more tending to adopt the practice of lending
money to members on mortgage as one of the most remunerative forms of invest-
ment cpen to them. The Building Societies, which were established for that
purpose only, are still carrying on the same work, and the combined operation of
all three ought to produce a material effect on the prosperity and well-being of
the industrial population, Building Societies alone advance as much as 9,000,000/,
a year on mortgage.

Building Societies have passed through a crisis. The incorporated societies
reached their highest point of prosperity in 1887, when their capital amounted to
fifty-four millions ; by 1894 it had fallen to below forty-three millions. The Building
Societies Act, 1894, required of societies a fuller disclosure of the real state of their
affairs than had previously been called for. The result was to show that, apart
from the special scandal caused by the fraudulent proceedings of the Liberator
Society, there were hitherto undisclosed elements of weakness in the management of
Building Societies that justified the withdrawal of the public confidence that had
been reposed in them, The properties in possession before the passing of the Act
of 1894 were not less than 7,500,000/.; they are now less than 3,000,000/. This
points to the fact that the early prosperity of Building Societies had led to the
establishmext of more societies than the public demand called for, with the con-
sequences that societies competed against each other, and that in the stress of
competition and the anxiety to do business they accepted unsatisfactory securities,
which must lead to loss upon realisation. From this point of view the effect of
the Act of 1894 has been wholly salutary. Year after year the societies have
reduced their properties in possession. The evils which they dreaded from the
disclosure of the facts have not arisen. At this day it may be said that the
societies as a whole have regained the position they held in public contidence, for
the members now know the worst. ‘They know, too, that where the blight of
properties in possession still infests the business the managers are resolutely
endeavouring to diminish its effect.

I need hardly repeat what has so often been said of the economic value of a
sound Building Society. The man who by its means gets a stake in the country
mounts many steps on the social ladder. When he has paid off the mortgage on
his own dwelling-house, and: so liberated himself from the obligation to pay
principal and interest, either in the form of repayment annuity or of rent, what

1903. 3B

738 REPORT—1903.

is to prevent him from buying in the same manner, as an investment, another house
with the income thus set free, and so on P

There are still sixty-eight Building Societies which remain under the operation
of the Act of 1836, having been established before 1856, and not having availed
themselves of the option of taking upon themselves the responsibilities and the
ptivileges of the Acts of 1874 and subsequent years. One society (the Birkbeck)
stands by itself, as, although its business as a Building Society is considerable—
the new advances granted on mortgage last year having been for 120,000/,—its main
operations are those of a deposit bank, and it keeps the far greater part of its
funds in investments on liquid securities. The other societies are pursuing the
even tenor of their way, just as they have done for the last fifty years, and show
on the average an increase of business from year to year. But the great body of
Building Societies are those which are incorporated under the Acts of 1874 to
1894, exceeding 2,000 in number. They have so far recovered from the effects of
the depression that their assets are now forty-eight millions, being midway between
the low-water mark of 1894 and the high-water mark of 1887. That and the fact
that they have in about seven years reduced their properties in possession by
about 60 per cent. leads to the inference that they are now, speaking generally, in
a fairly healthy condition, and that many years of usefulness are still to be
expected for them.

The Friendly Societies Registry also registers and receives returns from trade
unions. -These useful and necessary bodies have, I think, been rather cruelly
treated, not only in past days, but also in more recent times. Without going
back to the bad old times when six poor agricultural labourers were sentenced to
seven years’ transportation for forming a trade union, or even to the time when
they were refused the protection of the law for the funds they had accumulated,
because, forsooth, they were for an illegal purpose, it will be sufficient to mark
the unexpected change that has been worked in their position since the Act of
1871 purported to render them legal. Registry under that Act authorised the
trustees of a trade union to hold land not exceeding one acre, vested the property
of the union in them, authorised them to sue and be sued on behalf of the union,
limited their liability, made the treasurers and officers accountable to them or to
the members, and enabled them to take summary proceedings against any person
misapplying their funds. But it did not create the unions corporate bodies, and
did not enable any Court to entertain legal proceedings for enforcing their con-
tracts with their members, recovering contributions due from a member, or recoyer-
ing from the union benefits due to a member or other person, or for enforcing any
agreement between one trade union and another, even where any such contracts
or agreements were secured by bond. It was commonly thought that the effect
of all this would be that the unions, having none of the privileges of incorpora-
tion, would escape the liabilities which affect corporate bodies; and so much was
this the general opinion that the Duke of Devonshire and other members of the
Royal Commission on Labour made a minority report in which they suggested that
the law in this respect should be altered.

It has recently been determined that, although unions are not corporate bodies,
they are responsible for the acts of their agents as much asif they were. I do
not presume to question the propriety of this decision as a matter of law, nor even
to say that it is a decision which is contrary to equity ; but oaly to point out that
its result upon the individual member of a trade union, who gave no mandate
to its agents to do any illegal or injurious act, but handed over his savings to the
trustees of the union, relying on the stringency of the provisions of the Act as to
misapplication of funds, is very serious and was unexpected. The contributions of
workmen to their trade union represent an amount of self-sacrifice and self-denial
that is not readily gauged or measured or understood by persons in easier circum-
stances of life. Their object, which is primarily to provide the sinews of war in
any conflict that may be necessary to secure their material. welfare, and secondarily
to provide sick and funeral and pension and out-of-work benefits against the
ordinary ills of life, is one that ought to appeal most strongly to the sympathies of
the economist. If itis the fact that trade unions. make mistakes, as. most pevple

TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION F. 739

do, those mistakes will be much fewer and less mischievous when full iegislative
recognition and protection are afforded them than they were under the old régime
of suspicion and repression.

Loan Societies under the Act of 1840 are societies for lending sums of money
not exceeding 15/. to the industrious classes upon terms of a deduction of interest
at the time of granting the loan and a corresponding weekly repayment fixed to
commence at such a time that the rate of interest earned by the society shall be
about 12 per cent. perannum ; another instance of the experience which always
faces the poor man that he has to pay for any small accommodation he wants a
higher relative price than the man has who wants more. These societies are of
two types: the Friends of Labour Loan Societies, existing mainly in the metro-
polis, having two classes of members, investing and borrowing, but limiting the
subscriptions of the one class to the 15/. which is the statutory limit of the loans
to the other class; and what may be called the proprietary loan societies, existing
mainly in Yorkshire, making their loans to non-members, and consisting of a
small number of persons who contribute the whcle of the capital, the holding of
each proprietor sometimes amounting to several hundreds of pounds.

The Registry of Friendly Societies has for one of its functions that of granting
to societies which are exclusively for purposes of science, literature, and the fine
arts certificates exempting them from local rating. Though there can be no
question that these certificates are of great’ value to many excellent institutions,
such as public libraries, picture galleries, museums, and scientific and learned
societies, which would find the liability to pay rates, in these days when rates have
increased and are increasing so largely, a serious deduction from the scanty means
at their command for maintaining their useful operations, yet I have very grave
doubts whether on economic grounds any such exemption from rates is capable of
being defended. The benevolent people who subscribe to maintain these buildings
for the public good increase the burden upon the small ratepayer to the extent to
which they fail to contribute their share. The Act of 1843 has more than once
been scheduled in Bills for repealing exemptions from rating, but those Bills have
not been passed, and the Act is still in force.

There only remains to consider the case of Savings Banks, which are brought
in connection with the Registry of Friendly Societies by the Acts which confer
upon that office exclusive and final jurisdiction in the settlement of disputes, and
effectually oust the jurisdiction of the Courts of Law. Under these Acts many
thousands of disputes have been settled by my predecessors, my colleagues, and
myself, and at the present time an average of three appointments every week
during the busy time of the year has to be made to hear the parties. We see
much of the seamy side of life in these cases—many family and other quarrels of a
sordid character are brought to light—and it has been noted as a curious fact that
persons guilty of fraud or embezzlement seem frequently, but most unwisely, to
select the Savings Bank as the securest receptacle for their ill-gotten gains. On
the other hand many pathetic and touching instances of thrift and self-sacrifice
have been brought under our notice, and much evidence has been accumulated as to
the great value to the poor of these excellent institutions. As compared with the
several self-governing bodies to which I have already called attention, the Savings
Bank may not unfairly be described as the elementary form of organisation for
thrift. The depositor entrusts his money to it for mere safe custody and accumu-
lation, and has no voice in the application of it or control over its managers. All
he asks is that he may run no risk of losing it. Savings Banks are of three classes :
the 230 Trustee Savings Banks of the old type which still remain, and have to
their credit an undiminished amount of funds, though there were at one time
more than twice as many banks; the Post Office Savings Bank, which is one of
the many monuments still extant to the financial genius of Mr. Gladstone, and not
less to the administrative skill of the public servants who settled the lines upon
which it works, and which has increased the savings of the people more than three-
fold by bringing almost to every man’s door the opportunity of making deposits.
T hope that it may meet in its new and splendid home at West Kensington with a
continuance and increase of the marvéllous success which has-hitherto attended it,

<iniintaiteaens 3B2Z

740 REPORT—19035.

Thirdly, there are the Railway Savings Banks, which have collected from the
workmen employed and from their families nearly five million pounds. It is
right to observe that they give a rate of interest exceeding by about 1 per cent.
that given by the Trustee and Post Office Savings Banks. It is also to be borne
in mind that the deposits in Savings Banks are not drawn wholly from the
industrial population, but that many, especially women and children, belonging
to other classes make use of the banks. Indeed, the Postmaster-General, in an
approximate estimate made some years ago, calculated that women and children
constituted 56 per cent. of the whole number of depositors. School Savings Banks
and Penny Savings Banks are also to be mentioned as feeders of the ordinary
Savings Banks, and as greatly increasing the opportunities of saving afforded to
the young, and instilling into them valuable lessons of thrift.

Such is the story the department I am about to leave has to tell of the free
and spontaneous efforts of the industrial population to better their condition by
means of thrift and economy. It is, I venture to think, one which speaks well
for the general body of that population and has great promise for the future of the
country. In times of depression, as well as in times of prosperity, the gradual
increase of the funds of these various bodies has been maintained; the members
have not been compelled by the one, nor tempted by the other, to relax their
efforts and their sacrifices.

I ask forgiveness for having detained you so long on so small a branch of the
great subjects with which this Section has to deal, and which will be well illus-
trated in the important papers and discussions that are set down on its programme.
The course of events has given to one group of subjects, that has often been
considered in this Section, a new and unexpected prominence; and we await with
keen interest the teaching which economic science has to offer on the questions
of the day.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Growth of Rates. By Bunevicr W. Ginspure, If4., LL.D.

Without attempting to deal with this question as a whole, the paper is
designed to show the impossibility of raising, as is proposed, large sums of money
from our provincial cities for the purposes of higher education, With this view
the statistics of seven important towns—Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Leeds,
Liverpool, Manchester, and Sheffield—are examined, and the area, population,
rateable value, amount raised by the rates, and levy of rates per pound over
decennial periods for the last half-century, taken out. Liverpool, as being the
nearest end perhaps the most important city, is taken as an example, and her
position discussed in detail. Comparing 1881 with 1851 it appears that though
the population and rateable value had increased, the rates had also risen from
ls. 83d. to 39, 114d., so that the amount extracted from the ratepayers rose from
134,000Z. to 609,0002. per annum. In 1901 it had further risen to 6s. 94d. in the
pound, the increase over the amount of ten years previously having been 84 per
cent. The movement of municipal indebtedness, not only for remunerative
undertakings, but also for general purposes over the whole country, has also
been upwards. The Local Government returns show a total expenditure for all
the municipalities of 88 millions in 1898, and of 121 millions in 1902, on repro-
ductive works. The return which is made, however, by these undertakings is
not proportionate to the capital charges incurred. Liverpool, for example, has
spent 7{ millions to obtain a return of but 45,000/. per annum. ‘The ancient
sources of expenditure, such as the poor law, are not those upon which the present
large outlays go. Housing, electricity, tramways, and education account for most
of the increase. In the last ten years Manchester’s contribution to the School
Board has trebled, rismg from 40,0007. to 120,000/., Birmingham’s has risen from
78,0002. to 184,0002., and Liverpool’s from 62,000/. to 128,0002. In view of these
facts and of the probable results of the new Education Act, it would seem
improper that new uudertakings should be even contemplated,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION IF. 741

2. Depreciation and Sinking Funds in Municipal Undertakings.
By Svrantey Horsratt Turner, M.A.

The questions to be raised centre about the fact that all municipal under-
takings are started with borrowed capital which must be repaid within statutory
periods, and it is important to understand how this initial burden should be dis-
tributed as between the present and the future. Usually in reproductive under-
takings the sinking fund is based upon the life of the subject, and beyond this
there is, in general, no obligation to provide reserves. No decisive answer has at
any time been given to the question whether depreciation funds should be kept,
with the result that municipalities differ very widely in their methods. A few
have adequate depreciation funds, others have either inadequate ones or none at all,
According to the latest returns the annual average depreciation fund for muni-
cipal tramways in England and Wales is only just over one half per cent. on
the capital borrowed, and tramways show the largest percentage of any municipal
industry. It is urged by those municipalities which have no depreciation fund
that the sinking fund, being based upon the life of the subject, 7s the depreciation
fund, and that if the loan is entirely repaid when the plant is worn out or obsolete
the present has done all that is necessary. Their successors must borrow to
reinstate the works. The only alternative, as the law now stands, is to have a
depreciation fund in addition; and if this were a true depreciation fund it would
be too great a barden upon the first generation, since the life of the subject is
taken into account twice over. Those municipalities which voluntarily lay aside
a full depreciation fund urge that once an undertaking is started its value
should be maintained, as in a private company working a similar undertaking,
and that the sinking fund is an evtra requirement enforced by Parliament because
it is deemed undesirable to allow any permanent local debt. While this second
view recommends itself as the sounder finance for reproductive undertakings, there
are serious objections to it so long as the sinking fund is fixed on the present
principles. The first generation is burdened twice as much as the second and
succeeding generations. It not only repays the whole debt, but also builds up an
equal capital for future generations which have no sinking fund to pay because
their capital is no longer borrowed. The difficulty arises because the statutory
requirements, which contemplated none of the recent extensions of municipal
activity, are not suited to some of the present undertakings, and in these cases a
depreciation fund should be made obligatory, while the sinking fund should be
entirely dissociated from the life of the subject.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMGER li,
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Wealth of the Empire, and how it should be used.'
By Sir Rosert Girren, X.C.B.

The paper is intended to initiate a discussion on the objects of the expenditure
ES the aggregate wealth of the British Empire, whether by individuals or by the

tate.

For the purpose of the discussion it is assumed, on the basis of recent investiga-
tions, that the aggregate income of the people of the United Kingdom may be
placed at about 1,750 millions, and the aggregate wealth at about 15,000 millions,
The data as to the rest of the empire are not so familiar, but the aggregate
income of the whole empire is put at 3,130 millions, including 270 millions for
Canada, 210 millions for Australasia, and 600 millions for India. The corre-
sponding capital for the whole empire is assumed at 22,260 millions, including

} Published in the Journal of the Royal Sigtistical Sogiety, Oplabey 1903.

742 REPORT—1903.

1,350 millions for Canada, 1,100 millions for Australasia, and 3,000 millions for
India.

Attention is next called to the report of a Committee of the British Associa-
tion, consisting of Professor Jevons, Mr. Leone Levi, Mr. Stephen Bourne, and
others, who investigated in 1881 and 1882 the subject of the actual expenditure by
the people of the United Kingdom, and reported to the meetings of the Association
at Southampton in 1881 and Southport in 1882. In their first report, dealing
with a total of 878 millions of expenditure, the Committee expressed the opinion
that 500,400,000/., or 56°9 per cent., were spent on food and drink; 147,800,0002.,
or 16°8 per cent., on dress; 121,700,0007. on ‘house,’ including house-rent,
furniture, coal, gas, and water; while among other items there were 1°5 per cent.
spent on tobacco, 13 per cent. on education (less than on tobacco), 1°4 per cent.
on ‘ Church’ (also less than on tobacco), 0°8 per cent. on ‘literature,’ 0°6 per cent.
on newspapers, and 0:7 per cent. each on ‘ theatres and music-halls’ and ‘ other
amusements.’ It is pointed out that such a distribution of expenditure is not
surprising to those acquainted with family budgets. The bulk of what people
spend naturally goes primarily to food, clothing, shelter, and defence; and the
miscellaneous and what may be called the higher ends of civilised existence have
less proportionate amounts devoted to them.

Applying with some variation the principles and methods followed twenty
years ago, we obtain the following analysis of a sum of 1,386 millions expended at
the present time :—

=: Million £ | Per cent. of total

1. Food and drink . ; : : . : 468 | 34
2. Dress . : : : é . - - 182 13
3. House - i j ; 3 ah 223 16
4. National services (exclusive of education) | 183 13
5. Miscellaneous (including education) . 130 9
6. Cost of distribution ‘ | 200 15

Total , : : P : : ; 1,386 | 100

According to this the proportion of the food-and-drink bill is apparently less
than in the report of the Committee of 1881; but this is largely due to a difference
in the mode of arranging the figures. If the last item of all, the cost of distribu-
tion, were spread proportionally over the earlier items, and the taxes on tea,
sugar, beer, and other articles were also included with them, the food-and-drink
bill would be more nearly 600 than between 400 and 500 millions. Another
cause of the change is the fall of prices since 1881. Generally the order of the
items of expenditure is much the same as twenty years ago. A similar table for
the whole empire would show some variation, as a poor community like India
spends more in proportion for food, while the self-governing colonies are exempt,
or exempt themselves, from defence items, which constitute a large part of the
expenditure for national services in the United Kingdom.

Discussing the question of what expenditure should be, the first point we raise
relates to the food-and-drink bill. It is suggested that there is probably economic
waste in some directions, especially in the expenditure by the artisan and wealthier
classes on meat and alcohol; but equally there are large numbers of the people
insufficiently fed, though we may not accept fully the recent inferences commonly
made from the writings of Mr. Rowntree and Mr. Charles Booth. Attention is
drawn to the economic gulf separating the United Kingdom and the self-governing
colonies from India and like parts of the empire occupied by subject races, We
find that forty-two millions of people in the United Kingdom consume in food and
drink alone, if we take the expenditure at the retail point, an amount equal to the
whole income of three hundred millions of people in India.

A second point raised relates to the expenditure on housing. Great as the
increase of this item has been since the report of twenty years ago—the expendi-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 743

ture being about double what it was, with an increase of less than one-fourth in
the population—we must look for further outlay in this direction as the wealth
of the population increases. The increase of expenditure, it is to be feared, has
not been accompanied by an equal increase of accommodation, being due in part to
a rise in the monopoly value of town and suburban areas and an increase in the
cost of building.

A third point raized is the adequacy of the amount spent on army and navy
services, included under the heading of ‘ national services.’ While the sum spent
for civil government (excluding education), though large—about 114 millions—is
allowed to be in all probability legitimate for the most part, being for such
purposes as post-office, law and order, sanitation, and the like, and a sign rather
of the advanced condition of the people, it is suggested (1) that the sum of seventy
millions for army and navy may be insufficient, and (2) that the amount of the
proper expenditure for these purposes is not really a matter for choice, but one that
must be decided absolutely by expert opinion, The burden of seventy millions is
about 4 per cent. only of the aggregate income of the people of the United Kingdom.
and 0:47 per cent. of their wealth. When the empire is surveyed as a whole it
is feared that the only sensible addition made to the above outlay for defence is by
India, which spends eighteen millions out of its poverty, the remainder of the
empire not spending five millions altogether. How to organise properly the defence
of the empire as a whole is a question that does not seem to have been taken rightly
in hand by our authorities, who insist too much on money contributions from the
different parts of the empire to a distant centre, instead of addressing themselves
to the development of local resources.

The last point raised is as to the sufficiency of the expenditure on education—
about thirty millions only in the United Kingdom, including imperceptible amounts
for scientific investigation, while in the rest of the empire the amounts are also
small, the Government expenditure in India, for instance, being about two millions
only. The United Kingdom ought to be spending 100 millions where it now
spends thirty. Such sums are not really extravagant. Extensive diffusion of edu-
cation and scientific knowledge and training are not only essential to the greater
efficiency of labour and capital by which the means of living are provided, but
they are equally needed for the conduct of life itself, for the health and comfort
of the workers, their freedom from debasing superstitions and prejudices, their
capacity to enjoy the higher pleasures, and their ability to manage all common
affairs, The funds to meet such increased expenditure. will be provided easily
enough by the greater energy and efficiency of labour which education will
develop, and by the abandonment to some extent of the present national ideas
respecting play. India and the like parts of the empire should also receive a
corresponding development. Education is the watchword, and should be the first
thought in our minds.

Finally a suggestion is made that the investigations of the Committee of 1881
as to the actual objects of expenditure should be resumed and continued.

2. Report of the Committee on the Economic Effect of Legislation
regulating Women’s Labowr.—See Reports, p. 315.

3. On the Rating of Land Values. By J. D. Cuoruron,

The amount of local rates and also the rate in the pound have rapidly increased in
recent years owing to the growth of population and the development of urban
communities. At the same time, and for the same reasons, the value of land in
towns and urban districts has very largely increased, and in some cases has been
multiplied many times over. Hence the proposal to rate land values.

The minority of the recent Royal Commission on Local Taxation recommended
the addition of a site-value rate to our present system of rating. The result will
be the creation of a graduated system of rating, properties on more valuable sites

744. REPORT—1903,

paying a larger proportion of their value in rates than properties in less valuable
sites. The incidence of the present rates paid in respect of inhabited houses is
just as much upon occupier as if the same amount of money were raised bya local
income tax. The incidence of a site-value rate will be upon the owners of site
value, The best method of collecting the rate will be to levy it upon the occupier,
with permission to him to deduct it or part of it from his rent. :

Present contracts ought not to be excepted, but the holders of chief rent or
perpetual annuities charged on land ought not to be rated.

The rate will tend to fall in its capitulated value upon those persons who own
the land at the date of the imposition of the rate. The rate should therefore
commence at a small figure.

A separate valuation of land and buildings is possible, and its eost would not
be excessive. Uncovered land in the neighbourhood of large towns should not he
taxed.

4, The New Labour Party in its Economie Aspect,
By H. B. Lees Suirn, JA.

History of the new Labour party. It makes a compromise between the ‘old’
and the ‘new’ trade unionists, The two main points at issue:—

(1) The older school distrusted appeals to the State, but the younger advocated
a somewhat dogmatic socialism.

(2) The older wished to act with the Liberal party, while the younger fought
for an independent Labour party.

The new party was called into existence at the Plymouth ‘lrade Union Con-
gress in 1899, A resolution was carried that a conference be called ‘ to devise
ways and means to secure the return of an increased number of Labour members
to the next Parliament.’ This led to the formation of the Labour Representation
Committee. At first the older school held aloof. The alarm caused by the Taff
Vale case, however, pushed the new party to the front. In February 1908 the
members affiliated to the Labour Representation Committee numbered 861,150,
an increase of 83 per cent, in a year.

The compromise may be expressed as follows :—

(1) The newer school do not insist on members being pledged to any socialist
dogma,
(2) The old unionists have given way on the question of forming an inde-
pendent party.

There seems to be little doubt that collectivism will be the foundation of the
social policy advocated by the new party. By what kind of economic reasoning
will this collectivism be supported? The danger of Marxist theories being popu-
larised. Pamphlets and speeches by Labour leaders show that this is by no means
slight. It is best seen by an outline of the Marxist system. This may be divided
into two parts :—

(1) The labour value theory. Criticism.
(2) The theory of surplus value. Criticism.

Examples are adduced showing the influence of these doctrines on ‘ workshop
economics,’

5, A Contribution to the Statistics of Production and Consumption
of the United Kingdom. By 8. Rosenpaum, B.Se.

An examination of the figures relating to the production and importation and
total consumption of corn during the years 1872-1901 shows the following facts:
Wheat land in the United Kingdom has gone down from 33 to below 2 million
acres; barley land from 2,600,000 acres to 2,100,000 acres; and oats land from

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION PF, 745

4,190,000 to 4,140,000 acres. The estimated yield of corn has in the same period
gone down (by quinquennial averages) from 97 to 58 million bushels in the case
of wheat; from 82 to 66 million bushels in the case of barley ; and the yield of
oats has risen from 147 to 151 million bushels,

The imports have in the same period gone up steadily and rapidly ; while the
amount remaining for home consumption per head of population has steadily
diminished. The fall in the case of wheat amounts to an equivalent of 24 lb.
bread per annum. Inthe above maize has not been included.

Somewhat similar results follow an examination of the meat-supplies of the
country. The consumption of beef is estimated to have increased from 680,000
to 750,000 tons; of mutton there has been a decrease from 420,000 to 390,000
tons; while pig meats have remained stationary at about 290,000 tons. In addi-
tion to these, imported meats have increased enormously, The consumption per
head of all kinds of meats has also greatly increased.

The yield of home-produced butter and cheese has not increased. Measured
by the consumption per head, the butter (including margarine) consumed has
increased from 11 lbs, to nearly 16 lbs. per annum, while the cheese has re-
mained quite stationary at 153 lb. per annum.

Further tabies are given relating to coal. The first compares the growth of
the production of the principal coal-countries with the total world’s production.
The second compares the production and consumption, total and per head of
population, of coal from 1872 to 1901. The third gives an analysis of coal con-
sumption for the principal British industries. Further tables relating to pig iron
and wool are also given, and the whole is further illustrated by charts,

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14,
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Potentialities of Applied Science in a Garden City.
By A. R. Sennett, A.M Inst.C.£.

The author drew attention to the economical and other advantages to be
derived from careful coalition of the various branches of science involved in the
building up of a modern city, in the case of such being reared upon terra natura,
and entirely unhampered by considerations of prior design or demolition. He
pointed out that the epoch at which we have now arrived in these islands, in
regard to the existence and development of large towns, had led to the almost
entire abandonment of hope that any scheme compassing the much needed ‘return
to the land’ could ever now be consummated ; and announced that, not only had
such a scheme at length been evolved, but that, in a practicable and workable
form, it is at once to be put to experimental test upon a scale amply sufficient to
demonstrate its successful working, viz. in a community of from 25,000 to 30,000
inhabitants.

He attributed the inception and successful maturation of the scheme to
Mr. Ebenezer Howard. The basis upon which it was founded was the assump-
tion that, given the freehold acquisition of a site of sufficient extent and at
moderate cost, vested in trustees in the interests of the future community, the
financial success of the undertaking can be assured—no matter to what magnitude
it may eventually be carried—by the reservation for the benefit of the community
of the increment in terrestrial value of such site due to the emplacement thereon
of a city laid out upon such lines that overcrowding is an impossibility, pro-
viding for the allotment pe capita of such an extent of ground area as to entitle
the creation to the cognomen of a ‘ Garden City.’

The coalition of public works, in the author's opinion, was prepollent to
produce not only economi¢ results, but an hygienic city free from smoke and fog,

746 REPORT—1903.

To the latter end he advocated the entire suppression of the consumption of solid
fuel and the substitution of heating by means of a cheap non-illuminating gas,
both for domestic fires and industrial processes, as well as gas produced by the
Mond process for motive power.

To enable the municipality to supply heat, light, and motive power at the
cheapest rate, the production of both gas and electricity should be vested in it,
together with water-supply and the supply of electricity for public locomotion.

The necessity for the almost incessant breaking up of the streets, pavements,
and roadways of large towns in connection with the various supplies and services
has become a serious hindrance to traffic and commerce, and in this regard the
author advocated the universal employment of subways beneath the side- walks,
and illustrated one of his design, which, whilst making provision for the running
of all the services, such as gas, water, electric light, telegraphs, telephones, &c.,
and their inspection, maintenance, and repair from below, also provided a means
for the removal of sludge without the necessity for the employment of mud-carts.

In connection with this and the watering and scayengering of urban thorough-
fares, the author advocated and explained a new form of road section— styled an
‘invert road’—in which the ‘crown’ is discarded in favour of two slightly
inclined planes sloping from the kerbs of the side-walks and meeting in a con-
tinuous grid at the centre of the roadway. Such a contour, he contended,
possessed many advantages, among them that the use of watercarts would be
rendered unnecessary by the employment in connection with them of hydraulic
kerbs.

In connection with the sanitation of the city, the author emphasised the im-
portance of devising a means of house-refuse removal, in which the bins should
not be emptied into carts in the public highways, and explained his system, in
which the lids are not lifted from the time the bins are collected from the houses
until they are delivered at the destructor, the transportation being effected by
means of a specially constructed cellular motor-waggon.

2. The First Garden City: its Economic Results.
By Haroirp E. Moors, £.S.Z.

Many who consider favourably the proposals of Mr. Howard and other
speakers on ‘ Garden Cities’ are of opinion that the economic difficulties in their
foundation are insurmountable. This question is now considered, as a site has been
selected for the first of such cities.

The site chosen, which will be in the possession of the Garden City Company
from Michaelmas, comprises about 4,000-acres coming to within one mile of the
town of Hitchin and about thirty-six miles from London, The company will
doubtless immediately erect a railway station in the centre of the estate, two and
a half miles from Hitchin; make roads, giving access to that station; erect and
fit a brickworks; open a chalk-pit ; equip gravel-pits; and do other work which
will render available the natural resources of the estate. The total cost will then
probably be about 180,0007. This will be an average of about 30/. an acre for
the agricultural land, excluding the buildings and accommodation land at a reason-
able value. ‘Two different courses of procedure will then be possible.

The first method is to lay out a model town with avenues and parks and
spend large capital in engineering works and buildings. It is suggested that this
procedure would result in failure. It would necessitate a large unproductive
capital expenditure, cause annual expense in maintenance, involve serious
financial risks, and reduce the present agricultural rental and value.

The second method would be to attract residents on small areas by offering
sites with existing frontages at a rent charge, and also to encourage manufacturers
to take land by giving them sites on that part of the estate suitable for manu-
facturing purposes on condition that they took further areas at a rent-charge for
the erection of cottages for their workpeople. These cottages to be erected by
the manufacturer, the intending occupier, or by builders who conform to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. TAT

stipulated ‘Garden City’ regulations. It is suggested that this method will con-
fer all the advantages claimed for ‘Garden Cities’ with satisfactory economic
results. The rent-charge, even in respect of the most outlying land, would
reasonably be not less than double the agricultural rental, while for building sites
the rent-charge would be many times larger. The increased value secured by this
greater rental without risk might then soon justify expenditure of capital on
various town developments aud improvements,

3. Physical Degeneration and the Poverty Line,
By Mrs. H. Bosanquet.

The interest which has been aroused in the physical condition of the
people has given rise to alarming statements as to the extent and cause of physical
degeneration. It is popularly assumed that one-third of the population is too poor
to maintain itself in physical efficiency, and it is supposed that this assumption is
justified by the investigations of Mr. Booth and Mr. Rowntree.

An examination of their work, however, shows that their results apply only to
London and York, and that, primd facie, there is a great discrepancy between
their figures. This may be set out as follows :—

Mr. Booth: People with incomes at the rate of 21s. or less for a moderate
family, 30 per cent. of the population.

Mr. Rowntree: People with incomes at the rate of 21s. 8d. or less for a
moderate family, 9°91 of the population.

[t appears, further, that Mr. Rowntree brings up his numbers classed below the
poverty line to 27:84 per cent. by adding 17-98 per cent. who are living in appa-
rent poverty, although their incomes are sufficient to raise them above it. It
seems probable that Mr. Booth’s 30 per cent. also includes a large majority whose
condition is not due to want of money.

With reference to physical degeneration the evidence from recruiting statistics
is hardly enough to prove degeneration from any standard previously attained
considering the abnormal circumstances under which recruiting has recently been
carried on, while much of the evidence before the Scottish Commission goes to
show a decided improvement. Nevertheless wany children never attain their
proper development, and are greatly in want of better care and feeding. These are
mainly the children living in secondary (7,e. apparent) poverty whose parents
have the means to nurture them properly, but are too ignorant or too careless to
do so. The evil, being not mainly due to poverty, cannot be met by subsidising
the parents’ earnings; nor would school feeding, whether free or paid for, be
sufficient to meet all the needs of the children. They can only be met ultimately
by educating women to a more adequate fulfilment of their duties as wives and
mothers, and meanwhile by dealing with neglected children individually.

4. A Comparison of Exports to the United States, European Protective
: States, and owr Colonies. By B. Kuuincer.

This paper is an endeavour to answer the following questions put by Mr.
Chamberlain at a recent meeting of the Constitutional Club :—

Is it a fact that the exports of our manufactured goods to our Colonies already
exceed the total exports of our manufactured goods to the protected States of
Europe and the United States? In the second place is it a fact that our exports
to those protected countries are continually and of recent years rapidly decreasing
in quantity, deteriorating in their profitable character ?

In order to make comparisons I have divided the last twenty years into
periods of five years, and taken the average annual export over each such period.
T have excluded Turkey and Holland as not being protected States, and I haye

748 REPORT—1908.

excluded Hong Kong and Singapore from our Colonies as being purely distributing
centres. On the other hand I have included with our Colonies all British posses-
sions except British India and Ceylon, figures for which are separately stated.

Our exports of manufactured goods to European protected States and the
United States over 1898-1902 averaged annually 30,000,000/. more than our exports
to our Colonies, being 84,000,000/7. against 54,000,0007. It is necessary to add
our exports to India and Ceylon, 32,000,000/., to bring the total up to that of our
exports to the United States and European protected States.

Our exports of manufactured goods to the United States have largely decreased
in the last twenty years, from an average of 24,800,000/. in the years 1883-87 to
an average of 17,700,000Z. in the years 1898-1902, the whole decrease being nearly
accounted for by decrease in woollen goods and metals.

Our exports of manufactured goods to European protected States show a sub-
stantial increase over the same period of 214 per cent., while France shows a loss
of 1,500,000/., Germany shows an increase of 5,000,000/., and our trade to Russia
has doubled itself from 8,800,0007. to 7,500,000/., which is a larger figure than we
can show for our average annual export to Canada over the same period, as is also
the case with our shipments of 8,000,000/. manufactured goods to Belgium.

Our export trade to British India has only increased 3 per cent. in the period
under review.

Our exports of manufactured goods to all Crown Colonies (except Hong Kong
and Singapore), and all British possessions (except India and Ceylon) have in-
creased by 2,000,000/., and still just fall short of our exports to Russia.

Our trade to Cape Colony and Natal has increased enormously, from 2,900,0002,
to 10,500,0007.

New Zealand shows an increase of 1,500,000/.

Australia has remained stationary, and Canada, in spite of the preferential
tariff which was in operation during the whole period 1898-1902, shows a loss of
100,000/. compared with the figures of fifteen to twenty years ago,

5, The Commercial Relations between Canada and the United Kingdom.
by F. Brapsuaw.

After an historical sketch of the relations between Canada and U.S.A., and
Canada and the United Kingdom, which led to the preferential tariff of 1897,
the paper attempts to indicate why the preference was given—as an alternative
to the annexation of Canada to U.S.A.—and the value of the preference. From
1890 onwards the rush to Manitoba and the North-West Territories can be traced.
Canada’s prosperity depends on their prosperity, and her manufacturing population
cannot consume their products. Possible markets are Great Britain and U.S.A.
The latter country is fast reaching a stage when growth of population must
prevent it from remaining a source of our wheat supply, and the price of American
wheat will rise until even a tariff of 25 cents a bushel cannot keep out Canadian
wheat. The St. Lawrence navigation is the crux of the question. The canals
could be easily improved till the cost of transporting a bushel of wheat from
Port Arthur to Liverpool is only 12 cents the bushel of 60 lb. If a preference to
Canadian wheat is given, the improvement will take place before the American
demand arises. If the American demand arises first, the improvement will never
take place, as the American market will be the more profitable. Hence the price
of wheat here will rise and remain high. Probably a 2s., or even a 4s., duty on
foreign wheat would not raise the price in England, as the margin of profit
retained by the American grower is too large, and he would fear to face the
competition of Canadian wheat.

The preference is valuable to us because it has checked the decline in British
exports to Canada, and has actually increased their value. The United States
have apparently secured a larger increase than we have since 1897 ; but the increase
is in goods, which, being natural products or raw materials for manufactures, do-
not pay duty; 50 per cent. of U.S.A, imports into Canada are dyty free, as

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 749

compared with 29 per cent. of imports from Great Britain, As to duty-paying
goods, $3,000,000 represents roughly the value of the preference to Great Britain
in 1902 if we consider the amount of duty paid by Great Britain and U.S.A.
respectively in relation to the value of the total duty-paying imports. The
increase in the value of British exports to Canada since 1898 has been 11°5 per
cent., and this relates to goods under the preferential tariff only. Although the
United States have an excess of $25,000,000 over us in exports to Canada, yet this
can be accounted for almost to the last dollar by articles in which we do not
compete to any great extent, because we cannot. But to our shame be it said
that $13,000,000 represents the excess of iron and steel exports, and yet our
figures for 1902 are an increase of 100 per cent. on those of 1901. The preference
chiefly affects textiles, and here, despite the Dingley tariff, we beat the Americans
easily. We have driven them out of the woollen market, and even in cottons
we have an overwhelming preponderance. Silk and linen goods tell the same tale.
Tn one market at least we have beaten a protectionist nation, but we have opposed
to the Dingley tariff, not free imports, but a preference of 335 per cent. If the
preference is withdrawn we cannot hope to retain our advantage, or even a footing,
in the Canadian market.

6. Some Economic Aspects of the English Colour Industries.
By ¥. EVERSHED.

The exceptional progress of Germany in the coal-tar industries, much more
rapid than her general industrial progress, has given the impression that the
English aniline-dye trade is not only much smaller and less profitable, both of
which are true, but is actually disappearing. The-statement is sometimes enlarged
from dyes to colour, and even to chemicals generally.

The facts are that our annual export of chemicals increased from 7,639,000/.
in 1880-1884 to 8,829,000. in 1897-1901 and 9,587,000. in 1902. Germany’s
export is greater, but only in proportion to her larger population. Her annual
rate of increase, however, is greater than ours. ;

Our annual export of painters’ colours and materials increased from 1,256,000/.
in 1880-1884 to 1,836,0007. in 1897-1901.

The figures for coal-tar dyes, averaging 231,000/. in 1882-1902, show a
decline since the beginning of the period, but the trade has apparently been
stationary in value for the last five years. The figures, however, are untrust-
worthy owing to many sources of error. Translated from values to quantities
they show a large increase. Prices have fallen 40 per cent. in the last decade.
The industry apparently needs a higher standard of engineering, chemical, and
business ability, and in some factories attempts are being made to supply this.
The German annual export has grown from 2,500,000/. in 1882-1888 to over
4,000,0002. in 1896-1902.

The question of the amount of the loss we have sustained by allowing Germany
to appropriate the bulk of the coal-tar industries, estimated to produce 10,000,000/.
annually, is discussed. The loss must be placed at a fraction of that sum, repre-
senting the difference between it and the annual value now being produced by the
English labour and capital which would have been diverted to the production of
dyes, scents, and medicines.

Similarly the annual loss to India by the threatened destruction of her indigo
industry by Germany will be the difference between the value of Indian indigo,
3,000,0007., and the value of the sugar and oil which will be produced on the
same lands with the same labour. The loss in this case, as in the other, is much
less than is commonly supposed.

In other cases where certain industries are appropriated by foreign countries
there need be no loss at all, since employment and profit do not depend on a
multiplicity of different occupations, but on the most eflicient employment of a
limited quantity of capital and skill, to obtain the highest returns by exchange in
the world’s market.

a maaan

700 REPORT—1903.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Statistical Methods and the Fiscal Controversy.'
By A. L. Bowery, WA.

Much of the present confusion is due to erroneous uses cf statistics in argu-
ment. The fault is as often in logical method as in the statistics themselves.

i. Figures are taken for one year without reference to the series which precede
them. Every series has its own characteristics of ‘ trend’ and ‘ fluctuation’; the
effect of a particular event (e.g. the alteration of a tax) cannot be determined
without reference to these, and very often cannot be determined at all.

ii. Figures relating to quantities, which are not similar, are added, and the
total used as if it were homogeneous ; e.g. the values of imports and exports are
added together.

iii. The distinction between value and quantity in trade statistics is ignored ;
values are generally used, while quantity is ultimately the more important. Pro-
gress may often be shown only by increased quantity, while value is stationary.

iv. The measurement of accuracy is generally ignored. Accurate and in-
accurate estimates are added or multiplied, and the sum or product treated as
representing an ascertained fact. No sum or product is known exactly, but only as
correct to 1, 10, or 50 per cent. Partisan writers by adding different estimates
which are mere guesses to quantities accurately known produce opposite results.

yv. In the same way a measurement of the change of a part is taken as an
adequate measurement of that of a whole. To test this it is necessary to deter-
mine @ prior? what quantity should be measured, and then (by the criteria of
aceuracy) to determine what percentage error is involved by only measuring part.
Thus home produce and exports must not be separated when productive progress
is in question; and productive progress is not a sufficient measure of general
prosperity. In default of complete measurement partial indexes are used, which
easily lend themselves to personal bias. A method of testing the growth of
national prosperity is suggested.

vi. Statistics, even when accurate, are constantly made to support conclusions
which have no logical connection with them.

This analysis suggests certain rules for criticism and subjects for statistical
inquiry.

2. The Failure of Free Traders to Atiain their Ideals.
By W. Cunnineuam, D.D.

This paper regards the fiscal question as primarily economic; there is no reason
to believe that a change of policy would create new positive ties between the
different parts of the Empire. The paper also assumes universal free trade as the
ultimate aim, but discusses why there has been so little success in realising it, and
how it may be attained. (1) It appears from the views of Jefferson and Hamilton
that there was every prospect that the United States would have developed as a
free trade country, and the policy of Pitt would have favoured this. But Fox
and the English shipowners forced the United States to become protectionists in
self-defence. (2) Cobden’s anticipations that other countries would follow our
example and adopt free trade have been falsified, as each politically distinct
nation has preferred to develop an independent and all-round economic life, so far
as possible, and the colonies are inclined to pursue a similar course.

There is a real economic danger to England as a manufacturing community, as
she is being increasingly cut off from the opportunity of purchasing raw materials
(e.g. cotton) and food (eg. corn). An increased cotton-supply from our colonies

' Published in the Economic Journal, September 1903. ~ fs

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 751

might perhaps be obtained by granting bounties, but a proper food-supply could
be developed by taxing the wheat of countries which do not receive our manu-
factures, and thus giving a preference to those which do. This might lead to a
temporary and slight rise of price, but it would give a stimulus to the production
of corn in non-hostile countries, and there is reason to believe that it would help
to break down the highly artificial protective system in America.

Such retaliation is urgently desirable on political grounds, as the persistence in
laissez-faire tends to the disintegration of the Empire, and puts a special strain
upon the loyalty of Canadians.

The manifesto of economic experts appeared to appeal to the principle of free
trade in an illegitimate manner, and to take for granted that an economic principle
which is framed on the assumption that all political considerations are neglected,
also holds good ia all political conditions alike. It is not a question of economic
principle, but of laissez-faire temperament; the issue is between haphazard drifting
and intelligent supervision. We need an Imperial Council of Trade, of an advisory
character, to work actively for the introduction of universal free trade, in order
to preserve the prosperity of this manufacturing community, and to introduce a
wise division of employment throughout the British Empire.

.
3. What is Success in Foreign Trade? By Epwin Cannan, I/.A., LL.D.

The object of foreign trade is to enable the people of a country to get income
easier than they could without it. A country is not successful in foreign trade
when this object is most fully attained.

It is commonly imagined that relative success in foreign trade can be measured
in some way or other by comparison of the import and export statistics published
by various Governments, good, bad, and indifferent. But these statistics are often
totally untrustworthy for any purpose except that of indicating fluctuations over
short periods of time, and if they were trustworthy they would not give us the
mere trade of the various countries, but only their external receipts and payments.
Their receipts and payments include investments and repayments of capital and
interest on capital invested in a country different from that in which the owner of
the capital resides. Payments on account of these items constantly quite obscure
those which are made on account of trade proper, the exchanging of goods for
goods. Further, even if we had to deal only with countries which had no receipts
or payments except representing the immediate exchange of goods for goods, and
if the statistics were perfectly accurate, we could not judge of the success of
different policies by any amount of consideration of the import and export figures.
A country’s success in foreign trade cannot be measured by the magnitude of its
exports, or by the magnitude of its imports, or by the magnitude of the sum of its
imports and exports, or by the magnitude of the difference between them, whether
considered absolutely or in relation to area population or any other condition that
can be suggested. Success is attained when the right things are imported and the
right things exported, and import and export figures do not and cannot tell us how
far that is the case.

Free traders say that, as things are, the right things are most likely to be
imported and exported if the Government abstains from exerting influences
against the importation or exportation of particular goods, The protectionists
agree in saying that Governments, whether democratic or autocratic, pure or
corrupt, ignorant or enlightened, will decide the question what should be exported
or imported better at all times and places than private interest; but they give
different and often entirely contradictory reasons for their belief at different times
and places.

7158 REPORT—19083.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

PresiDENT oF THE SEcTION—-CHARLES Hawks.Ley, M.Inst.C.E.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10:
The President delivered the following Address i—

Sincx the last meeting of the British Association tliere has pasged from our midst,
to the deep regret of all who had the privilege of knowing him, one who, though
full of years, actively followed his profession as & Civil Engineer until within a
few days of his death. I refer to Mr. Edward Woods, who presided over
Section G of the British Association at Plymouth in 1877. Mr. Woods com-
menced his professional career on the Liverpool and Manchester Railway soon after
it was opened for traffic. In 1875 Mr, Woods was invited by the Royal Com-
mission on Railway Accidents to undertake, in conjunction with Colonel Inglis,
R.E., an exhaustive series of trials of the different kinds of railway brakes then in
use in England, the results of which were recorded in an elaborate and valuable
report.’ These trials were referred to by Mr. Woods in his address as President of
Section G. Mr. Woods was President of the Institution of Civil Engineers in
1886-1887, and he died on the 14th June, 1903, at the ripe age of eighty-nine.

Technical Education.

The subject of the technical education of engineers was treated very fully in
the interesting address delivered by Professor Perry, as President of Section @ at
the meeting of the British Association in Belfast last year. This question also
received thorough consideration at the meeting of the Engineering Conference
held in London in June last, as well as at recent meetings of the Institution
of Mechanical Engineers and of the Institute of Naval Architects. The systems
in vogue in the United States of America and on the Continent of Europe were
on those occasions brought forward in carefully prepared papers and fully dis-
cussed. The main points at issue are: (1) whether actual handicraft should be
taught in the Technological School or College along with the principles underlying
the Engineers’ art; (2) whether the year should be divided into periods in one or
more of which the science of engineering should be taught, and in another or
others of which craft skill should be acquired at works; (8) whether the prin-
ciples should be first acquired, during a longer or shorter term, leaving experience
in applying those principles to be gained at the termination of the course. As
regards the first of these suggestions it appears to be in opposition to the judg-
ment of the most experienced teachers. In respect to the second, the Admiralty
have carried it out for the last forty years, and with satisfaction to the Service ;
it is also common in Glasgow, and Mr. Yarrow has included this system in the
apprenticeship rules he has recently laid down, whilst it is to be tried experiment-
ally in the Engineering Course at King’s College, London. At the Engineering
Conference it was determined that the subject was of such importance that
its further consideration should be left to a Committee, to be subsequently
appointed.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. WS

Since the British Association last met in Lancashire (in 1896) there have been
important events and changes in the chief technical institutions of the county.
First, there were last year the Jubilee celebrations of Owens College, Manchester,
when it received congratulations on its half-century of work from universities and
learned societies in all parts of the world. Here, as I need hardly remind you,
the engineering laboratory is under the able direction of Professor Osborne
Reynolds, F.R.S., who presided over Section G of the British Association at their
Meeting in Manchester in 1887, Then, also in Manchester, there is the recently
completed and admirable Municipal School of Technology ; but as a paper will be
read on this subject, and members will have an opportunity of visiting the school
and inspecting its engineering laboratory, I will content myself with wishing it
every success in the manifold fields of industrial education in which it is engaged.
Again, only this year Victoria University has lost a College, and Liverpool has
gained a University. At University College, Liverpool, in the Session of 1884-5,
a Professorship of Engineering was instituted as a provisional measure. The
erection of engineering laboratories and the endowment of the Chair were after-
wards provided for by gifts in commemoration of the Jubilee year of the reign of
Her late Majesty, Queen Victoria. Professor H. S. Hele-Shaw, F.R.S., was
appointed to the Chair in the first instance, a position which he still continues to
hold.

‘This year a Royal Charter has been granted establishing the University of
Liverpool, and transferring to it the powers of University College, Liverpool.
I think one cannot offer to the University of Liverpool a heartier wish than that
it may be as successful in the future as University College, Liverpool, has been
in the past, a wish in which I am sure you will all join.

There is yet one other college to which, though not in Lancashire, I should
like to make a passing reference, the first to include engineering in its educa-
tional curriculum, viz., University College, London. It was originally founded
in 1828 under the name of the ‘University of London,’ and has recently,
together with King’s College, become merged in the present University of
London. The first engineering laboratory was established at University College
in 1878, fifty years after the inauguration of the college, whilst a separate chair
for electrical engineering was founded in 1885, and an electrical laboratory was
added ten years ago. One cannot say farewell to it as it used to be without
mentioning the name of Dr. B. W. Kennedy, F.R.S., who was President of this
Section of the British Association in 1894 at Oxford, and who has done so much
for engineering education.

Before leaving the subject of technical education, I venture to express the
hope that in the training of engineering students increased attention will be paid
to the combination of artistic merit with excellence of structural design, so that
in respect to artistic treatment our engineering structures may not remain so far
behind those of our Continental brethren as is unfortunately now frequently the
case,

Engineering Standards.

A very important work has been going on quietly and unostentatiously in our
midst for some time past, the results of which must affect the engineering pro-
fession at home and abroad. I refer to the work of the Engineering Standards
Committee, which as many of my hearers know, was appointed in 1901 and is
now composed of 178 members, among whom are many Government officials, I
alluded to the earlier work of this Committee in my Presidential Address to the
Institution of Civil Engineers in 1901, and that work has since been gradually but
surely extended. The Committee has received not only the moral but the financial
support of His Majesty’s Government, and the results of its labours are being
adopted by all the leading Government departments.

In addition to the main Committee there are no fewer than twenty-five separate
committees and sub-committees engaged on work, covering a wide range of opera~
tions, many of the members sitting on more than one committee,

1903, Be

TBA REPORT—1903..

A few details of the work accomplished and in progress may be of interest.
After careful deliberation the Committee published their first series of British
standards sections, covering all rolled steel sections used in constructional work,
shipbuilding and so forth. The Committee on Rails has just issued the standard
sections and specification for British girder tramway rails, and it is now actively
engaged in drawing up a series of standard sections of bull-headed and flat-
bottomed rails for railway work.

Another committee of a thoroughly representative character is occupied in
drawing up a standard specification and standard tests for cement, and a standard
specification drawn up by so large a body of our leading engineers, contractors,
and manufacturers must be of great interest to all those who are called on to
specify tests for this material.

The Government of India control to a very considerable extent the working of
railways in India, and they have referred to the Standards Committee the im-
portant question of drawing up a series of standard types of locomotives for use
on the Indian railways. The Committee which investigated this difficult subject
has just forwarded its report to the Secretary of State for India. Other com-
mittees are preparing staudard specifications for locomotive copper fire-box plates
and steel boiler plates, which it is hoped will be published at an early date.

The subject of screw-threads is one which has occupied a Committee of the
British Association for some years past, and I am glad to learn that the Committee
of this Association has been co-operating with the Standards Committee and dis-
cussing the question of serew-threads of both smaller and larger diameters, and
also considering the cognate subject of limit gauges so essential to all accurate
work in mechanical engineering.

Another Committee is dealing with standard flanges, and I understand it is
shortly proposed to consider the standardisation of cast-iron pipes.

A very large and influential Committee is engaged on the subject of the
materials used in the construction of ships and their machinery, and most valuable
information is being collected with a view to the preparation of a standard specifi-
cation for steel and to the determination of forms for standard test-pieces to be
used when testing plates, forgings, castings, and so forth.

There are about half a dozen committees engaged on various important
electrical subjects, but as their work will no doubt be referred to in another
Section of this Association, I do not propose to make further reference to it here.

In my Presidential Address before the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1901,
T raised a note of warning in regard to the stereotyping of design and the conse-
quent cramping of originality. The constitution of the Standards Committee and
the professional standing of its members affords a guarantee that its work will
accord with the best practice of this country, since those engaged in drawing up
the standards are not only in the forefront of engineering practice, but are alive to
the necessity for extending the number of standards if and when needed to meet
the requirements of the engineer.

National Physical Laboratory.

An outline scheme for a National Physical Laboratory was set forth in 1891,
by Sir (then Dr.) Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., in his Address at Cardiff to Section A of the-
British Association. In his Presidential Address to this Association in 1895 at
Tpswich, the late Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S., emphasised the importance of such an
Institution, a Committee of this Association reported in favour of it, and later,
when after forwarding a petition to the late Lord Salisbury, a Treasury Committee
with Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., in the Chair was formed, Sir Douglas Galton gave
evidence to the effect that if Great Britain was to retain its industrial supremacy,
we must have accurate standards available to our research students and to our
manufacturers.

In 1901 the National Physical Laboratory was inaugurated at Bushy House,
near Teddington, and an annual grant of 4,000/. towards its support was made by
Government. It is divided into three departments, of which the one dealing with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 755

all branches of Civil, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineering is chiefly interesting
to us in Section G. In this department tests are now undertaken of the strength
of materials of construction, of pressure and vacuum gauges, of indicators and
indicator springs, and of length gauges and screw gauges, and photomicroscopic
investigation is made of metals and alloys, and especially of steel rails. ,

But beside the ordinary work of testing, various investigations are in progress,
such as measurement of wind pressure, elastic fatigue in nickel steel and other
materials used by engineers, and the magnetic and mechanical properties of
aluminium-iron and other alloys. For the British Association a set of platinum
thermometers has been constructed and subjected to stringent tests, and an
investigation has been undertaken for the Engineering Standards Committee into
the changes in insulating strength of various dielectrics used in motors, trans-
formers, &c., due to continued heating. In the language of Dr. Glazebrook, F.R.S.,
the Director, who it may be mentioned was previously Principal of University
College, Liverpool, science is not yet regarded as a commercial factor in this
country, but it is one of the aims of the National Physical Laboratory to bring
about the alliance of science with commerce and industry. The expenditure of
the National Physical Laboratory is met by an annual Treasury grant of 4,000/. ;
500/. a year from an endowment; fees for tests, now amounting to about 3,500/.
annually ; and from donations and subscriptions.

The Director is anxious that the revenue derived from fees for testing should
be largely augmented, and I would urge on engineers, contractors and manu-
facturers, as well as on private individuals, that they should avail themselves of
the opportunity to have tests and experiments of interest to them, and which will
be generally accepted as unimpeachable, conducted at this laboratory. I may add
that an appeal has been made for further donations and annual contributions, as
the funds now at the disposal of the Board of Management are insufficient to carry
on the work of the laboratery on a sound financial basis, and I venture to hope
that many of those who are interested in the practical applications of science will
assist in supporting the work of this national institution.

Intercommunication.
General Progress.

At the commencement of the nineteenth century, Southport, which now has
its parks, a promenade, and a pier over three-quarters of a mile in length, its halls,
free library, art gallery and science and art schools, and railway connection
with all parts of the kingdom, was not even to be found on the maps, the first
house having been erected in the year 1792. In 1851 the population of Southport
and the adjoining place Birkdale was 5,390, whereas at the census of 1901,
Southport had a population of 48,083 and Birkdale 14,197, together 62,280. Here
is evidence of great local enterprise, resulting in a development of which its people
may be justly proud,

At the commencement of the nineteenth century the population of the United
Kingdom was nearly 153 millions, at the beginning of the twentieth nearly
41} millions. Then there was not a mile of railway in the United Kingdom:
now there are about 22,000 miles. Here, too, is evidence not only of the
prosperity which has prevailed throughout Great Britain during the century that
has passed, but also of the enormously increased demands which have arisen
during the same period on the means of locomotion.

It was towards the latter half of the eighteenth century that the formation of
good roads was commenced in Lancashire and the adjoining counties by John.
Metcalf, the blind road-maker, and that Palmer in 1784 introduced mail coaches
travelling at from six to seven miles an hour on the main roads. In 180] the
mail coach from London to Holyhead occupied nearly 46 hours on the journey,
and the mails reached Dublin on the third day after leaving London. Now
the journey from London to Holyhead is performed in 53 hours, and Dublin
is reached in 9} hours after leaving London, a ah

3c2

756 REPORT—1908.

In 1803, just one hundred years ago, Telford reported to the Government on
the state of the roads, and asa result the great road to Liverpool from the
Metropolis and the other great highways were constructed. It was enlightened
wisdom that eighty years ago placed intercommunication in the forefront of the
definition of engineering ; it still maintains that position, and I purpose to say
a few words on the present aspect of the question.

Road Trraffic— Motors,

Speed in locomotion appears to be now the first consideration, whether as
regards mails, passengers, or goods. I would refer in the first instance to locomo-
tion on our main roads. Tere three or four’ classes of machines appear to be
ambitious to drive pedestrians, horsemen, and horse-drawn vehicles off the road.

The first practical steam carriage was used by Trevithick in the year 1802;
and now, a hundred years later, it is found that for the traction of heavy loads on
the main roads steam is still most suitable. The points of importance in con-
nection with traction engines and their trailers are their speed, weight, and width ;
of course, there is no question that, as regards facilitating traffic, the large heavy
wagon replacing many smaller horse-drawn ones will be found a boon. Mr. EF. R.
Calthrop, M.Inst.C.E., one of the founders of the Liverpool Self-propelled Traffic
Association, is opposed to any weight restriction, but it must be remembered that
the momentum of heavily laden waggons drawn by a powerful traction engine at
the maximum speed of five miles an hour, is very great, and causes uncomfortable
vibration in the houses aJong the main thoroughfares of our towns; on the other
hand, light traction engines are now being successfully used, drawing from four to
five tons of market produce through the streets of London without causing undue
vibration, and at a cost, I am informed, of about one-half that of horse traction.

But a far more important question is that of the speed of motor cars along our
public thoroughfares. The struggle to maintain a trophy at home, or to regain it
from abroad, is one in which every inhabitant of this country sympathises. The
great Gordon-Bennett Cup Race in July last redounded to the credit of the Auto-
mobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland, who made and carried out the arrange-
ments and were at considerable pains to find a suitable course in a sparsely
inhabited district ; every measure which experience has shown to be needful having
been taken to prevent accident. ‘The race was decidedly international in character,
French, Germans, Americans, and English contesting for the prize; and in heartily
congratulating the German Automobile Club on their success, it may be noted
that M. Jenatzy covered a distance of 527} miles in 6 hours 39 minutes, or at
the rate of 491 miles an hour, though he attained to a speed of 61 miles an
hour between the points of control. Even this speed was exceeded at a trial in
Phoenix Park, Dublin, when Baron de Forest attained to a rate of 86 miles an
hour. But between racing speed and ordinary travelling speed there is neces-
sarily a great difference, and our twenty miles maximum on country roads is in
excess of that allowed in France, where it is now fixed, though I believe uot
enforced in the open country, at 18} miles, and at 124 miles where there is much
traffic. The two classes of motors used for higher speeds are the petrol and the
electric. ‘The former are mainly internal-combustion engines; having to be light,
they run at the comparatively high speed of 800 revolutions per minute. They are
generally used in connection with bicycles, tricycles, or light carriages. ‘They
have also been used for light vans and coaches, and successful trials have been
made with self-propelled lorries for military purposes, and by local authorities for
watering and dust collecting. Their application to omnibuses has not proved
economical, owing to the difficulty of providing pneumatic tyres for such heavy
vehicles.

The electric motor depends on storage batteries; those in general use are of
Planté’s lead-couple type. Like the petrol motor, the electric motor is rather
a luxury; most of the automobile carriages used in London are of this class; there
is liability of injury to the batteries by over-discharging them, Colonel Crompton,
in a paper recently read at the Engineering Conference, suggested the use of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 797

‘ standardised accumulators,’ to be supplied to the owners of electrical vehicles at
depéts on production of a subscription ticket, and the Engineering Standards
Committee has appointed a sub-committee to consider the question. Motor cars
are now used by some of the railway companies as feeders to their lines, and also
in competition with tramway lines.

The increasing use of motor cars renders more than ever necessary the regula-
tion of traffic in crowded thoroughfares, a subject which will doubtless be dealt
with in the paper on ‘The Problem of Modern Street Traffic, which Colonel
Crompton is about to read before this Section of the British Association.

The use of motor-driven vehicles for road traffic is so intimately associated
with improvements ia prime movers that it will interest the members of this
Section to be remindéd of the opinion expressed more than twenty years ago by
Sir Frederick Bramwell, F.R.S., Past President Inst.C.E., who presided over the
Meeting of the British Association at Bath in 1888. In a paper read before this
Section at the Jubilee Meeting of our Association at York in 1881, and afterwards
printed zz evtenso, Sir Frederick Bramwell said: ‘ However much the Mechanical
Section of the British Association may to-day contemplate with regret even the mere
distant prospect of the steam-engine becoming a thing of the past, I very much doubt
whether those who meet here fifty years hence will then speak of that motor except
in the character of a curiosity to be found in a museum.’ Ina letter addressed to
the President of this Association on July 2 last, Sir Frederick Bramwell drew
attention to the largely increasing development of internal-combustion engines,
and expressed a feeling of assurance that, although steam-engines might be at
work in 1931, the output in that year would be small of steam as compared with
internal-combustion engines.

To keep alive the interest of the Association in this subject, Sir Frederick
Bramwell has kindly offered, and the Council has accepted, the sum of 50/. for
investment in 2} per cent. self-accumulative Consols, the resulting sum to be paid
as an honorarium to a gentleman to be selected by the Council to prepare a paper
having Sir Frederick’s utterances in 1881 as a sort of text, and dealing with the
whole question of the prime movers of 1931, and especially with the then relation
between steam-engines and internal-combustion engines. That paper will doubt-
less prove to be a very valuable contribution to the proceedings of this Association,
and one can only regret that many of those assembled here to-day cannot hope to
be present when it is read, and to listen to an account of the nearest approach
which has then been made towards the production of a perfect prime mover.

Electric Tramways and Light Railways.

I now pass to the application of electricity to tramways, and in so doing may
quote from the careful expression of opinion given in this town from this Chair
twenty years ago by the late Sir (then Mr.) James Brunlees, President of the
Institution of Civil Engineers: ‘The working of railways by electricity has not
advanced further than to justify merely a brief reference to it in this paper as
among the possibilities, perhaps the probabilities, of the not distant future.’

It was stated in a paper read by Mr. P. Dawson in April last before the
Tramways and Light Railways Association, that the total route-length of electric
tramways and light railways in the United Kingdom, either completed, under
construction, or authorised, amounted at the end of last year to 3,000 miles, the
length of single track being 5,000 miles, on which some 6,000 cars were running.

It cannot, in my opinion, be regarded as being fair to the railway companies—
which have to pay large sums of money for the land on which their lines have
been constructed—to have to compete with tramways which are laid along the
public roads without any payment being made for their use. The roads are dis-
figured by aérial conductors and the supporting posts by which the electric
current is conveyed to the cars, except in those comparatively rare instances in
which the conduit system is used; nor can it be denied that tramways greatly
interfere with the use of the roads for ordinary traffic. The effect of electrolytic
action on iron pipes laid beneath the roads is still undergoing investigation.

758 REPORT—19038.

Railways.

Turning now to railways, it may be noted that on some of the principal lines
in Great Britain the length of the runs without a stop is being increased in the
case of fast trains, the speed of which is in some cases from forty-eight to fifty-
nine miles an hour.

Railway companies are turning their attention to the introduction of electric
traction wherever it can be beneficially used, as for instance on the Mersey Rail-
way, the North-Hastern Railway between Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Tynemouth,
and the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway between Liverpool and Southport.
With the object of facilitating the introduction and use of electrical power on
railways, Parliament has passed an Act entitled the ‘ Railways (Electrical Power)
Act, 1903, which will come into operation on January 1 next,

The electrical service on the Mersey Railway has now been in regular and
uninterrupted operation since the beginning of May in the present year. Trains
are run at three-minute intervals, there being 750 trains in all between 5 a.M.
and 12 midnight ; and as it is the first example of a British steam railway con-
verted to the use of electric traction, a short description of it cannot fail to be
of interest.

The Mersey Railway was first opened for traffic on February 1, 1886, and was
afterwards extended at both ends, the last extension to the Liverpool Central
Station being opened for traffic in January 1892. With steam locomotives, largely
owing to the want of adequate ventilation, the railway was not a success.
Electrification was decided upon, and in the latter part of 1901 the British
Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company, Limited, undertook the
entire contract. The length of the railway is about 3% miles, and there are
gradients in the tunnel below the river of 1 in 27 and 1 in 30.

The power station is at Birkenhead, and contains plant aggregating over
6,000 horse-power, comprising three engines of the Westinghouse-Corliss vertical
cross-compound type.

The generators are all three alike, mounted on the engine shaft between the
cylinders. They are standard Westinghouse multipolar machines, of the double-
current type, of 1,250 kilowatts capacity. Direct-current is collected from the
armature at 650 volts, no alternating current being used at present.

Leads are carried below the floor from the machines to a switchboard, from
which are controlled the main generators, the auxiliary lighting sets, battery,
booster, and feeders. The battery consists of 320 chloride cells connected in
parallel with the generators through a differential booster, and charge or discharge
according as the line load is light or heavy. They have a capacity of 1,000
ampere-hours, and a momentary discharge capacity of 2,000 amperes.

The auxiliary sets, two in number, are for lighting purposes, and yielding
direct current at 650 volts, are available in case of need to supply current to the
main traction circuits. 210 volt incandescent lamps are used for lighting, arranged
in groups of three in series.

The feeders are carried from the switchboard down the ventilation shaft to
feed the insulated electrical collector rails, which are placed in the space between
the up and the down lines, and somewhat above the level of the rails, an insulated
return collector rail being placed between each pair of rails. A train consists of
two motor cars, one at each end, and from one to three trailers as required,
depending on the amount of traffic. The motor cars each carry an equipment of
four Westinghouse motors of 100 horse-power, making 400 horse-power per car, or
800 horse-power per train. These motors are all controlled in unison from the
motorman’s compartment at either end of the train by means of the Westing-
poe multiple controlled system, which has worked from the start without a

itch.

In conclusion, it may be noted that every precaution has been taken against
fire. The electrical equipment is all thoroughly fireproof, and the motorman’s

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 709

compartment is encased in asbestos slate, cutting it off completely from the
remainder of the train.

Of tube railways with electric traction there are three now working in London,
two between the City and the south side of the River Thames, using the ordinary
two wire 500 volts continuous current system, and another (the Central London)
extending from the City to Shepherd's Bush, using the composite system. This
railway conveyed during the year 1902 no fewer than 45 million passengers.
There are eight other tube railways now in course of construction in London.
The recent terrible catastrophe in Paris must serve as a warning in the future
equipment of such lines where currents at high tension are employed, and where
short-circuiting may bring about disastrous results.

A paper will be read before this Section by Mr. F. B. Behr on the authorised
Manchester and Liverpool Express Railway, which is intended to be constructed
on the Mono-rail system, and to be worked electrically.

Canals.

Concurrently with the construction of roads in this country was the for-
mation of canals, as a means of inland communication, mainly for the carriage of
minerals and merchandise, though they also conveyed passengers by express boats.
The only recent structure of this character in the United Kingdom is the famous
Manchester Ship Canal, with which the name of Sir E. Leader Williams,
M.Inst.C.E., is associated. This, however, is hardly a canal in the sense in which
that word was employed by Brindley, ‘the father of inland canal navigation in
England, as the largest amount by far, in the proportion of 10 to 1, is its
seaborne, as compared with its local traffic. It is interesting to notice that a very
important wheat trade is being carried on with India, exported both from Bombay
and Kurrachee. The seaborne traffic and the barge traflic for 1894 was 686,158
tons and 239,501 tons respectively, and has during eight years increased, until
in 1902 it had reached 3,137,348 tons and 280,711 tons respectively. The most
interesting recent development of the works is the new Dock now in course of
construction, with its five sets of transit sheds, which are being built on the
Ferro-Concrete system.

Ships.

The intercommunication of the nations of the world is largely dependent on
the navigation of the ocean. The first vessel to cross the Atlantic fitted with
steam power was the ‘ Savannah,’ of about 300 tons, which arrived at Liverpool
from Savannah, in Georgia, in thirty days, partly under steam and partly under sail.
Ocean steam traffic has been extending ever since. Two years ago | had occasion, in
connection with my Presidential Address to the Institution of Civil Engineers, to
collect some statistics with regard to shipping, and found that according to Lloyd’s
Register the largest British vessels then afloat were the twin-screw steamers
‘Oceanic,’ of 17,274 tons, and the ‘Celtic,’ of 20,904 tons, both gross register,
built for the White Star line, and regularly making the passage between Liverpool
and New York in seven days and eight days respectively ; and the ‘Celtic’ is still
the largest mercantile steamship afloat, the tonnage of the new German stea ner,
‘Kaiser Wilhelm II.,’ being 19,360 tons gross register.

Untortunately these fine ships, with many others, are now no longer owned in
this country, although still flying the British flag. The latest German steamer on
the American line, together with others recently launched from the Vulcan
Works at Stettin, have maintained a speed averaging over 23 knots, whilst the
Cunard Company’s liners—still, happily, English—the ‘ Campania ’ and ‘ Lucania,’
built ten years ago, average 22 knots. This company is under contract with the
Government to build two liners to maintain an average speed of 244 knots. The
secretary of ‘ Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign Shipping’ has kindly supplied
me with a list of the steamers of 10,000 tons and upwards which have been

760 REPORT—1908.

launched in the United Kingdom between 1900 and June 1903, It is given in
aggregate below:

| Year Number of ships Aggregate gross tonnage |
| 1900 8 95,275
1901 8 107,396
| 1902 if 98,505
| 1903 é if 67,600

(six months to June 30) | ;

| (approximate) |

In the Address already referred to I mentioned the application as having been
then recently made of the Parsons steam turbine to H.M. torpedo-boat destroyers.
The South-Eastern and Chatham Railway Company’s new steamer ‘ The Queen’
has been fitted with this class of engine of latest design. There is a central high-
pressure turbine, driving its shaft at 700 revolutions a minute, and two side low-
pressure turbines, each driving its separate shaft at 500 revolutions a minute.
The steamer is 310 feet long, and is now running successfully in the service
between Dover and Calais,

For some time past much attention has been paid, more especially in France,
to the perfecting of submarine vessels for the purposes of naval warfare, but it
cannot yet be said that they have passed beyond the experimental stage, although
the advance made has been such as to cause our Admiralty to order several addi-
tional vessels of the submarine type. These vessels are to be propelled by internal-
combustion engines when on the surface of the water and by electric motors when
submerged.

Aéronautics.

Another of the attempted means of locomotion is that of aérial navigation,
How little we appear to have advanced beyond where we were fifty years ago,
when on September 24, 1852, that eminent French engineer, Henri Giffard,
succeeded during an experimental ascent in Paris in driving a ballcon against the
wind for a very short distance, although on October 19, 1901, M. Santos Dumont
was successful in navigating his balloon from St. Cloud round the Eiffel Tower in
Paris and back to the spot where he had started only half an hour previously.
Many have been engaged in this so far unsolved problem of aérial navigation, but
there is one of whom we seldom hear. I will quote what Mr. Janssen said in his
Presidential Address to the International Aeronautic Congress, held in France on
September 15, 1900, regarding Mr. Langley, Correspondent of the Institute of
France and Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. ‘ Inde-
pendently of the fine and profound researches of this scientist upon the resistance
of air, Mr. Langley has constructed an aeroplane which has progressed and has
sustained itself during a time notably longer than any of the apparatus previously
constructed.’

In the last report of the Smithsonian Institute, that for 1901, it is stated that
this steel flying-machine had a supporting area of 54 square feet, a weight of
50 Ib., developed 14 horse-power, and repeatedly flew from one-balf a mile to
three-quarters of a mile. I cannot close this portion of my Address without
referring to the death on 7th February last,in the ninety-fourth year of his age, of
that eminent scientific aéronaut, Mr. James Glaisber, F.R.S., who in 1863 made his
famous ascent to an altitude of seven miles, and who described at the Newcastle-
upon-Tyne Meeting in that year, in an evening lecture, the balloon ascents made
for the British Association.

Wireless Telegraphy.
In addressing this Section I feel that I ought to say a few words on the subject
of ‘wireless telegraphy.’ With regard to signalling Signor Marconi certainly

seems to have made progress. In January, 1901, signals were conveyed from Pold
in Cornwall to the Isle of Wight, a distance of 200 miles, and in December of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 761

Same yeur, between Cornwall and St. John’s, Newfoundland, a distance of 2,000
miles. In the year 1902 signals were transmitted from England to the Baltic and
the Mediterranean, which had thus passed over both sea and land. It seems to
be not improbable that signals can be sent any distance, so long as the sending
station can develop suflicient energy. The question of ‘syntonism,’ by which it
is proposed to assure the secrecy of messages, appears to be still sub judice, but is
undergoing further investigation.

There appears to he a practical field for the development of ‘ wireless tele-
graphy,’ more especially where ordinary telegraphy cannot be applied, as, for in-
stance, between shore and ships at sea or between one ship and another.

The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company have obligingly furnished me with a
list of eighteen land stations fitted on the Marconi system for commercial ship
signalling, together with a list of forty-three passenger-steamers already furnished
with the Marconi apparatus, thus affording evidence of its application to practical
purposes.

The system of ‘wireless telegraphy’ by Sir Oliver Lodge and Dr. Muirhead
has, I understand, been fitted to cable steamers of the Eastern Extension Tele-
graph Company, to enable communication to be made with their cable stations,

Sewage Disposal.

The bacterial treatment of sewage is receiving much attention, and by the
courtesy of Mr. J. Corbett, M.Inst.C.E., the Borough Engineer of Salford, I am
enabled to make a brief reference to the system of sewage treatment now carried
on at the Salford Corporation Sewage Works, adjoining the Manchester Ship
Canal. Twenty years ago the works were constructed with precipitation tanks
for lime treatment of the sewage. After fourteen years of experiments with
various precipitation and filtration processes, ten of the original precipitation tanks
were formed into two large tanks in which precipitation takes place with the aid
of milk of lime and salts of iron. The other two original tanks were converted
into six roughing filters containing 3 feet in depth of tine gravel, to intercept
particles which have escaped the precipitation process, and which would tend to
choke the final filters. The final purification is on bacteria beds or aérated filters,
with an open false floor of perforated tiles and large open culverts giving constant
ventilation through the beds, some of which are filled toa depth of 5 feet and
others to a depth of 8 feet with crushed clinkers of from 4; inch to 3 inch
diameter. The liquid is ‘rained’ on to the surface by spray jets, and the beds
are used generally in shifts of two hours each for eight hours a day in dry weather
and for twenty-four hours during heavy rainfall. An average quantity of from
400 to 500 gallons of sewage per square yard per day is treated with satisfactory
results.

Liverpool Docks.

Although there may seem little of interest in the vast areas of sand which
separate Southport from the sea, yet if the whole sea coast from the Dee to the
Ribble be taken into consideration, there are few areas of greater interest to the
hydraulic engineer than these rivers with the shores that bound them, and few
in which stranger changes in land level have occurred within historic times. In
the Itinerary of Ptolemy, the Ribble is named immediately after the Dee, the
Mersey being omitted altogether.

At the meeting of this Association at Liverpool in 1896, reference was made
to these matters, not only by the President of this Section, Sir Douglas Fox, Past
President Inst.C.E., but also in papers read, one of which, by Mr. T. M. Reade,
F.GS., is entitled ‘ Oscillations in the Level of the Land, as shown by the Buried
River Valleys and Later Deposits in the neighbourhood of Liverpool.’

Evidence of the gradual sinking of the land is given by the very interesting
discovery in 1850 of a Roman bridge at Wallasey Pool, Birkenhead. After
excavating fourteen feet, the workmen came upon a bridge of solid oak beams, sup-
ported in the centre by stone piers and resting at the ends upon the solid rock at

762 REPORT—1903.

the sides of the creek. The length of the bridge was 100 feet and its width
24 feet, and the beams were each 33 feet long, 18 inches wide, and 9 inches thick ;
there were 36 beams formed into 12 compound beams, each 27 inches in depth.
Careful drawings of this bridge were made by Mr. Snow, an engineer employed
on the work then in progress. The drawings show that the rocky bed of the
stream was some 13 feet below the bridge, which was itself about 16 feet helow
present high-water level.

Formerly Liverpool was one of the ports subordinate to the Comptroller of
Chester, and is styled in the Patent ‘a creek in that port.’

The first Act of Parliament authorising the construction of Dock works was
obtained in 1709, and in 1853 the water area of the docks had been increased to
178 acres. Since 1853 the progress has been much more rapid, especially within
the last thirty years. The total area of the docks and basins at Liverpool and
Birkenhead is now 566 acres, whilst in connection therewith there are rather more
than 35 miles of quayage. The marked tendency in recent years to increase the
length, beam, and depth of ocean-going steamers has necessitated the provision of
dock accommodation for a much larger class of vessel than formerly existed; and
during the last decade works of great magnitude have been successfully carried
out by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, under the able direction of the late
Mr. G, F. Lyster, M.Inst.C.E., and, since his death, of his son, Mr. Anthony G.
Lyster, M.Inst.C.E. In the northern section a new graving-dock has been con-
structed, extensive additions have been made to the Canada and Huskisson Docks,
whilst the difticult work of constructing new river entrances has also been satis-
factorily completed. In the southern section, the Queen’s Dock has been enlarged
and other important additions have been executed and brought into use.

To convey some idea of the magnitude of the works executed, it may be
mentioned that the amount expended by the Dock Board in the extensions above
indicated exceeds 1,750,000/.

The largest lock connected with the port of Liverposl is the Canada, 600 feet
long by 100 feet wide, the sill being 14 feet below the datum of Old Dock sill,
which datum is 4 feet 8 inches below Ordnance datum, or mean sea-level. ‘Two
large river-entrance locks into the Brunswick Dock are now approaching com-
pletion, the larger lock having a length of 350 feet and a width of 100 feet, with
a sill 19 feet 6 inches below the datum of Old Dock sill.

One of the striking features in connection with the port of Liverpool is the
difficult and extensive work connected with the dredging operations at the
Mersey Bar. Since the commencement in 1890, to August 1903, no less than
72,000,000 tons of material have been dredged and removed from the Bar and
sea channels, and the average quantity for the last five years has been in round
figures, 7,000,000 tons per annum. ‘The total tonnage of the port for the year
ended July 1, 1903, was 13,308,305, and the receipts therefrom amounted to
1,185,066/., exclusive of graving dock and other rates.

Irrigation.

This being the first Meeting of the British Association since the completion of
the Assuan dam, which I had the opportunity to inspect when visiting Hgypt in
the early part of this year, I should like to devote to it a short portion of my
Address. Those who desire to learn all about that work in detail I would refer
to the papers (to which, indeed, I am indebted for my information on the subject)
read before the Institution of Civil Engineers on January 27 last by Mr. Maurice
Fitzmaurice, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., who had charge of the work on behalf of the
Egyptian Government from its commencement in 1898 until December 1901,
and by Mr. F. W. S. Stokes, M.Inst.C.E., managing director of Messrs.
Ransomes & Rapier, of Ipswich, who undertook the manufacture and erection of
the sluices and lock-gates.

The Nile reservoir has been constructed for the purpose of impounding the
water of the River Nile during the winter months, and discharging it in the
months of May, June, and July, so as to supplement the ordinary tlow of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 763

river, and thus enable land to be irrigated which would otherwise receive either
no water, or an insufficient supply. The situation chosen for the dam was the
head of the Assuan cataract. There were various reasons for the choice: there was
a wide section of the river, the waterway being about seven-eighths of a mile, thus
permitting the construction of sufficient sluices at different levels to discharge the
whole volume of the Nile in flood without weakening the dam by placing them too
close together ; the height of the dam would be moderate; the site chosen seemed
to promise good rock foundation throughout, and there were several natural
channels when the water was low, each of which could be dealt with separately
if desired.

Arrangements had to be made to house and feed a population of 15,000 ; offices,
workshops, a hospital, and other temporary buildings had to be erected, and a line
of railway about 3 miles in length had to be constructed to connect the railway
from Luxor to Assuan with the works at the dam. This preliminary work was
carried out in 1898, and on February 12, 1899, H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught
laid the foundation-stone of the dam.

To enclose the site of the permanent masonry dam, and to render it dry for the
purpose of excavation and laying the masonry, temporary dams, known in Egypt
as ‘sudds,’ had to be formed both above and below the site of the permanent dam.
At low Nile the river at the Assuan cataract divides itself into five channels, and
this work was done in five sections. The down stream ‘sudds’ were first made,
and consisted of stones. After the rush of water had been thus stopped, the up-
stream ‘sudds’ were formed of bags of sand.

It was found that the rock on the site of the dam was decomposed. The
importance of a solid rock foundation was paramount, and to obtain it the
excavation had to be carried down to a considerable depth, necessitating the
removal of double the amount of material which had been contracted for, and the
construction of nearly one and a half times the quantity of masonry that had been
anticipated. The masonry, consisting of local granite set in Portland cement mortar,
was commenced in May 1900, was carried on vigorously during two working
seasons in which the Nile was abnormally low, and was finished in June 1902,
less than 3} years after the first stone was laid, and one year before the
expiration of the contract time. The dam is nearly 1 miles in length, and the
difference between the surface of the water on the up-stream side and that on
down-stream side is 65} feet when the reservoir is full. The masonry is pierced
by 180 sluices, of which 140 are 23 feet high by 6 feet 62 inches wide, and 40 are
11 feet 6 inches high by 6 feet 62 inches wide.

The construction of the dam having closed the river to navigation, provision
for the passage of vessels was made by means of a canal formed on the west
bank of the Nile and having a succession of four locks.

The capacity of the Nile reservoir when filled to the top water height of
348 feet above mean sea level is about 37,600 million cubic feet, a quantity which
might have been greatly increased had not the desire to preserve the Temple of
Phile prevented the raising of the water to the level originally proposed. Even
now many portions of the temple or its adjacent buildings are partially submerged.

It is anticipated that by allowing the whole volume of the Nile to pass through
the sluices when most laden with mud during floods, the silting up of the
reservoir to any considerable extent will be prevented. The cost of the works was
nearly 2,450,000/, or about 102. per million gallons of water impounded.

The original surveys and designs for the works were prepared by Mr. Willcocks
(now Sir William Willcocks, K.C.M.G.), under the instructions of Lord Cromer
and Sir William Garstin, Sir Benjamin Baker, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Past
President Inst.C.E., being the consulting engineer. On the retirement of Mr.
Fitzmaurice, he was succeeded by Mr. C. R. May, M.Inst.0.E., as engineer in
charge. The work was carried out by Messrs. John Aird & Co., as contractors,
Mr. John A. C. Blue, Assoc.M.Inst.C.&., acting as their agent.

All concerned in the inception and execution of this great undertaking are to
be congratulated on its successful and speedy completion, in the face of the many
difficulties which were encountered and overcome.

764 REPORT-—1903.

Water Supply.

To everyone a plentiful supply of good water is not only a luxury, but almost
a necessity of existence, yet how few even amongst the more intelligent of the
millions who are accustomed to find such a supply ready to hand at the nearest
tap have more than a very imperfect notion of the works that have to be con-
structed to obtain it, or the daily care and attention given to secure and maintain
its purity, to ensure its efficient distribution, and to prevent its waste by careless,
ignorant, or reckless consumers. It may therefore not be out of place that when
the chair of this Section of the British Association happens, as now, to be occupied
by one whose professional life has been largely associated with waterworks under-
takings, he should address you on that subject, and endeavour briefly to direct
attention to some of the main features of waterworks construction and manage-
ment. In following that course I shall, however, necessarily have to describe
what is already well-known to at least a portion of my audience, on whose indul-
gence I must therefore rely.

Water supplies may be divided into two main classes, namely, ‘Gravitation’
and ‘Pumping.’ In some instances a combination of gravitation and pumping is
resorted to, especially in those cases in which the more elevated portions of the
district to be supplied are situate above the gravitation level. In selecting a
suitable source of supply the main points for consideration are the quantity and
the quality of the water. The quantity should be such as will not only suttice to
meet the requirements throughout the most protracted periods of drought and
frost of the existing popuiation to be served, but should provide for the probable
growth of that population during a reasonable number of years to come. The
quality of the water selected should be the best that can be obtained, having due
regard to considerations of expense. The question of the altitude being sufficient
to permit of a supply by gravitation is of far less moment than those of quantity
and quality, hecause the difference in cost between water derived by gravitation
and that obtained by pumping is, in the United Kingdom, less than is generally
supposed ; indeed, contrary to popular belief, gravitation water is frequently more
costly than pumped water, owing to the much greater capital outlay usually
incurred in the construction of the works for storing and conveying it.

Gravitation works may be divided into three classes, namely, those in which
water is taken directly from a spring or stream without storage, those in which it
is taken from a natural lake, in which case the surface level of the water is usually
raised so as to increase the capacity of the lake as at Thirlmere, and those more
uumerous cases in which the water of a spring is impounded in an artificial
reservoir generally formed by the construction of an earthen or masonry dam
across the valley along which flows the stream to be taken.

In the more populated portions of England it is becoming more and more diffi-
cult to find an unappropriated gathering ground available as a source of water
supply. The gathering ground, or drainage area as it is frequently termed, should
either be free trom human habitations and other sources of possible pollution, or
any pollution arising therefrom should be capable of being efficiently disposed of
hy removal from the area of the gathering ground or otherwise.

The gathering ground must also possess a site suitable for the formation of an
impounding reservoir. When this has been selected it next becomes necessary to
ascertain the amount of the available rainfall, as recorded by rain-gauges situate
in the drainage area or its immediate vicinity, or where these are not available, as
deduced from the returns obtained from more distaut rain-gauges, care being
always taken that some at least of the gauges have been observed for a sufficient
number of years to enable the true average rainfall to be determined. To store
the whole of the water flowing from a gathering ground during a cycle of wet
years in order to utilise it during a cycle of dry years would entail the construction
of reservoirs of enormous capacity, at a cost incommensurate with the object to be
attained ; it is therefore customary to make them of such size as to enable the
supply to be maintained without risk of failure throughout the three driest con-
secutive years, the mean annual rainfall of which years generally amounts to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 765

about four-fifths of the average taken over a long period—say, forty or fifty years.
From the mean rainfall of the three driest consecutive years a deduction must be
made for loss by evaporation, which is usually between twelve and sixteen inches.
The result is known as the available rainfall, and represents the quantity of water
which can be drawn continuously from an impounding reservoir without fear of
failure in the driest years. But the whole of this water can rarely be abstracted
from a stream without injuriously affecting mill-owners or other riparian owners
on the stream below the reservoir; therefore they have to be compensated for the
injury they sustain, This is sometimes done by payments in money, but where
the mills on the stream are numerous it is generally more economical to make
compensation in water delivered into the stream immediately below the reservoir,
because the same water compensates each mill in succession as it flows down the
stream,

It has now become an accepted principle that one-third of the available rainfall
flowing down a stream in a regulated quantity day by day throughout the year is
of greater benefit to the mill-owners (with few exceptions) than the whole of the
rainfall allowed to flow in the irregular manner in which it is provided by nature.
This compensation water is discharged from the reservoir into the stream either
during certain hours on working days or by a uniform flow throughout the
twenty-four hours of every day; a method now frequently demanded by County
Councils on so-called sanitary grounds, but which is in my opinion not infrequently
detrimental to the interests of mill-owners without a corresponding advantage to
the public.

Where compensation in water is given there remains for distribution in the
district to be supplied a quantity equal to only two-thirds of the available rainfall.

Assume for the sake of illustration a case in which the gross annual rainfall is
40 inches. Then we have:—

Inches

Gross annual rainfall . : 5 ‘ : ; 3 : . 40
Deduct to arrive at the mean annual rainfall of the three driest

consecutive years—say one-fifth of forty . - : : : 8
Mean annual rainfall of three driest consecutive years . . . 32
Deduct for evaporation, say . ; 4 5 yy 5 4 UL Pe
Available for supply if no compensation water be given : ems
Or if compensation water be given deduct one-third , é ‘ 6
Leaving available for supply . : . :. : : 5 a)

Having now ascertained the amount of the rainfall available for the supply of
the district, it remains to be seen whether or not the area of the gathering ground
above the reservoir is sufficient to give the required quantity of water. If it is
not, the area may in some cases be extended by means of catch-waters in the form
of open conduits cut along the sides of the valley below the embankment of the
reservoir, and at such an elevation as will enable them to discharge the waters
they collect into the reservoir above its top water line.

Almost all waters derived from gathering grounds are much improved by
filtration before use for potable purposes. In some cities and towns in this country,
more especially in Lancashire and Yorkshire, the benefit derived from filtration
has not been sufficiently appreciated, and the water is still delivered into the
houses unfiltered ; but I am of opinion that the time will come when nearly every
town of importance supplied with water derived from gathering grounds will
adopt filtration, for it not only removes matters in suspension but it also diminishes
the discoloration due to peat which is to be found in most moorland waters.

Reservoir dams in Great Britain consist either of earthen embankments or
masonry walls. Of the former, examples of considerable size may be seen at the
reservoirs of the Manchester Waterworks, designed by Mr. J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.,
Past President Inst.C.E., who was President of Section G of the British Association
at the Manchester Meeting in 1861; and at the Rivington reservoirs of the Liver-
pool Waterworks, designed by my father, the late Mr. Thomag Hawksley, F.R.S.,

766 REPORT—1903.

Past President Inst.C.E., who was President of this Section at the Meeting at
Nottingham in 1866.

Earthen embankments are formed of the most suitable materials to be obtained
by excavation in their neighbourhood; the water is retained by a wall of water-
tight clay puddle forming the core of the embankment, extending for its whole
length and continued at each end into the natural ground forming the hillsides,
This puddle core has to be carried down into the ground until watertight strata
be met with, occasionally necessitating a puddle trench having a depth of 80 feet
or more below the bottom of the valley and 200 feet or more in depth in the hill-
sides. Where the strata forming the sides of the valley are not watertight, it is
necessary to continue the puddle core along the sides of the reservoir by means of
wing trenches. The determination of the depth and extent of the puddle trench
in order to secure the watertightness of the reservoir is one of the most difficult
and anxious duties of the engineer on whom rests the responsibility of its
construction. In forming his judgment he has to rely entirely on his experience
for guidance, this being one of those matters which cannot be learnt at an
engineering school or even in an engineer's office. How much depends on the
exercise of a wise and trained judgment may be understood when it is realised
that an error in this respect may result in very costly works having to be subse-
quently undertaken to stop an escape of water which might in the first instance
have been prevented by a comparatively small outlay.

Provision has to be made for the passage of flood-waters during the construction
of the embankment. This is ordinarily effected by the construction at about the
level of the stream of a tunnel of sufficient diameter to convey with only a slight
head the volume of water produced by the greatest flood which experience has
taught us to anticipate. This tunnel is sometimes formed beneath the embank-
ment, but preferably, where the circumstances are favourable, it is carried through
the natural ground near to one end of the embankment. A shaft is built in
connection with the tunnel, in which, after the embankment has reached its full
height, are placed the outlet valves of the reservoir.

It is of the utmost importance that ample provision should be made for carrying
off the flood and other surplus waters coming from the gathering ground when the
reservoir is full, for if this be not done serious consequences may ensue, including
the washing away of the embankment with resulting destruction of property and
even of life. The surplus waters sometimes fall down a, shaft erected within the
reservoir, and make their escape by means of the tunnel previously mentioned,
but more frequently they flow over a.masonry weir and reach the stream below
the embankment by means of a bye wash formed in the hillside. In my opinion
the latter method is in most cases to be preferred, as being free from the risk of
blockage by ice to which the shaft and tunnel are liable. Engineers are occasion-
ally reproached with extravagance in the magnitude of the provision made for the
escape of flood waters, but it must always be borne in mind that a maximum flood
has to be provided for, such a flood as may occur only once in twenty or thirty
years, but which must find a means of escape when it does occur, without danger
to life or property.

Masonry dams are not go frequent in this country as earthen dams, partly by
reason of their greater cost and partly because the geological conditions are gene-
rally not favourable to their formation, for not only do they require a supply of
suitable stone near to hand for their construction, but they also need an incom-
pressible foundation, such as rock or very strong shale. Any irregularity in the
compression of the foundation occasioned by the weight of the dam would be
liable to fracture the masonry of which it was built.

In the case of masonry dams a tunnel for the passage of flood waters during
construction is formed at a suitable level in the masonry of the dam, and after
completion of the work they are generally allowed to pass over the top of the dam
for the whole or a portion of its length, thus obviating the necessity for and the
cost of an independent bye wash.

Whilst masonry dams have the advantage over earthen dams of not being
liable to be breached by a waterspout, I am not aware of any case in which an

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 767

earthen dam has been destroyed in that manner, and so far as I am able to form
an opinion the accidents due to other causes have been as frequent in the case of
masonry dams as in that of earthen dams. The destruction of masonry dams has
in some instances been the result of too great reliance having been placed on
theoretical calculations, without sufficient allowance having been made for the
many defects in material and workmanship which might occur in a work of that
kind. It was the opinion of the late Mr. Thomas Hawksley that in some cases
the destruction of masonry dams had been occasioned by the neglect of the effects
of uplift due to the pressure exerted by water finding its way beneath the bottom
of the dam, a possible condition which he was very careful to take into account
when designing the masonry dam of the Vyrnwy reservoir of the Liverpool
Waterworks.

Examples of large masonry dams in the United Kingdom may be seen in that
constructed by Mr. G. H. Hill at Thirlmere Lake, from which the city of Man-
chester is partly supplied with water. Also at the Vyrnwy reservoir of the
Liverpool Corporation Waterworks, designed by and partially carried out under
the direction of the late Mr. Thomas Hawksley, after whose retirement it was
completed by Mr. G, F. Deacon, who presided over Section G on the occasion of
the visit of the British Association to Toronto in 1897 ; and again at the reservoirs
near Rhayader, in Wales, now approaching completion, from the designs and
under the direction of Mr. James Mansergh, F.R.S., Past President Inst.C.E., for
the supply of water to the city of Birmingham.

From the impounding reservoir the water has to be conveyed to the point of
distribution by an aqueduct. This aqueduct, which is sometimes of great length,
may consist either wholly of metal pipes, usually of cast iron, or partly of a
conduit constructed of masonry, brickwork or concrete following the contour of
the ground, with occasional tunnels where high ground has to be passee through,
and metal (inverted syphon) pipes where valleys have to be crossed. These con-
duits may be either open or covered, the latter method being generally adopted,
when they become what is technically known as ‘cut and cover’ conduits. In
the case of a continuous pipe-line of considerable length it is divided into sections
by means of break-pressure tanks interposed at suitable elevations, each tank
being say 100 feet or thereabouts below the preceding tank, by which means the
pipes are relieved from the excessive pressure to which they would be subjected
if the head due to the elevation of the impounding reservoir was carried forward
to the service reservoir, from which the water is distributed to the consumer,
Steel pipes are frequently used abroad where the cost of carriage is great, but
they have not yet been much employed in this country, sutlicient experience not
having yet been gained in reference to the deterioration of steel pipes due to the
action of the water from within and of the ground in which they are laid from
without.

The lines of pipe are provided at intervals with suitable stopcocks, sluice-
valves, and air-valves, and also in some cases with self-acting valves which close
automatically in the event of the velocity of the water in the pipe becoming
abnormally increased owing to the bursting of a pipe beyond.

I have already stated that most waters obtained from gathering grounds are
much improved by filtration. The process of filtration may be carried on where
the water leaves the impounding reservoir or at any convenient point on the line
of conduit thence to the place of distribution, provided the filter-beds are situate
at such an elevation as to place them on the line of hydraulic gradient. Various
considerations will influence the determination of their position. but it is desirable
that the water should not be subjected to long exposure to light after filtration.
Filtration by the slow passage of the water through a bed of sand from two to
three feet in thickness, supported by small gravel or other suitable material, is
the method usually adopted in Europe, though what is known as mechanical
filtration has been used to a considerable extent in the United States, and may
under certain conditions be usefully employed. However I do not think it is likely
to take the place to any considerable extent in this country of the efficient system
of sand-filtration introduced so long ago as the year 1828 by the late Mr. James

768 REPORT—1908.

Simpson, Past-President of the Institution cf Civil Engineers. The rate of filtra-
tion, to be thoroughly effective, must depend on the condition of the water to be
filtered, but a rate of from 450 to 550 gallons per square yard of surface of sand
per day (i.c., twenty-four hours) is usually found to be efficient. Tilter-beds are
generally open to the sky, but occasionally, when situate at considerable elevations,
they are covered by roots to prevent interruption by the formation of ice in times
of severe frost. In certain exceptional] cases in which the water is difficult to treat
it is twice filtered with excellent results. The water after filtration should be
discharged into a pure-water tank or service reservoir of sufficient capacity to
enable the process of filtration to proceed at a uniform rate by night as well as by
day, without regard to irregularities in the rate of demand in the district of supply.

The particles in suspension in the water, which are intercepted by the process
of filtration, gradually form a film over the surface of the sand, and thus improves
the filtration ; but. this film at last becomes so thick as to unduly reduce the rate
at which the water passes through the sand. The filter-bed is then laid off and,
the water having been withdrawn, the surface of the sand is scraped off to a depth
of about a quarter of an inch ; the sand thus removed is washed in suitable machines
to free it from the matter intercepted during the process of filtration, andi s after-
wards replaced in the filter-bed either immediately or after several similar >crap-
ings have taken place, care being taken that the thickness of the sand left in the
bed shall not at any time be reduced below that required to ensure efficient filtra-
tion. From time to time the sand is removed to a depth of several inches and
washed, and occasionally it is taken out and washed to its full depth. From the
foregoing description it will be understood that the filtration of water, although
a simple process, is one which necessitates constant watchfulness on the part of
those responsible for the management of those waterworks undertakings in which
the water undergoes filtration.

As near to the termination of the aqueduct conveying the water from the
impounding reservoir to the point of distribution as the levels of the ground will
permit, a service reservoir should be constructed for the purpose of equalising the
tlow of water along the aqueduct, and for maintaining the supply to the district
during any temporary interruption on the line of aqueduct due to a burst pipe or
otherwise. The service reservoir should contain not less than one day’s supply,
two or three days, and, in exceptional cases, even more being sometimes desirable.
Service reservoirs should by preference be covered so as to exclude light, and
thus prevent the growth of vegetation which would ctherwise take place. The
covering, when consisting of brick arches, has also the advantage of keeping the
water cool in summer, and preventing the temperature from becoming too much
reduced in winter. The rate of draught on the service reservoir is continually
varying throughout the day and night according to the hourly requirements of
the population which it serves. This variation is very considerable, amounting
during certain hours of the day to at least twice the average rate of consumption
during the twenty-four hours, It will therefore be apparent that were it not for
the equalising effect of the service reservoir the aqueduct must have a capacity at
least double that which is needful where a service reservoir is available. At
Southport, for example, although the water is distributed from a service reservoir,
that reservoir is situate at a distance of about seven miles from the town, because,
owing to the great extent of comparatively flat land in the neighbourhood of
Southport, it was impossible to obtain a suitable elevation nearer to the town
than Gorse Hill, on the summit of which the reservoir stands. Consequently the
main pipes thence to the town have to be of sufficient capacity to convey the water
at a rate corresponding with the demand at the time of maximum consumption,
or, in other words, of about twice the capacity which would have been needed if
the service reservoir could have been placed close to the town, when these pipes
would, for the greater part of their length, have been situate on the inlet instead
of on the outlet side of the reservoir.

Having now followed the water in the case of a gravitation supply from its
source to the service reservoir from which it is to be distributed to the consumers,
it will be convenient to follow in a similar manner water obtained by means of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 769

pumping, leaving until later the consideration of its distribution, which, after it
leaves the service reservoir, is common to both gravitation and pumped water.

Pumping supplies may be divided into two sections—first, those where the
water is drawn from a source only slightly below the level of the pumping engines,
such as where the water is taken from a stream or lake, or from culverts formed
in gravel beds, or is discharged from impounding reservoirs situate at too low
a level to enable the water to gravitate to the point of distribution; and secondly,
where the water is raised from deep wells sunk in the sandstone, chalk, or other
water-bearing strata.

In the first-mentioned cases the water has usually to be filtered, when it is
generally found convenient to place the filter-beds at the pumping station, the
water being firstly lifted (unless it will gravitate) on to the filter-beds, and
secondly, after filtration, and by means of a separate pump, forced through pipes
up to the service reservoir whence it is to be distributed.

In the case of deep wells, the water seldom, if ever, requires filtration, and is
usually raised either directly or through pipes into the service reservoir, the total
lift being frequently divided between lift pumps and force pumps with the object
of balancing the work to be done by the engine.

Sometimes the well alone will yield a sufficient supply of water, but often
it has to be aided by boreholes or by drifts or headings driven horizontally in the
water-bearing strata near the level of the bottom of the well, and occasionally
continued for a considerable distance, even as much as a mile or more from the
well, the length of the headings depending on the quantity of water which can be
profitably obtained from them, and also on other considerations too various to
be mentioned here. There are cases in which it is possible to obtain sufficient
water by boring from the surface of the ground and lowering a pump down the
borehole. The expense of a large well is thus saved, but it is, of course,
impossible to augment the supply by drifting.

The time at my disposal will not admit of any observations on the merits of
the various kinds of engines and pumps employed in raising water; they are not
only very numerous, but each has to be considered in relation to its suitability for
the particular circumstances of the case in question. Suffice it to say that, although
most of the water pumped in the United Kingdom is raised by means of steam
engines, water turbines, gas engines, oil engines, and (to some slight extent)
electric motors are also employed. It may be mentioned that one of the largest
oil engines in this country is engaged in pumping water from a deep well, and it
is not improbable that gas and oil engines will in the future become more largely
employed for waterworks purposes.

It should here be mentioned that there are a few instances in this country,
and many in the United States of America, in which a service reservoir is
dispensed with, and water is pumped directly into the main and distributing pipes
of the district to be served, a method which, although employed with success,
should not, in my opinion, be adopted where the circumstances admit of the use
of a service reservoir. Where direct pumping is used, provision must be made to
ensure continuous pumping day and night without intermission, so as to avoid
interruption to the supply of the district, and the speed of the engines must be
constantly varied to meet the demands of the consumers for the moment. The
maintenance of uniformity of pressure in the main pipes may be assisted by the
employment of large air vessels, or by accumulators such as are used for the
supply of hydraulic pressure, or preferably by a combination of air vessels and
accumulators.

We will now return to the service reservoir. When this reservoir is situate
between the source of supply and the district to be supplied, it receives the whole
of the water and delivers it into the district as needed for use ; but when the
district lies between the source and the service reservoir, it receives the excess of
supply over consumption, and on the other hand makes good any deficiency during
those hours when the consumption exceeds the supply. In either case this
reservoir has the effect of equalising the flow from the source to the reservoir
throughout the twenty-four hours of the day.

1903. 3D

770 REPORT—1903.

From the service reservoir the water is conveyed by one or more main pipes
into the district of supply. These pipes are gradually reduced in diameter as
they pass through the district, the water which they convey is taken off by
other main pipes branching from them, and finally enters the service pipes, which
are usually from five inches to three inches diameter, and are those from which
the consumers’ communication pipes are taken. The service pipes should in all
cases be controlled by valves, so that the water can be shut off from them without
interfering with the flow through the main pipes. Consumers’ communication
pipes are not generally allowed to be attached to pipes of greater diameter than
five inches, and where a pipe of six inches diameter and upwards is carried along
a street, another pipe of three or four inches diameter (preferably the latter size),
and called a ryder pipe, is laid alongside to receive the attachments of the commu-
nication pipes. The ryder pipe is divided into lengths of from 350 to 400 yards,
each of which is controlled by a valve at its junction with the main pipe.
Hydrants for use in case of fire are attached to the ryder and other service pipes
throughout the district at a distance apart not exceeding 100 yards, Except in
streets where the houses are small and not high, it is desirable to lay the service
pipes of not less than four inches diameter, not because a smaller pipe would not
suffice to meet the requirements of the domestic consumers, but in order to ensure
an ample supply of water in case of fire. When determining the sizes of the
main pipes to be laid throughout a town, the engineer commences with the pipes
most remote from the service reservoir, and gradually increases the diameter
according to the probable number and magnitude of the supplies to be taken from
them.

Pipes of cast iron having sockets run with lead and set up with a hammer are
mostly used for waterworks purposes, but in some instances turned and bored
joints put together without lead have been used with success, but these are only
suitable where there is an unyielding foundation. I remember a case in York-
shire, where turned and bored pipes were, much against the advice of the engineer,
used for the distribution of gas in a colliery district, with the result that in a few
years nearly every joint was leaking; fortunately the engineer had anticipated that
result, and had laid the pipes with sockets in addition to the turned and bored
joints; consequently, by opening the ground at each joint and running the joint
with lead, the leakage was stopped without necessitating the relaying of the
system of pipes. The main pipe of forty-four inches diameter, conveying water
from Rivington to Liverpool, passes for several miles over a coalfield, and the
ground has in places subsided over the coal workings as much as four feet without
interfering with the supply of water; the ground having been opened at the pipe
joints, the lead, which had been partially drawn from the joints, was forced back
by hammering, and the joint was again made sound.

In some countries, where the cold is intense, water pipes have to be laid at
a depth of from 10 feet to 12 feet below the surface of the ground to protect the
water from frost, but in the United Kingdom a depth of from 2 feet 6 inches to
3 feet has been found to be sufficient even in very severe frosts.

Water, especially when soft, causes the interior of cast-iron pipes to become
incrusted with nodules of iron, which reduce the effective diameter of the pipe and
so diminish its capacity. This action is greatly retarded and in some instances
entirely prevented by the application to the pipes, soon after they have been cast,
of the coating introduced many years ago by the late Dr. Angus Smith, a process
now nearly always employed.

It was at Southport that I witnessed the bursting of a main pipe, the only
occurrence of the kind that I have seen during a period of forty years, of which
2 considerable portion has been spent amongst waterworks. Owing to the intro-
duction of a new supply of water, the original main pipe was charged with water
at a higher pressure than it had been intended to bear, with the result that several
fractures occurred. I happened to be standing on one of the roads at a little
distance from the town when I heard a sound, and looking in the direction whence
it came, saw ina field near by a black column rise vertically in the air for about
forty feet in height. A girl who happened to be working in the field put her

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. ane

hands to her ears and fled, probably thinking she had seen Satan himself, but the
column soon became clear, the black colour having been caused by the peat carried
up with the water.

Having traced the water from its source to the door of the consumer, we now
enter into another branch of the subject. Up to this point the water has been
entirely under the control of the company or local authority by whom it is
provided, but from the moment it enters the consumer’s communication pipe, or,
where the communication pipe is the property of the water supplier, from the
moment the water reaches the premises of the consumer, it comes under his control,
subject only to such regulations and surpervision as the Legislature has given the
water supplier power to make and to exercise.

When water was supplied on the now almost obsolete ‘ intermittent service,’
under which a town was divided into a number of districts into each of which in
succession the water was turned for only one or two hours a day, the water
suppliers paid but little attention to the fittings within the houses of the consumers,
because, however great the quantity of water wasted through defective fittings,
the waste could only last for the short time during which the water was turned
on in each district, and it ceased altogether during the night.

About the year 1831 the system of ‘constant service,’ by which is meant a
supply of water available from the pipes of the water suppliers at any moment
throughout the day or night, was introduced into this country by the late
Mr. Thomas Hawksley, at Nottingham, and it soon became evident that if a con-
stant service was to be maintained the fittings within the houses of the consumers
must be adapted to the new conditions and be placed under regulation and super-
vision. Suitable regulations were therefore formulated, and have since been im-
proved and modified to meet modern requirements. These regulations, which are
mainly directed to the use of proper pipes, taps and other fittings, and to service
cisterns so constructed as to prevent a continuous flow and consequent waste of
water, do not in any way limit the use of water by a consumer, who is at liberty to
take as much as he requires whether by day or by nicht, nor does their strict
enforcement inflict any hardship on the consumer, to whom good water fittings
kept in a proper state of repair are in the end more economical than cheaper and
inferior fittings requiring the frequent attendance of the plumber. :

About five years ago, I had occasion to obtain statistics relating to the con-
sumption of water in sixteen towns (including Southport) in England, containing
an aggregate population within the district supplied of rather over five millions
of people, and found that the average quantity of water consumed in those towns
for domestic purposes was 18} gallons per head per diem, showing what can be
effected by good management and a careful observance of proper regulations for the
prevention of waste without imposing any restriction on the quantity of water
legitimately used. The figures which I have quoted as water for domestic purposes
include the unmetered trade supplies and that comparatively small amount of
waste which cannot be prevented, but do not include the water supplied by meter
for trade purposes, the amount of which varies greatly in different towns, but being
paid for by the consumer according to the quantity used may be disregarded when
comparing the management of waterworks undertakings.

Some soft waters, more especially those derived from moorlands, have an
injuricus action on lead pipes and lead-lined cisterns, and are liable to cause lead
poisoning in sensitive persons drinking the water, but this action is now commonly
prevented by bringing the water into contact with lime before distribution.

In certain instances of public supplies, the hardness of the water is reduced by
one of the several softening processes now in use, but it more frequently happens
that the softening is effected by those consumers who require soft water for boiler
or other trade purposes.

A few words with regard to the water supply of the town in which tbe
Meeting of the British Association is now being held may not be out of place, the
more especially when it is borne in mind that the rapid growth of its population
during the last half century could not haye taken place but for the introduction
of a supply of good water.

3D2

Via REPORT—19038.

The Southport Waterworks Company, by whom water was originally brought
to Southport, was established under the authority of an Act of Parliament passed
in the year 1854. Water was first obtained from a well sunk at Scarisbrick,
about five miles south-east of Southport, a source which was practically super-
seded by another well which was a few years later sunk at the Aughton pumping
station near Ormskirk. As the population to be supplied increased in numbers,
the Company subsequently sunk a third well, and constructed the still larger
Springfield pumping station near Town Green, about nine miles south-east of
Southport, and it is from the Aughton and Springfield wells, both sunk into the
Bunter Beds of the New Red Sandstone formation, that the present excellent
supply of water is derived. At each pumping station the water is raised by a pair
of beam rotative steam-engines into two covered service reservoirs situate on the
summit of Gorse Hill, near Ormskirk, at an elevation of 260 feet above ordnance
datum, or in other words, above the mean level of the sea. From this reservoir the
water is brought through two main pipes to Southport and Birkdale, which
places have from the commencement of the undertaking had tke advantage of a
constant service. The late Mr. Thomas Hawksley acted as engineer to the
company from its formation until his death in 1893, and I subsequently acted in
that capacity until the transfer, under the powers of the Southport Water
(Transfer) Act, 1901, of the undertaking of the company to the Southport, Birk-
dale, and West Lancashire Water Board, consisting of representatives of the
Corporation of Southport, the Urban District Council of Birkdale, and the Rural
District Council of West Lancashire.

The advances in recent years in chemical science, and the application of the
science of bacteriology to the examination of water, have led to the condemnation
of waters which a few years ago would have been deemed to be perfectly suitable
for a town supply. Whilst fully appreciating the advantages to be derived from
the most careful examination of water supplied for domestic consumption, I cannot
but think that we are sometimes unnecessarily alarmed by the results obtained.
Taking a broad view of the subject, and looking to the healthy condition of towns
which have for many years been supplied with water from sources now regarded
with suspicion, I venture to think that the teachings of chemistry and bacteriology
are as yet but imperfectly understood, and that in the future it will be found that
some waters now considered of doubtful character are perfectly good and wholesome.
I am well aware that the expression of these views may call forth the indignation
of some of my friends amongst eminent chemists and bacteriologists to whose
opinions on such subjects I feel bound to pay deference. A Royal Commission
has recently recommended that a Government department be established and
endowed with enormous powers of interference with the action and discretion of
the bodies entrusted by Parliament with the responsibility of the administration of
water supplies, and it behoves those bodies to give careful consideration to that
recommendation, and to take such steps as may be necessary to check any attempt
to give effect to a proposal which may result in committing them to the carrying
out of unreasonable requirements, possibly involving needless expenditure, at the
bidding of a Department from whose dictum they may have no appeal.

Although a matter only indirectly connected with water supply, I think it may
be of scientific interest to this Section to have brought to their notice the case of
the River Rede in Northumberland, which takes its rise in the Cheviots. Ata
place called Catcleugh, about four miles below the source of the Rede, its waters
are diverted by the Newcastle and Gateshead Water Company for the supply of
their district. The gathering-ground above the point of diversion is about
10,000 acres in extent, and the quantity of water taken is ascertained by means of
a gauge, and registered continuously by a recording instrument. An inspection of
the diagrams taken during periods in which there was no rainfall shows a daily
variation in the volume of water flowing down the river. For example, during a
period of eight days (June 9 to 16, 1899) without interruption by rain, the gradual
rise and fall of the river was almost regular, day by day, the maximum flow
occurring about 9 A.M., and the minimum about 9 p.m., the difference between the
two amounting to nearly 10 per cent, of the total quantity passing down the river

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 779

at the time of minimum flow. Various suggestions as to the cause of this
phenomenon have been made, but I am unable to give any satisfactory explanation.
It occurs in winter as well as in summer, and may take place daily throughout the
year, though it cannot be observed except during dry periods. It may well be
that a similar phenomenon occurs in other rivers, but has escaped observation
owing to the absence of recording gauges.

The following Papers were read :—
1. King Edward VII. Bridge over the River Thames between Brentford
and Kew. By Curupert A. Brereton, I/Jnst.C.£.

2. Lilustrations of Graphical Analysis. By J. Harrison.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Lhe Equipment of the Manchester Municipal Technical Institute.
By J. H. Reynowps.

2, Report of the Committee on the Resistance of Road Vehicles
to Traction.—See Reports, p. 365.

3. Improvements in Locomobile Design. By T. CuarKson,
Assoc. M.Inst.C.£.

4. The Problem of Modern Street Traffic. By Lieut.-Col. Crompron, C.B.

_ _The author points out that this is the question of the day, that the roadways
in large cities are increasingly congested in spite of relief being given by shallow
and deep underground railways, by great extensions of tramways, and by much
costly widening and straightening of winding streets. Heroic proposals are made
to cut wide thoroughfares through London—in fact to Haussmannise London. A
Royal Commission is sitting to investigate the whole question of the communica-
tions of London,

The paper does not discuss these larger schemes, but draws attention to the
great extent by which traflic regulation would ameliorate matters.

The author suggests the formation in every large town of a traffic depart-
ment, possibly under the control of the head of the police. This traffic department
should be empowered to make rules for regulation of traffic and for diverting the
heavy traffic out of main thoroughfares into side streets ; and would be the expert
authority to deal with all traflic, rail and trade, proposals coming before
Parliament or the county councils.

Chief cause of the congestion of traffic is the mixed nature and varying speeds
at which it is carried. Fast and slow trafic ought to proceed in different streets.
_ The proposed traffic department would, in the case of London, require
increased powers being given to the police; hence the careful consideration and
sanction of Parliament ; and this will take time. Some of our large towns have
already obtained in their private Bills considerable powers for dealing with street

774 REPORT—1903.

traffic. Nottingham, for instance, has taken up the matter of regulating the heavy
traffic. It is believed that the present paper may be of use to those dealing
with traftic matters.

In ideal conditions of traffic the lines of vehicles are all parallel to the kerb,
and under favourable conditions, with vehicles of approximately the same speed,
the streets have an enormously increased capacity. The extent of this is shown
by a table in which the ordinary London omnibus is taken as a typical vehicle.
The table shows the number of passengers that can be carried by fully loaded
omnibuses past a given point per hour at various speeds and with various intervals
between the omnibuses. This table is prepared from the following formule :—

Where V is the speed of the omnibuses in miles per hour,
D the interval between the omnibuses in feet.
5 the time-interval in seconds,
N the number of passengers,

Then
N =1387,280 V/D
and
S=D/jV. °681

A very useful regulation would be one dealing with stopping vehicles, defining
in certain thoroughfares the time which vehicles may be allowed to stop. It is
suggested that a great many goods which are required for the regular supply of a
neighbourhood may be delivered between certain hours, other than those when
traffic is usually most congested.

Great relief would be given to traffic by the removal of stopping vehicles
altogether from the streets. This could be effected by some modification of the
court and porte-cochére system so largely used in continental cities. In this
case many offices or places of business could open into one court into which visiting
vehicles would draw out of the public thoroughfare,

A much larger proportion of the message and business visiting of our large
towns could be carried on bicycles (which is probably the vehicle most economical
of space of those which use the roadway) if facilities could be given for storing
them near the places of business. This could be arranged in the proposed
courts. Motor vehicles also could be stored in sub-basements by the use of lifts,
and in this way a considerable proportion of the vehicles bringing passengers
into the business quarter in the morning could be stored there all day and thus
avoid the necessity of a daily double empty journey.

Relief can also be given to traffic by regulations as to returning empty
carriages, These, in many cases, need not return by the most direct and busiest
routes.

The author points out that one great cause of congestion is due to cross traffic
carried on the same level. Sir John Wolfe Barry has suggested bridging our main
thoroughfares and carrying cross traffic over or under them. The successful
widening experiment at Hyde Park Corner has shown, however, that if consider-
able widening is carried out at crossings—in fact, if something like Regent and
Oxford Circus were introduced at each important crossing—great relief would be
given to traffic.

The widening of both the main street and the cross street for a certain distance
on each side of the crossing is probably the most economical and efficient way of
increasing the capacity of a street for any given expenditure of money.

Next comes the speed question, Most of the attempts to deal with modern
traffic have been unsuccessful in decreasing the time required to get from one part
of the town to another. Electric tramways, from which much was hoped,
practically do not exceed the old omnibus speed of seven miles an hour. A good
deal is to be hoped from automobiles, especially electric automobiles. These
vehicles can be run through traffic at 50 per cent. greater speed than horse-drawn
vehicles. Itis to be noticed that speed is desirable as for a given amount of
traffic the number of vehicles required to carry it is inversely proportional to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 775

speed. It is desirable that the mean speed should closely approach the maximum
speed, This can only be obtained by using very considerable power, so as to give
a ereat rate of acceleration. Rapid rate of acceleration and great brake-power is
all important in facilitating traffic. a

Most towns have their older and more important streets arranged radiating
from the original centre, market-place or otherwise. This tends to extra
congestion near the centre of the town, but it can be relieved by concentric
circular roads or boulevards, so that traflic crossing a large town can enter by one
radial road, pass the centre by one of these circular roads, then take a radial out
again. These concentric roads are much wanted in all towns. Regulation of
foot-passengers is as necessary as that of vehicles. Wide footways are needed,
but much can be done by passengers always keeping to the right, whether in the
footway or roadway.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Nature and Quality of some Potable Waters in South-west
Lancashire, By Professor J. CAMPBELL BRown.

2. Protective Devices for High-tension Electrical Systems.
By W. B. Woopuousz, AM LME., AMLEEL.

The extending use of high tension polyphase transmission is resulting in a
gradual standardisation of the methods adopted to protect such systems against
breakdown ; but there is still some considerable diversity of opinion shown. The
writer proposes to discuss several points in connection with the operation of a
high tension polyphase transmission system.

Nature of System,

The design of the system should be such that each part is automatically
disconnected in the event of a breakdown of that part; the continuity of supply
being of primary importance, all parts should be duplicated.

Stresses on the System.

In switching on an unloaded cable a wave of pressure passes along the cable
and is reflected; there may be a rise of pressure to twice the working value.

In switching on a transformer or an induction motor, or any apparatus with
considerable inductance, the full pressure exists for the moment between adjacent
coils, the greatest stress falling on the end coils, An inductive circuit has stored

2
energy to the amount of = joules, which must be dissipated when the circuit is

broken, In a transmission system such as is considered, this energy may be con-
verted to the electrostatic form on opening circuit with a resultant rise of pressure ;

neglecting damping effects the pressure may rise to a value H=I nA 7 or the rise

of pressure is proportional to the current flowing at the moment of interruption.
Pressure rise from resonance is not likely to occur in commercial systems in this
country.

The interval of time between the occurrence of an overload and the opening of
the circuit should be inversely proportional to the magnitude of the overload; that
is to say, on a moderate overload there should be a time-lag of some seconds.

A little consideration will show that all circuit-breakers on a system should be
capable of breaking the whole power which can flow into that part of the system.

776 REPORT—1908.

Protective Devices may be divided into two classes:

(1) Circuit breakers.
(2) Devices which prevent or relieve excessive rises of pressure.

Class 1 may be again divided into two subdivisions: (a) Fuses; () Switches.

The action of two types of fuses is discussed and curves given showing the
difference between the two types.

The oil-break switch is found to be the only workable type for large powers,
and the details of operation of such switches are gone into.

The automatic attachments for opening the switch on overloads and reversals of
power are described.

Class 2 includes charging devices, which the author considers unnecessary, and
spark-gaps of which a new type of oil immersed spark-gap is described, which, the
author considers, will safeguard a system from undue pressure-rise.

3. Aluminium as an Electrical Conductor. By J. B. C. Kersuaw, £.1.C.

The increasing use of aluminium as an electrical conductor for bare overhead
transmission lines, especially in the United States, and the claims made for this
metal as a substitute for copper, led the author in October 1899 to commence a
series of exposure tests at two localities in Lancashire, England.

These tests were made in order to ascertain the resistance to corrosion offered
by commercial aluminium rod and wire under the conditions obtaining, with
exposed bare overhead wires. Samples of aluminium rod and wire were obtained
from the principal English firms, and in order to make the series of observations
more complete, samples of galvanised iron wire and of copper and tinned copper
wire were also submitted to atmospheric exposure. The methods of observation
and the results obtained during the first exposure period (from October 1899 to
August 1900) were described by the author in a paper read before the London
Institution of Electrical Engineers on January 10,1901. This paper was reported
in most of the English and foreign technical journals.

The present paper is the record of the observations made since the date named
above, and it contains the chemical and physical tests of the aluminium wires
exposed at Waterloo, Lancashire, together with the results obtained during two
further periods of exposure, namely, from August 22, 1900, to November 6, 1991,
and from November 9, 1901, to December 4, 1902.

Since it may be considered unnecessary to repeat much of the information con-
tained in the Electrical Engineers’ paper of January 1901 the author proposes to
treat the present paper as a continuation of that of 1901, and to simply bring the
tables and information of the earlier paper up to date.

The author then deals seriatim with the following points: (1) Production and
price; (2) Relative costs of copper and aluminium; (8) Installations of
aluminium for conducting purposes; (4) Durability tests of aluminium and
other metals under atmospheric exposures; and concludes his paper with the
following summary of the results obtained in the exposure tests at Waterloo:

‘Summarising the results recorded in Table II., we may say that all the
samples of aluminium gained in weight during exposure, and that all were pitted
and corroded, especially on the under side where the water drops had collected
and dried. The rods appeared to have suffered rather less than the wires, and it
is therefore probable that in the course of drawing down, aluminium wire under-
goes physical change.

‘The author does not wish to base any unfair conclusions upon the results
obtained in these exposure tests. He may, however, claim to have proved that
some of the aluminium rod and wire which was being manufactured and sold in
England for electrical purposes in the years 1899 and 1901, was not able to
stand atmospheric exposure on the coast of Lancashire without corrosion. It is
only a fair deduction from these exposure tests to assert that aluminium manu-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 777

facturers have yet to prove the metal a satisfactory and durable substitute for
copper in bare overhead transmission lines, or for electrical work which involves
exposure to climates near the sea coast.’

Three tables accompany the paper, the first showing the output and average
price of aluminium annually for the period 1890-1902; the second giving details
of the exposure tests at Waterloo; and the third containing chemical and
pkysical tests of the aluminium wires used in the author’s experiments,

4. The Electrical Conductivity of certain Aluminium Alloys as affected by
exposure to London Atmosphere. Ly ERNEST WILSON.

_ This paper gives the results of a second year’s exposure of twenty-four alloys in
the form of wire ‘126 inch (8'2 mm.) in diameter. ‘The first year’s exposure-tests
were described at the Belfast meeting in 1902. It was then shown that if alu-
minium be alloyed with copper in varying proportions (‘11 to 2°61 per cent.) the
effect of exposure was to increase electrical resistance to a greater extent the
greater the percentage of copper. J)uring the second year’s exposure this process
has progressed still further, but to a less extent. The aluminium appears to cover
itself with a protecting film. The manganese alloys are interesting in that they
have not increased electrical resistance during the second year’s exposure. The
nickel series have also changed very little during the second year’s exposure. On
the other hand, the nickel-copper alloys, which showed no increase of electrical
resistance during the first year’s exposure, have changed during the second year’s
exposure. For exposed light aluminium alloys, the results confirm the conclusion
arrived at in the 1902 paper, that copper alone should not be used in compara-
tively large quantities,

5. A Method for finding the Efficiency of Series Motors.
By Ernest WILSON.

This paper describes a method of finding the efficiency of series motors which
the author has found to work well in practice, and which is capable of giving
great accuracy. The armatures of two like machines are mechanically coupled
together, either through or without gearing, according as it is desired to obtain
the efficiency of either machine inclusive or exclusive of its gearing. In the test
one machine runs as a motor and delivers its energy to the other, which runs as a
generator, loaded on an external resistance. The two field-coils and the motor
armature are placed in series across the supply mains, and thus the machines are
conveniently magnetised to the same degree. It is usual in such tests to measure
the input of the motor and the output of the generator as direct quantities, the
difference giving the energy dissipated in the system. The losses due to electric
current in the respective ohmic resistances can then be subtracted from such
difference, and the remainder, due to eddy currents, magnetic hysteresis, brush,
bearing, and wind friction, can be found. Instead of measuring the volts and
amperes at the motor and generator terminals respectively, the author measures
(1) the volts at the motor terminals, and the difference between these and the volts
at the generator terminals ; (2) the amperes delivered to the motor, and the
difference between these and the amperes in the generator armature circuit. For
the latter purpose he employs two low-resistance shunts, one placed in each cir-
cuit, and a millivoltmeter so connected that it reads the difference of potential
difference due to the two currents in the respective low-resistance shunts. The
wires connecting these shunts pool the like poles of the machines together, so that
a voltmeter placed between their other poles reads the difference of potential
difference of the machines. The author then gives a numerical example to show
that the accuracy obtainable is much greater when this differential method is
employed, than by the first described method.

778 REPORT—1908.
6. Parallel Working of Alternators.1_ By B. Hopkinson.

The hunting of alternating-current machines is considered as a case of oscilla-
tion about a state of steady motion. The oscillations may be forced oscillations,
produced by uneven turning moment in the engines, or free oscillations, such as are
set up on switching a machine into parallel when slightly out of phase. The
importance of the forced oscillations depends largely on the relation between
the period of the cause producing them and the period of the free oscillations.
Let £, be the maximum angular phase-displacement of a dynamo driven by a
periodically uneven turning force as compared with a wheel rotating uniformly at

the same speed, the dynamo being disconnected from the bus-hars. Let a be the

period of the variation in turning moment, = the natural period of swing of the

dynamo. Then the maximum phase-displacement when the dynamo is connected
to bus-bars supplied with alternating E.M.F. of constant amplitude and perio-

dicity is
&= ay i a 1)

The usual rule as regards flywheel effect is that &’, shall not exceed a certain
value, varying for different designs. This is equivalent to limiting € provided
that 6 is small compared with 6’, or that the natural period of swing is long com-
pared with the forced period. With the weight of flywheel requir ed to satisfy the
ordinary rules of design for proper parallel working, this condition is generally
fulfilled. These rules, therefore, as a rule, directly limit the phase angle of swing
in ordinary working. What is wanted, however, is limitation, not of the angle,
but rather of the fluctuation in the rate at which energy is given to the bus-bars to
which that angle corresponds. This depends on the self-induction of the machine.
Hence the very considerable differences in the angular deviation permitted by
different designers; a machine with large self-induction will stand a bigger angular
deviation than will one with small self-induction,

Similar considerations apply to a synchronous motor or a converter connected
to mains in which there is a periodical fluctuation of E.M.F., owing to uneven
velocity in the supply generators. In this case, however, as it is unusual to put
any flywheel on the motor, the danger of approximate equality between 6 and 6’
is much greater. Probably many cases of hunting of rotaries might be better and
more cheaply cured by putting flywheels on the rotaries than by excessive require-
ments as to even turning moment in the generator.

The importance of the free oscillations depends on whether they are damped
out or not, The equation of motion is.

€being the phase displacement from the state of steady motion, and M the
moment of inertia of the machine on a suitable scale, The solution of this
equation is

b
&=&, e- MM gin (S£+7).

where 8 = Adee . if bis small, and = is the period of the oscillation, Most oscil-

lating systems possess viscosity, in * hich case 6 is positive, and the oscillations

| Published tz extenso in the Hlectrician, September 18, 1903,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 779

rapidly die away if once started. If however b be negative, even though very
small, the oscillations continually increase in amplitude, and the motion is un-
stable. In the case of a synchronous motor, haying its field-magnets, armature
conductors, and armature so perfectly laminated that no appreciable Foucault
currents flow therein, and in which the field current is kept constant, d is negative,
and the motion is unstable. In most actual cases, however, this element in 0 is
very small, and is in practice overpowered by true viscous terms, such as arise
from Foucault currents in the armature conductors and in the substance of the pole-
pieces. Where motors or converters are used on long transmission lines, however,
it may become important, and the motion may be unstable from this cause, giving
rise to serious hunting, even with turbine-driven generators.

The effect of damping coils or amortisseurs on the free oscillations is considered
and explained. In the case of coils surrounding the pole-pieces, the induced
currents set up by the varying armature reaction add a term to 0 whose sign
depends on the load. At light loads it may be negative, and in that case these
coils may act as additional causes of unstability. This effect, also, is of com-
paratively small importance in ordinary cases, but may become important in
motors on long transmission lines.

The other kind of damping coils, consisting of copper grids let into the face of
the pole-pieces, always give rise to true viscous forces, and consequently tend to
make the motion stable. Moreover, their effect is much more powerful than is
that of coils surrounding the pole-pieces, and by their use it is generally possible
to make 0 positive.

The effect of damping coils on the forced oscillations can be inferred from the
observed rate of damping of the tree oscillations, and is generally insignificant,

7. On Electrical Propulsion as the General Means of Transport.
By James N. Suoorpren, B.A., WInst.C.L.

The tendency of the last few years has been, in England and elsewhere, to
introduce electric-tractive power—on tramways, on railways, on road-carriages,
on canals, in automobiles, and in other ways. But these various groups have each
been acting independently of the others—isolated, and in some cases actuated,
thereto, by motives of jealousy, or of hostility, due to the dread of conflicting
commercial interests.

Besides the above proposed applications for electrical traction, there have
sprung up in various directions what may be termed ‘ universal providers of
electricity,’ under the head of electrical power schemes, &c.; to acquire a right,
nay, even a practical monopoly, over very large areas, to provide a supply of
electricity for, within certain limits, all purposes, whether for locomotion, or for
stationary purposes,

It is only reasonable to suppose that, if instead of a number of conflicting
interests, the various parties could be made to combine and fuse together the several
portions of their common work, so as to avoid a repetition, and antagonistic, in
some cases, of some portions thereof, there might then arise mutual benefit, as well
as economy, not merely to the operators themselves, but also to the community at
large. One difficulty lies in the conflicting interests and in the jealousy amongst
the various classes of operators. But another danger to the public, more especially,
lies in the monopoly which virtually might thereby be afforded to the operators.

An attempt has been recently made by the Liverpool Corporation, the Mersey
Docks and Harbour Board, and the South Lancashire Electric Tramways to give
expression to this tendency for co-operation among the various workers; and
there are indications in Yorkshire and elsewhere of similar tendencies coming
into operation.

Although the result, so far, of the attempt above referred to has been rather
to accentuate than otherwise the difficulties which beset a united undertaking of
such a character, yet the benefits which would ultimately accrue to the public

780 REPORT—1903.

(say in cheapening the cost of transportation by a more comprehensive and united
action among the workers) fully warrants their being discussed.

In the paper particulars are proposed as would tend to such a joint action, and
to the benefits arising therefrom.

8. Report of the Committee on the Small Screw Gauge.
See Reports, p. 378.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Twenty-five Years’ Progress in Final and Sanitary Refuse Disposal.
. Ly W. ¥. Goopricu,

2. High Speed Electivical Monorails and the proposed Manchester and
Liverpool Express Railway. By ¥. B. Brur.

Since a paper on the above subject was read before the British Association
in 1900 by Sir William Preece and Mr. Behr, much progress has been made with
this project. The demand for faster and more frequent passerger service is
leading more and more to the necessity of separating the fast and slow traflic on
our railways. The railway companies are attempting in some instances to dupli-
cate their main lines, but owing to the inter-communication which is still
maintained between the fast and the slow lines, there are many opportunities for -
accidents due to shunting, points, crossings, etc.

By adopting the Behr monorail for the fast line, the express traffic is kept
entirely separate ; it can also be carried on with absolute safety and more economy
by a system of light and frequent express trains than could be accomplished on a
two-rail track. As regards speed the monorail enables a much higher average
speed of, say, at least 100 miles an hour to be adopted with absolute safety, and
on the existing curyes of our British railways. With an ordinary two-rail track
it would not be possible to attain a higher average speed than about sixty miles
an hour.

The constant slackening of speed on entering, and the subsequent acceleration
on leaving a curve on a two-rail track would require much additional power,
besides introducing the danger of derailment through forgetfulness on the part of
the driver or electrician to slow down when necessary. The monorail eliminates
these conditions.

A description illustrated by lantern-slides was given of the permanent-way
and car as used on the experimental railway in Belgium in 1897, also of the
permanent-way as approved by the Board of Trade for the Manchester and Liver-
pool Railway, and of the latest improvements, recently made, in the design of
the car which is to be used on the railway.

The advantages of the monorail over the ordinary two-rail track, in giving
rapid and safe transit, will help effectually to bring about the decentralisation of
our great towns, afford a means to all classes of living farther in the country,
and thus mitigate the evils of overcrowding by solving the question of the housing
of the working classes.

3. Oil Fuel. By A. M. Bett.

The increasing interest and steady progress in the employment of oil as fuel
for various purposes suggests the compilation of the paper submitted.

Oil fuel has been a favourite field for the ingenuity of inventors for many
years, The first applications appear to have been made in France, but numerous

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 781

experimental installations have followed, and in Russia its general employment
may be said to have commenced about 1870, when the development of the
enormous oil supplies of the Apcheron Peninsula became an accomplished fact,
and the first oil-fuel steamer appeared on the Caspian Sea.

In the United States, where the crude oil of the Pennsylvanian field contains
a larger percentage of light oil, the use of liquid fuel until recently has been on a
less extended scale; now, however, the discoveries in California and Texas have
provided enormous supplies of crude oil, practically only suitable for this service
and great advances have consequently been made in its use.

In this country many attempts have been made, but owing to the absence of
regular supplies progress has not been so rapid as in the cases mentioned above.
The manufacture of oil gas and carburetted water gas has, however, thrown on the
market products of a character only suitable for fuel, and rendered its adoption
possible on a limited scale.

The different methods of burning oil fuel may b3 summarised as follows:
(1) those wherein it is burned in bulk form ; (2) in a sprayed or atomised condi-
tion; and (3) consumed as vapour or gas. he first mentioned procedure has
received most application in Russia, whereas the last has enlisted most attention
in the United States owing to the lighter character of the oils available. Gene-
rally, however, the second or spraying system may be looked upon as the
favourite, most generally adopted, and probably the most successful: hence the
chief attempts at improvement appear to have been devoted to it. The most
effective device is doubtless that requiring the least quantity of the atomising
agent (steam or compressed air) for operation, and until recently the attention
of workers in this direction has been centred on the burner employed, the con-
struction of the furnace, which is of as much importance for a good result, being
somewhat neglected. Further, a due consideration of the admittance, distribu.
tion, and temperature of the air for combustion is absolutely essential to success.

The latest developments of spraying apparatus point to the employment of oil
fuel under pressure, heated to a high temperature, sprayed with dry steam, and
the fire fed with heated air for combustion.

For steamers the use of oil fuel possesses advantages over coal in excess of
those which can be urged in its favour when employed on land: reduced storage
space, less number of men required, an increased steaming capacity from a given
supply of fuel, are points of the greatest value from the marine aspect of the
question.

For locomotives the assistance of oil fuel is valuable on the long runs without
stopping, now becoming common, the difficulties of firing and the trouble from
dirty fires being no longer present. . The application in this direction has been
much improved and simplified during the past few years with a view of securing
the reliability of the apparatus under all conditions of service, and the metho
devised by Mr. Holden, of the Great Eastern Railway, of arranging the apparatus
has been extensively adopted owing to the opportunities it affords for the use of
solid or liquid fuel, or both, at will or as circumstances may make most desirable,

In Russia and the United States some hundreds of locomotives are regularly
running, using oil as fuel; and numerous examples are to be found in this and
other countries where coal has become an expensive commodity.

For furnace work oil fuel offers unique advantages, and many interesting
applications have been made to meet the special requirements of annealing,
tempering, metal melting, brazing, &c. In glass making and enamelling oil fuel
has met with considerable adoption, and portable furnaces of all kinds are success-
fully operated with it; in bridge-work, shipbuilding, &c., oil-fired rivet furnaces
are to be preferred to any form of solid fuel-heating device.

In storage oil fuel has many favourable features, It occupies a minimum of
space, does not deteriorate by exposure, and is easier of transportation and distri-
bution.

In the Far East and many Oriental countries the importation of oil fuel has
now become a regular undertaking, and supplies are guaranteed in many cases
where wood has become scarce and imported coal an almost prohibitive article,

782 REPORT—1908.

4, Further Experiences with the Infantry Range-finder.
By Professor Grorce Forsgs, /.2.S.

This paper deals with the facility of learning to use the range-finder, its
employment with artillery, and its accuracy in the hands of men selected with
good eyesight.

In 1901 the author exhibited to the British Association his portable steneo-
scopic infantry range-finder, and gave the results of trials to test its accuracy.

To test its durability in the field, the author used it in the South African war,
with Colonel Crabbe’s column, under General Sir John French, and the reports
upon its accuracy and durability in the field were certainly satisfactory. The
results obtained in actual war and under fire were given to the Association at the
last meeting.

The only point remaining to be estabiished, in order to prove its entire suita-
bility for infantry, is the facility of learning its use, some people having a
suspicion that the steneoscopic effect would not be obtained by a large proportion
of ordinary men, The following results show that out of over fifty men who gave
the range-finder a trial of five minutes, not one failed to take ranges with con-
siderable accuracy, and only one was not sufficiently interested to give the five
minutes’ necessary attention to it.

These trials took place at Aldershot under a War Office Committee, and at
Bisley under the auspices of the National Rifle Association. In the former case
three sergeants and five privates were chosen haphazard for instruction; and,
although the weather was most unsuitable, not one of them failed, and the
progress made by all of them was most satisfactory. At the Bisley trials forty-
one men took instruction, and all—with the single exception already mentioned
—were able within half an hour to take easy ranges with accuracy; while fifteen
of them presented themselves for a prize competition in its use. The results
obtained by the winners of the first two prizes at five distances chosen, up to
1,670 yards, were: Sergeant F. E. Pollard had an average error of 10°8 yards,
or I'l per cent. of the average distance; and his average time for an observation
was 12 seconds. Colonel Milner’s average error was 11°4 yards, or 1:2 per
cent. of the average distance; and his average time for an observation was
145 seconds. It is worthy of note that not one of the competitors had previously
received more than one hour’s instruction or practice, while Sergeant Pollard, the
winner of the first prize, had never seen the instrument until about half an hour
before he actually competed.

Experiments were made with the infantry range-finder in July 1903 on
Salisbury Plain with artillery, The object sought was to correct for the error of
the day, including variations in ammunition and weather, more quickly than is
possible by the existing system of bracketing by firing the first shot with shrapnel
which bursts in the air, taking the range of this burst—which is seen as a white
cloud—and making the necessary correction for the second shot, which would
then be on the target. The results obtained at two ranges are as follows, the
distance short or over, as found by the range-finder, being first given, and then
the same distance as estimated by the range-party near the target, for each
shot :

I, Range, 2,840 yards—(1) 200 short, 150 short; (2) 100 short, 200 short ;
(3) 120 short, 170 short; (4) 200 short, 210 short; (5) 150 short, 160 short ;
(6) 100 short, 110 short; (7) 60 short, 50 short.

II. Range, 3,535 yards—(1) 250 short, 150 short; (2) 350 short, 280 short ;
(8) 100 over, 40 over; (4) 120 short, 130 short; (5) 200 short, 60 short ;
(6) 220 short, 140 short; (7) 80 over, 30 over.

The above records include every shot observed both by the range-finder and
the range-party during the period referred to, and prove the importance of making
further use of this method.

The great accuracy of this range-finder in the hands of men with ordinary
eyesight made it desirable to find out what could be done by selected men with

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 783

good eyesight—those, for example, who had established a reputation for good
rifle-shooting. The following are a few examples of Mr. F, KE, Pollard’s work
with different specimens of range-finder at long distances :

I. Ben Vrackie at Pitlochry, range-finder No. 11: the consecutive readings
were 5,000, 5,200, 5,100, 5,200, 5,200; mean, 5,140. Distance, from Ordnance
Survey, 5,210 yards. i

II. The same object and distance, range-finder No. 10: 5,160, 5,100, 5,000,
5,000, 5,200; mean, 5,090.

III. Same object and distance. Base No. 2, Binocular No. 10: 5,200, 4,950,
5,150, 5,200; mean of four observations, 5,125,

IV. Same object from a different point, range-finder No. 12: 6,050, 6,100,
6,200, 6,200, 6,150; mean, 6,140; distance, from Ordnance Survey, 6,200 yards.

V. An example of a test of No. 10 range-finder made by Mr. Pollard when
ignorant of the true distance, the range-finder having been adjusted two months
previously, and having travelled hundreds of miles and been used frequently in
the interval. Observing station: Pouton, Sunbury, Middlesex. Object observed :
Tower of Holloway College; indistinctly visible. Successive readings: 10,750,
10,900, 10,550, 10,000, 9,800, 9,800, 9,850; mean, 10,286; distance on Ordnance
Survey, 10,200 yards. It will be obvious that even with the maximum error of
all these readings at a distance of almost six miles, this instrument, designed only
for use with infantry up to 3,000 yards, is capable, in the hands of a skilled
observer, of giving results of the utmost value not only to artillerists but also to
surveyors and travellers.

5, Water-supply in South-west Lancashire.
By Joseru Parry, M.Jnst.C.£.

6. Rainfall on the River Bann, County Down, Ireland, at Banbridge, and
at Lough Island Reavy Reservoir. By Joun Smuytu, W.A., UW Inst.C.£.I,

The author read a paper at the Belfast meeting in 1876 on the rainfall of
Banbridge for ten years 1864-1875; also on the rainfall of Ulster. He now gives
a summary of the rainfall at Banbridge for forty years, 1862-1901. The average
for the whole period was 3l'1; the wettest year, 1872, with 46°6 inch fall;
the driest, 1887, with 23:1 inches fall. The greatest fall in twenty-four hours,
2:3 inches, on October 12, 1865. On July 4, 1885, at 7.30 p.m., 1:6 inch fell in
one hour. The greatest ten years’ average was 33'3 from 1872-1881; the least,
29:1, from 1862-1871. The average rainfall at the reservoir, twenty miles farther
up the stream than Banbridge, for the same forty years, was 44 inches,

7. On the Rate of Fall of Rain at Seathwaite.
By Hue Rosert Mixt, D.Sc., LL.D.

A recording rain-gauge on Negretti and Zambra’s pattern was established at
Seathwaite, in Cumberland, in the wettest part of the Lake District, in July
1899, by the late Mr. Symons, and records were obtained up to the end of
December 1900, Ordinary observations of rainfall are available for many years
at the same place, and as the average of thirty-eight years (1865-1902) the rate
of fall is ‘614 inch per rainy day, a rainy day being one on which more than
‘005 inch falls; and on the average there are 216 such days in the year, the total
mean annual rainfall being 132:53 inches. The total number of rainfall days for
the eighteen months (July 1899—December 1900) was 350, the total rainfall by
the recording-cauge 18291 inches, or at the rate of ‘523 inch per rainy day. The
average duration of rainfall was four and three-quarter hours per rainy day, or
nearly double the duration in London. During the period in question rain fell
during 1,695 hours, or at an average rate, when raining, of ‘108 inch per hour.

784 REPORT—1908.

Taking account of continuous falls of six hours’ duration or longer, there were
ninety-one occasions with a total duration of 822 hours, a total fall of 99°99 inches,
and an average rate of ‘122 inch per hour.

Taking account of falls exceeding ‘50 inch in amount, there were eighty-six
occasions with a total duration of 7034 hours, a total fall of 109°47 inches, and an
average rate of ‘156 inch per hour.

The maximum rate at which } inch or more of rain fell during the eighteen
months in question was’ 560 inch per hour, a total of 1-40 inch falling in two and
a half hours from 8 to 10.30 p.m. on September 21, 1899. This is a trifling
rate compared with the fall of from 2 to 3 inches in an hour, which may occur
in a thunderstorm in any of ihe drier parts of the country; and even if attention
is confined to falls of one hour only, no instance occurred of a rate equal to
‘75 inch per hour. The peculiarity of the Seathwaite rainfall seems to be its long
duration and comparatively small rate of fall, The longest and heaviest shower
in the period considered was nineteen and a quarter hours, during which 3:59 inches
of rain fell, at an average rate of 186 inch per hour.

The duration of rainfall during daylight (sunrise to sunset) and during dark-
ness (sunset to sunrise) was calculated for the year 1900, with the result :—

This shows that the duration of rainfall in daylight and darkness was practi-
cally identical, but that there was a very slightly greater intensity in the night
than during the day.

It is very desirable to extend the use of recording rain-gauges, and to be of
much value the scale should be open enough to give exact readings, preferably
giving a separate record strip for each day.

8. On the Tidal Régime of the River Mersey.
By James N,. Suootsren, 2.A., M. Inst.C.£.

Since the last meeting of the British Association at Southport in 1883, twenty
years ago, many circumstances have occurred to change the tidal régime of the
River Mersey. Of these the principal are :—(1) the removal by dredging of the top
of the bar (to a depth of seventeen feet) which closes the seaward extremities to
the river in the estuary; (2) the rectification of the sides of the channel within
the river, due to the construction of the dock and other walls, on both sides of the
river, but principally on the Bootle shore of the Lancashire side.

In the upper portion of the tidal river the Manchester Ship Canal has als,
probably, contributed somewhat to changes in the tidal régime; though to what
extent is a matter of dispute.

The two first-named causes have undoubtedly produced very considerable
effects by the freer passage for the ingress and the outlet of the tidal water,
due to the partial removal of the impeding wall formed by the bar, and by the
readicr flow and ebb of the tidal stream, afforded by the smooth faces of the
walls at the more recently constructed Northern Docks and elsewhere.

The result of the dredging operations, alone, has been to provide throughout the
entire distance, from the bar throughout the Queen’s Channel, and right up to the
landing stage, a central waterway having a depth of twenty-seven feet at low
water of the lowest spring tides ; while at high water of the same tides there is a
depth of fifty-eight feet. This has entailed, during the period 1890-1902, the
dredging of 29 million tons of sand at the bar, of 46 millions in the estuary chan-
nels, and of 10 millions in the river itself, making a total of 85 million tons.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 785

Further details of the improved condition, for the purposes of navigation, are also
added in the paper.

But another object of the paper is to endeavour to provide data for the recal-
culation of the data of the tidal régime, as amended by the above results, by what
is known as the method of ‘ harmonic analysis.’

This method of ‘ harmonic analysis’ of the tides was first brought before the
British Association in 1872 in a long report by Sir William Thomson (now Lord
Kelvin), Professor J.C. Adams, Protessor Rankine, and others. A further report,
however, on the subject, and illustrative of the method, as used in the reduction
of the Indian tidal observations, was presented at the 1883 meeting in Southport
by Professor G. H. Darwin and Professor J. C. Adams.

Since then, in 1885, Professor G. H. Darwin has communicated to the Royal
Society the data, resulting from the harmonic analysis of the tides at Liverpool.

It is urged, however—and apparently on good authority—that the actual data
now afforded by the tidal régime of the Mersey, resulting from the changes
referred to at the commencement of the paper, are such as to render it advisable
to again submit the Mersey tides to a further examination by ‘harmonic ana-
lysis.’

: The writer would suggest that a Committee might be formed, with the
object of obtaining the necessary Tidal data, and in a form suitable for Harmonic
Analysis thereof.

9, History of the Discovery of Natural Gas in Sussex, Heathfield District.
Sy RicHarD Parson.

The first find of gas which has come to my knowledge was made in 1836 at
Hawkhurst in West Sussex.

Natural gas next appeared during the famous sub-Wealden boring of 1873-75,
at a place called Netherfield. The sub- Wealden was started to commemorate the
visit of the British Association to Brighton, 1872. Mr. Topley records at 602 feet
a bed 1 foot thick, very rich in petroleum. This was in the Kimmeridge clay,
290 feet from the surface.

Willet records on this bore: ‘ Indications of petroleum became more distinct
at about 160 feet from top of the Kimmeridge clay; all below that depth is
more or less impregnated with petroleum.’

Natural gas was not used to any great extent in America before 1885. It was
about that date that Mr. Andrew Carnegie used natural gas in his steelworks.

At Heathfield, some time ago, a firm of well-drillers were boring a well for
water on the site of what is now the Heathfield Hotel. At 300 feet the borers
met an inflammable gas; but as they were seeking for water, and none was
reached, the borehole was cemented up and left.

In August 1896 men employed by the same firm were at work boring a well
for the L. B. & 8. C. Railway Company for water; at a depth of 300 feet they
also found an inflammable gas. But no water was reached even when another
300 feet had been sunk.

Three years afterwards the railway company decided to put the gas to some
useful purpose, and ever since the railway station has been lit with natural
gas. The consumption is about 1,000 cubic feet per day.

Hearing of this very practical outcome of the second discovery, I expected
to hear also that explorations would be made to discover the extent of the gas-
bearing area. But tinding that no further steps were taken, I communicated with
some American friends, who asked me to take steps.

I located positions for six exploratory boreholes to be made; we commenced
boring, and in all of the boreholes we have struck gas, at levels varyine from
300 to 400 feet from the surface, the farthest borehole of the six being distant
some 1,200 yards from the railway station. y

These six boreholes are started in the geological formation known as the
Hastings bed, which—in the Heathfield district—lies some 400 feet geologically

1903. 3E

786 REPORT—1903.

above the sub-Wealden boring at Netherfield, which was started in the Purbeck
bed. This Hastings bed is composed principally of sandstones and iron bands
which make it a ‘cap’ admirably adapted for acting as a natural holder for
gaseous volumes.

Heathfield is built on the well-known Mid-Sussex anti-clinal, The sub-
Wealden boring, started in the Purbeck bed, situated some nine miles east, is on
the same anti-clinal. ‘This fact conclusively proves the relative identity of the two
discoveries.

The Purbeck is well known to be bituminous throughout, The Kimmeridge
clay, which lies some 200,feet below the Purbeck, has been proved to be the
thickest bed of Kimmeridge in England, and 250 feet of this bed is known to be
of a very bituminous nature. Again, the Oxford, lying below the Kimmeridge, is
known to be also bituminous,

In searching for natural gas in the United States, three things are kept in
view :—

Firstly. Have the rocks been disturbed? (If so, no further time need be
wasted looking for gas.)

Secondly. Is it an anti-clinal formation ?

Thirdly. Ave there any known bituminous beds below ?

Holding these points in view, I may say that :—

1. In this part of Sussex we have the iron formation of the Hastings sands,
practically undisturbed.

2. It is well known to geologists that the North and South Downs are simply
the outliers of an enormous anti-clinal.

3. There are three successive bituminous beds proved to lie immediately under
the sandstones.

At Mayfield, about five miles from Heathfield, we have commenced boring in
two positions on the Tunbridge Wells sands.

We are now boring over some 200 square miles in the county of Sussex. At
Heathfield we are already supplying between seventy and eighty houses with
natural gas. We have obtained facilities from the L. B. & S. C. Railway Com-
pany to lay our conduit pipes along their lines.

The Composition of Heathfield Natural Gas——The Sussex gas in its natural
state gives, in an ordinary ‘ Argand’ burner, a light of about 12-candle power.

Professor Dixon, who I believe analysed Heathfield gas for the Royal Coal
Commission, has put on record figures which account for the high illuminant
value it has been proved to possess.

Tle gives as its constituents :—

Methane . : : 4 : . 98°4 per cent.

Ethane : : 4 - 2 . 3:0 Fs
Nitrogen . A : : © 4 3: ey a
Carbonic oxide . : - : 0:9 F

The great point in the future of Heathfield gas will be its value as used to
provide machine power.

The engines in use at Heathfield consume about 13 cubic feet to 15 per horse
power.

; The heating power that is to be obtained from a gas containing 98 per cent.
of methane is obvious.

In an estimate made last year, it transpired that in America one million house-
holds and four million people were furnished with this ideal fuel and light.

The ironworks of the Wealden area employed some fifty thousand men in 1750,
when the coal in the North took the iron-working away from the South. ‘To-day
not an ounce of iron is smelted.

The fuel is the cheapest in the world, the cost of carriage will be obviated,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 787

and in addition to seeing the old industries revived, we shall have opened up an
enormous tract of country for new industries which at present is devoted
solely to agriculture. (

The pressure general at Heathfield varies from 154 1b. to 200 1b. per square
inch. As to the permanency of the gas, I may state tbat in China natural gas—
from identically similar geological formations—has been used for evaporating salt
for over one thousand years,

The United States have some eleven thousand wells bored ; we have at present
nine, and are in course of sinking ten others.

The comparison of gaseous fuels is approximately as follows :—

Per 1,000 cubic feet at 40° F.; and at Atmospheric Pressure,

Natural gas 1,100,000 units of heat

Coal gas 5 755,000 A;
Water gas ci j : 5 d 322,000 "
Producer gas (heated) ; : 5 : 156,000 ss

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16,
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Effect of Trafic and Weather on Macadamised Roads, and thé
Prevention of Dust. By T. ArrKen, Assoc. M.Inst.C.£.

This paper deals with the problem of improving the structural condition of
macadamised roads to withstand the effect of weather and the ever-increasing
fast vehicular traffic, especially that of motor cars.

After describing the methods followed in connection with the making and
repairing of macadamised roads, the author deals in brief with the principal
points to be observed when first-class work is required. The quality of the
metalling (embracing the trap rocks generally, but more particularly basalt,
andesite, felsite, diabase, and some dolerites, being very much superior and less :
greasy in wet weather than limestone and most granites). The binding material
is specially noticed, and also the effect of weather and traffic is described.

The smoothness of macadamised roads when properly made compares favour-
ably with street pavements as tested by the viagraph. It is also pointed out
that macadamised roads begin to wear at a comparatively early period after being
repaired. The causes of this are stated and the probable remedy, so as to ensure
greater cementitious power between the component parts of macadamised roads.
It is specially pointed out that the binding and not the metalling should be
treated, and preferably after the road has been repaired, when contour and surface
are at their best. Different methods, recently carried out, of treating mac-
adamised roads with petroleum or tar are mentioned, and the author describes
a method by which tar in its natural state can be applied to a road surface in
the form of a fine spray, under pressure, the penetration into the binding being
from 2 to 4 inches. ‘The experiments carried out show a decidedly improved
surface, but adverse climatic conditions, extending for a considerable time past,
have precluded information of a reliable nature being recorded. It is pointed
out that the time has fully arrived for further improving the structural condition
of macadamised roads, and it is to be hoped that the methods adopted and
described in this paper will tend in that direction and prove successful.

2. Penduium Apparatus for Testing Steel as regards Brittleness.
By KE. G. Izov.

The ability of materials in general and steel in particular to withstand shock is

a subject of great importance to all engineers, and this paper gives.an outline of

the systems generally in use for carrying out brittleness tests, with remarks on
gu2

788 REPORT—1908.

each; and fwither explains the use of the pendulum apparatus, as used by Messrs,
Willans and Robinson, with the reasons that led to its adoption.

Tests by shock or tests for brittleness have from the earliest times been used
by engineers, especially on the Continent; and Swedenborg, in 1734, gives some
interesting particulars of the rule-of-thumb tests carried out by purchasers of iron
in those days; and in nearly every case an impact or brittleness test was used,
which though only empirical was no doubt all that was required, and gave a deal
of useful information.

At the present time, probably owing to the state of perfection to which the
testing machine has been brought, there is too much inclination to neglect other
properties of material which the usual tests do not detect, but which are quite as
important as the usual standard physical tests; and that this is so is shown by
M. Fremont’s paper, published by the Société d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie
Nationale, September 1901, in which he throws an extraordinary light on the
brittleness question, and gives several instances where serious fractures in struc-
tural and other steel were not accounted for by any of the ordinary testing methods,
but were readily explained when tested for brittleness by an impact machine.

At Messrs. Willans & Robinson’s, Rugby, it has long been felt that a method
of testing such as used by M. Fremont and others was wanted to detect the reason
for certain fractures which were inexplicable by the ordinary methods used ; and
an experimental pendulum impact machine was made, and the tests carried out
with it gave promise of such good results that a standard machine was made and
is in use at the present time, giving results which gain in importance with every
series of experiments carried out on it.

Many types of impact machines are used, but the pendulum form of apparatus
seems to give most satisfactory results: it can be calibrated to give direct readings
for energy absorbed, and lends itself to very quick working even by an inexperienced
operator.

The idea of the arrangement is as follows :—A weight is suspended pendulum-
wise on a stiff rod, which swings from a centre designed to be as frictionless as
possible. This weight or tup is then moved out of the vertical and allowed to fall
on to the free end of a test-piece gripped by the other end in a vice, the specimen
being notched to locate the break, the height of fall being always made sufficient
to cause fracture with one blow. A suitable measuring arrangement is used to
record the energy remaining in the weight after fracture of test-piece has occurred ;
and this subtracted from the calculated energy in the tup before fracture gives the
energy required to break the specimen.

Measurements are taken of the test-piece, and results are transferred to equi-
valent energy absorbed on specimen one inch square.

The paper is accompanied by drawings of the apparatus and tables of results
obtained.

3. Permanent Set in Cast Iron due to Small Stresses, and its Bearing on
the Design of Piston Rings and Springs. By C. H. WINGFIELD,

Some of Messrs. Willans & Robinson’s steam packing rings, each consisting of
an outer cast-iron ‘ring’ of uniform section, and of the same diameter as the
bored cylinder ‘n which it worked, and an inner cast-iron ‘spring’ ring of section
varying as described in vol. II. of Unwin’s ‘ Machine Design,’ under the heading
‘Theory of a Cast-iron Spring Ring,’ were tested as to equality of their outward
pressures per inch of circumference. Whereas by published formule they should
have agreed in this respect, it was found that they actually differed considerably.
Some springs made specially for the purpose, and having different amounts of
‘follow,’ ! but alike in other respects, were then experimented with by being
forced into circular ring-gauges, and being removed and measured after periods

1 By ‘follow’ is meant the difference of diameters of the spring when free and
when forced into its working position. This difference enabled the combined ring
and spring to follow up and compensate for wear.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 789

varying from one minute to forty-eight hours. It was found that their diameters
were reduced by this treatment, the greater part of the permanent set having
taken place during the first fifteen minutes, and that its amount increased with
the ‘follow’ originally given to the springs. It was also found that a measurable
amount of set was producible by merely squeezing the rings between the hands.

After the rings had been compressed to a definite size for two days or more they
acted as reliable springs so long as the initial amount of compression was not exceeded.

Some slight inaccuracies in published formule applicable to rings formed of
materials such as steel, not liable to permanent set from such light loads as piston
rings are subject to, were briefly alluded to and a correct formula given; but it
was pointed out that that usually published was simpler and sufficiently accurate
in use, though not applicable to cast iron. Some elaborate formulz had been
published by E. V. Clark on the ‘Theory of Cast-iron Beams,’’ and could perhaps
be modified to suit the special case under consideration; but they were not con-
venient, and the proportions found by direct experiment appeared preferable ;
moreover the amount. of set, and consequently the actual (as compared with the
initial) follow, could only be found by trial.

The amount of ‘spring’ in a cast-iron ring with loads not exceeding that
which had produced permanent set was much greater than appeared to be generally
realised, A spring ring about 5} inches diameter, 0°25 inch thick radially and
with its.ends about 14 inch apart (after deducting the permanent set), could he
bent until they met, and when released they sprang back again to 1} inch apart.

4, A further Note on Gas-engine Explosions. By H. E. Wipers.

In the autumn of 1901 the Institution of Mechanical Engineers published the
Second Report of the Gas-engine Research Committee drawn up by Professor
F. W. Burstall, and in this manner there was presented to the scientific and
engineering world a very large mass of experimental results containing most
valuable information regarding the internal economy of gas engines, Professor
Burstall comes to several conclusions, prominent among which is his contention
that the results of his experiments cannot be reconciled without the use of a
variable specific heat.

The writer has already published in the engineering press an account of
certain consequences which follow from this hypothesis, but before the matter
could be considered upon a satisfactory basis it was necessary that the classical
experiments of Mr. D. Clerk and Mr. Grover should be brought into line, In a
paper contributed to the British Association last year, the writer analysed Mr D.
Clerk's results and showed that they were in complete harmony with the variable
specitic heat hypothesis. In the present paper the writer deals with the experi-
ments of Mr. Grover, and shows not only that there is no inconsistency between
this hypothesis and Mr. Grover’s results, but that by its adoption the explanation
of certain difficulties in these results is the more easily given.

Thus in the present paper and in the one submitted last year the writer claims
to have achieved the object with which he set out—namely to ascertain whether
there was anything in past records of experimental work with gas engines which
would prove to be incompatible with the adoption of a variable specific heat in
all future gas-engine calculations, The conclusion is that there is nothing in the
classical investigations of Mr, D. Clerk or Mr. Grover which should afford any
ground for hesitation in the matter,

5. Preliminary Experiments on Air Friction, By Wm. Oprti, A.R.C.Se.

These experiments were begun with the object of finding a convenient method

of determining the power wasted by the windage of flywheels and dynamo
armatures. The experiments described at length were made with paper discs, which
were mounted on the shaft of an electric motor.

+ Minufes of Proceedings Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. cxlix, p. 313,

790 REPORT—1903.

The excitation was kept constant, so that the torque was proportional to the
current. Thus the extra current required to maintain a given speed after the disc
had been fixed to the shaft gave the torque absorbed by the disc.

There was found to be an angular speed for each disc above which the torque
was accurately proportional to about the 2°5th power of the speed. ‘This critical
speed appeared to vary inversely as the square of the diameter. Below it the law
followed was of a lower degree; but owing to the multiplication of errors of
measurement no definite conclusion as to its exact nature was arrived at.

As the three discs originally tried gave uncertain results as to the effects of
size, a much larger one, nearly 4 feet in diameter, was also tried; and as a result
of all the experiments it was concluded that the torque varies as about the 55th
power of the diameter,

To give an idea of the amount of power thus absorbed, it may be stated that
a dise of 47 inches required ;4,; H.P. to keep up aconstant speed of 500 revolutions
per minute, and that if the above law holds a 9-foot dise would absorb 10 H.P,
at the same speed,

6. On Monophase Induction Repulsion Motors.
By Wiui1am Cramp, A.D EL.

The repulsion motor has in the single-phase system the functions of the direct
series motor in the direct current system of electrical distribution, possessing the
advantage of a large starting torque. In construction the repulsion resembles the
direct current motor, with the field laminated; the armature-brushes are short-
circuited, and the field only is connected to the supply-mains, which constitutes a
great advantage over the altcrnate-current series motor. Two classes of repulsion
motors are examined: (1) those with definite poles, and (2) those without definite
poles; and each, again, may have either (a) open-circuited or (4) closed-circuited
rotors. Theoretically the repulsion motor is always a special case of the alternate-
current transformer. The action ie shown by a model which takes into separate
account the phase in time, and the position in space of the current or of the field pro-
duced thereby. Class 1 have usually smaller starting torque, a lower maximum
speed, and a more sparkless commutation than Class 2. The locus of the extremity
of the primary current vector plotted for current and power-factor is approximately
a narrow semi-ellipse ; the higher the ratio pole-are : pole-pitch, the more nearly
does the curve approach a semicircle, provided that the brushes be moved as the
load alters.

Open-cireuit motors have their current formula and calculations complicated
by the presence of an exponential term, which also renders commutation more
difficult and tends to reduce the torque of the motor and to shift the rotor current
in phase a little.

The author has tried practically three different motors, each of which was
repeatedly varied in its details; he finds that in every case by suitable sub-
division of the armature-coils the motor may be rendered sparkless. ‘The starting
torque may be made very large indeed, one rotor starting under full load, with at
most only one-and-a-half times full-load current.

Other practical points are: (1) the advantage of working with high air-gap
density ; (2) the need for extreme rigidity of the bearings to avoid contact between
rotor and stator; (3) the capability of the mechine to run well above synchronism,

7. On the Ventilation of Tube Railways.
By J. W. Tomas, FLC., F.C.

The physical conditions essential to good ventilation in tube railways are
chiefly dealt with in the paper, and it is caleulated that the forces brought into
play by the moving trains and the natural heat of the tubes will be ample if properly
directed. In tube railways, if B is the centre of three stations, the down train
moving from A to B will dravwy air from the A station into the tube and expel it

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 791

in the B station, and the up train moving from C to B will draw air from the C
station into the tube and expel it in the B station. Three stations are thus
directly involved, and a triple-station arrangement will best fulfil the physical
conditions.

Owing to the elasticity of air the outlets for expelling the vitiated atmosphere
must not be situated far from the points of greatest compression, and should begin
in the centre of each station underground and end in the open air above the
station at the surface.

For the same reason the intakes for fresh air should be close to the points
where the sudden expansion of the air begins. These points are at the ends of
the tubes which the moving trains enter.

Doors can be fixed at the ends of the two tubes which the trains enter in each
station, and closed behind the last trainsat night, so that the fresh air brought into
the end of the tube immediately beyond the doors will drive out the foul air into
the next station by natural ventilating pressure.

Conclusion.—The providing of fresh air inlets inside the ends of the tubes
which the trains enter, with an outlet shaft in the centre of each station, will
enable the moving trains to draw in and expel enough air to keep the atmosphere
in good condition, even in hot summer weather. In addition to this, however,
there are two auxiliary aids to ventilation which enable the station masters to
make certain that the state of the atmosphere in the tubes is satisfactory.

1. Having inlets and outlets as above, the timing of the departure of the up
and down trains as they move towards the same station will enable enormous
volumes of air to be driven to the surface, and a corresponding volume will be
drawn in.

2. By closing the doors after some of the trains as they leave the stations fresh
air must be drawn into the tubes.

8. Hxperiments in Gas Hxplosion.
By L. Barrstow and A. D. ALEXANDER.

9, A new Form of Mirror Extensometer. By Joun Morrow, M.Sc.

Mirror extensometers have not been much used in this country. They are not
self-contained, and to obtain the mean extension of a specimen two sets of
readings are necessary. There may be errors due to slight alterations in the
positions of the specimen, the telescope, or the scale. In the instrument described
an attempt has been made to avoid these defects and to obtain the mean extension
by a single observation.

Its special feature is the use of two mirrors placed side by side, one of which
is attached rigidly to the instrument and the other arranged to tilt about a
horizontal line when the specimen extends. The tilting mirror is carried on a
piece of hardened steel of diamond-shaped section. One edge of this base is pressed
against a piece attached to the upper pair of set-screws, and the opposite edge
sinilarly against a piece from the lower screws. The four set-screws serve to
attach the instrument to the specimen, and are situated at opposite ends of two

arallel diameters of the test-piece. Any change in the mean vertical distance

etween them is thus a measure of the alteration in leneth of the centre-line of
the specimen, and is accompanied by a slight tilting of the mirror. A telescope is
so placed that the two images of a scale are seen close together, and to measure
extensions a conyenient mark on the fixed image is taken as an index, and the
reading coinciding with it on the other image is noted each time the load is
altered. The instrument has proved very satisfactory with a magnification of
1600, when the extensions can be measured to the nearest 5;)455 of an inch.

~I
<O
NS)

REPORT—1908.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY:

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION

Professor JoHNSON SymineTon, M.D., F.R.S.,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10,
The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is now nearly twenty years since Anthropology attained to the dignity of being
awarded a special and independent Section in this Association, and I believe it is
generally admitted that during this period the valuable nature of many of the
contributions, the vigour of the discussions, and the large attendance of members
have amply justified the establishment and continued existence of this Section.

While the multifarious and diverse nature of the subjects which are grouped
under the term Anthropology gives a variety and a breadth to our proceedings,
which are very refreshing in this age of minute specialism, I feel that it adds very
considerably to the difficulty of selecting a subject for a Presidential Address which
will prove of general interest.

A survey of the recent advances in our knowledge of the many important
questions which come within the scope of this Section would cover too wide a
field for the time at my disposal, while a critical examination of the various
problems that still await solution might expose me to the temptation of pronounc-
Ing opinions on subjects regarding which I could not speak with any real know-
ledge or experience. To avoid such risks I have decided to limit my remarks to
a subject which comes within the range of my own special studies, and to invite
your attention to a consideration of some problems arising from the variations in
the development of the skull and the brain.

Since the institution of this Section the development, growth, and racial pecu-
iarities of both skull and brain, and the relation of these two organs to each
other, have attracted an ever-increasing amount of attention. The introduction
of new and improved methods for the study of the structure of the brain and the
activity of an able band of experimentalists have revolutionised our knowledge of
' the anatomy and physiology of the higher nerve centres.

The value of the results thus obtained is greatly enhanced by the consciousness
that they bear the promise of still greater advances in the near future, If the results
obtained by the craniologist have been less marked, this arises mainly from the
nature of the subject, and is certainly not due to any lack of energy on their part.
Our craniological collections are continually increasing, and the various prehistoric
skull-caps from the Neanderthal to the Trinil still form the basis of interesting and
valuable memoirs.

While the additions to our general knowledge of cerebral anatomy and phy-
siology have been so striking, those aspects of these subjects which are of special
anthropological interest have made comparatively slight progress, and cannot com-
pare in extent and importance with the adyantages based upon a study of fossil and
recent crania, These facts admit of a ready explanation. rains of anthropo-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 793

logical interest are usually difficult to procure and to keep, and require the use
of special and complicated methods for their satisfactory examination, while skulls
of the leading races of mankind are readily collected, preserved, and studied.
Hence it follows that the crania in our anthropological collections are as numerous,
well preserved, and varied as the brains are few in number and defective, both in
their state of preservation and representative character, It may reasonably be
anticipated that improved methods of preservation and the growing recognition on
the part of anthropologists, museum curators, and collectors of the importance ot
a study of the brain itself will to some extent at least remedy these defects; but so
far as prehistoric man is concerned, we can never hope to have any direct evidence
of the condition of his higher nerve centres, and must depend for an estimate of his
cerebral development upon those more or less perfect skulls which fortunately have
resisted for so many ages the corroding hand of time.

I presume we will all admit that the main value of a good collection of human
skulls depends upon the light which they can be made to throw upon the relative
development of the brains of different races. Such collections possess few, if any,
brains taken from these or corresponding skulls, and we are thus dependent upon
the study of the skulls alone for an estimate of brain development.

Vigorous attacks have not unfrequently been made upon the craniometric
systems at present in general use, and the elaborate tables, compiled with so much
trouble, giving the circumference, diameters, and corresponding indices of various
parts of the skull, are held to afford but little information as to the real nature of
skull variations, however useful they may be for purposes of classification. While
by no means prepared to express entire agreement with these critics, 1 must admit
that craniologists as a whole have concentrated their attention mainly on the ex-
ternal contour of the skull, and have paid comparatively little attention to the
form of the cranial cavity. The outer surface of the cranium presents features which
are due to other factors than brain development, and an examination of the cranial
cavity not only gives us important information as to brain form, but by affording
a comparison between the external and internal surfaces of the cranial wall it gives
a valuable clue to the real significance of the external configuration. Beyond
determining its capacity we can do but little towards an exact investigation of
the cranial cavity without making a section of the skull, Forty years ago Pro-
fessor Huxley, in his work ‘On the Evidence of Man’s Place in Nature,’ showed the
importance of a comparison of the basal with the vaulted portion of the skull, and
maintained that until it should become ‘an opprobrium to an ethnological collec-
tion to possess a single skull which is not bisected longitudinally ’ there would be
‘no safe basis for that ethnological craniology which aspires to give the anatomical
characters of the crania of the different races of mankind.’ Professor Cleland and
Sir William Turner have also insisted upon this method of examination, and only
two years ago Professor D. J. Cunningham, in his Presidential Address to this
Section, quoted, with approval, the forcible language of Huxley. The curators of
craniological collections appear, however, to possess an invincible objection to any
such treatment of the specimens under their care. Even in the Hunterian Museum
in London, where Huxley himself worked at this subject, among several thousands
of skulls, scarcely any have been bisected longitudinally, or had the cranial cavity
exposed by a section in any other direction. ‘lhe method advocated so strongly
by Huxley is not only essential to a thorough study of the relations of basi-cranial
axis to the vault of the cranium and to the facial portion of the skull, but also
permits of casts being taken of the cranial cavity; a procedure which, I would
venture to suggest, has been too much neglected by craniologists.

Every student of anatomy is familiar with the finger-like depressions on the
inner surface of the cranial wall, which are described as the impress of the cerebral
conyolutions; but their exact distribution and the degree to which they are de-
veloped according to age, sex, race, &c. still remain to be definitely determined.
Indeed, there appears to be a considerable difference of opinion as to the degree of
approximation of the outer surface of the brain to the inner surface of the cranial
wall. Thus the brain is frequently described as lying upon a water-bed, or as
swimming in the cerebro-spinal fluid, while Hyrtle speaks of ,this fluid as 9

794: REPORT—1908.

‘ligamentum suspensorium ’ for the brain, Such descriptions are misleading when
applied to the relation of the cerebral convolutions to the skull. There are, it is
true, certain parts of the brain which are surrounded and separated from the skull
by a considerable amount of fluid. These, however, are mainly the lower portions,
such as the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii, which may be regarded as prolon-
gations of the spinal cord into the cranial cavity. As they contain the centres
controlling the action of the circulatory and respiratory organs, they are the most
vital parts of the central nervous system, and hence need special protection. They
are not, however, concerned with the regulation of complicated voluntary movements,
the reception and storage of sensory impressions from lower centres, and the activity
of the various mental processes. These functions we must associate with the
higher parts of the brain, and especially with the convolutions of the cerebral
hemispheres.

If a cast be taken of the cranial cavity and compared with the brain which had
previously been carefully hardened 2 sit before removal, it will be found that the
cast not only corresponds in its general form to that of the brain, but shows a con-
siderable number of the cerebral fissures and conyolutions. ‘This moulding of the
inner surface of the skull to the adjacent portions of the cerebral hemispheres is
usually much more marked at the base and sides than over the vault. Since the
specific gravity of the brain tissue is higher than that of the cerebro-spinal fluid,
the cerebrum tends to sink towards the base and the fluid to accumulate over the
vault; hence probably these differences admit of a simple mechanical explanation.
Except under abnormal conditions, the amount of cerebro-spinal fluid between the.
skull and the cerebral convolutions is so small that from a cast of the cranial cavity
we can obtain not only a good picture of the general shape and size of the higher
parts of the brain, but also various details as to the convolutionary pattern. This
method has been applied with marked success to the determination of the charac-
ters of the brain in various fossil lemurs by Dr. Forsyth Major and Professor R.
Burckhardt, and Professor Gustav Schwalbe has made a large series of such casts
from his craniological collection in Strassburg. The interesting observations by
Schwalbe ' on the arrangement of the ‘impressiones digitats ’ and ‘ juga cerebralia,’
and their relation to the cerebral convolutions in man, the apes, and various other
mammals, have directed special attention to a very interesting field of inquiry.
As is well known, the marked prominence at the base of the human skull, sepa-
rating the anterior from the middle fossa, fits into the deep cleft between the
frontal and temporal lobes of the brain, and Schwalbe has shown that this ridge
is continued—of course in a much less marked form-—along the inner surface of the
lateral wall of the skull, so that a cast of the cranial cavity presents a shallow
but easily recognised groove corresponding to the portion of the Sylvian fissure of
the brain separating the frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe. Further;
there is a distinct depression for the lodgment of the inferior frontal convolution,
and a cast of the middle cranial fossa shows the three external temporal convo-
lutions,

We must now turn to the consideration of the relations of the outer surface of
the cranium to its inner surface and to the brain. This question has engaged the
attention of experts as well as the ‘man in the street’ since the time of Gall and
Spurzheim, and one might naturally suppose that the last word had been said on
the subject. This, however, is far from being the case. All anatomists are agreed
that the essential function of the cranium is to form a box for the support and
protection of the brain, and it is generally conceded that during the processes of
development and growth the form of the cranium is modified in response to the
stimulus transmitted to it by the brain. In fact it is brain growth that determines
the form of the cranium, and not the skull that moulds the brain into shape. This
belief, however, need not be accepted without some reservations. Even the brain
may be conceived as being influenced by its immediate environment. There are
probably periods of development when the form of the brain is modified by the

* <Ueber die Beziehungen zwischen Innenform und Aussenform des Schiidels,’
Deutsches Archiv fiir klinische Medicin, 1902.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 795

resistance offered by its coverings, and there are certainly stages when the brain
does not fully oceupy the cranial cavity.

At an early period in the phylogeny of the vertebrate skull the structure of the
greater part of the cranial wall changes from membranous tissue into cartilage, the
portion persisting as membrane being situated near the median dorsal line. In
the higher vertebrates the rapid and early expansion of the dorsal part of the fore-
brain is so marked that the cartilaginous growth fails to keep pace with it, and
more and more of the dorsal wall of the cranium remains membranous, and subse-
quently ossifies to form membrane bones. Cartilage, though constituting a firmer
support to the brain than membrane, does not possess the same capacity of rapid
growth and expansion. The head of a young child is relatively large, and its skull
is distinguished from that of an adult by the small size of the cartilaginous base of
the cranium as compared with the membranous vault. The appearance of top-
heaviness in the young skull is gradually obliterated as age advances by the earti-
lage continuing slowly to grow after the vault has practically ceased to enlarge.
These changes in the shape of the cranium are associated with corresponding
alterations in that of the brain, and it appears to me that we have here an illustra-
tion of how the conditions of skull growth may modify the general form of the
brain.

Whatever may be the precise influences that determine skull and brain erowth,
there can be no doubt but that within certain limits the external form of the
cranium serves as a reliable guide to the shape of the brain. Statements such as
those by Dr. J. Deniker,! ‘that the inequalities of the external table of the cranial
walls haye no relation whatever with the irregularities of the inner table, and still
less have anything in common with the configuration of the various parts of the
brain, are of too general and sweeping a character. Indeed, various observers
have drawn attention to the fact that in certain regions the outer surface of the
skull possesses elevations and depressions which closely correspond to definite
fissures and convolutions of the brain. Many years ago Sir William Turner, who
was a pioneer in cranio-cerebral topography, found that the prominence on the
outer surface of the parietal bone, known to anatomists as the parietal eminence,
was situated directly superficial to a convolution of the parietal lobe of the brain,
which he consequently very appropriately named.‘ the convolution of the parietal
eminence.’ Quite recently Professor G. Schwalbe has shown that the position of
the third or inferior frontal convolution is indicated by a prominence on the sur-
face of the cranium in the anterior part of the temple. This area of the brain is of
special interest to all students of cerebral anatomy and physiology, since it was the
discovery by the illustrious French anthropologist and physician, M. Broca, that
the left inferior frontal convolution was the centre for speech, that laid the scien-
tifie foundation of our present knowledge of localisation of function in the cerebral
cortex. ‘This convolution is well known to be much more highly developed in man
than in the anthropoid apes, and the presence of a human cranial speech-bump is
usually easily demonstrated. The faculty of speech, however, is such a compli-
cated cerebral function that I would warn the ‘new’ phrenologist to be cautious
in estimating the loquacity of his friends by the degree of prominence of this part
of the skull, more particularly as there are other and more reliable methods of
observation by which he can estimate this capacity.

In addition to the prominences on the outer surface of the cranium, corresponding
to the convolutions of the parietal eminence and the left inferior frontal convolu-
tion, the majority of skulls possess a shallow groove marking the position of the
Sylvian point and the course of the horizontal limb of the Sylvian fissure. Below
these two other shallow oblique grooves indicate the line of the cerebral fissures
which divide the outer surface of the temporal lobe into its three convolutions,
termed superior, middle, and inferior. Most of these cranial surface markings are
partially obscured in the living body by the temporal muscle, but they are of
interest as showing that in certain places there is a close correspondence in. form
hetween the external surface of the brain and that of the skull. There are,

} The Races of Man, p. 53,

796 REPORT—1908.

however, distinct limitations in the degree to which the various cerebral fissures
and convolutions impress the inner surface of the cranial wall, or are represented
by inequalities on its outer aspect. Thus over the vault of the cranium the
position of the tissure of Rolando and the shape of the cerebral convolutions in the
so-called motor area, which lie in relation to this fissure, cannot usually be detected
from a cast of the cranial cavity, and are not indicated by depressions or elevations
on the surface of the skull, so that surgeons in planning the seats of operations
necessary to expose the various motor centres have to rely mainly upon certain
linear and angular measurements made from points frequently remote from these
centres.

‘The cranium is not merely a box developed for the support and protection of
the brain, and more or less accurately moulded in conformity with the growth of
this organ. Its antero-lateral portions afford attachments to the muscles of masti-
cation and support the jaws and teeth, while its posterior part is liable to vary
according to the degree of development of the muscles of the nape of the neck.
Next to the brain the most important factor in determining cranial form is the
condition of the organs of-mastication—muscles, jaws, and teeth. There is strong
evidence in favour of the view that the evolution of man from microcephaly to
macrocephaly has been associated with the passage from a macrodontic to a
microdontic condition. The modifications in the form of the cranium due to the
influence of the organs of mastication have been exerted almost entirely upon its
external table ; hence external measurements of the cranium, as guides to the shape
of the cranial cavity and indications of brain development, while fairly reliable in
the higher races, become Jess and less so as we examine the skulls of the lower
races, of prehistoric man, and of the anthropoid apes.

One of the most important measurements of the cranium is that which
determines the relation between its length and breadth and thus divides skulls
into long or short, together with an intermediate group neither distinctly dolicho-
cephalic nor brachycephalic. These measurements are expressed by an index in
which the length is taken as 100. If the proportion of breadth to length is eighty
or upwards, the skull is brachycephalic ; if between seventy-five and eighty, mesati-
cephalic ; and below seventy-five, dolichocephalic. Such a measurement is not so
simple a matter as it might appear at first sight, and craniologists may themselves
be classified into groups according as they have selected the nasion, or depression
at the root of the nose, the glabella, or prominence above this depression, and the
ophryon, a spot just above this prominence, as the anterior point from which to
measure the length. “In a young child this measurement would practically be the
same whichever of these three points was chosen, and each point would be about
the same distance from the brain, With the appearance of the teeth of the second
dentition and the enlargement of the jaws the frontal bone in the region of tbe
eyebrows and just above the root of the nose thickens, and its outer table bulges
forwards so that it is now no longer parallel with the inner table. Between these
tables air cavities gradually extend from the nose, forming the frontal sinuses.
Although the existence and significance of these spaces and their influence on the
prominence of the eyebrows were the subject of a fierce controversy more than
half a century ago between the phrenologists and their opponents, it is only
recently that their variations have been carefully investigated.

The frontal sinuses are usually supposed to vary according to the degree of
prominence of the glabella and the supra-orbital arches. This, however, is not the
case. Thus Schwalbe! has figured a skull in which the sinuses do not project as
high as the top of the glabella and supra-orbital prominences, and another in which
they extend considerably above these projections. Further, Dr. Logan Turner,?
who has made an extensive investigation into these cavities, has shown that in the
aboriginal Australian, in which this region of the skull is unusually prominent, the
froutal sinuses are frequently either absent or rudimentary. The ophryon has

1 «Studien tiber Pithecanthropus erectus,’ Zeitschrift fiir Morphologie und Anthro:
pologie, Bd. i, 1899.
* The Accessory Sinuses of the Nose, 1901,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 797

been selected by some craniologists as the anterior point from which to measure
the length of the skull, under the impression that the frontal sinuses do not
usually reach above the elabella. Dr. Logan Turner, however, found that out of
174 skulls in which the frontal simuses were present in 130 the sinuses extended
above the ophryon. In seventy-one skulls the depth of the sinus at the level of
the ophryon varied from 2 mm. to 16 mm., the average being 5'2 mm., while in
the same series of skulls the depth at the glabella varied from 3 mm. to 18 mm.,
with an average depthof 85 mm. It thus appears that the selection of the ophryon
in preference to the glabella, as giving a more accurate clue to the length of the
brain, is based upon erroneous assumptions, and that neither point can be relied
upon in the determination of the anterior limit of the cranial cavity.

The difficulties of estimating the extent of the cranial cavity by external
measurements and the fallacies that may result from a reliance upon this method
are especially marked in the case of the study of the prehistoric human calvaria,
such as the Neanderthal and the Trivil and the skulls of the anthropoid apes.

Statistics are popularly supposed to be capable of proving almost anything,
and certainly if you allow craniologists to select their own points from which to
measure the length and breadth of the cranium, they will furnish you with tables
of measurements showing that one and the same skull is dolichocephalic, mesati-
cephalic, and brachycephalic. Let us take as an illustration an extreme case, such
as the skull of an adult male gorilla. Its glabella and supra-orbital arches will be
found to project forwards, its zygomatic arches outwards, and its transverse
occipital crests backwards, far beyond the anterior, lateral, and posterior limits of
the cranial cavity. These outgrowths are obviously correlated with the enormous
development of the muscles of mastication and those of the back of the neck. In
a specimen in my possession the greatest length of the cranium, ze., from glabella
to external occipital protuberance, is 195 mm., and the greatest breadth, taken
between the outer surfaces of the zygomatic processes of the temporal bone, is
172 mm., giving the marked brachycephalic index of 88:21. The zygomatic
processes, however, may reasonably be objected to as indicating the true breadth,
and the side wall of the cranium just above the line where the root of this process
springs from the squamous portion of the temporal bone will certainly be much
nearer the cranial cavity. Measured in this situation the breadth of the cranium
is 118 mm., which gives a length-breadth index 60:51, and thus represents the
skull as decidedly dolichocephalic. The transverse occipital crests and the point
where these meet in the middle line to form the external occipital protuberance
are much more prominent in the male than in the female gorilla, and the estimate .
of the length of the cranium in this male gorilla may be reduced to 160 mm. by
selecting the base of the protuberance in place of its posterior extremity as the
posterior end measurement. This raises the index to 73°75, and places the
skull near the mesaticephalic group. At the anterior part of the skull the
prominent glabella is separated from the inner table of the skull by large air
sinuses, so that on a median section of the skull the distance from the glabella. to
the nearest part of the cranial cavity is 86mm. We have here, therefore, another
outgrowth of the cranial wall which in an examination of the external surface of
the skull obscures the extent of the cranial cavity. Accordingly the glabella
cannot be selected as the anterior point from which to measure the length of the
cranium, and must, like the zygomatic arches and occipital protuberance, be
excluded from our calculations it we desire to determine a true length-breadth
index. The difficulty, however, is to select a definite point on the surface of the
cranium to represent its anterior end, which will be free from the objections justly
urged against the glabella. Schwalbe suggests the hinder end of the supra-
glabellar fossa, which he states often corresponds to the beginning of a more or
less distinctly marked frontal crest. I have found this point either difficult to
determine or too far back. Thus in my male gorilla the posterior end of this fossa
formed by the meeting of the two temporal ridges was 56 mm. behind the glabella,
and only 24 mm. from the bregma, while in the female gorilla the temporal
ridges do not meet, but there is a low median frontal ridge, which may be con-
sidered as bounding posteriorly the supra-glabellar fossa. This point is 22 mm,
from the glabella, and between 50 mm. and 60 mm, in front of the bregma,

798 REPORT—1903.

I would suggest a spot in the median line of the supra-glabellar fossa which
is crossed by a transverse line uniting the posterior borders of the external angular
processes of the frontal bone. I admit this plan is not free from objections, but
it possesses the advantages of being available for both male and female skulls,
In my male skull the selection of this point diminishes the length of the cranium
by 25 mm., thus reducing it to 137 mm. The breadth being calculated at 114
mm., the index is 83:21, and hence distinctly brachycephalic, The length of
the cranial cavity is 118 mm, and the breadth 96 mm., and the length-breadth
index is thus the brachycephalic one of 81°86.

I have given these somewhat detailed references to the measurements of this
gorilla’s skull because they show in a very clear and obvious manner that from
an external examination of the skull one might easily be misled as to the size and
form of the cranial cavity, and that, in order to determine from external measure-
ments the proportions of the cranial cavity, skull outgrowths due to other
factors than brain growth must be rigorously excluded. Further, these details
will serve to emphasise the interesting fact that the gorilla’s skull is decidedly
brachycephalic. This character is by no means restricted to the gorilla, for it
has been clearly proved by Virchow, Schwalbe, and others that all the anthropoid
apes are markedly round-headed. Ever since the introduction by the illustrious
Swedish anthropologist Anders Retzius of a classification of skulls according to
the proportions between their length and breadth great attention has been paid
to this peculiarity in different races of mankind. It has been generally held that
brachycephaly indicates a higher type of skull than dolichocephaly, and that the
increase in the size of the brain in the higher races has tended to produce a
brachycephalic skull, When the cranial walls are subject to excessive internal
pressure, as in hydrocephalus, the skull tends to become distinctly brachycephalic,
as a given extent of wall gives a greater internal cavity in a spherical than an
oval form. In estimating the value of this theory as to the evolutionary line upon
which the skull has travelled, it is obvious that the brachycephalic character of
the skulls of all the anthropoid apes is a fact which requires consideration.

Although an adult male gorilla such as I have selected presents in an extreme
degree outgrowths from the cranial wall masking the true form of the cranial
cavity, the same condition, though to a less marked extent, is met with in the
human subject. Further, it is interesting to note that the length of the skull is
more liable to be increased by such growths than the breadth, since they occur
especially over the lower part of the forehead and to a less degree at the back of
the skull, while the side walls of the cranium in the region of its greatest breadth
generally remain thin.

Few if any fossils have attracted an equal amount of attention or given rise
to such keen controversies as the ‘Neanderthal’ and the ‘Trinil’ skull-caps.
According to some authorities both these skull-caps are undoubtedly human,
while others hold that the ‘Neanderthal’ belongs to an extinct species of the
genus Homo, and the ‘ Trinil’ is the remains of an extinct genus—Pithecanthropus
erectus of Dubois-—intermediate between man and the anthropoids, One of the
most obvious and easily recognised peculiarities of these skull-caps is the very
marked prominence of the supra-orbital arches. The glabella-occipital length of
the Neanderthal is 204 mm., and the greatest transverse diameter, which is over
the parietal region, is 152 mm.—an index of 74:51—while the much smaller
Trinil calvaria, with a length of 181 mm. and a breadth of 130 mm., has an index
of 71:8. Both of these skulls are therefore slightly dolichocephalic. Schwalbe
has corrected these figures by making reductions in their lengths on account of
the frontal ‘outworks, so that he estimates the true length-breadth index
of the Neanderthal as 80 and that of the Trinil as 75:5. These indices, thus
raised about 5 per cent,, are considered to represent approximately the length-
breadth index of the cranial cavity. A comparison of the external and internal
measurements of many recent skulls with prominent glabellae would, I suspect,
show a greater difference than that calculated by Schwalbe for the Neanderthal
and Trinil specimens. Ina male skull, probably an aboriginal Australian, with
a cranial capacity of 1227 c.cm. I found that the glabella-occipital length was

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 799

189 mm., and the transverse diameter at the parieto-squamous suture 127 mm.,
which gives an index of 67-20 and makes the skull decidedly dolichocephaiic.
The length of the cranial cavity, however, was 157 mm. and the breadth 121 mm.
(an index of 77:07 and a difference of nearly 10 per cent.), so that while from
external measurements the skull is distinctly dolichocephalic, the proportions of
its cavity are such that it is mesaticephalic. It is probable that many skulls owe
their dolichocephalic reputation simply to the prominence of the glabella and
supra-orbital ridges. An excessive development of these structures is also liable to
give the erroneous impression of a retreating forehead. In the Australian skull
just mentioned the thickness of the cranial wall at the glabella was 22 mm.;
from this level upwards it gradually thinned until 45 mm. above the glabella it
was only 6 mm. thick. When the bisected skull was placed in the horizontal
position the anterior surface of the frontal bone sloped from the glabella upwards
and distinctly backwards, while the posterior or cerebral surface was inclined
upwards and forwards. In fact, the cranial cavity in this region was separated
from the lower part of the forehead by a wedge-shaped area having its apex
upwards and its base below at the glabella.

The cranial wall opposite the glabella is not appreciably thicker in the
Neanderthal calvaria than in the Australian skull to which I have already
referred, and the form of the cranial cavity is not more masked by this prominence
in the Neanderthal than in many of the existing races.

Although the Neanderthal skull is by no means complete, the base of the
cranium and the face bones being absent, still those parts of the cranial wall are
preserved that are specially related to the portion of the brain which subserves
all the higher mental processes. It includes the frontal, parietal, and upper part
of the cecipital bones, with parts of the roof of the orbits in front, and of the
squamous division of the temporal bones at the sides. On its inner or cranial
aspect there are markings by which the boundaries between the cerebrum and the
cerebellum can be determined. In a profile view of such a specimen an inio-
glabellar line can be drawn which will correspond very closely to the lower
boundary of the cerebrum, and indicate a horizontal plane above which the
vaulted portion of the skull must have contained nearly the whole of the cerebrum.

Schwalbe ' has devised a series of measurements to illustrate what he regards
as essential differences between the Neanderthal skull-cap and the corresponding
portion of the human skull. From the inio-glabellar line another is drawn at
right angles to the highest part of the vault, and by comparing the length of
these two lines we can determine the length-height index. According to Schwalbe
this is 40:4 in the Neanderthal, while the minimum in the human skull is
52. Tle further shows that the frontal portion of the vault, as represented by a
glabella~bregmatice line, forms a smaller angle with the base or inio-glabellar line,
and that a vertical line from the posterior end of the frontal bone (bregma) cuts
the inio-glabellar further back than in the human subject. Professor King, of
Galway, attached special importance to the shape and proportions of the parietal
bones, and more particularly to the fact that their mesial borders are shorter than
the lower or temporal, whereas the reverse is the case in recent man. ‘This
feature is obviously related to the defective expansion of the Neanderthal vault,
and Professor Schwalbe also attributes considerable significance to this pecu-
liarity.

Rabther distinctive feature of the Neanderthal skull is the relation of the
orbits to the cranial wall. Schwalbe shows that its brain-case takes a much
smaller share in the formation of the roof of the orbit than it does in recent man,
and King pointed out that a line from the anterior inferior angle of the external
ovbital process of the frontal bone, drawn at right angles to the inio-glabellar line,
passed in the Neanderthal in front of the cranial cavity, whereas in man such a
line would haye a considerable portion of the frontal part of the brain-case anterior
to it.

! «Ueber die specifischen Merkmale des Neanderthalschiidels,’ Verhandl. der
anatomischen Gesellschaft in Boan, 1201.

800 REPORT—1908.

From the combined results of these and other measurements Schwalbe arrives
at the very important and interesting conclusion that the Neanderthal skull pos-
sesses a number of important peculiarities which differentiate it from the skulls of
existing man, and show an approximation towards those of the anthropoid apes.
He maintains that in recognising with King ' and Cope” the Neanderthal skull as
belonging to a distinct species, Homo Neanderthalensis, he is only following the
usual practice of zoologists and paleontologists by whom specific characters are
frequently founded upon much less marked differences. He maintains that as the
Neanderthal skull stands in many of its characters nearer to the higher anthropoids
than to recent man, if the Neanderthal type is to be included under the term
Homo sapiens, then this species ought to be still more extended, so as to embrace
the anthropoids.

It is interesting to turn from a perusal of these opinions recently advanced by
Schwalbe to consider the grounds on which Huxley and Turner, about forty years
ago, opposed the view, which was then being advocated, that the characters of the
Neanderthal skull were so distinct from those of any of the existing races as to
justify the recognition of a new species of the genus Homo. Huxley, while
admitting that it was ‘the most pithecoid of human skulls,’ yet holds that it ‘ is
by no means so isolated as it appears to beat first, but forms in reality the extreme
term of aseries leading gradually from it to the highest and best developed of
human crania.’ He states that ‘it is closely approached by certain Australian
skulls, andeven more nearly by the skulls of certain ancient people who inhabited
Denmark during the stone period” ‘Turner’s® observations led him to adopt a
similar view to that advanced by Huxley. He compared the Neanderthal calvaria
with savage and British crania in the Anatomical Museum of the University of
Edinburgh, and found amongst them specimens closely corresponding to the
Neanderthal type.

While yielding to no one in my admiration for the thoroughness and ability
with which Schwalbe has conducted his elaborate and extensive investigations on
this question, I must confess that in my opinion he has not sufliciently recognised
the significance of the large cranial capacity of the Neanderthal skull in deter-
mining the zoological position of its owner, or made sufficient allowance for the
great variations in form which skulls undoubtedly human may present.

The length and breadth of the Neanderthal calvaria are distinctly greater than
in many living races, and compensate for its defect in height, so that it was capable
of lodging a brain fully equal in volume to that of many existing savage races and
at least double that of any anthropoid ape.

A number of the characters upon which Schwalbe relies in differeatiating the
Neanderthal skull-cap are due to an appreciable extent to the great development
of the glabella and supra-orbital arches. Now these processes are well known to
present very striking variations in existing human races, They are usually sup-
posed to be developed as buttresses for the purpose of affording support to the large
upper jaw and enable it to resist the pressure of the lower jaw due to the contrac-
tion of the powerful muscles of mastication. These processes, however, are usu-
ally feebly marked in the microcephalic, prognathous, and macrodont negro skull,
and may he well developed in the macrocephalic and orthognathous skulls of some
of the higher races. Indeed, their variations are too great and their significance
too obscure for them to form a basis for the creation of a new species of man,
Both Huxley and Turner have shown that the low vault of the Neanderthal
calvaria can be closely parallelled by specimens of existing races.

If the characters of the Neanderthal calvaria are so distinctive as to justify the
recognition of a new species, a new genus ought to be made for the Trinil skull-
cap. In nearly every respect it is distinctly lower in type than the Neanderthal,
and yet many of the anatomists who have expressed their opinion on the subject
maintain that the Trinil specimen is distinctly human.

‘The Reputed Fossil Man of the Neanderthal, Journal of Science, 1864.
‘The Genealogy of Man,’ The American Naturalist, vol. xxvii. 1893.
8 «The Fossil Skull Controversy, Journal of Science, 1864,

1
2

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 801

Important and interesting as are the facts which may be ascertamed from a
study of a series of skulls regarding the size and form of the brain, it is evident
that there are distinct limits to the knowledge to be obtained from this source.
Much additional information as to racial characters would undoubtedly be gained
had we collections of brains at all corresponding in number and variety with the
skulls in our museums. We know that as a rule the brains of the less civilised
races are smaller, and the convolutions and fissures simpler, than those of the more
cultured nations, beyond this but little more than that definitely determined.

As the results of investigations in human and comparative anatomy, physiology,
and pathology, we know that definite areas of the cerebral cortex are connected
with the action of definite groups of muscles, and that the nervous impulses starting
from the organs of smell, sight, hearing, and common sensibility reach defined
cortical fields. All these, however, do not cover more than a third of the con-
voluted surface of the brain, and the remaining two thirds are still to a large extent
a terra incognita so far as their precise function is concerned. Is there a definite
localisation of special mental qualities or moral tendencies, and if so where are
they situated? These are problems of extreme difficulty, bnt their interest and
pe eee are difficult to exaggerate. In the solution of this problem anthro-
pologists are bound to take an active and important part. When they have
collected information as to the relative development of the various parts of the
higher brain in all classes of mankind with the same thoroughness with which they
have investigated the racial peculiarities of the skull, the question will be within a
measurable distance of solution.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Skulls from Round Barrows in East Yorkshire.!
By Wiuram Waicst, .B., WSe., FRCS.

The skulls upon which these remarks are offered are some eighty in number,
and are now in the Mortimer Museum at Driffield. From the fact that the
interments closely resemble each other it isinferred that they took place about the
same time; from the further fact that primitive articles of bronze have been
occasionally met with in the graves, albeit much less frequently than articles of
stone and bone, it is assumed that they date back to the Karly Bronze age, some
of them possibly to the Late Stone age.

As to the skulls almost all the varieties of cranial shape met with in Europe
are represented: types so widely different are found as those named by Sergi
Ellipsoides Pelasgicus Longissimus, Sphenoides Latus, and Eillipsoides Africus
Rotundus, The cephalic index ranged from 69 to 92. It is doubtful if it is
possible to find a materially more mixed series of skulls in a community of to-day.
Perhaps the only marked distinction between these prehistoric skulls and those of
the present time is to be found in the jaws and teeth, although even here retro-
grade changes were discoverable such as unerupted and dwarfed wisdom teeth, an
absent upper lateral incisor and a lower canine overlapping the adjacent lateral
incisor on account of overcrowding of the teeth.

The mandibular and coronoid indices suggested by Professor Arthur Thomson
were calculated whenever possible. I found no co-relation between them and
skull-shape, but that skulls with similar indices were possessed of different shapes,
and vice versa.

A marked resemblance was frequently noted between the skulls from any
one barrow: so striking was it that one was inclined to attribute it to the
barrows having been family burial-grounds. This resemblance was particularly
apparent in nine skulls taken from one barrow; four of the nine, moreover,
although those of adults, had the metopic suture unclosed. Metopism, when
found, occurred in long skulls rather than in broad skulls; a fact which on
a privrt grounds one would perhaps not have expected. Judging from the

1 To be published in full in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Xxxiv..
1903, s % 3 FP

802 REPORT—1903.

frequently open sutures and the condition of the teeth, it would appear that
the dead here buried had seldom reached an age greater than that of fifty.

In concluding one has no hesitation in stating that Dr. Thurnam’s dictum
‘round barrow, round skull,’ is not even approximately accurate so far as the
skulls from the round barrows ot Yorkshire are concerned.

2. Some Observations on the Pads and Papillary Ridges on the Palm
of the Hand. By E. J. Evarr.

During the course of development of the hand eleven well-defined pads or
cushions appear on the palm. The disposition and form of the pads when best
marked in the foetus correspond very closely with that which obtains in certain
lower animals (e.g., the mouse), and the pads in both cases are probably morpho-
logically equivalent, and, further, in man’s remote ancestors possibly served similar
functions. In the adult the pads may be regarded as vestigial.

It is probable that when the hand began to be used as an organ of prehension
rather than of locomotion, the deep layer of the epidermis invaded the corium in a
fluted form, and in this way the close and complicated papille were differentiated,
The interlocking of the corium with the epidermis serves probably to strengthen
the connection between the two.

The interlocking ridges or deep flutings are at first comparatively simple in
their arrangement, and tend to lie transversely to the long axis of the limb, even
on the sites of the original pads where the patterns eventually assume most com-
plex forms. Later on, yet long hefore the ridges appear on the surface, the deep
flutings have assumed the patterns characteristic of the adult papillary ridges.

The papillary patterns appear on the surface at about the eighteenth week, and
are formed by the intervening epidermal tissue sinking in between the buttress-
like processes of the underlying flutings, and they thus come to be the counter-
part of the perfected patterns upon which they are moulded.

The convexities of the patterns on the pads of the fingers are directed distally,
while the convexities of the patterns over the remaining pads take a proximal
direction; that is, in grasping, the convexities are directed in lines of least
resistance ; it would, therefore, seem probable that as the hand became an organ
of prehension the flutings assumed the forms already described as the result of
mechanical forces.

3. Some Recent Excavations at Hastings, and the Human Remains found.
By J. G. Garson, ID., and W. J. Lewis Apsorr.

In this paper a description is given of the geological formation and position of
Hastings in relation to certain excavations recently made for the purpose of
constructing a passenger-lift from the foreshore to the top of the cliff, in the
course of which a number of human remains were found. The date at which
these were deposited is uncertain, but they appear to include two racial elements,
the earlier of which presented characters agreeing with those typical of the
Neolithic race, while the other remains were of people of a much later date.

4, Remarks on a Collection of Skulls from the Malay Peninsula.
By NEuson ANNANDALE, B.A.

These skulls were obtained by Mr. H. C. Robinson and myself in the Patani
States, the population of which is ‘very mixed, consisting partly of so-called
Malays and ‘partly of so-called Siamese, the difference between these two peoples
being chiefly one of religion. The skulls fall naturally into four groups, one of
which, represented by three adult specimens, shows many primitive characters, and
is especially remarkable for the great development of the cerebellar part of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 808

occiput, agreeing in this character with a series of Orang-Laut skulls from the
State of Trang, on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, which the author has
recently described‘ in brief. An interesting feature of the series at present under
discussion, and also, so far as can be seen, of the Orang-Laut specimens, is the
large proportion of individuals in which the third molar has not developed
normally. Though the Malay and Siamese skulls in our collection show certain
resemblances to those representing the jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula, they
are separated from them by having a much higher cephalic index and a greater
cubic capacity, and by other differences of racial importance.

5. Grattan’s Craniometer and Craniometric Methods.
By Professor J. Symineton, I.D., F.R.S.

6. Anthropometric Measurements in Crete and other parts of the Hygean
Area. By W. 1. H. Duckwortn, M.A.—See Reports, p. 404.

7. Report of the Committee on Anthropometric Investigation in Great
Britain and Ireland.—See Reports, p. 389.

8. Report of the Committee on a Pigmentation Survey of the School
Children of Scotland—See Reports, p. 415,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Paleolithic Implements from the Shelly Gravel Pit at Swanscombe, Kent.
By Mrs. C. Storrs.

The late Mr. Stopes on April 27, 1900, discovered in a newly opened section of
sand and gravel in a pit at Swanscombe, Kent, many remains of animal mollusca
and other fossils interstratified with flint implements of various kinds, The latter
included the following varieties: (1) Ordinary axe or hache type; (2) fine smaller,
of same shape; (3) broad leaf-shaped type; (4) ovate types; (5) boat-shaped type,
pointed at each end; (6) discs; (7) large many-angled projectiles ; (8) very fine-
pointed stones as awls ; (9) worked as it for graving tools; (10) worked as if to
clear marrow-bones; (11) scrapers, spokeshaves, and combined stones in all colours
and shades of flint and patina—white cream, ochreous, brown, black. Many of
them are derived and waterworn, many are glaciated.

As these are associated with a fauna containing many extinct species,
Mr. Stopes considered that his discovery pushed back the geological date of man’s
appearance in the lower Thames valley to a period much earlier than has hitherto
been supposed. The pit is now entirely worked out, and the specimens already in
hand alone remain to show its contents. ;

The fossils have been verified by Mr. Kennard and are here given. Those

} Fascicult Malayenses: Anthropology, part i,
FQ

804

REPORT—1908.

marked * are extinct, those marked { are extinct in this country but living on the

Continent.

MAMMALIA.
* Bos primigenius.
{Canis lupus.
Cervus elaphus.
» tarandus.
*Hlephas antiquus.
» primigenius.
Equus cabatlus.
* Microtus amphibius.
*. agrestis.
glareolus.
» intermedius.
Mus sylvaticus.

*Rhinocerus leptorhinus.

Sus scrofa.
*Trogontherium cuvierr.
AVES.
Anas sp.

REPTILIA.
* Emys sp.
Rana temporaria.
Tropidonotus natrix.
PISCES.
Anguilla anguilla,
Esow lucius.
Leucisius rutilus.
dik, Sp.
Vinca vulgaris.
PLANTS.
Chara sp.
MOLLUSCA.

Agriolimax agrestis.
Carychium minimum.

Pyramidula rotundata.

< ruderata.
Helicella caperata.
Helix nemoralis.

Helicigona arbustorwum.

Cochlicopa lubrica.

SPECIES.

Timnea auricularia,
» palustris.
» peregra.
5 truncatula.
” stagnalis.
Hygromia granulata ,
» hispida.
Vallonia pulchelia.
Vitrea radiatula.
» erystallina,
» nitida.
» nitidula.
Azeca tridens.
Pupa muscorum.
Cecilianella acicula,
Vertigo antivertigo.
Clausilia laninata.
» «= perversa.
Succinea elegans.

Ancylus fluviatilis.
Planorbis albus.
. carinatus.
ee contortus. |
5 corneus.
, glaber.
+ marginatus.
FA nautileus.
a Sontanus.
Ty a vorticulus.
Paludestrina ventrosa.
Bithynia tentaculata.

i leachit.
Vivipara clactonensis.
Valvata cristata.

» piscinalis.
*Neritina grateloupiana
+ Unio littoralis.

» pictorum.
» tumidus.

+ Corbicula fluminalis.
Spharium corneum.
Pisidiwm amnicum.

= b, astartoides.

A Sontinale.

- pusillum.

Tt 94 supinum.

2. Saw-edged Paleoliths. By Mrs. C. Stopss.

Among the stones collected by Mr. Stopes during the last two years of his life, and
left by him at Swanscombe, are a beautiful series of saw-edged paleolithic flakes
and implements from the Craylands gravel pit at Swanscombe. The roughnesses
are not the result of accident or use, but are intentional serration, generally on a
straight edge, though sometimes continued into the spokeshaves and scrapers so
frequently combined in the multwm in parvo impiements of the period.

At the York meeting of the British Association, 1881, when Mr. Stopes
brought forward his carved Pectunculus from the Red Orag, as the first recorded

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 805

trace of Pliocene man, Professor Prestwich stated in the discussion that he had
found a bone in the same series which seemed to have been sawn into two. But as
he had thought it was impossible that man should have existed at that period, he
had pronounced against the saws. Here, however, are both saws and men associated
in the pre-glacial stratified deposits of the early Pleistocene period, and it is quite
possible that they may yet be found in Pliocene times,

3. The Survival of Primitive Implements in the Furoes and Iceland.
By Newson ANNANDALE, B.A.

The objects noticed were collected by the author in the Faroes, the Westmann
Isles, and the Rangarval district of South Iceland. They were in use at the end
of the nineteenth century, though mostly obsolescent, and include stone hammers
of two different kinds, bone needles, pliers, skates (or rather runners), pegs for
stretching out hides, toys, sieves of skin, and other articles. Their distribution
in the districts indicated is by no means uniform, those which occur in the Faroes
being generally absent from Iceland, and vice versa, while those from the West-
mann Isles ditter from the specimens collected on the mainland opposite. This
difference in distribution may be partially due to differences in local conditions
that have caused some implements to disappear and others to continue in use, but
may also have some ethnological interest, it being very improbable that the people
of the Faroes are of evenas pure Scandinavian descent as those of Iceland, while
the Westmann Islanders did not originally come from Rangarval, but from the
extreme north of Iceland, where the population is more highly cultured than that
of the south.

4. Coldrum, Kent, and its relation to Stonehenge?
By GrorGcE Cincy.

The district which lies immediately to the N.W. of Maidstone is remarkable
for an interesting series of prehistoric megalithic remains. The best known of
these is Kits Coty House; a fallen cromlech called the ‘Countless Stones,’ lower
down the same hillside; several other ruined examples in Addington Park; and
Coldrum, or Coldreham, which stands less than two miles north of this, on high
ground overlooking the Medway valley and within sight of Kits Coty House.

The remains of Coldrum comprise a central cromlech without capstone, an
irregular line of large blocks of stone on the western side, and traces of a tumulus.
The published descriptions of it® do not, however, mention its most important
and characteristic feature, namely, that between the two upright stones which
form the sides of the chamber there stand two stones, about midway, forming a
partition which divides the space into two adjoining sepulchral chambers.

The size of the upright stones is remarkable (7 feet high by 11 feet by 2 feet
3 inches thick), and still more the regularity of their form.

Seventeen irregularly placed stones, inclosing a small space on the W. side of
the cromlech, represent a part only of what was probably a quadrangular or oblong
enclosure, placed at the toot of the ‘tumulus, by which the whole cromlech was
originally concealed.

The arrangements above described—of a two-chambered cromlech with a
square or oblong tumulus and massive outline wall—are of great rarity ; and the
whole structure suggests a late date in the neolithic age, when the form of the
sepulchral chambers was followed out in the construction of the mound. A
similar somewhat larger neolithic megalithic structure at Sievern, in Hanover, has
been fully published, with illustrations, by Fr. Tewes.4

1 To be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst. xxxiii.

? Published in full in Man, 1904, 12.

$ Flinders Petrie, Archeologia Cantiana, vol. xiii. pp. 14, 16 ; George Payne, Collec-
tanea Cantiana (1893), pp. 139-141.

* Die Steingraber der Provinz Hannover, 1898.

806 REPORT—19038.

The regular form, good proportions, and flat surfaces of the upright stones at
Coldrum are very a eta: and suggest artificial shaping and perhaps dressing.
These also point to a late period in the neolithic age, and present remarkable
similarities to the forms at Stonehenge. That these careful forms and surfaces
could be produced with stone tools has been shown in the case of Stonehenge by
Professor Gowland, ‘ Recent Excavations at Stonehenge.’ + :

The idea of enclosing the principal structure within a line of stones is also
common to Stonehenge and Coldrum; but whereas Coldrum was obviously a
sepulchral monument, Stonehenge, though following to some extent the same
arrangement, was conceived on a more ambitious scale, and probably designed for
a very different purpose.

The megalithic structures of Kent furnish a valuable series illustrative of the
constructive skill of neolithic man. At Kits Coty House the two main uprights
lean somewhat inwards and rest against the middle upright between them, thus
distributing the weight of the capstone so as to consolidate the whole structure,
the resistance of which to complete denudation proves also the excellence of its
foundations. At Coldrum the construction has developed further, for the uprights
still stand erect, even though no capstone remains,

The author traces in these rectangular megalithic monuments the prototypes
of the series of Anglo-Saxon churches, sometimes called ‘Scottish,’ ‘ Celtic,’ or
a oie of which good examples are seen at Boarhurst, Hants, and in Dover

astle.

5, Haxcavations at Caerwent, Monmouthshire, 1899-1903.?
By T, Asupy, jun., 14.

The Romano-British city of Venta Silurum, the site of which is now occupied
by the village of Caerwent, Monmouthshire, five miles west of Chepstow and
eleven miles east of Newport, is only mentioned by this name in the Antonine
Itinerary and by the Geographer of Ravenna. In the former it appears as a
station upon the Roman road from London wid Bath to South Wales. In the
classical authors it is not spoken of, though the tribe of the Silures is mentioned
by Tacitus; but an inscription recently discovered in the centre of the city shows
that it was the centre of the tribal organisation under which the Silures lived in
Roman times. The text is as follows: ... leg(ato) leg(ionis) % aug(uste)
proconsul(z) provinc(ie) Narbonensis leg(ato) Aug(ustc) pr(o) pr(etore) provi(ncie)
Lugudunen(sis) ex deereto ordinis respubl(ica) civit(atis) Silurum.

The external walls of the city are still clearly traceable. They forma rectangle
of about 500 (E. to W.) by 400 (N. to S.) yards, and on the south side are
preserved to a height of some 20 feet. Some remains of the east and west gates
still exist, while the north gate is preserved up to the spring of the arch, and
shows signs of modification. Within the wall and parallel to it a mound of hard
clay has been discovered in many places, which is believed to have been the
original fortification of the city; whether its origin is military or civil is a point
as yet uncertain.

Excavations are still in progress, and, if circumstances permit, may be carried
on for several years more, as the greater part of the site is unoccupied by buildings.

The ancient city appears, at one period of its existence at any rate, to have
been divided into twenty insule. The modern highway, which runs from east to
west through the centre of the site, follows the line of the ancient road; and at
almost equal distances north and south of this ancient roads have been brought to
light. There seem to have been four roads running from north to south, of which
the easternmost alone has not yet been discovered in any part of its course. It is
obvious, however, that our statements on this point must be subject to reserve,
inasmuch as much further excavation remains to be done.

The buildings which have been brought to light consist chiefly of private

1 Archeologia, vol. lviii. pp. 37-118.
2 Full reports in Avche@ologia and summary in Man, 1904.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 807

houses, and some of these present a ground plan which appeats to be unique in
England, having the rooms arranged round all the four sides of a rectangular
courtyard. The walls are strongly built of blocks of limestone, and in some cases
the painted plaster upon the walls is found im situ in good preservation. Some
interesting mosaic pavements have been found.

A large building near the North Gate (so far only partially excavated) may
have had some public character, and a little to the east of this gate an amphi-
theatre (apparently of late date) has recently been discovered within the city walls.
So little of it is preserved that it must be supposed to have been mainly of wood ;
the arena wall, which exists almost in its entirety, encloses an oval the diameters
of which are about 145 and 125 feet.

The smaller objects include a roughly sculptured head in sandstone, probably
of some deity, while pottery, bronze and iron objects, &c. are found in profusion,
Some of the coloured enamel is especially good.

6. Ribchester : the Roman Fortress Bremettenacum.
By Joun Garstane, B.Liti.

Ribchester, on the Ribble Valley, has long been known. Roman remains, some
of them exceptional in character, have been found there since the beginning of
archeological record. One object in particular, a bronze ornamental helmet, the
head probably of a deity, now preserved in the British Museum, is specially note-
worthy. The fame of this Roman station has been increased by an old tradition
of buried treasure, which seems to have been based actually upon an event of post-
Roman date, and has been shown recently by a distinguished numismatist to have
probable reference to the Cuerdale hoard of Saxon Coins.

Excavations made in 1898-99 have now shown that the station at Ribchester
conformed with the general scheme of frontier defences of the Roman Empire. It
was one of a series of such fortresses in methodical arrangement which with the
wall of Hadrian formed the northern frontier defences of Roman Britain against
the hill tribes of the north. It is analogous in plan and constructive details with
other forts of the same system and period. It is to be distinguished primarily
from the camps of a moving army the disposition of which is well known from
literary sources, just as the name castellum is different from the word castra.
Latin historians were careful of this distinction, and it behoves English archzo-
logists to be equally on their guard. The Roman fort is hardly treated in con-
temporary literature, but its character and military organisation are now clearly
defined by the results of archzeological research. ‘This fort is to be distinguished
secondarily with the class of which it is an example from the later type of Roman
fortress, familiar from ruins on the south-eastern coast line, built in the fourth
century to oppose the dangers which threatened the Saxon shore. These later
strongholds have external buttresses and turrets, are generally larger and with
higher walls, and exhibit the prototypes of some of the medieval details of
fortification.

But the class of fortress to which Ribchester belongs is entirely of the earlier
character, severe rectangular shapes with internal buttresses and mural towers,
magnificent double-arched gates, a stout wall not very high, with parapet and
guard chambers upon its length. In large examples of this class, of which
Ribchester is one, the interior was filled with stone-built barrack-rooms and
stables, arranged regularly in rows and streets. In the centre was the large
‘ prietorium,’ the headquarters of the commander of the’division which constituted
the garrison. On one side was commonly a large storehouse or granary, and at
Ribchester (quite exceptionally) there seems to have been a temple within the
walls, Another sub-class of this period is found to be of smaller area—about
three acres only—with the outer walls and pretorium only of stone.

The inception of the idea of a series of frontier fortresses in the north was due
to Agricola, but the scheme elaborated to its perfection with Hadrian, and much
activity in building is still evidenced from the inscriptions under the Antonines,

808 REPORT—1903.

It was about this period probably that Bremettenacum was finally built.
There is no definite evidence of its earlier origins, but it is known that a detachment
of the Sixth Legion (from York) completed some building work under Calpurnius
Agricola in the middle of the second century. It was garrisoned at one time by
a wing of Sarmatian cavalry (auxiliaries), and later by a body of Asturians.
It was connected in the military scheme by roads into the Roman stations at
Manchester (Mancunium) and at Wigan (Coccium) to the south, with Overborough
(Galacum) and Lancaster (? Rigodunum) to the north, and directly with the
legionary headquarters at York (Eboracum) by the road over the hills through
Ilkley (? Olicana).

[A full description of the excavations and recent discoveries is given in the
excursion handbook for the Southport meeting. ]

7. The Roman Fort at Brough. By Joun Garstane, B.Litt.

Excavations of an exploratory character have been made during the past month
upon the Roman site at Brough, in Derbyshire, near to Hope village and station.
They haye shown that the station there was military, being in fact a fortress of
the earlier class, built probably under Hadrian or Antoninus Pius, in the earlier
half of the second century. It corresponds in many particulars to the type of
forts along the wall; though small in area it was stoutly built. Its outer walls
were nowhere less than six feet in thickness, and its preetorium was extensive, with
a remarkable strength of masonry. It had the usual four gateways and rounded
corners surmounted by turrets, and it was situated in the favourite position at
the junction of two streams. The outline of the fortress, the position of the pra-
torium and adjoining buildings, and the suggestion of other stone buildings within
the enclosure have been determined by these experimental excavations. In a
central position, possibly within the preetorium itself, was disclosed a deep-walled
enclosure, with steps leading down from top to bottom. The masonry is charac-
teristically solid. In clearing out the refuse from this there were found, among
other remains, two inscribed altars, difficult to read, the one small and well carved
but broken, the other large and complete. Of more immediate interest were
portions of a large inscribed tablet which when put together proved to have been
about five feet in length, with a nice moulded border. The inscription dates from
the time of Antoninus Pius, and seems to have been set up by a prefect of the
First Cohort of Aquitani under Julius Verus, then Governor of Britain. The
name of the prefect appears to be new, but the contingent is known from monu-
ments found near Bakewell and elsewhere.

The Council of the Derbyshire Archxological Society are encouraged by these
tentative results to make a careful and systematic excavation of the whole site,
and cordially invite general interest and support. ‘he inception of the scheme is
due to Mr, W. J, Andrew, F.S.A., editor of the Society’s journal, in which the
full account of the present and future discoveries will be published from year to
year,

8. Report of the Committee on the Silchester Excavations.
See Reports, p. 412.

9. On a Prehistoric Drinking-vessel found near Burnley.
By TATTERSALL WILLIAMSON.

The author described a number of urns found at Todmorden. The urns, which
are hand-made, are associated with a flint arrowhead, showing very fine workman-~
ship, a bronze fibula, a pin, and a number of jet and bone beads. In the
central cinerary urn, which was of a finer character, were found human remains,
and also an incense-cup and a food-vessel; a microscopical examination of the
latter showed traces of its former contents,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 809

In other excavations in the neighbourhood the remains of two persons had
invariably been found together, one an adult, the other a child. The author
assigned the prehistoric sites near Burnley to three distinct periods, that of the
barrows, followed by the epochs of the Earth Circle and the Stone Circle. The
period of the barrows would appear to be the earliest, as the barrows—unlike
those in Yorkshire, explored by Canon Greenwell—had never, as far as the author
knew, been found to contain bronze objects. ;

10. Antiquities near Kharga in the Great Oasis.
By Cuares 8S. Myers, .D.

The photographs illustrating these antiquities were for the most part taken by
the late Anthony Wilkin, who accompanied the writer on his visit to the Great
Oasis in 1901.

(i.) At the eastern entrance to the oasis is a large buttressed fortlike ruin,
called by the natives El Deir,*¢.e. the monastery. Its walls have a thickness of
twelve feet, it covers about a hundred and ninety square feet. The neighbourhood
abounds in worked flint implements.

(ii.) On a rising piece of ground about three miles north of the village of Kharga
stands the early Christian (Nestorian) necropolis, now called El Baguat. It con-
sists of streets of well-preserved tombs and funereal chapels of unburnt bricks,
formerly faced with plaster. Remains of mummy cloths can be seen, Niches are
built into the walls, probably to receive lamps and gifts of food for the dead. The
interiors of the tombs are decorated with the Egyptian ankh, birds, vine-tendrils,
&e. There is a large chapel and a tomb covered with frescoes of biblical scenes,
photographs of which are exhibited. The buildings may be attributed approxi-
mately to the seventh century.

(iii.) Somewhat nearer Kharga stands the well-preserved temple of Hibie,
begun by Darius I. and completed by Darius II., one of the most important monu-
ments of the Persian dynasty in Egypt.

ll. Egyptian Burial Customs.! By Joun Garsrane, B. Litt.

Excavations made during the past winter upon the hillside at Beni-Hasan, in
Upper Egypt, have resulted in the discovery of a necropolis of the Middle Empire,
about 2200 8.c., which has thrown much light upon the burial customs of that
period. Visitors to the well-known rock-hewn tombs of the princes and great
officials are familiar with the paintings of barques and offerings and_ general
funereal furniture upon the walls. These newly found tombs are the burying-
places of the minor officials and distinguished women, the middle classes of the
locality. They are not sufficiently large, for the most part, nor of suitable
character, for mural decorations; but they were found furnished with numerous
wooden models, which explain at once many points of interest connected with the
burying of the dead, and in themselves illustrate the industrial processes of the
ancient country.

Altogether 492 tombs were found and examined. Many of these had never
previously been disturbed. Fortunately, too, in several instances the preservation
of the objects was perfect. They were seen, as the door of each tomb was opened
—hboats under sail, funereal barques, granaries, men with oxen, women with
geese, brewers and bakers—all in their places, freshly painted and free from dust
or accumulation, exactly as they had been left four thousand years ago. A series
of photographic views of the interiors, taken by reflected light, illustrate the whole
process of the excavation, and these observations, stage by stage, as well as pictures
of the deposited objects themselves,

A comparison of results obtained from the several well-furnished tombs shows
that there was some uniformity as to the character of the objects that furnished

1 To be published more fully in Man, 1904.

810 REPORT—1903.

the houses of the dead. They included essentially the following characters:
(a) a rowing-boat ; (4) a sailing-boat; (c) a granary; (d) a bakery; (¢) a brewery;
(f) an ox, or sacrifice; (g) a girl with geese and basket. The groups varied
slightly, but these were uniformly included. They seem to have borne no relation
to the profession of the deceased, but are simply of religious motive—the elaborate
provision for a future journey. In one case two other vessels were deposited, but
they were of warlike character, and in this case probably had a special signifi-
cance, In them were armed men, shields, spears, and an interesting group of two
figures playing chess.

Numerous small objects were discovered, among them a small wooden statuette
of a woman carrying her babe in a shawl upon her back. She is characteristically
Libyan. The photographs number about 450, and arrangements are being made
for their publication.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Psychology and Sociology of the Todas.
See Reports, p. 415.

2. Toda Kinship and Marriage. By W. H. R. Rivers, ID.

The kinship system and marriage institutions of the Todas were studied by means
of the genealogical method.!| The Todas preserve their pedigrees by oral trans-
mission for several generations, but considerable difficulty was experienced in ob-
taining the record owing to the existence of a taboo on the names of dead relatives.

Finally, however, a fairly complete genealogical record of the whole com-
munity was obtained, going back for two or three generations, and this furnished
the basis for the study of the social organisation.

The system of kinship is of the kind known as ‘classificatory,’ every male of
an individual’s clan being either his grandfather, father, brother, son, or grandson
and every female his grandmother, mother, sister, daughter, or granddaughter. A
special feature of the system is that the father-in-law receives the same name as
the mother’s brother, and the mother-in-law the same name as the father’s sister.
The orthodox Toda marriage is one between the children of brother and sister: a
man marries normally the daughter of his maternal uncle, or of his paternal aunt;
and this custom, which is common in Southern India, has so influenced the system
of kinship that both mother’s brother and wife’s father receive the same name,
even when the two relations are not united in the same person.

There are two distinct sets of kinship terms: one set used when speaking of a
person, and the other used in direct address. The latter terms are more limited
in number than the former, and are used in a more general way, and the names
of this kind given by individuals to one another are determined largely by the
respective generations and relative ages of the speakers.

Although the Toda system is definitely of the classificatory kind, the people
often used terms which define more exactly the nature of the relationship ; thus, a
man might speak of his nephew as‘ my son,’ oras ‘my younger brother’s son.’
This and other similar practices seem to show that the Toda system is losing its
purely classificatory character, and is approaching the descriptive stage.

The Todas have very definite marriage regulations. The people are divided
into two endogamous groups, each of which is subdivided into a number of
exogamous groups which may be called ‘ clans.’

The two chief groups are not allowed to intermarry: a man must marry a
woman of his own division, The clans into which the two chief divisions are sub-

1 Journ. Anthrop. Inst, xxxi, 1900, p. 74.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 8il

divided take their names from certain important villages. The people of a clan
are known as madol (village people), and a man is not allowed to marry one of
his own madol.

Marriage is also regulated by kinship. A man may not marry the daughterof his
father’s brother. As there is paternal descent, she would be of hisown clan. He is
also prohibited from marrying the children of his mother’s sisters, though they will
usually not be members of his clan. There is thus a prohibition of marriages be-
tween the children of brothers on the one hand and between the children of sisters
on the other hand. Between the children of brother and sister there is not only
no such prohibition, but the orthodox marriage is of this kind. A man normally
marries the daughter of his mother’s brother or of his father’s sister. Infant
marriage is a well-established Toda custom, and children married to one another
are very often cousins—the children of brother and sister. There is, however, a
very general custom of transferring wives from one man to another (or from one
set of men to another), and the unions which ensue are not necessarily examples of
the marriage of cousins.

The Todas have long been noted as a polyandrous people, and the institution of
polyandry is still in full working order among them. When a girl becomes the
wife of a boy it is usually understood that she becomes also the wife of his
brothers.

In nearly every case at the present time and in recent generations the husbands
of a woman are own brothers. In afew cases though not brothers they are of
the same clan. Very rarely do they belong to different clans,

One of the most interesting features of Toda polyandry is the method by which
it is arranged who shall be regarded as the father of a child. For all social and
legal purposes the father of a child is the man who performs a certain ceremony
about the seventh month of pregnancy, in which an imitation bow and arrow is
given to the woman.

When the husbands are own brothers the eldest brother usually gives the bow
and arrow, and is the father of the child, though so long as the brothers live
together the other brothers are also regarded as fathers.

It is in the cases in which the husbands are not own brothers that the cere-
mony often becomes of real social importance. In these cases it is arranged that
one of the husbands shall give the bow and arrow, and this man is the father, not
only of the child born shortly afterwards, but also of all succeeding children, till
another husband performs the essential ceremony. Fatherhood is determined so
absolutely by this ceremony that a man who has been dead for several years is
regarded as the father of any children borne by his widow if no other man has given
the bow and arrow.

There is no doubt that in former times the polyandry of the Todas was asso-
ciated with female infanticide, and it is probable that the latter custom still exists
to some extent, through strenuously denied. There is reason to believe that women
are now more plentiful than formerly, though they are still in a distinct minority.
Any increase, however, in the number of women does not appear to have led to
any great diminution of polyandrous marriages, but polyandry is often combined
with polygyny. Two or more brothers may have two or more wives in common.
In such marriages, however, it seems to be a growing custom that one
brother should give the bow and arrow to one wife, and another brother to another
wife. It seems possible that the Todas are moving from polyandry towards mono-
gamy through an intermediate stage of combined polyandry and polygyny.

3. The Toda Dairy. By W. H.R. Rivers, 1D.

The Todas of the Nilgiri Hills practise an elaborate religious ritual which is a
development of the ordinary operations of the dairy. ‘The dairy is the temple and
the dairyman is the priest.

There are several kinds of dairy-temple, of different degrees of sanctity, cor-
responding to the different degrees of sanctity of the buffaloes tended at each,

812 REPORT—1908. L

Of these dairies there are three chief grades. The highest kind is found in secluded
spots far from any place where ordinary people live. These dairies belong to one of
the two chief divisions of the Todas, the Tdrthdrol, but are tended by men
belonging to the other division, the Tezvaliol. The lowest grade of dairy is found
at the villages where the people live, and these dairies are tended by men of the
same division as that to which the dairy belongs. The dairies of intermediate
sanctity are found only at the villages of the Tdrthdrol, but are tended by
members either of the Tetvaliol or of one special clan of the Tdarthdrol.

It is only the milk of the different kinds of sacred buttalo which is churned
in the dairy-temple. There are buffaloes which are not sacred, and their milk is
churned in the front part of the huts in which the people live.

The more sacred the dairy, the more elaborate is its ritual. In every case
the dairy vessels are divided into two groups. The more sacred vessels are those
which come into contact with the buffaloes or the milk. The less sacred are
those which receive the products of the churning. In the highest kind of dairy
the products of the churning do not pass directly from the more sacred to the less
sacred vessels, but have to pass from one to the other by the help of an inter-
mediate vessel. The dairy ritual is accompanied by definite prayer; and the
more sacred the dairy, prayer becomes a more prominent feature of the ritual.

In most of the more sacred dairies there is a bell which is an object ot
reverence, and usually milk is put on this bell during the dairy operations.

The more sacred the dairy, the more is the life of the dairyman hedged
about with restrictions. There are definite ordination ceremonies for each grade
of office. In the lowest grade they may be completed in less than an hour; in the
highest they are prolonged over more than a week.

In addition to the three chief grades of dairy, there are certain dairies in
which the ritual has developed in some special direction, and there are often con-
siderable differences in the ritual of different dairies of the same kind, especially
of the highest grade. Each clan has a special prayer for use in the dairies
belonging to that clan, and each of the highest kinds of dairy has also its own
special prayer.

Various features of the lives of the buffaloes are made the occasion of cere-
monies, often elaborate and prolonged. Whenever the buffaloes go from one
dairy to another to obtain fresh pasturage, the journey becomes an elaborate cere-
mony which may be prolonged over two or three days. Giving salt to the
buffaloes is similarly accompanied by complicated ceremonies, and ceremonies are
held fifteen days after the birth of a female calf.

One of the most interesting of the ceremonies of the dairy is connected with
the custom of adding buttermilk from a previous churning to the newly drawn
milk. By means of the addition of buttermilk, which is called pep, a kind of con-
tinuity is kept up in the dairy operations; but under certain conditions this
continuity is broken, and it becomes necessary to make new pep, and this may be
the occasion of prolonged and elaborate ceremonies,

4. The Ancient Monuments of Northern Honduras and the adjacent parts of
Yucatan and Guatemala, with some Account of the Former Civilisation
of these Regions and the Characteristics of the Races now inhabiting
them.’ By Dr. T. W. Gann.

The author describes

(1) The Ancient Monuments of Honduras, namely—

(a) Temples: their number at present known and their situation. A typical
specimen is described and resemblances are noted to similar structures elsewhere.

(b) Bualdings within mounds, with stucco-ornamented walls and burial cysts
or large burial chambers; some mounds contain more than one chamber.

1 To be published in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 813

(d) Stone-faced pyramids, single and in groups. A large stone-faced plateau
covered with pyramids has been discovered recently.

(e) Fortifications, especially groups of fortified mounds along the sea-shore,
and look-out mounds with fortifications attached, near ancient village sites.

(f) Ovoid underground chambers: their distribution, size, contents, and
probable uses. Similar chambers occur elsewhere.

(2) The Former Civilisation of Honduras :—

(a) Weapons and tools and the materials from which manufactured. The
author notes the unaccountable absence of metals and describes the spear and arrow
heads, celts, knives, even grinders, loom-weights, net-sinkers, hammer-stones,
scrapers, henequen-cleaners, and other stones of unknown use.

(b) Ornamental and ceremonial objects: head-dress ornaments, earrings, nose
ornaments, labrets, gorgets, and curiously shaped flint and obsidian objects,
probably ceremonial.

(c) Pottery.—There are three main varieties: (1) fine thin ware, painted in
various colours aud glazed; (2) coarser red ware; (8) very clumsy, coarse,
unglazed ware, usually employed for sepulchral purposes.

(d) Burial customs.—There is great variety in the methods of burial: crema-
tion and partial cremation; burial in cysts and oval chambers; earth burial.
The position of corpse and the objects buried with the dead are noted, and also the
local custom of burying small animal effigies with the dead.

(e) Writing and pictographic records are similar to those found at Palenque,
Quiriqua, Chichen-Itza, &c. There is no satisfactory key as yet. Specimens are
on stone, pottery, and stucco.

(f) Religion.—The Toltec pantheon is described ; the probable introduction of
human sacrifice is discussed, and ancient religious rites are noted, which are still
carried out by remote tribes.

(3) The Present Inhabitants of Honduras :—

(a) Personal characteristics—General appearance of males and females; height
and development; mental development; influence of diet and environment ;
family ties and indifference to death.

(b) Language.—Maya is practically universal, except amongst the Caribs and a
few isolated individuals recently discovered. The author describes the dialects of
Maya, the variation in language since the conquest, and the introduction into
Maya of Spanish words.

(c) Religisns.—Christianity, semi-Christianity, idolatry. The author notes
the similarity of the ancient religion to Christianity.

(d) Native arts and agricultwre—Spinning, weaving, pottery manufacture,
black wax candles and ornaments, flint chipping, milpa-making, preparing corn,
henequen.

(e) The influence of civilisation has been disastrous from the earliest days;
the reluctance of Indians to mix with whites or negroes; the influence of alcohol ;
epidemic and other diseases ; with a civilised Indian.

5. The Progress of Islam in India By Witiu1aM Crooks, B.A.

This paper discusses the question whether Islam is or is not increasing its
numbers in India. Various views have been expressed on this point. The reports
of the recent and former censuses enable the question to be finally settled. There
is no doubt that in certain parts of the country the rise of Islam in recent years has
gone on at a rate higher than that of Hinduism.

1 To be published in full in Journ, Anthr, Inst,

814 REPORT—1903.

This increase can be due only to one or both of the following causes :—

1. That there has been a considerable conversion of Hindus to Islam, and that
a regular propaganda has been at work in this direction.

2. That there are causes at work among Muhammadans themselves which tend
to produce a higher rate of fertility among them.

As to the first suggestion, there is certainly some conversion of low-caste
Hindus to Islam, due to the fact that the convert acquires a higher social position,
and frees himself from the degradation which inevitably attaches to his being a
member of a degraded caste. But the result of recent inquiries tends to negative
the theory that there is any well-defined missionary propaganda at work among
the Indian Muhammadans. On the other hand the action of some of the reformed
sects which have been produced among Muhammadans in recent years requires
examination.

As to the second suggested cause there is some evidence that physical causes
tend to make the Muhammadan more fertile and more long-lived than the Hindu.
The former have been recruited from a more vigorous race, such as the Arab and
the Central Indian tribes. They discourage infant marriage and the celibacy of
widows. ‘They permit a more varied and invigorating diet, particularly as regards
the use of meat. :

6. Lhe Ethnology of Early Italy and its Linguistic Relations to that of
Britain.' By Professor R. S—Eymour Conway, Litt.D.

_ The general body of scholars and historical students know so little of the scanty
and obscure remains of the Italic dialects, that is, of the languages akin to Latin
spoken in Itaiy before the extension of the Roman dominion over the peninsula,
that no one has yet felt surprised at their geographical distribution. Yet a glance at
the map of their territories will show that it demands explanation. There are practi-
cally only three dialects : 1, Latinian (7.e. Latin and Sabine); 2, Oscan; 3, Umbro-
Volscian, though the distance between their areas has deterred scholars from classing
Wmbrian and Volscian together in spite of the complete identity of their charac -
teristics in the inscriptions. How then did they become geographically separate,
and how did Latinian wedge itself in between the areas of so many other idioms ?
There must be some historical causes behind these curious phenomena,

Some clue to the answer is to be found in a set of facts not hitherto observed,
viz., the use of different suffixes by different tribes to form their ethnica, z.e. the
names of communities derived from names of places in their respective district.

There are only six or seven suffixes used for this purpose in ancient Italy: of
these three only (for various reasons) are significant for ethnology—viz. -CO-,
-NO-, and -TI- (generally -ATI-).

i. The ethnica in -CO-, like Volsc’, Hernici, Osci; are all, save for a small
batch in Umbria, confined to the plain country along the west coast, and all
occur in marshy districts. The word Vodsct means ‘marshmen.’ Further, there
are some ethnica in -CINI, ze. with -NO- superimposed on -CO-, the result of a
conquest by some -NO- folk, all in similar districts. Since Etruscan is not an
Indo-European speech, the names Etrusei, Tusci, Falisci, though denoting
Etruscans, must have been made by the -CO- folk, who are clearly Indo-
European. Volsct contains the same stem as Gr. €Aos, O(p)sci that of Lat. opus.

ii. The -NO- ethnicon is extremely common throughout Italy, but its fre-
quency in comparison with the others varies remarkably in the different districts ;
in that of the Hirpini they number® 92 per cent. of the known ethnica, in Latium
proper only 52 per cent., in Umbria only 31 per cent. If, then, as there is reason
to believe, this suffix marks a particular race ata particular epoch, this race was

1 Published in fullin Rivista d'Italia (1903, Agosto) under the title ‘I due strati
della popolazione indo-europea dell’ Italia antica.’

2 These statistics are based on the collections of the place-names of ancient Italy,
given for each of the dialectal areas in my Italic Dialects (Camb. Univ. Press, 1897),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 815

probably most completely master of the soil in the Hirpine district, and most
mingled with others in Umbria, at that epoch or later.

Now it is clear that this suffix was the one natural to the Romans, who used
it not merely in their own names (Romani, Latini, &c.), but also to form names,
after the Roman fashion, for the peoples they conquered in Italy or abroad: the
NeazroNirat became Neapolitani, the Swapridrac became Spartani, and so on. But
this suffix was not used by Romans only; the Campanians of Nola called them-
selves Wovlanos, and in fact the suffix, as we have seen in the case of the Hirpini,
was spread over the whole area in which the dialect called Oscan was spoken, as
well as being common in the Latinian districts.

iii. The suffix -(A)TI- is enormously more frequent in the -CO- districts
than elsewhere, though not entirely confined to them. In Umbria it forms nearly
60 per cent. of the known ethnica, and here it has been superimposed upon -NO-,
the Iguvini becoming later on Iguvinates, &e. It seems to mark the -CO- people
at a later epoch.

Combining these data with further linguistic evidence, with that of tradition
and of archxological excavations, we can demonstrate—

i. That the -CO- folk inhabited Central Italy before the invasion of the
(Asiatic) Etruscans and became their subject-allies. There is evidence that they
were ignorant of iron, buried their dead, and differed in other ways from the
-NO-folk, e.g. by counting kinship through the mother (Professor Ridgeway).

ii. That the -NO- folk were descending into Italy from the Alps (Val Sabbia)
when their progress was interrupted by the Etruscans, who with their subjects
cut off the Romani and Sabini from the Iguvint, who remained in the upper
Tiber valley. From the Sabines sprang the Samnites at a later date. It seems
certain that these people brought iron into Italy and buried the dead, and probable
that they formed the patrician class at Rome.

Especial interest attaches to this distinction of two strata in the early Indo-
European population of Italy because the oldest and most striking linguistic
change which marks off the -CO- folk seems to be that of Q to P (Volscian pis
= Latin gus’). Now this same change, as is well known, separates the later from
the earlier Keltic dialects of the British Isles, Goidelic, ze. Gaelic and Irish,
having kept the original guttural, for which Brythonic, i.e. Welsh, Breton, &c.,
substituted P (Scotch Mac = Welsh [M]Ap). The Keltic languages are the next
congeners to Italic, and the dates to which archeologists ascribe the two Keltic
invasions of Britain are not remote from that at which the Samnites overran
Southern Italy. Were the movements the result of some one cause in Central
Europe ?

7. The Origin of Jewellery.2 By Professor W. Ripceway.

Personal ornaments in civilised countries consist of precious metals, stones, or
imitations of stones, pearls (which are the product of shells), or shells themselves,
amber, jet, and occasionally various other objects, such as tigers’ claws, &c. It
has hitherto been held that men and women were led by purely esthetic con-
siderations to adorn themselves with such objects; but a little research into the
history of such ornaments leads to a very different conclusion. The fact is that man-
kind was led to wear such objects by magic rather than by esthetic considerations.
The jewellery of primitive peoples consists of small stones with natural perforations,
e.g.,silicified sponges or joints of coniferz, or of substances easily perforated, such as
amber, the seeds of plants, shells, the teeth and claws of animals, bones, or pieces
of bone, and pieces of wood of peculiar kinds. Later on they learn to bore hard
stones, such as rock crystal, hematite, agate, garnet, &c., and obtain the metals.

1 The Samnite change of g to p appears to me to have happened at a recent date,
and under certain conditions not to have happened at all.
2 To be published in full in Journ, Anthr, Inst, xxxiv,

816 REPORT—1903.

All peoples value for magical purposes small stones of peculiar form or colour
long before they can wear them as ornaments; e.g. Australians and tribes of New
Guinea use crystals for rain-making, although they cannot bore them, and it is
a powerful amulet in Uganda fastened into leather. Sorcerers in Africa carry
a small bag of pebbles as an important part of their equipment. So was it in
Greece. The crystal was used to light sacrificial fire, and was so employed in the
Church down to the fifteenth century. The Egyptians under the twelfth dynasty
used it largely, piercing it along its axis after rubbing off the pyramidal points of
the crystal, sometimes leaving the natural six sides, or else grinding it into a
complete cylinder. From this bead came the artificial cylindrical beads made later
by the Egyptian, from which modern cylindrical glass beads are descended.

The beryl, a natural hexagonal prism, lent itself still more readily to.the same
form, e.g. the cylindrical bery! beads found in Rhodian tombs. The Babylonian
cylinders found without any engraving on them on the wrists of the dead in early
Babylonian graves had a similar origin. It has been universally held that
Babylonian cylinders, Egyptian scarabs, and Mycenean gems were primarily
signets ; but as the cylinders are found unengraved, and as many as 500 scarabs
are found on one mummy, and as Mycenean stones are often found without any
engraving, it is clear that the primary use was not for signets but for amulets.
The Orphic Lithica gives a clear account of the special virtue of each stone, and it
is plain that they acted chiefly by sympathetic magic; ey. green jasper and tree
agates make the vegetation grow, &c. The Greeks and Asiatics used stones
primarily as amulets, ey. Mithridates had a whole cabinet of gems as antidotes to
poison. To enhance the natural power of the stone a device was cut on it, eg. the
Abraxas cut on a green jasper, the special amulet of the Gnostics. The use of the
stone for sealing was simply secondary, and may have arisen first for sacred purposes.’
Shells are worn as amulets by modern savages, e.g. cowries in Africa, where these
or some other kind of shells were worn in Straho’s time to keep off the evil eye.

Red coral was a potent amulet worn by travellers by sea, as at the present day
in Mediterranean lands, and if pounded up it kept red rust from corn. Pearls are
a potent medicine in modern China. Seeds of plants are medicine everywhere ;
for example, the ratti (Abrus precatoria) is used in India for rosaries, and also in
Africa; the seed of wild banana is especially valued in Uganda, &c. The claws
of lions are worn as amulets all through Africa, and are ‘sreat medicine,’ and
imitations of them are made. So with teeth of jackals, which are imitated in
wood if the real ones are not to be had, and boars’ tusks in New Guinea. When
gold becomes first known it is regarded exactly like the stones mentioned. Thus
the Debe, an Arab tribe, who did not work gold, but had abundance in their
land, used only the nuggets, stringing them for necklaces alternately with perforated
stones.2, Magnetic iron and hematite were especially prized, the power of attraction
in magnetic iron, as in the case of amber, causing a belief that there was a living
apirit within. Hence iron in general was regarded with peculiar veneration, and
not because it was a newer metal, as is commonly stated.

It is thus clear that the use of all the objects still employed in modern
jewellery has primarily arisen from the magical powers attributed to them, by
which they were thought to protect the wearer.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Report and Papers were read :

1. Report of the Committee on Archeological and Ethnological Researches
in Crete.—See Reports, p. 402.

! Of. Herod. ii. 38. 2 Strabo, p. 778.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 817

9. Bxeavations at Knossos in Crete. By A. J. Evans, A., D.Litt., PRS.
See Reports, p. 402.

3. Exploration in the East of Crete! By R. C. Bosanquet, J/.A.

The fourth Cretan campaign of the British School at Athens lasted from
March to June 1903. The headquarters of the expedition were again at Palio-
kastro on the east coast. The work done may be summarised as follows :—

1. The excavation of the settlement discovered last year at Roussolakkos was
continued with the help of Mr. M. N. Tod and Mr. R. M. Dawkins. It proves to
be a considerable town, regularly laid out in streets and blocks, The streets are
narrow, from 5 to 12 feet wide, well paved, with a raised footpath at one side and
a deep gutter at the other. One main street has been cleared for over 150 yards.
Fach block has a frontage of from 120 to 180 feet, and contains three or more
houses. The general plan of the town and parts of the houses date from the
latter part of the Kamares period, but there was extensive rebuilding during the
Mycenzean period. House-fronts in ashlar masonry, bath-rooms, drainage arrange-
ments, and a great variety of domestic utensils, indicate widespread prosperity
and comfort. The inhabitants had wheat and peas; they made oil and probably
wine. They imported obsidian from Melos, green porphyry from the Peloponnese,
and liparite from the Lipari Islands. Their wealth was probably derived from
trade with Egypt.

Marine designs, such as rocks, corals and seaweed, shells and cuttlefish, pre-
dominate on the Mycenzean vases found this year. The yield of pottery was
exceptionally large; Mr, C. T. Currelly has made coloured drawings of the finer
specimens.

2. The ossuaries outside the town were further excavated by Mr, W. L. H.
Duckworth, whose report on the skulls and bones from them was read on
Thursday.

3. The surrounding region was explored, A pre-Mycenrean sanctuary was
discovered on the hill of Petsofa, above the town, and remains of an equally early
purple-factory on the island of Koufonisi; the former will be described by Mr.
J. L. Myres, the latter by Mr. Bosanquet ; Mr. C. T. Currelly took part in both
investigations. Caves and rock-shelters were examined in the limestone plateau
of the interior, and a Mycenwan farmstead was excavated at Kouraméno.

4, The physical characteristics of the present population were studied by
Mr. Duckworth, and their dialect by Mr. Dawkins.

4, An Early Purple-fishery.1 By R. C. Bosanquet, JA.

Leuke, the ‘ White Isle’ (modern Kouphonisi), off the south-east coast of
Crete, was an important fishing-station in antiquity. The tithes levied on the
catch of fish and of purple-shell, mentioned in an inscription of about 350 3B.c.,
must have been very protitable, for the possession of the island was the subject of
a long and bitter dispute among three neighbouring cities.

Last May the island was explored by Mr, C. T. Currelly and the writer.
Among sand-hills on the north shore they found a bank of shells, some whole but
mostly crushed, of the variety Murex trunculus, which is known to have been used
in the manufacture of the purple dye. Scattered through the heap were frag-
ments of pottery and of a stratile bowl which marked it as not only pree-Hellenic
but pre-Pheenician. Further digging within a few yards of the heap brought to
light characteristic Cretan vases of the Kamares type and the foundations of a house.

The evidence shcws tbav the extraction of the purple-juice was practised in

1 To be publishec mse fully in the Annual of the British School of Archeology
at Athens, ix. ;

1903, 3G

818 REPORT—19038,

Crete at least as early as 1600 z.c, Hitherto the Phosnicians have been credited
with the discovery of ‘Tyrian purple.’ It appears, however, that in this matter,
as in the art of writing and perhaps in other inventions attributed to the Phoeni-
cians by Greek authors, the Minoans of Crete were the real pioneers.

5. On a pre-Mycencan Sanctuary with Votive Terracottas at Palcokastro,
in Eastern Crete.| By Joun L. Myres, JA.

This sanctuary stands on the summit of the hill called Petsofi, which bounds
the bay of Paleokastro southward, and was excavated in April 1903. A massive
retaining wall of large rudely shaped blocks incloses, on south and west, a roughly
rectangular space, the northern face of which is bounded by a precipitous descent,
and the eastern face by low ridges of natural rock.

Within the inclosure were found (from the bottom upwards) (1) a layer of
undisturbed soil resting on the southward-shelving rock surface; (2) a layer of
blackened ashy earth, apparently the remains of a large hearth or bonfire, full
of whole and broken terracotta figurines, with painting of the Minoan (pre-
Mycenxan) technique; (3) a layer of disturbed soil obliterating the ashy layer
and containing fragments of its figurines; (4) over all a rubble building of early
Mycenzan date, like those of the settlement-site at Paleokastro,? one room of
which still retained its plastered and whitewashed floor, with a plastered bench
yound three sides, and the remains of a door. A column-base from an earlier
building was found built into its foundations,

The terracottas include figures of men and women in characteristic pre-
Mycenzan costume, analogous to that shown on the frescoes at Knossos, and
completed in the case of the women by gigantic and very stylish hats; a quite
new feature. Other terracottas represented miniature oxen, rams, goats, pigs,
dogs, weasels, hedgehogs, birds, chairs, miniature vases, and other objects of daily
use, together with the horns and legs of a larger series of oxen, the bodies of
which appear to have been completely cleared away from the ash-heap from time
to time, A very large number of quite plain clay balls, of about the size of a
marble, seem to be votive like the other offerings, but are not so easily explained ;
they may, however, represent occasions of prayer or thanksgiving which defied
the ingenuity of the modeller.

6. The Temples of Abydos.3
By Professor W. M. Funvers Perrin, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

After Mariette had worked on the ground of the Osiris temple at Abydos he
declared that nothing remained of the old temple, that even the foundations had
been destroyed to the roots, and that any further research was impossible. From
that very ground, the work of the past winter has produced foundations of ten
successive periods of the temple, one below the other, occupying nearly 20 feet
depth of soil. The examination and recording of these buildings has required over
four thousand measurements and one thousand levellings. The highest temple
was of Amasis (XN VI. dynasty), then Rameses III. (XX. dynasty), then Amen-
hotep ILL., Thothmes III., and Amenhotep I. (XVIII. dynasty) ; then Sebek-
hotep III. and Usertesen I. (XIII.-X11. dynasty), then Sankhkara (XI. dynasty),
then Mentuhotep III. (XI. dynasty), then Pepy (VI. dynasty), then the temple of
the fourth dynasty, below that of the second, and at the base of all the oldest
temple of the first dynasty. Thus the site was continually re-used during four
thousand years, each of these periods of building followed entirely different lines,
and the successive plans had scarcely any relation one to another.

1 To be published in full in Ann. Brit. School. Athens, ix.
2 B.g., Ann. Brit. School. Athens, vol. viii. p. 311, fig. 24.
2 Published in full in the author’s Abydos, I., Il. (Egypt Exploration Fund),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 819

The principal results are in the first dynasty, The school of fine ivory carving
at that time shows work equal to any that succeeded it in later history. The
appreciation of form, the delicacy of the muscular curves, and the power of ex-
- pression is as good as in the best classical or renaissance carvings. The art of
glazing was applied to large wall-tiles, used for covering brick walls, and to vases,
as shown by part of a large vase with the name of Menes. The use of two-colour
glazes, a purple inlay in green, appears in the name of Menes. Hence glazing was
as advanced at the beginning of the first dynasty, about 4700 B.c., as it was for
three thousand years later, until the polychrome glazes of the eighteenth dynasty.

The European relations of Egypt are further illustrated by finding the same
black pottery in the first dynasty that is known in Crete as late neolithic. The
camel is shown in the first dynasty by a well-modelled head; hitherto it was not
proved to have been in Egypt till about four thousand years later.

In the well-known age of the fourth dynasty we have for the first time the
portrait of the best known of all the kings, Cheops or Khufu, whose appearance,
however, was as yet quite unknown. A minutely carved ivory figure, the face
of which is only } inch high, shows his character in an astonishing manner. The
energy, decision, and driving power is perhaps stronger than in any other portrait
that we know. The tradition of his closing the temples and forbidding sacrifices
is fully confirmed by finding that no large temple existed in the fourth dynasty,
such as those of the earlier or later times; only a bed of vegetable ashes is found
in a cell, and throughout it hundreds of clay jictilia as substitutes for sacrifices,
not a single bone of an animal occurring in the whole mass.

The worship in the temple of Abydos was originally that of the jackal god
Up-uatu, ‘ the opener of ways,’ who showed the paths in the desert for the souls
to go to the west. Osiris does not appear in any temple inscription for two thou-
sand years, and is not prominent till yet later. Some large decrees of the fifth and
sixth dynasties were found ; and the oldest piece of certainly dated iron, apparently
a wedge, of the sixth dynasty, about 3400 8.c. This site has fully shown how
important it is to dissect minutely a temple site in which only earth remains, and
where at first the absence of stone walls might lead to the idea that nothing was
left there ; the art of the beginning of the Neyptian monarchy lay hidden in that
ground.

7. The Beginning of the Egyptian Kingdom.
By Professor W. M. Furypers Perris, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

For generations past the origins of Egyptian civilisation had been a mystery ;
the earliest period there known, the pyramid times, showed a very high civilisa-
tion, and its rise was entirely unknown, In the past ten years most of the stages
which led from a savage state up to the highest development have been brought
to light. The discovery of the prehistoric age and its division into regular
sequences of remains has filled up a period of over two thousand years, which—
beginning with men in goatskins with the simplest pottery—ran through a wealthy
and elaborate age of civilisation, and was in decadence when it was overthrown
by the dynastic Egyptians. Of the five diferent types of man before the dynasties,
portraits of which were published two years ago, the fifth type, with the forward
beard, is from the monuments shown to be Libyan, and thus easily connected
with the same type in early Greece,

The rise of the dynastic power has been brought to light in the remains of the
royal tombs of the first and second dynasties, and some probably before the first
dynasty, excavated at Abydos in 1900and1901. The connection of the close of the
prehistoric scale of sequence with the early kings has been closely settled by the
pottery, and its history shown in the stratified ruins of the earliest town of
Abydos ; so that we pass without a break from the sequence dates of the pre-
historic age to the historic reigns of the kings. Four kings’ names are found
which, from the nature of their remains and their tombs, appear to belone to the

dynasty of ten kings which preceded Menes, the first king of all Evypt.
3G2

820 REPORT—1908.

Of the first dynasty all the eight kings have been identified; their tombs,
vases, sealings, and officials are all now familiar to us, and we can trace the
gradual changes between one reign and another as clearly as we can during the
last century or two. The growth of the use of writing can be well seen on the
seals, the impressions of over two hundred of which have been collected. At first
only a single sign for a proper name of a king; then a more complex name; then
the vizier named with the king; next the titles of various officials; and in the
end of the second dynasty full names and titles in a style as complete as in any
later age. The art of the dynastic people was entirely different from any of the
prehistoric age, though it united with it and took over some features of it.
Broadly, the pre-dynastic people were mechanical, and the dynastic race was
artistic ; and even in the earliest works of the kings there is an ability of the best
style, though still archaic. By the end of the reign of Menes and under his suc-
cessor the artistic types had become fairly fixed, and they remained the patterns
to which the Egyptian recurred at each successive renewal of art. during four
thousand years. The most completed stage was in the middle of the first dynasty,
and at its close there is certain degradation. The state of art between the first
and the fourth dynasties is not yet clear; it seems to have become conventional
and probably devitalised until it made a fresh start with the great expansion of
activity under the pyramid builders. The royal tombs of the early kings were
enlarged forms of the prehistoric graves, A pit in the ground had during the
prehistoric age been improved on by making it a large chamber lined with mats,
roofed with timber and brushwood, and furnished with an abundance of vases and
objects. The earliest royal tombs are much the same, only lined and floored with
timber, the offerings being dropped in between the timber lining and the side of
the pit. Then regular cells were built for the offerings; next, a row of small
chambers apart from the tomb; and lastly, an elaborate series of store chambers
of various sizes, The tomb originally had no entrance; then a sloping hole leads
to it, next a stairway, and lastly a long sloping passage as in the pyramids. The
outer form was at first a slightly raised heap over the roof of the tomb. ‘This was
next walled round to retain the earth; after that the walling was raised and
formed a block of brickwork with sloping sides on the early brick mastaba. This
later became expanded by additions around it and extension upward, so as to be a
mass of concentric coats; and when translated into stone at the end of the third
dynasty it suggested pyramidal outline, and so originated the pyramid type.

For the first time we can now see what was going on in each generation over
a period of nine or ten thousand years; a few dark times still need the filling in
of details, but the general course of man’s development and abilities can now be
understood with a completeness which gives a solid basis for some general views.
Archeology and history, the scientific knowledge of the past of man, gives us the
surest comparisons for estimating his future.

——=> = ———

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Occurrence of Stone Implements in the Thames Valley between
Reading and Maidenhead.| By Lu. TREACHER.

2, The Rapid Evolution of the Jamaica Black.
By Miss Putiten-Burry.

This paper deals with the fusion of racial elements in the black and coloured
peoples of Jamaica, and their present civilisation in so far as the safety of life and
the security of property are concerned. A unique feature in this island appears

1 See Proceedings of Section C., p. 670. Published in full in Man, 1904, 10,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 821

to be the moulding of an African people (all trace of the aboriginal Arawak and
Spaniard being completely lost in the all-prevailing negroid type) by English and
Scotch life and thought, no other influence having come in contact with the race.
Here, too, it appears possible to have one civilisation alike for black, coloured,
and white, which is not the case in America. The reasons given for this rapid
evolutionary development since the emancipation of the slaves in 1884-38 are:
(1) the security of a solid government; (2) widespread education atlorded by
757 schools; (3) an active religious propaganda rapidly suppressing Obeahism ;
(4) easy conditions of life: the scant needs of the negro are easily met; (5) state-
aided settlement of lands on deferred payments, which is establishing a growing
class of peasant-proprietors.

3. Mongoloid Europeans. By Davip MacRircuiz.

A careful consideration of the relics of the Cave-men of Europe has led
Professor Boyd Dawkins to the conclusion that the Eskimos of the present day
are almost certainly their representatives, and that the connection between these
two peoples must be one of blood. He does not ignore tbe possibility of descend-
ants of the Cave-men having survived into historic times in Europe; but he is of
opinion that the Eskimo type has long been extinct in Europe.

Here he is at variance with the deductions of Dr. Beddoe, made after an
analysis of the race-elements in modern Britain, to the effect that ‘some reason can
be shown for suspecting the existence of traces of some Mongoloid race in the
modern population of Wales and the west of England.’

While stating his belief that the Cave-men of Hurasia were driven eastward
into North America, where their descendants now exist as Eskimos, Professor
Boyd Dawkins points out that North-eastern Siberia yet retains an Eskimo
population—the Chukches, Martiniére, however, reports in the Yalmal peninsula,
in 1653, a people closely resembling modern Eskimos in physical appearance, in
dress and manners, and, above all, in their use of the peculiar skin-covered skiff
generally known as a kayak. ‘These skin-canoes are not reported in Arctic
Europe during the last few centuries; but they are said to have been used in the
Orkney Islands by a race of occasional visitors, locally called ‘ Finnmen,’ between
the years 1682 and 1701. The minute accounts given of the canoes of these
Finnmen leave no doubt that they were kayaks. One of them was preserved in
the Church of Burra, Orkney, for a time; and another in the Physicians’ Hall,
Edinburgh. Popular tradition in Orkney and Shetland contains many references
to these ‘ Finnmen’ or ‘ Finns,’ who are said to have frequently intermarried with
the islanders. These islanders are mainly Norsemen, and in the Norse language
‘Finn’ signified ‘ Lapp.’ The historical statements and the traditions relating to
‘Finns’ denote really, therefore, an intercourse and a partial fusion between the
islanders and a Lapp people accustomed, like modern Eskimos, to the use of the
kayak and all that that implies, Such a fusion would readily explain the Mongol-
oid features seen in certain Shetianders by Dr. Beddoe.

It is noteworthy that the territory occupied by the Lapps in the ninth century
included the greater part of Scandinavia, and straggling remnants of that popu-
lation may have survived for many centuries in Southern Scandinavia. Martiniére
even speaks of a Lapp village near Christiania in 1653.

There seems to be no trace of the use of the skin canoe among modern Lapps,
but von Diiben states that the mountain Lapps assert that their remote forefathers,
who came from the south-east of Europe, crossed the sound which separates
Denmark from Sweden in small skin-boats.

If this tradition be accepted as accurate, it is reasonable to suppose tbat
remnants of the Lapps who were able to prolong their existence among the fiords,
long after the days of ‘ Norse’ invasion trom the Continent, would at the same
time continue to use the skin canoes of their race, and this long after the inland
Lapps had ceased to know anything of such vessels, except from tradition. This
hypothesis would readily account for the existence of coast-dwelling Lapps whwu

822 REPORT—1903.

crossed from Scandinavia to Orkney and Shetland in their kayaks as recently as
the seventeenth century.

This conclusion supports Dr. Beddoe’s belief that there is a Mongoloid element
among western Europeans. If the Mongoloid people assumed by Professor Boyd
Dawkins to have existed in Western Europe in primitive times really died out, it
seems necessary to suppose that there was a fresh Mongoloid immigration at a
much later date, e.g. the Hun conquests of the fifth century. But there appears
to be ample evidence that Kurope contained a truly Mongoloid population long
before the era of Hun domination, and even that the EKuropean Cave-men have
never ceased to be represented by people who have inherited their blood.

4. Some Points about Crosses, chiefly Celtic. By Miss A. A. Butuey.

The paper deals with certain details only, and has nothing to do with the
general question of origin. In considering the form of the crosses, however,
regard is had to the feeling underlying the treatment, so far as this can be
gathered from a general survey of the examples. Argument from form alone is
necessarily imperfect, and may be fallacious, though it may suggest lines of
investigation. In default of historic data, however, it is the only method possible.

1. Celtic crosses.—From a survey of examples from Cornwall, Wales, the Isle
of Man, Scotland, and Ireland the author infers that in Celtic crosses—(i.) the
circle (whatever its meaning and however related eventually to the ends of the
arms) is not a mere adjunct (such as a glory, or a support for the arms), but is
of at least equal importance with the cross. The persistence of such a form
without meaning points to an earlier period when the form represented an idea of
primary importance. The circle is therefore inferred to be here a root-idea.
(ii.) The long-shafted or Latin type appears to be an independent development
from the cross-with-circle-and-equal-arms, The author does not attempt to decide
whether or no this development was influenced by the introduction of the pure
‘ Latin cross’ from outside,

2, Non-Celtic crosses, on the other hand, exhibit lesser importance and weaker
treatment of the circle, e.g. :—

(a) Coptie crosses, though often inclosed in a wreath, are often without,
Later, the ankh symbol is confused with the cross.

(4) Roman (catacomb) crosses in their earliest form are equal-armed, but
the circle is optional. The long-shafted or ‘Latin’ form is later, and possibly
developed (in Italy) from processional use. The treatment also of these early
crosses is not realistic but symbolic ; whereas the course of development is never
from symbolic to realistic, but the reverse.

(c) Syrian crosses resemble catacomb-crosses, but are even more decorative i
treatment. The extant examples, however, are chiefly architectural ornaments,.
which may account for this. The circle is optional.

5. Some Suggestions as to the Origin of the Brooch, and the probable Use of
certain Rings at present called ‘ Armlets.’ By Epwarp Lovett.

The author suggests, as the prototype of the ring-and-pin contrivance for
fastening a cloak, the use, by a hunting people, of the mammalian Os znnominatum-
and Os calcis, the corners of the cloak being drawn through the oval perforation
of the former and then pierced by the sharp point of the latter. In this position’
the prominences on the Os calcis would drop into the hollow of the Os ixnomina-
tum and ptevent the Os cale?s from falling out of place.

The author notes, further, that very many rings of early date and various
materials—bone, jet, shell, bronze, and iron—which are usually described as
‘armlets’ are of too small diameter to allow the entrance even of an infant's hand..
As such rings are frequently found associated with pins of similar materials,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 823

commonly regarded as ‘ hair-pins,’ and as ring and pin are sometimes found zn
situ on the breast of a skeleton, it is inferred that they represent a simple ring-
and-pin fastening of the kind described above. An apron-fastener of this type,
composed of an iron ring and a horse-shoe nail, is still worn in some of the black-
smiths’ shops in Scotland.

The next step of development is taken when the pin is perforated at the thick
end and attached to the ring by a fibre to prevent it from being lost. This stage
is actually represented by a ring-and-pin fastening which is in common use in
China: the ring is of agate, and the pin, which is of silver, is attached to it by a
silken thread. Probably many of the perforated pins in our museums were simi-
larly attached to rings.

An apren-fastener of the simple ring-and-pin type, composed of an iron ring
and a horse-shoe nail, is still worn in some of the blacksmiths’ shops in Scotland ;
a similar simple brooch is still worn by the shepherds of Perthshire and by the
tinkers in this and other parts of Scotland; and another similar form was in very
common use in Donegal as late as 1860.

A further step is taken when the pin itself is hinged upon the ring, for security,
by bending its flattened head round the ring. This form is abundant in Celtic
times. The Tara brooch is a striking example, though the author suggests that it
may be a symbolic reversion to an earlier type.

The inconvenience which accompanies the use of the ring-and-pin brooch, that
the fabric to be fastened must be drawn far through the ring before the pin can
pierce it, was remedied, it is suggested, by leaving a gap in the ring; and from
this results the ‘ penannular’ brooch with its many varieties.

6. On the Ethnology of the Siciutl Indians of British Columbia.}
By C. Hitt Tour.

7. On the Canadian Indians as they are. By Davip Boyte.}

8. On the Legends of the Dieri and Kindred Tribes of Australia.’
By A. W. Howirr and Orro SrepErt.

9. A West Indian Aboriginal Wooden Image. By J. E. Durrpen, Ph.D,

This figure represents one of the most characteristic types of West Indian
wooden images, several of which are now known from different islands. They
have been found mostly in caves, and historic references to such objects of worship
or semes in Columbian times are available. The present example represents a
single crouching human figure, terminated above by a large circular canopy and
resting upon an irregular wooden base, ‘The face is very large ; the ears are indi-
cated by an upper smaller and a lower larger lobe, both perforated. The eye and
mouth apertures are formed in the usuai rounded manner, with thickened margins.
The arms and legs are constricted, as by the wearing of circular bands; small
mamme, ribs, and a large erect virile organ are indicated.

10, On a Medel of the Arbor Low Stone Circle. By H. Batrour, ILA.

' To be published in full in Jowrn. Anthr. Inst. xxxiv.

824 REPORT—1908.

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SectION.—A. C. Sewarp, M.A., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10,
The President delivered the following Address :—

In 18383, the date of the last meeting held by the British Association at Southport,
the late Professor Williamson, of Manchester, delivered a Presidential Address
before the Geological Section,in which he reviewed recent progress in paleobotanical
research, with special reference to the vegetation of the Coal period. It would
have been an interesting task to traverse the same ground to-day, in order to show
what a vast superstructure has been built on the foundations which Williamson
laid. In alluding to the controversies in which he bore so vigorous a part,
Williamson spoke of the conflict as virtually over, though still reflected ‘in the
ground-swell of a stormy past.’ Now that twenty years have elapsed we are able
to recognise with no little satisfaction that his views are firmly established, and
that the debt which we owe to his able interpretation of the relics of Paleozoic
plant-life is universally acknowledged. Williamson’s labours demonstrated the
possibilities of microscopical methods in the investigation of Carboniferous plants ;
but at the time of publication his results did not receive tbat attention which
their importance merited, and it is only in recent years that botanists have been
induced to admit the necessity of extending their observations to the buried
treasures of bygone ages. We have been slow to realise the truth of the following
statement, which I quote from an able article on Darwinism in the ‘ Edinburgh
Review’ for October of last year: ‘The recognition of the fact that in every
detail the present is built on the past has invested the latter with a new title to
respect, and given a fresh impulse to the study of its history.’ The anatomical
investigation of extinct types of vegetation has done more than any other branch
of botanical science in guiding us along the paths of plant-evolution during the
earlier periods of the earth’s history.

I cannot conclude this brief reference to Williamson’s work without an
expression of gratitude for the help and encouragement with which he initiated
me into the methods of paleeobotanical research.

FLoRAS OF THE Past: THErR Composition AND DistRIBUTION.

Introduction.

It is by no means easy to make choice of a subject for a presidential address.
There is the possibility—theoretical rather than actual—of a retrospective survey
of modern developments in the botanical world, and the opportunity is a favour-
able one for passing in review recent progress in that department of the science

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 825

which appeals more especially to oneself. In place of adopting either of these
alternatives, [ decided to deal in some detail with a subject which, it must be
frankly admitted, is too extensive to be adequately presented in a single address,
My aim is to put before you one aspect of paleobotany which has not received
its due share of attention: I mean the geographical distribution of the floras of
the past. In grappling with this subject one lays oneself open to the charge of
attempting the impossible—a not unusual characteristic of British Association
addresses. I recognise the futility of expecting conclusions of fundamental
importance from such an incomplete examination of the available evidence as I
have been able to undertake; but a hasty sketch may serve to indicate the
impressions likely to be conveyed by a more elaborate picture.

One difficulty that meets us at the outset in approaching the study of plant
distribution is that of synonomy. ‘The naturalist,’ as Sir Joseph Hooker wrote
in his ‘Introductory Hssay to the Flora of New Zealand,’ ‘has to seek truth
amid errors of observation and judgment and the resulting chaos of synonymy
which has been accumulated by thoughtless aspirants to the questionable honour
of being the first to name a species.’ Endless confusion is caused by the use of
different generic and specific names for plants that are in all probability identical,
or at least very closely allied. Worthless fossils are frequently designated by a
generic and specific title: an author lightly selects a new name for a miserable
fragment of a fossil fern-frond without pausing to consider whether his record is
worthy of acceptance at the hands of the botanical paleeographer.

An enthusiastic specialist is apt to exaggerate the value of bis material, and
to forget that lists of plants should be based on evidence that can be used with
confidence in investigations involving a comparative treatment cf the floras of the
world. As Darwin said in the ‘Origin of Species’: ‘It is notorious on what
excessively slight diflerences many paleontologists have founded their species ;
and they do this the more readily if the specimens come from different sub-stages
of the same formation.’ It would occupy too much time to refer to the varicus
dangers that beset the path of the trustful student, who makes use of published
lists of local floras in generalising on questions of geographical distribution during
the different eras of the past. Such practices as the naming of undeterminable
fragments of leaves or twigs, the frequent use of recent generic names for fossil
specimens that afford no trustworthy clue as to atlinity, belong to the class of
offences that might be easily guarded against; there are, however, other obstacles
that we cannot expect to remove, but which we can take pains to avoid. An
author in naming a fossil plant may select one of several generic names, any of
which might be used with equal propriety ; individual preferences assert them-
selves above considerations as to the importance of a uniform nomenclature. The
personal element often plays too prominent a part. ‘To quote a sentence from a
non-scientific writer: ‘The child looks straight upon Nature as she is, while a
man sees her reflected in a mirror, and his own figure can hardly help coming into
the foreground.’

In endeavouring to take a comprehensive survey of the records of plant-life,
we should aim at a wider view of the limits of species and look for evidence of
close reJationship rather than for slight differences, which might justify the
adoption of a distinctive name. Our object, in short, is not only to reduce to a
common language the diverse designations founded on personal idiosyncrasies, but
to group closely allied forms under one central type. We must boldly class
together plants that we believe to be nearly allied, and resist the undue influence
of considerations based on supposed specific distinctions.

The imperfection of the Geological record was spoken of by one of England's
greatest geologists, in a criticism of the ‘ Origin of Species,’ as ‘the inflated cushion
on which you try to bolster up the defects of your hypothesis.’ On the otber hand,
Darwin wrote in 1861: ‘T find, to my astonishment and joy, that such good men
as Ramsay, Jukes, Geikie, and one older worker, Lyell, de not think that I have
in the least exaggerated the imperfection of the record.’ No one in the least
familiar with the conditions under which relics of vegetation are likely to have
been preserved can for a moment doubt the truth of Darwin’s words: ‘The crust

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 827

of the earth, with its embedded remains, must not be looked at as a well-filled
museum, but as a poor collection made at hazard and at rare intervals.’

As a preliminary consideration, we must decide upon the most convenient
means of expressing the facts of geographical distribution in a concise furm, The
recognised botanical regions of the world do not serve our purpose ; we are not
concerned with the present position of mountain-chains or wide-stretching plains
that constitute natural boundaries between one existing flora and another, but
simply with the relative geographical position of localities from which records of
ancient floras have been obtained. In the accompanying map I have divided the
surface of the earth into six belts, from west to east. The most northerly or
Arctic Belt includes the existing land-areas as far south as latitude 60°, com-
prising—1, Northern Canada; 2, Greenland and Iceland; 3, Northern Europe;
4, Bear Island and Spitzbergen; 5, Franz Josef’s Land; 6, Northern Asia, ‘The
North Temperate Belt, extending from latitude 60° to 40°, includes—7, South
Canada and the northern United States; 8, Central and Southern Europe;-9,
Central Asia. The North Sub-tropical Belt comprises the land between latitude 40°
and the Tropic of Cancer, including—10, the Southern States of North America ;
11, Northern Africa, part of Arabia and Persia; 12, Thibet, and part of China ;
13, Japan. The Tropical Belt, embracing the land-areas between the Tropics of
Qancer and Capricorn, includes—14, Central America and the northern part of
South America; 15, Central Africa and Madagascar; 16, India, the Malay
Archipelago, and Northern Australia. The South Sub-tropical Belt, extending
from the Tropic of Capricorn to latitude 40° south, includes-—17, Central South
America; 18, South Africa; 19, Central and Southern Australia. The South
Temperate Belt includes—20, the extreme south of South America; 21, Tas-
mania; 22, New Zealand.

Pre-Devonian Floras.

The scanty records from pre-Devonian rocks afford but little information as to
the nature of the vegetation that existed during the period in which were
deposited the Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian strata that now form the
greater portion of the Welsh and Cumberland hills. We must wait for further
discoveries before attempting to give more than the barest outline of the plant-
life of these remote epochs. Our knowledge of the plant-world which existed
during the Silurian period is far too meagre to justify any statement as to geogra-
phical distribution. Of the few records of supposed Silurian plants, several have
been shown to be unsatisfactory, and the nature of others is too uncertain to admit
of accurate identification. The Lepidodendron-like fossil from the Clinton lime-
stone of Silurian age in Ohio, described by Claypole in 1878 as Glyptodendron, has
been referred by a later writer to a Cephalopod. Stur’s Bohemian plants, described
in 1881, are too imperfect to afford any information of botanical value ; while the
ferns and lepidodendroid plants recently recorded by Potonié from the Hartz
Mountains are more likely to be of Devonian than Silurian age.

The genus Nematophycus, originally described by Dawson as Prototawites, and
afterwards referred by Carruthers to the Alge, constitutes the most satisfactory
example of a Silurian plant. This genus, which has fortunately been preserved
in such a manner as to admit of minute microscopical examination, represents a
widely spread algal type in Silurian and Devonian seas. It has been found in
Silurian strata m Wales, Shropshire, and New Brunswick; also in Devonian
rocks of Eastern Canada, New York, Ohio, and North-West Germany. The
tubular elements composing the stems of some species of Nematophycus—which
reached a diameter of 2 or 3 feet—exhibit a regular variation in width, giving
the appearance of concentric rings of growth, as in the stems of the tree-
like ZLessonia, an existing genus of Antarctic seaweeds. This structural feature
presents an impressive image in stone of a plant’s rhythmical response to some
periodically recurring conditions of growth in the waters of Palzozoic seas.

828 REPORT—1903.

Devonian and Lower Carboniferous Foras.

The earliest plants that have been found in sufficient number, atid iti a state of
preservation which renders their identification possible, are those from Devonian
rocks, From Bear Island, a small remnant of land situated within the Arctic
circle, the late Professor Heer described several Devonian plants; and more re-
cently Professor Nathorst, of Stockholm, has given a full account of this interesting
and comparatively rich flora. The relics of plant-life preserved in this Arctic
island carry us back through countless ages to a time when a luxuriant vegetation
flourished in a region now occupied by ice-bound land and polar seas. As Edward
Fitzgerald said, in speaking of his enjoyment of some geological book: ‘This vision
of time is in itself more wonderful than all the conceptions of Dante and Milton.
Devonian plants have been described by Feistmantel, Etheridge, and others from
Australia; and the well-known Kiltorkan grits of Ireland have supplied a few
well-preserved impressions of the oldest land-plants disinterred from British rocks,

As my aim isto sketch in broad outline the general facies of the vegetation
which flourished at different stages in the earth’s history, rather than to undertake
a critical examination of the evidence as to the precise geological age of the
plant-bearing beds, I propose to treat of Devonian and Lower Carboniferous floras
as constituting one phase in the evolution of the plant-world. In speaking of the
plants of the Devonian and Lower Carboniferous or Culm phase, it is not assumed
that the specimens entombed in the snow-covered clitis of Bear Island were actu-
ally contemporaneous with those found in rocks of the same geological period in
the Southern hemisphere. The Bear Island rocks are, in the language which
Huxley taught us to use, homotaxial with certain Devonian plant-bearing strata
in other parts of the world; they occupy the same relative position in the geo-
logical series.

Homotaxy by no means implies contemporaneity ; indeed, the late Edward
Forbes maintained that similarity of organic contents of distant formations
should be accepted as prima facie evidence of a difference in age.

What do we know as to the composition of the floras that flourished in the
later stages of the Devonian and in the latter part of the Carboniferous era? The
following list, which is by no means exhaustive, represents some of the more
important generic types which may be very briefly described :—

1. EquisEraLes. ! Rhodea.
. | y . , y - “;
Archeocalamites. | Cardiopteris.
Todeopsis.
2, SPHENOPHYLLALES. Cephalotheea.

Sphenophyllum. | Rhacopterts.

Chetrostrobus.

| Be rs
: 5, CYCADOFILICES.
[ Pseudobornia ?] |

Calamepitys.
3. LycoropIALEs, Heterangium.
: | no denan
Lepidodendron. Lyginodendron.

i" a |
Bothrodendron. 6. GYMNOSPERME.

4, FILICALEs. (CoRDAITALES.)
Archeopteris. Cordaites.
Adiantites. Pitys.

In Archeéocalamites we have the oldest example of an undoubted Equisetaceous
genus. The structure of its comparatively thick and woody stem is practically
identical with that of our common British type of Calamites, one of the most
abundant of the Coal period genera, while the strobilus differed in no essential
feature from that of a modern Horsetail. The genus Chetrostrobus, founded in
1897 hy Dr. D. H. Scott on a single specimen of a petrified cone discovered in the
rich volcanic beds of Lower Carboniferous age at Pettycur on the shores of the

* TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 829

Firth of Forth, affords a striking illustration of a Paleozoic plant exhibiting a
structure far more complex than that of any known type among existing Vascular
Cryptogams, As Scott clearly shows in his admirable memoir, Cheirostrobus is a
synthetic or compound genus, one of the numerous extinct types brought to light
by the anatomical investigation of fossil plants, from which we have learnt more
about the inter-relations of existing classes than we could ever hope to discover
from the examination of recent. species.

In this Scotch cone, about 8:5 cm. in diameter, we recognise Equisetaceous
and Lycopodinous characters combined with morphological features typical of the
extinet genus Sphenophyllum. Some specimens of vegetative stems described by
Nathorst from Bear Island under the name Psewdobornia—characterised by their
whorled leaves with fimbriate blades borne on nodal regions separated by long
internodes—may, as Scott has suggested, represent the branches of the tree of
which Chetrostrobus was the cone. Both Devonian and Culm rocks have furnished
many examples of Lycopodinous plants. The genus Bothrodendron, closely allied
in habit to Lepidodendron, has been recorded from Bear Island, Ireland, and
Australia, and the cuticles of a Lower Carboniferous species form the greater por-
tion of the so-called paper-coal of Tula in Russia. Zepidodendron itself had
already attained to the size of a forest tree, with anatomical features precisely
similar to those of the succeeding Coal period species.

Our knowledge of the ferns is not very extensive. The genus Archwopteris
from Ireland, Belyium, Bear Island, and North America has always been regarded
as a fern, but we must admit the impossibility of accurately determining its syste-
matic position until we possess a fuller knowledge of the reproductive organs and
of its anatomical structure. Similarly the genera Rhacopteris, Adiantites, and
Rhodea, with other characteristic members of the Lower Carboniferous vegetation,
may be provisionally retained among the oldest known ferns. The genus Cardio-
pteris—a plant with large oblong or orbicular pinnules borne in two rows on a stout
rachis—is known only in a sterile condition, and it is quite as likely that its repro-
ductive organs may have been of the Gymnospermous as of the Filicinean type.

Renault has described under the name Yodeopsis some petrified sporangia
which appear to be practically identical with those of existing Osmundacer, and
a new Devonian genus Cephalotheca has been instituted by Nathorst for fertile
specimens of a strange type of plant which he refers to the Marattiacese. Of much
greater importance than the sterile fernlike fronds, which cannot be assigned with
confidence to a definite position, are the petrified remains of stems and leaves of
such plants as Heterangiwm, Lyginodendron, Calamopitys, and others which de-
monstrate the existence of a class uf synthetic genera combining Filicinean and
Cycadean characters. These plants are of exceptional interest as showing beyond
doubt that Ferns and Cycads trace their descent from a common ancestry. Some
of the supposed ferns from Lower Carboniferous rocks are known to have been
fronds borne on stems with the structure of eycads, and we have good reason for
believing that some at least of the gymnospermous seeds of Palzeozoic age are
those of plants of which the outward form was more fernlike than cycadean.
The announcement made a few months ago by Professor Oliver and Dr. Scott that
they had obtained good evidence as to the connection of the gymnospermous seed
known as Lagenostoma with the genus Lyginodendron is one of the most important
contributions to botany published in recent years; if, as I firmly believe, the
evidence adduced is convincing, it gives satisfactory confirmation to suspicions
that previous discoveries Jed us to entertain. The fact demonstrated is this: the
genus Lyyinodendron, a plant known to have existed during the greater part of the
Carboniferous epoch, possessed a stem of which the primary structure was almost
identical with that which characterises some recent species of Osmundacez, while
the secondary wood produced by the activity of a cambium is hardly distinguish-
able from the corresponding tissue in the stem of a recent cycad. The fronds
were those of a fern, both in the anatomy of their vascular tissue and in their
external form; as far, therefore, as the vegetative characters are concerned, we
have a combination of ferns and cycads. We still lack complete knowledge of the
nature of the reproductive organs, but it seems clear that Lyginodendron bore

1908.

REPORT

830

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"Duauay ousrajzoniny) nef D fo uorgnqiysig poorydnaboay ay buraoys ajquE—'sv.ojy snosafiuog.ng anoT pun umuoaagy *T

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 831

seeds constructed on the Gymnospermous plan, but characterised by an architec-
tural complexity far beyond that represented in the seeds of any modern Conifer
or Cycad.

In such genera of Gymnosperms as Cordaites, Pitys, and others, we have
examples of forest trees possessing wood almost identical with that of existing
species of Araucaria, but distinguished by certain peculiarities which point to a
relationship with members of the Cycadofilices, and suggest that Conifers as well
as Cycads may have sprung from a filicinean stock.

These waifs and strays from the vegetation of an era incredibly remote, when
strange amphibians were lords of the animal world, afford, as Newberry expresses
it, ‘fascinating glimpses of the head of the column of terrestrial vegetation that
has marched across the earth’s stage during the different geological ages.’

Two facts stand out prominently as the result of a general survey of what are
practically the oldest records of plant-life. One is the abundance of types which
cannot be accommodated in our existing classification founded solely on living
plants.

The Devonian and Lower Carboniferous plants lead us away from the
present alone converging lines of evolution to a remote stage in the history of
life ; they bring us face to face with proofs of common origins, which enable us to
recognise community of descent in existing groups between which a direct alliance
is either dimly suggested or absolutely unsuspected if we confine our investigations
to modern forms. We recognise, moreover, in such a plant as Archeocalamites
an ancestor from which we may derive in a direct line the existing members of the
Equisetales. In other types, by far the greater number, we see striking examples
of Nature’s many failures, which, after reaching an extraordinary complexity of
organisation, gave place to other products of evolution and left no direct
descendants,

Another fact that seems to stand out clearly is the almost worldwide distribu-
tion of several characteristic Lower Carboniferous plants. ‘The accompanying table
(page 830), based on the artificial divisions marked out on the map, to which reference
has already been made, shows how widely some of the plants had migrated from
an unknown centre far back in a still more remote age. We are, as yet, unable
to follow these Devonian plants to an earlier stage in their evolution. We are
left in amazement at their specialised structure and extended geographical distri-
bution, without the means of perusing the opening chapters of their history.

Upper Carboniferous (Coal-Measures) and Permian Floras.

From the Lower Carboniferous formation we pass on to the wealth of material
afforded by the Upper Carboniferous and Permian rocks. From the point of view
of both botanists and geologists, the fossil plants obtained from the beds associated
with the coal are of greater interest and importance than those of any other
geological period. By a fortunate accident our investigations are not restricted
to the examination of carbonaceous impressions and sandstone casts left by the
stems and leaves of the Coal-period plants. By means of thin sections cut from
the calcareous nodules of the coal-seams of Yorkshire and Lancashire, and from
the silicified pebbles of France and Saxony, it is possible to make anatomical
investigations of the coal-forest trees with as much accuracy as that with which
We can examine sections of recent plants. The differences between the vegetation
that witnessed the close of the Carboniferous era and that which flourished during
the opening stages of the succeeding Permian epoch are comparatively slight. It
has been demonstrated by Grand’Eury, Kidston, Zeiller, Potonié, and others, that
it is possible both to separate the floras of the Coal-measures from those of Lower
Permian age, and to use the plant species as trustworthy guides to the smaller
subdivisions of the Coal-measures; but apart from these minor differences, the
general facies of the vegetation remained fairly constant during the Upper Carboni-
ferous and Lower Permian periods.

The vast forests of the Coal age occupied an extensive area of land on the
site of the present United States of North America, stretching across Europe into

839 REPORT—19038.

Eastern Asia; under the shade of their trees lived ‘the stupid, salamander-like
Labyrinthodonts, which pottered with much belly and little leg, like Falstaff in
his old age.’ The plants of these Palseozoic forests seem to be revivified, as we
subject their petritied fragments to microscopical examination. Robert Louis
Stevenson has referred to a venerable oak, which has been growing since the

teformation and is yet a living thing liable to sickness and death, asa speaking
lesson in history. How much more impressive is the conception of age suggested
by the contemplation of a group of Paleozoic tree-stumps exposed in a Carboni-
ferous quarry and rooted where they grew! An examination of their minute
anatomy carries us beyond the mere knowledge of the internal architecture of their
stems, leaves, and seeds; it brings us into contact with the actual working of their
complex machinery. As we look at the stomata on the lamina of a leaf of one
of those strange trees, and recognise a type of structure in the mesophyll-tissues
which has been rendered familiar by its occurrence in modern leaves, it requires
but little imagination to see the green blade spreading its surface to the light to
obtain a supply of solar energy with which to extract carbon from the air. We can
almost hear the murmur of plant-life and the sighing of the branches in the wind
as the sap courses through the wood, and the leaves build up material from the
products of earth and air; products that are to be sealed up by subsequent
geological changes, till after the lapse of countless ages the store of energy accu-
mulated in coal is dissipated through the agency of man.

The minute structure of the wood of the Calamites, Lycopods, and other trees,
agrees so closely with that of existing types that we are forced to conclude that
these Palxozoic plants had already solved the problem of raising a column of water
more than 100 feet in height. The arrangement of the strengthening or inechanical
tissues in the long flat leaves of Cordaztes is an exact counterpart of that which
we find in modern leaves of similar form, The method of disposition of support-
ing strands in such manner as to secure the maximum effect with the least
expenditure of material, was as much an axiom in plant architecture in the days
of the coal-forests as it is now one of the recognised rules in the engineer's craft.

We need not pause to discuss the various opinions that have been expressed as
to the conditions under which the forests grew; we may adopt Neumayr’s view,
and recognise a modern parallel in the moors of the sub-arctic zone, or find a close
resemblance in the dismal swamp of North America. There is also the view
expressed many years ago by Binney and warmly advocated by Darwin, that some
at least of the Coal-period trees grew in salt-marshes, an opinion which receives
support from several structural features suggestive of xerophytic characters
recognised in the tissues of Palseozoic plants.

Time does not admit of more than the most cursory glance at the leading types
of the Permo-Carboniferous floras, The general character of the preceding vege-
tation is retained with numerous additions. Archeocalamites is replaced by a
host of representatives of the genus Calamites, an Kquisetaceous type with stout
woody stems and several forms of cones of greater complexity than those of modern
Horsetails. Side by side with the Calamites there appear to have existed plants
which, from their still closer agreement with Hguisetum, have been described by
Zeiller, Kidston, and others as species of Equisetites. The genus Sphenophyllum,
a solitary type of an extinct family, was represented by several forms which, like
the Galium of our hedgerows, may have supported their slender branches against the
stems of stronger plants. Lycopods, with trunks as thick and tall as forest trees,
were among the most vigorous members of the later Paleozoic forests. Although
recent research has shown that several of the supposed ferns must be assigned to
the Cycad-fern alliance, there can be no doubt that true ferns had reached an
advanced state of evolution during the Permo-Carboniferous epoch. The abund-
ance cf petrified stems of the genus Psaronius, of which the nearest living repre-
sentatives are probably to be found among the tropical Marattiaceze, demonstrates
the existence of true ferns. Others had more slender stems which clambered over
the trunks of stouter trees, while some grew in the shade of Lepidodendron and
Cordaites. The most striking fact as regards the Permo-Carboniferous ferns is
the abundance of fertile fronds bearing sporangia which exhibit a more or less

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 833

close agreement with those of the few surviving genera of Marattiacese. ‘The more
familiar type of sporangium met with in our existing fern-vegetation is also repre-
sented, and we have recently become familiar with several genera bearing spo-
rangia exhibiting a close resemblance to those of modern Gleicheniace, Schizza-
ce, and Osmundacez. The sporangial characteristics of the different families of
living ferns are many of them to be found among Paleozoic types, but there is a
frequent commingling of structural features showing that the ferns had not as yet
become differentiated into so many or such distinct families as have since been
evolved,

Prominent among the Gymnosperms of the Paleozoic forests must have been
the genus Cordaites : tall handsome trees, with long strap-shaped leaves, recalling
on a large scale those of the kauri pine of New Zealand. This genus, which has
been made the type of a distinct group of Gymnosperms, combined the anatomy of
an Araucaria with reproductive organs more nearly allied to the flowers of Cycads,
and exhibiting points of resemblance with those of the Maidenhair-tree. It is not
until the later stages of the Permo-Carboniferous epoch that more definite coniferous
types made their appearance. The genus Wailchia, in habit almost identical with
Araucaria excelsa, the Norfolk Island pine, with Ulmannia and Voltzia, are
characteristic members of the vegetation belonging to the later phase of the Permo-
Carboniferous era. The Maidenhair-tree of the far East, one of the most vene-
rable survivors in our modern vegetation, is foreshadowed in certain features
exhibited by Cordaites and, as regards the form of its leaves, by Psyymophyllum,
Whittleseya, and other genera. Psygmophyllum is known to have existed in
Spitzbergen in the preceding Culm epoch, and Wéttleseya occurs in Canadian
strata correlated with our Millstone Grit. Leaves have been found in Permian
rocks of Russia, Siberia, Western and Central Europe, referred to the genus
Baiera, a typical Mesozoic type closely allied to Ginkgo. In the upper Coal-
measures and lower Permian rocks a few pinnate fronds have been discovered,
such as Sphenozamites, from the Permian of France, Pterophyllum from France
and Russia, and Plagiozamites from the Permian of Alsace, which bear a striking
likeness to modern Cycadean leaves. Throughout the Permo-Carboniferous era
the Cycadofilices formed a dominant group; Lyginodendron, Medullosa, Poroxylon,
and many other genera flourished in abundance as vigorous members of an ancient
class which belongs exclusively to the past.

One distinctive characteristic of the vegetation of later Permo-Carboniferous
days is the occurrence of the Cycad-like fronds already referred to; also the appear-
ance of Voltzia and other conifers with species of Aquisetites, pioneer genera of
a succeeding era that constitute connecting links between the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic floras.

What we may call the typical vegetation of the Coal-measures, which con-
tinued, with comparatively minor changes, into the succeeding era, flourished over
a wide area in the forthbrn hemisphere, suggesting, as White points out, an
almost incredible uniformity of climate. The same type of vegetation extended
as far south as the Zambesi in Africa, and to the vast coal-fields of China; it
possibly existed also in high northern latitudes, but, since Heer’s record of
Cordaites in Novaya Zemlya in 1878, no further traces of arctic Permo-Carbo-
niferous plants have been found. Calamites, Lepidodendron (with its near relative
Sigillaria), Ferns, Cycadofilices, Cordaites, and other Gymnosperms, constitute the
most familiar types. We have already noticed the existence in the southern
hemisphere of Lower Carboniferous and Devonian genera identical with plants
found in rocks of corresponding age within the Arctic circle. This agreement
between the northern and southern floras was, however, not maintained in the
later stages of the Palwozoic epoch. Australian plant-bearing strata homotaxial
with Permo-Carboniferous rocks of Europe, have so far afforded no examples of
Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, or of several other characteristic northern forms; in
place of these genera we find an enormous abundance of a fern known as Glosso-
pteris, a type which must have monopolised wide areas, suggesting a comparison
with the green carpet of bracken that stretches as a continuous sheet over an
English moor, With Glossopteris was associated a fern bearing similar leaves,

1903, 3H

834, REPORT—19038.

known as Gangamopteris, and with these grew Schizonewra and Phyllotheca, mem-
bers of the Equisetales. In addition to these genera there are others which bear
a close resemblance to northern hemisphere types, such as Noeggerathiopsis, a
member of the Cordaitales, and several species of Sphenopteris. Similarly, in
many parts of India, Glossopteris has been found in extraordinary abundance in
the same company with which it occurs in Australia. In South Africa an
identical flora is met with which extends to the Argentine and to other regions of
South America. A few members of this southern flora have been recorded from
Borneo, and the genus Glossopteris is said to occur in New Zealand, but the latter
statement has been called in question and requires confirmation. It is clear that
from South America, through South Africa and India to Australia, there existed
a vegetation of uniform character which flourished over a vast southern continent
at approximately the same period as that which, in the northern hemisphere and
in China, witnessed the growth of the forests whose trees formed the source of our
coal-supply.

Since attention was drawn by Dr. Blanford and other writers to the facts of
plant-distribution revealed by a study of the later Paleozoic floras, it has been
generally admitted that during the Permo-Carboniferous era there existed two
fairly well-marked botanical provinces. The more familiar and far richer flora
occupied a province stretching from the western states of North America across
Europe into China and reaching as far as the Zambesi; the other province was
occupied by a less varied assemblage of plants, characterised by the abundance of
Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Neuropteridium, Noeggerathiopsis, Schizoneura, and
other genera, stretching from South America through India to Australia.

Two questions at once suggest themselves: firstly, were these two botanical
provinces defined by well-marked boundaries, or did they dovetail into one another
at certain points? Secondly, is there any probable explanation of this difference
between northern and southern floras, a feature not shown either by the preceding
Devonian and Lower Carboniferous or by the succeeding Lower Mesozoic floras?

In Brazil, Professor Zeiller has recorded the occurrence of a flora including
Lepidophiloios, a well-known European member of the Lycopods, associated with
such characteristic southern types as Gangumopteris and Noeggerathiopsis.
Similarly from the Transvaal a European species of Sigillaria, with a Lepidoden-
droid plant, and another northern genus, Psygmophylium, have been found in beds
containing Gilossopteris, Gangamopteris, Noeggerathiopsis, Neuropteridiwm, and other
members of the so-called Glossopteris flora. In India, the Glossopteris flora
exhibits an entire absence of Lepidodendron, Calamites, Sigillaria, and other com-
mon northern genera, while Sphenophyllum is represented by a single species.
The Australian Permo-Carboniferous flora is also characterised by the absence of
the great majority of the northern types. Until a few years ago the genus
Glossopteris had not been discovered in Europe, but in 1897 Professor Amalitzky
recorded the occurrence of this genus in association with Gangamopteris in
Permian strata in Northern Russia.

We see, then, that in Brazil and South Africa the Glossopteris flora and the
northern flora overlapped, but the former was the dominant partner. On the
other hand, in rocks belonging to a somewhat higher horizon in Russia, we meet
with a northern extension of the Glossopteris flora. The accompanying map (p. 835)
serves better than a detailed description to illustrate the geographical distribution
of these two types of vegetation in the Permo-Carboniferous era.

There is little doubt that the differences between the flora of the southern
continent, that existed towards the close of the Carboniferous and during the
succeeding Permian period, and that which flourished farther north have in some
respects been exaggerated; geographical separation has played too conspicuous a
part in influencing botanical nomenclature. Granting the existence of identical
genera or representative types, there remains a striking difference between the two
provinces into which the Permo-Carboniferous vegetation was divided. As regards
an explanation of this fact, we can only hazard a guess; as Dr. Blanford and
others have pointed out, there is a probable solution to hand. Briefly stated, the
Upper Palseozoic plant-bearing strata of India, South America, Australia, and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 8385

South Africa are in close association with boulder-beds of considerable extent,
In some places, as for example in India and Australia, the boulder-beds rest on
rocks bearing unmistakable signs of the grinding action of ice. There can be no
reasonable doubt that the huge continental area of which India, South Africa,

Map II.—Permo-Carboniferous Floras.

Glossopteris (Southern Flora),

Northern Flora,

parts of South America, and Australia remain as comparatively insignificant rem-
nants, was exposed to climatal conditions favourable to the accumulation of snow
and to the formation of glaciers. One possible explanation, therefore, of the exist-
ence of a distinct vegetation in the southern area is that the climate was such as to
render impossible the existence of those coal-forest plants that exhibited so vigorous
3H2

836 REPORT—1903.

a development in northern latitudes. There is, moreover, another consideration,
and that is the effect on the vegetation of an enormous continental mass ; in North
America and Europe it is probable that the forests grew on low-lying land pene-
trated by lagoons and in part submerged under shallow brackish water, a disposi-
tion of land and sea very different from that in the so-called Gondwana Land of
the South. Possibly the apparently uniform vegetation of the Devonian and
Lower Carboniferous period was unable, through stress of climatal conditions, to
prolong its existence in the southern area, while in the north it continued to
flourish, and as the evolution of new types proceeded in rapid succession it was
not slow to colonise new areas stretching in South America and South Africa to
the confines of the Glossopteris flora.

There seems good reason for assuming that the Glossopteris flora originated in
the South and before the close of the Permian period, as well as in the succeeding
Triassic era, pushed northward over a portion of the area previously occupied by
the northern flora. This northward extension is shown by the existence of
Glossopteris in Upper Permian rocks of Russia, by the occurrence of several southern
types in plant-bearing beds of the Altai mountains, and by the existence in Western
Europe during the early stages of the Triassic era of such southern genera as
Neuropteridium and Schizoneura.

Triassic, Jurassic, and Wealden Floras.

It is unfortunate that the records of plant-life towards the close of the
Paleozoic and during the succeeding Triassic period are very fragmentary; the
documents are few in number, and instead of the fairly continuous chapters in
which the records of the Coal age have been preserved, we have to be content
with a few blurred pages. During the Triassic period the vegetation of the world
gradually changed its character; the balance of power was shifted from the
Vascular Cryptogams, the dominant group of the Paleozoic era, to the Gymno-
sperms. It is not until we pass up the geologic series as far as the Rhetic
formation, that we come to palzobotanical records at all comparable in their
completeness with those of the Permo-Carboniferous era ; but before considering
the Rheetic vegetation we must glance at such scattered relics as remain of the
vegetation belonging to the period of transition between the Paleozoic and
Mesozoic facies. It is regrettable that this transitional period is unusually poor
in documentary evidence that might throw light on the gradual change in the
facies of Paleeozoic vegetation. The new order, when once established, persisted
for many succeeding ages without undergoing any essential alteration.

One of the few floras of early Triassic age of which satisfactory relics have been
preserved is that described in 1844 by Schimper and Mougeot from the Bunter
Sandstones of the Vosges. The genus Newropteridium, a plant which may be a
true fern, or possibly a surviving member of the Cycadofilices, is represented by a
species which can hardly be distinguished from that which flourished in South
America, South Africa, and India in the Permo-Carboniferous period. This
genus and another southern type, Schizonewra, both of which are met with in the
Triassic rocks of the Vosges, would seem to point to a northern migration of
certain members of the Glossopteris flora, which took place at the close of the
Paleozoic era. In the Lower Triassic flora Conifers are relatively more abundant
than in the earlier periods ; such genera as Aldertia (resembling in its vegetative
features some recent species of Araucaria), Voltzia (with cones that cannot be
closely matched with those of any existing members of the Conifers), and other
representatives of this class are common fossils. Lepidodendra have apparently
ceased to exist; Sigillaria may be said to survive in one somewhat doubtful form,
Sigillaria oculina. The genus Plewromeia, which makes its appearance in Triassic
rocks, is known only in the form of casts exhibiting a strong likeness to some
Paleeozoic Lycopods, and is perhaps more akin to Jsoetes than to any other exist-
ing plant. The Calamites are now replaced by large Equisetaceous plants, which
are best described as Horsetails with much thicker stems than those of their
modern descendants.

From Recoaro in Northern Italy some of the Vosges genera have been recorded,
and a few other European localities have furnished similar relics of a Triassic

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 837

vegetation. Passing to the peninsula of India, we find the genus Glossopteris
abundantly represented in strata which there is good reason for regarding as homo-
taxial with the European Trias, and the occurrence in the same beds of some other
genera of Permo-Carboniferous age shows that the change in the character of the
southern vegetation at the close of the Palzozoic era was much more gradual than
in the north.

The comparative abundance of plant remains in the northern hemisphere in
rocks belonging to the Rhetic formation, a series of sediments so named from
their development in the Rhetian Alps, is in welcome contrast to the paucity of
the records from the underlying Triassic strata. From Virginia and adjacent
districts in the United States a rich flora has been described, which by some
authors is assigned to the Keuper or Upper Triassic series, while others class it
as Rhetic. A similar assemblage of plants is known also from the Lettenkohle
beds of Austria, which, as Stur has shown, clearly belong to the same period of
vegetation as the American flora. We need not, however, concern ourselves with
discussions as to the precise stratigraphical position of these American and Kuro-
pean plant-beds, but may conveniently group together floras of Upper Triassic
and Rheetic age since they exhibit but minor differences from one another. Plants
of Upper Triassic or Rhzetic age are known from Scania and Franconia in Europe,
Virginia and elsewhere in North America, Honduras, Tonkin, Australia, South
Africa, Chili, and other parts of the world.

The geographical distribution of plants of approximately Rhetic age is shown
in the following table on p. 838, which demonstrates an almost worldwide range of a
vegetation of uniform character. The character of the plant- world is entirely different
from that which we have described in speaking of the Palxozoic floras. Gymro-
sperms have ousted Vascular Cryptogams from their position of superiority ;
ferns, indeed, are still very abundant, but they have undergone many and striking
changes, notably in the much smaller representation of the Marattiacee. The
Paleozoic Lycopods and Calamites have gone, and in their place we have a
wealth of Cycadean and Coniferous types. As we ascend to the Jurassic plant-
beds the change in the vegetation is comparatively slight, and the same persistence
of a well-marked type of vegetation extends into the Wealden period. It is a
remarkable fact that after the Paleozoic floras had been replaced by those of the
Mesozoic era, the vegetation maintained a striking uniformity of character, from
the close of the Triassic up to the dawn of the Cretaceous era. This statement is
open to misconception ; I do not wish to convey the idea that a palsobotanist
would be unable to discriminate between floras trom Rheetic and Wealden rocks ;
but I wish to emphasise the fact that in spite of specific, and to a less extent of
generic, peculiarities, which enable us to determine, within narrow limits, the age
of a Mesozoic flora, the main features of the vegetation remained the same through
a long succession of ages. The accompanying tables (pp. 839, 840) illustrate the
geograpbical distribution of some of the leading types of Mesozoic plants during
the Jurassic and Wealden periods, and demonstrate not only the striking differences
between the Mesozoic and Paleozoic floras, but also the much greater uniformity
in the vegetation of the world during the Secondary era than in the preceding
Permo-Carboniferous epoch.

Mesozoic Floras.

It may be of interest to glance at some of the leading types of Mesozoic floras
with a view to comparing them with their modern representatives. We are so
familiar with the present position of the flowering plants in the vegetation of the
world, that it is difficult for us to form a conception of a state of things in the
histery of the plant-kingdom in which Angicsperms had no part.

a. Conifers.

How may we describe the characteristic features of Rhetic and Jurassic
floras? Gymnosperms, so far as we know, marked the highest level of plant-
evolution. Conifers were abundant, but the majority were not members of that

ae to which the best known and most widely distributed modern forms
ong,

1903.

REPORT:

838

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839

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K,

x > 5a lems ham x . * wunpyhydhiyoveg
x | x x x el ‘ ° . unpphydobog
| x | x eo * sapnwvonnsy
| SA1IVUAMINOD
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me x x x ASN 28 [Pao Wes ; Dynjnoyquap srqajydopnyy
SATVOLILA
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‘sadhT, ousrazon.nyy fo uorynguagsuy pvorydo.boay—'sv.iopy arsspuny “TTT

REPORT—1908.

840

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TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 841

A comparison of fossil and recent conifers is rendered difficult by the lack of
satisfactory evidence as to the systematic position of many of the commoner types
met with in Mesozoic rocks. ‘There are, however, certain broad generalisations
which we are justified in making; such genera as the Pines, Firs, Larches, and
other members of the Abietinez appear to have occupied a subordinate position
during the Triassic and Jurassic eras; it is among the relics of Wealden and
Lower Cretaceous floras that cones and vegetative shoots like those of recent Pines
occur for the first time in a position of importance. There are several Mesozoic
Conifers to which such artificial designations as Pagiophyllum, Brachyphyllum,
and others have been assigned, which cannot be referred with certainty to a par-
ticular section of the Conifers ; these forms, however, exhibit distinct indications
of a close relationship with the Araucariez, represented in modern floras by
Araucaria and Agathis, The abundance of cones in Jurassic strata showing the
characteristic features of those of recent species of Araucaria atfords trustworthy
evidence as to the antiquity of the Araucariese and demonstrates their wide geo-
graphical distribution during the Mesozoic era. At the present day the Arauca-
rie comprise the two genera Araucaria and Agathis, the former including ten
species occurring in South America and Australia, and the latter comprising four
species which flourish in the Malay Archipelago, New Zealand, the Philippines,
North-East Australia, and elsewhere. Sir William Thiselton-Dyer pointed out,
in a lecture on plant-distribution, delivered in 1878, that the genus Araucaria
appears to have been extinct in a wild state north of the Equator since the Jurassic
epoch. Additional contirmation of the important status of this section of the
Conifers is afforded by the abundance of petrified wood exhibiting Araucarian
features, in both Jurassic and Wealden rocks. There is good reason to believe
that the well-known Whitby jet was formed by the alteration of blocks of Arau-
carian wood drifted from forest-clad slopes overlooking a Jurassic estuary that
occupied the site of the moors and headlands of North-East Yorkshire. Among
familiar Jurassic genera, mention must be made of the genus Brachyphyllum,
including species referred by some authors to Athrotaxites, represented by frag-
ments of leafy twigs and branches bearing a striking resemblance to those.of the
isolated Tasmanian genus Athrotazis. Omitting further reference to the various
indications afforded by a study of Mesozoic Conifers as to the former extension of
many of the more isolated recent types, we may present in a tabular form an
epitome of the past and present range of the Araucaries :—

Geographical Distribution of Past and Present ARAUCARIE®.

| . N N. Sub-
Arctic : &
Avidtestiods | oa Prabiies tropical
|

1{2/s/4|5/6)7|s8|9 }20/11| 12/18!

|
. | { |
Araucarites | |
|
|
|

14 [15 16 | 17 | 1s |19| 20 | 21 | 22

Araucarites

| [Rheetic > Cretaceous] . I a ie a Ra a |
| Araucaria | / |
Wi repectes’ 7 Pe Ese, | | x x |
Agathis |
_ 4 species. | | li | x x

842 REPORT—1903.

b. Oycads.

One of the most striking features of the Mesozoic vegetation is the abundance
and wide distribution of Cycadean plants. To-day the Cycads or Sago-Palms are
represented by ten genera and about eighty species; they are plants which occupy
a subordinate position in modern floras, and occur for the most part as solitary
types in tropical latitudes, never growing together in sufficiently large numbers to
constitute a dominant feature in the vegetation. Cycads have long attracted
attention as exhibiting morphological features of considerable interest. During
the last few years the work of Ikeno, Webber, and Lang has shown us that the
pollen of Cycas, Zamia, Stangeria, and probably of the other recent genera, pro-
duce spirally ciliated motile spermatozoids, the type of male cell previously regarded
as constituting one of the well-defined distinctions between the Vascular Crypto-
gams and the Seed-bearing plants. The study of Paleozoic plants has done even
more to break down the artificial barrier between Cycads and Vascular Crypto-
gams, by demonstrating beyond all reasonable doubt that our modern Cycads
represent a small group of survivals descended from ancestors common to them-
selves and the ferns. Cycadean plants must have been among the commonest
members of Mesozoic floras. Before the end of the Palzozoic era there existed
plants bearing pinnate fronds similar to those of recent species of Cycadacex, and
in succeeding ages the group rapidly increased in number and variety till, in the
Jurassic and the early Cretaceous periods, the Cycads asserted their superiority as
the leading type of vegetation. The majority of Mesozoic Cycadean fronds are
assigned to artificial or form-genera as an indication of our ignorance of their
reproductive organs, or of the anatomical structure of their stems. As Professor
Nathorst has recently suggested, it is convenient to speak of these Cycadean
remains as belonging to the group Cycadophyta. On the other hand, we find
numerous petrified stems bearing well-preserved reproductive organs which enable
us to compare the extinct with the existing species. We are in possession of
enough facts to justify the statement that the majority of Mesozoic Cycads bore
reproductive organs which differed in important morphological characters from
those of existing forms. The researches of Williamson, Carruthers, Solms-
Laubach, Lignier, and others, have revealed the existence of a large group of
Cycadean plants—known as the Bennettiteze—almost identical in habit with modern
sago-palms, but distinguished by the complexity of their reproductive shoots.
The Bennettitese, originally founded on a petrified stem discovered more than
fifty years ago in the Isle of Wight, and represented by another fossil which
Carruthers made the type of a new genus, Williamsonia, in 1870, possessed a thick
stem, clothed with an armour of persistent leaf-bases and bearing a crown of
pinnate frouds, as in most modern Cycads; but their flowers, which were borne
on lateral shoots, were more highly specialised than those of the true Cycads.
While most of the Mesozoic Cycads were no doubt members of the Bennettitez,
others appear to have possessed reproductive organs like those of recent species.
The Bennettiteze belong to that vast army of plants that succumbed in the struggle
for existence zons before the dawn of the Recent period. The other section of the
Cycadophyta, the Cycadacez, still lingers on as one of the select band whose
present insignificance constitutes a badge of ancient lineage, and a faint reflection
of past supremacy.

The wealth of Cycadean vegetation during the latter part of the Jurassic and
the earlier stages of the Cretaceous periods is admirably illustrated by the dis-
covery in the Black Hills of North America, and in other districts of the United
States, of hundreds of silicified trunks of Cycadean plants. The first discovery of
petrified Cycadean stems in America was made by Tyson in 1859, who found two
specimens in the Potomac beds of Maryland; since then more than 700 trunks,
remnants of a vast Cycadean forest, have been obtained from the Black Hills
alone. The investigations of Mr. Wieland, of Yale, who has been engaged for
some time on the examination of this rich material, have already revealed the fact
that in some of the Bennettiteze the male and female organs were borne in a single
flower, the female portion having a structure identical with that previously

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 843

described from European stems, while the male flowers bear a close resemblance
to the fertile fronds of a Marattiaceous fern. We have watched the progress of
Mr. Wieland’s researches with keen interest and look forward to further important
developments. With some of us, indeed, the feelings of the ideal student of
science are in danger of being overshadowed by a sensation akin to envy and a
desire to invade American territory.

c. Ginkgoales,

Before leaving the Gymnosperms a word must be said about another section—
the Ginkgoales—represented by the Maidenhair-tree of China and Japan. Ginkgo
(or Salisburia) biloba has almost, if not quite, ceased to exist in an absolutely wild
state, but as a cultivated tree it has now become familiar both in America and
Europe. The living Maidenhair-tree is in truth an anachronism, a solitary rem-
nant that: brings us into touch with a vanished world and appears as an alien
among its modern associates. The abundance of fossil leaves, like those of Ginkgo
biloba, and of other slightly different forms referred to the genus Bavera, associated
not infrequently with remains of male and female flowers, demonstrates the
ubiquitous character of the Ginkgoales during the Rhetic, Jurassic, and Wealden
periods. In the Jurassic shales of the Yorkshire Coast, Ginkgo and Baiera leaves
occur in plenty, some of them practically identical with those of the existing
species. The abundance of fossil Ginkgoales in other parts of the world—in
Australia, South Africa, South America, China, Japan, North America, Green-
land, Franz Josef’s Land, Siberia, and throughout Europe—demonstrates the former
vigour of this class of plants, of which but one member survives. This type of
Gymnosperm is distinctly foreshadowed in the Paleozoic vegetation, and as recently
as. the Eocene period a species of Ginkgo, indistinguishable in the form of its leaves
from the living Maidenhair-tree, flourished in Western Scotland.

The accompanying table of distribution shows how extensive was the range of
the Ginkgoales in the Mesozoic era—both geographically and stratigraphically,

Geographical Distribution of the GINKGOALES.

| Ginkgoales Arctic N. Temperate N. Sub-tropical

1} 2/38} 4) 5) 6} 7] 8} 9 | 10] 11 | 12 | 18

> | |
Ginkgo \ 5 ; x Scat line orl aS ES seh li

Baiera

[Rhetic > |
Cretaceous | |

Ginkgo biloba. | fifa

Ginkgoales Tropical 8. Sub-tropical S. Temperate

14 | 45 | fe ee eet hae ool | ay |) ap

eeeha |
Baiera J *
[Rhetic >
Cretaceous]
Ginkgo biloba . |

d, Ferns.

Although many of the Mesozoic ferns are preserved only in the form of sterile
fronds and are of little botanical interest, several examples of fertile leaves are
known which it is possible to compare with modern types. The Polypodiaces,

844 REPORT—1908.

representing the dominant family of recent ferns, are met with in nearly all parts
of the world and possess the attributes of a group of plants at the zenith of its
prosperity. We may confidently state that so far as the somewhat meagre
evidence allows us to form an opinion, this family occupied a subordinate position in
the composition of Mesozoic floras. Polypodiaceous sporangia have been met with
in Paleozoic rocks, and their existence during the Mesozoic period is not merely a
justifiable assumption, but is demonstrated by the occurrence of undoubted species
of Polypodiaceze. It seems clear, however, that this family did not attain to a
position of importance until the Mesozoic vegetation gave place to that which
characterises the present period. The Osmundacee are now represented by five
species of Todea and four of Osmunda; Todea barbara occurs in South Africa,
Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, the other species are all filmy ferns and
occur in New Zealand, New South Wales, New Caledonia, Samoa, and in a few other
southern regions. The genus Osmunda has a wider range, occurring in Europe,
Asia, North America, India, Japan, Southern China, Java, South Africa, and
other parts of the world, During the Rhetic and Jurassic periods the Osmundacez
flourished over the greater part of Europe; their remains have been recorded from
England, Germany, Scandinavia, Russia, Poland, Siberia, and Greenland, also
from North America, Persia, and China.

Similarly the Schizeeacez, a family now represented by a few genera in India,
North America, South America, Africa, Australia, Japan, China, and elsewhere,
were among the more abundant ferns in the Jurassic vegetation. The Cyatheacee,
a family that is now for the most part confined to the tropics, constituted another
vigorous and widely spread section in the Jurassic period; we find them in
Jurassic rocks of Victoria, as well as in several regions in Europe, North America
and the Arctic regions.

The fertile fronds of many of the fossil Cyatheacez bear a striking resemblance
to that isolated survivor of the family in Juan Fernandez—Thyrsopteris elegans.
It is true that a considerable number of ferns of Jurassic and Wealden age have
been described by the generic name Thyrsopteris without any adequate reason ;
but, neglecting all doubtful forms, there remain several types represented in the
Jurassic flora of Siberia, England, and other parts of the world, which enable us
to refer them with confidence to the Cyatheacee and to compare them more
particularly with the sole existing species of Thyrsopterizs. The Gleicheniaces, at
present characteristic of tropical and southern countries, were undoubtedly abundant
in the northern hemisphere in early Cretaceous days; abundant traces of this
family are recorded from Greenland as well as from more southern European
latitudes.

One of the most striking facts afforded by a study of the Mesozoic fern
vegetation is the former extension and vigorous development of two families, the
Dipteridine and Matoninex, which are now confined to a few tropical regions and
represented by six species. The tall graceful fronds of Matonia pectinata,
forming miniature forests on the slopes of Mount Ophir and other districts in the
Malay Peninsula in association with Dipteris conjugata and Dipteris Lobbiana,
represent a phase of Mesozoic life which survives—

‘Like a dim picture of the drowned past.’

The fertile fragment of a frond of Matonidium exposed by a stroke of the
hammer in a piece of iron-stained limestone picked up on the beach at Haiburn
Wyke (a few miles north of Scarborough), is hardly distinguishable from a pinna
of the Malayan Matonia pectinata. Rhetic and Jurassic ferns referred to the
genus Laccopterts afford other examples of the abundance of the Matoninez in the
northern hemisphere during the earlier part of the Mesozoic era.

The modern genus Dipteris, with its four species occurring in India, the
Malayan region, Formosa, Fiji, and New Caledonia, stands apart from the great
majority of Polypodiaceous ferns, and is now placed in a separate family—the
Dipteridine. Like Matonia it is essentially an ancient and moribund type with
hosts of ancestors included in such Rheetic and Jurassic genera as Dictyophyllum,
Camptopteris, and others which must have been among the most conspicuous and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 845

“vigorous members of the Mesozoic vegetation. The appended table illustrates in
a concise form the former extension of the Matonine and Dipteridine :—

Geographical Distribution of the Matoninece and Dipteridine.

Arctic | N. Temp. | N. Sub-tropical:
Matoninew and Dipteridine |

1/2|}38/4|6|6|7]|8 | 9 | 10} 412] 12\18)

we'| . oF Lael poe at |
4; | es

MATONINE |
Matonidiwm
Luaccopteris . 3 :
[Rhetic > Cretaceous]
Matonia
2 species . : : : : |

—
x
x
x
x

}
|
|
|

DIPTERIDINZ
Dictyophyllum : : 1 ne Ae: : |
Camptopteris, kc. . c eS

[Rhztic > Wealden]

Dipteris

4 species .

Tropical S.Sub-tropical} S, Temperate
Matonines and Dipteridins

14 15 | 16} 17 |) 18 | 19 | 20 21 92

MATONINEZ
Matonidium . F - |
Laccopteris : :

[Rheetic > Cretaceous]

Matonia

2 species . : 3 : , x

Could we but question these survivors from the past, we should hear a tragic
story of hopeless struggle against stronger competitors, and learn the history of
their gradual migration from an ancient northern home to regions at the other
end of the world.

e. Flowering Plants.

Our retrospect of the march of plant-life has so far extended to the dawn of
the Cretaceous period, a chapter in geological history written in the rocks that
constitute the Wealden series of Britain exposed in the Sussex cliffs and in the
Weald district of south-east England. According to the geologist’s reckoning,
the Cretaceous period is of comparatively modern date; it occupies a position
near the summit of a long succession of ages representing an amount ot time
beyond the power of imagination to conceive. On the other hand, to quote from
Huxley’s lecture ona piece of chalk, ‘ not one of the present great physical features
of the globe was in existence. . . . Our great mountain-ranges, Pyrenees, Alps,
Himalayas, Andes, have all been upheaved since the chalk was deposited, and the

846 REPORT—1903.

Cretaceous sea flowed over the sites of Sinai and Ararat.’ This Cretaceous epoch,
so recent geologically if measured by the standard of the antiquity of the ever-
lasting hills, has a remoteness beyond our power to appreciate.

One interesting fact as regards the composition of the Jurassic Flora is the
absence of any plants that can reasonably be identified as Angiosperms. In the
Wealden flora of England no vestige of an Angiosperm has been found ; this
statement holds good also as regards Wealden floras in most other regions of the
world. On the other hand, as soon as we ascend to strata of slightly more recent
age we are confronted with a new element in the vegetation, which with amazing
rapidity assumes the leading réle. It is impossible to say with confidence at what
precise period of geological history the Angiosperms appeared. When the rocks
that now form the undulating country of the Weald were being accumulated as
river-borne sediments on the floor of an estuary, this crowning act in the drama
of plant evolution was probably being enacted.

‘Nothing, wrote Darwin to Sir Joseph Hooker in 1881, ‘is more extraordinary
in the history of the vegetable kingdom, as it seems to me, than the apparently
very sudden or abrupt development of the higher plants. I have sometimes
speculated whether there did not exist somewhere during long ages an extremely
isolated continent, perhaps near the South Pole.’ We date the appearance of a
new product of evolution from the age of the strata in which it first occurs: but
this may well be a misleading criterion: all that we can say is that at a particular
period certain new types of organisms are brought within our ken.

To quote Darwin again: ‘We continually forget how large the world is,
compared with the area over which our geological formations have been carefully
examined; we forget that groups of species may somewhere have long existed,
and have slowly multiplied, before they invaded the ancient archipelagoes of
Europe and the United States. Wedo not make due allowance for the intervals
of time which have elapsed between our consecutive formations, longer, per-
haps, in many cases than the time required for the accumulation of each forma
tion.’

On another occasion Darwin wrote to his friend Hooker: ‘The rapid develop-
ment, as far as we can judge, of all the higher plants within recent geological
times is an abominable mystery.’ Such evidence as we possess, meagre as it
admittedly is, shows that ‘this overshadowing type of plant-life’ no sooner
appeared than it asserted itself with extraordinary vigour and created a revolu-
tion in the plant-world. Let us glance for a moment at the facts to be gleaned
from an examination of the records of this critical period in the history of vegeta-
tion.

I have already pointed out that we have as yet recognised no Angiosperms in
the Wealden floras of England, Spitzbergen, Germany, France, Austria, Belgium,
Russia, and Japan; but from plant-bearing rocks of Portugal, regarded as homo-
taxial with those which British geologists speak of as Wealden, the late Marquis
of Saporta named a fragment of a leaf Alismacites primevus, a determination that,
while possibly correct, cannot be accepted as conclusive testimony. In Virginia
and Maryland there occurs a thick series of strata known as the Potomac forma-
tion from which a rich harvest of plant-remains has been obtained. Professor
Lester Ward has recently shown that under this title are included several floras,
some of which are undoubtedly homotaxial with the Wealden of Europe, while
others represent the vegetation of a later phase of the Cretaceous era. From the
older Potomac beds a few leaves have been assigned to Dicotyledons and referred
to such genera as Ficophyllum, Myrica, Proteephyllum, and others. Some of these
may well be small fronds of ferns with venation characters like those of the Elk’s
Horn fern (Platycertum), while others, though presenting a close resemblance to
Dicotyledonous leaves, afford insufficient data for accurate generic identification,
In dealing with fossil leaves of the dicotyledonous type, we must not forget that
the recent genus Gnetwm—a gymnosperm of the section Gnetales—possesses leaves
that may be said to be indistinguishable in form and venation from those of
certain Dicotyledons. Before the close of the Potomac period these few fragmen-
tary relics of possible Dicotyledons are replaced by a comparative abundance of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 84.7

specimens which must be accepted as undoubted Angiosperms. Previous to the
discovery of the supposed Angiosperms in Wealden strata of Portugal and North
America, the earliest record of an Angiosperm was represented by Heer’s Populus
primeva from Northern Greenland. This name was applied to a fragmentary
specimen which may be a true dicotyledonous leaf. In 1897 Dr. White, of the
Geological Survey of the United States, stated that additional examples of
dicotyledonous leaves had been obtained during the visit of the Peary Arctic
expedition to the well-known locality in Greenland where Heer’s Populus
primeva was discovered in the so-called Kome series. From strata known as the
Atane beds, which rest on the Kome series, unmistakable Angiosperms have
been collected in abundance.

Another indication of the sudden increase in the number of dicotyledons is
furnished by the Dakota flora of the United States—in age somewhat more recent
than the older Potomac beds. In these plant-beds it is stated that Angiosperms
constitute two-thirds of the vegetation.

‘We may sum up the whole matter in a few words. There is some evidence of
the existence of Angiosperms before the close of the Wealden period. It may be
added that the Stonesfield Slate of England (a formation of approximately the
same age as the Inferior Oolite plant-beds of Yorkshire) has afforded a single
specimen of a leaf which in form and venation has as much claim to be referred to
the dicotyledons as many of the leaves from Wealden rocks. These earliest records
are, however, unsatisfactory, and the names assigned to them are often misleading.
As soon as we ascend a stage higher in the geological series, not only do the
Angiosperms at once become abundant, but the whole facies of the vegetation
undergoes a striking change. The Gymnosperms, especially the Cycads, are ousted
from a supremacy maintained through countless ages, and the vegetation becomes
essentially modern. Many of the earlier angiospermous plants may be referred to
existing genera and present no features of special interest from a phylogenetic
standpoint.

One of our most pressing needs is a thoroughly critical revision of the late
Cretaceous and earlier Tertiary floras, with the object both of determining the
systematic position of the older Angiosperms and of mapping out with greater
accuracy the geographical distribution of the floras of the world in post-Wealden
periods. This is a task which is sometimes said to be impossible or hardly worth
the attempt; the available evidence is indeed meagre, and much of it has been
treated with more respect than it deserves, but it is at least a praiseworthy aim,
not to say a duty, to take stock of our material and to compile lists of plants that
may bear the scrutiny of experienced systematists. We are profoundly ignorant
of the means by which Nature produced this new creation; we can only empha-
sise the fact that in the early days of the Cretaceous era a new type was evolved
which no sooner appeared than it swept all before it, and by its overmastering
superiority converted the past into the present.

Conclusion.

In conclusion, I would urge the importance of taking stock of our accumulated
facts, and of so recording our observations that they may be safely laid under
contribution as aids to broad generalisations. Detailed descriptions and the
enumeration of small collections are a necessity, but there is danger of the student
neglecting the application of his results to problems of far-reaching import.
We may borrow a saying of a great artist in regard to attention to detail
‘I see it, but I prefer to construct the synthesis.’

There is no more fascinating task than tc follow the onward march of the
plant-world from one stage to another and to watch the fortunes of the ad-
vancing army. We see from time to time war-worn veterans dropping from the
ranks, and note the constant addition of recruits, some of whom march but a short
distance and fall by the way; while others, better equipped, rise to a position of
importance,

At long intervals the formation is altered and the constitution of the advancing

848 REPORT—1903.

and increasing host is suddenly changed; familiar leaders aré superseded by new-
comers who mark their advent by drastic reorganisation. To change the metaphor,
we may compare the stages of plant-evolution to the records of changing
architectural styles represented in Gothic buildings. The simple Norman arch
and massive pier are replaced, with apparent suddenness, by the pointed arch and
detached shafts of the thirteenth century; the latter style, which marked an
architectural phase characterised by local variations subordinated to a uniformity
in essential features, was replaced by one in which simplicity was superseded by
elaboration, and new elements were added leading to greater complexity and
a modification of plan. Similarly the Paleozoic facies of vegetation passes with
almost startling suddenness into that which monopolised the world in the
Mesozoic era, and was in turn superseded by the more highly elaborated and less
homogeneous vegetation of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. In taking a super-
ficial view of architectural styles we are apt to lose sight of the signs of gradual
transition by which one period passes into the next; so, too, in our retrospect of
the changing scenes which mark the progress of plant-evolution, we easily overlook
the introduction of new types and the gradual substitution of new for old. The
invention of a new principle in the construction of buildings is soon followed by
its wide adoption ; new conceptions become stereotyped, and in a comparatively
few years the whole style is altered. As a new and successful type of plant-
architecture is produced it rapidly comes into prominence and acts as the most
potent factor in changing the facies of a flora. Making due allowances for the
imperfection of the Geological record, we cannot escape from the conclusion,
which is by no means opposed to our ideas of the operation of the laws governing
evolutionary forces, that the state of equilibrium in the vegetable kingdom was
rudely shaken during two revolutionary periods. The earlier transitional period
occurred when Conifers and Cycads became firmly established, while for the
second revolution the introduction of the Angiospermous type was mainly
responsible. As in the half-effaced documents accessible to the student of
architecture ‘the pedigrees of English Gothic can still be recovered,’ so also we
are able to trace in the registers imprinted on the rocks the genealogies of existing
botanical types.

In the course of this address I have given but scant attention to the lessons
we have learnt and are still to learn as to the family-history of plants. As
Professor Coulter says: ‘The most difficult as well as the most fascinating
problem in connection with any group is its phylogeny. The data upon which we
base opinions concerning phylogeny are never sufficient, but such opinions usually
stimulate research and are necessary to progress.’

We who attempt to read the records of the rocks may be tempted to magnify
the importance of the work, but I do not hesitate to add that botanists as a whole
have but half realised the fact that the study of living plants alone supplies but
a portion of the evidence bearing on problems of plant-evolution. ‘T’o ignore the
facts that may be gleaned from the investigation of extinct types is like attempting
to draw up a genealogy by merely questioning an individual without consulting
the documentary evidence of registers and other chronicles.

Each successive stage through which the organic world has passed contains some
relics of a preceding age; in comparing the chalk with the calcareous ooze now
accumulating on the bed of the Atlantic, Carpenter expressed the partial agreement
between the two deposits by saying that we are still living in the Cretaceous
period. Dr, Moore’s recent researches, demonstrating a striking resemblance
between many of the molluscs of Lake Tanganyika and fossils preserved in the
sediments of Jurassic seas, led him to describe some constituents of the fauna of
this inland lake as so many ‘lingering shadows of the past,’ while Tanganyika
itself is a dwindled remnant of a Mesozoic sea, Similarly our modern vegetation
differs enormously from that of the Mesozoic era, yet in the sago-palms of the
Tropics and in species of Malayan ferns we recognise proofs of the continuity of
plant-types through successive ages. One stage is superseded by another, but
some characteristic elements of each period persist into the next, carrying on the
traditions of the past and demonstrating the futility of our system of classification

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 849

a system in which we express the limitations of our knowledge, as we suit our
convenience, by dividing into periods the history of geological and organic
evolution. Toi "

‘It is only our ignorance that fixes a limit, as the mist gathered round the
mountain's brow makes us fancy we are treading the edge of the universe.’

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Botany in Schools.
See Reports, p. 420.

2, Report of the Cummiattee on the Investigation of the Cyanophycee.
See Reports, p. 419.

3. Report of the Commuattee on Botanical Photographs.
See Reports, p. 416.

4, Report of the Commuttee on the Respiration of Plants.

5. The Development of the Ascocarp in Ryparobius.
By B. T. P. Barker, JA.

Pure cultures of a species of Ryparobius, occasionally found on wild-rabbit
dung, were obtained from a single ascospore. The fungus grows vigorously on
many artificial nutrient media, rabbit-dung, carrot, and potato. No true conidia
are formed, reproduction being carried on by ascospores. The ascocarps are
usually developed in old cultures, but their development step by step has been
observed under the microscope in hanging-drop cultures trom a portion of
vigorously growing mycelium, suddenly starved by transference from beerwort to
distilled water. The archicarp consists of a small coiled hypha, the ascogonium,
and a slender hypha, arising from the next cell of the mycelium, and growing
over to the tip of the ascogonium, which appears to be an antheridial branch.
Fusion probably takes place. ‘The ascogonium then divides into a number of
cells, which branch, and eventually produce a varying number of asci. A pseudo-

arenchymatous tissue is formed around the ascogonium by the growth of
investing hyphe, arising from the neighbouring cells of the hypha which bears
the archicarp. This tissue forms the wall of the ascocarp. The ascogonium
appears to be uninucleate at first, and immediately after contact with the anthe-
ridial branch contains two nuclei, either situated closely together or apparently
fusing. Later most of the cells of the system of hyphx, developed from the
ascogonium, are uninucleate, but some contain two nuclei, which probably fuse
and become the single nucleus of a young ascus. The ascus becomes multi-
nucleate, the nuclei arrange themselves just beneath the wall of the ascus in the
form of a hollow sphere, and the ascopores are then formed, each with one end
pointing towards the centre and the other towards the wall of the ascus, the
arrangement thus being radial. Very little periplasm is present in the zone of
spore formation. Associated closely with the single nucleus of the young ascus
is a structure of variable shape which has almost as strong an affinity for stains
as the chromatin of the nucleus itself. This structure appears to be of the

1903. 31

850 REPORT—-1903.

nature of a vacuole and to be intimately concerned with the nutrition of the
nucleus, which at this time is of a remarkably large size. The number and size
of asci in the ascocarps are very variable. Under favourable conditions as many’
as fifty have been counted, while in other instances only one is present. Nutrition
seems to be the principal factor in this variation. The walls of the asci are
usually thin, but desiccation causes a thickening, in some cases as much as 5 p.
The dehiscence takes place by a small cap or lid at the apex of the ascus,
the spores being collected into a mass in this region and expelled explosively.
The spores vary in number and in size in different asci. Normally more than
two hundred are found, but as few as sixteen have been ‘seen.

These results point to a close relationship between the genera Ryparobius and
Thelebolus, the structure of the archicarp in the species here described being
practically identical with that figured by Brefeld for the latter genus. Hence the
position of Thelebolus among the Hemiasci, asserted by this author, is incorrect,
and it must be regarded as a true Ascomycete.

6. Culture Experiments with Biologic Forms of the Erysiphaces.
By E. 8. Satmon.

Within the last two years the existence of ‘ biologic forms’ in the Erysiphacee
has been definitely proved. The special restriction of infection-power is found not
only in the conidial (Oidiwm) stage, but also in the ascigerous stage.

In the present paper the author gives the results of experiments, which show
that the infection-powers of the conidia which obtain when uninjured growing
leaves of a plant are inoculated become altered under certain cultural conditions
when cut-off leaves are used. The experiments prove that under the above con-
ditions (a) a ‘ biologic form’ which in nature is restricted to the species of a
certain genus of host-plants becomes capable of infecting species belonging to
another genus, and (6) species of plants which are immune in nature are able to
be infected.

Among a number of detailed experiments given the following may be mentioned
to illustrate the above points: (a) The conidia of the biologic form of Erysiphe
Graminis on wheat, which has been repeatedly proved to be unable to infect
barley when sown on uninjured growing leaves of the latter, proved capable of
doing so when sown on cut-off leaves under certain cultural conditions. (6) The
two species of wheat, Triticum dicoceum and T’. monococcum, are, under natural
conditions, immune against the attacks of E. Graminis. Under the above-
mentioned method of culture, however, the conidia of Z. Gramznis on wheat are able
to infect both species, producing conidiophores and ripe conidia in six to seven
days.

The author considers that it is possible that 2m this change of infection-powers
of biologie forms of parasitic fungi in consequence of injury to the host-plant an
explanation may be found of the sudden appearance of disease on plants hitherto
immune. Attacks by animais, or injury }5 rain, frost, &c., may produce the same
change in the leaf-cells of the host-plant as that brought about by the above
method of culture, and consequently render susceptible to the attacks of a fungus
plants otherwise immune.

7. Willow-canker. By Professor T. Jounson, D.Sc., F.L.S.

Considerable damage has been caused by a canker in an osier holt in the west
of Ireland. The bark looks burnt and blistered at the canker-spot, shows black
specks breaking through it, and gradually peels off leaving the wood exposed
and sometimes shredded. The microscope shows abundant mycelium present in
the pith as well as the rest of the shoot. The black specks are the perithecia
of Physalospora (Botryospheria) gregaria, Sacc., or in some cases the pycnidia of
Dendrophoma Therryana, Sacc., which Saccardo thinks may be the spermogonium

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, Bol

stage of Physalospora. A third form of fungus—a Dzplodina—closely allied
to Diplodina salicis, West, was also present. Infection experiments were also
described.

8. On the Occwrrence of Ulva latissima and Enteromorpha compressa in
Sewage Effluents, and on Variations im the Composition of the Tissues
of these and Allied Seaweeds. By Professor Lerrs, D.Sc.. Ph.D., and
J.S. Torron, B.A.

‘The view expressed by one of the authors in conjunction with another chemist,!
that the abictan 3 of Ulva latissima in quantity in a given locality is a sign of
sewage pollution, has received remarkable confirmation by the occurrence of the
seaweed under very peculiar circumstances.

About a year ago it was observed that a green growth had made its appearance
on the fragments of brick used as the filling material in one of the experimental
contact beds (lower series) employed in the purification of the Belfast sewage, and
that this growth had the appearance of one of the varieties of green seaweed at an
early stage of development. By the spring of the present year the surface of the
contact bed had become dotted with patches of Ulva latissima, several of which
were a foot or two in diameter, and the fronds of the seaweed four or five inches
in length.

Adiatethet part of the works, the sewage after treatment (by septic tank and
subsequent double contact with filter beds) was allowed to flow into a shallow
lagoon, and there another green seaweed, Enteromorpha compressa, developed in
abundance.

The authors are of the opinion that the spores of these two species of Alge
must have found their way into the sewage by leakage of sea water into the
system—a view which is strongly supported by the high proportion of chlorine
present in the sewage—seventy parts per 100,000 being found as the mean of
twelve determinations, whereas ordinary sewage contains only from six to ten

arts. ;
: The occurrence of these seaweeds under the conditions stated above induced
the authors to study the chemical composition of their tissues with the view of
ascertaining to what extent the latter would be modified by environment or food
supply.
Ire following somewhat remarkable results have been obtained with the care-
fully washed and dried seaweeds ;—

Percentage Percentage
of Nitrogen of Ash
Ulva latissima— -

From the sewage contact beds . . . . Biel! 9°41

» Belfast Lough . 5 3 c é F » Gg 15:07

» Larne Lough . . : . : 4 ogeasOl 29-00
Enteromorpha compressa—

Growing in sewage effluent . : : . 44 16°65

i » Larne Lough , : ; P 3 -. L:96 28°60

Enteromorpha intestinalis—
From brackish ponds near Belfast . . : ~ 18 51-78

» Larne Lough . . 5 : c ae el GiL -—

The authors desire to express their thanks to Professor Gregg Wilson and to
Mr. Thornton for their assistance in identifying and supplying them with some of
the specimens employed in the above investigation,

' Letts and Hawthorne, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 1901, p 268, and Brit,
Assoc, Report, 1900,

852 REPORT—19038.
9. On the Colonisation of a Dried River-bed. By Miss M. C. Stopss.

The stream under consideration ran through meadows into the Thames, just
west of Northfleet, Kent. Its width was from 15 to 25 feet, locally widening to
40 or more, and there was an uninterrupted flow of 2 to 3 feet of clear water pro-
vided by a perennial spring in the chalk. Aquatic animals and plants abounded
on the muddy bottom, and tangled masses of Potamogeton, Callitriche, Ranunculus
aquatilis, &c., floated to the surface. On the sides and banks were growths
ot Typha, Phragmites, Sparganium, Myosotis, &c.

The supply of water was tapped in the winter and early spring of 1900-1 by
the powerful pumps of a new waterworks, and by April 1901 all water had
ceased to flow. By July the mud was firm enough to walk on, and was broken
at short intervals by cracks 6 inches across and several feet deep. last year’s
plants had left very few traces either in oron the mud. The only true aquatics
still growing were R. aquatilis var. trichophylius, which retained its divided
leaves, one plant of which flowered, and Lemna minor living under an inch or two
of mud, Of semi-aquatics there were :—

Few. CONSIDERABLE NUMBEBS.
Scattered, Dominant locally.
Caltha palustris. Alisma plantago. Carex paludosa.
Carex hirta. Carex riparia. Epilobium hirsutum.
Eupatorium cannabinum. Digraphis arundinacea. Glyceria aquatica.
Junous articulatus. Tris pseud-acorus. Helosciadium nodiflorum.
» obtusifiorus, Juncus communis. Myosotis palustris.
Ranunculus sceleratus. Nasturtium officinale.
Rumex hydrolapathum. Phragmites communis.
Sparganium ramosum. Saliz.

Scrophularia aquatica.
Typha latifolia.
Veronica anagallis.

#4 beccabunga.

Total frequent—twenty, of which eight were locally dominant.

Plants encroaching from land :—

Frew. CONSIDERABLE NUMBERS.
Scattered. Dominant locally.
Asparagus officinale Anthomanthum odoratum. Chenopodium Bonus-
(1 plant). Agrostis vulgaris. Henricus.

Convolvulus sepium (1). Bromus sterilis. Chenopodium alba.
Dipsacus sylvestris. Glyceria distans. Equisetum palustre.
Epilobium parviflorum. Holeus lanatus. Polygonum lapathifolium,
Field pea (1). Humulus liputus. Urtica dioica.
Papaver rhaas (2). Polygonum hydropiper.
Phalaris canariensis (2). ” periscaria.
Prunus communis, Rumex conglomeratus.
Sonchus arvensis. » + obtusifolius.
Trifolium repens (2). Solanwm duleamara.
Vicia Cracca. - nigrum.

Tussilago farfara.

Total frequent—eighteen, of which five are locally dominant.

There were, also, a little thalloid hepatic and moss which never reached
maturity, Funaria hygrometrica, one patch of Botrydium granulatum, and
Vaucheria down the cracks. Notable scarcity of Composite and Leguminose,
as of Bryophytes and Alee.

1902.—At first slow increase in dominance of land plants except grasses;
absence of Alisma and Ranunculus aquatilis, Lemna minor still alive under

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 853

the mud sheltered by nettles. By September great increase of land plants, solid
jungle-like growths 3 to 5 feet high.

1903.—Heavy rains this year assisted the water plants; Scrophularia locally
dominant, Myosotis very scarce; semi-aquatic tend to dominate in the open,
Urtica largely where sheltered by willow ; many grasses and Epilobium. Very
mixed communities, eg. Urtica and Phragmites struggling for dominance ;
Phragmites and Carex covered and nearly swamped by tangles of Galiwm Aparine ;
short Helosciadium and meadow grass forming a thick turf; hummocks of Carea:
paludosa covered by Humulus Lupulus and Solanum dulcamara.

The complete list shows eleven frequent semi-aquatics, of which four are
locally dominant, as against thirty-two frequent land plants, of which eight are
locally dominant.

10. The Botany of Upper Peru. By A. W. Hitt, VA.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. New Discoveries in Heredity. By W. Bateson, F.R.S.

2. Results of some Cross-breeding Experiments with Plants.
By Miss Evita Saunpers.

3. Recent Rxperiments in the Hybridisation of Orchids.
By Cuarzes C. Hurst.

Recent Progress in Orchid Hybridisation.

First hybrid raised in 1856. One thousand three hundred distinct crosses in
1903. Two hundred and thirty generic hybrids. Majority of hybrids fertile.
Hybrids of the fourth generation. Hybrids with pedigree of five distinct species,
Orchid hybrids offer wide field to the student of inheritance.

Intermediate Hybrids.

Writer’s experiments with Paphiopedilum (Cypripedium). First generation,
SxI=SI; second generation, SIx B=BI+BS. Results apparently consistent
with Mendel’s Principles,

Dominant Hybrids,

Mainly confined to generic matings, e.g. Sophronitis x Epidendrum = Epi-
dendrum, Infertile and cannot be tested in the light of Mendel.

False Hybrids.

Mainly confined to generic matings and all maternal, e.g. ZygopetalumQ x
Odontoglossum 3 = Zygopetalum; second generation gives same result. ‘heretore
‘false hybrids’ and not Mendelian ‘dominants.’ Writer's previous suggestion
of ie thenogenesle, Comparison with the paternal ‘false hybrids’ of Millardet
and De Vries. Further experiments into the nature of one-sided inheritance
urgently needed.

854 REPORT—1903.

4, La fleur des Gnetacées. By Professor LicNter.
5. Parthenogenesis in Gnetum ula, By Dr. Lorsy.

6. The Sandhill Vegetation of Birkdale. By Ovro V. DarBIsHIRE.

The sandhills are formed by the wind blowing inland the sand, which is
supplied by the sea.

Climatic conditions.—Rainfall of 31 inches; plenty of sunlight and heat during
the day, rapid cooling during the night, heavy fall of dew; strong sea winds
pected the day, land winds at night, drying effect ; sand not raised much by the
wind,

Edaphie conditions.—Sand not very salty ; loose grains, water soaks in and
evaporates rapidly ; isolating surface layer of dry hot sand-reefs, interior mass
cool and moist; water derived from rain and internal dew; food material
present,

Plant socveties.—Shore dunes (Agropyrum, Psamma); shore yalleys (Hon-
kenya, &c.); inland dunes (Psamma) ; inland valleys on peat (Parnassia, &c.),
and on sand (Salix repens, &c.). Moving dune front encroaching on grassland.

Common plant-features.—Rootstocks; xerophil leaves (types of Psamma,
Honkenya, Salix, &c.); plants small; trees reduced in size, in dune form; plants
in tufts.

Chief factors.—The sand and the wind. The plants are psammophytes, which
vary with exposure to wind. The sandhills are therefore an edaphic formation.
The dunes can be fixed by the binders, but temporarily only, till the supply of
sand from the sea is cut off.

7. The Histology of the Sieve Tubes of Angiosperms.
By Artuur W, Hint, M.A.

The paper deals with the structure and development of the sieve plate and of
the sieve fields, and also with the distribution and character of ‘ connecting threads ’
between the sieve tubes and the companion and cambiform cells in the phloém of
certain Angiosperms. ‘The sieve plates of the mature sieve tubes, which occur
in the horizontal or oblique end walls of the tubes, are traversed by relatively
thick slime strings, each being inclosed in a callus rod. In the radial and tangen-
tial walls the slime strings, which are grouped into oval or rounded pitted areas,
are much smaller than those in the sieve plates, and some three to six strings are
inclosed in a callus rod.

Connecting threads also occur between the sieve tubes and companion cells:
they are very short and numerous, and are usually situated in fairly deep and
transversely elongated pits. Between the sieve tubes and cambiform cells and
between the latter and the companion cells the small groups of threads are found
in small and deep pits.

During the winter these various threads may be covered with callus, but only
on the sieve tube side. The development of the sieve fields is similar to that of
the sieves of Pinus, and the sieve plates, though differing somewhat in the details
of their development, agree in their essential features with the sieve fields.

Groups of fine threads can be seen in the membranes of the pits in the lateral
walls of the youngest sieve tubes, which by the action of ferments (as it would
seem probable) are bored out and converted into slime strings, the cellulose
membrane in the immediate vicinity being at the same time converted into callus;
and thus is formed the callus rod with its included slime strings.

In the sieve plates the action of the ferment appears to proceed still further,
giving rise to a single large slime string in a callus rod.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION kK. 855

8, The Structure of Leaves of the Bracken from different habitats.
By L. A. Boop.e,

The external characters of the bracken (Pteris aquilina) vary with the habitat,
as has been pointed out by different authors. In a very exposed and sunny
situation the leaves are hard and short, while in a well sheltered and shaded
locality they are much larger and soft. Long sori and short sori are typical of
the first and second situation respectively.

The internal structure of the pinnules varies with the habitat in a correspond-
ing manner ; the presence of a continuous or nearly continuous hypoderm and the
large amount of the palisade tissue formed distinguish the leaf of the exposed from
that of the sheltered plant.

That these differences are not necessarily varietal is proved by the following
observations. A leaf which had grown up through a fairly dense bush of haw-
thorn, bramble, &c., showed, in its lower pinnez, which were immersed in the
bush, the external and internal characters of the shade form, while the upper

inne, which were free from protection, had the characters of the exposed form.

econdly, the relation of the different characters in question to external conditions
was also evidenced by a plant which was grown in a greenhouse (with heat) last
year, and was planted out again in the autumn. In the greenhouse it produced
only leaves of the shade type, of very delicate texture, and with the further
peculiarity that both the indusia were often reduced in size. This year the same
plant, growing in the garden, produced leaves of the type referred to above as
characteristic of the bracken in an exposed situation.

Such formation of a mesophytic or a xerophytic type of leaf by the same plant
in accordance with its environment is an example of what has been called ‘ direct
adaptation,’ and may be compared with Bonnier’s experiments on transplantation
to Alpine habitats and with the results of several authors on ‘sun-leayes’ and
‘ shade-leaves.’

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

The following Papers were read :—
1. Discussion on the Evolution of Monocotyledons.

i. The Evolution of Monocotyledons, By ETHEL SARGANT.

Monocotyledons and dicotyledons together form a group very distinct from
any other, and the probability is strong that the common stock from which they
spring was in all essential features Angiospermous.

Was the ancestral Angiosperm more like a monocotyledon or a dicotyledon—
that is, which of these two types is the more primitive ?

An answer to this question has been sought in three distinct lines of research,
but these have led to no positive evidence in favour of either branch.

I. No direct historical evidence is given by the succession of fossil forms.

IL. There is no reason to suppose the absence of a normal thickening ring in
the stem of monocotyledons a primitive character.

III. The development of the embryo within the embryo-sac has not proved
satisfactery as a guide to affinities.

; The study of pseudo-monocotyledons such as Corydalis cava,
Ranunculus Ficaria, ‘Carum Bulbocastanum, has shown that the
embryo within the embryo-sac in such species appears monocotylous
from the first. Yet the common ancestor of each genus must have
been dicotylous, and if the early history of the embryo-sac were any
guide to \race-history, we should expect it to throw light on the
transition from a dicotylous to a monocotylous form.

856 REPORT—1903.

Embryological evidence of another kind has recently been brought forward
to show that dicotyledons are the elder branch.

In the following paragraphs this evidence is set forth at some length under
two heads:

(A) The nature and strength of the evidence itself.
(B) The support which the view it suggests receives from the mature
characters defining monocotyledons.

(A) 1. The anatomy of the seedling soon after germination is often of value in
the study of affinities.

My own observations have convinced me that within the Liliaceze
the symmetry of the vascular system in the cotyledon, hypocotyl,
and primary root, is commonly characteristic of the genus, and is a
valuable guide to the affinities of genera with each other.

(A) 2. The vascular symmetry of the single cotyledon in monocotyledons forms
a sharp contrast with that of the first leaf. The bundles of the first leaf and
those which succeed it are symmetrical about a true midrib. The bundle-system
of the cotyledon is symmetrical about a pair of bundles, which may be distinct
or partially united.

To this rule there are a few exceptions. But most of the cases in
which the cotyledon seems to have a midrib can be connected through
allied species with forms in which the bundle-system is bisymmetrical,
and further work will probably link the few exceptional forms which
remain with the double type.

(A) 3. The bisymmetrical vascular structure of the ‘cotyledon’ in monocoty-
ledonous seedlings may be interpreted as the last trace of the double structure
which arose from the gradual union of two ancestral cotyledons to form a single
member,

This view is supported by :

(i) Comparative study of the Liliacew, which shows that—exclud-
ing species of exceptional habit—the many divergent schemes of
vascular symmetry found among the seedlings of this family can be
referred to a single type, in all probability the most ancient examined.
In this type the two massive bundles of the cotyledon are quite
distinct, and are symmetrically placed near the foci of its elliptical
transverse section.

(ii) Evidence from the Amaryllidacee, Iridaceew, and Aroides
which tends to show that the structure of their seedlings is derived
from a Liliaceous type.

(iii) Corroborative evidence from Palme and Scitamine to show
the general absence of a midrib from thecotyledon. Several herbaceous
species of Scitamineze have two distinct and opposite bundles in their
cotyledon.

(iv) Comparison with seedlings of Ranales, and particularly with
the species, fairly numerous in this alliance, which have their coty-
ledons partially united. A single trace from each cotyledon enters
the hypocotyl in the Ranal type. Each trace is clearly double, but
the root is diarch. In the primitive Liliaceous type the two traces
from the cotyledon enter the hypocotyl from opposite sides. Each
opens out into a double structure during the transition. The root
is tetrarch, Besides the resemblance in dual symmetry, I have per-
ceived in Zranthis and Podophyllum a similarity to the Liliaceous type
in the method of transition from stem to root, and in Eranthis the
temporary appearance of a tetrarch xylem plate at the base of the
tuber. The resemblance between the Ranal and Liliaceous type of
seedling structure supports our hypothesis whether we consider it as
homologous or homoplastic.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 857

(B) 1. The union of two ancestral cotyledons into a single member may have
arisen from the adaptation of the earlier monocotyledons to a geophilous habit.
This view is supported by :

(i) Comparison with the dicotylous species in which the cotyledons
are united for a considerable distance from the base upwards. With
the single exception of the mangrove, these are all highly specialised
geophytes. They all have a subterranean and greatly shortened vertical
axis, which is often tuberous.

(ii) The fact that all dicotyledons with a single seed-leaf are well-
marked geophytes.

(iii) The probability that the union of cotyledons is of service to
the geophyte by reducing the expenditure of material in assimilating
surfaces during the first year of growth. Such reduction is forced
upon plants of this habit by the short season of growth in their native
climate, and the prime necessity of forming underground organs before
the beginning of the dead season.

(B) 2. Many features characteristic of mature monocotyledons can be explained
as distinct adaptations to a geophilous habit, or as the necessary consequence of
such adaptation.

(i) The linear leaves of bulbs, with their parallel venation and
broad bases, are peculiarly adapted to rapid elongation and penetration
of the soil.

(ii) The stem of monocotyledons shows many concentric circles
of leaf-trace bundles. These are the almost inevitable consequence of
the insertion on a squat axis of closely packed leaves with broad bases.
From each leaf a number of parallel traces enter the axis in the
segment of a circle.

(iii) The substitution of short-lived roots in immediate connection
with the leaves, for a single branched tap-root is characteristic of low-
growing plants exposed to alternating periods of activity and repose.

(iv) The formation of albuminous seeds, so general among mono-
cotyledons, seems very commonly correlated with the geophilous habit
in Dicotyledons. In geophilous species the embryo is usually small
aud little developed, probably because it has no time to grow larger in
the short growing season. Such seeds usually require a long period of
maturation before they germinate.

ii. A Consideration of the Bearing of Fertilisation Phenomena and
Embryo Sac Structure on the Origin of Monocotyledons. By ETHEL
N. Tuomas.

There exists great uniformity among Angiosperms in these respects.

The development of the embryo sac shows it to be a megaspore.

Comparison with the germination of other megaspores shows that a great gulf
exists between Angiosperms and all other groups of the vegetable kingdom, No
distinction is found in this respect between monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

A few exceptional cases of embryo sac structure are known.

(a) Those in which normal productions arise from Jess than the usual number
of constituents. Do these indicate what is essential to the process ?

(6) Those in which normal productions arise from more than the usual com-
ponents. Are these primitive ?

The origin and modes of production of the Angiospermous endosperm are of

858 REPORT—1 903.

peculiar interest. Their study has not as yet given any very reliable clue to its
phylogenetic history.

These phenomena show no line of demarcation between monocotyledons and
dicotyledons, but where differences exist between the Archichlamydex and the
Sympetalz, monocotyledons are connected in these particulars with the Archi-
chlamydee.

2. On Stimulus and Mechanism as Factors of Organisation.
Ly Professor Farmer, f.2.S.

3. Alternation of Generations in the Dictyotacee and the Cytology of the
Asexual Generation, By J. Liuoyp WILLIAMS.

1. The nuclei of the vegetative cells of tetrasporic plants have about thirty-two
chromosomes in the karyokinetic figure.

2. In the stalk-cell division of the tetrasporangium the curved split chromo-
somes are easily counted and the unreduced number obtains.

3. In the tetraspore mother-cell there is a long period of preparation for
division. A well-marked synaptic stage appears while the cell is still young and
small. The thread is distinctly polarised and the nucleolus very irregular in form
and frequently attached to the spirem. At this stage also, and at no other, the
_ nucleus has asmall deeply staining spherule. After atime the thread becomes

thicker and less deeply stained, and it ultimately splits longitudinally. No clear
evidence has been seen of a second split—probably the separating halves become
greatly alveolated and connected together by cross-threads so as to present the
appearance of the ordinary reticulum of the resting stage. This condition, during
which the identity of the chromatin thread is completely lost, persists for a long
time. Thick cloudy masses then appear, which gradually condense into sixteen
chromosomes. These are bent upon themselyes until the limbs are parallel, or
cross each other, or form open rings.

The ensuing division is distinctly heterotype, and the spindle intra-nuclear,

4. The two daughter-nuclei in division have their axes parallel and the
spindles are formed on the sides of the nuclei remote from each other. The
division is homotype and the chromosomes show the reduced number.

5. In the germinating spore the chromosomes have been counted in the
prophase, the equatorial plate, and the dispirem stages, and the number is always
sixteen,

6. In the sexual plants, the dividing nuclei of the vegetative, antheridial, and
oogonial cells are characterised by having the reduced number of chromosomes.

7. The curious abnormal figures found in unfertilised eggs show sixteen
chromosomes, while the dividing nuclei of the germinating oospores always have
the full number.

The cytological evidence then shows that the germinating tetraspore grows
into a sexual plant, while the oospore on the other hand produces the tetrasporic
generation. Furthermore, the reduction stage has all the distinguishing characters
of the corresponding stage in the higher plants.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.

The following Papers were read :—

1, Modern Views on the Phylogeny of the Alge.
By Dr. F. F. Buackman,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 859

2. The new Botanical Laboratory at Cambridge.
By Professor H. Marsuatt Warp, 7.2.5.

3. The Seed of Lyginodendron.
By Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.2.S., and Professor F. W. OLIVER.

4, Fruit-dispersal in Adenostemma viscosum, orst.
By R. H. Yar, JA.

Adenostemma viscosum is a Composite which is widely distributed in the
warmer regions of the globe. The pappus in this plant is represented by several
(usually three) stalked glands, by means of the secretion of which the ripe fruits
are firmly attached to passing animals, and so dispersed,

During the time of flowering the gland-stalks are erect, and lie against the
corollas of the florets. When the fruits are ripe, the corollas fall off en masse,
being tied together by numerous filamentous hairs which clothe their upper ex-
tremities. The corollas and styles, as well as the ripe fruits, are cut off by special
absciss mechanisms, which consist partly of fragile thin-walled parenchyma, and
partly of thick-walled mechanical tissue. The involucral leaves are at first erect,
then become spreading, and finally reflexed, while the receptacle becomes
markedly convex. Thus the achenes, when ripe, are freely exposed. In the
meantime the glands (which are composed of numerous capitate glandular hairs,
thickly covering the upper parts of the pappus-setee) have excreted a copious
viscid fluid,! which causes them at this stage to bear a marked resemblance to the
tentacles of a Drosera leaf. The pappus-sete also bend down till they assume a
nearly horizontal position, thus affording the three glands a more extended base by
which to adhere. This movement is effected by a group of motor-cells which form
a pulvinus at the base of the stalk of each gland.

Certain other Composites have also been examined, and it is found that the
hygroscopic movements of the pappus is in some other cases (e.g. species of
Taraxacum, Tragopogon, Lactuca, Hypochoeris, &c.) due to similar motor-cells,
forming a continuous pulyinus situated just below the pappus.

5. On Homeomorphy among Fossil Plants.
By E. A. Neweit Arser, J. A.

It is fully recognised that among recent plants species of different descent may
possess many closely identical characters as the result of adaptation to particular
conditions of the environment. Such xerophilous plants as Cactus, Euphorbia,
and Stapelia are instances among many which might be quoted.

It is interesting to find that there is some reason to believe that similar instances
of parallelism of development may be found among fossil plants, Attention has
been called to this subject by recent progress in the study of fossil invertebrates.
It has been pointed out by Mr. 8. S. Buckman in regard to the Jurassic brachio-
pods, and by Messrs. Nicholson and Marr with reference to the graptolites, that
species sprung from different stocks commonly exhibit ‘the phenomenon of
similarity in general with dissimilarity in detail,’ and such have been termed by
Mr, Buckman homaomorphs.

1 The character of this secretion has not yet been examined, as only alcohol
material has hitherto been available. Specimens of this plant are, however, now
growing at the Cambridge Botanic Garden, from seed kindly sent by Mr. Macmillan
of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon; and it is hoped to decide this
point in due course from fresh material obtained from this source.

860 REPORT—1903.

Among fossil plants the following genera and species exhibit the phenomenon
of homceomorphy :—

Alethopteris and Lonchopteris : : ‘ : (Carboniferous),
Neuropteris heterophylla and Linopteris Miinsteri : m

Neuropteris gigantea and Linopteris sub-Brongniarti . ii

Otozamites and Dictyozamites ‘ : : i . (Jurassic).

Glossopteris and Gangamopteris ? : . . . (Permo-Carboniferous).

6. Methods of Mapping Plant Distribution. By T. W. WoopHeap.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On some Anatomical Features of the Scutellum in Zea Mais.
By Eruet SarGant and AGNES ROBERTSON.

The epidermis of the scutellum develops into a well-marked epithelium over
the face which is in contact with the endosperm. We have found that this
epithelium folds in on itself in places, forming narrow clefts of considerable depth
in the dorsal surface. Both sides are of course lined with the epithelial layer,
and the cleft. is so narrow that they often touch each other. Traces of secretion
are, however, commonly found within these structures which may fairly be described
as glands. Their number and size vary in the individuals examined. Their
distribution over the dorsal surface of the scutellum is also variable, but they are
least frequent near the apex and in the regions bordering on the median longitu-
dinal section ; indeed, they are often quite absent from these parts. The glands
are fully formed in the ripe seed, and we have not traced their development.

Similar glands are found in the allied genus Coiv, but in the individuals of
C. lachryma-Jobi which we examined they were less well developed than in Zea,

Vascular tissue——The main bundle of the scutellum runs upwards to the apex
from the level at which it is inserted on the stele of the axis. Just above its
insertion this massive bundle is collateral, with some slight suggestion of a double
structure. The single group of xylem is on the ventral side of the bundle.
Higher up in the scutellum the xylem begins to creep round the phloém, at the
same time throwing out short branches consisting of tracheids and albuminoid
cells. Near the apex the main bundle becomes amphivasal, and slender branches
are given off profusely from the dorsal face of the bundle. They penetrate all the
tissue on the dorsal side of the scutellum apex, but are most frequent near the
midrib. These little branclies always end freely just under the dorsal surface,
commonly about two rows of cells below the epithelium. In character they
resemble the transfusion tissue described by Professor Weiss in Stigmarian
rootlets,

We have not observed any relation between the terminations of the vascular
branches and the epithelial glands. These terminations occur in those parts of
the scutellum where the glands are least frequent.

2. Experiments with the Staminal Havrs of Tradescantia,
Ly HaroLtp WAGER.

If the stamina] hairs or petals of the purple-flowered Tradescantia virginica be
killed, either by heat or by certain fixing reagents, the coloured sap in the dead
cells is at once taken up by the protoplasm, and especially by the nucleus, which
becomes deeply stained red, blue, or greenish blue, according to the nature of the
reagent used. The alcohols and-corrosive sublimate give a blue or bluish-green
coloration ; acid alcohol or Pereny’s fluid red, and if killed by heat the coloration
is reddish violet.

Preparations thus made may be mounted permanently either in glycerine or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 861

Canada balsam. Petals of Jris, Vetch, or blue Linum, &c., do not give the same
results. The coloured sap escapes from the cell as soon as the protoplast is killed.
In Tradescantia it cannot escape so rapidly, owing apparently to the presence of a
cuticularised membrane around each cell, and it consequently remains in contact
with the nucleus a sufficiently long time to stain it. By means of this cuticular-
ised membrane the penetration of fixing fluid appears to be to some extent pre-
vented. The resistance of the cells to the action of reagents is, however, very
variable. In methylated spirit the protoplasmic movement ceases in most cells at
the end of 14 minute, but was still observable in a few cells at the end of 23
minutes, In 3 minutes a large number of the nuclei had become stained blue.
In 70 per cent. alcohol protoplasmic movement was visible in a few cells at
the end of 1] minutes, but was very slow and had ceased altogether in 11} minutes.
In 70 per cent. alcohol, with a few drops of 5 per cent. solution of hydro-
chloricacid, the movement was visible in some of the cells at the end of 7 minutes ;
in Pereny’s fluid at the end of 17 minutes, but had entirely disappeared in 17}
minutes; in saturated solution of corrosive sublimate the movement stopped at
once (in 15 to 30 seconds) in most cells, but was still visible in a few at the end
of 24 minutes, when it ceased altogether. In a 2 per cent. solution of potassium
bichromate movement was observable 4 hours after immersion, and in two other
cases for 24 hours; in one case the hairs were placed in a small bottle of the
solution. With al per cent. solution of chromic acid movement was visible
13 hour after the reagent was placed upon the hairs, and in the case of complete
immersion of a few hairs in a bottle, 1 hour 25 minutes after immersion. The
colour-changes which take place are: (1) The purple sap turns light blue, then
greenish ; (2) the nucleus and cytoplasm take up the stain; and finally (3) the
colour disappears entirely, leaving only the brownish colour due to the reagent.
In a 10 per cent. solution of ammonia the movement continues in some of the
cells for 16 minutes. The colour-changes are interesting: (1) the sap first of all
becomes light blue, with slow cytoplasmic movement ; (2) dark blue, movement
stopped, and coagulation taking place; (3) green, protoplasmic strands completely
broken up, coagulation masses abundant; (4) bright green, cytoplasmic strands
almost completely broken up and disintegrated. The nucleus remains colourless,
and when the green colour begins to disappear, it is found at one end or on the side
of the cell, surrounded by a thick layer of granules from the cytoplasm. It then
begins to swell up, the sap becomes lighter and lighter in colour, and gradually
disappears, and finally there is left in the cell only a colourless mass of disintegrated
protoplasm.

Under normal conditions the flowers of Tradescantia last for one day only.
They open early in the morning and begin to close up at night. This is accom-
panied by disintegration of the cells of the petals and stamens, which become
converted into a pulpy mass in the course of about two days. The protoplasm is
completely broken up in the majority of the cells, just as in the ammonia solution.

If, however, staminal hairs be taken from the flower in the middle of the day
and placed in water, the disintegration of the cell does not take place for a much
longer time, even after the cell is dead. The cells may remain in the living condition
for several days. In one of my experiments a fairly brisk protoplasmic movement
was visible in two or three cells twenty-four days after being placed in water.
In the dead cells the nucleus is coloured green and remains so for several days.

Staminal hairs taken from an open flower later in the day (8 P.M.) already
showed signs of disintegration, and in the course of two days had become com-
pletely disintegrated.

Hairs completely embedded in a layer of vaseline still showed protoplasmic
movements in a few of the cells at the end of six days. In the dead cells the
coloured sap could not escape, but the nucleus did not become stained, and ina
very short time both it and the cytoplasm had become almost completely dis-
integrated. This seems to:indicate that possibly the cell-sap plays some part in
the rapid protoplasmic disintegration which takes place when the flower is in its
pulpy condition. But further experiments are necessary before this can be satis-
factorily determined.

862 REPORT—19038.

3. On the Localisation of Anthocyan (red-cell sap) in Foliage Leaves,
By J. Parxin, IA.

There is an impression, the author believes, amongst botanists that the pigment
known as anthocyan resides as a rule in the epidermis of the leaf. No extensive
investigation seems to have been made to see how far this view is correct. The
author has so far submitted to microscopical examination four hundred different
instances of anthocyan occurring in foliage leaves. The species investigated include
monocotylous and dicotylous trees, shrubs, and herbs, together with a few ferns.
The anthocyan of leaves can be divided into four main categories :—

(1) The transitory anthocyan of young leaves——This appears during the de-
velopment of the leaf, disappearing again on maturity. It is a marked feature of
tropical foliage, though it occurs less strikingly in many plants of temperate
regions. Number of species so far examined, 235. The anthocyan is confined to
the mesophyll in 64 per cent. of these, to the epidermis in 20 per cent., and is
common to both in 16 per cent. ;

(2) ‘ Autumnal’ anthocyan.—This appears in many old leaves as they change
colour previous to their fall. Number of species examined,81. The anthocyan is
confined to the mesophyll in 78 per cent. of these, to the epidermis in {11 per
cent., and is common to both in 11 per cent.

(3) Lhe permanent anthocyan of mature leaves—This appears as the leaf
matures, and persists throughout the life of the leaf as a normal character. This
category includes (@) leaves with uniformly red lower surfaces; (6) leaves with
definite pigmented areas in the form of spots, blotches, or zones ; and (c) leaves of
horticultural varieties, with coloured foliage. Number of species examined, 54.
The anthocyan is confined to the epidermis in 70 per cent. of these, to the
mesophyll in 17 per cent., and is common to both in 13 per cent.

(4) The accidental anthocyan of mature leaves.—In distinction from (3) this
is not normally present in the mature leaves, but arises only under exceptional con-
ditions, such as: (@) excessive insulation, followed by cool nights, seen in Alpine
plants and in evergreens during winter; (>) the result of injury, a reddish zone
often appears round a wound in a leaf; and (¢) through the accidental exposure of
the lower surface to the full rays of the sun. The greater sensitiveness of the
under surface of the leaf to reddening is a fact of some interest and seems to have
been unrecorded. ’

Thirty cases have been examined, and in the majority of these the anthocyan
was confined to the mesophyll. '

In summary, then, the anthocyan of young leaves and of autumnal leaves is
usually confined to the mesophyll; that of mature leaves, when a normal feature to
the epidermis, and when an exceptional one to the mesophyll. Thus the mesophyll,
?.e. the chlorophyll cells, appears to be the usual, and, perhaps, the more primitive
position for the red sap in leaves.

The fact that anthocyan is usually present only in the mesophyll of young
leaves seems to weaken somewhat the view that its function there is to protect the
chlorophyll by absorbing the destructive solar rays.

The author is inclined to think that the biological significance of this pigment
has been overrated, and that the majority of cases may be capable of explanation
on purely chemical or physiological grounds.

4, The Forest Resources of Australia available for British Commerce.
By BR. T. ScamMett,

Forest conservation and development.—One of the most important duties
requiring the early attention of the Federal Government of Australia is that of
dealing with the forest resources of the Commonwealth. At present the forest
laws and regulations in force, according to the judgment of the Victorian Royal

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 863

Commission on Forestry (1901), are ‘weak, unsystematic, and inefficient.’ This
has been acknowledged at different times by the various Governments of the
Australian States, and desultory efforts to introduce some scheme of State regula-
tion have been made, but no scientific and comprehensive plan, on the lines laid
down by France, Germany, or India, has, apparently, been seriously considered
or, at any rate, attempted. Referring to the need of forest conservation and
* management in Greater Britain, Professor W. Schlich says: ‘Surely the time has
come—or rather it came some time ago—for a more vigorous forest policy on
sensible lines throughout the Empire. Let us strive to introduce systematic forest
management, more particularly into Canada and Australasia.’

The labours of the Victorian Commission have resulted in a strong recommen-
dation that the action of the Government of India should be followed by the
legislatures of Australia, and a commission has been appointed for the purpose of
obtaining information and of recommending measures for dealing with the forests
in Western Australia. ;

The forest areas of Australia.—The magnitude and importance of the interests
involved may be judged by the fact that the forest areas of Australia comprise
107,037,000 acres of marketable timber, or nearly half the areas of the forest lands
of Europe, excluding Russia. Of these areas Queensland possesses about forty
million acres, New South Wales twenty million, Victoria twelve million, South
Australia four million, Western Australia twenty million, and Tasmania eleven
million, To this should be added considerable areas in Queensland (over 100
million acres) and-in Western Australia (over seventy million acres) covered with
inferior timber, which has a local value for building and for general purposes.

Their nearness to the coast.—Most of the important forests of Australia are
fairly accessible from the sea. This especially applies to the belts of jarrah and
karri in Western Australia, and to Tasmania, whose forests of blue gum and
stringy bark grow down to the shores of that island.

The commercial timbers of Australia.—The timbers of the Commonwealth are
of many varieties, and some of them are of high commercial value. The chief of
these, as shown in the great work of the late Baron von Mueller, are the eucalypts.
Of this valuable timber alone there are over 150 species. Besides the eucalypts
there are many kinds of casuarinas (the Australian oak), some conifers (the Moreton
Bay pine, the cypress pine, the brown pine, or colonial deal, and others), many
acacias (the Australian wattle), Banksias, and numerous other varieties.

At present, however, the range of Australian wood available for British
commerce is limited. Western Australia and Tasmania are the only States that
have seriously dealt with the question of exporting timber or of using their forest
resources as a valuable commercial asset.

Conelusion.—My object in bringing forward at these meetings a practical
subject of this nature is to aid, so far as one can, the efforts that are being put forth
by scientific as well as commercial men to promote the interests of our colonies,
the development and progress of which cannot fail to be of deep concern to the
members of this Association. It will, I am sure, be readily granted that the more
widely the products and the possibilities of our great colonial possessions are
known, the more clearly will the fact be accentuated that our interests, whether
scientific, industrial, or commercial, are one.

5. On the Preservation, Seasoning, and Strengthening of Timber
by the Powell Process. By Wm. Pow tt.

The timber to be treated is put into a solution of common sugar and water
(or the refuse syrup of beet-sugar refining, with added water) and boiled in this
solution until the air in the interstices of the timber is exhausted; the timber,
still covered by the syrup, is allowed to cool down to 30° C. or less, by which
time the air-spaces are filled with syrup. The timber is then removed and dried
at a fairly high temperature in stores,

864 , REPORT-—1908.

The process is a very simple one, though naturally each particular kind of
timber requires some modification of the process suited to its nature.

Numerous experiments have been made by independent authorities with, in
many cases, astonishing results. The breaking strain of yellow pine had been
increased from 50 to 100 per cent., and all timber so treated was improved in
toughness and strength. Paving blocks of various kinds of timber had been
processed and then soaked for fourteen days in water, when it was found that
the ‘ Powellised’ blocks only absorbed from one-fifth to one-half the quantity taken
in by the natural wood. :

Other interesting figuresand details were given, and specimens of ‘ Powellised ’
and natural timber exhibited showing the change effected by the process in the
various kinds of wood in daily use.

6. Plants on the Serpentine Rocks in the North-East of Scotland.
By W. Witson.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 865

Section L.—EKDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—S1R WILLIAM DE W. Apney, K.C.B.,
D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tue Section over which I have the honour to preside deals with every branch
of education. It is manifest that in an Address your President cannot deal with
all of them, and it remained for me to choose one on which I might remark with
advantage. As my official work during the last thirty-three years has been con-
nected with education in science, I think I cannot do better than take as my
subject the action that the State has taken in encouraging this form of educa-
tion, and show that through such action there has been a development of
scientific instruction amongst the artisan population and in secondary day schools.
The development may not indeed have been to the extent hoped for, but it yet
rethains that solid progress has been made.

‘Ihave chosen the subject deliberately, as I find that there are very féw of
those who have the interests of education strongly at heart, or who freely criticise
those who have borne the burden of the past, that have any knowledge of the
trials and difficulties (some of its own creating, but others forced on it by public
opinion) which the State, as represented by the now defunct Science and Art
Department, had to contend with in its unceasing missionary efforts in the cause
of scientific instruction. I shall not attempt to do more than show that whatever
its defect may have been in tact, whatever its shortcomings in method, that
Department still deserved well of the country for the work that it did in regard
to the fostering of scientific instruction in the country at large.

As far back as 1852 the Government of the day, influenced very largely by
the Prince Consort, realised that it had an educational duty to perform to the
industrial classes. Whether it was influenced by philanthropic motives or from
the evidence before it that if Great Britain was to maintain its commercial and
industrial supremacy scientific instruction was a necessity, it matters little. The
fact remains that it determined that the industrial classes should have an oppor-
tunity of acquiring that particular kind of knowledge which would be of service
to them as craftsmen. In this year 1852 the Speech from the Throne contained
these words: ‘The advancement of Fine Arts and of Practical Science will be
readily recognised by you as worthy of a great and enlightened nation. I have
directed that a comprehensive scheme shall be laid before you, having in view the
promotion of those objects, towards which I invite your aid and co-operation.’

It is somewhat remarkable that the then Ministry, of which Lord Derby was
the chief and Mr. Disraeli the Chancellor of the Exchequer, did not survive to
promulgate the scheme, which proposed theoretical rather than practical science,
but that their successors, under Lord Aberdeen, issued it and commenced to
carry it into effect. In 1853 the Department of Science and Art was esta-
blished under the direction of Mr. Cole. Since 1835 so-called Schools of
Design had been in being, These came under the new Department, and it was

- 1903. 3K

866 REPORT—1908.

determined to establish science classes for instruction in science, Dr. Lyon
Playfair, the well-known chemist, being charged with the duty. Playfair
resigned in 1858, and in 1859 Mr. Cole induced a young Engineer officer, Lieut.
Donnelly, to undertake the inspection and organisation of science instruction
throughout the country. It was through this officer’s untiring energy and zeal
that the classes in science flourished and were added to at this early stage of
the new Department’s history. The same energy was displayed by Donnelly
during the whole of his long career in the service of the State, and I feel that it
was fortunate for myself to have served so many years as I did under one to whom
the country at large owes a deep debt of gratitude.

Not long ago he passed away from us, and there will be no more lasting
memorial to him than that which he himself erected during his lifetime in the
fostering that form of education which is of such vital importance to the national
well-being.

To revert to history, I may record that the first science examinations conducted
by the State took place in May 1861, and, the system of grants being made on the
results of examination having been authorised, the magnificent sum of 1,300J.
was spent on this occasion on the instruction of 650 candidates, that number having
been examined. Thus early was the system of examination commenced in the
Department’s career, and the method of payments on the results of these examina-
tions stereotyped for many years to come. There is reason to believe that the
educational experts of that day considered that both were essential and of educa-
tional value, a value which has since been seriously discounted. Employers of
labour in this country were not too quick in discerning the advantages that must
ultimately ensue from this class of education if properly carried out and encouraged.
Theoretically they gave encouragement, but practically very little, and this sur-
vives to some extent even to the present day. Some of the foremost employers,
however, gave material encouragement to the formation of classes, insisting on
their employees attending evening instruction ; but conspicuous above all was
Mr. Whitworth, who, in 1868, placed in the hands of the Department the sum of
100,000/., to be devoted to the creation of scholarships, which were to be
awarded at the annual May examinations, The proviso made by him was that
all competitors were to have had experience in practical work in an engineering
establishment. Such candidates, it was evident, must have found out their own
weakness in education, and, by working in science classes, could make up their
deficiencies, and the award of these scholarships would enable them to study
further, Sir J. Whitworth was far-seeing and almost lived before his age, but the
benefits that he has conferred, not only on individuals, but on science and
industries, by his generosity will make his name to be remembered for generations
to come. To have been a Whitworth scholar gives an entrée into various Govern-
ment and engineering posts, and we have in the front rank of science men who
have held these scholarships and whose names stand prominent in the develop-
ment of engineering.

Incidentally, I may say that no country but this, for very many years, con-
sidered that instruction’in science for the artisan was a large factor in maintaining
and developing industry. The educational interests of the employer and the fore-
man were, in some countries, well provided for, but the mechanic was merely a
hand, and a ‘hand’ trained in merely practical work he was to remain. He could
not aspire to rise beyond. We may congratulate ourselves that such a ‘ caste’
system does not exist amongst ourselves.

For the first twenty-five years of the Department of Science and Art the
grants given by Parliament for science instruction were distributed almost
entirely amongst those who were officially supposed to belong to the industrial
classes, and no encouragement was offered to any higher class in the social scale.

It would take me too long to show that at first the industrial classes were very
shy of seizing on the advantages offered them. Suffice it to say that they had to
be bribed by the offer of prizes and certificates of success to attend instruction,
and it was not for several years that the evening classes got acclimatised and
became popular.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L, 867

The evening instruction was then largely attended by adults. That this
was the case may be judged by the fact that the average age of candidates who
obtained successes in advanced chemistry was about twenty-five and in elementary
chemistry about twenty-one. I have alluded to the apathy displayed by employers
and by the artisans in the early days of the Department of Science and Art. The
causes which dispelled it in both employers and employed, in regard to science
instruction, will be found in the following extract from a report by the Depart-
ment of Science and Art :—

‘The Paris Exhibition (1867) caused the work of this country to be brought
into close comparison with that of the rest of the Continent, and in many points
both of manufacture and of skilled labour it was found England did not stand in
such a good position as she had done a few years back. Dr. Playfair, in a letter
to the Times, drew attention to this, attributing much if not all the evil to the
deficiency of our technical education among the artisan class. The substance of
this letter was taken up by many persons of influence during the autumnal recess,
and it led to a sort of educational panic, the cry for technical education becoming
quite the absorbing topic among all circles and forming a considerable portion of
the contents of all periodicals. Meetings were convened and addresses delivered
all over the country, and the question was so much ventilated that important
changes were anticipated in the educational arrangements of the country during
the coming session of Parliament, which unfortunately were put off on account of
the debates on the Reform Bill of 1868.

‘The agitation necessarily brought forward the work of the Science Division
of the Science and Art Department, and it is not a little remarkable how completely
the system which had been growing up since 1860 seemed to meet all the require-
ments of the case, and at the same time how few persons had any idea of its
provisions in spite of all that had been done to spread a knowledge of the scheme.

‘There can be no doubt, however, but that this six years’ work had silently,
though materially, effected a change in the general tone of feeling on the subject
of scientific education, and had been the means of preparing the country for the
1867 agitation. The different feeling among the working-classes on the subject
is forcibly shown in the Annual Report of the Science and Art Department.
From this it appears that in 1860 a pupil in one of the science classes in Man-
chester, a town usually looked upon as in advance of others, could hardly continue
his attendance at the class owing to the taunts of, and ill-treatment by, his
companions. Nevertheless, in the autumn of this year, 1867, hardly enough could
be said or done to satisfy the desire for science classes being formed for those
very persons who, but six years before, had considered attendance at a Govern-
ment science school as almost against the rules of their trade.’

Such was the account of 1867 given by Mr. G. C.T. Bartley (now Sir G. Bart-
ley, M.P.), The plan adopted by the Science and Art Department for encouraging
instruction in science was perhaps the best that could be devised at the time,
though we now know that it was capable of improvement. It may be mentioned
that an improvement in it was made the next year by the introduction of a very
large system of scholarships, scholarships which have enabled the possessors in
some instances to continue their studies at universities, and several distinguished
men owe their positions to this aid. It was in this same year that Mr. Whitworth
established his scholarships, as before described.

I have endeavoured to give a brief réswmé of what was done during the first
fifteen years of the existence of the Science and Art Department, and it con-
tinued to expand its operations after 1868 on the same lines for another ten years.
In 1876 your President became connected with the Department as a Science
Inspector. I am sure the Section will forgive me if I am somewhat personal for
afew moments, During the previous eight years I had had the honour of being
a teacher of some branches of physical science at the School of Military Engineer-
ing, and my own training was such that I had formed a very definite opinion as
to how science instruction should be imparted, both to those who had a good
general education and also to those who had not. The method was the
same in both cases; it should be taught practically, I may say that I had not

3K2

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_ 868 _- RePoRT—1908.

OOS er ery cert = —

myself had the advantage of being taught science at school; I had learned all
I knew practically, and I enfered the Department fully impressed with this
view. Whenever possible I have till the present time endeavoured to impress
this view on all who were interested in the work of the Department. Much of the
science that was taught in State-supported classes was largely hook work and
cram, and the theoretical instruction as a rule was unillustrated by experi-
ment. This was undoubtedly due to the system of payments being based on
success at the examinations. I must here say that there were honourable excep-
tions to this procedure. There were teachers, then as now, who knew the subjects
they taught, and who were inspired by a genuine love of their calling. I can in
my mind’s eye recall many such, some of whom have joined the majority and
others who are still at work and as successful now as then in rousing the
enthusiasm of their students.

I am not one of those who think, as some do, that cramming is entirely per-
nicious. A good deal of what used to be taught at public schools in my days
was cram. It served its purpose at the time in sharpening the memory, and was
a useful exercise, and it did not much matter if in after years much of it was
forgotten. Ifthe cramming is in science, a few facts called back to mind in after
life are better than never haying had the chance at all. In fact, as the faded
beauty replied to the born plain friend, it is better to be one of the ‘have beens’
than a ‘never wasn’t.’

It was determined to make a vigorous onslaught against teaching that was
unillustrated by experiment, and to encourage practical teaching as far as could
be done. Proper apparatus for illustrating lectures was insisted upon, and, with
aid from the Department, was eventually provided, though in some instances
several years’ pressure had to be exercised before it was obtained. I am bound
to say that in many instances after it had been procured a surprise visit by the
inspector during the hours of instruction often found that the lecture table was
free from all encumbrance, and that the dust of weeks was upon the apparatus
that should have been in use. This was sometimes due to the inability of the
teacher to use the apparatus rather than to a wish to disregard the rules laid
down by the Department; but usually it was due to the fact that the teacher
found cram paid best. I should like to say here that this state of things does not
exist at the present time, and that the training of science teachers by the Royal
College of Science and by other institutions has completely broken down the
excuses that were often offered at that time.

The first grants for practical teaching were paid for chemistry. The practical
work had to be carried out in properly fitted laboratories. There were not half a
dozen at the time which really answered our purpose, and one of the earliest pieces
of work on which I was engaged was in assisting to get out plans for laboratory
fittings. These were very similar to those which I had designed for the School
of Military Engineering several years before. Thanks to the Education Act of
1870 (I speak thankfully of the work that some of the important School Boards
have done in the past in taking an enlightened view of science instruction) there
were some localities where the idea of fitting up laboratories was received with
favour, and it was not long before several old ones were refitted, in which instruc-
tion to adults was given, and new ones established in Board Schools for the benefit
of the Sixth Standard children. At that time an inspector’s, like the policeman’s,
lot was not a happy one. We had to refuse to pass laboratories which did not
fulfil conditions, though we left very few ‘hard cases.’

Till after the passing of the Technical Instruction Act in 1887 the Department
aided schools in the purchase of the fittings of laboratories (both chemical and
others), and year after year this help, which stimulated local effort, caused large
numbers of new laboratories to be added to the recognised list. After six or
seven years we had a hundred or more laboratories at work of what I may call
‘sealed-pattern efficiency.’ I am not very partial to sealed patterns, but they
are useful at times, for they tell people what is the least that is expected from
them. The pattern was not without its defects; but laboratories, like other
matters, follow the law of evolution, and the more recently fitted ones show that’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 869

the experience gained whilst teaching or being taught in a sealed-pattern type
has led to marked improvements. Personally I am of opinion that only neces-
saries should be required, and I rebel against luxuries; for a student trained
by means of the latter will, as a rule, in after life fail to meet with anything
beyond the mere essentials for carrying on his scientific work.

The sealed pattern is practically in abeyance, though it can be trotted out as
a bogey, and any properly equipped laboratory is recognised so long as it meets
the absolute necessities of instruction.

The half-dozen chemical laboratories which existed in 1877 have now expanded
to 849 physical and 774 chemical laboratories. These are spread over all parts
of England, I leave out Scotland and Ireland, as the science teaching is no longer
under the English Board of Education.

It is only fair to say that many of this large number of laboratories are at
present in secondary schools, regarding which I shall have to speak more at length.
But the fact remains that in twenty-seven years there has been such a growth of
practical science teaching that some 1,120 laboratories have come into being. My
predecessor in the Chair likes to call laboratories‘ workshops.’ I have no objection,
but the reverse; for the word ‘laboratory,’ like ‘ research,’ sounds too magnificent
for what is really meant, and all education should more or less be carried out in
workshops.

The increase is as satisfactory as it is remarkable. It was only possible to
increase the numbers in early days by gentle pressure and prophesying smooth
things which, happily, did eventually come to pass. In later days the increase
has been almost automatic. The Technical Instruction Act has called into being
technical instruction committees who in many cases have taken up science instruc-
tion in their districts in earnest. They, too, have had public money to allocate, and
not a little has gone in the encouragement of practical education. It may, how-
ever, be remarked that had it not been for the preliminary work that had been
done by the Science and Art Department it is more than probable that the
Technical Instruction Act of 1887 would never have seen the light.

A reference must now be made to the removal of what anyone will see
was a great bar to the spread of sound instruction in every class of school where
science was taught. So long as the student’s success in examination was the
test which regulated the amount of the grant paid by the State, so long was it
impossible to insist on all-round practical instruction. It was impracticable to
hold practical examinations for tens of thousands of students in some twenty
different subjects of science. The practical examination in chemistry told its tale
of difficulties. It was ouly when the Duke of Devonshire and Sir John Gorst in
1898 substituted for the old scheme of payments payment for attendance, and
in a large measure substituted inspection for examination, that the Department
could still further press for practical instruction. For all elementary instruction
the test of outside examination does more harm than good, and any examination
in the work done by elementary students should be carried out by the teacher,
and should be made on the absolute course that has been given. It seems to
be useless or worse that an examination should cover more than this, Instruction
in a set syllabus which for an outside examination has to be covered spoils
the teaching and takes away the liberty of method which a good teacher
should enjoy, The literary work involved of answering questions, for an
outside examiner, is also against the elementary student’s success, and cannot be
equal to that which may properly be expected from him a couple of years later.

Advanced instruction appears to be on a different footing. The student in
advanced science must have gradually obtained a knowledge of the elementary
portions of the subject, and.it is not too much to ask him beyond the inspection
of his work to express himself in decent English and submit to examination from
the outside; but even here the payment for such instruction should be by an
attendance grant tempered in some degree by the results of examination, since
examiners are not always to be trusted.

The attendance grant was not viewed by some with great favour at first, and
protests were received against its adoption, a fayourite complaint being that it

870 REPORT—19038.

was sure to entail a loss of grant. One became suspicious that some of those
who protested were aware that the last bulwark which defended the earning of
grants by cram was being removed, and that inspection might prove more irksome
than examination. This is past history now, and the new system works as
smoothly as the old and with not more complaints than are to be always expected.
As I have said, grants were for very many years supposed to be confined to
aiding the instruction of the industrial classes, but this limitation was more nominal
than real. It might probably be imagined that it was no very difficult task to
distinguish an artisan and his children from students who belonged to the middle
classes. This was not the case, however. Children belonging to the industrial class
were, on joining a science class, obliged to state the occupation of the father, and it
was no uncommon thing for fathers to be given brevet-rank by their children.
Thus, a bricklayer’s son would describe his father as a ‘ builder,’ which, if true,
ought to have brought him into the ranks of the middle class. These unautho-
rised promotions were one of the difficulties the inspector had to face when judging
as to the status of the parents. ‘This difficulty was largely met by a rule that
all those who attended evening classes were supposed to be of the industrial
class ; but as day classes increased the numbers of those who by no possibility could
be of the artisan class also increased, and it became a very invidious duty of
the inspector to put M.C. (Middle Class) against the names of many. It was
determined by superior authority that only those students or their parents who
could claim exemption from income-tax should be reckoned as coming within the
category of industrial students. In early days the qualification for abatement on
income-tax was a much lower figure than it is to-day, and almost each succeeding
Chancellor of the Exchequer has raised the figure of the income on which the
abatement could be claimed. To-day itis, I believe, 700/. a year, bringing the official
definition as to membership of the industrial classes to an absurdity. It became
evident to the official mind, which some people are good enough to say works but
slowly, that the definition must be amended or the limitation abolished. The
progress of events happily made the abolition the better plan, and was the means
of allowing inroads of science instruction to be made into secondary day schools.
The history of these inroads I shall now give. Instruction given in so-called
organised science schools was originally aided by the Department by means of a
small Capitation Grant. These schools were supposed to give an organised course
of science instruction, and the successes at examination determined the payment.
They were not satisfactory as at first constituted, and they so dwindled away in
numbers that in 1890 only some one or two were left. A small increase in Capi-
tation Grant in 1892 revived some of them, anda fair number existed in the follow-
ing year. There was no doubt, however, that the conditions under which they
existed were most unfavourable for a sound education, which ought not only to
include science but also literary instruction. The latter was, in many schools,
wholly neglected, owing to the fact that the grants earned depended on the
results of examination, and so all the school time was devoted to grant earning.
Mr. Acland; at this time Minister for Education, was made aware of this
neglect to give a good general education, and as I was at that time responsible
for science instruction I was directed to draw up a scheme for reorganising these
schools and forcing a general as well as scientific education to be carried out.
Baldly the scheme abolished almost entirely + payments on results of examination,
and the rate of grant depended on inspection and attendance. Further, a certain
minimum number of hours had to be given to literary subjects, and another
minimum to science instruction, a great deal of it being practical and having to
be carried out in the ‘workshop.’ The payments for science instruction were to
be withheld unless the inspector was satisfied that the literary part of the
education was given satisfactorily.
The scheme was accepted and promulgated whilst the Royal Commission on
Secondary Education was sitting, and, if I may be allowed to say so, Mr. Acland’s
tenure of office would be long remembered for this innovation alone, since in it he

! Within the next four years they will entirely cease,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 871

took a wide departure from the traditional methods of the Department and created
a class of secondary school which differed totally from those then existing.
Needless to say the scheme was not received with favour on all sides, more espe-
cially by those who thought that serious damage would be done to secondary schools
by the competition from this new development of secondary education. I am not
ashamed to say that the disfavour shown on some sides made me rejoice, as it
indicated that a move had been made in the right direction. At first it was
principally the higher-grade Board Schools that came under the scheme, and in
the first year there were twenty-four of them at work. This type of school gradually
increased until about seventy of them, and chiefly of a most efficient character, were
recognised in 1900. Their further increase was only arrested by the Cockerton
judgment, now so well known that I need only name it. But here we come to
a most interesting development. State aid, as already said, was at first limited to
the instruction of the industrial classes, but no limitation as to the status of the pupil
was made in this new scheme for the schools of science, and logically this freedom
was extended in 1897 to all instruction aided by the Department—the date when
all limitation as to the status of the pupil was abolished, the only limitation being
the status of the school itself. Thus, if a flourishing public school, charging high
fees for tuition, were to apply to participate in the grant voted by Parliament, it
may be presumed, it would have to be refused. The abolition of the restriction
as to the status of the pupils left it open to poorly endowed secondary grammar
schools to come under the new scheme. To a good many the additional income
to be derived from the grant meant continuing their existence as efficient, and
for this reason, and often, I fear, for this reason alone, some claimed recognition
as eligible.

Such is an outline history of the invasion of science instruction into certain
secondary schools—an invasion which ought to be of great national service. In
my view no general education is complete without a knowledge of those simple
truths of science which speak to everyone, but usually pass unheeded day by day.
The expansion of the reasoning and observational powers of every child is as
material to sound education as is the exercise of the memory or the acquisition of
some smattering of a language. I am not going into the question of curricula in
schools, as I hope, regarding them, we shall have a full discussion. But of this
I am sure, that no curriculum will be adequate which does not include practical
instruction in the elementary truths of science. The President of the Royal
Society, in his last Annual Address, alluded to the medizval education that was
being given in a vast number of secondary schools, Those who planned the system
of education of those times deserve infinite credit for including all that it was
possible to include. Had there been a development of science in those days, one
must believe that with the far-seeing wisdom they then displayed they would lave
included that which it is the desire of all modern educationists to include. Obser-
vational and experimental science would have assuredly found a place in the system.

One, however, cannot help being struck by the broadening of views in regard
to modern edveation that has taken place in the minds of many who were certainly
not friendly to its development. Perhaps in the Bishop of Hereford, when
headmaster of Clifton, we have the most remarkable early example of breadth of
view, which he carried out in a practical manner, surrounding himself with many
of the ablest teachers of science of the day. There are other headmasters who,
though trained on the classical side, have had the prescience to follow in his
footsteps, and of free will; but others there are who have neither the desire nor the
intention, if not compelled to do so, to move in the direction which modern
necessities indicate is essential for national progress. Iam inclined to think that
the movement in favour of modernising education has been very largely quickened
by the establishment of schools of science in connection with endowed schools and
the desire for their foundation by the Technical Instruction Committees, who had
the whisky money at their disposal, and who often more than supplemented the
parliamentary grants which these schools were able to earn. It was the circum-
stance that the new scheme was issued when many endowed schools were in low
water that made it as successful as it has been,

872 REPORT—1908.

The number of schools of science increased so rapidly that it appeared there
might be a danger of too many of this type being started on insufficient educational
grounds. Science instruction was carried in them to such an advanced point and so
many hours of the week were spent on it that they became in some degree specialised
schools. At least eight hours a week had to be devoted to science, ten to literary
instruction, and five to mathematics—any further time available could be spent
on any section that was considered desirable. For some pupils the time devoted to
science is barely enough, but for others who intend to follow careers in which the
literary section should predominate it appeared that some curtailment of hours in
the science section might be usefully allowed, and it became a question how far
such instruction might be shortened without impairing its soundness. After
much anxious thought it was considered that four hours per week, besides
mathematics, was the very least time that ought to be devoted to such instruction,
and that the latter part of it should be practical work. A scheme embodying
this modification was approved by the Lord President and the Vice-President
whilst I was Principal Assistant Secretary for Secondary Education, and smaller
grants than those for schools of science were authorised in 1901 for those schools
who were prepared to adopt it. By the scheme instruction has to be given only
in such subjects and to such an extent as is really necessary to form part of that
general education of ordinary students who might not have to follow in industrial
pursuits. This modified and shortened course has met with unqualified success.
Some 127 schools came under the scheme the first year, and I gather that there will
be a considerable increase in numbers in the future. The establishment of schools
of science and of these schools may be considered to be a great step taken in getting
practical instruction in natural knowledge introduced into secondary schools. The
leaven has been placed in some 300 of them, and we may expect that all schools
which may be eligible for State aid will gradually adopt one scheme or the other.
Though it is said that there is nothing in a name, I am a little doubtful as to
whether the earmarking of science education as distinct from secondary education
is not somewhat ofa mistake at the present day. or my own part, I should like
to think that the days have passed when such an earmarking was necessary or
advisable. The science to be taught in secondary schools should be part and parcel
of the secondary education, and it would be just as proper to talk of Latin and
Greek instruction apart from secondary education as it is to talk of science instruc-
tion. One of the causes of the unpopularity of the Science and Art Department
was its too distinctive name. At the same time it would be most unwise at the
present time, when the new Education Committees are learning their work and
looking to the central authority for a lead, for the State to alter the conditions on
which it makes its grants to these schools. It will require at least a generation
to pass before modernised education will be free from assault. If science instruc-
tion is not safeguarded for some time to come it runs a good chance of disappearing
or being neglected in a good many schools. As to the schools which have no
financial difficulties, it is hard to say what lines they may follow. Tradition may
be too strong in them to allow any material change in their courses of study. If
it be true that the modern side of many a public school is made a refuge for the
“incapables,’ and is considered inferior to the classical side, as some say is the case,
such a side is practically useless in representing modern education in its proper
light. Again, one at least of the ancient universities has not shown much sympathy
with modern ideas, and so long as she is content to receive her students ignorant
of all else but what has been called medieval lore, so long will the schools which
feed her have no great inclination to change their educational schemes.

If we would only make the universities set the fashion the public schools
would be bound to follow. The universities say that it is for the public schools
to say what they want, and wce versa, and so neither one nor the other change.
It appears to me that we must look to the modern universities to lead the move-
ment in favour of that kind of education which is best fitted for the after life of the
large majority of the people of this country. If for no other reason, we must for
this one hail the creation of two more universities where the localities will be
able to impress on the authorities their needs, The large majority of those whose

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 873

views I share in this matter are not opposed to or distrust the good effects of those
parts of education which date from ancient times. The great men who have come
under their sway are living proofs that they can be effective now as they have been
in times past, but we look to the production of greater men by the removal of the
limitations which tradition sets. I myself gratefully acknowledge what the public
school at which I had my early education did for me, but I think my gratitude
would be more intense had I been given some small elementary instruction in that
natural knowledge which has had to be picked up here and there in after life.

There is one type of college which I have not alluded to before, and that is
the technical institutes. These have been fostered by the localities in which
they are situated, and been largely supported by the whisky money, supple-
mented by Government aid. Iam glad to see that in the last regulations of the
Board of Education these colleges will receive grants for higher scientific instruc-
tion, and I have no doubt that in the near future such institutions and schools of
science will receive a block grant, which will give them even still greater freedom
than they now enjoy. These are colleges to which students from secondary schools
will gradually find their way, where they wish for higher education of a type
different from that to be gained at a university.

I haye endeavoured to give a brief historical sketch of what the State has
done in helping forward instruction in natural knowledge amongst the industrial
classes, adults and children, and how gradually its financial aid has been extended
to secondary schools. I have also endeavoured to indicate the steps by which
practical instruction has been fostered by it. I have done this because I am
confident that ninety-nine educationists out of every hundred have but little
idea what the State has been doing for the last fifty years. Some connected with
secondary schools—I have personal knowledge—were till lately ignorant that
the State had offered advantages to them of a financial nature. I may say that
the work of the late Science and Art Department was largely a missionary work.
It was abused, sometimes rightly but more often wrongly, for this very work, and
it had more abusers at one time probably than any other Government Department.
Even friends to the movement of modernising education found fault with it as
antiquated and slow, but I can assure you that no greater mistake can be made in
pressing forward any movement by any hurried change of front or by endeavouring
to push forward matters too rapidly. In the first place, the Treasury naturally
views untried changes with suspicion, and this fact has to be dealt with more
particularly when there is no great expression of public opinion to reckon with,
At the same time it cannot be stated too strongly that the Treasury has in recent
years dealt in a friendly and enlightened spirit with all matters which could atfect
the spread of science. Again, there isa hostility to great and rapid changes in the
minds of those whom such changes affect.

The policy must always be to progress as much as is possible without rousing
too great an opposition from any quarter, and I think it will be seen that the
progress made during the last twenty-five years has, by the various annual incre-
ments, been perhaps more than could have been hoped for, and gives a promise
for even more rapid advances in the future.

As an appendix to this Address I have given a brief epitome of the increases in
students, in schools, in laboratories, and in grants which have taken place since
1861. If to the last be added the amount spent out of the whisky money an
additional half million may be reckoned.

It will be seen that the progress made has been gradual but satisfactory, and
that, if we showed some of the results graphically, weighted according to the
circumstances of their date, and dared make an extrapolation curve of future
results, we should have a complete justification for prophesying hopefully.

The question of the supply of science teachers has already been referred to.
My remarks I should like to supplement by saying that in the greater number of
schools teachers are to be found who have been trained at the Royal College of
Science, and mostly at public expense—some through scholarships gained by
competition and some through training selected teachers. The success of the
movement for the introduction of science instruction in schools depended on

874, REPORT—1908.

the proper supply of teachers, and even now the demand for men possessing
the highest teaching qualifications in science is greater than the supply. It may
be said, I think, that our science teachers from the college have one special qualifi-
cation, and that is, that besides the knowledge of science, practical and theoretical,
that they have acquired, they have lived in an atmosphere of what is called
research, and which might be called original investigation. Professors, assistants,
and students alike are impregnated with it, and when the teacher so trained takes
up his duties in his school he still retains the ‘reek’ of it. True instruction in
science should, as I have before said, be practical, and practical instruction should
certainly include original inquiry into matters old or new. The teacher who
retains the ‘reek’ is the teacher who will prove most successful. It will
thus be seen that the State had the task before it, not only of introducing
instruction in science, but of training teachers to give such instruction. This
problem is the same as now exists in Ireland, and the experience gained in England
cannot but be of the greatest use to those at the head of Irish technical
education.

Before concluding there is one subject that I must lightly touch upon, and
that is the supply of teachers other than science teachers. The Education Act of
1870 gave the power to elementary schools to train pupil teachers, who in the
process of time would become teachers, either by entering into a training college
by means of a King’s Scholarship or, less satisfactorily, by examination. In
large towns the need of a proper training for pupil teachers has been felt, and
gradually pupil teacher centres were established, principally by School Boards,
where the training could be carried out more or less completely ; but in the rural
districts and smaller towns the pupil teacher has had to be more or less self-
taught, and except in rare cases ‘self-taught ’ means badly taught. The Training
College authorities make no secret of the fact that one of the two years during
which the training of the teacher is carried out has to be devoted more or less
to instructing the pupils in subjects they ought to have been taught before they
entered the college. Thus all the essential and special instruction which is
given has to be practically shortened, and the teacher leaves the college with less
training than he should have.

The new Education Act has put it in the power of the educational authorities
to rectify the defects in the training of pupil teachers, It is much to be hoped
that Councils will separately or in combination either form special centres for the
training of all pupil teachers or else give scholarships (perhaps aided by the State)
to them, to be held at some secondary school receiving the grant for science
and recognised by the Board of Education as efficient. The latter plan is
one which commends itself, as it ensures that the student shall associate with
others who are not preparing for the same calling in life, and will prevent
that narrowness of mind which is inevitable where years are spent in the one
atmosphere of pedagogy. The non-residential training college, where the training
of the teacher is carried on at some university college, is an attempt to give
breadth of view to him, but if attempted in the earliest years of a teacher's
career it will be even more successful. All teaching requires to be improved,
and the first step to take in this direction is to educate the pupil teacher from his
earliest day’s appointment, for his influence in after years will not only be felt in
that elementary, but will also penetrate into secondary, education. In regard to
the additions which are required in elementary education, and which require the
proper training of the pupil teacher, I must refer you to a report which will be
presented to the Section. The task of training pupil teachers is one which requires
the earnest and undivided thought of the new Education Committees.

In the earnest Address given by my predecessor in this Chair he brought forward
the shortcomings of secondary education and of the requirements for a military
career in a trenchant manner and with an ability which I cannot emulate. With
much of what he said I agree heartily, but 1 cannot forget that, after all, the
details of education are to some extent matters of opinion, though the main features
are not. We must be content to see advances made in the directions on which the
majority of men and women educational experts are agreed. Great strides have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 875

already been made in educating the public both in methods and subjects, but a
good deal more remains to be done.

It may be expected, for instance, that the registration of teachers will lead to
increased efficiency in secondary schools, and that the would-be teacher, fresh
from college, will not get his training by practising on the unfortunate children
he may be told off to teach. It may also be expected that such increased efficiency
will have to be vouched for by the thorough inspection which is now made under
the Board of Education Act, by the Board, by a university, or by some such
recognised body. It again may be expected that parents will gradually waken
up to the meaning of the teacher's register and the value of inspection, and that
those schools will flourish best which can show that they too appreciate the
advantages of each.

I have to crave pardon for having failed to give an Address which is in any
way sensational. J have thought it better to review what has been done in the
past within my own knowledge, and with this in my mind I cannot but prophesy
that the future is more than hopeful, now that the public is beginning to be
educated in education. Jt will demand, and its wants will be supplied.

APPENDIX.

Number of Schools of Science and their Grants.

Higher-

| Endowed Taeknical
Year grade Secondary : _ | Total Schools Total Grants
| | Schools | Schools | Institutes |
| | | £
|) . 1895 BB Bly wecrin ceeeb At 112 39,163
| 1898 69 507.) 49 | 168 98,849
| 1901 | 63 106 43 212 118,833 |
1903 | 50 119 BT | 226 Not yet known! |
2 In 1902 124,3002. was paid. i
Number of Schools teaching Shortened Course of Science.
Year No.
1902 5 6 . : 127
1903 : : : : < 184
Number of Laboratories recognised.
Year Chemistry Metallurgy | Physics Biology Mechanics
| 1880 133 a | oe ae —
1900 669 37 219 17 4 |
1901 722 37 291 26 10
1902 758 39 320 34 14 |

Grants paid for Science Instruction.

Year Amount | Year Amount

£ £
1860 709 1890 103,453
1870 20,118 1895 142,543
1875 42,474 1901 212,982
1880 40,229 1902 240,822
1885 63,364

876 REPORT—1903.

The following Papers were read :—
1. On School Curricula.
i. By Professor Micnarn E. Sapuer, I.A., LL.D.

1. Curriculum of Primary and Preparatory Schools.

Under this head are included (a) public elementary schools the curriculum of
which ends about fourteen; (6) schools which are preparatory to secondary schools
(these again in turn are preceded by instruction given either in schools for little
children or by governesses); and (ce) kindergarten and preparatory schools attached
to secondary schools.

Nature and Scope of Early Studies.—In this grade of education there is great
advantage in educating boys and girls together. In many ways these early years
are educationally the most critical years of a child’s life. Great importance
should be attached to the aptitude of the teachers, and to their sympathy with
young children, Careshould be taken to avoid (1) rigid separation of the subjects,
and (2) on the other hand namby-pambiness. Children are not strengthened for
the tasks of later years by being kept back too long from facing real difficulties.
The point of junction between the kindergarten and the lower school needs more
attention educationally than it has generally received.

In this stage of education special importance should be attached to training
the powers of expression alike in the mother tongue, with the brush, with the
fingers, and (through dancing and physical drill) with the body and limbs. The
ideal course of education for little children is one which carefully combines
mousiké and gumnastiké. Much can be done to lay a good foundation for the study
of geometry. Stress may also be laid on the importance of the intelligent teaching
of arithmetic. In the curriculum, at this stage, history-teaching best takes a bio-
graphical form, but different children show remarkably different aptitudes for
historical studies. Emphasis should be laid on the need for good teaching of
geography, and for the intelligent study of living things (particularly of plant life) ;
on singing and physical exercises, and on well-organised and carefully supervised
school-cames. So far as it can be arranged, group-work is to be recommended,
e.g. in connection with the teaching of history and literature, rough models can
be made by a small class of children. Modelling, drawing, simple carpentry,
painting, and other forms of expression through the hand are particularly valuable.
Care should be taken to encourage children to ask questions instead of discouraging
anything which interrupts a preconceived plan of lesson. A good school combines
discipline with the encouragement of individuality. ‘

Effect of Scholarship Examinations on the Curricula of Preparatory Schools. —
The powers of different children vary so greatly in degree and in rapidity of
development that it is very difficult to mention a point up to which a common
course of instruction should be carried. There is reason to regret the numbing
effect of our public-school scholarship and entrance examinations on the education
of little boys. The grip of the classical tradition is nowhere more mischieyous
than in the control of the education of little boys up to the age of twelve. In our
preparatory schools (admirable as they are in tone and in their individual care of
the character of the boys), we fail properly to teach them the use of their mother
tongue; we fail as regards the teaching of history and the creation of a love for
literature ; we fail to make proper use of geography as a school subject; we have
far too little manual training and drawing; and there is little leisure for the
intelligent study of nature. And the root of all the trouble is the artificially
high standard of attainment in Latin and Greek which is required at the public
schools at their entrance examinations.

Improvement desirable in Classical Teaching.—In order to facilitate the trans-
ference of promising pupils from the elementary schools to the secondary schools
at twelve years of age, much is to be said for the ‘reformed curricula’ which are
now being adopted in an increasing number of German classical schools,

PRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 877

9. Curriculum of various Types of Secondary Schools.’

A protest should be made against the assumption that boys and girls of secondary
school age ought to go through the same course of studies. It may be doubted
whether it is at all wise to give, in ordinary cases, to girls between the age of
twelve and sixteen as heavy a burden of work as can he borne by many boys 01
the same age, though even among boys there are great differences of strength and
in the rate of physical and mental development.

There are three types of secondary education which seem to call for separate
treatment. By separate treatment is meant the assignment of a special curriculum.

The three types of curricula would be as follows :—

(a) Engineering and other professions depending on Applied Science.—A
secondary school leading up to the engineering professions (mechanical, electrical,
civil, and mining) and to other callings connected with applied science. The aim
of such a curriculum should be to equip a boy at sixteen with the following attain-
ments: command over his mother tongue, interest in history and good literature,
sound knowledge of geography, thorough grounding in mathematics, skill in
speaking and writing one modern foreign language, fair acquaintance with the
requirements of physical science, and skill in using the pencil and brush.

(6) Commercial Professions —For commercial professions, the time assigned to
mathematics and to laboratory work in science might be somewhat reduced in
order to make room for a second modern language. As another form of this
curriculum, many experienced men of business would recommend a combination
of Latin and one modern language.

(c) Literary Professions.—For the more literary professions, a curriculum
providing for instruction in French, Latin, and then Greek or German (in the
order stated), would naturally follow to some extent the lines of the Frankfort
curriculum.

8. Desirable Reforms.

(a) We ought to have in our English schools far better teaching of the mother
tongue and more skilful training in expression and composition in English. In
this regard we have much to learn from the French schools, and a good deal from
the German. But of the two the French methods seem to me much the more
artistic. The German methods are rather prosy for English children.

(b) In the early years’ secondary education for boys we are suffering from
lads Latin and Greek. The scholarship system at the public schools is fast

ecoming an educational curse.

(c) Far more prominence should be given throughout our primary and secondary
education to manual and practical work of all kinds.

(d) Much of our education is sterilised by cramming up for examinations.

(e) Though history (except in its biographical forms) is by no means an
appropriate subject for immature minds, much more can be done to stimulate
historical interest by means of the better teaching of history in our schools and by
giving the pupils a wider outlook over the development of nations upon the earth.

(f) Much more should be done to introduce improved methods of geographical
teaching into schools.

(g) We are sadly behindhand in our standards and methods of modern-language
teaching. There is likely to be a shortage of well-educated young English teachers
competent, by residence and training abroad, to teach French and German on the
best new methods, while at the same time able to link those subjects to the other
parts of the school curricula.

(h) Let us avoid over-teaching English pupils. We do not want to produce a
passive generation. It is far better that our boys and girls should learn a little
thoroughly than get a smattering of a number of subjects. When they leave
school, they ought only to be beginning to learn.

(2) It is to be desired that every school should state its intellectual aim ; publish
(according to some approved form) a statistical summary of the hours and work

878 REPORT—1903.

given weekly in each form to each subject in the curriculum; and issue an outline
of its course (or courses) of study, showing the standard which it proposes to reach
at each stage in each class.

(7) Behind all consideration of curricula, there must lie an ideal of character
and of the kind of intellectual power which we desire the rising generation of
English men and women to reach.

ii. By Professor J. Apams, 1/.4., B.Sc.
1. Groups of Essential Subjects.

The subjects that all children should study in common fall naturally into four
groups. (a) The three R’s, as the necessary preliminary to all formal study ;
(6) English composition and drawing as means of expression; (c) Drill, some form
of manual work, singing, and the rudimentary laws of health; (d) Nature study,
yeography, and picturesque history and biography.

2. Literary and Practical Subjects, i

While all training should include both theoretical and practical instruction, the
nature of the subjects to be taught and the amount of time to be devoted to each
must vary with the stage of advancement of the pupil. In a well-equipped school
with a good staff and small classes, the greater part of the formal teaching of the
three R’s could cease at the age of ten, though occasional formal lessons, parti-
cularly in arithmetic, should be provided up to the age of twelve. With regard
to the other subjects of common study there is no need that they should ever be
dropped, though the form in whick they are carried on and the material upon
which the mind is exercised may be changed. Geography and history, for
example, may altogether change their character as school subjects, and yet the
lessons of the earlier stage may retain their value. The subjects thus do not
merely change, they develop. Nature study may be given up entirely in favour of
systematic botany or physiology or chemistry, but it leaves behind it its mass
of knowledge with the corresponding bias towards scientific method.

The literary part of the curriculum should be made as general as possible, that
is, as free as may be from specific applications to professional purposes. English
composition need not by any means become tainted in school with the peculiar
terms of the counting-house, The vocabulary and idiom of the different professions
can be very readily picked up by an intelligent pupil who knows good English.
The reading of what is known as literature is the best possible preparation for all
sorts of professions that require the power of expression.

French and German should be treated on the same principle. It is easy to
male fun of the boy preparing for the counting-house by puzzling his way through
u German passage dealing with goslings and golden hair. But there is, after all,
only one German language, and it is better that it should be approached on the
human side rather than the commercial. The first essential is that the pupil should
leave school with the power of reading easily and intelligently the foreign
languages he has studied. To attain this end he must have read widely during
his course. Nothing can make up for the lack of wide reading. Composition in
the foreign language is an admirable culture training, leading to the corresponding
practical advantage of facility in writing. The commercial pupil must acquire the
power of composing in the foreign language, but this is less essential in the case of
the scientific pupil, though of course highly desirable.

The same thing is true about mathematics. In order that each class of
student should be able to make the proper application to his own subject, all the
pupils must study mathematics in general. The domestic, scientific, and commercial
professions all demand a knowledge of mathematics in some form or other. In the
case of the literary professions it is not essential that mathematics should be
studied in any great detail, Some geometry and algebra treated in the broadest

{RANSAOTIONS OF SECTION L. 879

way is enough to give the literary pupil the mathematical point of view, but beyond
this it is not necessary to urge him to study unless he has a bent that way.

Of the practical subjects, probably drawing is of the most general application.
As a means of expression it ought to be studied by all classes of pupils.

iii. By T. E. Paces, 1.4.
1. The Scope of Education.

Education may deal with (1) moral and religious; (2) intellectual; (3) phy-
sical ; and (4) technical training.

The first of these divisions may here be put aside. The spirit of morality and
religion is, like a pure and invigorating atmosphere, essential to healthy educa-
tional life, but it evades inclusion in a curriculum. In so far as it can become a
part of schoolwork, moral and religious teaching passes into division 2, being
closely connected with ‘Literary Instruction.’ Time devoted to this subject
must be devoted to a real examination of what the Bible is and says, not to the
eccentricities of Hellenistic Greek or trivial lists of obscure Israelite kings.

As to division 3 it may safely be said that ‘physical training’ is not a
necessary part of a school curriculum. Whatever its importance in primary
schools, in secondary schools, and especially the higher ones, such training is fully,
perhaps too fully, secured by a great variety of games which, in addition to their
physical effect, help to develop nerve, readiness, resource, and other qualities in a
way which no formal course of drill or gymnastics can equal.

With regard to ‘manual training,’ doubtless the payment of manual skill is
steadily increasing, while that of the lower forms of ‘ headwork’ is steadily de-
creasing ; a good mechanic is more secure of good pay than an average clerk or a
moderate schoolmaster.

Technical training (4) has nothing to do with education proper. In special
cases it may be advisable to admit it, but it has no place in any general curriculum.

2. The Three Necessary Elements of Education.

If the right meaning has been now given to ‘education,’ and the field of its
exercise been rightly limited, it follows that it consists in such intellectual train-
ing as will produce the best general capacity, and such training falls into certain
necessary divisions. Possibly the cultivation of memory deserves to be treated as
a separate division of education—and the subject certainly deserves special study—
but, as its use and exercise is developed by all teaching, we may perhaps
eliminate it in tracing the necessary divisions of any course of study, and say that
there are three, and three only—Literature, Mathematics, and Science.

8. All Three Elements must be Combined.

It is on the proper combination of these three that the success of any curricu«
lum must depend. But there must be combination, for assuredly education at its
best is the equal and harmonious development of all the faculties, not an
effort to force abnormal growth in any one, just as physical training is a training
of the whole body, and not of any part, though of course it often ‘pays’ to
develop extraordinary excellence in a single direction. The policy of the great
universities, which by refusing all reward to general excellence in several pursuits,
forces most boys of promise, often two or three years before they leave school, into
one single and often very narrow path of study, is to be deplored. Nor is it a less
deplorable result of this policy that the men they send out to become teachers are
almost always men of one pursuit.

4. The Position of Science.

The curriculum in most secondary schools was until recently (1) Literary and
(2) Mathematical, such subjects as history and geography (the latter with far too
large an addition of mere map-making) being somehow tacked on to the literary

880 REPORT—1903.

part of the work. Lately, however, science, long treated in schools as a sort of
Cinderella, has shown a tendency to play the part of an imperious queen.
About the value, on the other hand, of mathematics, there can be no doubt;
experience has demonstrated their power to strengthen and invigorate the mind;
pnoels dycwpérpyros eicire is still written large over the door of knowledge. For
others, too, less capable of abstract thought, study of the laws of language and
the effort fully to understand and appreciate the great thoughts of great men, is a
discipline that has stood the test of time. But the value of the study, say, of
botany, of electricity, or of geology, as a means of training is, as yet, to say the
least, ‘not proven.’ Primarily, most of the sciences rest on the basis of an
enormous accumulation of observed facts, and it is after the facts have been
accumulated that reason, intelligence, and imagination begin to find in them a
field for exercise. What is to be deprecated is that the teaching of science should
assume too large a place in education, owing to a vague opinion that, because
science is of the highest practical value, it therefore affords the best training for
practical life.

5. Curriculum affected by Leaving Ages of Pupils.

What the exact arrangement of literary, mathematical, and scientific training
in a curriculum should be it is impossible to state precisely, for it is absurd to
suppose that one curriculum will suit all varieties of schools, from small local
grammar schools to the large public ones. Obviously the training suitable for
boys who stay at school until eighteen or nineteen, and then proceed to some
university to spend three or four years more in preparation for some learned
profession, must differ from that of boys who have to begin actual work at sixteen,
and each school must modify its curriculum to meet its own special needs,

But in every curriculum what is vital is that its main plan and purpose be
sound, that it help to form a complete man, capable of using all his faculties of
speech, reason, and observation to best advantage, and, above all, that it impress
on his mind a deep conviction that what he has learned is as nothing to what he
has yet to learn and must go on learning through life.

6. Influence of Examinations and Teachers.

Examinations many and manifold, complex and confusing, are at present the
real masters of education. They control the whole course of study, and it is
absolutely idle to establish any systematic curriculum until sense, system, and
simplicity are in some measure introduced into examinations. Further, the best
curriculum is worthless without good teachers.

iv. By G. F. Dantett, B.Sc.

In the spring of 1902 Canon Lyttelton suggested that it would be both
interesting and valuable to obtain and collate the views of teachers on the subjects
essential to an ideal curriculum, and on the order in which they should be taken
(e.g. should Latin be begun before French, or vice versa ?), The idea developed, and
during the autumn of 1902 and the spring of 1903 a series of meetings was held,
altogether about thirty in number, and reports have been received at the Teachers’
Guild headquarters.

_ The following is a summary of the conclusions arrived at as the result of this
inquiry :—

1. Classification of Results.

The returns with reference to secondary (including preparatory) schools may
be classified as follows :—

Part I, contains the conclusions with regard to which there is practical agrees
ment.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 881

Part II. suggests topics especially suited for debate.
Part III, contains suggestions, some of which may prove to be of considerable
value,

2, Essential Subjects.

Part I.—¥From reports kindly furnished by officers of eleven branches and
six London sections, there appears to be practical unanimity as to the following :—

The curriculum should include: (1) Religious instruction ; (2) English (atten-
tion being given to oral as well as to written composition); (38) French; (4) Latin
(two London Sections and the Guernsey branch made this optional) ; (5) History ;
(6) Geography ; (7) Arithmetic; (8) Algebra, begun informally as generalised
arithmetic ; (9) Geometry, formal study should be preceded by lessons in form
and measurement; (10) Science, which should begin with object lessons or nature
study, and become formal at about the age of thirteen; (11) Handwork, including
sewing for girls; (12) Drawing; (13) Physical exercises (some include swim-
ming); (14) Class singing. It was further agreed (1) That French should be
begun before Latin; (2) The ordinary curriculum for boys and girls leaving school
at sixteen and seventeen should not include Greek; (3) Specialisation should not
be allowed until the general development of the pupil is secured, usually not
before sixteen.

3. Undecided Questions.

Part II.—There was a conflict of opinion as to the following: (1) Whether
German should be compulsory ; the majority made this optional. (2) Whether
English Grammar should be treated as a separate subject; majority affirmative.
(3) Whether language and literature should be taught separately (7.e. separated
on the time-table) ; majority affirmative. (4) Whether separate lessons on civics
should be given, or whether this should be taught through history ; majority for
the latter. (5) What should be the age for beginning laboratory work; thirteen
was the favourite age. (6) Whether the use of Euclid’s Elements should be
retained ; majority for retention. (7) Whether instrumental music and shorthand
should form part of the ordinary curriculum.

4, Suggestive Opinions.

Part III—The following opinions were expressed by one or more branches or
sections: (1) That no subject should be included in the curriculum to which a
definite minimum of time could not be allotted; (2) That each subject included
should be carried through to the fullest extent possible in the school; (8) That
dancing and hygiene should be taught in schools; (4) That domestic science
should be taught in girls’ schools, including household book-keeping; (5) That
handwork should not take the form of Sloyd; (6) That boys should be taught
shooting ; (7) That scholars leaving at sixteen or seventeen years of age for a
scientific career may substitute extra practical science for Latin; (8) That history
should be correlated with literature and geography with elementary archeology ;
(9) That the history and appreciation of art should be taught, to include styles of
architecture, sculpture, painting, and the lives of great artists; (10) That botany
is the most convenient subject for the study of natural history; objects should be
compared, drawn, and described; (11) That laboratory work should be begun
whenever science work is begun.

5. Practical Importance of Exchange of Views on Curricula.

Any attempt to formulate a rigid Code is undesirable, and consequently dis-
cussions on curricula should be periodically promoted, in order that: (1) Interest
in such problems may be maintained, and individual experiences and methods be
made common property; (2) Teachers isolated by distance or otherwise may be
kept in touch with recent improvements; (3) Teachers, particularly specialists,

1903. ont

882 REPORT—19038.

may acquire knowledge of, and sympathy with, the work of colleagues in subjects
other than those in which they are specially occupied ; (4) Specialists may receive
useful criticisms from colleagues who may be regarded with reference to their
special subject as ‘ intelligent outsiders’; (5) The claims of new subjects to admis-
sion to the curriculum may be demonstrated to the non-specialist ; (6) Suggestions
may be afforded as to what subjects can be omitted from an overcrowded time-
table in order to avert the peril of ‘ shallowness.’

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On Curricula of Girls’ Schools.

i, By Miss 8S. A. Burstat., B.A.
1. Introduction.

Broad curriculum advocated rather than a narrow specialised curriculum.
Reasons :—

(a) Actual acquisition of knowledge.
(6) Training of the mind; different subjects train different faculties.
(c) Development of the child ; subjects should be suited to the child’s age,

The various aspects of the subject may be considered under the following
heads: (1) General character of curriculum; (2) Types of schools; (3) Commer-
cial professions; (4) Engineering and applied science professions; (5) Domestic
professions ; (6) Literary professions ; (7) Subjects for schools of different types.

Le Il. IIT. IV. ¥. VI.
Age 12-13 13-14 14-15 15-16 16-17. 17-18.
HUMANITIES. |
History SameasI. . 8/| Ancient History) General European || English Litera- |
| Geography English History - | and English His- |} tureand History 4 |
Literature Geography 1 tory, Geography, || Mathematics, Al-
English, &c. Literature, &c. ) Literature, &e. gebra, and Geo-
(4 periods compul- |] metry . . . . 4)
sory, 4 optional.) One foreign lan-
| guage... .4
(All compulsory.)
LANGUAGES.
French, Ger- | SameaslI. . 8|SameasI.. . .8 Latin. « . « . 4/| Specialisation in.
man, or | 8 German. «, be) «4 Languages,
Latin | French oo. ota : |
Greek iA 2 5s/4i
| (Only one compul-
sory.)
} |
SCIENCE.

Arithmetic Arithmetic Mathematics . . 8 | Mathematics . . 5 || Specialisation in
| Elementary Geometry & g |Physies. . . .8 (Compulsory.) Science and
Geometry }8 Algebra Nature Study Physics, Chemistry, Mathematics.

Elementary Nature Study (alternate with Botany, &c.
Physics some English (One compulsory,
Study). . 2 rest optional).

_ The figures denote minimum number of lessons per week. Physical training and one branch of hand-
work compulsory throughout. English composition included in the Humanities section.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 883

2. Conclusion.

Limitation of material to be learnt essential; masses of detail not necessary
for thoroughness, e.g. anomalous forms in Latin grammar, the less important
metals in chemistry, details of battles and campaigns in history.

An outline course, with typical examples accurately known and properly
understood, does not mean superficiality.

Organisation.—Different courses: Classical, scientific, commercial, &c., over-
lapping in some subjects of general education, may be given in different parts of
the same school. This plan works very well in large schools (¢f. America). Ora
particular school may give one or two courses only ; e.g. a small school may refuse
to specialise in classics or in science, or any school may fix a rigid curriculum
and appeal to one type of pupil only, like the American manual training high
school.

Local differences and local conditions and needs make variety essential.
Freedom vital in education.

ii. By Professor H. E. Armstrone, Ph.D., LL.D, PRS.
1. The Basis of a Rational Curriculum,

The education of the future must be practical and individual, such as will
directly fit boys and girls for their work in the world, such as will appeal to their
sense of intelligence, such that they will value it instead of shirking it whenever
possible.

Literary methods must give place to practical methods; workshop methods
must take the place of didactic desk methods. The schools of the future must be
in charge of broad-minded, practical men and women, trained scientifically and in
the world as well as in academic grooves. Consequently, the training of teachers,
examiners, and inspectors must be conducted on more rational and practical
principles than heretofore, in order that a race may arise capable of coping with a
rational, practical curriculum.

2. Essential Subjects for all Pupils.

The subjects which all children should at first study in common must be such
as to develop ail their faculties.

Every child should be taught to read well and to like and use books—a very
large amount of time should be devoted to reading—the habit of reading out loud
should be carefully cultivated, At whatever age children leave school, they should
be well read for that age and know how to turn to books for information.

The teaching of our own language, of history, and to some extent of
geography, should be largely incidental to reading. Mere lesson-learning should
be abolished, both in and out of school. Children should be encouraged, indeed
taught, to talk rationally, and mych about their work and of things around them.

At most half the school time should be devoted to literary studies—to studies
conducted by literary methods. At least half should he given to practical studies
—to experimental and manual work.

- The prime object in view in experimental work should be the formation of
-character—the cultivation of some measure of thought power and of a seeing eye,
not the acquisition of knowledge. of

' Literary training might be given largely in connection with such work to
supplement that given through reading ; there would be something real to write
about, something seen, felt, or discovered, so that the habit of writing about real
things would gradually be acquired.

The teaching of mathematics and of drawing should also be made incidental to
the experimental work.

With regard to manual training, something far more real than what is now

3L2

884. REPORT—1908.

done must be introduced into schools. This class of work should be made as
attractive as any game; in fact, it should be organised on a similar footing,
directly in co-operation with the scholars. It is of the utmost consequence that
various branches of manual training should receive adequate and serious treatment
in all schools.

3. Interest and Individuality.

In the boarding school of the future there should be little or no evening
lesson-learning of the conventional type ; the time will be far more usefully spent
and in a more healthy manner in experimental and manual work..

In the future, besides manual training, general physical training must receive
a due share of attention. When the formalities of classics no longer fill the mind,
the example set in classic times may meet with some recognition : some effort will
be made to embody Greek ideals in our scholastic practice.

The higher should differ from the preparatory school mainly in the extent to
which proclivities which become manifest during the preparatory course are given
scope for development, in the increasing difficulty of the tasks set, and in the
increasing demand for results.

4. General and Professional Education.

Undue specialisation may have an effect the very opposite to that which it is
argued makes specialisation desirable. In all careers the preliminary qualification
of most worth is general intelligence.

Arguments such as these favour the conclusion that in schools generally both
literary and practical studies should at all times receive adequate treatment, and
that specialisation should as far as possible be avoided. The differences that
should be allowed to arise between different types of school should be differences
in the character of the work done within either of the two main branches—in the
character of the reading or in the choice of subject-matter for the experimental
studies.

5. The Domestie Profession.

It is a very serious outlook for the country that the higher education ot
women is almost entirely in the hands of those who have been trained in schools
where academic views prevail almost exclusively. The very fact that women
have only asked that they should be allowed to do as men do, to have what men
have, is proof that they have failed to understand the position they hold,

6. Aims of Scientific Instruction.

It is essential that whatever be done should be done thoroughly : the object
in view is to teach method ; it is not primarily a question of results. The require-
HEE of examining bodies of the present irrational type must be resolutely set
aside.

The various branches of science are not of equivalent value as educational
instruments. Physics and chemistry are the foundations, as it were, of scientific
belief; they underlie all natural phenomena, all vital changes. But although it
is necessary, before attempting in any way to consider the nature of the processes
which attend life, to understand the fundamental principles of physics and
chemistry, there is no reason why the biological sciences should not receive
attention at a very early stage. In physics and chemistry experiments can be
made in a way and with a degree of completeness which is impossible in the case
of the biological sciences; the latter, however, afford unrivalled opportunity of
cultivating observational power. But in future the object of schools will be to

give their scholars a broad outlook over nature: to create interest in all that goes
on around them.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 885

2. On School Curricula with Special Reference to Commercial
Education.

i. By J. L. Paton, M.A.

1, Special Commercial Schools Undesirable.

Whether it be medicine, law, the Church, or commerce, or even schoolmaster-
ing, it is hardly fair to earmark a boy at the age of ten, or perhaps younger, for
this or that particular walk in life. Up till the age of fifteen every school
ought to be what Ruskin calls a ‘discovering school,’ finding out for what a boy
is best fitted. Specialised classes there must be, every secondary school must
bifurcate towards the top, but such classes should be put as late as possible, not as
early.

2. Not Manual Dexterity but Mental Discipline.

By ‘education for commercial professions’ is meant an education not only
unmistakably secondary, but super-secondary ; that is, based on a sound general
education of a secondary grade. Up to the age of fifteen or sixteen—thatis, up to
the standard which is represented, at the very lowest, by Honours in the Junior
Oxford and Cambridge Locals—the thing ‘commercial education’ should not be
so much as named.

3. Character and Scope of Foundation Studies.

The mode or the method is the most important thing in these earlier stages.
The mother tongue is not taught as well as it should be. Two things need to be
insisted on: (1) Clear articulation, with some differentiation of the various vowel
sounds, too apt to be lost in an indiscriminate er-sound; (2) The proper formation
and management of sentences.

Again, in modern languages we must discard the heavy classical method of
grammar and exercise. Sound must come first. Speech cannot be articulated till
the vocal organs have learned to form the component sounds.

We will suppose now that our boy has passed through this stage, that he has a
fair equipment in English, in one modern language at any rate, in arithmetic,
geometry, and algebra, in the history of his country, and the geography of the chief
countries of the world; also some elementary and practical knowledge of drawing,
mensuration, physics, and, perhaps, chemistry; if Latin too, so much the better.
We pass now to the commercial department, the specific preparation for commerce.
We assume that, ‘in whatever matters it is our duty to act, those matters it is
also our duty to study.’ How do we set about it?

4, Specific Preparation for Commerce.

The first subject in which specialisation is possible is Arithmetic. This must
begin, if it has not begun already, with thorough drill in the metric system and
the monetary systems, the weights and measures of other countries with which
England trades. The next thing is to learn the decimalisation of English money,
and therewith all manner of rapid and abridged processes of calculation. Closely
in touch with arithmetic, and taught by the same master, must go commercial
knowledge—questions of freight and navigation, insurance and tariffs, companies,
shares, computation of annuities, mortgage loans, the elements of banking and
bills of exchange; how debts incurred in London may be extinguished in
Hamburg, the rate of exchange, and difference between gold and silver standards
of currency. Systematic instruction in these things will involve the working out
of practical problems by arithmetic at every step, and care must be taken that
there is plenty of mental computation.. The terms used must be made real as
much as possible by reference to actual reports of commerce and current news-
papers, also by visits to the Docks, to the Clearing House, to the Mint, to large
commercial and industrial houses. Clearly this is not a matter of text-book

886 REPORT—19038.

merely ; no text-book, however good, will suffice in itself. The teacher must have
actual experience of business.

The French and German must also begin to take a special bias. ‘The language
itself must be used as the vehicle of teaching ; a compiete series of letters should
from time to time be written completing a transaction between an English and a
foreign firm; and the composition should be what is called ‘free composition ’
rather than literary translation.

In History the first year should be given to the history of the world, and then
in the second year work over the same ground again, studying it from the special
economic point of view.

Geography must also now become a world-subject, and no longer an affair of
Separate countries. It will begin with examining the world-distributions of
temperature, pressure, wind, and rainfall, with the causes that produce them; the
sea currents as they affect climate. This opens up the question of economic _
vegetation and the distribution of animals. Next come minerals and coal. And
then, as the resultant of all these circumstances, comes the population. For all
this work special maps are required ; the Geographical Association provides some
excellent slides. After this comes regional geography of the geographical areas.
The region is first defined by emphasising the relief of the area under treatment
with rough accounts of structure, climate, and vegetation, and population as
before, with the special reasons which have caused the growth of certain towns.
Then comes the question of routes within the area, as based on relief and water
system, and last of all trade routes aud trade relationships with other countries,
transit, cable routes, and all communications.

Econonues should not come till the second year, and they should be common-
sense and practical thinking about the most obvious phenomena of our social life.

A high mathematical standard should be insisted upon for entry to the
commercial department. The arithmetic cannot be done without it. Also, a boy
should have, before going into business, some knowledge of the chemistry of
common life and merchantable objects, of the mechanics and the main motor
powers used in manufacture.

The English should be as little as possible formal or philological.. The com-
position should arise out of the teaching, but it will not be by any means confined
to the English class. The history, geography, and economics will all involve
essay writing. The composition should not be all written, every commercial
course should include practice in speaking, but this can hardly be a class subject,
it should find its free and spontaneous scope in the school debating society,

ii, By W. C. Frercusr, JA.

It should not be forgotten that in discussion of curricula—still more, of course,
in their enforcement—conclusions must not be sharply defined, and that behind
any curriculum lies 2 much more important matter—the personality of the teacher.

1, Knowledge for its own Sake.

Utility is no guide. Not that utility is objectionable as extremists have urged,
but that it is unattainable. Of no conceivable subject in a school curriculum
other than reading, writing, and the bare elements of arithmetic, can it truly be
asserted that it will be ‘ useful’ to all, or even to any considerable fraction of the
whole number of children. ’

2. Faculties to be Developed.

After the bare elements, the absence of which distinguishes the legal ‘ illiterate’
from the rest of the community, the essentials to be secured, if possible, are:
(1) the power of accurately following thought properly expressed; (2) the power
of thinking-accurately oneself ; and (8)—which can perhaps hardly be separated

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 887

from (2)—the power of accurately expressing one’s own thought. his is what
we mean by mind training, Education does—or should—include also the discipline
and deyelopment of the emotions and judgment, esthetic and moral, as well as
merely intellectual.

These two sides of education—disciplinary and zsthetic they may perhaps be
called for shortness—constantly overlap, but they must both be kept in mind if a
curriculum at ail tolerable is to be secured.

3. Uniformity of Curriculum desirable in Lower and Middle Forms.

Whatever differences exist between school and school, it is desirable that (in
the lower and middle forms at least) all should follow the same curriculum,

A common curriculum is a powerful factor in that community of interest and
feeling which should be maintained as far as possible, and whose maintenance is
especially difficult under the conditions of city school life. No considerations of
utility, which at best are uncertain and probably delusive, seem to me sufficient
to outweigh this vital consideration. This does not, of course, apply to the top
form of a school, where a considerable amount of variety and specialisation can,
and should, be permitted.

4, Place of Manual Work.

Manual work—i.e. work in clay, wood, metal, &c,—does sometimes give the
needed chance of interest and success to a boy who in ordinary school subjects is
a ‘hopeless duffer.’ This alone would justify its inclusion in one form or another
in all curricula, but it does not need this justification. It gives valuable assistance
in making arithmetic and drawing more real and intelligible; some forms of it
demonstrate as nothing else does the difference between accurate and inaccurate
work, hence have a considerable moral value; it interests most boys, so making
them more favourably disposed to school work as a whole, ne small advantage.

5. The Discipline of Scientific Studies.

Natural science does not seem to come under the head of practical instruction
in at all the same sense as manual work.

It is true that actual handling and examination of things, actual construction
and measurement, is an essential part of it, but it is not the whole, nor, as every
teacher knows, the most difficult part. Exact statement of what is observed,
co-ordination of new experience with old, the disentanglement of the essential
from the accidental, the building up by reflection and discussion of a coherent
body of truth, demand clearness of thought and, what can seldom if ever be divorced
from that, clearness of expression. These requirements make natural science
properly handled an admirable discipline, but it is a discipline which has quite as
much in common with the discipline of mathematics and literary subjects as with
that of manual work. But further it should be added that the influence of
natural science teaching has reacted most favourably on the older subjects. Any-
one with the scientific habit of mind will approach the teaching of, say, Latin in
a way very different from the traditional method, He will lay much more stress
on observation and reason and inquiry than on dogma,

6. The General Curriculum.

Manual instruction, in one shape or other, should be carried on in the lower and
middle forms, natural science in the middle and upper, not excluding, of course,
simple observational science, even among the youngest boys if conditions permit,
and literary subjects throughout.

As to the latter, they will include—hbesides mathematics—history, geography,
and literature with languages. If adequate attention is to be given to other
essentials, not more than two languages should be attempted except by boys in
the upper forms specialising in this direction. Up to about the age of sixteen

888 REPORT—1903.

boys should be kept together; if by this time they have a competent elementary
knowledge of the subjects indicated, they may with advantage if they stay longer
at school be allowed to concentrate on subjects which more especially interest
them, whether for professional or purely scientific purposes. Earlier specialisation
has no advantages.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.
The following Discussion took place and Reports were read :—

1. Discussion on the Teaching of Geography.
Opened by H. J. Mackinper, J/.A.—See p. 722.

2. Report on the Teaching of Botany.—See Reports, p. 420.

3. Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the carrying on of the
Work of Instruction in Schools.—See Reports, p. 455.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15.
The following Reports were read :—

1. Report on the Influence of Examinations.—See Reports, p. 434.

2. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
*See Reports, p. 429.

INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.

An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper
where the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXVil.
List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1903, xxxviii.
List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1903, lii.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, liii.

List of evening Discourses from 1842,
Ixxii.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, 1xxvi.

Officers of Sections present at Southport,
Ixxvii.

Committee of Recommendations at,
Southport, lxxix.

Treasurer’s account, lxxx.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxxxii.
Officers and Council for 1903-1904, lxxiv.
Report of the Council to the General

Committee at Southport, Ixxxv.
Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Southport :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, xcvii.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, cii.

(8) Paper ordered to be printed in
eatenso, Cvi.

(4) Resolutions referred to the
Council for consideration, and
action if desirable, cvi.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1903, cviii.

Places of meeting in 1903 and 1904, cix.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, cx.

General meetings, exxviii.

Address by the President, Sir Norman
Lockyer, K.C.B., F.RB.S., 3.

AxsBottT (W. J. L.) and Dr. J. G. Garson,
some recent excavations at Hastings,
and the human remains found, 802.

Abd-el-Kuri and Sokotra, the results of
the expedition to, by Mr. W. O. Grant
and Dr. H. O. Forbes, by Dr. H. O.
Forbes, 720.

ABNEY (Sir W. de W.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 87.

—— Address to the Section of Educa-
tional Science by, 865.

Absorption spectra and chemical constitu-
tion of organic substances, the relation
between the, report on, 126; the absorp-
tion spectra of laudanine and laudan-
osine in relation to their constitution,
by Dr. J. J. Dobbie and A. Lauder, 166.

Abydos, the temples of, by Prof. W. M.
F, Petrie, 818.

AckKROyD (W.), the colours of iodides,
614,

—— experiments and observations with
radium compounds, 639.

Acridines, Prof. A. Senier on, 616.

Adam’s Bridge, J. Lomas on the origin
of, 721.

ADAMS (Prof. J.) on school curricula, 878.

ADAMS (Prof. W. G.) on magnetic obser-
vations at Falmouth, 32.

on practical electrical standards, 33.

Adenostemma viscosum, Forst, fruit-dis-
persal in, by R. H. Yapp, 859.

Afforestation of waterworks catchment
areas, Joseph Parry on the, 717.

Africa, East, and Zanzibar, the coral
formations of, by C. Crossland, 685.

~ Africa, West, the economic development

of, by E. D. Morel, 711.

Air friction, preliminary experiments on,
by Wm. Odell, 789.

AITKEN (T.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 365,

890

AITKBN (T.), the effect of traffic and
weather on macadamised roads, and
the prevention of dust, 787.

* Aleyonium, nuclear changes in the egg
of, by M. D. Hill, 693.

Aleyonium digitatum, the assimilation
and distribution of nutriment in, by
Edith M. Pratt, 688.

*ALEXANDER (A. D.) and L. BAIRSTOW,
experiments in gas explosion, 791.

*Alg@, modern views on the phylogeny
of the, by Dr. F. F. Blackman, 858.

Alternators, parallel working of, by B.
Hopkinson, 778.

Aluminium as an electrical conductor, by
J. B. C. Kershaw, 776.

Aluminium alloys, the electrical conduc-
tivity of certain, as affected by ex-

|
|

posure to London atmosphere, by

E. Wilson, 777.

Amphibia, the origin of the epiphysis in,
as a bilateral structure, J. Cameron on,
$89.

ANDERSON (Miss A. M.) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating women’s
labour, 315; in laundries, 350.

ANDERSON (Prof. R. J.) note on the skull
of Grampus grieseus, found on the
coast near Galway, 691.

note on the peritoneum in WMeles
tavus, 692.

——~ the skull of Ursus ornaius, 692.

ANDERSON (Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest,
197

+—— the recent West Indian eruptions,
(iil

Angiosperms, the histiology of the sieve
tubes of, by A. W. Hill, 854.

tANNANDALE (Nelson) on the coloration
of Malayan reptiles, 694.

on a collection of skulls from the

Malay Peninsula, 802.

ments in the Faroes and Iceland, 805.

*Antarctic expedition, the British, by
Lieut. E. Shackleton, 716.

Anthocyan (red-cell sap) in foliage
leaves, J. Parkin on the localisation
of, 862.

Anthropological work in Athens and in
Crete, W. L. H. Duckworth on, 404.
Anthropology, Address by Prof. J. Sy-

mington to the Section of, 792.

Anthropometric investigation in Great
Britain and Ireland, report on, 389.

Antiquities near Kharga, in the great
oasis, by Dr. C. 8. Myers, 809.

tApes, the cerebrum of, by Prof. Sherring-
ton and Dr. A. 8. Griinbaum, 700.

the survival of primitive imple- |

ARBER (EH. A. N.) on the fossil flora of |

the Ardwick Series of Manchester, 665.

—— on homcomorphy among fossil |

plants, 859.

REPORT—1903,

*Arbor Low stone circle, a model of, H.
Balfour on, 823.

| Archeological and ethnological researches
in Crete, report on, 402.

Ardwick series of Manchester, the fossil
flora of the, E. A. N. Arber on, 665.
ARMSTRONG (Dr. E. F.), mutarotation
in relation to the lactonic structure of

glucose, 635.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on isomorphous
sulphonic derivatives of benzene, 85.

~ on isomeric naphthalene derivatives,
174.

—— on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 429.

E=—0n the influence of ewamination $,
434.

on curricula of girls’ schools, 883.

Arsenic in food, minute quantities of, on
the approximate estimation of, by W.
Thomson, 638.

Ascocarp in ryparobius, the development
of the, by B. T. P. Barker, 849.

AsHuby (T., jun.),excavations at Caerwent,
Monmouthshire, 1899-1903, 806. ;

Astronomy and Meteorology, Address to
the Subsection of, by Dr. W. N. Shaw,
541.

Athens, anthropological work in, and in
Crete, W. L. H. Duckworth on, 404.
Atmosphére, la circulation générale de 1’,

H. H. Hildebrandsson sur, 562.

the upper, investigation of, by means
of kites, second report on, 31.

Atomic latent heats of fusion of the
metals considered from the kinetic
standpoint, the, by Holland Crompton,
631. *

Audibility, effect of meteorological con-
ditions upon, by A. L. Rotch, 581.

Australia; the forest resources of, avail-
able for British commerce, by E. T.
Scammell, 862.

AVEBURY (Lord) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 429..

AVELING (T. C.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 365.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

Bagshot district, the Sarsen stones of
the, H. W. Monckton on, 669.

BAILEY (Lieut.-Col.) on terrestrial sur-
Face-maves, 312.

*BAIRSTOW (L.) and A. D. ALEXANDER,
experiments in gas explosion, 791.

BALFOUR (H.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 414.

* on a’ model of Arbor Low ‘stone
circle, 823.

Ballistic galvanometers, consideration of
some points in the designand working
of, by P. H. Powell, 570.

INDEX.

*BARCROFT (J.), the origin of water in
saliva, 700.

BARKER (B. T. P.), the development of
the ascocarp in ryparobius, 849.

BARR (Mark) on the B.A. screw gauge, |

378,

BARRETY-HAMILTON (Capt. G. HE. H.) |

on the winter-whitening of birds and

mammals in snowy countries, and on |
the most striking points in the distri- |

bution of white in vertebrates gene-
rally, 698.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on working out the
details of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 289.

*BAVESON (W.), new discoveries in he- |

redity, 853.
BaTHER (Dr, F. A.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

generum et animalium,

288.

specierum

on the compilation of an index |

BAvER (L. A.), progress of the magnetic |

survey of the United States, 579.

H the earth’s total magnetic energy,
580.

BEARE (Prof. T. Hudson) on the resist-
ance of road vehicles to traction,
365.

BEAUMONT (W. W.) on the resistance of

voad vehicles to traction, 365.

BeEHR (F. B.), high-speed electrical
monorails and the proposed Manches-
ter and Liverpool express railway,
780.

BEILBy (G. T.), intensification of chemi-
cal action by the emanations from gold
and platinum, 539.

—- granular and spicular structures in |

solids, 557.
BELL (A. M.), oil fuel, 780.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on, |

report on, 58.

Benzene, isomorphous sulphonic deriva-
tives of, fourth report on, 185.

Berwyns, the, the igneous rocks of, T. H.
Cope and J. Lomas on, 664.

BEVAN (Rev. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

Binary systems, freezing-point curves for,
_by Dr. J. C. Philip, 632.

BINGLEY (Godfrey) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 197.

Bionomics of Convoluta roscoffensis, the,
with special reference fo its green
cells, by F. Keeble and Dr. F. W.
Gamble, 691.

Birds, the observations on the migration

of, 1880-1887, siath and final report on |

working out the details of. 289.

Birds now rare in the British Isles, |

G. P. Hughes on, 696.
Birkdale, the sandhill vegetation of, by
Dr. O. V. Darbishire, 854,

891

BLACKBURN (Miss H.) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating women’s
labour, 315.

BLACKMAN (Dr. F. F.) on the cyano-
phycee, 419.

* modern views on the phylogeny of
the Alge, 858.

BLAKE (R. F.), Prof. E. A. LerTs, and
J. 8. Torron on the reduction of
nitrates by sewage, 606.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) un the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 305.

BOLTZMANN (Prof. L.) on the form of
Lagrange’s equations for non-holo-
nomic systems, 56).

BONE (Dr. W. A.), the slow combustion
of methane and ethane, 624.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

—- on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 197.

| —— on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 231.

Boopue (L. A.), the structure of leaves
of the bracken from different habitats,
855.

BootH (Dr. C.) on the economic effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
315.

BOSANQUET (Mrs. H.), physical degene-
ration and the poverty line, 747.

BosaNnquut (R.C.), exploration in the
East of Crete, 817.

an early purple-fishery, 817.

*Botanical laboratory at Cambridge, the
new, by Prof. H. M. Ward, 859.

Botanical photographs, the registration of
negatives af, report on, 416.

Botanical survey of counties, the methods
and results of a, by W. Munn Rankin,
ATT.

Botanical survey of the basins of the
rivers Eden, Tees, Tyne, and Wear, by
F. J. Lewis, 726.

Botany, Address by A. C. Seward to the
Section of, 824.

——- the relation and importance of, to
geographical science, Dr. O. V. Darbi-
shire on, 725.

the teaching of, in schools, report
on, 420. E

*Botany of Upper Peru, A. W. Hill on
the, 853.

BorroMuEy (Dr. J. T.) on practical
electrical standards, 33.

BouLTON (W. 8.) on some igneous rocks
near Weston-super-Mare, Somerset-
shire, 660.

BouRNE (Dr. G.C.) on the micro-chemistry

” of cells, 310.

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on investigations in
the laboratory of the Marine Bivlogical
Association of the West of Scotland at
Millport, 308.

892

Bow ey (A. L.) on the economic effect
of legislation regulating women’slabour,
315. é

——- statistical methods and the fiscal
controversy, 750.

+BOYLE (David) on the Canadian Indians
as they are, 823.

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological in-
vestigation, 77.

on the investigation of the wpper

atmosphere by means of kites, 31.

on the B.A. screw gauge, 378.

—— Address to the Section of Mathe-
matics and Physics, 525.

BRABBOOK (E. W.) on the economic effect
of legislation regulating women’s labour,
315.

on a pigmentation survey of the

school children of Scotland, 415.

on the Silchester excavation, 412.

on the conditions of health essential

to the carrying on of the work of in-

struction in schools, 455.

Address to the Section of Economic
Science and Statistics, 729.

Bracken from different habitats, the struc-
ture of leaves of the, by L. A. Boodle, 855.

BRADSHAW (F.), the commercial rela-
tions between Canada and the United
Kingdom, 748.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 378.

*____ a universal language, 847.

BRAY (G.) on the movements of wnder-
ground waters of North-west Yorkshire,
192.

*BRERETON (C. A.), King Edward VII.
bridge over the River Thames between
Brentford and Kew, 773.

British carboniferous rocks, life-zones in
the, report on, 185.

British reptiles, some recent observa-
tions on, by Dr. G. Leighton, 694.

Brittleness in steel, Stead’s recent re-

searches as to the causes and preven- |

tion of, by Prof. T. Turner, 613.
BRODRICK (H.), Martin Mere, 656.
Brooch, the origin of the, and the pro-

bable use of certain rings called ‘arm-

lets, by E. Lovett, 822.

Brough, the Roman port at, by J. Gar-
stang, 808.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 58.

Brown (Dr. H. T.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

BROWN (J.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 365.

Brown (Prof. J. Campbell), apparatus
for determining latent heat of evapora-
tion, 602.

*___ the nature and quality of some
potable waters in South-west Lanca-
shire, 775.

REPORT—1908.

Bryce (Dr. T. H.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Ireland, 389.

BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
31.

—— on meteorological observations on
Ben Nevis, 58.

*____ on the relation of the rainfall of
Scotland to the Sun-spot periods,
1855-1898, 549. ;

—— diurnal range of the summer tem-
perature of the Levant, 578.

BULLEID (A.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 414.

BULLEY (Miss A. A.), some points about
crosses, chiefly Celtic, 822.

Burns (D.) on the phenomena accom-
panying the volcanic eruptions in the
West Indies, 567.

BURSTALL (Miss 8. A.) on curricula of
girls’ schools, 882.

BuRTON (F. M.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 231.

Caerwent, Monmouthshire, excavations
at, 1899-1903, by TT. Ashby, jun.,
806.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on practical
electrical standards, 33.

* electrical self-recording instru-
ments, 581.

*Cambridge, the new botanical labora-
tory at, by Prof. H. M. Ward, 859.

CAMERON (John) on the origin of the
epiphysis in Amphibia as a bilateral
structure, 689.

Canada and the United Kingdom, the
commercial relations between, by
F. Bradshaw, 748. °

+Canadian Indians, the, as they are,
D. Boyle on, 823.

CANNAN (Dr. E.), what is success in
foreign trade? 751.

Capacities as multipliers for electro-
static voltmeters in alternating cur-
rent circuits, Prof. E. W. Marchant
and G. W. Worrall on the use of,
572.

Carboniferoys acanthodian fish, Gyra-
canthides, Dr. A. 8. Woodward on a,
662.

CARTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the move-
ments of underground waters of North-
nest Yorkshire, 192.

*Cell division, the function of chromatin
in (Part I. Heterotype), by Prof. M.
Hartog, 693.

Cells, the micro-chemistry of, report on,
310,

INDEX.

Changes in the sea-coast of the United
Kingdom, report on observations on, 258.

CHAPMAN (Prof. 8. J.) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating women’s
labour, 315,

Chemical action, the intensification of, |
by the emanations from gold and |

platinum, by G. T. Beilby, 539.

Chemical constitution and absorption
spectra of organic substances, the rela-
tion between the, report on, 126.

Chemical reaction between salts, the
influence of small quantities of water
in bringing about, by Dr. E. P. Perman,
631.

Chemistry, Address by Prof. W. N. |

Hartley to the Section of, 583.

China, Western, explorations and eco-
nomic conditions in, by Lieut.-Col.
C. C. Manifold, 716.

Cholesterol group, the, by Dr. R. H.
Pickard, 616.

CHORLTON (J. D.) on the rating of land
values, 743.

*Chromatin, the function of, in cell
division (Part I. Heterotype), by Prof.
M. Hartog, 693.

CLARKE (Miss L.) on the teaching of
botany in schools, 420.

*CLARKSON (T.), improvements in loco- |

mobile design, 773.

CLELAND (Prof. J.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Ireland, 389.

CLEMENTS (O. P.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 378.

CLINCH (G.), Coldrum, Kent, and its
relation to Stonehenge, 805.

CoATES (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 197.

Cobalt, a method for the separation of,
from nickel, and the volumetric deter-
mination of cobalt, R. L. Taylor on, 608.

—-— a method for the volumetric deter-
mination of, R. L. Taylor on, 608.

CorFEyY (G.) on the exploration of the
Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 183.

Coldrum, Kent, and its relation to Stone-
henge, by G. Clinch, 805.

CoLE (Prof. G. A. J.) on the exploration
of the Edenvale Caves, 183.

COLE (Wm.), a suggestion with respect to
exploration and registration work fur
county local societies, 482.

COLLET (Miss C. E.) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating women’s
labour, 315.

Colonisation of a dried river-bed, Miss
M. C. Stopes on the, 852.

Colours of iodides, the, by W. Ackroyd,
614.

Commercial relations between Canada
and the United Kingdom, the, by F.
Bradshaw, 748.

893

Complementary colours, demonstration
of visual combination of, by C. A.
Greaves, 696.

Conditions of health essential to the
carrying on of the work of instruction
in schools, report on, 455,

Continents and ocean basins, a theory of
the origin of, by Dr. W. Mackie,
668. :

*Contorted strata occurring on the coast
of Northumberland, J. G. Goodchild on
some, 667.

Convoluta roscoffensis, the bionomics of, .
with special reference to its green
cells, by F. Keeble and Dr. F. W.
Gamble, 691.

Conway (Prof. R. 8.), the ethnology of
early Italy and its linguistic relations
to that of Britain, 814.

CooMARASWAMY (A. K.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest,
197.

—— on botanical photographs, 416.

Cope (T. H.) and J. Lomas on the
igneous rocks of the Berwyns, 664.

COPELAND (Prof.) on meteorological ub-
servations on Ben Nevis, 58.

Coral formations of Zanzibar and East
Africa, C. Crossland on the, 685.

*Coral reefs of the Indian Ocean, J. 8S.
Gardiner on the, 687.

Coral reefs of the Indian region, fourth
report on the, 305.

Coral siderastrea, septal sequence in
the, by Dr. J. E. Duerden, 687.

Corals, recent and fossil, some results on
the morphology and development of,
by Dr. J. E. Duerden, 684.

Cordite, the rate of combustion and ex-
plosive pressure of, J. E, Petavel on,
556.

CORNISH (Dr. Vaughan) on terrestrial
surface-waves, 312.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

Corresponding Societies Committee:

Report, 465.

Conference at Southport, 467.

List of Corresponding Societies, 496

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 499.

CORTIE (Rev. A. L.), solar prominences
and terrestrial magnetism, 574.

Cosmical radio-activity, by Prof. A.
Schuster, 538.

CRAMP (Wm.) on monophase induction
repulsion motors, 790.

CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on observations on
changes in the sea coast of the United

_ Kingdom, 258.

— on magnetic observutions at Fal-
mouth, 32.

—— Address by, to the Geographical
Section, 701.

894

Crete, archeological and ethnological re-
searches in Crete, report on, 402.

Mr. A. Evans's excavations at

Knossos, 402.

Mr. W. L. H. Duckworth’s report |

on anthropological work in Athens and |

in Crete, 404

Bosanquet, 817.

Crick (G. C.) on life-zones in the British |

carboniferous rocks, 185.

CRroMPTON (Holland), the atomic latent
heats of fusion of the metals considered
from the kinetic standpoint, 631.

CROMPTON (Col. R. E.) on the resistance
of road vehicles to traction, 365.

on the B.A. screw gauge, 378.

the problem of modern
traftic, 773.

Croox (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 197.

CROOKE (W.) on the psychology and socio-
logy of the Todas and other tribes of
Southern India, 415

-—— the progress of Islim in India, 813

*Cross-breeding experiments with plants,
results of some, by Miss EH. Saunders,
853.

Crosses, chiefly Celtic, some points about,
by Miss A. A. Bulley, 822.

CROSSLAND (Cyril), the coral formations
of Zanzibar and East Africa, 685.

CROSSLEY (Dr. A. W.) on the possibility
of making special reports more avail-
able than at present, 169

on the study of hydro-aromatie sub-

stances, 179.

recent work on hydro-aromatie sub-
stances, 179.

—— on dihydrobenzenes and on aromatic
compounds derived from hydro-aromatic
substances, 182.

Crustacea collected during the dredging
eruiseof the Millport Marine Biological
Association's steamer ‘ Mermaid’ since
1902, A. Patience on the, 308.

Culture experiments with biologic forms
of the Lrysiphacee,by E.8.Salmon, 850.

street

exploration in the east of, by R. C. |

*CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. A.) and H. J. |

WooDALL, the determination of suc-
cessive high primes, 561.
CUNNINGHAM (Prof. D. J.) on the Eden-
dale caves, co. Clare, 183.
on anthropometric investigation in
Great Britain and Ireland, 389.

—— on a pigmentation survey of the |

school children of Scotland, 415.
CUNNINGHAM (Rev. W.), the failure of
free traders to attain their ideals, 750.
Curricula of girls’ schools, Prof. H. E.
Armstrong on, 883.
Miss 8. A. Burstall on, 882.
Cyanophycee, the investigation of the,
report on, 419.

REPORT—1903.

DANIELL (G. F.) on school curricula, $80.

DARBISHIRE (Dr. O. V.) on the relation
and importance of botany to geogra-
phical science, 725.

—v — the sandhill vegetation of Birkdale,
854.

DARWIN (Francis) on the coral reefs af
the Indian region, 305.

— on botanical photographs, 416.

DARWIN (Prof. G. H.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

DARWIN (H.) on seismological investiga-
tion, 77.

DARWIN (Maj. L.) on seismological inves-
tigation, 77.

Davis (B. F.) and A. R. Line, action of
malt diastase on potato-starch paste,
604,

DAWKINS (Prof. W. Boyd) on the lake
village at Glastonbury, 414.

Dedolomitisation, J. J. H. Teall on, 660.

DELEBECQUE (A.) on the lakes of the
Upper Engadine, 657.

*Dendrocometes, demonstration of slides
showing conjugation in, by Prof. S. J.
Hickson, 693.

Depreciation and sinking funds in muni-
cipal undertakings, by S. H. Turner,
741.

Dépressions barométriques 4 diverses
hauteurs, études sur les, par L. Teis-
serenc de Bort, 549.

DE RANCH (C. E.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 231.

DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 87.

oa investigations at low tempera-
tures, 609.

Diastase, action of, on the starch granules
of raw and malted barley, by A.’R.
Ling, 603.

Dictyotacee, alternation of generations
in, and the cytology of the asexual
generation, by J. Lloyd Williams, 858.

fDieri, the, and kindred tribes of Aus-
tralia, A. W. Howitt and O. Siebért on
the legends of, 823

*Differential invariants of surfaces and
of space, Prof. A. R..Forsyth on the,
559.

Dihydrobenzenes, Dr. A. W. Crossley
on, and on aromatic compounds de-
rived from hydro-aromatic substances,
182.

DINES (W. H.) on the investigation of the
upper atmosphere by means of hites, 31.

Dinosaurian bones from South Brazil,
Dr. A. 8. Woodward on some, 663.

DripLock (B. J.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 365.

Disaccharides, a contribution to the con-
stitution of, by T. Purdie ts Dr. J.C,
Irvine, 633.

INDEX,

Discussions : |

On the nature of the emanations from |
radium, 535.

tOn the treatment of irreversible pro- |
cesses in thermo-dynamics, 556.

The use of vectorial methods in physics,
569. |

*On kite observations, 578.

*On fertilisation, 693.

*The teaching of geography, 722.

*The evolution of monocotyledons, 855.

Divers (Prof. E.) on the possibility of
making special reports more available
than at present, 169.

on the study of hydro-aromatic
substances, 179.

Dixon (Prof. A. F.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 389.

Dixon (Dr. H. B.) on securing the use of
duty-free alcohol for scientific research,
170.

DossBie (Dr. J. J.) on the relation
between the absorption spectra and
chemical constitution of organic sub-
stances, 126.

—— and A. LAUDER, the absorption spec-
tra of laudanine and laudanosine in
relation to their constitution, 166.

Drinking-vessel, a prebistoric, found near
Burnley, T. Williamson on, 808.

DuckwortH (W. H. L.) on anthropo-
logical work in Athens and in Crete,
404.

DUERDEN (Dr. J. E.), some results on
the morphology and development of
recent and fossil corals, 684.

—— septal sequence in the coral side-
rastrza, 687.

— a West Indian aboriginal wooden
image, 823.

DUNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach-
ing of science in elementary schools,
429,

Duty-free alcohol for scientific research, |
securing the use of, report on, 170.

DWERRYHOUSE (A. R.) on the movements
of underground waters of North-west

Yorkshire, 192.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 231.

Dyeing, the theory of, by Prof. G. von
Georgievics, 622.

tHarth’s total magnetic energy, the, by
L. A. Bauer, 580.
Echinodermata of the Firth of Clyde

(D. C. McIntosh on the), and on
variation in Ophiocoma nigra, 696.
*Kclipse observations of Jupiter's satel-
lités, by Prof. R. A. Sampson, 574.
Economic development of West Africa,
E. D. Morel on the, 711. a

895

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by E. W. Brabrook,
729.

Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, report on the
exploration of the, 183.

EDGEWORTH (Prof. F. Y.) on the eco-
nomic effect of legislation regulating
women’s labour, 315.

Educational Science, Address by Sir
W. de W. Abney to the Section of, 865.

EGGaR (W. D.) on the influence of ex-
aminations, 434.

Egyptian burial customs, by J. Garstang,
809.

Egyptian kingdom, the beginning cf the,
by Prof. W. M. F. Petrie, 819.

Electric furnace reactions under high
gaseous pressure, J. E. Petavel and
R. S.. Hutton on some, 630.

Electrical conductivity of certain alumi-
nium alloys as affected by exposure to
London atmosphere, E. Wilson on the,
777.

Hlectrical measurements, experiments for
improving the construction of practical
standards for, report on, 33.

Electrical monorails (high-speed) and
the proposed Manchester and Liverpool
express railway, F. B. Behr on, 780.

Electrical propulsion as the general
means of transport, J. N. Shoolbred on,
779.

*Electrical self-recording instruments,
by Prof. H. L. Callendar, 581.

Electrical systems, high-tension, protec-
tive devices for, by W. B. Woodhouse,
775.

Electro-ethereal theory of the velocity
of light in gases, liquids, and solids,
Lord Kelvin on the, 535.

ELLINGER (B.), a comparison of exports
to the United States, European pro-
tective states, and our colonies,
747.

ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.) on the B.A.
screw gauge, 378.

ELSTER (T.) and H. GEITEL, iiber die
in der Atmosphiire und im Erdboden
enthaltene radioaktive Emanation, 537.

Engineering, Address by C. Hawksley
to the Section of, 752.

English colour industries, some economic
aspects of the, by F. Evershed, 749.
Epiphysis in Amphybia as a bilateral
structure, the origin of the, J. Cameron

on, 689.

Erratic blocks of the British Isles, eighth
report on the, 231.

Eruptive rocks, some facts bearing on
the origin of, by J. G. Goodchild,
667.

Erysiphacee, culture experiments with
biologic forms of the, by E. $8. Salmon,
850

896

Essential oils, Dr. O. Silberrad on, 614.
Estuarine deposits at Kirmington, Lin-
colnshire, preliminary report on, 218.
Ethane and methane, the slow combus-

tion of, by Dr. W. A. Bone, 624.

Ethnological and archeologival researches
in Crete, 402.

Ethnology of early Italy, the, and its
linguistic relations to that of Britain,
by Prof. R. 8. Conway, 814.

+Ethnology of the Siciutl Indians of
British Columbia, by C. Hill Tout, 823.

EvANs (A. H.) on working out the details
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 289.

Evans (A. J.) on archeological and ethno-
logical researches in Crete, 402.

—— on excavations at Knossos, 402.

—— on the Silchester excavation, 412.

—— on the lake village at Glastonbury,
414.

Evans (Sir J.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 402
on the lake village at Glastonbury,

414,

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

Evaporation, apparatus for determining
latent heat of, by Prof. J. Campbell
Brown, 602.

Evatt (K. J.) on the pads and papillary
ridges on the palm of the hand, 802.
EvE (H. W.) on the influence of examina-

tions, 434.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

EVERSHED (F.), some economic aspects
of the English colour industries, 749.
Ewart (Prof. J. Cossar) on investiga-
tions in the laboratory of the Marine
Biological Association of the West of

Scotland at Millport, 308.

Ewine (Prof. J. A.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

Examinations, the influence of, report on,
434.

Exploration and registration work for
county local societies, a suggestion with
respect to, by Wm. Cole, 482.

Exploration in the east of Crete, by R. C.
Bosanquet, 817.

Exports to the United States, European
protective states, and our colonies, a
comparison of, by B. Ellinger, 747.

FAIRLEY (T.) on the movements of under-
ground waters of North-west York-
shire, 192.

FALLAIZE (E. N.) on anthropometric in-
vestigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 389.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the cyanophycee,
419,

REPORT-—1903.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on the teaching of
botany in schools, 420.

on stimulus and mechanism as
factors of organisation, 858.

Fauna and flora of the Trias of the
British Isles, report on the, 219.

FEARNSIDES (W. G.), the Llanvirn Beds
in Carnarvonshire, 665.

*Fertilisation, discussion on, 693.

Fiscal controversy, the, and statistical
methods, by A. L. Bowley, 750.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on practical
electrical standards, 33.

FLEMING (Prof. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

FLETCHER (W. C.) on school curricula
with special reference to commercial
education, 886.

Flora and fauna of the Trias of the
British Isles, report on the, 219.

FLOYER (HE. A.) on terrestrial surface-
waves, 312.

Fluorescence as related to the constitu-
tion of organic substances, by J. T.
Hewitt, 628.

*Fluorine, some derivatives of, Miss Ida
Smedley on, 603.

Foorp (Dr. A. H.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

ForsBes (Prof. G.), further experiences
with the infantry range-finder, 782.

FoRBES (Dr. H. 0.) on working out the
details of the observations on the
migration of birds, 289.

-—— the results of the expedition to
Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri, by Mr. W. O.
Grant and Dr. H. O. Forbes, 720.

Foreign trade, what is successin? by Dr.
E. Cannan, 751.

Forest resources of Australia available
for British commerce, the, by E. T.
Scammell, 862.

Forster (Dr. M. 0.) on the possibility of
making special reports more available
than at present, 169.

on the study of hydro-aromatic sub-
stances, 179.

*FoRSYTH (Prof. A. R.) on the differen-
tial invariant of surfaces and of space,
559.

Fossil flora of the Ardwick Series of
Manchester, E. A. N. Arber on the,
665.

Fossil floras of South Africa, by A. C.
Seward, 661.

Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 378.

FostEr (Prof. G. Carey) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

on observations on changes in the
sea coast of the United Kingdom, 258.

Foster, (Sir M.) on securing the use of
duty-free aloohol for scientific research,
170.

INDEX,

FostyuR (Sir M.) on the influence of
examinations, 434.

Fox (H.) on life-zones wm the British
carboniferous rocks, 185.

Fox (W. L.) on magnetic observations at
Falmouth, 32.

Free traders, the failure of, to attain
their ideals, by Rev. W. Cunningham,
750.

Freezing-point curves for binary systems,
by Dr. J. C. Philip, 632.

Frog, the, the effect of solutions of salt
and other substances on the develop-
ment of, by J. W. Jenkinson, 693.

GAMBLE (Dr. F. W.) and F. KEEBLE,
the bionomics of Convoluta roscoffensis,
with special reference to its green
cells, 691.

GANN (Dr. T. W.), the ancient monu-
ments and the characteristics of the
native races of Northern Honduras,
812.

Garden city, the potentialities of applied
science in a, by A. R. Sennett, 745.

Garden city, the first: its economic re-
sults, by H. E. Moore, 746.

GARDINER (J. Stanley) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 305.

*____ on the coral reefs of the Indian
Ocean, 687.

GARDINER (W.) on the cyanophycee,
419,

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 465.

— on observations on changes in the
sea coast of the United Kingdom, 258.

—— and W. J. L. ABBOTT? some recent
excavations at Hastings, and the human
remains found, 802.

GARSTANG (John), Ribchester: the
Roman fortress Bremettenacum, 807.

——~ the Roman fort at Brough, 808.

—— Egyptian burial customs, 809.

GARWOOD (Prof. E. J.) on life-zones in
the British carboniferous rocks, 185.

—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 197.

Gas, natural, history of the discovery of,
in Sussex, Heathfield district, by R.
Pearson, 784

*Gas explosion, experiments in, by L.
Bairstow and A. D. Alexander, 791.

Gas-engine explosions, a further note on,
by H. E. Wimperis, 789.

GEIKIE (Sir A.) on observations on changes
in the sea coast of the United Kingdom,
258,

GEIKIE (Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 197.

G¥ITEL (H.) and T. ELsTEs iiber die in
der Atmosphire und im Erdboden ent-
haltene radioaktive Emanation, 537,

1903.

897

GEMMILL (Dr. J. F.) on investigations in
the laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association of the West of Scotland at
Millport, 308.

Geographical exploration, the observation
of features of vegetation in, by Dr,
W. G. Smith, 726.

Geographical science, the relation and
importance of botany to, Dr. O. V.
Darbishire on, 725.

Geographical surveying suited to present
requirements, by E. A. Reeves, 718.
Geography, Address by Capt. E. W.

Creak to the Section of, 701.

*. the teaching of, discussion on, 722,

by H. J. Mackinder, 722.

Geological photographs, fourteenth report
on the collection of, 197.

Geology, Address by Prof. W. W. Watts
to the Section of, 641.

Geology of the country round Southport,
J. Lomas on the, 654.

GEORGIEVICS (Prof, G von), the theory
of dyeing, 622.

GIBBS (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 87.

GIFFEN (Sir R.), the wealth of the Em-
pire, and how it should be used, 741.
GINSBURG (Dr. B. W.), the growth of

rates, 740.

*Glacial drainage of the Forest of Ros-
sendale, A. Jowett on the, 668.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 429.

Glastonbury, the lake village at, report
on, 414,

GLAZEBROOK (Dr. R. T.) on the investi-
gation of the wpper atmosphere by
means of kites, 31.

on magnetic observations at Fal-

mouth, 32.

on practical electrical standards, 33.

on seismological investigation, 77.

—— on the B.A. serew gauge, 378.

Glucose, mutarotation in relation to the
lactonic structure of, by Dr. E. F, Arm-
strong, 635.

Glucosides, synthesis of, by W. S. Mills,
635.

*Gnetucées, la fleur des, by Prof. Lignier,
854.

*@netum ula, parthenogenesis in, by Dr.
Lotsy, 854.

GODMAN (Dr. F. Du Cane) on the zoology
of the Sandnich Islands, 305.

GOODCHILD (J. G.) on the collection of
« photographs of geological interest, 197.

*___. on some contorted strata occurring
on the coast of Northumberland, 667.

—— some facts bearing on the origin of
eruptive rocks, 667.

—— on a possible cause of the lethal
effects produced by the dust emitted

898

during the recent volcanic eruptions in
the West Indies, 668.

*GOODCHILD (J. G. and W.) on the
metalliferous deposits of the South of
Scotland, 668:

*GOODRICH (W. F.), twenty-five years’ |

progress in final and sanitary refuse
disposal, 780.

GoRHAM (J. Marshall) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 378.

GRAMONT (Comte A. DE) sur le spectre
de ‘ self-induction ’ du silicium et ses
comparaisons astronomiques, 620.

Grampus griseus found on the coast near
Galway, Prof. BR. J. Anderson on the
skull of, 691.

Granular and spicular structure in solids,
by G. T. Beilby, 557.

*Graphical analysis, illustrations of, by
J. Harrison, 773.

*Grattan’s craniometer and craniometric
methods, Prof. J. Symington on, 803.
GRAY (J.) on anthropometric investiga-
tions in Great Britain and Ireland,

389.

——on a pigmentation survey of the
school children of Scotland, 415.

GRAY (W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest, 197.

GREAVES (C. A.), demonstration of visual

combination of complementary colours, |

696.

GREEN (Prof. J. R.) on the teaching of
botany in schools, 420.

GREGORY (R. A.) on the influence of exa-
minations, 434.

GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 33.

GROSSMANN (Dr. K.) and J. LoMAs, the
origin and forms of hoar frost, 555.

+GRUNBAUM (Dr. A. S.) and Prof. SHER-
RINGTON, the cerebrum of apes, 700.

Gryacanthides, a carboniferous acantho-
dian fish, Dr. A. 8. Woodward on, 662.

HADDON (Dr. A. C.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Treland, 389.

ona pigmentation survey of the school

children of Scotland, 415.

on the psychology and sociology of
the Todas and other tribes of Southern
India, 415.

HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on securing
the use of duty-free alcohol for scientific
research, 170.

—— on the state of solution of proteéids,
304. (

—— on the micre-chemistry of cells,
310.

Harcourt (L. F.) on observations on

changes in the sea coast of the United |

Kingdom, 258.

REPORT—1903.

HARDCASTLE (Miss Frances) on the
theory of point-groups, 65.

HARKER (Dr. G. A.) on the platinum
thermometers of the British Associa-
tion, 45.

HARMER (F. W.) on the estuarine deposits
at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, 218,

—~—. on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 231.

HARMER (Dr.8. F.) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 305.

*HARRISON (J.), illustrations of graphical
analysis, 773.

HARRISON (Rev. 8. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 231.

HARTLEY (Prof. W.N.) on the relation
between the absorption spectra and
chemical constitution of organic sub-
stances, 126.

—— on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 87.

—— Address to the Chemical Section,
583.

*HarroG (Prof. M.) on the significance
of progamic nuclear divisions, 693.

* the function of chromatin in cell
division (Part I. Heterotype), 693.
* on the tentacles of suctoria, 693.

HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on working out
the details of the observations on the
migration of birds, 289.

HAWKSLEY (C.), Address to the Engi-
neering Section by, 752.

HEATHER-BIGG (Miss) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating wamen’s
labour, 315.

_ HeAwoop (E£.), Henricus Glareanus (six-

teenth-century geographer) and his
recently diseovered maps, 719.

HELE-SHAW (Prof. H. 8.) on the vesist~
ance of road vehicles to traction, 365.

HENRICI (Prof. 0.) on the use of vectorial
methods in physies, 51.

HENRICUS GLAREANUS (sixteenth-cen-
tury geographer) and his recently dis-
covered maps, by E. Heawood, 719.

HEPBURN (Dr. D.) on anthropometric
investigation in Great Britain and
Ireland, 389.

| HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the fauna

and flora of the Trias of the British
Isles, 219.

—— on observations on changes in the
sea coast of the United Kingdom, 258.
—— on the coral reefs of the Indian

region, 305.

—— on investigations in the laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association of
the West of Scotland at Millport, 308.

—— on a phosphorescence phenomena
in the Indian Ocean, 695.

and JAMES HORNELL on pearl-

formation in the Ceylon pearl oyster,

695. c : ‘ j

INDEX.

*Heredity, new discoveries in, by W.
Bateson, 853.

HEREFORD (Bishop of) on the influence
of examinations, 434.

HERGESELL (Prof. H.), work of the Inter-
national Aéronautical Committee, 566.

Hewitt (C. J.) on the B.A. sorem gauge, |

378.

HEWITT (J. T.), fluorescence as related
to the constitution of organic sub-
stances, 628.

HICKSON (Prof. 8. J.) on the occupation
of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 282.

—— on the zoology of the Sandwich |

Islands, 305.

— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 305.

Address to the Zoological Section

by, 672.

polymorphism in the pennatulida,
688.

*___. demonstration of slides showing
conjugation in Dendrocometes, 693.
High-tension electrical systems, protec-
tive devices for, by W. B. Woodhouse,

775.

HILDEBRANDSSON (H. H.) sur la circu-
lation générale de l'atmosphére, 562.
“HILL (A. W.), the botany of Upper

Peru, 853.

— — the histiology of the sieve tubes of
angiosperms, 854.

*HIuLL (M. D.), nuclear changes in the
egg of Aleyoniwm, 693.

HILTON (Harold) on spherical curves,
559.

HIND (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

*___. on the practical value of certain
species of molluscs in thecoal measures,
660.

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

*HInks (A. R.), exhibition of photo- |

graphs made with the spectro-helio-
graph of the Yerkes Observatory,
573.

Hoar frost, the origin and forms of, by |

Dr. K. Grossmann and J. Lomas, 555.
HOGARTH (D. J.) on archeological and
ethnological researches in Crete, 402.
HouMEs (T. V.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 465.
on maps of the Ordnance Survey,

481.

Homeceomorphy among fossil plants,
E. A. N. Arber on, 859.

Honduras, Northern, the ancient monu-
ments and the characteristics of the
native races of, by Dr. T. W. Gann,
812.

HOPKINSON (B.), parallel working of
alternators, 778.

899.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the work of the Cor-
responding Societies Committee, 465.
HORNE (Dr. J.) on the erratic blocks of

the British Isles, 231.

HORNELL (James) and Prof. W. A.
HERDMAN on pearl-formation in the
Ceylon pear! oyster, 695.

HOwWEs (Prof. G. B.) on the occupation
of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 282.

—-— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 305.

fHowirt (A. W.) and Orro SIEBERT
on the legends of the Dieri and
kindred tribes of Australia, 823.

HOYLE (Dr. W. E.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierwm
animalium, 288.

HUBNER (JULIUS) and W. J. Pops, the
cause of the lustre produced on
mercerising cotton under tension, 612.

HUDSON (R. W. H. T.), the use of tan-

gential co-ordinates, 560.

| —— algebraic curves on Kummer’s 16-

nodal quartic surface, 561.

HuGHES (G. P.) on birds now rare in
the British isles, 696.

Human remains found during some re-
cent excavations at Hastings, by Dr.
J. G. Garson and W. J. L. Abbott, 802.

Hurst (C. C.), recent experiments in the
hybridisation of orchids, 853.

HUTTON (R. 8.) and J. E. PETAVEL on
some electric furnace reactions under
high gaseous pressure, 630.

Hydro-aromatic substances, recent work
on, by Dr. A. W. Crossley, 179.

Hydro-aromatic substances, Dr. A. W.
Crossley on dihydrobenzenes and on
aromatic compounds derived from, 182.

Hydro-aromatic substances, report on the
study of, 179.

| *Hygrométre acheveu au lieu du psychro-

métre, l’emploi de 1’, by Hofrath J.
M. Pernter, 561.

Ice, the melting of, in salt water, an ex-
periment upon, by J. W. Sandstrém,
715.

Igneous rocks, the average composition
of the, by F. P. Mennell, 671.

Igneous rocks near Weston-super-Mare,
Somersetshire, W. 8. Boulton on some,
660.

Igneous rocks of the Berwyns, T. H.
Cope and J. Lomas on the, 664.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
report on the compilation of an, 288.
Indian Ocean, a phosphorescence pheno-
menon in the, Prof. W. A. Herdman

on, 695. :

*Indian, Ocean, the coral reefs of the
J. 8S. Gardiner on, 687.

3M 2

900

Influence of examinations, report on the,
434,

International Aéronautical Committee,
work of the, by Prof. H. Hergesell, 566.

Iodides, the colours of, by W. Ackroyd,
614.
Ireland, supplementary list of minerals
occurring in, by H. J. Seymour, 671.
Irish caves, report on the exploration of,
the Edenvale Caves, co. Clare, 183.

IRVINE (Dr. J. C.) and T. PURDIE, a
contribution to the constitution of
disaccharides, 633.

Islam, the progress of, in India, by W.
Crooke, 813.

Isle of Man, the origin of certain quartz
dykes in the, J. Lomas on, 671.

Tsomeric naphthalene derivatives, report
on, 174.

Isomorphous sulphonic derivatives of
benzene, fourth report on, 85.

Izop (BE. G.), pendulum apparatus for
testing steel as regards brittleness, 787.

Jamaica black, the rapid evolution of
the, by Miss Pullen-Burry, 820.

JAPP (Prof. F. R.) on the relation be-
tween the absorption spectra and
chemical constitution of organic sub-
stances, 126.

JENKINSON (J. W.), the effect of solu-
tions of salt and other substances on
the development of the frog, 693.

Jewellery, the origin of, by Prof. W.
Ridgeway, 815.

JOHNSON (Prof. T.) on the teaching of |

botany in schools, 420.

——~- willow-canker, 850.

JoNES (Rev. E.) on the movements of
underground waters of North-west
Yorkshire, 192.

*JOWETT (A.) on the glacial drainage of
the forest of Rossendale, 668.

Jupp (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigation, TT.

on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 305.

Junction beds, the disturbance of, from

differential shrinkage and similar local /

causes during consolidation, G. W.
Lamplugh on, 666.

KEEBLE (F.) and Dr. F. W. GAMBLE,
the bionomics of Convolutu roscoffensis,
with special reference to its green cells,
691.

KeELTIp (Dr. J. Scott) on terrestrial
surface-mavres, 312.

Keuvin (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 33.

—— on seismological investigation, 77.

—_— on the B.A. screw gauge, 378.

REPORT—1908.

KELVIN (Lord) on the electro-ethereal
theory of the velocity of light in gases,
liquids, and solids, 535.

—— on the nature of the emanations
from radium, 535.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on life-zones in
the British carboniferous rocks, 185.
on the movements of underground

waters of North-west Yorkshire, 192.

on the erratic blocks of the British

Isles, 231.

on the estuarine deposits at Kirming-

ton, Lincolnshire, 218.

on the fauna and flora of the Trias

of the British Isles, 219.

| KERR (Prof. J. Graham) on the coral reefs

of the Indian region, 305.

KERSHAW (J. B. C.), aluminium as an
electrical conductor, 776.

Keuper, the base of the, in South Devon,
A. Somervail on, 665.

KIDSTON (R.) on life-zones in the British
carboniferous rocks, 185.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 197.

KimMiIns (Dr. C. W.) on the teaching of
botany in schools, 420.

on the influence of examinations,

434,

on the conditions of health essential
to the carrying on of the work of instruc-
tion in schools, 455.

*King Edward VII. bridge over the
River Thames between Brentford and
Kew, by C. A. Brereton, 773.

*Kite observations, discussion on, 578.

Kites, results of the exploration of the
air with, at Blue Hill Observatory,
Mass., U.S.A., and the use of this
method on the tropical oceans, by A.
L. Rotch, 565.

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on working out the
details of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 289.

Kummer's 16-nodal quartic surface, alge-
braic curves on, by R. W. H. T.
Hudson, 561.

Labour Party, the new, in its economic
aspect, by H. B. Lees Smith, 744.

Lagrange’s equations for non-holonomic
systems, the form of, Prof. L. Boltz-
mann on, 569. :

Lake village at Glustonbury, report on
the, 414. é

Lakes of the Upper Engadine, A.
Delebecque on the, 657.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on the exploration of
the Edenvale caves, co. Clare, 183.

on life-zones in the British carboni-

Ferous rocks, 185.

INDEX.

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on the estuarine de-
posits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, 218.

—— land shells in the infra-glacial
chalk-rubble at Sewerby, near Brid-
lington, 659.

—— on the disturbance of junction beds
from differential shrinkage, and similar
local causes, during consolidation,
666.

Land shells in the infra-glacial chalk-
rubble at Sewerby, near Bridlington,
by G. W. Lamplugh, 659.

Land values, J. D. Chorlton on the rating
of, 743.

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples, 282.

—— on the micro-chemistry of cells,
310.

Latent heat of evaporation, apparatus for
determining, by Prof. J. Campbell
Brown, 602.

Laudanine ond laudanosine, the absorp-
tion spectra of, in relation to their con-
stitution, by Dr. J. J. Dobbie and A.
Lauder, 166.

Laudanosine and laudanine, the absorp-
tion spectra of, in relation to their
constitution, by Dr. J. J. Dobbie and
A, Lauder, 166.

LAUDER (A.) on the relation between the
absorption spectra and chemical con-
stitution of organic substances, 126.

—and Dr. J. J. DossBiE, the

absorption spectra of laudanine and |

laudanosine in relation to their con-
stitution, 166.

LAURIE (Prof. M.) on investigations in
the laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association of the West of Scotland at
Millport, 308.

LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on life-zones in |

the British carboniferous rocks, 185.
LEIGHTON (Dr. Gerald), some recent
observations on British reptiles, 694.

LE SUEUR (Dr.) on the study of hydro- |

aromatic substances, 179.

Letts (Prof. E. A.) and J. 8S. Torron
on the occurrence of Ulva latissima
and Enteromorpha compressa in sewage
effluents, and on variations in the com-
position of the tissues of these and
allied seaweeds, 851.

—— R. F. Buakg, and J. S. Torron,
on the reduction of nitrates by sewage,
606.

LEwis (F. J.), botanical survey of the
basins of the rivers Eden, Tees, Tyne,
and Wear, 726.

Life-zones in the British carboniferous
rocks, report on, 185.

Light, the resolution of, into its com-
ponent undulations of flat wavelets,
how to exhibit in optical instruments,

901

and how to employ this resolution as
our guide in making and interpreting
experiments, by Dr. G. J. Stoney, 568.

Lightning and its spectra, by Dr. W.J.S.
Lockyer, 567.

*LIGNIER (Prof.) la fleur des gnetacées,
854.

Line (A, R.), action of diastase on the
starch granules of raw and malted
barley, 603.

—— action of malt diastase on potato-
starch paste, 604.

—— and B. F. DAVIS, action of malt
diastase on potato-starch paste, 604.
Lipoid membranes, experiments on the
permeability of, by Prof. B. Moore, 700.
LISTER (J. J.) on the coral reefs of the

Indian region, 305.

LIvEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 87.

| Llanvirn beds in Carnarvonshire, W. G.

Fearnsides on the, 665.

LOCKYER (Sir J. Norman), Presidential
Address, 3.

on mave-length tables af the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 87.

t simultaneous solar and terrestrial
phenomena, 549.

Lockyrsr (Dr. W. J. 8.), lightning and
its spectra, 567.

—— a probable relationship between
the solar prominences and corona, 580.

| *Locomobile design, improvements in,

by T. Clarkson, 773.
LODGE (Sir O. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 33.

| —— on the influence of examinations, 434.

Lomas (J.) on the fauna and flora of the
Trias of the British Isles, 219.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 231.

—— the geology of the country round
Southport, 654,

on polyzoa as rock-cementing or-

ganisms, 663.

on the origin of certain quartz
dykes in the Isle of Man. 671.

— on the origin of Adam’s Bridge,
721.

—— and T. H. Cope on the igneous
rocks of the Berwyns, 664.

| —~ and Dr. K. GrossMAny, the origin

and forms of hoar frost, 555.

| *Lorsy (Dr.), parthenogenesis in Gnetum

ula, 854.

LevETT (E.) on the origin of the brooch
and the probable use of certain rings
called ‘armlets,’ 822.

*Low temperatures, investigations at, by
Prof. J. Dewar, 609.

the application of, to the study of

biological problems, by Dr. A. Mac-

fadyen, 609.

902

Lustre produced on mercerising cotton ,

under tension, J. Hiibner and W. J.

Pope on the cause of the, 612.
*Lyginodendron, the seed of, by Dr.

D. H. Scott and Prof. F. W. Oliver, 859.

Macadamised roads, the effect of traffic
and weather on, and the prevention of
dust, by T. Aitken, 787.

MACALISTER (Prof, A.) on the coral reefs
of the Indian region, 305.

on a@ pigmentation survey of the
school children of Scotland, 415.

—— on archeological and ethnological
researches in Crete, 402.

MAcALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 310.

MAcDONALD (Mrs. J. R.) on the economic
effect of legislation requlating nomen’s
labour, 315.

MACFADYEN (Dr. A.), the application of
low temperatures to the study of bio-
logical problems, 609.

McHenry (A.) on the Edenvale caves,
co. Clare, 183.

McInTOosH (D. C.) on the echinodermata

of the Firth of Clyde and variation in |

Ophiocoma nigra, 696.

MoIntosH (Prof. W. C.) on the oecupa-
tion of a table at the Zoological Station
at Naples, 282.

on the eggs of the Shanny (Blen-
nius pholis, L.), 697.

MACKENZIE (Prof. J. J.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 310.

MACKIE (Dr. Wm.), a theory of the origin
of continents and ocean basins, 668.
MACKINDER (H. J.), the teaching of

geography, 722.

McLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum anima-
liwm, 288.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 58.

MACMAHON (Major P. A.) on observations
on changes in the sea coast of the
United Kingdom, 258.

MACRITCHIE (David), Mongoloid Euro-
peans, 821.

‘Mad-stone,’ the so called, Dr. H. C.
White on the chemical and physical
characters of, 605.

+Magnetic energy, the earth’s total, by
L. A. Bauer, 580.

Magnetic observations at Falmouth, report
on, 32.

Magnetic survey of the United States,
progress of the, by L. A. Bauer, 579.
MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science

in elementary schools, 429.

on the influence of examinations,
434.

MAITLAND (Miss A. C.) on the conditions

REPORT—1903.

of health essential to the carrying on of
the work of instruction in sezools, 455.

Malay peninsula, a collection of skulls
from the, N. Annandale on, 802.

Malay peninsula, the walking fish of the,
H. C. Robinson on, 694.

{Malayan butterflies, exhibition of con-
vergent series of, by H. C. Robinson,
694

t+Malayan reptiles, the coloration of, N.
Annandale on, 694.

MALLOCK (A.) on the resistance of road
vehicles to traction, 365.

Malt diastase, action of, on potato-starch
paste, by A. R. Ling, 604.

by B. F. Davis and A. R. Ling, 604.

*Manchester Municipal Technical Insti-
tute, the equipment of the, by J. H.
Reynolds, 773.

MANIFOLD (Lieut.-Col. C. C.), explora-
tions and economic conditions in
Western China, 716.

*Map prejections suited to general pur-
poses, G, J. Morrison on, 719.

Maps of the Ordnance Survey, T. V.
Holmes on, 481.

MARcHANT (Prof. E. W.) and G. W.
WORRALL on the use of capacities as
multipliers for electrostatic voltmeters
in alternating current circuits, 572.

Marine Biological Association of the
West of Scotland, investigations in the
laboratory of the, at Millport, report
on, 308.

MarR (Dr. J. E.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

on the movements of underground

waters of North-west Yorkshire, 192.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 231.

Martin Mere, by H. Brodrick, 656.

Mathematical and Physical Science, Ad-
dress by C. Vernon Boys to the Section
of, 525.

Marruey (G.) on practical .eleetrical
standards, 33.

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on scismological
investigation, T7.

| —— on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 465.

Meles taxus, the peritoneum in, Prof.
Rh. J. Anderson on, 692.

MENNELL (F. P.), the average composi-
tion of the igneous rocks, 671.

Mercerising cotton under tension, the
cause of the lustre produced on, by
J. Hiibner and W. J. Pope, 612.

Mercury standards of resistance, some
nen, F. KE. Smith on, 44.

Mersey, the river, the tidal régime of,
J. N. Shoolbred on, 784.

*Metalliferous deposits of the South of
Scotland, J. G. and W. Goodchild on
the, 668.

INDEX.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, |

report on, 58,

Meteorology and Astronomy, Address to
the Subsection of, by Dr. W. N. Shaw,
541.

Methane and ethane, the slow combus-
tion of, by W. A. Bone, 624.

MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on botanical photo-
graphs, 416.

on the teaching of botany in schools,

420.

on the conditions of health essential
to the carrying on of the work of
instruction in schools, 455.

Micro-chemistry of cells, report on the,
310.

Miers (Prof. H. A.) on isomorphous
sulphonic derivatives of benzene, 85.

Migration of birds, observations on the,
1880-1887, sith and final report on
norking out the details of, 289.

MILL (Dr. H. R.) on the investigation of
the upper atmosphere by means of kites,
31.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 465.

on some rainfall problems, 581.

—— on the rate of fall of rain at Sea-
thwaite, 783.

MILLS (W. 8.), synthesis of giucosides,
635.

—— the action of oxides of nitrogen on
oximido compounds, 637.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological inves-
tigation, 77.

—— on terrestrial surface waves, 312.

Minerals occurring in Ireland, supple-
mentary list of, by H. J. Seymour, 671.

Mirror extensometer, a new form of, by
J. Morrow, 791.

*Molluscs in the coal measures, the
practical value of certain species of,
Dr. Wheelton Hind on, 660.

MONCKTON (H. W.) on the Sarsen stones
of the Bagshot district, 669.

Mongoloid Europeans, by
MacRitchie, 821.

*Monocotyledons, the evolution of, dis-
cussion on, 855.

—— —— by Ethel Sargant, 855.

—— the origin of, the bearing of fer-
tilisation phenomena and embryo sac
structure on, by Ethel N. Thomas,
857.

Monophase induction repulsion motors,
Wm. Cramp on, 790.

Moor: (Prof. B.), a new form of osmo-
meter for direct determinations of
osmotic pressure of colloids, 699.

experiments on the permeability of
lipoid membranes, 700.

Moors (H. E£.), the first garden city: its
economic results, 746.

Moore (J. EH. 8.) on the occupation of a

David

905

table at the zoological station at Naples,

282.

| Morgu (E. D.), the economic develop-

ment of West Africa, 711.

| Morphology and development of recent
and fossil corals, some results on the,
by Dr. J. E. Duerden, 684.

*MORRISON (G. J.) on map projections
suited to general purposes, 719.

MorRIson (Walter) on the movements of
underground maters of North-west
Yorkshire, 192.

Morrow (John), a new form of mirror
extensometer, 791.
Moss (C. E.), peat moors of the Southern
Pennines: their age and origin, 727.
Murr (H. B.) and W. B. WRIGHT on a
preglacial or early glacial raised beach
in co. Cork, 657.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electrical

| standards, 33.

Municipal undertakings, depreciation and
sinking funds in, by 8S. H. Turner, 741.

Munro (Dr. R.) on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 414.

Murray (Sir John) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 58.

on investigations in the laboratory
of the Marine Biological Association of
the West of Scotland at Millport, 308.

Mutarotation in relation to the lactonic
structure of glucose, by Dr. E. F.
Armstrong, 635.

Myers (Dr. C. §8.), antiquities near
Kharga, in the great oasis, 809.

| MyREsS (J. L.) on anthropometric investi-

gation in Great Britain and Ireland,

389.

on archeological and ethnological
researches in Crete, 402.

—— on the Silchester excavations, 412.

—— on a pre-Mycenzan sanctuary with
votive terracottas at Paleokastro, in
Eastern Crete, 818.

Naples Zoological Station, report on the
occupation of a table at the, 282.

NEVILLE (F. H.) on the influence of
examinations, 434.

‘New’ star in Gemini, the, was it shining
previously as a very faint star? by
Prof. H. H. Turner, 562.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on working out the
details of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 289.

—— on the zoology of the Sandnich
Islands, 305.

NEWTON (HE. T.) on the fauna and flora
of the Trias of the British Tsles,
219,

Nitrates, the reduction of, by sewage,
Prof, E. A. Letts, R. F. Blake, and
J. 8. Totton on, 606.

904

Non-holonomic systems, the form of
Lagrange’s equations for, Prof. L.
Boltzmann on, 569.

Ocean basins and continents, a theory of
the origin of, by Dr. W. Mackie, 668.
Oceanic circulation, the influence of ice-
melting upon, by Prof. O. Pettersson,

712.

ODELL (Wm.), preliminary experiments
on air friction, 789.

Oil fuel, by A. M. Bell, 780.

OLDHAM (R. D.) on seismological investi-
gation, 77.

*OLIVER (Prof. F. W.) and Dr. D. H.
Scort, the seed of lyginodendron, 859.

Oocyte of Tomopteris, Wm. Wallace on
the, 282.

Ophiocoma nigra, D. C. McIntosh on
variation in the, and on the echino-
dermata of the Firth of Clyde, 696.

Orchids, recent experiments on the
bridisation of, by C. C. Hurst, 853.

Ordnance Survey, maps of the, T.
Holmes on, 481.

Orion nebula, photographs of the, by
W. H. Wilson, 567.

Osmometer for direct determinations of
osmotic pressure of colloids, a new
form of, by Prof. B. Moore, 699.

Oxides of nitrogen, the action of, on
oximido-compounds, by W. §. Mills,
637.

Oximido-compounds, the action of oxides
of nitrogen on, by W.8. Mills, 636.

hy-
Ae

Pads and papillary ridges on the palm of
the hand, E. J. Evatt on, 802.

PAGE (T. E.) on school curricula, 879.

Paleolithic implements from the shelly
gravel pit at Swanscombe, Kent, by
Mrs. C. Stopes, 803.

Paleoliths, saw-edged, by Mrs. C. Stopes,
804.

Parallel working of alternators, by B.
Hopkinson, 778.

PARKIN (J.) on the localisation of antho-
cyan (red-cell sap) in foliage leaves,
862.

PARKINSON (John) on observations on
changes in the sea coast of the United
Kingdom, 258.

PARRY (Joseph), the afforestation of
waterworks catchment areas, 717.

water-supply in South-west Lan-
cashire, 783.

PAULSEN (Dr. A.), comparison of the
spectrum of nitrogen and of the
aurora, 575.

PATIENCE (Alexander) on the crustacea
collected during the dredging cruise of
the Millport Marine Bioloyical Asso-

REPORT—1903

ciation’s steamer ‘Mermaid’ since
May 1902, 308.

PATON (J. L.) on school curricula with
special reference to commercial educa-
tion, 885.

PEACH (B.N.) on life-zones in the British
carboniferous rocks, 185.

Pearl-formation in the Ceylon pearl
oyster, Prof. W. A. Herdman and
J. Hornell on, 695.

PEARSON (Richard), history of the dis-
covery of natural gas in Sussex,
Heathfield district, 785.

Peat moors of the Southern Pennines,
the: their age and origin, by C. E.
Moss, 727.

Pendulum apparatus for testing steel as
regards brittleness, by E. G. Izod, 787.

Pennatulida, polymorphism in the, by
Prof. S. J. Hickson, 688.

Pennines, the Southern, the peat moors
of: their age and origin, by C. E.
Moss, 727.

PERKIN (Prof. W. H.) on securing the
use of duty-free alcohol for scientific
research, 170.

on the study
substances, 179.

PERMAN (Dr. E. P.), the influence of
small quantities of water in bringing
about chemical reaction between
salts, 631.

Permanent set in cast iron due to small
stresses, and its bearing on the design
of piston rings and springs, by C. H.
Wingfield, 788.

*PERNTER (Hofrath J. M.), emploi de
Vhygrométre 4 cheveu au lieu du
psychrométre, 561.

Perry (Prof. J.) on practical electrical
standards, 33.

—— on seismological investigation, 77.

on the resistance of road vehicles to

traction, 365.

of hydro-aromatic

| *Peru, Upper, A. W. Hill on the botany

of, 853.

PETAVEL (J. E.) on the rate of combus-
tion and explosive pressure of cordite,
656.

—— and R. §. HUTTON on some electric
furnace reactions under high gaseous
pressures, 630.

_ Perrie (Prof. W. M. Flinders), the

temples of Abydos, 818.

—— tthe beginning of the Egyptian
kingdom, 819.

PETTERSSON (Prof. O.), the influence of
ice-melting upon oceanic circulation,
712.

PHILIP (Dr. J. C.), freezing-point curves
for binary systems, 632.

PHILLIPS (J. St. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 197.

Phosphorescence phenomenon in the

INDEX.

Indian Ocean, Prof, W. A. Herdman
on a, 695.

*Photographs made with the spectro-
heliograph of the Yerkes Observatory,
exhibition of, by A. R. Hinks,
573.

Photographs of geological interest, four-
teenth report on the collection of,
197.

Physical and Mathematical Science,
Address by C. Vernon Boys to the
Section of, 525.

Physical degeneration and the poverty
line, by Mrs, H. Bosanquet, 747.

PICKARD (Dr. R. H.), the cholesterol
group, 616.

Pigmentation survey of the school children
of Scotland, report on a, 415.

*Plant distribution, methods of mapping,
by T. W. Woodhead, 860.

*Plants on the Serpentine rocks in the
north-east of Scotland, by W. Wilson,
864.

Platinum thermometers of the British
Association, Dr. J. A. Harker on the, 54.

PLUMMER (W.E. ) on seismological investi-
gation, 77.

Point-groups, the theory of, report on, 65.

Polymorphism in the pennatulida, by
Prof. S. J. Hickson, 688.

Polyzoa as rock-cementing organisms,
J. Lomas on, 663.

Pops (Prof. W. J.) on isomorphous sul-
phonic derivatives of benzene, 85.

— on the possibility of making special
reports more available than at present,
169.

—— and Julius HUsBNeEr, the cause of
the lustre produced on mercerising
cotton under tension, 612.

*Potable waters in South-west Lanca-
shire, the nature and quality of some,
by Prof. J. C. Brown, 775.

POWELL (P. H.), consideration of some
points in the design and working of
ballistic galvanometers, 570.

POWELL (Wm.) on the preservation,
seasoning, and strengthening of timber
by the Powell process, 863.

PoyntTINnG (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

PRAEGER (R. Lloyd) on the exploration
of the Edenvale caves, co. Clare, 183.
PRATT (Edith M.), the assimilation and
distribution of nutriment in Alyconium

digitatum, 688.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on magnetic observa-
tions at Falmouth, 32.

— on practical electrical standards,
33.

— on the B.A. screw gauge, 378.

Preglacial or early glacial raised beach
in co. Cork, H. B. Muff and W. B.
Wright on a, 657.

905

Pre-Mycenzan sanctuary with votive
terracottas at Palzokastro, in Eastern
Crete, J. L. Myres on a, 818.

PRICE (L. L.) on the econumic effect of
legislation regulating women’s labour,
315.

PRICE (W. A.) on the B.A. screm gauge,
378.

Primitive implements in the Faroes and
Iceland, the survival of, by N. Annan-,
dale, 805.

*Progamic nuclear divisions, Prof. M.
Hartog on the significance of, 693.

Proteids, the state of solution of, report
on, 304.

Psychology and sociology of the Todas
and other tribes of Southern India,
report on the, 415.

PULLEN-BURRY (Miss), the rapid evolu-
tion of the Jamaica black, 820.

PURDIE (T.) and Dr. J. C. IRvInn, a
contribution to the constitution of
disaccharides, 633.

Purple-fishery, an early, by R. C. Bosan-
quet, 817.

Quartz dykes in the Isle of Man,
J. Lomas on the origin of certain, 671.
Queensland, by J. P. Thomson, 728.

Radiation through a foggy atmosphere,
by Prof. A. Schuster, 573.

Radio-active emanation of the atmo-
sphere and from the earth, by
T. Elster and H. Geitel, 537.

Radium, discussion on the nature of
the emanations from, Prof. E. Ruther-
ford on, 535; Lord Kelvin on, 535.

Radium compounds, experiments and ob-
servations with, by W. Ackroyd, 639.

Rain, the rate of fall of, at Leathwaite,
Dr. H. R. Mill on, 783.

*Rainfall of Scotland, the relation of
the, to the sun-spot periods, 1855-1598,
Dr. A. Buchan on, 549.

Rainfall on the River Bann, co. Down,
at Banbridge, and at Lough Island
Reavy Reservoir, by John Smyth, 783.

Rainfall problems, Dr. H. R. Mill on
some, 581.

Range-finder, the infantry, further ex-
periences with, by Prof. G. Forbes, 782.

RANKIN“ (W. Munn), the methods and
results of a botanical survey of counties,
477.

Rates, the growth of, by Dr. B. W.
Ginsburg, 740.

Rating of land values, J. D. Chorlton on
the, 743.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 33.

READ (C. H.), on the lake village at
Glastonbury, 414.

906

READ (C. H.) on the work of the Corre-
sponding Societies Committec, 465.

REEVES (H. A.) on geographical survey-
ing suited to present requirements, 718.

*Refuse disposal, final and sanitary,
twenty-five years’ progress in, by W.
F. Goodrich, 780.

REID (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 197.

REID (Clement) on seismological investiga-
tion, 77.

—— on the estuarine deposits at Kir-
mington, Lincolnshire, 218.

REID (Prof. E. Waymouth), on the state
of solution of proteids, 304.

RENNIE (J.) on practical
standards, 33.

RENNIE (Dr. J.), the epithelial islets of
the pancreas in teleostei, 696.

Reptiles, British, some recent observa-
tions, on, by Dr. G. Leighton, 694.

+Reptiles, Malayan, N. Annandale on the
coloration of, 694.

Resistance, some new mercury standards
of, F. B. Smith on, 44.

Resistance found for pure
copper, table of the, 51.

Resistance of certain standard coils of
the British Association, F. EL. Smith on
the values of the, 38.

Resistance of road vehicles to traction,
report on the, 365.

*Respiration of plants, report on the, 849.

*REYNOLDS (J. H.), the equipment of
the Manchester Municipal ‘Technical
Institute, 773.

REYNOLDS (Prof. 8. H.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest, 197.

Ribchester: the Roman fortress Bre-
mettenacum, by J. Garstang, 807.

RICHARDSON (Nelson) on seismological
investigation, 77.

RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on archeological
and ethnological researches in Crete,
402.

—— on the psychology and sociology of
the Todas and other tribes of Southern
India, 415.

—— the origin of jewellery, 815.

Riea (E.) on the B.A. serew gauge,
378.

RIVERS (Dr. W. H. R.) on a pigmentation
survey of the school children of Scot-
land, 415.

——- on the psychology and sociology of
the Todas and other tribes of Southern
India, 415.

‘_— Toda kinship and marriage, 810.

—— the Toda dairy, 811.

ROBERTSON (Agnes) and Ethel SArR-
GANT on some anatomical features of
the scutellum in Zea mais, 860.

+ROBINSON (H. C.), note on the walking
fish of the Malay Peninsula, 694.

electrical

annealed

REPORT—1903.

+ROBINSON (H. C.), exhibition of conver-
gent series of Malayan butterflies, 694.

Roman fort at Brough, the, by J.
Garstang, 808.

ROSCOE (Sir H. E.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 87.

on securing the use of duty-free

alcohol for scientific research, 170.

on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 429.

ROSENBAUM (S.), a contribution to the
statistics of production and consump-
tion of the United Kingdom, 744.

*Rossendale, the forest of, A. Jowett on
the glacial drainage of, 668.

Rotcn (A. L.), results of the exploration
of the air with kites at Blue Hill
Observatory, Mass., U.S.A., during
1900-1902, and the use of this method
on the tropical oceans, 565.

| —— effect of meteorological conditions

upon audibility, 581.

RUCKER (Sir A. W.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 33.

on magnetic observations at Fal-
mouth, 32,

—— on securing the use of duty-free
alcohol for scientific research, 170.

on the influence of examinations, 434.

RUDLER (F. W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
465.

*RUTHERFORD (Prof. EH.) on the nature
of the emanations from radium, 535.
Ryparobius, the development of the
ascocarp in, by B. T. P. Barker, 849.

SADLER (Prof. M. E.) on school curri-
cula, 876.

*Saliva, the origin of water in, by J.
Barcroft, 700.

SALMON (KE. S.), culture experiments
with biologic forms of the Zrysi-
phacee, 850.

SALOMONS (Sir D.) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 365.

*SAMPSON (Prof. R. A.), eclipse observa-
tions of Jupiter’s satellites, 574.

Sandhill vegetation of Birkdale, the, by
O. V. Darbishire, 854.

SANDSTROM (J. W.), an experiment on
the melting of ice in salt water,
715.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
thirteenth report on, 305.

SARGANT (Ethel), the evolution of
monocotyledons, 855.

and Agnes RORERTSON on some
anatomical features of the scutellum
in Zea mais, 860.

Sarsen stones of the Bagshot district,
H. W. Monckton on the, 669.

INDEX,

*SAUNDERS (Miss Edith), results of
some cross-breeding experiments with
plants, 853.

ScAMMELL (H, T.), the forest resources
of Australia available for British com-
merce, 862.

ScHArer (Prof. E. A.) on the state of
solution of proteids, 304.

—— on the microchemistry of cells, 310.

ScHARFF (Dr. R. F.) on the exploration
of the Edenvale caves, co. Clare, 183.

907

| ‘Self-induction’ du silicium, Je spectre

de, et ses comparaisons astronomiques,

/ Comte A. de Gramont sur, 620.

SENIER (Prof, A.) on acridines, 616.

SENNETT (A. R.) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 365.

—— the potentialities of applied science
in a garden city, 745.

| Septal sequence in the coral siderastriea,

by Dr. J. E. Duerden, 687.

| Series motors, a method for finding the

School children of Scotland, report ona |
| Sewarp (A. C.) on the fauna and flora of

pigmentation survey of the, 415.

School curricula, Prof. M. E. Sadler on,
876.

-_— Prof. J. Adams on, 878.

—— T. E. Page on, 879.

—__— G. F. Daniell on, 880.

School curricula with special reference to
commercial education, J. L. Paton on,
885.

—— _W. C. Fletcher on, 886.

ScHUSTER (Prof. A.) on the investigation
of the upper atmosphere by means of
hites, 31.

on magnetic observations at Fal-
mouth, 32.

— on practical electrical standards,
33.

on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 87.

cosmical radio-activity, 538.

*____ wave-propagation in a dispersive
medium, 569.

—— radiation through a foggy atmo-
sphere, 573.

Science, the teaching of, in elementary
schools, report on, 429.

efficiency of, by E. Wilson, 777.

the Trias of the British Isles, 219.
on the teaching of botany in schools,
420.

| ___ fossil floras of South Africa, 661.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation |

of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 288.

—— on the soology of the Sandwich
Tslands, 305.

*Scotland, the south of, the metal-
liferous deposits of, by J. G. and W.
Goodchild, 668.

Scorr (Dr. D. H.) on the Cyanophycce,
419.

*____ and Prof. F. W. OLIVER, the seed
of lyginodendron, 859.

Scott-ELLioT (Prof. G. F.) on botanical
photographs, £16.

Serew gauge, the British Association,
report on, 378.

Sea coast of the United Kingdom, observa-
tions on changes in the, report on,
258.

SepGwick (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 282.

—— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 305.

Seismological investigation, seventh report
on, TT.

Address to the Botanical Section by,
824.

| SeyMouR (H. J.), supplementary list of

minerals occurring in Ireland, 671.

| *SHACKLETON (Lieut. E.), the British

Antarctic expedition, 716.

| Shanny (Blennius pholis, L.), Prof. W. C.

McIntosh on the eggs of the, 697.

SHARP (Dr. D.) on the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 305.

SHAw (Dr. W. N.) on practical electrical
standards, 33.

on the investigation of the upper

atmosphere by means of kites, 31.

Address to the Sub-section of As-
tronomy and Meteorology, 541.

SHAw (Mrs. W. N.) on the influence of
examinations, 434.

SHENSTONE (W. A.) on the possibility of
making special reports more available
than at present, 169.

——on the influence of examinations,
434.

| SHEPPARD (Thomas) on the estuarine

deposits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire,
218.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on the con-
ditions of health essential to the carry-
ing on of the work of instruction in
schools, 455.

{——— and Dr. A. S. GRUNBAUM, the cere-
brum of apes, 700.

SHOOLBRED (J. N.) on electrical propul-
sion as the general means of transport,
779.

—— on the tidal régime of the River
Mersey, 784.

+Siciutl Indians of British Columbia, the
ethnology of the, C. Hill Tout on,
823.

+SIEBERT (Otto) and A. W. HowITT on
the legends of the Dieri and kindred
tribes of Australia, 823.

Sieve tubes of angiosperms, the histiology
of the, by A. W. Hill, 854.

SILBERRAD (Dr. O.) on essential oils,
614.

908

Silchester excavation, report on the, 412.

Silicium, le spectre de ‘ self-induction ’
du, et ses comparaisons astronomiques,
Comte A. de Gramont sur, 620.

Simultaneous solar and terrestrial phe-
nomena, by Sir Norman Lockyer, 549.

Skulls from the Malay Peninsula, N.
Annandale on a collection of, 802.

Skulls from round barrows in East York-
shire, by W. Wright, 801.

SMART (Prof. W.) on the economic effect
of legislation regulating women’slabour,
315.

*S MEDLEY (Miss Ida) on some derivatives
of fluorine, 603.

SMITH (EK. A.) on the zoology of the Sand-
nich Islands, 305.

SMITH (E. Shrapnell) on the resistance of
road vehicles to traction, 365.

SMITH (F. E.) on the values of the resist-
ance of certain standard coils of the
British Association, 38.

—— on some new mercury standards of
resistance, 44.

SMITH (Dr. G. Adam) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating mamen’s
labour, 315.

SmitH (H. B. Lees), the new Labour
Party in its economic aspect, 744.

*SMITH (Dr. W.G.), the observation of
features of vegetation in geographical
exploration, 726.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the movements |

of underground naters of North-west
Yorkshire, 192.

—— on the teaching of science in ele-
mentary schools, 429,

SmMyTH (John), rainfall on the River
Bann, co. Down, at Banbridge, and at

» Lough Island Reavy Reservoir, 783.

Sokotra and Abd-el-Kuri, the results of
the expedition to, by Mr. W. O. Grant
and Dr. H. O. Forbes, by Dr. H. O.
Forbes, 720.

Solar prominences and corona, a probable
relationship between the, by Dr. W. J.
S. Lockyer, 580.

Solar prominences and terrestrial mag-
netism, by Rev. A. L. Cortie, 574.

SOLLAS (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks |

of the British Isles, 231.

Solution of proteids, report on the state
of, 304.

SOMERVAIL (A.) on the base of the
keuper in South Devon, 665.

SOMERVILLE (Alex.) on investigations in
the laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association of the West of Scotland at
Millport, 308.

South Africa, fossil floras of, by A. C.
Seward, 661. -

Southport, the geology of the country
round, by J. Lomas, 654.

Special reports, report on the possibility

REPORT—1903.

of making them more available than at
present, 169.

Spectra of the elements and compounds,
mave-length tables of the, report on, 87.

Spectrum, the, of nitrogen, and of the
aurora, comparison of, by Dr. A.
Paulsen, 575.

Spherical curves, Harold Hilton on, 559.

Standard coils of the British Association,
FE, EB. Smith on the values of the resist-
ance of certain, 38.

STATHER (J. W.) on the estuarine de-
posits at Kirmington, Lincolnshire, 218.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 231.

Statistical methods and the fiscal contro-
versy, by A. L. Bowley, 750.

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by E. W. Brabrook,
729.

| Statistics of production and consumption

of the United Kingdom, a contribution
to the, by S. Rosenbaum, 744.

Stead’s recent researches as to the causes
and prevention of brittleness in steel,
by Prof. T. Turner, 613.

STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on the compila-
tion of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 288.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

Steel, brittleness in, Stead’s recent re-
searches as to the causes and preven-
tion of, by Prof. T. Turner, 613.

Steel, pendulum apparatus for testing,
as regards brittleness, by E. G. Izod,
787.

*Stimulus and mechanism as factors of
organisation, Prof. Farmer on, 858.
Stone implements, the occurrence of, in
the Thames Valley between Reading
and Maidenhead, Ll. Treacher on,

670.

| Stonehenge, the relation of Coldrum,

Kent, to, by G. Clinch, 805.
SToNEY (Dr. G. J.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

| —— how to exhibit in optical instru-

ments the resolution of light into its
component undulations of flat wave-
lets, and how to employ this resolu-
tion as our guide in making and in
interpreting experiments, 568.

Stopes (Mrs. C.), palzolithic imple-
ments from the shelly gravel pit at
Swanscombe, Kent, 803.

—— saw-edged paleoliths, 804.

Stopzs (Miss M. C.) on the colonisation
of a dried river-bed, 852.

STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British
carbontferous rocks, 185.

STROH (A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 378.

Street traffic, modern, the problem of,
by Lieut.-Col. Crompton, 773.

INDEX.

*Successive high primes, the determina-
tion of, by Lt.-Col. A. Cunningham
and H. J. Woodall, 561.

*Suctoria, Prof. M. Hartog on the ten-
tacles of, 693.

Summer temperature of the Levant,
diurnal range of the, by Dr. A. Buchan,
578.

*Sun-spot periods, 1855-1898, the rela-

* tion of the rainfall of Scotland to the,
Dr. A. Buchan on, 549.

+SWINBURNE (J.) on the treatment of
irreversible processes in thermo-
dynamics, 556.

—— on vectors, 569.

SyMUNGTON (Prof. J.), Address to the
Anthropological Section by, 792.

*____ Grattan’s craniometer and cranio-
metric methods, 803.

Tangential co-ordinates, the use of, by |

R. W. H. T. Hudson, 560.
TAYLOR (R. L.) on a method for the

separation of cobalt from nickel, and

the volumetric determination of co-
balt, 608.

TAYLOR (W.) on the B.A. screw gauye,
378.

TEALL (J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 197.

—— on dedolomitisation, 660.

THISSERENC DE Bort (L.), études sur les
dépressions barométriques 4 diverses
hauteurs, 549.

Teleostei, the epithelial islets of the |

pancreas in, by Dr. J. Rennie, 696.
TENNANT (Mrs. H. J.) on the economic
effect of legislation regulating nomen’s
labour, 315.
Terrestrial surface naves, report on, 312.
}Thermodynamics, the treatment of irre-
versible processes in, discussion on,
556.

J. Swinburne on, 556.

Thermometei's, the platinum,
British Association, Dr. J. A. Harker
on, 45.

THomAsS (Ethel N.), the bearing of
fertilisation phenomena and embryo
sac structure on the origin of mono-
cotyledons, 857.

THoMAS (J. W.) on the ventilation of
tube railways, 790.

THOMPSON (Prof. 8. P.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 429.

Tuomson (Prof. J. J.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 33.

THomsSON (J. P.), Queensland, 728.

THOMSON (W.) on the approximate esti-
mation of minute quantities of arsenic
in food, 638.

| Toda kinship and marriage,

of the |

909

THORNYOROFT (Sir J. I.) on the resistance
of road vehicles to traction, 365.

| THORPE (Dr. T. E.) on securing the use

| of duty-free alcohol for scientific re-

| search, 170.

| Tidal régime of the River Mersey, J. N.
Shoolbred on the, 784.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 231.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on isomeric naph-
thalene derivatives, 174.

Timber, the preservation, seasoning, and
strengthening of, by the Powell pro-
cess, Wim. Powell on, 863.

TOCHER (J. F.) on @ pigmentation survey
of the schvol children of Scotland, 415.
Toda diary, the, by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers,

811.

by Dr.

| W.H.R. Rivers, 810.

| Todas, the, and the other tribes of Southern
India, report on the psychology and
sociology of, 415.

Topp (J. A.) on investigations in the
laboratory of the Marine Biological
Association of the West of Scotland at

Miliport, 308.

| Tomopteris, the oocyte of, by W. Wallace,
282.

Totton (J. 8.) and Prof. LETTS on the
occurrence of Ulva latissima and Fn-

| teromorpha compressa in sewage efflu-

| ents, and on variations in the com-
| position of the tissues of these and

allied seaweeds, 851.

and R. F. BLAKE on the reduc-
tion of nitrates by sewage, 606.

¢Tout (C. Hill) on the ethnology of the
Siciutl Indians of British Columbia,
823.

| Traction, the resistance of road vehicles to,

| report on, 365.

Tradescantia, experiments with the
staminal hairs of, by H. Wager, 860.
TREACHER (Ll.) on the occurrence of
stone implements in the Thames
Valley between Reading and Maiden-

head, 670.

Trias of the British Isles, report on the
Sauna and flora of the, 219.

Tube railways, J. W. Thomas on the
ventilation of, 790.

| TucKER (W. T.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 231.

TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigation, 77.

— was the ‘new’ star in Gemini
shining previously as a very faint star ?
562.

TURNER (S. H.), depreciation and sinking
funds in municipal undertakings, 741.

TURNER (Prof. T.), stead’s recent re-
searches as to the causes and preven-

/ tion of brittleness in steel, 613.

910

*Twenty-five years’ progress in final and
sanitary refuse disposal, by W. F.
Goodrich, 780.

Ulva latissima and Enteromorpha com-
pressa, on the occurrence of, in sewage
effluents, and on variations in the

composition of the tissues of these |

and allied seaweeds, by Prof. Letts
and J. S. Totton, 851.

Underground waters of North-west York-
shire, the movements of, fourth report
on, 192.

Upper Engadine, the lakes of the, A.
Delebecque on, 657.

Ursus ornatus, the skull of, by Prof.
R. J. Anderson, 692.

USSHER (R. J.) on the exploration of the
Edenvale Caves. co. Clare, 183.

UssHER (W. A. E.) on the fauna and
Hora of the Trias of the British Tsles,
219.

Vectoriai methods in physics, Prof. O.
Henriei. on the use of, 51.

discussion on, 569.

Vectors, J. Swinburne on, 569-

Vegetation, the observation of features
of, in geographical exploration, by Dr.
W. G. Smith, 726.

Ventilation of tube railways, J. W.
Thomas on the, 790.

Volcanic eruptions in the West Indies, a
possible cause of the lethal effects
produced by the dust emitted during
the recent, J. G. Goodchild on, 668.

Volcanic eruptions in the West Indies,
the phenomena accompanying, D.
Burns on, 567.

WAGER (Harold) on the teaching of botany
in schools, 420.

experiments with the
hairs of Tradescantia, 860.

Walking fish of the Malay Peninsula,
H. C. Robinson on the, 694.

WALLACE (Wm.), the oocyte of Tomop-
teris, 282.

WALLIS (HE. White) on the conditions of
health essential to the carrying on of
the work of instruction in schools, 455.

WALMISLEY (A. T.) on observations on
changes in the sea coast of the United
Kingdom, 258.

WaArb (Prof. H. Marshall) on the Cyano-
phycea, 419.

—— on the teaching of botany in schools,
420.

on the influence of examinations,

434.

staminal

REPORT—1903.

*WARD (Prof. H. Marshall), the new
botanical laboratory at Cambridge, 859.

*Water-supply in South-west Lancashire,
by J. Parry, 783.

WATKIN (Col.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
378.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 87.

WATTS (Prof. W. W.) on the movements of
underground waters of North-west
Yorkshire, 192.

on the collection of photographs of

geological interest, 197.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 465.

on the fauna and flora of the Trias
of the British Tsles, 219.

—— Address to the Geological Section,
641.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, report on,
87.

*Wave-propagation in a dispersive
medium, by Prof. A. Schuster, 569.

Wealth of the Empire, the, and how it
should be used, by Sir R. Giffen, 741.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B.A. serem
gauge, 378.

WEIss (Prof. F. E.) on botanical photo-
graphs, 416.

WELCH (R.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 197.

WELDON (Prof. W. F. R.) on the oceu-
pation of a table at the Zoological
Station at Naples, 282.

West Indian aboriginal wooden image,
Dr. J. E. Duerden on a, 823.

tWest Indian eruptions, the recent, by
Dr. Tempest Anderson, 711.

WHEELER (W. H.) on terrestrial surface-
waves, 312. :

WHITAKER (W.) on observations on
changes in the sea coast of the United
Kingdom, 258.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 465.

WHITE (Dr. H. C.), the chemical and
physical characters of the so-called
*mad-stone,’ 605.

WILLIAMS (J. Lloyd), alternation of
generations in the Dictyotacee and
the cytology of the asexual generation,
858.

WILLIAMSON (Tattersall) on apre-historic
drinking-vessel found near Burnley,
808.

Willow-canker, by Prof. T. Johnson, 850.

Witson (Ernest), the electrical con-
ductivity. of certain aluminium alloys
as affected by exposure to London
atmosphere, 777.

-—— a method for finding the efficiency
of series motors, 777. ;

INDEX.

*WILsoN (W.), plants on the Serpentine
rocks in the north-east of Scotland,
864.

Witson (W. E.), photographs of the
Orion nebula, 567.

Wimpenris (H. £.), a further note on gas-
engine explosions, 789.

WINGFIELD (C. H.), permanent set in
cast iron due to small stresses, and its
bearing on the design of piston rings
and springs, 788.

Winter-whitening of birds and mammals
in snowy countries, Capt. G. E. H.
Barrett-Hamilton on the, and on the
most striking points in the distribution
of white in vertebrates generally,
698.

Women’s labour, the economic effect of
legislation regulating, third and final
report on, 315.

Woop (Sir H. T.) on the B.A. serew
qauge, 378.

"WOODALL (H. J.) and Lt.-Col. A. Cun-
NINGHAM, the determination of suc-
cessive high primes, 561.

*WOODHEAD (T. W.), methods of map-
ping plant distribution, 860.

WOODHOUSE (W. B.), protective devices
for high-tension electrical systems,
775.

WoopwakpD (Dr. A. Smith) on a car-
boniferous acanthodian fish, gy7acan-
thides, 662.

—— on some dinosaurian bones from
South Brazil, 663.

WooDWARD (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the
British carboniferous rocks, 185.

Sit

WoopwaArp (Dr. H.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum
animalium, 288.

Woopwakb (H. B.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 197.
WoRRALL (G. W.) and Prof. E. W. MAr-
CHANT on the use of capacities as
multipliers for electrostatic voltmeters

in alternating current circuits, 572.

WRIGHT (William), skulls from round
barrows in East Yorkshire, 801.

WRIGHT (W. B.) and H. B. MurF ona
preglacial or early glacial raised beach
in co. Cork, 657.

WYNNE (Dr. W. P.) om isomorphous sul-
phonic derivatives of benzene, 85.

Yapp (R. H.), fruit-dispersal in Adeno-
stemma viscosum, Forst, 859.

Yorkshire, North-west, fourth report on
the movements of underground waters
of, 192.

Zanzibar and East Africa, the coral
formations of, by C. Crossland, 685.
Zea mais, some anatomical features of
the scutellum in, Ethel Sargant and

Agnes Robertson on, 860.

Zoological Station at Naples, report on
the occupation of a table at the,
282.

Zoology, Address by Prof. 8. J.
Hickson to the Section of, 672.

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, thir-
teenth report on the, 305.

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-
7
.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1903 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tos SEVENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,
September, 1902, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Report of the Council, List of Com-
mittees, Grants of Money, &c. . . Xxix—cxxviii
Address by the President, Professor James Dewar ' 5 7 ‘ : . 3
Report on Electrical Standards . . ‘ : - 58
Report on Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations . - ; state
Seventh Report on Seismological Investigations . : - . . . “EE:
Report on Magnetic Observations at Falmouth . seat is
Report on the Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere by Means of Kites . he ose)
Report on the Theory of Point-groups.—Part II]. By FRANcHS HARDCASTLE . 81
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis 2 93

Report of the Committee for Collecting Statistics concerning ‘the Training of
Chemists employed in English Chemical Industries . 97

Fourth Interim Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and
Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances. Shy)

Hydro-aromatic Compounds with Single Nucleus. By Dr. A.W. Crosstey . 120
Report on Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and eames 137

Report on the Nature of Alloys . ‘ . ’ 175
Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 5 : . Li6
Third Report on Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene . 180

Our Present Knowledge of Aromatic Diazo-compounds, By Dr. G. T. MoreGAN 181
1903, 3.N

914

Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils

Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks _.

Third Report on the Movements of Underground Waters of North- west York-
shire .

Thirteenth Report on Photographs of Geological Interest i in the United 1 Kingdom

Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves. 7

Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ; ;

Report on Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth

Report on Investigations in the Laboratory of the Marine Biological Associa-
tion of the West of Scotland at Millport .

Fifth Interim Report on the Working out of the Details of the Observations on
the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 .

Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium 5 :

Third Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region

Twelfth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands

Second Report on Terrestrial Surface-waves and Wave-like Surfaces |

Second Report on the Economic Effect of Legislation regulating Women’s Labour

Report on the Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction .

Report of the Committee on the means by which Practical Effect can be given
to the Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884

Interim Report on Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of
the Egyptian Army . 4 3

Report on a Pigmentation Survey of the School Children of Scotland

Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada

Interim Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic. Registration of
Photographs of Anthropological Interest : : ; 5 - :

Report on the Roman Fort at Gellygaer

Report on the Silchester Excavation

Report on the Age of Stone Circles :

Report on Explorations at Knossos in Crete

Report on the Work of the Mammalian Heart

Report on the Micro-Chemistry of Cells

Report on a Scheme for the Registration of Negatives of Botanical Photographs

Report on the Respiration of Plants ; :

Report on the Cyanophycez ‘

Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematics .

Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools .

Report on the Conditions of Health essential to the ee on of the Work of
Instruction in Schools . ; . : .

The Transactions of the Sections

Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee -

Report of the Proceedings of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies held at Belfast \ ‘ é : . : F :

Index : -

List of Publications

(List of Members, &e., pp. 1-122.)

PAGE
210
210

224
229
247
252
259
271

272

273
283
284
284
285
286
314

350

350
352
353

449
450
453
455
466
470
470
471
472
473
473
481

483
499
851

856
897
923

915

Publications on sale at the Office of the Association.

Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s.

Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).

Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 43d.).

Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.

On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
ning, 2s.; Weaving, ls.

Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 1867, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 1892, 6d.; Report, 1894, 1s.

Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
1892, 1s.

Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.

The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F.R.S., 1893, 1s.

Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. TC.
Fitzpatrick, 1893, 1s. 6d.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
G. H. Bryan, with an Appendix by Prof. L. Boltzmann, 1894, 1s.

Report on Planimeters, by Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.8., 1894, 1s.

Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.

Reports on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1s. or 1s. 6d. each.

Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coast, 1896, 9d.

Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d.

First Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association
Screw Gauge, 1896, 6d.

ee oe Modification of the Thread of the B.A. Screw, 1900, 6d. ; Report

Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Lighthouses, by W. Hagle
Clarke, 1896, 6d.

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Song-thrush and the White Wagtail, by W.
Eagle Clarke, 1900, 6d.

Report on the Migratory Habits of the Skylark and the Swallow, by W. Eagle
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Report on the Migratory Habits of the Fieldfare and the Lapwing, by W. Eagle
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Report on Tables of the Bessel Functions, 1896, 1s.

Report on the Comparison of Magnetic Instruments, 1896, 4d.

ee Position of Geography in the Educational System of the Country,

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Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy in continuation of 1894 Report, 1898,
ls. 6d.; 1901, 1s. 6d.

ot Waveienene 1899, 1s.; with Index to Tables from 1884 to 1900, 1s. ;

mls:

Tables of F (7, v) and H (7, v) Functions, 1899, 1s.

The Problem of the Three Bodies, by EH. T. Whittaker, 1899, 1s.

Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, 1899, 1s. 6d. ; 1900, 1s. 6d.; 1902; 1s.

The ee Compounds contained in Alloys, Report by F. H. Neville, F.R.S.,

pelige

916

The Constitution of Camphor, by A. Lapworth, D.Sc., 1900, 1s.

Future Dealings in Raw Produce, Report, 1900, 1s.

Note sur l’Unité de Pression, par le Dr. C. E. Guillaume, 1901, 3d.

Note on the Variation of the Specific Heat of Water, by Prof. H. L. Callendar, 4d.

Report on Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances,
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Report on the Structure of Crystals, 1901, 1s.

The Relative Progress of the Coal-Tar Industry in England and Germany during the
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The Methods for the Determination of Hydrolytic Dissociation of Salt Solutions, by
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The Influence of the Universities on School Education, by the Right Rev. John
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EEE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

Dist

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

Corrected to January 1, 1904.

Office of the Association :
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.

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OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1903-1904.

PRESIDENT.
Sin NORMAN LOCKYER, K.C.B., LL.D., F,R.S., Correspondant de l'Institut de France.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Haru or DERBY, K.G., G.O.B.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF ORAWFORD AND
BALcanregss, K.T., LL.D., F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the Eart Spencer, K.G., LL.D.,
Chancellor of the Victoria University,

The Right Hon. the EARL OF SEFTON.

The Right Hon. the EArt or LATHOM.

Sir Henry Roscor, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.O.L.,
F.R.S.

Sir GEORGE A, PILKINGTON.

Sir CHARLES SCARISBRICK, J.P.

ALFRED HOopkINSON, Esq., LL.D., K.O., Vice-
Ohancellor of the Victoria University.

T. T. L. SCARISBRICK, Esq., Mayor of Southport.

E,. MARSHALL HALL, Esq., K.0., M.P. for South-
port.

CHARLES H, B. HESKETH, Esq.

CHARLES WELD-BLUNDELL, Esq.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
The Right Hon. A. J. BALrour, D.O.L., M.P., F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT,

His Grace the DUKE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., LL.D.,
F.R.S., Ohancellor of the University of Oam-
bridge.

ALEXANDER PECKOVER, Esq., LL.D., Lord Lieu-
tenant of Cambridgeshire.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHoP oF ELy, D.D.

The Right Hon. LorD WALSINGHAM, LL.D.
F.R.S., High Steward of the University of
Cambridge.

The Right Hon. and Rey, LorD BRAYBROOKE,
Master of Magdalene.

The Right Hon, LorpD RAYLEIGH, D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S.

The Right Hon, Lorp KeEtviy, G.O.V.0., D.O.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S,
The Rev. F. H. CHAssE, D.D., Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Cambridge.
The Right Rev. H. Monracu Burter, D.D.,
Master of Trinity.
| J. H. OHESSHYRE DALTON, Esq., M.D., Mayor of
| Cambridge.
ROBERT STEPHENSON, Esq , Chairman of the Cam-
| bridgeshire County Council.
JosEPH MARTIN, Esq., Chairman of the Isle of Ely
| County Council.
P. H. YounG, Esq., Deputy Mayor of Cambridge.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G. CAREY Fosrrr, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Major P. A. MAcMaAnov, R.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

| Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
J. G. Garson, M.D., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDGE.

E. H, PARKER, Esq., M.A.

| A. E, SHIPLEY, Esq., M.A.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CAMBRIDGE,

S. R. Gunn, Esq.
A. C. SEWARD, Esq., M.A., F.R.S,

S. SKINNER, Esq., M.A.
J. E. L. WHITEHEAD, Esq., M.A.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ABNEY, Sir W., K.O.B., F.R.S.
ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Bonak, J., Esq., LL.D.
Bourne, G. C., Esq., M.A.
Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S.
BRABROOK, E. W., Esq., C.B.
CALLENDAR, Professor H. L. .» F.R.S.
CUNNINGHAM, Professor D. J., F.R.S.
DARWIN, Major L., Sec. R.G.S.
Goren, Professor F., F.R.S.
Happon, Dr. A. O., F.R.S.
HAWKESLEY, O©., Esq., M.Inst.C.E.
HowkEs, Professor G. B., F.R.S.

KELTM, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D.
MACALISTER, Professor A., F. BS Et

| McKENDRICK, Professor J.G., FBS,
NosLE, Sir A., Bart., K.C.B., ee R.S.
PERKIN, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
PERRY, Professor JOHN, F. R.S.
Prick, L. L., Esq., M.A.

SEWARD, A. O., Esq., F.R.S.

TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
Warts, Professor W. W., M.A.
WoLFs-BaARrRY, Sir JOHN, K.C.B., F.R.S.
WooDWARD, Dr. A. SMITH, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for

the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord AvEBuRY, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord Rayirieu, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S,

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.

Sir Joseph D. Hooker, G.0.S.I. | Sir Wm. Huggins,K.O.B.,Pres.R.S. | Sir William Crookes, F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.O., F.R.S. | Sir Archibald Geikie, Sec. R.S. Sir Michael Foster, K.0.B., F.R.S
Prof, A. W. Williams son, F.R.S. | Sir J. S. Burdon Sanderson, Bart., Sir W. Turner, K.O B., F.R.S.
Lord Avebury, D.C.L., F.R.S. | FE.RS,. Sir A. W. Riicker, D. Se.. F.R.S.
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S. Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.RS.

Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S.

GENERAL OFFIOERS OF FORMER YEARS,

F, Galton, Esq., D.O.L., F.R.S. Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Sir A. W. Riicker. D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Prof. E. A. Schifer, F.RS.
P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S. | Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B. ]

L. L. Price, Esq., M.A.

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"AMS,

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE.

1905.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report for 1902,
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known

are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, Burlington House, W.

Year of
Hlection.

1887.

1897.
1898.

1881.
1887,
1902.
1885.

1885.

1885.
1873.

1886.
1884.
1875.

1900.

*A BBE, Professor CLEVELAND. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

{Abbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

§Abbott, George, M.R.C.S., F.G.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road,
Tunbridge Wells.

*Abbott, R.T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

tAbbott,T. C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

{ABERCORN, the Duke of, K.G. Barons Court, Ireland.

*ApERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo
House, Aberdeen.

tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

*Apney, Captain Sir W. pz W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. A, 1889; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902- ys
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens South, Earl’s Court, S.W.

t{Abraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

tAckroyd, Samuel. Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford,
Yorkshire,

§Ackroyd, William. Borough Laboratory, Crossley-street, Halifax.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1882.
1869.
1877.

1873.
1894.
1877.
1898.
1901.
1887.

1892.
1884.
1901.
1871.
1869.

1901.
1896.
1898.
1890.
1890.

1899.
1888.
1884.
1902.
1864.
1871.
1871.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1901.
1898.
1884.
1886.
1900.
1896,

1894.
1891.
1883.
1888.
1896.
1891.
1883.
1883.

1867.
1885.
1871.
1901.
1871.
1879.

*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

*Acland, Rev. H. D., M.A. Lamorva, Falmouth.

* Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W.

tAcworth, W.M. 47 St. George’s-square, 8. W.

§Adam, J. Miller. 15 Walmer-crescent, Glasgow.

tApamt, J. G., M.A., M.D., Professor of Pathology in McGill Univer-
sity, Montreal, Canada.

tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

tAdams, John, M.A. 12 Holyrood-crescent, Glasgow.

tAdams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

*Apams, Witi1aM Grritis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
(Pres. A, 1880; Council 1878-85), Professor of Natural Philo-
sophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London. 43 Campden
Hill-square, W.

tAdamson, P. 11 Fairlie Park-drive, Glasgow.

tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Addison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

tAddyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate. ~

tAprnny, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earls-
fort-terrace, Dublin.

§Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

* Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

tAinsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

§AITKEN, JoHN, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

§Aitken, Thomas. County Buildings, Cupar, Fife.

{Axers-Dovetas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W.

*Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G@.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Aldren, Francis J..M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S. W.

tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

fAlexander, D. T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. The Mount, Batheaston, Somerset.

tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

*Alford, Charles J., F.G.S. 15 Great St. Helens, E.C.

tAlger, W.H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

cg Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South

evon.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

fAllan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

tAllan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.C.

*Allan, James A. Westerton, Milngavie.

tAtcen, Atrrep H.,F.C.S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

*Allen, Rey. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7
Year of
Election.
1898. §Anten, Dr. E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1888.

1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1889.
1896.
1882.

1887.
1873.
1891.

1883.
1883.
1884.

1883.
1885.
1901.
1874.
1892.
1899.
1888.
1887.

1889.
1880.

1902.
1901.
1901,
1895.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.

1886.
1900.
1896.
1886.
1878.
1890.
1901.

1900.
1898.
1894,
1884,
1883.
1883.

1903

tAuten, F. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology. The University,.
Birmingham.

tAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,

fAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,3S.W.

fAllen, John. 14 Park-road, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via Preston.

tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Feil, Gateshead.

{Alsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.

*Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D., F.RS.
Hornton Lodge, Hornton-street, Kensington, W.

tAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

fAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

ftAmi, Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,
Canada.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*Anperson, Huew Kerr. Caius Coliege, Cambridge.

*Anderson, James. Ravelston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

tAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary K. 15 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 354 Great George-street, S.W.

tAnpDERSON, Professor R. J., M.D., F.L.S. Queen’s College, and
Atlantic Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*AnpDERSON, TrempEst, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1881).
17 Stonegate, York.

*Anderson, Thomas. 41 Cliftonville-road, Belfast.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 2 Florentine-gardens, Glasgow.

tAnderson, W. F.G. 47 Union-street, Glasgow.

tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), S. W.

tAndrews, Thomas. 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

tAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§ANGELL, JoHN, F.C.S., F.I.C. 6 Beacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester.

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

tAnnandale, Nelson. 34 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

tAnnett, R.C. F. 4 Buckingham-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

fAnsell, Joseph. 388 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street
Within, E.C.

§Arber, E. A. N., B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tAreher, G. W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Archibald, A. The Bank House, Ventnor.

*Archibald, E. Douglas, 32 Shaftesbury-avenue, W.

§ Armistead, Richard. 17 Chambres-road, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

. *Armstrone, Dr. E, Frank~anp. 55 Granville-park, Lewisham,

S.E.

)

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1873.

1889.

1895.
1901.
1870.
1905.
1874.
1889.
1887.

1905.
1888.
1890.
1887.

1887.
1875.
1896.
1908.

1896.
1887.
1898.

1894,
1894.
1881.
1881.

1894.
1863.
1884.
1903,

1853.

i901.

1877.

1884.
1900.
1885.

1863.
1883.
1887.
1887.
1903.
1885.
1883.

*ArmsTRoNG, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885;
Pres. L, 1902; Council 1899- ), Professor of Chemistry in
the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution,
Exhibition-road, 8.W. 55 Granville-park, Lewisham, 8.E.

tArmstrong, Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Neweastle-upon-

Aen gla Ben ROee, H., M.A., F.G.S. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.

tArthur, Matthew. 78 Queen-street, Glasgow.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

*Ashby, Thomas, jun. The British School, Rome.

{Ashe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.

tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 386 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

§ Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc. 4 Cluny-terrace, Edinburgh.

*Ashworth, J. Jackson. Kingston House, Didsbury, near Manchester.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale.

tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.S. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

tAshworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.

*Assheton, Richard. Grantchester, Cambridge.

§Atchison, Arthur F. T., B.Sc. Royal Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

§Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Rockferry.

§Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D, Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey.

*Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. Care of C. W. Atkinson, Esq., 51 Manor-
road, Beckenham, Kent.

{Atkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, S.W.

*Atkinson, Harold W. Boys’ High School, Pretoria, South Africa.

{Atkinson, J.T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

t{Arkrnson, Rospert WixitamM, F.C.S. (local Sec. 1891).
44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

*ArrFIELD, J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Ashlands, Watford, Herts.

tAuchincloss, W.S. Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey, U.S.A.

§Austin, CHartps E. 37 Cambridge-road, Southport.

*Avespury, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L., F.R.S. (PResrpen2,
1881; TrustHE, 1872— ; Pres. D, 1872; Council 1865-71).
High Elms, Farnborough, Kent.

§Aveling, T. C. 32 Bristol-street, Birmingham.

*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1898; Council 1889-96),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the City and Guilds of
London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-road, 8.W.
41 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

{Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
{Baccuus, RamspEN (Local Sec. 1900). 15 Welbury-drive, Bradford.
*Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons.

Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
tBackhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
*Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.O., Durham,
*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.
{Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
§Baden-Powell, Major B. 22 Prince’s-gate, S.W.
tBagnold, Mrs. Berkeley House, High Park, Ryde, Isle of Wight.
{Baildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

Year of
Election

1892.
1885.

1895.

1870.
1887.
1899.
1855.
1894.
1878.
1897.
1885.
1882.

1886.
1898.
1898.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1904.

1871.
1894,
1875.

1883.
1878.

1866.

1885.
1886.
1869.

1890.
1899.
1882.
1898.

1884.
1866.
1890.
1861.
1871.
1860.
1887.
1886.
1902.
1902.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

tBaildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Atherstone House, North-drive, 5St.
Anne’s-on-the-Sea, Lancashire.

§Bariey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.

{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire.

{Bailey, T. Lewis. Fernhill, Formby, Lancashire.

{Bailey, W. Hoyrseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

*Barty, Francis Gipson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

{Barty, Watrer. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

§Barn, James, jun. Toronto. :

{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

*Baxer, Sir Bensamin, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.Sc., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1885; Council, 1889-96). 2 Queen
Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

§Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Epworth House, Moughland-lane, Runcorn.

{Baker, Herbert M. Wallcroft, Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol.

{Baker, Hiatt C. -Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

{Baxer, W. Procror. Bristol.

{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Warshill Vicarage, York.

{Balete, Professor E, Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

§Batrour, The Right Hon. A. J., D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S., Chancellor
of the University of Edinburgh. (PreEsipENT Erect.) 10
Downing-street, 5. W.

{Balfour, The Right Hon.G.W.,M.P. 24A ddison-road, Kensington, W.

§Batrour, Hunry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Baxrour, Isaac Baytuy, M.A.,D.Sc.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.RS.E.F.LS.,
(Pres. D, 1894; K, 1901), Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Batt, Sir Ropert Srawett, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1887; Council 1884-90, 1892-94; Local Sec. 1878), Lown-
dean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University
of Cambridge. The Observatory, Cambridge.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. 3 Albany-street, Glasgow.

{Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover.

{Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.

{Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. The Lindens, Sydenham-
road, Croydon.

{Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada.

{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.

*Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.

{Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.

*Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham.

{Barcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down.

§Barcroft, Joseph, M.A., B.Se. King’s College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1881.
1882.
1890.
1899
1882.
1879.

1898.
1886.
1873.

1889.

1883.
1878.

1888.
1885.
1902.

1861.
1881.
1889.
1868,
1899,
1884,
1901.
1899.
1881.

1890.
1859.
1902.
1891.

1883.
1872.

1883.
1899.

1887.
1874,

1874.
1885.

1866.
1893.

1886.
1886,

1896,
1886,

{Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

{Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

{Barker, Alfred, M.A.,B.Se. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross, S.E.

§Barker, John H, 22 Cardington-road, Bedford.

*Barker, Miss J. M. 18 Claremont-place, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

*Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

§Barker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

{Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tBarlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Deene, Tooting Bec-road,
Streatham, S.W.

§Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, S.E.

{Barlow, J. J. 48 Part-street, Southport.

{Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in St. Mungo’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

{Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.

*BaRLow, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

§Barnard, J. E. Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-
gardens, 8. W.

*Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham,

{Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

§Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands House, Parkstone, Dorset.

{Barnes, Robert. 9 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, W.

tBarnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

{Barnett, P. A. Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

{Barnett, W. D. 41 Threadneedle-street, E.C.

{Barr, ARcHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-
ing in the University, Glasgow.

{Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.

{Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, Hast Grinstead, Sussex.

*Barr, Mark. 25 Kensington Court-gardens, W.

tBarrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.

{Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

*BaRREIT, W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

{Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.

{Barrert-Hamitron, Captain G. E. H. Kilmannock House,
Arthurstown, Waterford, Ireland.

{Barrington, Miss Amy. 18 Bradley-gardens, West Ealing, W.

*“Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

*Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
grove, Shortlands, Kent.

{tBarron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

*Barrow, Gzorce, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, S.W.

{Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.

TBarrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.

§Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

{Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 1}

Year of
Election.

1858. {Barry, Right Rev, Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.
1883. { Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, S.W.
1881. {Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.
1884. *Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.
1890. *Barstow, J. J. Jackson, The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1890. *Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
1892. {Bartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.
1858, *Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.
1884. {Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.
1873. tBartley, Sir G.C.T., K.C.B., M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-
street, S.W.
1892. {Barton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1893, {Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.
1884. {Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.
1852. Barton, James, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Farndreg, Dundalk.
1892. {Barton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.
1887. {Bartrum, John 8. 138 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rev. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1898. {Bason, Vernon Millward. 7 Princess-buildings, Clifton, Bristol.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.
1888. *Basset, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.
1891, {Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
1866. *Bassrrt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.
1889. {BastasLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894), 6 Tre-
velyan-terrace, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.
1869. { Bastard, S. 8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
1871. {Bastran, H. Cuartron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Emeritus Pro-
fessor of the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University
College, London. 8a Manchester-square, W.
1889. {Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1883. {BatEeman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G., Controller-General Statistical
Department, Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall-gardens, S.W.
1868. {Bateman, Sir F.,M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1889. {Bates,C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.
1884, {Bareson, Witti1AM, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1881. *Barner, Francis Artur, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.
1863. §BavERMaN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8. W.
1867. {Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
1892. {Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.
1875. *Bayly, Robert. Torr Grove, near Plymouth.
1876. *Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
1887. *Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.
1883. *Bazley, Gardner 8. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire.
Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Winterdyne, Chine
Crescent-road, Bournemouth.
1886, {Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.
1886. {Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1860. *Brare, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, W.
1884, {Beamish,G. H.M. Prison, Liverpool.
1872. {Beanes, Edward, F.0.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley, Kent.
1883. {Beard, Mrs. Oxford.
1889, §Brarsz, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The
University, Edinburgh.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1842.
1889.
1902.
1855.

1886,
1900.

1861.
1887.
1885.
1896.
1887.
1885,

1870.

1890,
1891.
1878.

1884.
1873.

1901.
1874.
1891.
1892.
1871.
1884.
1894.

1860,
1900.
1862,

1875,
1896.
1871.

1888.
1864.
1888.
1893.
1884,
1885.

1891.
1896.
1881.
1883.
1901.

*Beatson, William. 2 Ash-mount, Rotherham.

{Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBeatty, H. M., LL.D. Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, W.

{Beaugrand,M.H. Montreal, Canada.

{Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. Yorkshire College,
Leeds.

*Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

*Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Braumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand, W.C.

{Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.

*BECKETT, JOHN HamMppEN. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

{Bepparp, Frank E., M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S8., Prosector to the Zoo-
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

§Beppor, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1870-75). The Chantry,
Bradford-on- Avon.

{Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

§ Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

{Bepson, P. Purrres, D.Se., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1889), Professor of
Chemistry in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Beers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hull-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

{Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

*Beilby, George T. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.

{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

{Bell, A. Beatson. 17 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

{Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Butt, F. Jerrrny, M.A., F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde
Park, W.

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.

{Brtz, Rey. Grores OnArtes, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

*Bell, H. Wilkinson. Holmehurst, Rawdon, near Leeds.

*BELL, Sir IsAac Lowtutran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. B, 1889). Rounton Grange, Northallerton.

{Bett, Jamps, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. 52 Cromwell-road,
Hove, Brighton.

{Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,
Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

*Benz, J. Carrer, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Bell, John Henry. Bank House, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A. Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

{Brtrer, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.

{Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Breyyam, Wittiam Braxtanp, D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the
University of Otago, New Zealand.

tBennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

{Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire.

{tBennett, John Ryan. 38 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon.

§Bennett, Professor Peter. 6 Kelvinhaugh-street, Sandyford,
Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 13

Year of
Election.

1896.
1881.

1903.
1889.
1901,

1887.

1863.
1898.
1884.
1897.
1896.

1901.
1894.

1865.
1886.
1898.
1894.
1862.

1882.
1890.
1880.

1885.
1884.
1903.
1870.
1888.
1885.

1882.
1898.
1901,
1886.
1887.
1884.
188].

1900.
1880.

1888.
1887.
1894,
1885.
1886.

1901.
1889,
1881.

1901.

{Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,

York.

§Benson, D. E. 18 Lansdowne-road, Southport.

tBenson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon- Tyne.

*Benson, Miss Margaret J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College,
Egham.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of W. J. Benson, Esq., Standard Bank,
Johannesburg, Transvaal.

tBenson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

{Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

tBergins, Walter L. 8 Marlborough-terrace, Glasgow.

§Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Foxcombe, Boarshill,
near Abingdon.

tBerkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

{Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

§Berridge, Miss C. E. 89 Goldhurst-terrace, Finchley-road, N.W.

§Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

{Besant, Wint1amM Heyry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Bessemer, Henry. Moorlands, Bitterne, Southampton.

tBest, William Woodham. 381 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

*Brvan, Rev. James Ortver, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden
Rectory, Dover.

tReveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

§Bickerdike, C, F. 1 Boveney-road, Honor Oak Park, 8.E.

tBickerton, A. W. Newland-terrace, Queen’s-road, Battersea, S. W.

*Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

*BripweELt, SHELForD, Sc.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge,
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W.

§Biggs, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E.

§Billington, Charles. Studleigh, Longport, Staffordshire.

*Bilsland, William, J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow.

{Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

*Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Buxton.

*Bingham, Colonel Sir John E., Bart. West Lea, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

{Brnyie, Sir ALEXANDER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Pres. G, 1900).
77 Ladbroke-grove, W.

{Bird, F. J. Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near
Devonport.

*Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

*Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.

{Bisset, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Greenhill-park, Edinburgh.

Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

*Bixby, Major W. H. Engineer's Office, Jones Building, Detroit,

Michigan, U.S.A.

tBlack, John Albert. Lagarie-row, Helensburgh, N.B.

tBlack, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBlack, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

§Black, W. P. M. 186 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1876.
1884,
1900,
1877.
1855.

1884,
19038.
1896,
1886.

1895.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1883.
1902.
1891.

1894.
1900.
1881.
1895.
1884,
1869.

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884,
1902.
1888.

1870.
1885.

1867.
(1887.
1901.

1870.
1887.
1900.
1889.
1884.
1900.

(1887.
1898.
1894.
1898,
1898.

1883.

{Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.

tBlackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.

{Blackburn, W. Owen. 3 Mount Royd, Bradford.

{Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

*Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1876). 1 Belhaven-
terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Blackman, F. F., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{ Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

{Blaikie, John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Stafford-
shire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 385 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*BLAKE, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.S. 35 Harlesden-gardens, N.W.

{Blake, Robert F., F.C. 66 Malone-avenue, Belfast.

{BuiaKestuy, THomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.

tBlakiston, Rev. C. D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

*Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

tBlamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

{Brianrorp, W. T., C.LE., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S8., F.R.G.S. (Pres. C,
1884; Oouncil 1885-91). 72 Bedford-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

*Bles, A. J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

{Bles, Marcus 8. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Blount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

tBlundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby.

Blyth, B. Hall. 185 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Buryra, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y.. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William 8. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

§Brytuswoop, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D. Blythswood, Ren-
frew.

tBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

*Boddington, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

{Bopryeron, Principal N., Litt.D. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

{tBodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 53 Victoria-street, 8. W.

tBody, Rev. C. W. E., M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Boileau, Lieut.-Colonel A. C. 'T., R.A. Royal Artillery Institution,
Woolwich.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

§Botton, H., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

§Bolton, John. 15 Cranley-gardens, Highgate, N.

tBolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

§Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1898; Council 1899- ).
1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tBonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 16

Election.

1871.

1888.
1898.
1890.

1883.
1883.
1876.
1883.
1901.

1900.
1882.

1901.
1876,

1905.
1896.

1903.
1881,

1887.
1872.
1868.
1887.

1871.

1884,
1892.
1876.
1890.

1908.
1883.
1888.

1893.

1890.
1902.
1898.
1884.

1888.
1881.

1898.
1856.
1898.

*Bonney, Rev. THomas Grorcn, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.,
F.G.S. (Secrrrary, 1881-85; Pres. C, 1886). 23 Denning-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

tBoon, William. Coventry.

{Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham.

*Bootn, Cartes, D.Sc., F.RS., F.S.S. 24 Great Cumberland-
place, W.

tBooth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

{ Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

{Booth, Rev. William H. St. Paul’s Rectory, Old Charlton, Kent.

TBoothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

Ciaadarulet Herbert E., M.A., B.Sc. Sidney Sussex College, ban.
bridge.

tBorchgrevink, C. E. Lindfield, Sussex.

§Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

tBorradaile, L. A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

*Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora,
Realejo-Alto, Teneriffe.

§Bosanquet, Robert C. Rock Hall, Alnwick.

{Bose, Professor J. C., C.L.E., M.A., D.Sc. Calcutta, India.

“Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

§Boston, Herbert. 3 Belgrave-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

§BorHaMLEY, Cuartes H., F.1.C., F.C.8., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee. Hurst
Knoll, Weston-super-Mare.

{Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

TBottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover.

tBottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

{Bottomley, James, D.Sc., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.

*BorromiEy, JAMES THomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., E.R.S.E., F.C.S.
13 University-gardens, Glaseow.

*Bottomley, Mrs. 15 University-yardens, Glasgow.

{Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College, W.C.

{Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.

{Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Court,
Kensington, W.

§Boulton, W.S. 2 Kymin-terrace, Penarth.

{Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, 8.W.

{Bourng, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras.

“Bourne, G.C., M.A., F.L.S. (Council, 1903- ; Local Sec, 1894)
Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford.

tBousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds.

{Bousfield, William. 20 Hyde Park-gate, W.

tBovey, Edward P., jun. Clifton-grove, Torquay.

{Bovny, Henry T., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering and Applied Mechanics in McGill University,
Montreal, Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

{Bowden, Rey. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.

*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898;
Council 1900—_), Regius Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow. :

*Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S._ West Mailing, Kent.

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.

§Bow ey, A.L,, M.A. Lynwood, Southern Hill, Reading.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1880.
1887.
1899.
1899.
1887.

1895.

1901.
1871.
1884,
1892.

1872.
1869,

1894.
1895.
1899.

1903.

1892.
1863.

1880.
1888.
1898.

1867.
1861.
1885.
1902.
1890.
1868.
1902.

1898.
1882.
1866.
1891.

1886.

1870.
1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1890.
1893.

1868

{Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

*Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A. Greenham Common, Newbury.

*Bowman, John Herbert. Greenbam Common, Newbury. 3

§Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of Messrs. Cooper, Box, & Co., 69
Aldermanbury, E.C. :

*Boyrcz, Rupert, M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Liverpool.

§Boyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*Boyle, R. Vicars, C.S.I. 3 Stanhope-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

sBoxs, Caartes VERNON, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903; Council, 1893-99).
27 The Grove, Boltons, 8. W.

*Brasrooxk, E. W., C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F, 1903 ;
Council, 1903- ). 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, 8.W.

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington
Middlesex. a

*Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

§Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells.

*Bradley, J. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8, Westminster City Hall
Charing Cross-road, W.C. ‘

*Bradley, O. Charnock, M.B., F.R.S.E. Royal Veterinary College
Edinburgh. i i

§Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Brapy, Georee 5., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

*Brady, Rey. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, S.O., Essex.

§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

a Lieut.-Colonel James R., F.S.A. Seafield, Weston-super-
Mare.

tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. 72 Hills-road, Cambridge.

*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire.

§Braun, Henry C. 1 North-street, King’s Cross, N.

*Bray, George. Belmont, Wood-lane, Headingley, Leeds.

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.-C:

*Brereton, Cloudesley. Breningham House, Melton Constable, Nor-

olk.

§Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

*Bretherton, C.E. 12 The Paragon, Blackheath, 8.E.

{Brettell, Thomas. Dudley. ?

Brice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.GS. 28 Addison-mansions,
Kensington, W. }

{Brivex, T. W., M.A,, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Birmingham. ‘

*Bridson, Joseph R. Holybourne, Alton, Hants.

Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.

{Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.

{Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth. J

*Briec, Jonn, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire,

{Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.

. { Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.GS. United Service Club, Pall
Mail, 8.W. ,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 17

Year of
Blection.

1898.

1884.
1898.

1879.
1878.

i884.

1899.
1899.
1897.
1896.
1883.
1901.
1884.

1901.

1883.
1903.

1881.

1864.
1887.

1863.
1887.
1883.
1901.

1883.
1886.

1863.

1892.

1896,
1867.
1855.
1871.
1863,
1883,

19035.
1881.
1883.
1888.
1883.
1870.

i883.

{Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A.R.C.Se. Municipal Technical Institute,
Romford-road, West Ham, E.

{Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

+Bristot, The Right Rev. G. F. Brownz, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
17 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*Brirrarn, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.

{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
S.W.

*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, S.E.

{Broadwood, Miss Bertha M. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

tBroadwood, James H. EH, Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.

{Brock, W. R. Toronto.

*Brocklehurst, S. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Brodie, David, M.D. 68 Hamilton-road, Highbury, N.

§Brodie, T. G. Examination Hall, Victoria Embankment, W.C.

{Brodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,

U.S.A

{Brodie, W. Brodie, M.D., F.R.S.E. 28 Hamilton Park-terrace,
Hillhead, Glasgow.
*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. 5 Devyonshire-place, Eastbourne.

§Broprick, Harorp, M.A. (Local Sec., 1903). 7 Aughton-road,
Southport.

{Brook, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.

*Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

§Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester.

{Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Brooks, S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

*Brotherton, E. A.,M.P. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, via Leeds.

§Brough, Bennett H.,F.LC., F.G.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.; and
Cranleigh House, near Addlestone, Surrey.

*Brough, Mrs. Charles 8S. 12 Hillcrest-road, Sydenham, 8.E.

tBrough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

*Brown, ALEXANDER OrvM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.
(Pres, B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871), Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

{Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

{Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.

{Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

{Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

{Brown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liver-
pool.

§Brown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

t{Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

*Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. Overton, Crathes, Deeside, Aberdeen.

{Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. B, 1899).
52 Nevern-square, S.W.

{Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace,

Edinburgh.

1903. B

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1870

1876.

1881.
1882.
1895.
1894,
1882.
1898.
1897.
1886.
1863.
1897.
1901.
1896.
1891.

1885.
1884.
1863.

1900.
1895.
4879.

1891.
1862.
1872.

1902,
1865.
1883.
1892.
1901.
18938.
1902.
1900.
1863,
1875.

1896.
1868.

1897.
1878.
1886.

1894,
1884.
1897.
1901.
1894,
1902.
1890,
1871.

. *Brown, J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Liverpool.

§Brown, Joun, F.R.S. (Local See. 1902). Longhurst, Dunmurry
Belfast.

*Brown, John, M.D. 20 Warrender Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Nottinyham.

*Brown, John Charles, Burlington-road, Sherwood, Nottingham.

{Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

*Brown, Mrs. Mary. 20 Warrender Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

{Brown, Price, M.B. 387 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

tBrown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

{Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tBrown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

tBrown, R. N. R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

{Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

§Brown, T. Forster, M.Inst.C.E, (Pres. G, 1891). Springfort, Stoke:
Bishop, Bristol.

tBrown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

t{Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Oo., Virginia, U.S.A.

tBrowne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

*Browne, Frank Balfour. The Cottage, Catfield, Great Yarmouth.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

{Browne, Sir J. Cricuron, M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-
place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.

{Browne, Montacu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.

*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne's Hill, Carlow, Ireland.

rae R. Mackley, F.G.8. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks,

ent.

§Browne, W. J., M.A., M.R.IL.A. Templemore Park, Londonderry.

{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 78 Strand, W.C. ‘

{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

tBruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

{Bruce, John. Inverallan, Helensburgh.

{Bruce, William S. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.

{Bruce-Kingsmill, Captain J., R.A. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.

*Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

steed John, M.Inst.C.E. 12 Victoria-street, Westminster,.

*Brunner, Sir J.T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpvol.

{Brunton, Sir T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,.
Oxford-street, W.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in:
University College, Bangor.

{Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

{Brrcez, Rev. Professor Gzorez. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Brycg, Right Hon. Jamgs, D.C.L.,M.P., F.R.S. 54 Portland-place, W..

§Bryce, Thomas H. 2 Granby-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

*Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1867.
1902.
1901,
1881.
1871.

1884,
1883.
1886,
1886,
1884,

1851.
1887.

1901.
1875.
1883.
1893.

1903.
1871.
1883.
1895.
1886,
1842,
1869.
1881.

1891.
1894.
1884,

1899.
1888.
1883.

1876.
1885,

1877,
1884,

1599.
1887.
1860.
1894.
1891.
1888.
1888.
1894.
1866,
1889.
1897.
1892.

tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

*Buchanan, Miss Florence, D.Sc. University Museum, Oxford.

{Buchanan, James, M.D. 12 Hamilton-drive, Maxwell Park, Glasgow.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

t{Bucwanan, Joun Youne, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.GS., F.C.8.
Christ’s College, Cambridge. :

tBuchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 23 Bedford-row, W.C.

{Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W.

*Buckton, GEorcE Bowpter, F.R.S., F.LS., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

tBudgett, J.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

TBudgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland.

§Bunterp, ArrHuR, F.S.A. The Old Vicarage, Midsomer Norton,
Bath.

*Bullen, Rev. R. Ashington. Pyrford Vicarage, Woking, Surrey.

{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S$. W.

{Bulpit, Rev. W. T. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

tBunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

§Bursury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-
dilly, W. -

{Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

{Burke, Joun B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tBurls, Herbert T. Care of Messrs. H.S. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.

{Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

*Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.I.E., K.C.S.L, F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

tBurnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

“Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. Migvie House, North Silver-street,
Aberdeen,

{Burns, David. Vallum View, Burgh-road, Carlisle.

{Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

{Burr, Malcolm. Dorman’s Park, East Grinstead.

{Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

{Burrows, Montague, M.A. Oxford.

{Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

{Burt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

{Burt, Sir John Mowlem. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Burt, Lady. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W

{Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

"Burton, Frepertck M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough.

tBurton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield,

tBurton, S. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 11
Union-crescent, Margate.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1897.
1887.

1899.

1895.
1878.
1884,

1884.
1884,
1872.

1887.

1881.
1868.
1872,

1899.
1852,
1883.

1889,

1892,
1894.
1863.
1861.
1901.
1868.
1887.

1897.

1892.
1901.
1884.
1857.
1896.
1884.
1870.
1901.
1884,
1876,

1897.
1901.
1898,
1902.
1897,
1882.
1890.

1897.
1888,

{Burwash, Rev. N., LU.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

§Bush, Anthony. 45 Portland-road, Nottingham.

{Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S.W.

tBorcuer, J. G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, S.W.

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

TButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

*Butterworth, W. Park-avenue, Temperley, near Manchester.

tBuxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

*Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

tBuxton, Sydney C., M.P. 15 Eaton-place, S.W.

tBuxton, 8S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Essex.

§Byles, Arthur R. ‘Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

tByrne, Very Rey. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

{tByrom, John R. The Rowans, Fairfield, near Manchester.

tCackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

tCadell, Henry M., B.Se., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo'ness, N.B.

{Caillard, Miss EK. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.

{Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire,

*Caird, James Key. 8 Roseangle, Dundee.

{Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Caley, A. J. Norwich.

t{CaLtaway, Cuarzes, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 16 Montpellier-villas,
Cheltenham.

§CaLLenDAR, Huew L., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1900- ),
Professor of Physics in the Royal College of Science, 2 Ches-
ter-place, Regent’s Park, N. W.

tCalvert, A. F., F.R.G.S. Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.

{Calvert, H. T. Roscoe-terrace, Armley, Leeds,

tCameron, Auneas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

tOameron, Sir Coartzs A., C.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

§Cameron, Irving H.. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.

tCameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

§Campbell, Archibald. Springfield Quay, Glasgow.

{Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.

f{Campbell, Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House,
Brechin.

Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,
Edinburgh.

{Campbell, Major J, C, L. New Club, Edinburgh.

{Campbell, M. Pearce. 9 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

{Campbell, Mrs. Napier. 81 Ashley-gardens, S.W.

tCampbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

{tCampion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

jCandy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

tCannan, Epwin, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902). 46 Wel-
lington-square, Oxford,

§Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent.

{Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.1.E, 27 Kensington Court-gardens, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1894.

1887.

1873.

1896.
1901.

1877.
1898.
1901.
1867.
1876.

1897.

1884.
1902.
1884.

1897.
1889.
1893.

1889.
1867.

1886.
1899.

1883.
1908.
1868.
1866.
1870.
1900.
1896.

1878.
1870.

1862.
1894.
1884.

1884.

1901.

1887.
1899.

1897.
1896.
1871.
1873.

1900

§Carrer, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

tCapsrick, Joun Watton. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Carpurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens,

*Carden, H. V. Fassaroe, Walmer.

§Cargill, David Sime. 9 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

{Carkeet, John. 8 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

tCarlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol.

{Oarlile, W. Warrand. Harlie, Largs, Ayrshire.

{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

{Carmichael, Niel, M.D. 177 Nitherdale-road, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

{Carmichael, Norman R. Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

{Carnegie, Jokn. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

{Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc. Science and Art Museum, Dublin.

{Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
U.S.A

tCarpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

{Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carr, J. Westy, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

{Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carrurners, Wituiam, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886).
14 Vermont-road, Norwood, 8.E.

tCars~ake, J. Barwam (Local Sec. 1886). 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

{Carslaw, H. S., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Sydney, N.S.W.

{Carson, John. 41 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

*Cart, Rev. Henry. 49 Albert-court, Kensington Gore, S.W.

*Carteighe, Michael, F.C.S., F.I.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.

tCarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Carter, Rev. W. Lower, M.A., F.G.S. Hopton, Mirfield.

tCartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston-
square, W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. 1 Bower-terrace, Maidstone.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I, Peel-chambers, Market-
place, Bury, Lancashire.

{Carulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.

{Carus, Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

*Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, S.W.

{Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, S.W.

{Carver, Thomas A. B.,B.Sc., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. 118 Napiershall-
street, Glasgow.

{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Man-
chester.

*Case, J. Monckton. Hampden Club, Phenia-street, N.W.

*Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S.A.

*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, E.C.

{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Oash, William, F.G.S. 85 Commercial-street, Halifax.

. *Cassie, W., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Holloway

College. Brantwood, Englefield Green.

22 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1897. tCaston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,
Toronto, Canada.

1874. {Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.

1859. {Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.

1886. *Cave-Moyle, Mrs. Isabella. 30 Promenade, Cheltenham.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough,
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.

1859, {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

1901. §Chamen, W. A. 66 Partickhill-road, Glasgow.

1881. *Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place, S.W.

1865. tChance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1888. {Chandler, 8. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

1902. §Chapman, D. L. 10 Parsonage-road, Withington, Manchester.

1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., M.P., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram,
Manchester.

1897. {Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda's-terrace, Whitby.

1889. {Chapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1884, {Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.

1899. §Chapman, Professor Sydney John, M.A. The Owens College,
Manchester.

1877. {Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire,

1874. {Charles, J. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

1874. tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

1903. §Chaster, G. W., M.D. 42 Talbot-road, Southport.

1886. {Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1884, *Cuarrerton, Gerorer, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 The Sanctuary,
Westminster, 8. W.

1886. *Cuatrock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in
University College, Bristol.

1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

1904, *Chaundy, Theodore William. 49 Broad-street, Oxford.

1884, {CHavvEAv, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

1864. {CunaptE, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W.

1900. §Cheesman, W. Norwood. The Crescent, Selby.

1887. { Cheetham, F.W. Limefield House, Hyde.

1887. {Chectham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

1896, {Chenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

1874, *Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G.,C0.B. Care of
Messrs, Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charivg Cross, 8. W.

1884. {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

1896. {Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

1883. {Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

1894. {CaisHorm, G. G., M.A., B.Se., F.R.G.S. 59 Drakefield-road,
Upper Tooting, 8. W.

1900, {CuIsHoLM, Sir Samuet. Glasgow.

1899. §Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle Avenue, Dover.

1899, §Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle Avenue, Dover.

1899, §Chitty,G. W. Mildura, Park-avenue, Dover.

1882, {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 23

Year of
lection.

1887. tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

1893. *Curep, CHARLES, D.Sc., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.

1900. *Christie, R. J. Duke Street, Toronto, Canada.

1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting
Common, 8.W.

1876. *CurystaL, Grorer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Pres. A, 1889),
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh.
5 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. §Cxurcn, A. H.,M.A.,F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, Kew.

1898. §CuuRcH, Colonel G. Fart, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1898). 216 Crom-

: well-road, 8. W.

1860. {OnurRon, Sir Wititam Sexpy, Bart. M.D. St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, E.C.

1896. {Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.

1903. §Clapham, J. H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1901. §Clark, Archibald B., M.A. 16 Comely Bank-street, Edinburgh,

1876. {Clark, David R., M.A. 8 Park-drive West, Glasgow.

1890. {Clark, E. K. 18 Wellclose-place, Leeds.

1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

1902. tClark, G.M. Cape Town.

1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1901. {Clark, James M., M.A., B.Sc. 8 Park-drive West, Glasgow.

1876. t{Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.

1881. {Olark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 112 Wool Exchange, E.C.

1901. *Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1855. tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Beechcroft, Jordan-hill, Glasgow.

1887. §Clarke, OC. Goddard, J.P. South Lodge, Champion Hill, 8.E.

1875. {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1886. {Olarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

1875. {CrarKe, Joun Henry (Local Sec. 1875). 4 Worcester-terrace,
Clifton, Bristol.

1902. §Clarke, Miss Lilian J., B.Sc. 81 Hornsey Rise, N.

1897. tClarke, Colonel S. C., R.E. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.

1896, {Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.

1884, {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. *CLaypEN, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

1890. *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1861. {Crzanp, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1902. §Clements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

1861. *Oxrrron, R. Bertamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 38 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. {Clissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. {Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

1878. tClough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1892. {Clouston, T,S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

1883. *Crowss, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893). The Grange,
College-road, Dulwich, S.E.

1885. {Clyne, James, Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

1897: {Coates, J., M-Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.

1903. “Coates, W. M. King’s College, Cambridge.

1901. {Coats, Allan. Hayfield, Paisley.

1884, §Cobb, John. Fitzherries, Abingdon.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1895.

1889.

1864,

1889.

1892.

1901.

1883.
1861.

1898.
1881.

1896.
1884,
1887,
1901.
1901.
1894.
1895.

1895.
1893.

1903.
1879,
1864,

1897.
1895.
1899.
1878.
1854.
1899.
1892.
1892.
1887.

1869,

1893,
1861.

1876.

1865.

1902.
1882.

1884,

1897.
1888.
1891.
1900.
1892.
1884,
1896.
1890.

*CoBBoLD, Fenix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

{Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

tCochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tCockburn, John. Gtlencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

tCockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, 8.E.

tCockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

*Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

{Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

*CorFIN, WALTER Harris, F.C.S. 26 Belgrave-road, Eccleston-
square, S.W.

*Coghill, Perey de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince's Park, Liverpool.

*Cohen, B. L., M.P. 80 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

§Cohen, N. L. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Cohen, R. Waley. 11 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Colby, Miss EH. L., B.A. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

*Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S. Malton, Yorkshire.

*Colby William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

tCole, Professor Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science,
Dublin.

§Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

{Cole, Skelton. 3887 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tColefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, S.W.

§Cotrman, Dr, A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

tColeman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham.

§Coleman, William. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

tColes, John, F.R.G.S. Liphook, Hants.

*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

§Collard, George. ‘The Gables, Canterbury.

{Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

tCollie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

{Cortre, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W.

{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

tCollinge, Walter E. The University, Birmingham.

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Irene-road, Parson’s Green,
S.W.

tCoruins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.E.

*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

{Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W.

tColomb, Right Hon. Sir J.C. R., K.C.M.G., M.P., F.R.G.S. Drom-

uinna, Kenmare, Kerry, Iveland; and Junior United Service

Club, 5. W.

tColquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

tCommon, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

t{Common, T. A., B.A. 68 Eaton-rise, Ealing, W.

tComyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham..

tConklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

tConnacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.

Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 25

Year of
Election.

1871. *Connor, Charles C. 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

1902. t{Conway, A. W. 100 Leinster-road, Rathmines, Dublin.

1893, {Conway, Professor Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.S, The Red House,
Hornton-street, W.

1903. §Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College.
Manchester.

1899. tCoopz, J. Cartes, M.Inst.C.E. Westminster-chambers, 9 Vic-
toria-street, S.W.

1898. §Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1900. {Cook, Walter. 98 St. Mary’s-street, Cardiff.

1882. {Cooxx, Major-General A. C., R.E., 0.B.,F .R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, S.W.

1876, *CooxE, Conrap W. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

1881. {Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.

1868. {Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

1868. {Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 53 Castle-road, Kentish Town, N.W.

1884. {Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1881. tCooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

1896. tCookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

1899 *Coomaraswimy, A. K., BSc. F.LS., F.G.S., Director of the
Mineral Survey of Ceylon. Kandy, Ceylon,

1902. *Coomaraswamy, Mrs. A. K. Kandy, Ceylon.

1903. §Cooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

1895. {Cooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, ‘Westminster ,
S.W

1901. *Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1893. {Cooper, F. W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, N ottingham.

1868. {Cooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.

1889. {Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1878. {Cope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds.

1871. {CorrLanp, Ratru, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

1881. {Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

1901. §Corbett, A. Cameron, M.P. Thornliebank House, Glasgow.

1891. {Corbett, E. W. M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

1887. *Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, 22 Oliver-grove, South Norwood, S.E.

1894. ae Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,

urrey.
1883. *Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.
1901. egies Professor J. D., B.Sc. University College, Gower-street,.

1898. *Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

1889, {CornisH, VauGHAN, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. 72 Prince’s-square, W.

1884, *Cornwallis, F. S. W., M.P., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

1885. {Corry, John. Rosenheim, Park Hill-road, Croydon.

1888. {Corser, Rev. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

1900, §Cortie, Rev. A. L., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

1891. {Cory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

1891, th ee iki Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Car-
i

1891. *Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. The Cedars,Cobham-road,Norbiton, S.W.

1874, *Correritt, J.H.,M.A., F.R.S. Braeside, Speldhurst, Kent.

1876, {Couper, James, City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1876, {Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

1896, t{Courrney, Right Hon. Leonarp (Pres. I’, 1896). 15 Cheyne-walk,
Chelsea, 8. W.

1890. {Cousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

lection.

1896.

18653.
1872.

1908.
1900.
1895.

1899.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1890.
1892,
1902.
1884.

1876.
1884,
1887,
1887.
1871,

1871.

1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.

1901.
1896.
1879.
1876.
1887.
1896.
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.

1885.
1908.
1901.

1887.
1898.

{Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.
Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh,

{Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S, 10 Buckingham-street,
Strand, W.C.

§Coward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Westleigh, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowELL, Puitip H., M.A. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, and 74
Vanbrugh-park, Blackheath, S.E.

§Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

t{Cox, Robert. 34 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway,
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, S. W.

t{Cox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

t{Cradock, George. Wakefield.

*Craig, George A. Post Office, Mooroopna, Victoria, Australia.

{Craig, H.C. Strandtown, Belfast.

§Craicie, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1900). 6 Lyndhurst-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

{Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

tCraven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*CRAWFORD AND BatcarreEs, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 2 Cavendish-square, W.; and Haigh
Hall, Wigan.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Colin-
ton-road, Edinburgh.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.8. 25 Tollington-park, N.

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creax, Captain E. W.,C.B, R.N., F.R.S. (Pres. E., 1903 ; Council
1896-1903). 9 Hervey-road, Blackheath, 8.E.

{Cree, T.S8. 15 Montgomerie-quadrant, Glasgow.

tCregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

tCreswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.

*Crewdson, Rey. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

tCrichton, Hugh. 6 Rockfield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

*Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S8., F.G.S. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

tCroke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouneagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, Co,
Limerick. f

fOrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

t{Cromsig, J. W., M.A., M.P. (Local Sec. 1885). Balzownie Lodge,
Aberdeen.

{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

§Crompton, Holland. Glynn Cottage, Northwood, Middlesex.

{Crompton, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901).
Kensington Court, W.

tOroox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

§Crooke, William. Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1865. §Crooxes, Sir Wittiam, F.RS., V.P.C.S. (PResment, 1898;
Pres, B, 1886; Council 1885-91). 7 Kensington Park-
gardens, W.
1879. tCrookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W. ‘
1897. *CrooxsHank, E. M., M.B. Ashdown Forest, Forest Row, Sussex,
1870. tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
1894. *Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.
1870, *CrosFretD, Witt1am. 3 Fulwood-park, Liverpool.
1890. {Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.
1853. {Crosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.
1887. *Crossley, William J. Glentield, Bowdon, Cheshire.
1894. *Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.I.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
: Kent.
1897. *Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.
1883. {Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.
1882. §Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.
1890. *Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. 116 Manningham-lane, Bradford.
1863. Samet George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle -upon-
ne.
1885. HOrninkenank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.
1888. {Crummack, William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
1898, {CRuNDALL, Sir Witt1am H. Dover.
1888. {Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
1883, *CuLVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.
1883. {Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.
1897. {Cumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.
1898. §Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.
1861. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.
1861. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester,
1882, *OunnineHaAM, Lieut.-Colonel ALLAN, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.
1877. *Cunninenam, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H,
1901; Council, 1902- ), Professor of Anatomy in the
; University of Edinburgh.
1891. {Cunningham, J. H. 2 Ravelston-place, Edinburgh.
1885. {Cunninenam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.
1869., {CunnineHAM, Rozert O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1883. *CunnincHAM, Rev. W., D.D., D.Sc.’ (Pres. F, 1891). Trinity
College, Cambridge.
1892, §Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
1900. *Cunnington, W. Alfred. 13 The Chase, Clapham Common, 8.W.
1892. *Currie, James, jun, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Golden Acre,
Edinburgh.
1884, {Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.
1902. §Curry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. Mostyn Dale, 3 Mostyn-road,
Merton Park, Wimbledon.
1898, tCurtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1878. {Curtis, William. Oaramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
1884, {Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.
1883. {Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.
1881. §Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdét, Belvedere-road,
. Lambeth, 8. W.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1854,
1883.

1898.

1889,
1863.
1867.
1870,

1862.
1901.
1876.
1896,

1849.
1894.
1897.
1897.

1905.
1861,

1896.
1899.
1882.

1881.

1878.
1894.

1882,
1880.

1898,
1884.
1870.
1902.
1870.
1887.
1896.
1893.

1898.
1875,
1870.
1882.
1896.

1885.
1886.

tDaglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

{Dihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

§Dalby, Professor W. E., D.Sc, M.Inst.C.E, 45 Clifton-road,
Crouch End, N. :

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. 45 Oxford-road, Cambridge.

tDale, J. B. South Shields.

tDalgleish, W. Dundee.

{DatiincErR, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside,
Newstead-road, Lee, 8.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

tDansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

tDaniell, G. F., B.Sc. 44 Cavendish-road, Brondesbury, N.W.

*Dansken, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Hillside-gardens, Partickhill, Glasgow.

§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

{Darbishire, b. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

{Darbishire,C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

§Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Hulme Hall, Plymouth-grove,
and Owens College, Manchester.

§Darbishire, Dr. Otto V. Owens College, Manchester.

*DARBISHIRE, Robert Doxinrretp, B.A. (Local Sec. 1861).
Victoria Park, Manchester.

{Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.

*Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

}Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1891;
Council 1882-84, 1897-1901). Wychfield, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*Darwin, GrorcE Howanrp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A,
1886; Council 1886-92), Plumian Professor of Astronomy
and Experimental Philosophy in the University of Cambridge.
Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace, M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road,
Cambridge.

*DaRwIN, Major Leonarp, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1896 ; Council
1899- ). 12 Egerton-place, South Kensington, S.W.

{Darwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S._ Bassett, Southampton.

*Davry, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.

§Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.

TDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.

{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.

*Davidson, 8. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Davies, Rey. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Semitic
Languages in University College, Bangor, North Wales.

{Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke-grove, W.

*Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.

tDavis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.

*Dayis, John Henry Grant. Valindra, Wood Green, Wednesbury,
Staffordshire.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Hopefield, Evesham.

{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1886.
1857.
1869,
1869,
1860.
1864.

1881.
1888,

{Davison, CHartEs, D.Sc. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

tDavy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.

{tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter,

tDaw, R. R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter.

*Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

}Dawxis, W. Boyp, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88), Professor of Geology and Palzontology in
the Victoria University, Owens College, Manchester. Wood-
hurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Dawson, Bernard. The Laurels, Malvern Link.

{Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

. *Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall,

Skipton.

. “Dawson, P. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.
. {Dawson, Samvet (Local Sec. 1884). 258 University-street, Montreal,

Canada,

. *Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common,

Kent.

. {Day, ‘I. C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh,
. “Deacon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1897), 19 Warwick-

square, S. W,

. §Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

tDeakin, H. T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.

. {Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
. *Deasy, Capt.H. H.P. Cavalry Club, Piccadilly, W.

*Debenham, Frank, F.S.S._ 1 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, N. W.

. {Desus, Hetyricu, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1869; Council,

1870-75). 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel, Hessen.
tDeck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.

. {Deeley, R. M. 88 Charnwood-street, Derby.

{Delany, Rev. William, University College, Dublin.

. §Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.
. [Dendy, Professor Arthur, Care of Messrs. Dulau & Co., 37 Soho-

square, W.

. {Denison, F. Napier. Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada,
. {Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, S.W.
» §Deyny, Arrrep, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,

Sheffield.
Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

» {De Rance, Cuartes K., F.G.S. 33 Carshalton-road, Blackpool.

{Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., G.C.B. Knowsley,
Prescot, Lancashire.
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S._ 76 Laneaster-gate, W.

. *Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, S.E.
. §Devereux, Rey. E. R. Price. Drachenfeld, Tenison-avenue, Cam-

bridge.

. {DEvonsuiRE, The Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Vice-PResIpEnt,

1904.) 78 Piccadilly, W.

{Dewar, A. Redeote. Redcote, Leven, Fife.

“Dewar, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S., Fullerian
Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge (PRestpEnr, 1902; Pres. B,
1879 ; Council 1883-88), 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

tDewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

{Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1884

1872.
1884,
1896,
1897,
1901.
1901.
1889.
1863.
1887.
1884,
1881.
1887.

1902.

1885,
1862.

1877.
1901.
1900.

1898.

1899

1874.
1900.

1885.
1888,
1900.
1879.

1902.
1885.
1896.
1887.
1902.
1885.
1890.

1885.
1860.

1902.
1897.
1892.
1891.
1875.
1870,
1876.
1897.

1889,

. *Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.

t{Dewick, Rey. E.S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.

{De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.

{D’Hemry, P. 136 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.

{Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.

§Dick, George Handasyde. 31 Hamilton-drive, Hillhead, Glasgow.

{Dick, Thomas. Lochhead House, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

tDickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.

{Dickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.

{Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.

tDickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 2 Starkie-street, Preston.

iia H.N., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.GS. 2 St. Margaret’s-road,
Oxford.

§Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,
Cambridge.

{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.

*Ditxe, The Right Hon. Sir Cusrtes WeEntwoxtn, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.

tDillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.

§Dines, W. H. Oxshott, Leatherhead.

§Divers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1902). 3 Canning-place,
Palace Gate, W.

*Dix, John William S. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Down, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Drxon, A. C., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College,
Belfast. Almora, Myrtlefield Park, Belfast.

*Dixon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.

§Dixon, A. Francis, D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Cardiff.

t{Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

§Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

*Dixon, George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland.

*Dixon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1894), Professor
of Chemistry in the Owens College, Manchester.

{Dixon, Henry H., D.Sc. 23 Northbrook-road, Dublin.

tDixon, John Henry. Dundarach, Pitlochry, N.B.

§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot.

{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire,

{Dixon, W. V. Scotch Quarter, Carrickfergus.

t{Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

{Dobbie, James J., D.Sc., Director of the Museum of Science and
Art, Edinburgh.

§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

oe Archibald Edward, M.A. MHartley Manor, Longfield,

ent.

t{Dobbs, F. W. 2 Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor,

t{Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.

{Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

tDobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

*Docwra, George. Cinderford, R.S.O., Gloucestershire.

*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

{Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New
York, U.S.A.

t{Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 3)

Year of
Election.

1898.
1893.
1885,

1889.
1896.
1901.
1881.
1867.
1863.
1884.

1890.
1885.
1884,
1908.
1876,
1884,
1865,
1881.
1887.
1894.
1883.
1892.
1868.
1890.
1892,

1893.

Dole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

tDonald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh,

tDonaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of’
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

{Donkin, R.S.,M.P. Campville, North Shields.

t{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

t{Donnan, F. G, University College, Gower Street, W.C.

{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Illawara House, Tunbridge Wells.

tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Sayings Com--
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

tDovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

{Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

tDove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.

§Dow, Miss Agnes R. Flat 1, 27 Warrington-crescent, W.

tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.

*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.K. Merry Hall, Ashtead, Surrey.

{Doxey, R. A. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

{Doyne, R. W., F.R.O.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford.

{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York,

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

{DressEr, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, H.C,

tDrew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

{Dreyer, John L. E., M.A., Ph.D., f.R.A.S. The Observatory,.
Armagh.

§Drucz, G. Crarines, M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec. 1894). 118 High-
street, Oxford. ;

1889. {Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1897. {Drynan, Miss. Northwold, Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

1901.

1892.
1856.

1870.

1900.
1895.
1867.

1875.
1890.
1884,
1883.
1892.
1891.
1896.
18953.
1892.

1896

tDrysdale, John W. W. Bon Accord Engine Works, London-road,
Glasgow.

{Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin.

*Duciz, The Right. Hon. Henry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Earh
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

tDuckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Christchurch Vicarage,
Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, 8. W

*Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounzsruart ELPHINSTONE GRaANT-,.
G.C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. F, 1867, 1881; Council 1868,.
1892-98). 11 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.

{Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford.

{Dufton, 8S. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tDugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

{Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

{Dulier, Colonel E., C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, 8. W.

*Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

{Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.

*Dunell, George Robert. 33 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswick, W.

tDunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, F.C.

. *DUNKERLEY, S., M.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal:

Nayal College, Greenwich, 8.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
lection.

1865.
1882.

1883.
1876,
1884.

1859.
1893,

1891.
1885.

1869.
1898.
1895.

1884.
1885.

1869.
1895.

1868.
1896.
1877.
1874,
1899,

1871.

1863.
1876,
1883.
1895.
1903.

1884.
1861.
1870.
1899.

1887.
1884.

1887.
1870.
1883,
1888.
1884,

1883,

t{Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

{Dunn, J. T., M.Se., F.C. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Hol-
loway, N.

tDunn, Mrs. J. T. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway, N.

{Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

{Duns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural
College, Wye, Kent.

{Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Dunstan, WyNDHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Director of the
Imperial Institute, 8.W.

{D’Urban, W. 8. M. Newport House, near Exeter,

tDurrant, R. G. Marlborough College, Wilts,

*DwerryHousn, ArtTHUR R., M.Sc., F.G.S. 5 Oalfield-terrace,
Headingley, Leeds.

{Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

*Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

*Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

§ Dymond, Thomas §., F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelms-
ford, Essex.

tEade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

t Earle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

tEarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.

{Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

§East, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technolcgy,
Dover.

*Haston, Epwarp (Pres. G, 1878; Council 1879-81). 7 Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.

tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.

{Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.

{Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.

*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.

§Eccles, W. H., D.Sc. 1 Owen’s-mansions, Queen’s Club-gardens,
West Kensington, W.

tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.

tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

tEddowes, Alfred, M.D. 28 Wimpole-street, W.

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S._ The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.

tEde, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.

*Kdgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S. Sywell House, Llan-
dudno.

§EpgewortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889; Council
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford,

*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.

{tEdmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S. W.

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 4 Chichester-terrace, Kemp Town,
Brighton.

f{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.M., F.G.8. 1 Garden-court, Temple,

dae

LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33

Year of
Election.

1901.
1899,

1903.
1903.
1903,

1884,
1887.
1901.
1896.
1876,
1890.
1885.

1901.
1883,

1891.
1883.

1886,

1875.
1880.
1891.
1884.

1887.
1862.

1899,
1897.
1883.
1887.
1870.

1897.
1891.
1884,
1863.
1894.
1866.
1884,
1853.
1883.
1869.
1894,

1862.

1887.
19

*Edridge-Green, F. W., M.D., F.R.C.S._ 14 Welbeck-street, W.
§Edwards, Ei. J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 2 Datforne-road, Upper Tooting,
W

S.W.
§Edwards, Mrs. Emily. Norley Grange, 75 Leyland-road, Southport.
§Edwards, Francis. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road, Southport.
§Edwards, Miss Marion K. Norley Grange, 73 Leyland-road,
Southport.
{Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford,
tEggar, W. D. Willowbrook, Eton, Windsor.
tEkkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Eiear, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.. 384 Leaden-
hall-street, E.C.
*Elles, Miss Gertrude L. Newnham College, Cambridge.
tEllington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E, Palace-chambers, Bridge-
street, Westminster, S.W.
Elliott, A. C.,D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,
*Eiuiorr, Epwin Batrpy, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
tEtxior, Sir Tomas Henry, K.C.B.,.F.S.S. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, S.W.
*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
*EL.is, JoHN Henry (Local Sec. 1883). Woodhaye, Ivy Bridge,Devon.
§Ellis, Miss M. A. 129 Walton-street, Oxford.
tEllis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.
Ellman, Rey. EK. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElmy, Ben. Congleton, Cheshire.
tElphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
*Elvery, Miss Amelia. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.
§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.
tElwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.
§ExLwortHy, Freperick T.,F.S.A. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.
*Ety, The Right Rev. Lord Axwynr Compron, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. (Vicr-PResipEnt, 1904.) The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.
tEly, Robert E. 23 West 44th-street, New York, U.S.A.
tEmerton, Wolseley, D.C... Banwell Castle, Somerset,
t{Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.
tEmery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
{Emtage, W. T. A., Director of Public Instruction, Mauritius.
fEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.
{English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.
tEntwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westcliffe-road, Southport.
*Enys, John Davis. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.
§Erskine-Murray, James, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. University College, Not-
tingham.
*Esson, Wiixram, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 13 Bradmore-road,
Oxford.

*Estcourt, Charles. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Manchester.
03, c

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.

1888.
1901.

1889.
1870.

1865.
1896.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1883.
1883.
1861.

1897.
1898.
1881.
1885.
1865,
1899.
1865.
1891.

1903,
1871,
1868.

1902.
1895.
1863.
1886.
1883.
1881.

1874.
1876.

1883.
1905.
1884.
1882.

1890.
1896.
1901.

1865.

1896.

1902.
1898.

*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. 6 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford
Manchester. :

tEtheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

{Ettersbank, John, Care of Messrs. Dalgety & Co., 52 Lombard-
street, E.C.

*Eyans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Evyans, ARTHUR JouN, M.A., F.RS., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1896).
Youlbury, Abingdon.

*Eyans, Rev. Caartes, M.A. Parkstone, Dorset.

tEvans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire.

{Evans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff.

{ivans, Henry Jones. Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff.

*Evans, Mrs. Isabel. Hoghton Hall, Hoghton, near Preston.

*Eyans, James C. 38 Crescent-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Eyans, Mrs. James C. 38 Crescent-road, Birkdale, Southport.

*Eyans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.S.A.
F.LS., F.G.8. (Presipenr, 1897; Pres. ©, 1878; Pres. H,
1890; Council 1868-74, 1875-82, 1889-96). Nash Mills,
Hemel Hempstead. F

*Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

{Evans, Jonathan L. 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tEvans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.0., Pembrokeshire.

*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, SepastrAn, M.A., LL.D. Canterbury.

tEvans, Mrs. Canterbury.

*Eyans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire.

§Evatt, E. J., M.B. 8 Kyveilog-street, Cardiff.

{Eve, H. Weston, M.A. 37 Gordon-square, W.C.

*Everert, J. D., MA., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. 11 Leopold-road
Ealing, W. i

*Everett, Perey W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

{Everett, W. H., B.A. University College, Nottingham.

*Eyeritt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.

tEveritt, Wiliam E. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.

Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

tEwarr, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

gate ie W. Quartus, Bart. (Local Sec. 1874). Glenmachan,

elfast.

*Ewine, James ALFRED, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.
C.E. Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

tEwing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.

§Ewing, Peter, F.L.S. The Frond, Uddingston, Glasgow.

*Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{Eyre, G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.

Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

{Faser, Epwunp Becxert. Straylea, Harrogate.

{Fairbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

§Fairgrieve, M. McCallum. 115 Dalkeith-road, Edinburgh.

*Farrtry, THomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.

§Fallaize, E. N., M.A. 25 Alexandra-mansions, Middle-lane,
Hornsey, N.

§Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 35

Year of
Election.

1877.

1902.
L892.

1886.

1897.
1897.

1883.
1885.
1886.

1859.
1885.
1883.
1897.
1869.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1900.

1902.
1901.
1886.

1900.
1883.
1890.
1876.
1883,
1902.

1871.

1896.
1867.

1901.
1883,

(883.
1873.

1892.

1897.
1897.

1882.

1887.
1875.
1868,
i897.

§Farapay, F. J., F.LS., F.S.S. (Local Sec. 1887). College-
chambers, 17 Brazennose-street, Manchester.

§Faren, William. 11 Mount Charles, Belfast.

*Farmer, J. BrerianD, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Royal College of Science, Exhibition-road, S.W.

{Farneombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Eastbourne.

*Farnworth, Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

“Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Broadlands, Goldthorn Hill, Wolver-
hampton.

tFarnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

{Farquhar, Admiral. Curlogie, Aberdeen.

}FarauHArson, Colonel Sir J., K.C.B., R.E. Corrachee, Tarland,
Aberdeen.

{Farquharson, Robert F. O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O'Neil, N.B.

*Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Tillydrine, Kincardine O'Neil, N.B.

tFarrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

{Farthing, Rey. J.C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.

*Faulding, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

tFaulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

§Faulkner, John. 13 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.

*Faweett, F. B. University College, Bristol.

tFawcerr, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900). Low Royd, Apperley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fawsitt,C. E., Ph.D. 9 Foremount-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow,

*Fearnsides, W.G., B.A., F.G.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge,

{Felkin, Robert W., M.D.,F.R.G.S. 48 Westbourne-gardens, Bays-
water, W.

*Fennell, W. John. Deramore Drive, Belfast.

tFenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, W.

tFenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

{Fereuson, Goprrey W. (Local Sec. 1902). Cluan, Donegal
Park, Belfast.

*Fereuson, Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Glasgow.

*Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

{Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmonth-terrace,

Edinburgh.

§Ferguson, R. W. The Intermediate School, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

{Fernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

*Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

{Ferrrer, Davin, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London. 34 Cavendish-square, W.

f¥Ferrier, Robert M., B.Sc., Professor of Engineering, University
College, Bristol.

tFerrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

{Fessenden, Reginald A., Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University, Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School
Southampton.

tFiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester.

{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tField, Edward. Norwich.

tField, George Wilton, Ph.D. Experimental Station, Kingston,
Rhode Island, U.S.A.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Tlection.

1886.
1882.
1885.
1878.
1884,
1902.
1887.

1881.
1895.
1891.
1902,
1884.
1869.

1875.
1858.
1887.
1885.
1871.
1883.
1878.
1885.

1894.

1888.
1897.
1881.

1876.
1876.
1867.
1870.
1890.
1892.
1888.

1901.
1889,
1877.
1890.

1877.
1891.
1903.
1880.
1873.
1883.
1897.

1885.
1890.

t Field, H. C.. 4 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset.

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

*Findlater, Sir William. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

§Finnegan, J., B.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue, Belfast.

{Finnemore, Rev. J., M.A., Pb.D., F.G.S. 88 Upper Hanover-street,.
Sheffield.

{Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike.

§Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

{Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff.

{Fisher, J. R. Cranfield, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.

*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

{Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge. if

*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

tFishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.

*Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, N. W..

{Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich.

*Fison, Freperick W., M.A., M.P., F.C.S. 64 Pont-street, S.W.

{Fitch, Rev. J. J. 5 Chambres-road, Southport.

{Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

*FirzGERALD, Professor Mavricr, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902). 32°
Eglantine-avenue, Belfast. i

{Fitzmaurice, M., C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. London County Council,.
Spring-gardens, S.W.

*Frrzpatrick, Rey. Taomas C. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Flavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Fleming, Rey. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael’s Vicarage, Ebury-
square, S.W.

tFleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

{FiercuEr, AtrreD E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Marlingford Hall, Norwich.

{Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

tFletcher, George, F.G.S. Dawson Court, Blackrock, eo, Dublin.

*FrutcHer, Lazarus, M.A., F.R.S., F.GS., F.C.S. (Pres. C}.
1894), Keeper of Minerals, British Museum (Natural History),.
Cromwell-road, S.W. 35 Woodville-gardens, Haling, W.

{Flett, J.S., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 28 Jermyn-street, 8. W.

{Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

*Floyer, Ernest A. Camberley, Surrey.

*Frux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the Univer-
sity, Montreal, Canada. ;

{Foale, William. The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

{Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

§Foord-Kelcey, W., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal Military

Academy, Woolwich. The Shrubbery, Shooter’s Hill, S.E.

tFoote, R. Bruce, F.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65-
Cornhill, E.C.

*Forses, Grorez, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, S. W.

{Forszs, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor--
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

tForbes, J., K.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, 8.W.

tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire.

tForp, J. Rawrrnson (Local Sec. 1890). Quarry Dene, Weetwood-
lane, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
lection.

1875.
1894.
1887.

1902.
1883.

1900.
1884,
1877.
1896.
1875.
1865.
1865,

1883.
1857.
1896.
1859.

1901.

1908.
1896.
1866.

1868.
1892.

1901.
1883.
1883.

1896.
1883.
1847,

1900.
1881.

1889.

1887.
1894.
1895.
1882.
1885.

1865,

*Forpuam, H. Groner. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.

{ Forrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

{Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Jouy, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S,
Perth, Western Australia.

§Forster, M. O., Ph.D. Royal College of Science, S.W.

tForsyru, A. R., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897), Sadlerian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Forsyth, D. Central Higher Grade School, Leeds.

{Fort, George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

{Forrescuz, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

tForwoop, Sir Witt14M B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

{Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, 5.W.

{Foster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Fostrr, Sir Ctement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor
of Mining in the Royal College of Science, London, 8.W.

tFoster, Lady.

*Foster, Grorcr Carey, B.A., LL D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (GENERAL
TREASURER, 1898- ; Pres, A, 1877; Council 1871-76, 1877-
82). Ladywalk, Rickminsworth.

{Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

*Fosrer, Sir Micwart, K.C.B.,M.P., M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.L.S. (Presmwent, 1899; .Genw. Sec. 1872-76;
Pres. I, 1897; Council, 1871-72). Great Shelford, Cambridge.

§Foster, T. Gregory, Ph.D. University College, W.C.; and Chester-
road, Northwood, Middlesex.

§Fourcade, H. G. Cape Town.

{Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Notting-
ham.

{Fowler, G.G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.

{Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-circus,
E

tFowlis, William. 45 John-street, Glasgow.

*Fox, Charles. The Pynes, Warlingham-on-the-Hill, Surrey.

§Fox, Sir Cuartres Dovetas, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896).
28 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

tFox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Thomas. Pyles Thorne House, Wellington, Somerset.

*FoxweEtt, Hersert S., M.A., F.S.S. (Council 1894-97), Professor of
Political Economy in University College, London. St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

poy Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

yne.

Francis, Witt1aM, Ph.D., F.L.S.,F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.

*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1901), Pro-
fessor of‘Chemistry in the University of Birmingham.

{Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 50 Porchester-terrace, W.

§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

*Fraser, Alexander, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dubiin.

{Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1885). 282
Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Fraser, Jonny, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1871.

1871.
1884.

1884,

1877.
1884,

1886,

1901.
1887.
1892.
1882.
1887.
1899,
1898.

1898.
1875.
1898.
1884.
1895.

1872.
1859.

1869.
1884.
1891.

1887.
1863.
1896.
1850,

1876.

1885

1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.

1899.
1860.
1869.
1870.

1889,
1870.

fF Rasp, Sir Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

tFrazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France), Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Se., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S8. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Fveeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon,

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1892; Council
1897-1903). 4 Lower Sloane-street, S.W.

{FRESHFIELD, Dovuetas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W,

§Frew, William, Ph.D. King James-place, Perth.

{Fries, Harold H , Ph.D, 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

*Frost, Edmund, M.B. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

{Fry, Edward W. Cannon-street, Dover.

tFry, The Right Hon, Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., F.S, A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

tFry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 17 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

{Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

{Futrarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, 8.E.

{Futter, Freprrick, M.A. (Local Sec. 1859). 9 Palace-road,
Surbiton,

{Furter, G., M.Inst.C.E. (Local Sec. 1874). 71 Lexham-gardens,
Kensington, W.

{Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

{Fulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Gaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchester.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

{Gair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.

tGarrpner, Sir W. T., K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 32 George-
square, Edinburgh.

tGale, James M. 28 Miller-street, Glasgow.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

tGalloway, Walter. Tighton Banks, Gateshead.

{GaxLoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J.,M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

§Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

*Gatton, Francis, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Gun..
Sec. 1863-68 ; Pres, E, 1862, 1872; Pres. H, 1885; Council
1860-63). 42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, S.W.

tGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W.

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

{Gamble, David. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

tGambl: J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1899,
1898.
1900.
1887.
1882.
1896.
1894,
1882.
1884,
1887.

1882.
1873.
1883.
1903.
1903.
1894.
1874.
1882.
1892,
1889,
1870.
1896.
1896.
1862.
1875.
1892.
1871.
1885.

1887.
1867.

1871.

1898,

1882,
1875,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 29

Election.

1888. *Gamsxe, J. Syxus, C.I.E.,M.A., F.RS., F.L.S, Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

1877. {Gamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

1868, {Gamere, Arruur, M.D.. F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1882 ; Council 1888-90),

5 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux, Switzerland.
*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.
§Garde, Rey. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.
§Gardiner, J. Stanley, M.A. Dunstall, Newton-road, Cambridge.
f{GarpineR, WALTER, M.A., F.R.S. 45 Hills-road, Cambridge.
*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.
tGardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.
tGardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.
TGaRDNER, JOHN StaRKIE. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.
{Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,
Lancashire.

tGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S. W.

tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

Garson, J. G.,M.D. (Assistanr GENERAL SecRETARY.) 14 Strat-
ford-place, W.

§Garstang, A. H. 20 Roe-lane, Southport.

*Garstang, T. James, M.A. Bedale’s School, Petersfield, Hampshire.

*GARSTANG, WALTER, M.A., F.Z.S. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth,

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

tGarvie, James. Bolton's Park, Potter's Bar.

f$Garwoop, Professor E. J., M.A., F.G.S. University College,
Gower-street, W.C.

*Gaskell, Holbrook. Bridge House, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*GASKELL, WALTER Hoproox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I,
1896 ; Council 1898-1901). The Uplands, Great Shelford, near
Cambridge.

tGatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.

tGavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

tGeddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Geddes, John, 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tGrppgs, Professor Patrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Gerxiz, Sir ArcHiBatp, LL.D., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S.
(PResIDENT, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871, 1899; Council 1888-91).
10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.

{GeErxtE, James, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1889; Pres. E, 1892), Murchison Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. Kilmorie, Colinton-
road, Edinburgh.

§Gemmill, James F., M.A.,M.B. 21 Endsleigh-gardens, Partickhill,
Glasgow.

*GrnesE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

Hegre Rey. Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge,

xford.

40 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Hlection.

1902, *Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W.

1899. *Gepp, Mrs. A. 26 West Park-gardens, Kew.

1885. {Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

1884, *Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

1884. {Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.

1865. {Grbbins, Wilkam. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

1902. tGibson, Andrew. 14 Cliftonville-avenue, Belfast.

1874. {Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, K.C. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.

1892. {Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.

1901. §Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 183 Renfrew-street, Glas-

gow.

1876. *Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 3 Drumsheugh-
gardens, Edinburzh.

1892. {Gibson, James. 20 George-square, Edinburgh.

1884, {Gibson, Rey. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Grsson, R. J. Harvey, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

1889. *Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.O., Northumberland.

1898. tGibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1887. *Girren, Sir Ropert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. (Pres. F,
1887, 1901). Chanctonbury, Hayward’s Heath.

31898. *Gifford, J. William. Oaklands, Chard.

1884, {Gilbert E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883. §Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

1857. tGilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin.

1884, *Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

1895. {Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon, Anstruther, Scotland.

4896. *GitcHRist, Percy C., F.R.S., M,Inst.C.E. Frognal Bank, Finchley-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

1878, {Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.

1871. *Griu1, Sir Davin, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Ob-
servatory, Cape Town.

1902. §Gill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.

1884, {Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

1892, *Gilmour, Matthew A. B.,¥.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

1867. {Gilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.

1893. *Gimingham, Edward. 1 Cranbourn-mansions, Cranbourn-street,
W.C

1904, §Ginn, S. R. (Loca Suc, 1904). Brookfield, Trumpington-road,
Cambridge.

1900. §Ginsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. 23 Ladbroke-square, W.

1867. {GinsBuRe, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

1884, tGirdwood, Dr.G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

1886. *Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith,
Vancouver Island, Canada.

1850. *Gladstone, George, F.R.G.S. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.

1883. *Gladstone, Miss. 19 Chepstow-villas, Bayswater, W.

1871. *GuaisHErR, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890;
Council 1878-86). Trinity College, Cambridge.

1901. {Glaister, Professor John, M.D., F.R.S.E. 18 Woodside-place,
Glasgow.

1897. tGlashan, J.C., LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 41

Election.

1883,
1881.

1881.
1859.
1874.

1870.
1872.

1899.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880.

1883.
1852.
1879.

1876.
1898.
1881.
1886,

1899.
1890.

1884.

1852.
1878.
1884.
1884.
1884.

1885.
1871.

1893.
1884,

1885.
1865.
1901.

1875.

1873.

1849.
1881.
1894,
1888,

tGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*Griazeprooxk, R. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the National
Physical Laboratory (Pres. A, 1895; Council 1890-94). Bushy
House, Teddington, Middlesex.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbroke-grove, W.

{Glennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Sandycroft, Haslemere, Surrey.

Glover, George T. Corby, Hoylake.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

tGlynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Gopparp, Ricard (Local Sec. 1873). 16 Booth-street, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

§Godfrey, Ingram F. Brooke House, Ash, Dover.

{Godlee, Arthur. ‘fhe Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{Godlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.

t{Gopmay, F. Du Cans, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-
street, Cavendish-square, W.

tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

{Godwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

t{Gopwrn-Avsren, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.8.
(Pres. E, 1833). Nore, Godalming.

tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

tGoldney, F. B. Goodnestone Park, Dover.

{Gortpscuuipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.

t{Gorpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J., K.O.S.1, C.B., F.R.GS.
(Pres. E, 1886). Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

tGomme, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

*Gonner, E. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897), Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Liverpool.

tGood, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal,
Canada,

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

TGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

tGoodbody, Robert. Tairy Hill, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. Lupton, Michigan, U.S.A.

t{Goodwin, Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

tGordon, Rev. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S. Chetwynd Rectory, New-
port, Salop.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West-
minster, S.W.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M., D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Fairview, Dartmouth,
Devon.

{Gordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B.

{tGorz, Grorer, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham.

§Gorst, Right Hon. Sir Joun E., M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. (Pres. L,
1901). Queen Anne’s-mansions, 8. W.

*Gorcu, Franors, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S. (Council, 1901- ), Pro-
fessor of Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Lawn,
Baubury-road, Oxford.

{Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

tGouraud, Colonel. Gwydyr-mansions, Hove, Sussex.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election,

1901.
1901.
1876.
1883.
1873,

1886.
1901.
1902.
1875.

1892.
1893.

1896.
1892,
1864.

1881.
1899.
1890.

1899,
1902.
1864.
1876,
1881.
1903.
1893.

1892.

1870.
1892.
1887.

1887.
1886.
1901,
1881.

1873.

1883.
1883.
1886.
1866.
1893.
1869.
1872.
1872.
1888,

1908.
1882,

tGourtay, Roperr. Glasgow.

§Gow, Leonard. Hayston, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

§Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill-gardens, Glasgow.

§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,.
Yorkshire.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

{Graham, Robert. 165 Nithsdale-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

*Graham, William, M.D. District Lunatic Asylum, Belfast.

tGraname, JAMEs (Local Sec. 1876). Reform Club, Pall Mall,.
S.W.

tGrange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

tGranger, Professor F. S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,.
Nottingham.

tGrant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

tGrant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

{Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.

tGray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

tGray, Albert Alexander. 16 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

{Gray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

tGray, Charles. 11 Portland-place, W.

tGray, G., M.D. Newcastle, Co. Down.

*Gray, Rey. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

tGray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glascow.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A., M.P. 99 Grosvenor-road, S.W.

tGray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

*Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 141 Hopton-road, Streatham,
S.W.

tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.

§Gray, Joun, B.Sc. 9 Park-hill, Clapham Park, S.W.

{Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Chelten-
ham,

tGray, M. H., F.G.S, Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

*Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

tGray, R. W. 7 Orme-court, Bayswater, W.

{Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technica}
Institute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

tGray, William, M.R.I.A. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel Wiriiam. Farley Hall, near Reading.

{Gray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tGreaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

*Greayes, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreayes, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

tGreaves, William, 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. 146 Station-road, Redhill, Surrey.

§Green, J. Reynotps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1902),
Professor of Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain. 61a St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge.

§Green, W. J. 22 Sheepcote-road, Harrow.

TGREENHILL, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 1 Staple Inn, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS 43

Year of
Election.

1881.

{Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

1884, {Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N.W.

1898

1884.

1884

. *Greenty, Epwarp. Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales. °
{Greenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.
. {Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

1887. {Greenwell, G. C. Beechfield, Poynton, Cheshire.

1863.

1890

{Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire,
. Greenwood, Arthur. Cavyendish-road, Leeds.

1875. {Greenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.

1887
1887

1861.

1894

1896.

1883.
1881.
1859.
1878.
1836.
1894,

1884,
1884.
1891.
1903.
1847.

1870.
1888,

1884,
1894,
1894.
1896.
1892.
1891.
1869,

1897.
1897.
1886.
1891.
1887.

1842.
1891.
1866,

1894,
1880.
1902.
1885.
1896.

. Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.
. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.
*Grec, Rosert Pures, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
. *Gruaory, Professor J. WALTER, D.Sc., F.R.S.,F.G.S. The Univer-
sity, Melbourne, Australia.
*Gregory, Professor R. A., F.R.A.S. Dell Quay House, near
Chichester.
t{Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.
tGregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, S.O., Yorkshire.
tGrrerson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Griffin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.
*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Selworthy, College-road,
Harrow.
{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. University College, Cardiff.
tGriffiths, Mrs. University College, Cardiff.
{Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.
§Griffiths, Thomas, J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.
tGriffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.,
tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.
*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst C.E. Australian Club, Sydney,
New South Wales.
tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.
tGroom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. Hollywood, Egham, Surrey.
§Groom, T. T., D.Se. University College, Reading.
tGrossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
tGrove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. The University, Birmingham.
t{Grover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.
{Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rockdale, Orwell-road,
Rathgar, Dublin.
{Grinbaum, A.S., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W.
tGriinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Se. 45 Ladbroke-grove, W.
{Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.
{Grylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.
tGuiciemarD, F.H. H. Eltham, Kent.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
{Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.
{Ginrner, Atpert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.LS.,
F.Z.S. (Pres. D, 1880). 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.
{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
*Gurney, Robert. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.
tGuthrie, Malcolm. Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
tGuthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876.

1884.

1884

1881.

1888

1892.
1870.
1879.
1899.
1903.
1903.
1879.
1885.
1881.
1902.
1854.

1898.
1899.
1885.
1900.
1896.
1884.

1896.
. 1891.
1891.
18758.
1888.

1858,

1888.
1886.
1902.
1881.
1899.
1892.
1878.
1875.
1897.
1861.
1890.
1884.
1894,
1886.
1902.

jGwytHer, R. F., M.A. Owens College and 33 Heaton-road,
Withington, Manchester,

tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

*Happon, Atrrep Cort, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H,
1902; Council, 1902- ). Inisfail, Hills-road, Cambridge.
*Hadfield, R. A., M.Inst.C.E. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road,

Sheffield.

t Haigh, £., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

tHaigh, George. 27 Hightield South, Rockferry, Cheshire,

tHuke, H. Wirson, Ph.D., F.C 8S. Queenwood College, Hants.

{Hall, A. D., M.A., Director of the Rothamsted Experiment Station.

§Hatr, E. Marsmat, K.C., M.P. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

§Hall, Mrs. 75 Cambridge-terrace, W.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

*Hall, Miss Emily. 15 Belmont-street, Southport.

}Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

§Hall, Henry Sinclair. 9 The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*Hatt, Huan Ferrer, F.G.S. Cisshury Court, West Worthing,
Sussex.

§Hall, James P. The ‘ Tribune,’ New York, U.S.A.

tHall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 37 Nicholas-lane, B.C.

§Hall, Samuel, F.I.C., F.C.S. 19 Aberdeen-park, Highbury, N.

tHall, T. Farmer, F.R.G.S. 89 Gloucester-square, Hyde Park, W.

{Hall, Thomas B. Larch Wood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

tHall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.

{Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

*Hallett, George. Oak Cottage, West Malvern.

{Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.0.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

*Hatrert, T.G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatiipurton, W.D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1902; Council 1897-
1903), Professor of Physiology in King’s College, London.
Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W.

*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Fairley, Weston,
Bath.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

tHamilton, David James. 41 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

tHamitron, Rev. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Hammond, Robert. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

*Hanbury, Daniel. Lenqua da Ca, Alassio, Italy.

tHanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

tHance, Edward M., LL.B. 17 Percy-street, Liverpool.

tHancock, C. F., M.A. 125 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

{Hawcock, Harris. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, E.C.

tHankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

fHannaford, E. P., M.Inst.C.E. 2578 St. Catherine-street, Montreal.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

tHarbison, Adam, B.A. 5 Ravenhill-terrace, Ravenhill-road, Bel-
fast.

. "Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

(Gen. Sec. 1883-97; Pres. B, 1875; Council 1881-83).
St. Clare, Ryde, Isle of Wight.

LISt OF MEMBERS. 45

Election.

1890. *Harcourt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1895 ;
Council 1895-1901). 6 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

1900, §Harcourt, Hon. R., LL.D., K.C., Minister of Education for the Pro-
vince of Ontario. Toronto, Canada.

1886. *Hardcastle, Colonel Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsberough-gardens,
Hampstead, N.W.

1902, *Harpcastie, Miss Frances. 14 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1903. *Hardcastie, J. Alfred. The Dial House, Crowthorne, Berkshire.

1892. *Harpen, Artuur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Jenner Institute of Preventive
Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, 8. W.

1877. tHarding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

1869. {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

1894. tHardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

1894, tHare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, East ‘Twickenham, Middlesex.

1394, tHare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.

1898. {Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury.

1858. tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

1883. tHargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1883, tHargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1890. tHargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

1881. tHargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

1890, *Harker, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.

1896. iarkar, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.

1887. tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1871. t Harkness, William, F.C.S, 1 St. Mary's-road, Canonbury, N.

1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., F.S.A, The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westhourne-road, Forest Hill, S.E.

1883. *Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

1862. *Harzey, Rev. Roserr, M.A., F.RS., F.RAAS. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1899. {Harman, Dr. N. Bishop. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881. *Harmur, Sripnry F., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cam-~
bridge.

1872. tHarpley, Rey. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton,

1884, tHarrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Mineralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

1888. tHarris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

1842, *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

1889. §Harris, H. Grawam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, &.W.

1903. $Harris, Robert, M.B. 18 Duke-street, Southport.

1898. tHarrison, A. J., M.D. Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1888. tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, S.W.

1860, tHarrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham,

1889. tHarrison, J. C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

1858. *Harrison, J. Parx, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

1892. {Harrison, Joun (Local Sec. 1892). Rockville, Napier-road,.
Edinburgh.

1870, t{Harrison, Rrcrvatp, F.R.C.S. (Local Sec. 1870). 6 Lower
Berkeley-street, Portman-square, W.

1853. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

1892, {Harrison, Rey. S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
lection.

1895.
1901.
1886.

1885.

1876,

1905.
1875.
1893,
1897.
1871.

1896.
1886.
1887.
1897.
1898.
1885.
1862.
1884.
1893.
1903.
1903.
875.
1903.
1889.
1903.
1893.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.
1889.

1887.
1890.
1861.

1885.

1891.
1900,
19038.
1894.
1896.
1896.

1878.
1898.
“1908.

1896,
11879.

tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

*Harrison, W. E. 15 Lansdowne-road, Handsworth, Staffordshire.

{Harrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
minzham.

tHart, Colonel C. J. (Local Sec. 1886.) Highfield Gate, Edebaston,
Birmingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

*Hart, Tlromas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*Harrranpd, E. Srpnny, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester,

tHartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

*Harrtey, Watter Nokt, D.Sc., F.R.S., RRS. K., F.0.8. (Pres. B,
1903), Professor of Chemistry i in the Royal College of Science,
Dublin. 36 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

tHartley; W. P.; J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

*HARTOG, Professor M. M., D.Se. Queen’s College, Cork.

tHartoe, P. J., B.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

tHarvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

tHarvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

§ Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.

tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, 8.W.

*Hastie, Miss J. A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, F.C.

§Hastie, William. 20 Elswick-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Hasrines, G. W. (Pres. F, 1880.) Chapel House, Chipping Norton.

§ Hastings, W. G. W. Chapel House, Chipping Norton,

{Hatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

§ Hathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

tHatton, John L. 8. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

*Hawkins, William. LHarlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 J ermyn-street, St. James's, S.W.

*HawksHaw, Joun Crarxn, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council
1881-87). 22 Down-street, W., and 33 Great George-
street, S.W.

§Hawxstey, CHartes, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1903; Council,
1902- ). 30 Great George-street, S.W.

tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tHawtin, J. N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., G.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, 8. W.

*Haycrarr, JoHN Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff.

tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter's, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H. Geological Survey, Calcutta, India.

*Haydock, Arthur. 197 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford,

tHayes, Rev. F.C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin.

tHayes, William. Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.

tHayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.

oHay ver Joseph William, M.Se. 29 Bishop’s-mansions, Fulham,

*Hay wood, Lieut.-Colonel A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundell-
sands.
*Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rockferry.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 47

Year of
Election.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1882.
1877.
1877.
1898.

1902.
1898.
1884.
1902.

18838.
1892.

1889.
1884,

1888.
1888.

1855.
1887.
1881.

1901.
1887.
1897.
1899.
1878,
1888,
1901.
1891.

1892,
1885.
1880,
1896.
1873.

1892.
1855.
1890.

1890.
1892,

{Headley, Frederick Haleombe. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W.

tHeadley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

tHeadley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

t{Heape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.

tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

*Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.

{Hearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

*Heath, Rev. Arthur J., B.A., F.G.S8. 71 St. Michael’s-hill, Redland,
Bristol.

tHeath, J W. 383 Upper Gloucester-place, Dorset-square, N.W,.

tHearu, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

{Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Kdinburgh.

§Heathorn, Captain T. B., R.A. 10 Wilton-place, Knightsbridge,
S.W

tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

*Heaton, Witiiam H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1893), Professor of
Physics in University College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-,
Tyne.

§Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.

*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 38 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, S.E.

*Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University,
41 Old Elvet, Durham.

tHecror, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

*Hepees, Kitiineworru, M.Inst.C.E. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, S.W.

*Hetz-Suaw, H. 8., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engi-
neering in the University of Liverpool. 27 Ullet-road, Liverpool.

§Heller, W. M., B.Sc. 18 Belgrave-square, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sidcup, Kent.

§Hemming, G. W., K.C. 2 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.

§Hemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.

*Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

t{Henderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tHenderson, Rev. Andrew, LL.D. Castle Head, Paisley.

*Henverson, G.G., D.Sc., M.A.,F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

tHenderson, John. 38 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

t{Henderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

“Henderson, Rear-Adimiral W. H., R.N. Royal Dockyard, Devonport.

{Henderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.

*Hevyrici, Otaus M. F, E., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1883; Council,
1883-89), Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, 8.W. 34 Clarendon-road, Notting Hill, W.

t{Hxrsurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Uni-
versity College, Cardiff.

*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford
Heath, Kent.

{Hepper, J. 43 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds.

tHepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds,

*HERBERTSON, ANDREW J., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 9 Staverton-
road, Oxford.

Year of
Election

1902.
1887.

1893.
1875.

1891.
1871.

1874.

1900.
1900.
1903.

1895.

1894,
1894.

1896.
1908.
1903.
1893.
1883.
1882.
1883.

1866.
1897.
1901.
1879.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1898.
1877.

1886.
1884.
1887.

1864.
1891.

1885.
1903.
1881.
1887.

1884.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

tHerdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 2 Fyfield-road, Enfield.

*HERDMAN, Wit11AM A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.L.S. (Generan
Srcrerary, 1903- ; Pres. D, 1895; Council, 1894-1900;
Local Sec. 1896), Professor of Natural History in the University
of Liverpool. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

fHererorp, The Right Rev. Joun Prrciyat, D.D., LL.D., Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Hereford.

tHern, 8S. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HprscHeL, ALEXANDER S., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§HerscHeL, Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

*Herschel, J.C. W. Littlemore, Oxford.

{Herschel, Sir W. J., Bart. Littlemore, Oxford.

*HusxerH, Cuartes H. B,, M.A. The Rookery, North Meols,
Southport.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street,
Southport.

tHewetson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1896). 89 Henley-road, Ipswich.

{Hewins, W. A. S., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Mconomy in

King’s College, London, W.C. j

§Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

§Hewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

§Hewitt, John Theodore. 8 Montpellier-road, Twickenham.

tHewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

tHewson, Thomas. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.

t{Heycock, Cuartes T., M.A., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Heyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. 90 Arkwright-street,
Bolton.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

tHeys, Thomas. 180 King-street West, Toronto, Canada,

*Heys, Z. John. Stonehouse, Barrhead, N.B.

tHeywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

t{Hrywoop, Henry, J.P. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

t{Heywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.

{Hichens, James Harvey, M.A. The School House, Wolverhampton.

tHicks, Henry B. 44 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hicxs, Professor W. M., M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895),
Principal of University College, Sheffield. Dunheved, Endcliffe-
crescent, Sheffield.

tHicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield.

{Hickson, Joseph. 272 Mountain-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Hrcxson, Sypvey J., M.A., D.8c., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903), Professor
of Zoology in Owens College, Manchester. ;

*Hrern, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

tHices, Heyry, LL.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1899). H.M. Treasury,
Whitehall, 8S. W.

*Hint, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.

*Hill, Arthur W. King’s College, Cambridge.

*Hitt, Rev. Epwin, M.A. ‘The Rectory, Coclifield, Bury St.
Edmunds.

tHill, G. H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Albert-chambers, Albert-square,
Manchester.

tHill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 2488 St. Catherine-street,
Montreal, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Year of
Election,

1886.
1885.

1898,
1888.

1876.

1885.

1886.
1887.
1908.
1903.

1870.

1883.
1888.

1898,
1886.

1881.
1884.

1900.

1903.

1884,
1899.
1887.
1883.

1883.

1877,
1876,

1863.
1887.

1896.

1880,

1884,
1863.
1898.
1896.
1894,
1894,
1883.
1888.
1884.
1887.
1896.
1900.

1887.
1891.

1908.
1896.
1898,

tHrt, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics
in University College, W.C.

*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

*Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol.

{Hill, William. Hitchin, Herts.

tHill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.

*HILLHovse, WititaM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Uni-
versity, Birmingham. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Hillier, Rev. E. J. Cardington Vicarage, near Bedford.

tHilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Hilton, Harold. Bryn Teg-terrace, Bangor, North Wales.

§Hrnp, Dr. WueExErton, F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent.

fHiwoz, G. J., Ph.D., F.RS., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

§Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

{Hingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.

tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.

tHineston, Sir WitttAmM Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union-ayenue,
Montreal, Canada.

§Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. 10 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*“Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Down-drive, Hale, Cheshire,

tHirschfilder,C. A. Toronto, Canada.

§Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

*Hobson, Bernard, M.Sc., F.G.S. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.

tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.

tHodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth,

{Hodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Hovexin, Tuomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, N ewcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.

tHodgkinson, Arnold. 22 Park-road, Southport.

§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.E.

tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

tHodgson R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tHodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

tHodgson, Dr. William, J.P. Helensville, Crewe.

tHogg, A. F., M.A. 13 Victoria-road, Darlington.

tHolah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, F.C.

{Holden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

tHolden, John J, 73 Albert-road, Southport.

tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Sheet, near Petersfield.

tHolder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

§Hoxpicx, Colonel Sir Toomas H., R.E., K.C.B., K.O.LE., F.R.G.S.
(Pres. E, 1902). 23 Lansdowne-crescent, W.

*Holdsworth, C.J. Sunnyside, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

tHolgate, Benjamin, F.G.S. The Briers, North Park Avenue,
Roundhay, Leeds.

§Holland, J. L., B.A. 19 Tollington-place, N.

tHolland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

tHolland, Thomas H., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Calcutta,

1903.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1889.
1886.
1883,
1883.
1866.
1892.
1882.
1905.
1896.
1897,
1875.
1847.

1892.
1865.
1877.

1901.
1884.

1882.
1871.

1858.
1891.
1898.
1885,

1905.
1902.
1875,

1884.
1887.
1893.

1884,
1899.
1859.
1896.
1886,

1887.
1896.
1884.
1885.

1895.
1885.
1887.
1899.
1901.
1908,
1886.
1876,

tHollinder, Bernard, M.D. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

{Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

tHollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Haling, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Hoimes, Tomas VINCENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, 8.E.

*Holt, Alfred, jun., J.P. Crofton, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tHolt, William Henry. 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.

tHolterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.

*Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.

tHooxer, Sir JosepH Darron, G.O.S.1, C.B., M.D., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. (Presmpent, 1868;
Pres. E, 1881; Council 1866-67). The Camp, Sunningdale,
Berkshire.

tHooxnr, Ruainatp H., M.A. 38 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

*Hopkinson, Bertram, M.A. Holmwood, Wimbledon.

*Hopxinsoy, CHARLES (Local Sec. 1887). The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire,

*Hopxrnson, Jon, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc.
84 New Bond-street, W.; and Weetwood, Watford.

{Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.

{Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

*Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

t{Horns, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1901).
Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

§Horne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

§Horner, John, Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20
Hyde Park-terrace, W.

*Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.

*Horstey, Sir Vicror A. H., B.Sc., F.RS., F.R.C.S. (Council,
1893-98.) 25 Cavendish-square, W.

*Hotblack. G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

tHotblack, J.T. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton,

*Hough, 8. S., F.R.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

tHoughton, F.T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tHouldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. 35 Grosvenor-place, S.W.

tHoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Houston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road,
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E.

tHoward, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. The Cottage, Poynton, Stockport.

tHoward, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.

*Howard, 8S. 8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

§Howard-Hayward, H. 16 Blakesley-avenue, Kaling, W.

§Howarth, E. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

*Howarth, James H., F.G.S. Somersley, Rawson-avenue, Halifax.

t{Howatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 51

Year of
Election.

1899.
1889.

1857.
1898.
1891.

1886.

1901.
1884.
1884.
1865.

1863.

1885.
1883.
1887.
1903.
1888.

1898.

1902.
1867.

1858,

1887.
1883.
1871.

1887.
1896.
1891.
1868.

1891.
1903.
1897.
1901.
1890.
1878.
1880.

1877.
1891.
1886.
1891.
1875.
1881.
1889,

tHowden, Ian D.C. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Dover.

{Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S. 13 Cobden-crescent, Edinburgh.

{tHowell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

tHowell, Rev. William Charles, M.A. Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.

tHowes, G. B, LLD., D.Sc, F.RS., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1902;
Council, 1902- _), Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, 8S. W.

tHowie, Robert Y. 3 Greenlaw-avenue, Paisley.

tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 2i1 41$-street, Washincton, U.S.A.

tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada.

*How ert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s-buildings, Clifton,
Bristol.

tHoworrg, Sir H. H., K.0.LE., D.C.L., F.RS., F.S.A. 30 Colling-
ham-place, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

tHoworth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire,

THoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Hoyiz, Witt1am E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

§Hiibner, Julius. 24 Delaney’s-road, Crempsall, Manchester.

tHudd, Alfred E., F.S.A. Clinton House, Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Hupteston, W. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1898).
8 Stanhope-gardens, 8. W.

*Hudson, R. W. H. T., M.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Hupson, Witt1am H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
College, London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,
S.W.

*Hueeins, Sir Wirrram, K.0.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb.,
Pres.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Presrpent, 1891; Council, 1868-74,
1876-84). 90 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W. ;

tHughes, E.G. 4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester,

tHughes, Miss E. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

tHughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.

tHughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.

{Hughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Huenss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of
Geology in the University of Cambridge. (Council, 1873-86.)
Ravensworth, Brooklands-avenue, Cambridge.

tHughes, Rev. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

§Hulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

tHume, J. G., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada,

§Hume, John H. Toronto, Canada; and 63 Bridgegate, Irvine,

tHumphrey, Frank W. 63 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

{Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

Veta bey Noel A., F.S.S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-

ames,

“Hunt, Arruur Roopg, M.A., F.G.S. Southweod, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

tHunt, D. de Vere, M.D. Aubrey House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

*Hunt, William. North Cote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

{Hunter, Mrs. F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1901.
1881.
1901.
1879.

1885.

1863.
1898.
1903.
1882.

1861

1894,
1903.
1894,

1887.
1901.
1883.
1871.

1900.
1902,

1883.

1884.
1885.
1888.

1858.
1893.
1901.
1891.
1852,

1885.
1898.
1901.
1892.

1882.

1903.
1908.

1859.
1884.
1876.

1901.
1883.

tHunter, G. M., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Newyards, Maybole, N.B.

tHunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

tHuntrneron, A.K.,F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,
W.C

tHuntly, The Most Hon, the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

tHurle, J. Cooke. Southfield House, Brislington, Bristol.

§Hurst, Charles C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

*Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. Kirkgate, Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

*Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

§Hutchinson, Rev. H. N. 94 Fellows-road, N.W.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
*Hutton, R.8., M.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.

*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. Physical Laboratory, Leiden, Netherlands.

tHyndman, Hugh. Crosshill, Windsor-avenue, Belfast.

§Idris, T. H. W. 110 Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tim Thurn, Everard F., C.B.,C.M.G. Colombo, Ceylon.

*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.

tIngham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

tIngle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

tInexis, Joun, LL.D. 4 Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tIngram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

fInskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.

*Ionides, Stephen A. 23 Second-avenue, Hove, Brighton.

fIrvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

§Invine, Rey. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
ford, Herts.

§Irving, W. B. 27 Park-road, Southport.

§Isherwood, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Cambridge-road,
Southport.

jJack, John,M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

fJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Jack, Witi1Am, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.

§Jacks, William, LL.D. Crosslet, Dumbartonshire.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 53

Year of)
Election.

1908.
1874.

1883.
1885.
1899.
1866,
1897.
1898.
1869,
1887,

1874.
1891.
1891.
1891.
1860.
1886.
1891,
1891.
1896.
1858.
1896.
1884.
1881.

1885.
1859.
1889.

1896.
1903.

1870.
1891.
1897.
1867.

1894,

1891.

1873.
1880.
1899.
1903.
1852.
1893.
1897.

1899.
1887,
1889.
1900,
1884,

1884.

§Jackson, C.S. 98 Herbert-road, Woolwich, S.E.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalva Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada.

*Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

{Jackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, 8.W.

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. The Avenue, Girvan, N.B.

*Jackson, Sir John. 51 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jackson, Moses, J.P. The Orchards, Whitchurch, Hants.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

*Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, 38 Prom. des Anglais, Nice, France.

tJames, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-grove, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Henry, J.P. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

*James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln's Inn, W.C.

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

tJames, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

{James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

tJames, O.S. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

jJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

*Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Technical College, Derby.

f{Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Aits,
Glasgow.

tJamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

*Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898), Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

*Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

§Jarratr, J. Ernest. (Local Sec. 1903.) 10 Cambridge-road,
Southport.

tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

tJefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

Jeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

TJeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.

tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

§Jenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F'.0.S. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, S.W.

{Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

*JEnxins, Sir Jonn Jones. The Grange, Swansea.

§Jenkins, Colonel T. M. Glan Tivy, Westwood-road, Southampton.

§Jenkinson, J. W. The Museum, Oxford.

tJennings, Francis M., M.R.I.A. Brown-street, Cork.

§Jennings, G. E. Glen Helen, Narborough-road, Leicester.

tJennings, W. T., M.Inst.CE. Molson’s Bank Buildings, Toronto,
Canada.

tJepson, Thomas. Evington, Northumberland-street, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

{JeRvis-SmitH, Rev. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford.

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

tJevons, I. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

*Jevons, H. Stanley. 19 Chesterftield-gardens, Hampstead, N.W.

tJewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

{Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

54 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884, {Jounson, AtpxanpER, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

1888. {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge,

1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

1888. {Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.

1881. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

1890. *JoHnson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1902. *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar
School, York.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath,
S.E.

1887. tJuhnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1883. tJohnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

1899. {Johnston, Colonel Duncan A., C.B., R.E. Ordnance Survey, South-
ampton.

1883. {Jonnston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s-
mansions, 8. W.

1884, {Johnston, John L., 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

1883 {Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

1884, {Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

1884, *Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

1885. {Jounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France.

1886. {Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

1871. {Jotty, Wit11AM, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Blantyre Lodge, Blantyre, N.B.

1888. {Jolly, W. C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

1896. *Jory, C. J.. M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

1888. {Jory, Jouy, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.

1898, fJones, Sir Alfred L., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs, Elder, Dempster,
& Co., Liverpool.

1887. {Jones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools, Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, S.W.

1890. §Jonzs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton.

1896. tJones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

1891. {Jones, Dr. Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare.

1903, §Jones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare.

1887. {Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.0.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

1891. *JonzEs, Rev. G. Harrwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

1883. *Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

1903. *Jones, H.O. Clare College, Cambridge.

1895. {Jones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

1877. {Jones, ae C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, S.W.

1901. §Jones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.

1902. §Jones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

1878. tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

1880. {Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

1860. {Jonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1891). 17 Par-
son’s Green, Fulham, 8. W.

1896. {Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester.

or
ot

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Hiection,

18838. {Jones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

1875. *Jose, J. E. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

1884. {Joseph, J. H. 788 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

1891. {Jotham, F, H. Penarth.

1891. tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

1879. tJowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

1890. {Jowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

1872. {Joy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, S.W.

1883. tJoyce, Rev. A.G., BA. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

1886. tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

1891. {Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire,

1870. tJupp, Jonn Westey, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1885 ;
Council, 1886-92), Professor of Geology in the Royal College of
Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road, Kew.

1903. §Julian, Henry Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.

1894. §Julian, Mrs. Forbes. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road, Torquay.

1883. {Justice, Philip Middleton. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-
lane, W.C.

1888, pean, cra se M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E. 3 Lindenallee, Westend,
erlin.
1884. {Keefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.
1875. {Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
1886. {Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham.
1894, tKeightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
SSeX.
1878, *Kelland, W. H. North Street, Exeter.
1884, {Kelloge, J. H.,M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.
1864, *Kelly, W. M., M.D. Ferring, near Worthing.
1902, *Kelly, William J., J.P. Oxford-street, Belfast.
1885. §Kettin, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.S., F.S.8. (Pres. E, 1897 ;
Council, 1898— ). 1 Savile-row, W.
1847, *Kurvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.O., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
FE.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. (Presipent, 1871; Pres. A, 1852,
1867, 1876, 1881, 1884; Vicn-PRestpEnt, 1904.) Netherhall,
Largs, Ayrshire.
1877. *Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.
1887. phous Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.
1898. *Kemp, John T., M.A. 4 Cotham-grove, Bristol.
1884, {Kemper, Andrew C., A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.
1890. {Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.
1891. §Kenpatt, Percy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.
1875. {Kennepy, ALEXANDER B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M-Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1894). 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.
1897. ar George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
anada.
1884, {Kennedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada.
1876. {Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.
1884, {Kennedy, John. 118 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
1884, {Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
1886, {Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

18938.

1901.
1886.
1857.
1876,
1881.
1884,
1883.

1901.
1892.

1889.
1887.
1869,

1869.

1903,
1888.
1902.
1876.
1886.

1897,
1901.
1885,
1896.

1890,

1878.
1860.
1875.
1888.
1888,
1875.
1899.

1871.
1855.
1883.
1870.
1883.
1860.
1875.
1901.
1870.
1903.

1897,
1875.
1867.
1892.
1900.

§Kent, A. F. Stanzey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.8., Professor of Plysio-
logy in University College, Bristol.

§Kent,G. 16 Premier-road, Nottingham.

§KENWARD, JAMEs, F.S.A. 43 Streatham High-road, S.W.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{KermopE, Puirie M.C. Claughbane, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

tKerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

}Kerr, Rev. Joun, LL.D., F.R.S, Free Church Training College,
113 Hill-street, Glasgow.

tKerr, John G., LL.D. 15 India-street, Glasgow.

{Kerr, J. GRanam, M.A., Professor of Natural History in the Uni-
versity, Glasgow.

tKerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

tKershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Elysée Villa, Manchester-road,
Altrincham, Cheshire.

§Kewley, James. King William’s College, Isle of Man.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

§Kidd, George. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

tKidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glascow.

§Kipston, Rosert, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-place,
Stirling.

tKiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

*Kiep, J.N. 4 Hughenden-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

§Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Bermondsey Settlement Lodge,
Farncombe-street, S.E.

{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.

tKivanan, G. Henry, M.R.IL.A. Dublin.

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

tKine, Sir Georez, K.C.1.E., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1899). Care of
Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55 Parliament-street, S.W.

*King, Rey. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, West Hoathly.

{King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.

*King, Joseph. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

*King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

tKing, Robert. Levernholme, Nitshill, Glasgow.

tKing, William, M.Insi.C.E. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

§Kingsford, H. S., B.A. Anthropological Institute, 3 Hanover-
square, W.

{Kingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.

{Kuxezerr, Cuartes T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.

tKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

{Kinnear, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E. 2 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

tKippine, Professor F, Srantry, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. University
College, Nottingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of

Election.

1899. *Kirby, Miss C. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.

1870. {Kitchener, Frank EK. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1904. §Kitson, Arthur. 209 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
1890. *Kirson, Sir James, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.
1901. §Kitto, Edward. The Observatory, Falmouth.

. tKlein, Rev. L. M. de Beaumont, D.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Devonshire-road,

Liverpool.

. {Knight, J. McK., F.G.S.. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.
. | Kyooxer, Sir E. Woxtaston, K.C.B. (Local Sec. 1899). Castle

Hill House, Dover.

88. {Knorr, Professor Careintt G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-

street, Edinburgh.

. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

. *Knott, John F. Oak Hill, Windermere.

. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
- §Knowlson, J. F. 26 Part-street, Southport.

. {Knowlton, W. H. 36 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.

. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

. {Kwox, R. Kytz, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

. *Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge
. {Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

. [Koun, CHartes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,

Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C.

. {Krauss, A. Hawthornden, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.
. “Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Stonycroft, Knutsford-road, Wilmslow,

Cheshire,

- {Kuenen, Professor J. P., Ph.D. University College, Dundee.
. *Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-

square, New York City, U.S.A.
tKynaston, Josiah W.,F.C.S. 3 Oak-terrace, Beech-street, Liverpool.

tLaflamme, Rey. Professor J.C. K. Laval University, Quebec.
*Laing, J. Gerard. 5 Pump-court, Temple, E.C.

. Laird, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.

. tLake, W.C.,M.D. Teignmouth.

. *Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

. {Lams, Horace, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the

Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.
tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

. tLambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowar, Newland, Lincoln.

JLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

§Lambert, Joseph. 9 Westmoreland-road, Southport.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

*Lamptucu, G. W., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14 Hume-
street, Dublin.

tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster.

. Lancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
tLancaster, W. J., F.G.S. Colmore-row, Birmingham.

. tLang, Rey. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.
. TLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. The University, Aberdeen.

“Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

“Lanewey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899), Professor
of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

Year of
Election

1870.
1865.

1880.
1884,

1878.
1885.

1887,
1881.

1883,
1896.
1870.

1900,
1870.

1891.
1892.

1888.
1883.
1870.
1878,
1884.

1870.
1881,
1900.
1889.
1885.
1888,
1856.
1883.
1875.
1894,

1884.
1901.
1884,
1884.

1872.

1884
1895.
1898.

1896,
1891.
1894.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

tLangton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLanxesterR, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1883;
Council 1889-90, 1894-95, 1900-02), Director of the Natural
History Museum, Cromwell-road, S.W.

*LANSDELL, Rey. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S, Morden College,
Blackheath, London, 8.E.

§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

{LaPwortn, Cuaries, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1892),
Professor of Geology and Physiography in the University,
Birmingham. 48 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tLarmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

tLarmor, Josepu, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§ Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow.

*Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, S.W.

*LaTHaM, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-cuumbers,
Westminster, S.W,

{Lauder, Alexander. University College, Bangor.

fLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Pepys-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

tLaurie, ‘i P. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.

§Lavurrie, Matcorm, B.A., D.Se., F.LS., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’'s College, Glasgow.

tLaurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, F.C.

{Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Law, Channell. Isham Dene, Torquay.

{Law, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, 8. W.

§Law, Robert, F.G.8S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

{Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

tLawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

tLawrence, W. Trevor, Ph.D. 57 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

§Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 95 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Lawson, James, 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

§Layard, Miss Nina F, Rookwood, Ipswich.

tea, Henry. 38 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

{Leach, Colonel Sir G., K.0.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.

“Leauy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

*Lean, George, B.Sc. 15 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

{Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

“Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

{Lepovr, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Leckie, R.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Ledger, Rey. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

re nig J.P. (Local Sec. 1898). 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton,

ristol.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton, 35 Cross Park-terrace, Heavitree, Exeter.

{Lee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.

*Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Election,

1884,
1896,
1892.
1886.
1859.
1896.

1889.

1881.
1872.

1869.
1892.
1868.
1856.
1891.
1908.

1859.
1822.

1903.

1867.
1902.
1878,
1887.
1871.

1901,
1884,
1890.
1883.
1900.
1894.
1896.
1887,
1890.
1898.

1879.

1870.
1891,
1891,
1899.
1897.
1899.
1891.
1891.
1884,
1903.
1878.
1871.
1904.
1898,

*Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

*Lzes, Cuartes H., D.Sc. 42 Lorne-grove, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton

tLees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

tees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

{Lz Frvverr, J. E. (Local Sec. 1882). Southampton.

tLerrvre, The Right Hon. G. Saw, F.R.S. (Pres. F, 1879;
Council 1878-80). 18 Bryanston-square, W.

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

{Leurexpt, Roperr A. 28 South Molton-street, W.

tLercester, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk.

{Lrreu, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

tLeigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

§Leighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Pathology in the
Royal Veterinary College, Edinburgh.

tLeith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8S. Lansdowne House, South-
ampton.

*Lempfort, R. G. K., M.A. Meteorological Office, 63 Victoria-street,
S.W

tLeng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

tLennox, R. N. Rosebank, Hammersmith, W.

tLennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

*Leon, John T. Elmwood, Grove-road, Southsea.

tLzonarp, Hucu, M.R.I.A. 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.

§Leonard, J. H. Paradise House, Stoke Newington, N.

tLesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

tLester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

§Letts, Professor E. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Queen’s College, Belfast.

tLeudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

tLever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

*Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tLevy, J.H. 11 Abbeville-road, Clapham Park, S.W.

*Lewes, Vivian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 8. W.

tLewis, ALFRED LiongeL. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

tLewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

§ Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

tLewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

tLewis, Rev. J. Pitt, M.A. Rossin House, Toronto, Canada.

tLewis, Thomas. 9 Hubert-terrace, Dover.

tLewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

tLewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

*Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

§Lewkowitsch, J. 71 Priory-road, N.W.

tLincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A.,D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

§Link, Charles W. Eversley, Chichester-road, Croydon.

tLippincott, R.C. Cann. Over Court, Almondsbury, near Bristol.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.
of

Election.

1883
1895

. Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.
. “Lister, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.S., D.C.L., D.Se., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1896). 12 Park-crescent, Portland-place, W.

1888. {LisrEr, J. J..M.A., F.R.S. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.
1861. *Livzrne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882; Council 1888-95 ;

Local Sec. 1862), Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

. *LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

. §Llewellyn, Evan. Working Men’s Institute and Hall, Blaenavon.

. [LLEWELYN, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

. §Lloyd, Godfrey I. H. Grindleford, near Sheffield.

. [Lloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-

mingham.,

. *Luoyp, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E. 494 Grove-street, Liverpool.
. {Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.
. "Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Wednesbury.

. §Lloyd-Verney, J. H. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

. “Losey, J. Logan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorfields, E.C.
. §Locu, C.S., B.A. 15a Buckingham-street, W.C.

. *Locke, John. 144 St. Olaf’s-road, Fulham, S.W.

. }Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

. TLockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. (PRESIDENT ;

Council 1871-76, 1901-02). 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

. “Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

. §Lockyer, W. J.8., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, South Kensington,
S.W.

. *Loper, ALFRED, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal

Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill. Englefield
Green, Surrey.

. “Lopes, Sir Ortver J., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1891; Council

1891-97, 1899-1903), Principal of the University of Birmingham.

. “Lodge, Oliver W. F. 225 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

. {Logan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

- §Lomas, J., F.G.S. 13 Moss-grove, Birkenhead.

. §Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

. [LonponpERRy, the Marquess of, K.G., H.M. Lieutenant of the City

of Belfast. Londonderry House, Park-lane, W.

. §Long, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

. [Long, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.

. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.
. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys,near Warrington.

. TLongdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

- {Longe, Francis D. The Alders, Marina, Lowestoft.

. *Longfield, Miss Gertrude. High Halstow Rectory, Rochester.

. *Longstaff, Frederick V., F.R.G.S. Clare College, Cambridge.
. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,

Putney Heath, S.W.
. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

. *Longstatf, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

. *Longstaff, Tom G., B.A., F.R.Met.Soc. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

. *Longton, E. J..M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vid Ulverston.

- TLord, Sir Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 61

Year of
Election.

1903
1897

. §Loton, John, M.A. 29 Manchester-road, Southport.
. {Lovpon, Jamus, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

1883. *Louis, D. A., F.C.S._ 77 Shirland-gardens, W.
1896. §Louis, Henry, M.A., Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,

1887

Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. *Love, A. E. H.,M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Oxford. 34St.Margaret’s-road, Oxford,

1886. *Love, E. F. J.,M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

1876
1883
1875
1889

1885.
1891.
1885,
1892,
1886,

. *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.
. tLove, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport.

. *Lovett, W. Jesse. Panton House, Panton-road, Hoole, Chester.

. {Low, Charles W. 84 Westbourne-terrace, W.

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.
tLowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

tLowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M-Inst.C.E. Spondon, Derbyshire.

1894, tLowenthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield,

1908.
1881.
1881.
1870.
1889.
1901.
1878.
1889.
1891.
1881.

*Lowry, T. Martin. 44 Blenkeim-crescent, W.

tLubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S.0., Kent.
{Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.

tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

tLucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

*Lucas, Keith. Greenhall, Forest Row, Sussex.

tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, 8.W.

tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-pare, Whitchurch, near Cardiff.
tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

1866, *Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1878.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1850. *Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1892.

1853.
1883.
1874.

1900.
1864.
1898.

tLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.

{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupron, Sypney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1890). 102 Park-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

tLuproy, Wrtr1am C. Bradford.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

§Luxmoore, Dr. C. M. University College, Reading.

1903. §Lyddon, Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff.

1871.

tLyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. 48 Eaton-place, S.W.

1899. tLyle, Professor Thomas R. The University, Melbourne.

1884.
1884.
1874.
1885.
1896,
1862.

1868.

1878.

{Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLyman, H.H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
}Lynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

{Lyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

tLyster, A. G. Dockyard, Coburg Dock, Liverpool.

*Lyre, F. Maxwett, M.A., F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, 8. W.

t¢Macatister, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1892;
Council, 1901— ), Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

ee Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-

. bridge.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1896.
1897.
1896.

1879.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1896.
1884.
1896.
1896.

1884.
1902.
1886.
1887.

1884.
1891.

1876.
1902.

1868.

1878.
1901.
1901.

1892.
1892.

1901
1899
1900.
1890
1886
1884
1884
1884

1884
1897
1902

1881

tMacalister, R. A. S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.

{McAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Macattum, Professor A. B., Ph.D. (Local Sec, 1897). 59 St
George-street, Toronto, Canada. ;

§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

{MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.

*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.

tMcArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Cheshire.

tMacarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.

*Macaulay, F.S., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W.

t{MacBribz, Professor E. W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal
Canada. : ;

tMcCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa
Canada. ; ;

*Maccall, W.T., M.Sc. Dalton Hall, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tMacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

*McCarthy, James. Care of Sir Sherston Baker, Bart., 18 Cavendish-
road, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellington-road, Dublin.

*McCrean, Frank, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Rusthall
House, Tunbridge Wells.

*M‘Ciectand, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{McClelland, J. A., M.A., Professor of Physics in University Col-
lege, Dublin.

{M‘Crmvrock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.RS,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 3

*M‘Oomas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke-road, Dublin.

*MacConkey, Alfred. Jenner Institute of Preventive Medicine
Chelsea-gardens, S.W. }

tMacCormac, J. M., M.D. 31 Victoria-place, Belfast.

*McCowan, John, M.A., D.Sc. Henderson-street, Bridge of Allan, N.B.

t{McCrae, George. 3 Dick-place, Edinburgh. :

. {McOrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.

. {McDiarmid, Jabez. The Elms, Stanmore, Middlesex.

. ¢{MacDonald, J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

. *MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

. tMcDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

. {MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

. *McDonald, Sir W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {MacDonnell, Mrs. F. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal

Canada. .

. {McDougall, John. 35 St. Frangois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

. TMcEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

. §Macfadyen, Allan, M.D., B.Sc. Lister Institute of Preventive

Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, 8S. W.
. t{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A. ;

1885, {Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the

1897

University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.
. {McFarlane, Murray, M.D. 32 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada,

1879. {Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glascow.

1901
1897
1888

1884,

. tMacfee, John. Marguerite, Blackhall, Paisley.

. {McGaw, Thomas. Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada.

. tMacGeorge, James. 7 Stonor-road, Kensington, W,
{MacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 63

Year of
Election.

1884,

1884

1885.

1902.
1867.

1884.
1885.
1884,

1885.

1897.
1896.
1873.

1897.
1884,
1884.
1901.
1883.
1872.
1867.
1901.
1884,
1887.

1891.
1872.

1896,
1892.
1892.

1885.

1897,
1901.
1873.
1897,

1901.
1901.
1901.
1892.

1884.
1884.
1884.
1868,

1892.

{MacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunavon, Westmount,
Montreal, Canada.

. *MacGrueor, James Gorpon, M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh.

+M‘Gregor-Robertson, J.. M.A.. M.B. 26 Buckingham-terrace,
Glasgow.

§MclIlroy, Archibald. Glenvale, Drumbo, Lisburn, Ireland.

*McIntosa W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
1885), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews. 2 Abbotsford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

{Mclntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants.

tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

§MacKay, A. H., BSc., LL.D, Superintendent of Kducation.
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

§Macxay, Joun YuLz, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Dundee.

{McKay, T. W.G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada.

*McKechnie, Duncan. Eccleston Grange, Prescot.

tMcKznprick, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RS.E. (Pres. I,
1901; Council, 1903- ), Professor of Physiolozy in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. 2 Buckingham-terrace, Glasgow.

t{McKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

tMacKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 18 Cavendish-square, W.

{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada.

*Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. LElenslee, Wilson-street, Motherwell.

{Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent.

*Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, 8.E.

t{Macgig, Samvuet JossrH. 17 Howley-place, W.

§Mackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin.

{McKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

tMackinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895). Christ
Church, Oxford.

tMackintosh, A. C. 88 Plymouth-road, Penarth.

*McLacutan, Rosert, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road,
Lewisham, S.E.

+Maclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.

tMaclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine’s, Liberton, Midlothian.

tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-crescent, Edin-

burgh.

*M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place,
Edinburgh.

+MacLaren, J. F. 380 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Maclaren, J. Malcolm. 62 Sydney-street, South Kensington, S.W.

tMacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.

tMacLaren, Rev. Wm., D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto,
Canada.

tMaclay, James. 3 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow.

§Maclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow.

§McLean, Angus, B.Sc. Ascog, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

*Macrean, Maenvs, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901),
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

t+McLennan, Frank. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

tMcLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada.

§McLxop, Herpert, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council, 1885-90).
9 Coverdale, Richmond, Surrey.

tMacleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1883.
1883.

1878.
1902.
1884.

1867.
1878.
1887.

1883.
1901.

1902.
1902.
1887.
1883.
1902.
1868.
1875.

1896.
1902.
1878.
1887.
1902.
1883.
1899.
1881.
1874.
1857.

1896.
1897.
1887,

1908.
1870.
1901.
1888.
1894.
1888.

1891.
1887.

1902.
1870.
1898,

1900

1887.
1883.
1887.

*McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1902).
20 Nevern-square, South Kensington, S.W.

tMacManon, Major Percy A., R.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (GuneRaL
SecrETARY, 1902- __; Pres. A, 1901; Council, 1898-1902).
Queen Anne’s-mansions, Westminster, S.W.

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.

tMcMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down.

tMecMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
Michigan, U.S.A.

t{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

tMaconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowes-
toft.

{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

§MacRitchie, David. 4 Archibald-place, Edinburgh.

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A., K.C. 19 Pembridge-square, W.

t{McWeeney, E. J..M.D. 84 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

§McWhirter, William. 9 Walworth-terrace, Glasgow.

tMacy, Jesse. Grinnell, Iowa, U.S.A.

tMadden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

§Magill, R., M.A., Ph.D. The Manse, Maghera, Co. Derry.

tMaenay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich.

*Maenvus, Sir Parrip, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park,

tMaguire, Thomas Philip. Eastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

tMahon, J. L. 2 May-street, Drumcondra, Dublin.

tMahony, W. A. 34 College-green, Dublin.

{Mainprice, W. S. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire.

§Maitland, Miss Agnes OC. Somerville College, Oxford.

{Maitland, P.C. 136 Great Portland-street, W.

t¢Makarius, Saleem. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.

{Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

{Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.

tMatter, Jonn WitrraM, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co.,
U.S.A.

*Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

{Mancz, Sir H.C. 32 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.

{MancuestErR, The Right Rey. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.

§Manifold, C. C. 16 St. James’s-square, S. W.

tManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Mann, John, jun., M.A. 137 West George-street, Glasgow.

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

tManserecH, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. 5 Victcria-street,
Westminster, S.W.

t{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

fgets Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-
shire.

*Marchant, Dr. E. W. University College, Liverpool.

tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tMargerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge, near Leeds.

{Margetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

{Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soc. Spratton, Northampton.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 66

Year of
Election.

1864.

1865.
1888.
1888.
1881.

1905.

1887.
1884.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.

1892.
1890.
1901.
1886.

1849.

1865.
1899.
1891.
1887.
1884.

1889.

1865.
1883.

1891.
1873.
1847,

1886.
1896,
1893.
1891.
1885.

1898.
1901.
1883.
1887.

1890.
1865.
1898,
1894.
1865.

1903.

{MarKHamM, Sir Crements R., K.C.B., F.R.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A.
(Pres. HN, 1879; Council 1893-96). 21 Eccleston-square, 8, W.

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

tMarling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896 ; Council 1896—
1902). St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Marriott, William. Royal Meteorological Society, 70 Victoria-
street, S.W.

tMarsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester.

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leffingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. 72 Wellington-street, Leeds.

t{Marsh, J. E.,M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.

*MarsHatt, AtFReD, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. F, 1890), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Cambridge. Balliol
Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 12 Lonsdale-terrace, Edinburgh.

tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

§Marshall, Robert. 97 Wellington-street, Glascow.

*MarsHALL, WILLIAM Bayrtey, M.Inst.C.E, Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*MarsHatL, Witt1am P., M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.

§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

*Martin, Rev. H..A. Grosvenor Club, Grosvenor-crescent, S. W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-
Tyne.

“Martia, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts.

tMartineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birminghara,

TMarwick, Sir J. D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec, 1871, 1876, 1901),
Glasgow.

tMarychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

*Masuam, Lord. Swinton Park, Swinton.

{MasxketyneE, Nevin Story, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Council
1874-80). Basset Down House, Swindon.

tMason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.

tMason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.

*Mason, Thomas. Endersleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham,

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

{Masson, Orme, D.Sc, F.R.S. University of Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia.

tMasterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

*Mather, G. R. Boxlea, Wellingborough.

tMather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

*Mather, Sir William, M.P., M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Worls,
Manchester,

{ Mathers, J. 8S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

{Mathews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tMathews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

{Maruews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

"Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889. t{Mathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

1881
1883

1902.
1858.
1899.
18938.
1865.
1894,
1908.

1883,
1901.
1884,
1878.
1871.
1879.
1887.

1881.

1883.
1879.
1866.
1883.
1896.
1881.
1887.
1863.
1896.

1901.
1862.

1879.
1899.

1880.
1899.
1889.
1863.
1896.

1869,

1903.
1866.
1865.
1881.

1893.
1881.

. {Mathwin, Henry, B.A. 26 Oxtord-road, Birkdale, Southport.

. {Mathwin. Mrs. H. 26 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Matley,C. A. 90 St. Lawrence-road, Clontarf, Dublin.

tMatthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

tMarrurws, Wirt1aM, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.

tMavor, Professor James,M.A.,LL.D. University of Toronto, Canada.

*Maw, Gerores, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey,

§Maxim, Sir Hiram 8. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, 8.W.

§Maxwell, J. M. 37 Ash-street, Southport.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

§May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

*May, W. Page, M.D., B.Sc. 9 Manchester-square, W.

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 8 Heathcote-street, W.C.

*Mayne, Thomas. 335 Castle-street, Dublin.

tMeikle, James, F.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.8S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

{Meischke-Smith, W. NRivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.

*Merpora, Rapwart, F.RS., F.R.AS., F.C.S., F.LC. (Pres. B,
1895 ; Council 1892-99), Professor of Chemistry in the Finsbury
Technical College, City and Guilds of London Institute. 6 Bruns-
wick-square, W.C.

{Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

tMet1o, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

tMello, Mrs. J. M. Cliff Hill, Warwick.

§Mellor, G. H. Weston, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

tMelvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

tMelvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

tMenneer, R. R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,

We .

tMennell, F. P. 8 Addison-road, W.

{Mennett, Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
E.0

t¢Mxrrivare, Jonn Herman, M.A. (Local Sec. 1889). Togston Hall,
Acklington.

*Merrett, William H, MHatherley, Grosvenor-road, Wallington,
Surrey.

tMerry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.

tMerryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

*Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

t{Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

tMetzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University,
Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. ;

t{Mratt, Lovis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1897; Local
Sec. 1890), Professor of Biology in the Yorkshire College,
Leeds. Richmond-mount, Headivgley, Leeds.

§Micklethwait, Miss F.G. Queen’s College, Galway.

{Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.

tMiddlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.

t{Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

tMiddleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.8. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing,
W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 67

Year of
Election.

1894.

1889.
1886.
1881.

1885.
1889,

1895.
1888.
1885.
1886,
1861.
1895.
1884.
1876.
1897.

1902.
1868.

1880.

1902,
1885.
1882.
1903.
1885,
1898.
1882.

1880,

1855,
1859.
1901.
1883.

1883.

1901.
1885.
1895.
1885.
1883.
1877.
1884,
1900.

1887. *
1891.

1882.
1892.

‘*Mrers, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the

University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford.

tMilburn, John D. Queen-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

{Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

tMites, Morris (Local Sec. 1882). Warbourne, Hill-lane, South-
ampton,

§Mrtt, Fives: Rosert, D.S8e., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1901). 62 Camden-square, N.W.

*Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.

{Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich.

{Miller, J. Bruce. Ruhbislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

{Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

tMiller, Rey. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

*Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

{Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

tMiller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen’s University,.
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. t

{Millin, S. T. Sheridan Lodge, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

*Mitts Epmunp J., DSc. F.RS. F.C.S. 11 Greenhill-road,.
Harrow.

}Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans--
field.

§Mills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

tMilne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. i

*MILNE, Jonny, F.R.S., F.G.S. Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wight.

*Milne, R. M. Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.

{Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

*Milner, S. Roslington, D.Sc. University College, Sheftield.

tMilnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 224 Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N.W.

t{Mincuin, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the-
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey.

tMirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow. ~

}Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

ia Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

{Mitehelt, Mrs, Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,

*Mitchell,G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

tMitchell, P. Chalmers, M.A., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, W.
*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.
{Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen.

{Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Molloy, Right Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
tMonaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.
ate H, W., F.LS., F.G.S. 8 Harcourt-buildings, Temple,

Monn, Lupwie, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1896). ~ 20
Avenue-road, Regent's Park, N.W.
*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.
{Montgomery, Very Rey. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.

Year
Electi

1872.
1872.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of
on.

tMontgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.
tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

1896. tMoore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man.

1894.

§Moore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

1890. {Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham.

1901.
1896.
1891.
1901.

1881.
1895.

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

*Mordey, W. M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

tMorel, P. Lavernock House, near Cardiff.

*Moreno, Francisco P. Argentine Legation, 16 Kensington Palace-
gardens, W.

tee ate AtFrREeD. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,

t{Morean, C. Lioyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of University College,
Bristol. 16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.
. tMorgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 8. W.
. t{Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire.
. §Morgan, George. 21 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.

2. t{Morean, Gitar T., D.Sc., F.C. Royal College of Science, S.W,

. tMorgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.
. *Morgan, Septimus Vaughan. 87 Harrington-gardens, S.W.

. {Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.

. *Morison, James. Perth.

. tMorison, John, M.D., F.G.S. _ Victoria-street, St. Albans,

. §Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
. {Morland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.
. {Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.
. *Mortby, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Sc., F.0.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,

Hampstead, N.W.

. tMortzy, The Right Hon. Jouy, M.A., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S.

Flowermead, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.
. tMorrell, R. S. Caius College, Cambridge.
. tMorrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.
. tMorris, C. S. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.
. tMorrts, Dantet, C.M.G.,M.A., D.Sc., F.LS. Barbados, West Indies.
. tMorris, G. Harris, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.1.C. Helenslea, South Hill
Park, Bromley, Kent.

1883. {Morris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.

1880.

§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.

1896. *Morris, J.T. 13 Somers-place, W.

1888

. t{Morris, J. W. 27 Green Park, Bath.

1874. §Morrison, G. James, M.Inst.C.E. 7 The Sanctuary, Westminster,

S.W

1899. §Morrow, Captain John, M.Sc. 7 Rockleaze-ayenue, Sneyd Park,

1865
1869
1858

Bristol.
. tMortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
. t{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
. *Mortox, Henry JoserH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough.

1887. tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales,
1886. *Morton, P. F. 15 Ashley-place, Westminster, S.W.

1896
1878

. *Morton, Wittiam B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s College, Belfast.

.*Moss, Joun Francis, F.R.G.S. (Local Sec. 1879). Beechwood,
Brincliffe, Sheffield.

1876, §Moss, Ricwarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,

and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 69

Year of
Election.

1864,
1892.
1878.
1892.

1866.
1878.

1863.
1877.

1899.
1887.
1888.
1884.

1884.
1899.
1894.
1902.
1874,
1872.

1876.

1902.
1884.

1880.
1897.
1898.
1901.

1876.
1901.
1898.

1883,

1855.
1890.
1889.
1884,
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884.

1884.
1903,
1872.
1892.
1863.
1874.
1897.

*Mosse, J. R. 5 Clanricarde-gardens, Tunbridge Wells.

tMossman, R.C., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

tMossman, William. St. Hilda's, Frizinghall, Bradford.

*Mostyn, S. G., M.A., M.B. City Hospital for Infectious Diseases,
Walker Gate, Newcastie-upon-Tyne.

{Morr, Freprrick T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester.

*Movtron, J. Fuetcuer, M.A., K.C., M.P., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-
square, S.W.

t{Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

tMovunt-Epecumser, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

§Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

{Moxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., M.A., F.C.S. Heightley, Chudleigh, Devon.

tMoyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,
Canada.

tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Muif, Herbert B. Geological Survey Office, Edinburgh.

tMugliston, Rev. J.. M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

§Muir, Arthur H.,C.A. 2 Wellington-place, Belfast.

+Mourr,M. M.Parrisoy,M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

*MuIRHEAD, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.C.S. 12 Carteret-street, Queen
Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 24 Kersland.street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

§Mullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.

*Mitter, Hvueo, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 13 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

tMuller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna.

tMullins, W. KE. Hampstead, N.W.

t¢Mumford, C. E. Bury St. Edmunds.

*Munby, Alan E. 7 Chalcot-crescent, Primrose Hill, N.W.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig Tree-court, Temple, E.C.

tMunro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S. The University, Glasgow.

tMunro, Donald, M.D., J.P. Wheatholm, Pollokshaws, Glasgow.

{Munro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant
Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

*Muynro, Ropert, M.A., M.D. (Pres. H, 1893). 48 Manor-place,
Edinburgh.

tMurdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

tMurphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

tMurphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland,

§Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

{Murray, G. R. M., F.R.S., F.RS.E., F.L.S. British Museum
(Natural History), South Kensington, 8. W.

tMurray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

t{Mourray, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. E,
1899). Challenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D. 111 McKay-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Murray, J. D., Rowbottom-square, Wigan.

tMurray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

{Murray, T.S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

tMurray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., D.L. Drumglass House, Belfast.

tMusgrave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.
1870.
1891.

1902.
1902.
1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

1887.
1896.
1887.
1888.
1887.
1855.
1897.

1898.
1866.

1889.
1869.
1889.

1901.

1886,
1901.
1889,

1860.

1892,

1867.
1887.
1884,

18838,
1887,
1893.
1887.
1901.
1885,
1896,
1878.

1877,

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
{Muybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A.

{Myddleton, Alfred. 62 Duncairn-street, Belfast.
*Myers, Charles 8., M.A., M.D. 62 Holland-park, W.
*Myres, Jonn L., M.A., F.S.A. 1 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

tNacex, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894). Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkcaldy, N.B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, E.C.

tNapier, James 8. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

tNares, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.GS.
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

}Nason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A.

{Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel-walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. The Vista, Leominster.

{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester.

tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Giaszow.

tNesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto,
Canada.

§Nevill, Rey. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South
Devon.

*Nevill, The Right Rey. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

tNevitte, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{ Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

*Newall, H. Frank, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Madingley Rise, Cam-
bridge.

§Newbigin, Miss Marion, D.Sc. 1 Greenbank-road, Morningside,
Edinburgh.

tNewbolt, F.G. Oakley Lodge, Weybridge, Surrey.

tNewman, I’. H. Tullie House, Carlisle.

§Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. 88 Green-street, Bethnal Green,
N.E.

*Newton, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1887; Council
1875-82), Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in
the University of Cambridge. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

oon E. T., F.R.S., F.G.S8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,

tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

*Nicholson, John Carr, J.P. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

TNicnotson, Josprpm 8., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. I, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge,
Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport.

tNicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

TNickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

TNico1, Jamgs, City Chamberlain. Glasgow.

{Nicol, W. W. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E, 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

tNisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

jNiven, Cuartzes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Old
Aberdeen.

tNiven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. “vl

Election.

1863.

1879.
1887.
1863.

1888.
1865.
1872.
1883.

1886.
1894.

1903.
1896,

1898.
1878.
1883.
1858.

1884.
1857.

1894.
1902.
1896.
1885.
1876.
1885.

1859,
1884.
1881.
1896.
1892.
1853.
1885.
1853.

1863,

1887.

1883.
1889.
1882.

*Nosiz, Sir Awnprew, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.AS. F.C.S,
(Pres. G, 1890; Council, 1903; Local Sec. 1863). #lswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Noble, T.S. Lendal, York.

tNodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

§Norman, Rev. Canon AtrreD MERrE, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S8. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

tNorman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

{tNorris, Ricnarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham,

tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales

*Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, 8.W.;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.

{Norton, Lady. 35 Haton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.

§Norcurr, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895). Constitution
Hill, Ipswich.

§Noton, John. 45 Part-street, Southport.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

tNugent, the Right Rev. Monsignor. Harewood House, Formby,

Lancashire.

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, S.W.

tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, E.C.

*Optine, WittiaM, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864; Coun-
cil 1865-70), Waynflete Professor of Chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

TOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

{O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

§Ogden, James. Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

§Ogden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

tOgden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

TOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

TOgilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

tOcitvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1892),
Board of Education, 8. W.

TOgilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ocle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Duffield-road, Derby.

tO’Halloran, J. S.,C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-avenue, W.C.

tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

Oldham, G. 8. Town Hall, Birkenhead.

TOLpHaM, H. Yuzu, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

tOtpHaM, James, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

{Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

*“OtpHAM, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
HS. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.

tOxrver, Dantet, LL.D.,F.RS., F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew
Surrey.

tOxiver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. 2 The Vale, Chelsea, S.W.

§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Olsen, O. T., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.

Year of
Election

1860.

1880.

1902.
1902.
1872,
1883.
1902.
1899,
1858.
1883,
1884,

1884,
1901.

1899,
1897.
1901,
1887,
1897.
18665,

1884,
1884,

1882,
1881.
1896,
1882,
1903.
1889,
1896,

1903.
1889.
1883.
1883.
1894.
1898.

1884.
1875.
1870.

1896,
1889,

1878.
1866.
1886.

1883.
1883,

LIST OF MEMBERS,

*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmus, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1877; Council 1873-80, 1884-90).
29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.

*Ommanney, Rey. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

{O'Neill, Henry, M.D, 6 College-square East, Belfast.

§O’Neill, James, M.A, 5 College-square East, Belfast.

tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James's, 8. W

tOppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin.

fO’Reilly, Patrick Joseph. 7 North Earl-street, Dublin,

fOrling, Axel. Moorgate Station-chambers, E.C.

fOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.

tOrpen, Miss. St. Leonard’s, Kilkenny, Co. Dublin.

*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E, Monksgrange, Enniscorthy, Co,
Wexford.

*Orpen, Rey. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.

§Orr, Alexander Stewart. Care of Messrs. Marsland, Price & Co.,
Mazagon, Bombay, India.

tOsborn, Dr. F. A. The Chalet, Dover

tOsborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.

tOsborne, W. A., D.Sc. University College, W.C.

§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

{Osler, Ii. B., M.P. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,.
Birmingham.

fOstzur, Professor Witrram, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Johns Hopkins:
University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

fO’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.

*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

*Ottewell, Alfred D, 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

TOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tOwen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edebaston, Birmingham.

*Owen, Edwin. ‘Terra Nova, Birkdale, Lancashire.

*Owen, Alderman H. C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester.

*Page, Miss Ellen Ina. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex.

tPage, Dr. F. 1 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

tPaget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.

tPaget, The Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart. Cranmore Hall, Shepton -
Mallet.

tPaine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

{Paine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire,

*PateRavE, Rosert Harry Inexis, F.R.S., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1883).
Belton, Great Yarmouth.

}Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

}Patmer, Sir Cuartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-
shire.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

§Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

}Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tPark, Henry. Wigan.

jPark, Mrs. Wigan.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

—]
ow

Year of
Election.

1880. *Parke,George Henry, F.L.S.,F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield, York-
shire.

1904. §Parker, E. H., M.A. (Locat Treasurer 1904,) Thorneycreek,
Herschel-road, Cambridge.

1898. {Parker, G., M.D. 14 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1903. §Parker, Rev. J. Dunne, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S. Bennington
House, via Stevenage, Hertfordshire,

1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1899. tParker, Mark. 30 Upper Fant-road, Maidstone.

1891. {Parxer, Witt1Am Newron, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

1879, *Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

1887. {Parkinson, James. Greystones, Langho, Blackburn.

1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

1903. §Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo-road, Liverpool.

1883. {Parson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

1878. {Parsons, Hon. C. A., M.A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Holeyn Hall,
Wylam-on-Tyne.

1898. *Partridge, Miss Josephine M. 15 Grosyenor-crescent, 5.W.

1898. {Pass, Alfred C. Clifton Down, Bristol.

1887. {Parerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

1897. t{Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1897. {Paton, D. Nokt, M.D. 383 George-square, Edinburgh.

1883. *Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. 120 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

1884. *Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada.

1902. §Patterson, Robert, F.Z.S., M.R.I.A. Ivy Dene, Malone Park, Belfast.

1876. {Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. tParrinson. Jouy, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1879. *Patzer, F.R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1883. {Paul, George. 10 St. Mary’s-avenue, Harrogate.

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863, {Pavy, FrepEeRIck WILLIAM, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Essex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

1881. {Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1877. *Payne, J. C. Charles, J.P. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

1881. {Payne, Mrs. Albion-place, The Plains, Belfast.

1866, {Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.

1888. *Paynter, J.B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.

1886. {Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.

1876. {Peace,G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.

1879. {Peace, William KX. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.

1885. {Pxacu, B. N., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

1875. {Peacock,Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.

1886, *Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Orsett House, Birmingham-road, Kidder-
minster.

1886. tPearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1883. {Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, S. W.

1891. {Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.

1893. *Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.

1898. §Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

1883. {Pearson, Miss Helen E. Oakhurst, Birkdale, Southport.

1881. {Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

. TPearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.

. [Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.

. TPearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.

. TPease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.

. *PECKOVER, ALEXANDER, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Vicr-

PRESIDENT, 1904.) Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.

. TPeckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
. {Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.RS.E. 2 Cameron-park, Edinburgh.

. TPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

. *Peek, William. 20 Brier-road, Fulham, 8.W.

. *Peel, Hon. William, M.P. 13 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C,

. {Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

. TPemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln's Inn-fields, W.C.

. §PENDLEBURY, Witiiam H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899).

Woodford House, Mountfields, Shrewsbury.

. §Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.
. TPENHALLOW, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,

Canada.

. tPennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.
. [Pentecost, Harold, B.A. Clifton College, Bristol.
. Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B.. 16 Ellison-place, New-

castle-upon-Tyne.

. TPercival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 2 Southwick-place, W.
. TPercival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern

Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.
*Perigal, Frederick. Chaleots, Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

. Perkin, A. G., F.RS., F.RS.E., F.C.S., F.C. 8 Montpelier-

terrace, Hyde Park, Leeds.

2. §Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. 5 Fyson-road, Forest Hill, S.E.
. "PERKIN, WiLL1AM Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B,

1876; Council 1880-86). The Chestnuts, Sudbury, Harrow,
Middlesex.

. }PerkKin, Wirtitam Hewry, jun., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

(Pres. B, 1900 ; Council 1901- ), Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Wilbraham-road,
Fallowfield, Manchester.

. *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

. *Perman, E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

. }Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St John’s Wood Park, N.W.

. [Perrin, Henry S. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

. {Perrin, Mrs. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

. *Perry, Jonny, M.E., D.Se., F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1902; Council 1901-__),

Professor of Mechanics and Mathematics in the Royal College
of Science, S.W.

. {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton.

. §Petavel, J. E. The Owens College, Manchester.

. TPeters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada.

. TPethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

. {Pethybridge, G. H. Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

. [Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

. [}Purrie, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor

of Egyptology in University College, W.C.

. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Hove,

Brighton.

. }Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming-

ham.

. LIST OF MEMBERS. 75

Year of
Election,

1863. *Puent, Jonn Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A.,F.G.S.,F.RGS. 5 Carlton
terrace, Oakley-street, 8. W.

1896. ¢Philip, George, jun. Weldon, Bidston, Cheshire.

1903. §Philip, JamesC. 20 Westfield-terrace, Aberdeen.

1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1858. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford,
Hssex.

1863. {Philipson, Sir G. H. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1899, tPhillips, Charles E.S. Castle House, Shooter's Hill, Kent.

1894. {Phillips, Statf-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887. tPhillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

1902. {Phillips, J. St. J., BE. 64 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

1890, {Phillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in University
College, Bangor.

1883. {Phillips, S. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter.

1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1898. {Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

1884, *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

1883, *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster.

1901. §Pickard, Robert H., D.Sc. Isca, Merlin-road, Blackburn.

1894. {Pickarp-Campripes, Rev. V., M.A., F.RS. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1885. *Picxerine, SPENCER P. U.,M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

1884. *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Oo., Kentucky, U.S.A.

1888. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

1884. {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

1865. {Prxx, L.Owrn. 44 Marlborough-gate, Hyde Park, W.

1873. {Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D. Toronto, Canada.

1896, *Pilkington, A.C. Rocklands, Rainhill, Lancashire.

1896. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868. {Pinder, T, R. St. Andrew's, Norwich.

1876. {Pirin, Rev. G., M.A. (Local Sec. 1885), Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

1887. tPitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C.

1875, {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

1883. shee George Newton, M.A.. M.D, 24 St. Thomas-street, Borough,

1883. {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-circus, E.C.

1893. *Prrr, WatterR, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1900, *Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley.

1898. {Playne, H.C. 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. tPlowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

1897. {Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

1898. §Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.

1899, {Plumptre, Fitzwalter. Goodnestone, Dover.

1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Queen’s
Co., Ireland.

1900. *Pocklington, H. Cabourn. 41 Virginia-road, Leeds.

1881. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1888. tPocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

Year of
Election

1896.
1898.
1896.
1862.
1891.
1900.
1892.

1868.
1901.

1885.
1883.

1887.
1883.
1886,
1898.
1873.
1887.

1883.
1894,

1875.
1887.

1867.
1883.

1884,
1869.
1888.

1892,
1889,

1894,
1898.
1884,
1908.
1888.

1875.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

{Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.

{ Potten, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn,

*Pollex, Albert. Tenby House, Egerton Park, Rockferry.

*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.8. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff:

§Porr, W. J., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Municipal
School of Technology, Manchester. 16 Hope-street, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

{Popplewell, W. C., M.Se., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The Yew, Marple,
near Stockport.

{Porrat, Sir WynpHAm 8., Bart. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

§Porter, Alfred W., B.Sc. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions, Lissenden-
gardens, N.W.

*Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D, All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

tPostgate, Professor J. P., M.A. University College, Gower-street,
W.C.

{Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

tPotter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 14 Highbury, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*Poutton, Epwanp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council 1895-1901), Professor of Zoology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford,

*Powell, Sir Francis 8., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

*Powell, Horatio Gibbs, F.R.G.S. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood,
Wolverhampton.

tPowell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

*Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole-street,
Cavendish-square, W.

{Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

§Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C.

tPowrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

tPoyntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1899), Professor of
Physics in the University, Birmingham. 10 Ampton-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*PREECE, Sir WitL1am Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1888 ; Council 1888-95, 1896-1902). Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon
Common, Surrey; and 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

tae W. Llewellyn. Bryn Helen, Woodborough-road, Putney,

WwW

§Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

§Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-
ford, Yorkshire.

{Preston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

*Preston, Martin Inett. 48 Ropewalk, Nottingham.

*Prevost, Major L. de T., 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders,

§Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.

Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.

{Pricr, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895; Council, 1898— ).
Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. 163 Bath-street, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 77

Year of
Election.

1891. {Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.

1897. *Pricn, W. A., M.A. The Mill House, Broomfield, Chelmsford.

1897. {Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.

1892. {Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.

1889, *Pritchard, Erie Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W.

1876. *PritcHaRD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.

1888. {Probyn, Leslie C. 79 Onslow-square, S. W.

1881. §Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

1863. tProctor, R.S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.

1884. *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 100 State-street, Chicago, U.S.A.

1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.

1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

1871. *Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge,

1873. {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.

1867. *Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.

1883, *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.

1891. tPullen, W. W. F. University College, Cardiff.

1887. §PumpHReY, WILLIAM (Local Sec. 1888). 2 Oakland-road, Reds
land, Bristol.

1885. {PurpIE, THomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

1881. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York, The
Deanery, York.

1874. {PuRsER, FRepERIcK, M.A. Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

1866. {PuRsER, Professor Jon, M.A., LL.D., M.R.I.A. (Pres, A, 1902),
Rathmines Castle, Dublin.

1878. tPurser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

1884. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

1860. *Pusey, S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.

1898. *Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

1883, §Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

1883, {Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

1868. {Pyz-SmirH, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S. 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, S.E.

1879. tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1893. {Quick, James. University College, Bristol.
1894, {Quick, Professor W. J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.

1870. {Rabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, S.W.

1870. [Radcliffe, D. R. Phenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

1896. §Radclitfe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.

1855. *Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord. Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

1887. *Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

1864. { Rainey, James T, 8 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.

1898. *Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,
Baker-street, W.

1896, *RamacE, Huen. St, John’s College, Cambridge.

1894, *Rampaut, ARTHUR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.LA.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

1868, tRamsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

1884, {Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884.
1861.
1885,
1889,
1876,

1888.
1869.
1901,
1868.
1893.
1863,
1861.

1889.

1903.
1864.
1892.
1874.

1889.
1870,
1887.
1868,

1895.

1883.
1897.
1896.
1902.
1870.
1884.
1899,
1852.

1892,

1889,
1889.
1890.

1861.

1889.
1891.
1894,
1891.

1888.
1875.

tRamsay, Mrs. G.G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

{Ramsay, John. Kildalton, Argyllshire.

TRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.B.

{tRamsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrigg, Edinburgh.

*Ramsay, Sir Witr1aM, K.C.B., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1897 : Council
1891-98), Professor of Chemistry in University College,
London. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRamsay, Lady. 19 Chester-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, W.

{Rankin, James, M.A., B.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{;Ransom, WiLL1AM Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransome, ARTHUR, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861):
Sunnyhurst, Deane Park, Bournemouth.

Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.

§Rapkin, J. B. Thrale Hall, Streatham, S.W.

Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.

§Rastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

tRavensTEIn, I. G., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1891). 2 York-
mansions, Battersea Park, 8.W.

Rawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

tRawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

tRawson, Harry. EHarlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

*RayteicH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. (Presipent, 1884; Trusrep,1883- ; Pres.
A, 1882; Council, 1878-83; Vicr-PrestpEnt, 1904), Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Terling Place,
Witham, Essex.

fRaynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,
Basingstoke.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree. 19 Tiviot Dale, Stockport.

*Reav, CHARLES H., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899). British Museum, W.C.

Reade, R. H. Wilmount, Dunmurry.

Reape, THomas Metrarp, F.G.8. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

§Readman, J. B., D.Sc.,F.R,S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.

tReaster, James William. 68 Linden-grove, Nunhead, 8.E.

*REDFERN, Professor Prrer, M.D. (Pres. D, 1874). 4 Lower-
crescent, Belfast.

tRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

{Redmayne, J M. Harewood, Gateshead.

{Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Wadham Lodge, Wadham-
gardens, N.W.

{ReeD, Sir Epwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. Broadway-chambers,

' Westminster, 8. W.

tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton,

*Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E, Blaenypant, near Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

tRees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 79

Election.

1897. {Reeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

1903. §Reeves, E.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

1901. *Reid, Andrew T. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

1881. §Reid, Arthur S., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.
1883. *Rerp, CLeMenT, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1903.
1892.

1889.
1901.
1876.
1901.
1897.
1892.
1887.
1895.
1875.

1863.
1894.
1891.

1903.
1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.

1900.
1870.

1896.
1896.
1877.
1890.
1884.
1899.

1877.

1891.
1891.
1889.

1869.
1882.
1884,
1889.
1884.
1896,

1901.
1870.
1889,
1876.

*Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. 36 Sarre-road, West Hampstead, N.W.

{Reip, E. Waymovurs, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

tReid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

tReid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

{Reinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

§Remvotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. (Council 1890-95), Professor of
Physics in the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.

tRewnats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

tRenpALL, Rev. G. H., M.A. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

§Rendle, Dr. A. B. 47 Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.

tRennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

*Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 135 Lord-street, Southport.

{Rrynops, JAMEs Emerson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Pres.0.S., M.R.LA.
(Pres. B, 1893; Council 1893-99)... 29 Camden Hill-court, W.

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 4 Colinette-road, Putney, S.W.

*REYNOLDS, OsBoRNE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1887), Professor of Engineering in the Owens College, Man-
chester. 19 Lady Barn-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{ Reynolds, Richard 8. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.

tRhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire.

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

tRhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.

tRhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada.

*Ruys, Professor Joun, D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1900). Jesus College, Ox-
ford. :

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Riva
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy.

tRichards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent. Cardiff.

‘pm e Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A

*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

tRichardson, Rev. George, M.A. Walcote, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

tRichardson, Hugh, M.A. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

*Richardson, Owen Willans. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

{Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-vpon-Tyne.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1891.
1891.
1886.
1868.
1885.
1902.

1894.

1861.
1884.
1881.
1883.
1892.

1892.
1889.
1903.
1900.
1898.
1902.
1887.
1859.
1870.

1881.
1879.
1879.
1896.
1883.
1884.
1883,
1885.
1897.

1897.
1901.

1892.
1886.
1898,

1861.
1908.
1897.
1887.
1902.
1902.
1901.
1878.
1895.

1876.
1899.

tRiches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, @ardiff.

tRichmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

{Rickerrs, CuariEs, M.D., F.G.S. Curdridge, Botley, Hampshire.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Ridgeway, William, M.A., Professor of Archeology in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Fen Ditton, Cambridge.

§Ripitey, E. P. (Local Sec. 1895). Burwood, Westerfield-road,
Ipswich.

{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N.W.

tRidout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

*Rige, Arthur. 15 Westbourne Park-villas, W.

*Riec, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, E.

tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

*Ripon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,
ae F.R.S., F.LS., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment,

tRitchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E, 1 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

TRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

*Rivers, W. H. R., M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tRixon, F. W., B.Sc. 79 Green-lane, Heywood, Lancashire.

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Roberts, Bruno. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

*Roberts, Evan. 30St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

tRoberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 4 Regent-street, Cambridge.

tRoberts, Samuel, M.P. The Towers, Sheffield.

tRoberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 33 Serpentine-road, Liscard, Cheshire.

tRobertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

t Robertson, LE. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

tRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

tRobertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

§Ropertson, Sir Grorer S., K.C.S.I. (Pres. E, 1900). 1 Pump-
court, Temple, E.C.

den ip Haare Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
Canada.

*Robertson, Robert, B.Sc., M.Inst,C.E. 154 West George-street,
Glasgow.

{Robertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Mdinburgh.

*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elvetham-road, Birmingham.

§Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Holm Cross, Ashburton, South
Devon.

tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

§Robinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport.

tRobinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.

§Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.

tRobinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich, S.E.

§Robinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, South-
port.

tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Overslade, Bilton, near Rugby.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS. 81

Election.

1887.
1881.
1875.
1884.
1901.
1865.
1891.

1888.
1870.

1872.
1890.

1896.
1896.
1885.

1885.

1866.
1898.

1867.

1890.

1883.
1882.
1884.

1889.

1897.
1876.

1891.
1894.
1881.
1855,

1883.
1894.

1900.

1885.
1887.
1859.
1902.
1901.

tRobinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.

{Robinson, Richard Atkinson, 195 Brompton-road, 8.W.

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington.

tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

tRobinson, T. Eaton. 33 Cecil-street West, Glasgow.

tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

tRobinson, William, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.

t¢Robottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

*Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,

*Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

tRochester, The Right Rev. E. 8. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of,
Kennington Park, 8.E.

tRock, W. H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

tRodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodriguez, Epifanio, New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert-street,
Adelphi, W.C.

t{Roe, Sir Thomas. Grove-villas, Litchurch.

tRocrrs, Bertram, M.D. (Local Sec. 1898.) 11 York-place, Clifton,
Bristol.

tRogers, James 8. Losemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 15 Regent Park-avenue, Leeds.

tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§ Rogers, Rev. Canon Saltren, M.A. Tresleigh, St. Austell, Cornwall.

*Rogers, Walter. Hill House, St. Leonards.

{Rogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

Rogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada.

phon Mil. MP. BA, LiLD,,D.0.L.,.FsR:A‘S.)) Hon.
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.

{Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Rooper, T. Godolphin. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.

*Roper, W. O. Beechfield, Yealand Conyers, Carnforth.

*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(PRESIDENT, 1887; Pres. B, 1870, 1884; Council 1874-81 ;
Local Sec. 1861). 10 Bramham-gardens, S. W.

*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, S.W.

*Rosz, T. K., D.Sc, Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint. Royal
Mint, E.

}Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. 185 Monument-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

tRoss, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

*Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

§Ross, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden Hill, W.

tRoss, Major Ronarp, 0.B., F.R.S. 36 Bentley-road, Liverpool.

1869. *RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.R.S., FR.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.

1891. *Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.
1893. tRothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.
1865, *Rothera, George Bell. Hazlewood, Forest-grove, Nottingham.

1901

1899,
1884

. *Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,
Glascow.
. *Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, S.E.
. “Rouse, M.L. MHollybank, Hayne-road, Beckenham,
F

1903.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1901. tRouse, W. H. D. Perse School, Cambridge.

1861. {RourH, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sce., F. BS. F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1883. {Rowan, Frederick J ohn. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glaszow.

1903. *“Rowe, Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. 1 Cecil-street, Margate.

1877.

1890.
1881.
1881.
1876.
1885.
1899.
1875.

4892.
1869.

1901.
1882.

1896.
1887.
1889.
1875.

1884.

1890.
1883.
1852.
1876.

4886.
4852.

1886.
1897.
1891.
1887.

1889.
1897.
1898.
1865.

1905.

1883.
1871,
1903.
1881.
1857.

1875.
1887.

Rowe, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-

mouth.
tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

*Rowntrex, Jou S. Mount-villas, York.

*Rowntree, J oseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

tRoxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

TRoy, J ohn, 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

tRubie, G.S. Belgrave House, Folkestone-road, Dover.

*RuckeEr, Sir A. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
of London (PREstpentT, 19014 Trustee, 1898—- ; GENERAL
TREASURER, 1891-98; Pres. A, 1894; Council 1888-91). 19
Gledhow-gardens, South Kensington, S.W.

§Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

§Rupier, f. W., F.G.S. 18 St. George’s-road, Kilburn, N.W.

*Rudorf, C.C. G. 26 Weston-park, Crouch End, N.

t¢Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.. 1 Victoria-villas, Brondesbury,
INSW is

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

tRussell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead.

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere,

t Russell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

Russell, John, 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

tRussell, Sir J. A., LL.D. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

*Russell, J. W. 131 W oodstock-road, Oxford.

Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W.

tRussell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

tRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*RussELL, Wittiam J., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1873;
Council 1873-80). 34 Upper Hamilton-terrace, St. John’s
Wood, N.W.

tRust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

{Rutherford, A. Toronto, Canada.

Rutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.

tRutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

tRyder, W.J.H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

TRyerson, G.8., M.D. Toronto, Canada.

§Ryland, C. J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol.

tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

§Sadler, M. E., LL.D., Professor of Education in Owens College,
Manchester.

tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

TSadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.

§Sagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

{Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

jSatmon, Rey. Grorez, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A,
1878), Provost of Trinity College, Dublin:

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

tSamson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manches‘er.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1861.
1901.
1894,

1883.

1893.
1872.

1883.

1896.
1896.
1892.
1903.
1886.
1896.
1896.
1901.
1886.
1886.
1900.
1868.
1886.
1903.
1881.
1883.
1846.

1884.
1891.
1884.
1887.

1883.
1883.
1901.
1887.

1884.
1885.
1903.
1905.
1879.

1888.
1880.

1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

§Samuel, John S., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

tSamvgEtson, The Right Hon. Sir Beryuwarp, Bart., F.RS.,
M.Inust.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

tSanderson, Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United Service
Club, St. James’s-square, 5. W.

{Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanpDERSON, Sir J. S. Burpon, Bart., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Presrpent, 1893; Pres. D, 1889; Council
1877-84). 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tSanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hightield, Northwich.
tSaner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich.

§Sang, William D, Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

§Sankey, Captain H. R., R.E. Bawmore, Bilton, Rugby.

§Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.
tSarruf, N. Y. ‘Al Mokattam, Cairo.
tSauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.
{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund-street, Birmingham,
*Saunder, 8. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

TSaunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

*Saunders, Miss E. R. Newnham College, Cambridge.

t{Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, W.
tSaunders, Rey. J.C. Cambridge.

{Saunpers, TRELAWNEY W.,F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield-on-the-Knowles,
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{Saunpers, Dr. Wittram. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

Saunders, W. H. R. Llanishen, Cardiff.

{Saunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

TSavage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,
Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.

TSavery,G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.

§Sawers, W. D. 1 Athole Gardens-place, Glasgow.

§Sarce, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford.

{Sayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§ScaRIsBRick, Sir Coartzs, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

§Scarisbrick, Lady. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

*ScuArmr, EH. A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S. (Gen. Sec. 1895-1900 ;
Pres. I, 1894; Council 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in
the University of Edinburgh.

*ScHarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

{Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, S.W.

Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
tSchofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trafford, Manchester.
tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

§Scholes, L. Arncliffe, Trinity-road, Sale, Cheshire.

Year of
Election

1873.
1847.

1883.

1867.
1881,

1878.
1881.
1889,

1885.
1857.

1884.
1902.
1895.

1883.
1895.

1890,
1859,
1880.

1861.

1891.

1893.
1855.
1879.
1897.
1885.
1888,

1888.

1901.
1870.
1892.
1895.
1892.

1891.
1868.
1899.
1891.
1888,

LIST OF MEMBERS.

*ScuusTER, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1892;
Council 1887-93), Professor of Physics in the Owens College.
Kent House, Victoria Park, Manchester.

*SctaTer, Purp Lurtey, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. (Generar Secretary 1876-8] ; Pres. D, 1875;
Council 1864-67, 1872-75). Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

*Scrarer, W. Luriry, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
Town.

tScorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

*Scorr, ALEXANDER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sec.0.S. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, W. ;

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Pvofessor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David's College, Lampeter.

{Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A.

*Scorr, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Generat SEcretary,
1900-03 ; Pres, K, 1896). The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.

tScott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

*Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-
gardens, S.W.

*Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.

§Scott, William R. The University, St. Andrew’s, Scotland.

Scott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S. Ainslea, Scots-
tounhill, Glasgow.

{Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

§Scull, Miss E. M. L. The Pines, 10 Langland-gardens, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

{Searle, G. F. C., M.A. 20 Trumpington-street, Cambridge.

tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

tSepewrcr, Anam, M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1899). 4 Cranmer-rcad,
Cambridge.

*SEELEY, Harry Govirr, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.ZS.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, Londen. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.

{Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

{Serpy-Bieer, L. A., M.A. Charity Commission, Whitehall, S.W.

{Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.

tSelim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.

{Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.

{Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

*SenreR, AtrreD, M.D., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

enol, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.E. 304 King’s-road, Chelsea,

{Service, Robert. Janefield Park, Maxwe]ltown, Dumfries.

*Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

{Seton, Miss Jane. 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

*Seton-Karr, H. W. 31 Lingfield-road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*SewarpD, A. C,, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903; Council,
1901— ; Locat Secrerary 1904), Westfield, Huntingdon-roxd,
Cambridge.

tSeward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tSewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

§Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S. 16 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull. :

LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election,

1902. {SHarresspury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.L. Belfast Castle,
Belfast.

1867. {Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

1878. {Smarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,
Cambridge.

1896, {Sharp, Mrs. E. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington.

Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.

1886. {Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.

1883. {Sharples, Charles H. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

1870. {Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

1896. {Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

1870. [Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

1891. {Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.

1889. *Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Sydenham Damard Rectory, Tavistock.

1883. *SHaw, W.N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1900). Meteoro-
logical Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

1683. i1Shaw, Mrs. W. N. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensingten, S.W.

1903. §Shaw-Phillips, T. 19 Camden-crescent, Bath.

1891. tSheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1878. tShelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-strect, S.W.

1865. {Shenstone, Frederick S. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

1881. {SuHenstonn, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol.

1885. {Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Eeclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

1890. {Shepherd, J. 80 Prince of Wales-mansions, Battersea, S.W.

1883. tShepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

1900. §Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull.

1883. {Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

1883. tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

1883. {Sherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vid Lancaster.

1896. §SHERRINGTON, C. 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the
University of Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.

1888. *Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath.

1886. {Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S.W.

1892. {Shields, John, D.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Scotland.

1901. {Shields, Thomas, M.A., B.Sc. Englefield Green, Surrey.

1902. *Shillington, T. Foulkes, J.P. Dromart, Antrim-road, Belfast.

1888. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, E.C.

1887. *Saretey, ArtHUR E., M.A. (Locan TreasuReR 1904.) Christ’s
College, Cambridge.

1889. {Shipley, J. A. D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.

1885. {Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.

1870. *SHoorsrep, J. N., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

1888. tShoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

1897. {SHors, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1875. [SHorE, THomas W., F.G.S. 157 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W.

1882. [SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Heathfield, Alleyn Park, Dul-
wich, S.E.

1901. rece Peter M., B.Sc. 5 Richmond-terrace, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

1897. tShortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.

1889, {Sibley, Walter K., B.A.,M.B. 8 Duke Street-mansions, Grosvenor-
square, W,

1883. tSibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Fook Touse, Taunton.

86 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1902. §Siddons, A. W. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. EErlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parlfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1873, *Sremens, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

1903. *Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Experimental Establishment, Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount Mouse, Grange, Edinburgh.

1898. {Simmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, F.C.

1874. {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfust.

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.

1847. {Suon, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. (Council 1870-72).
40 Kensington-square, W.

1901. {Simpson, Rev. A., B.Sc, F.G.8. 28 Myrtle-park, Crosshill,
Glasgow.

1871. *Srrpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1887. {Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1859. }Simpson, John, Maylkirk, Kincardineshire,

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgetield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

1901. *Simpson, J. Y. *M. A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1894, §Simpson, Thomas, E.R. G. sg, Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.

1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.

1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

1874. {Sinciarr, Right Hon. Troms (Local Sec. 1874). Dunedin, Belfast.

1897. {Sinnott, James. Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street, Bristol.

1864. *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C.LE. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

1892. {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 1 Park-row, 8. W. ’

1902. §Skefington, J. B. Waterford.

1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

1885, {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

1898, {SkinnER, Sipney, M.A. (Locat Srcrerary 1904). Cromwell
House, Trumpington-road, Cambridgeshire.

1889. §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire,

1884, {Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1877. tSleeman, Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S, 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1891. §Slocombe, James, Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.

1849, {Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.

1887. §Small, ee W., M.A., B.Se., F.G.S. The Mount, Radbourne-street,
Derby.

1887, §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.

1903. §Smallman, Raleigh 8. Carlton House, Herne Hill, 8.E.

1889, *Smart, Professor. William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1902. (Smedley, Miss Ida. Sheepcote, ‘W ooburn Green, near Maidenhead.

1898. {Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.8S. Mysore, India.

1876. {Smellie, Thomas D. 215 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1877. {Smelt, Rey. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.

1890. {Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.

———e-

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

Year of
Election.

1876. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1867. {Smieton, Thomas A, Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicage,
Illinois, U.S.A.

1897. {Smith. Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

1901. *Smith, Miss Annie Lorrain. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, W.

1874. *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.

1887. {Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.

1873. tSmith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.

1887. *Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.

1889, *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Kodaikanal, South India.

1886. {Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1886. *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

1886. {Smith, KE. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.

1900. §Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.

1886. tSmith, E. 0. Council House, Birmingham.

1892, 1Smith, E. Wythe. 66 College-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1897. {Smith, Sir Frank. 54 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.

1901. §Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S. W.

1866. *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.

1885, {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 22 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.

1897. {Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1860, *Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 25 Welbeck-street, Cavendish-square, W.

1903. §Smith, H. B. Lees. Ruskin Hall, Oxford.

1870, {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.

1889. *Smith, H. Llewellyn, C.B., B.A., B.Sc, F.S.S. 4 Harcourt-
buildings, Inner Temple, E.C.

1888. {Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.

1876. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1902. {Smith, J. Lorrain, M.D., Professor of Pathology in Queen’s College,
Belfast. Westbourne, Windsor-avenue, Belfast.

1901. {Smarra, J. Parker, M.P. Jordanhill, Glasgow.

1886, {Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.

1903. §Smith, James, Pinewood, Crathes.

1876. Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire,

1883. {Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance-buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax.

1885. {Smiru, Ropert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Ellerslie, Sutton, Surrey.

1870. {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

1873. {Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1867. tSmith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

1894. §Smith, T. Walrond. Care of H. E. P. Cottrell, Esq., 92 Cavendish-
road, Balham, 8. W.

1892. {Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

1885. *Smith, Watson. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

1896. *Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. Newquay, Cornwall.

1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

1876. {Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1883. {SmirHELLs, ARTHUR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1890), Professor
of Chemistry in the Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1883. tSmithson, Edward Walter. 18 Lendal, York.

1883. {Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

88 . LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1882. {Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

1874. {Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

1857. *Smyru, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

1888. *Snavz, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D. Balholm, Lathom-road, Southport.

1878. §Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.C.

1889, tSnell, W. H. Lancaster Lodge, Amersham-road, Putney, S.W.

1898. {Snook, Miss L. B. V. 13 Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1879. *Sottas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900; Council 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the University
of Oxford. 173 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

1892. *SompRvAIL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay.

1900. *“Sommrvitty, W. Board of Agrifulture, Whitehall, S.W.

1859, *Sorpy, H. Crirron, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1880; Council
1879-86 ; Local Sec. 1879). Broomtield, Sheffield.

1879. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheftield.

1901. {Sorley, Robert. ‘The Firs, Partickill, Glasgow.

1888. {Sortey, Professor W. R., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1903. §Soulby, R. M. Sea Holm, Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

1886. {Southall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birmingham.

1903. §Southall, H. T. The Graig, Ross, Herefordshire.

1865, *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

1887. §Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

1883. {Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,
Staffordshire.

1890. {Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

1893. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

1887. {Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

1884. {Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

1889, *Spencer, John, Newbiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. The Old House, Llandaff.

1864, *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8. 14 Aberdeen-park, High-
bury, N.

1894. jSpiers, A. H. 21 Bernard-street, Russell-square, W.C.

1864, *SrrnteR, JoHn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1864. *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, 8. W.

1854, *Spracur, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D.. F.RSE, 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh,

1883. {Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, 8.E.

1897. §Squire, W. Stevens, Ph.D, Clarendon House, 30 St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 164 Shoreditch, E.C.

1897. {Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada.

1903, §Stallworthy, Rev. George B. The Manse, Hindhead, Haslemere,
Surrey,

1884. {Stancoffe F rederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1892. {Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Engineering in the Herict Watt College, Edinburgh. 49
Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.

1883. *Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, High-street,
Bromley, Kent.

1881. *Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

1883. {Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

1894, *STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1900. *Stansfield, H., B.Sc. Municipal Technical School, Blackburn.

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 89

Year of
Election.

1899.

1876.
1899,
1898.

1894.

1873.
1900.
1881.
1881.
1884.
1892.

1896.
1891.
1884,
1884.
1884,

1902.
1879.
1901.
1901.
1880.
1900.

1892.

1863.
1890.

1885.
1864.

1892.
1885.
1886.
1875.

1901.

1892.
1901.
1901.
1901.
1867.
1876.

1867.
1901.

1865.
1890.
1883.

tSrartine, E. H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor. of Physiology in
University College, London. 8 Park-square West, N.W.

tStarling, John Henry, F.CS. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C.

§Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. 16 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

TStavert, Rev. W. J.. M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven.
Yorkshire.

*Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfieid, Liverpool.

*Stead, J. E., F.R.S. Laboratory and Assay Office, Middlesbrough.

tStead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, I.

TStead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

TStearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

*SrepBine, Rey. Toomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells.

*Stebbing, W. P. D., F. ‘GS. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

{Steeds, “A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

TStephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

*Stephens, W. Hudson. Low-Ville, Lewis County, New York,
ULS.A.

§Stephenson, G. Cuilin, Glasnevin, Dublin,

*STEPHENSON, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

tSteven, William. 420 Sauchiehall-street, Glasgow.

TSteven, Mrs, W. 420 Sauchiehall-street, Glasgow.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpill, R.S.O.

TSrrvens, Frepertck (Local Sec. 1900). Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

tStevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.

*STEVENSON, JAMES C., M.P. Eltham Court, Eltham, Kent.

*Steward, Rey. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-road,
Ipswich.

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Murtle, Aberdeen.

tSrewarr, Cuartes, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor of
Anatomy and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-fields, W.C.

tStewart, C. Hunter. 3 Cariton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace West, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near

i Clifton, Gloucestershire.

“Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 35 Stow Park-avenue, New-
port, Monmouthshire.

{Stewart, Samuel. Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

{Stewart, Thomas. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

{Stewart, Walter, M.A., D. Se. Gartsherrie, Coatbridge.

TStewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s- road, Glasgow.

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

{Srirtine, Witr1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. “Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Stobo, ‘Thomas. Somerset House, G Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire,

*Stock, Joseph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.
tStockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.
*Stockrr, W.N.,M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

90 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1898. {Stoddart, I’, Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

1898. *Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well,
Cork.

1887. {Stone, E. D., F.C.S. Rose Lea, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1899. *Stone, F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

1886. {Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birming-
ham.

1886. {Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1874. {Stone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L. g., F.C.8. 3 Dr. Johnson’ s-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

1876. {Stone, Oetuvias C., F.R.G.S. Rothbury House, Westcliff-gardens,
Bournemouth.

1857. {Stonry, Bryon B., LLD,FRS., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin. .

1895, *Stoney, Miss Edith A. 30 Ledbury-road, Bayswater. W.

1878. *Stoney, G. Gerald. Oakley, Heaton-road, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1861. *Sronry, GzorcE Jonnstone, M.A., D.Sc.,F.R.S.,M.R.I.A. (Pres.A,
1897), 30 Ledbury-road, Bayswater, W.

1903. *Stopes, Miss Marie, B.Sc. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1883. {Stopes, Mrs. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

1887. *Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.

1884, §Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

1888. *Stothert. Perey K. Woodley Grange, Bradford-on-Avon, Wilts.

1874. {Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

1871, *Srracury, Lieut.-General Sir Rican, R.E., G.O.8.1, LL.D.,
F.R.S., EF: B.G:S:, F.L:S., IGS. (Pres. E, 1875 ; "Council,
1871-7 5). 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, W.

188], tSrranan, AvsrRey, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, S. W.

1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

1882. {Strange, Rev. Canon Cresswell, M.A. The College, Worcester.

1898. {Strangeways, C. Fox. Leicester.

1881. {Srraneways, C. Fox, F.G.8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,
S.W.

1889. {Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S. Ryhope, near Sunderland.

1879. {Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

1884. {Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

1883. §Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing,

1898. *Strong, W. M. & Champion-park, Denmark Hill, S.E.

1887. *Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the College of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. *Srrovup, WILLIAM, D.Sce., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

1876. *Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

1872. *Stuart, Rey. Edward A.,M.A. 65 Prince’s-square, W.

1884. {Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus, 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada,

1892. {Stuart-Gray, Hon. Morton, M.A.,F.G.S, 2 Belford-park, Edinburgh.

1896. {Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

1885. {Stump, EdwardC. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester.

1897. {Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.

1879. *Styring, Robert. Brinkcliffe Tower, Sheffield.

1891. *Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D.Sc. University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth.

1902. §Sully, H. J. Avalon House, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1898. §Sully, T.N. Avalon House, Priory-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1884, {Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 91

Year of
Election.

1887. {Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E.

1888. {Sunderland, John E, Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

1883. {Suteliffe, J. S., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

1873. {Sutclitfe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

1863, tSutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1886. {Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

1892, {Sutherland, James B. 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh,

1884. {Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

1863. {Surron, Franots, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

1889. {Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, NeweastJe-upon-Tyne.

1898, §Sutton, William, M.D. 6 Camden-crescent, Dover.

1891. {Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

1903. §Swallow, Rev. R. D., M.A. Chigwell School, Essex.

1881. §Swan, JosepH Witson, M.A., D.Sc.,F.R.S, 58 Holland-park, W.

1897. {Swanston, William, F.G.S. | Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

1879. {Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

1887. §SwINBURNE, JAMES, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

1870. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1887. *Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. 22 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1890. {Swinnogr, Colonel C., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.

1873. {Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.

1895. {Sykes, E.R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

1902. “Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.

1887. *Sykes,George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, S. W.

1896, *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. Kensington House, Pensford, via Bristol.

1902. *Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Eleombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.

1893. {Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, Nottingham.

1870. tSymxs, RicHarp Guascort, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey ot
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

1903, §Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.

1885, {Symineton, Jonnson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s College, Belfast.

1886. {Symons, W. H., M.D. (Brux.), M.R.C.P., F.C. Guildhall, Bath.

1896. {Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Harringay Park, Crouch End, N.

1898, {Tagart, Francis, 199 Queen’s-gate, S.W.

1865, en Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.

1894, {Takakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

1905. *Tanner, Miss Ellen G. 48 Campden. House Court, Gloucester-
walk, W.

1890, {Tannpr, H. W. Luoyp, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Local See. 1891), Professor
of Mathematics and Astronomy in University College, Carditf.

1897. {Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1892. *Tansley, Arthur G., M.A., F.L.S. University College, W.C.

1883. *Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, F.R.A.S. 62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

1878. {Tarpry, Hven. Dublin.

1861, *Tarratt, Henry W. Broadhayes, Dean Park, Bournemouth,

1867. *Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

1893, {Tate, George, Ph.D. College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.

1902. }Tate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1901.
1884.
1887.
1898.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1882.
1860.
1881,
1866.
1899.
1834,
1900.
1887.
1883.
1901.
1903.
1895,

{Taylor, Benson. 22 Hayburn-crescent, Partick, Glasgow.

*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.

§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

tTaylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham.

tTaylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

*Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C.

*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank"House, York.

{Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

tTaylor, Robert H., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 5 Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

{Taylor, T. H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

TTaylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

§Taylor, William. 57 Sparkenhoe-street, Leicester,

§Taylor, William. 61 Cambridge-road, Southport.

jTaylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

. Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey.

. *Taylor, W. W., M.A. 30 Banbury-road, Oxford.

. {Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell,

. *Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

8. {Txare, Tuomas Pripetn, M.A., F.R.S. 88 Cookridge-street,

Leeds.

5. {TEat, J.J. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893; Council

1894-1900), Director of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom. 89 Thurlow Park-road, West Dulwich, S.E.

. §Tebb, Robert Palmer. Enderfield, Chislehurst, Kent.

. {Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.
. [Tennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

. [Terras, J. A., BSc. 40 Findhorn-place, Edinburgh.

. {Terrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

. *Terry, Rey. T. R., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Rectory, East Ilsley, New-

bury, Berkshire.

2. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

. {Tetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

3. {Tetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

. *THane, Grorce Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University

College, Gower-street, W.C.

. {Thetford, The Right Rev. A. T. Lloyd, D.D., Bishop of. North

Creake Rectory, Fakenham, Norfolk.

. Thin, Dr. George. 22 Queen Anne-street, W.
. {Tatsetron-Dymr, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G., C.LE., M.A., B.Sc., Ph.D.,

LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S, (Pres. D, 1888; Pres. K, 1895; Council
1885-89, 1895-1900). Royal Gardens, Kew.

. {Thom, Robert Wilson, Lark Hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
. {Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.
. {Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-

mouthshire.

. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Penurrig, Builth.

. {Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

. {Thomas, E. Franklin, Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.
» §Thomas, Miss E. N. 73 Clyde-road, East Croydon.

. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

5. {Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 98

Year of
Election.

1881.
1869.

1880.
1899.
1902.
1883.
1898.

1883.

1886.
1886.
1875.
1891.
1883.
1891.

1882.
1888.

1885.
1896.

1883.

1891.

1893.

1870.
1888.
1891.
1891.
1883.

1897.
1891.
1861.
1876.

1883.
1876.

1883.
1896.

1896.
1867.
1894,

1889,

1891.
1896.
1890,

1883.

1871.

1902,

tTHomas, J. Brount. Southampton.
f{Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. 86 Breakspears-road, Brockley,
S.E.

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. Overdale, Shortlands, Kent.

§Thomas, Miss M. B. 200 Bristol-road, Birmingham.

{Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditf.

{Thomas, Rev. U. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol.

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

{Thomas, William. 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

{Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.

tThompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

{Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

{Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.

}{Tuompson, D’Arcy W., B,A., C.B., Professor of Zoology in Univer-
sity College, Dundee.

*Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

*Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

tThompson, G. Carslake. Park-road, Penarth.

*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

}{THompson, Sir Henry, Bart. 35 Wimpole-street, W.

*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croydon.

tThompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

{Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

*THompson, Isaac Cooxn, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. (Local Sec. 1896).
53 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

{Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

{Thompson, J. Tatham, M.B. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

*THompson, JosEPH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

{THompson, Sitvanus Purtiips, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(Council 1897-99), Principal and Professor of Physics in the
City and Guilds of London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

*Thompson, T. H. Oldtield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*THompson, W. H., M.D. 14 Hatch-street, Dublin.

{Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

tThoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.

{THomson, ARrHUR, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tThomson, John. 70a Grosyenor-street, W.

tThomson, John. 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

{THomson, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A.,F.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

{THomson, J. J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1896; Council
1893-95), Professor of Experimental Physics in the University
of Cambridge, Trinity College, Cambridge.

*THomson, JoHN Mitztar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-
road, W.

tThomson, J. Stuart. Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

94 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1901. §Thomson, Dr. J. T. Kilpatrick. 148 Norfolk-street, Glasgow.

1874. ec Wittiam, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

1880. §Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

1897. tThorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.

1871. tThornburn, Rev. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

1887. {Thornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

1898. mee: W.M. The Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-

yne.

1902. §Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W.

1883. tThorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

1903. §Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.

1881. {Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

1881. *Thorp, Josiah. 37 Pleasant-street, New Brighton, Cheshire.

1898. §Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

1898. tThorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester.

1871. {THorez, T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RS.E., V.P.0.8.
(Pres. B,1890; Council 1886-92), Principal of the Government
Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.

1883. §Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport.

1899, §THRELFALL, Rrowarp, M.A., F.R.S. 30 George-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1896. §Thrift, William Edward, M.A., Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-
square, Rathmines, Dublin.

1868, {Tuurirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.R.GS.
Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.

1889. {Thys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.

1870. tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.LA. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

1873. *TmpEMman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 175 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1874. {Trmpen, Wittram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Treas.C.S. (Pres. B, 1888,
Council 1898- ), Professor of Chemistry in the Royal College
of Science, South Kensington, London. The Oaks, Northwood,
Middlesex.

1883. {Tillyard, A. 1, M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1883. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1896. §Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Cleveley, Allerton, Liverpool.

1899. — a W. Marett, B.A., M.D., F.L.S. 10 Bateman-street, Cam-

ridge.

1902. §Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 6 Beechwood, Kendal.

1900. §Tocher, J. F., F.L.C. 5 Chapel-street, Peterhead, N.B.

1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, S.E.

1891. tTodd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

1897. tTodhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

1889. §Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

1857. {Tombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.

1888. {Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

1896. 1 Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, S.W.

1887. {Tonge, James, F.G.S. 24 Hampton-road, Southport.

1865. t Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire.

1873. *Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Portland Hotel, Great Portland-street, W.

1875. {Torr, Charles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.

1884, *Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada,

1873. t{Townend, W. H. Heaton TIall, Bradford, Yorkshire.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 95

Election.

. {TRaqvarrR, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D

. tTownsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
. }Townsend, J. 8S. E., M.A., F.R.S., Protessor of Physics in the

University of Oxford. New College, Oxford,

. *Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of

Botany in the University of Aberdeen.

. {Trarut, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylouch, Bushmills, Ireland.
. {Traitt, Wittram A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,

Portrush, Ireland.

’

1900), Keeper of the Natural History Collections, Museum of
Science and Art, Edinburgh.

. Travers, Ernest J. Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.

. {Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport Monmouthshire.

. {Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.

. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.

. tTreharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.

. *Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-

ford, Leeds.

3. §Trenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

. {Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berkshire,

. {Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {Tribe, PaulC.M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,U.S.A.
. {Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

. {TRnen, Roranp, M.A., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S. 26 Campden-grove,

Campden Hill, W.

. §TRistRAM, Rev. Henry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of

Durham. The College, Durham.

2. §Tristram, Rev. J. F. 160 Moss-side, Manchester.

. *Trotter Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond-terrace, Whitehall, S.W.
. §TRorrer, Courts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh
. {Trounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

. *Trouton, Freprrick T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics

in University College, W.C.

. §Trow, Albert Howard. Glanhafren, 50 Clive-road, Penarth.

. *Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.
. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

. {Tuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath.

. {Tuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D., M.P. Cupar, Fifeshire.

. {Tupper, The Hon.Sir Caartes,Bart.,G.C.M.G.,C.B. Ottawa,Canada.
. Turnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

. {Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glasgow.

. §Turnbull, Robert.. Department of Agriculture and Technical In-

struction, Dublin.

. {Turner, A. Crosbie. 65 Bath-street, Glasgow.
. §TurveR, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.
. *Turnmr, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astro-

nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.

. *TurnER, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.1.C., Professor of Metal-

lurgy in the University of Birmingham. 35 Wellington-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

. *Turngr, Sir Witi1aM, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.RS.E.

(PREsIDENT, 1900; Pres. H, 1889, 1897), Principal of the
University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.

. [Turney, Sir Joun, J.P., Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

*Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Se. High School, Nottingham.

. *Twigg,G. H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
. [Twiggs, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.

96 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of ~

Election.

1899. {Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

1888. {Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

1865, §TyLor, Epwarp Buryerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1884 ;
Council 1896-1902), Professor of Anthropology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. Museum House, Oxford.

1883, {Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S, Stirling Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E.

1897. {Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.

1884, *Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1888. {Underhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

1886, {Underhill, Thomas, M.D, West Bromwich.

1903, §Underwood, Captain J.C. Scarisbrick, New-road, Southport.

1885. §Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

1883. §Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

1876, *Unwin, W.C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99), Professor of Engineering at the Central Institution
of the City and Guilds of London Institute. 7 Palace Gate-
mansions, Kensington, W.

1887. {Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1872. t{Upward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.

1876. {Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

1866. {Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.

1898. {Usher, Thomas. 3 Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1902. §Ussher, R. J. Cappagh House, Cappagh, Co. Waterford.

1880, {UssHer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

1885, {Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 38 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1896, {Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

1887. *Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

1903. §Vallack, Edmund, 5 St. Michael’s-terrace, Stoke, Devonport.

1888. {Vallentin, Rupert, 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

1884, {Van Horne, Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,
Canada.

1883, *Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

1868. { Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.

1865. *VartEy, 8. AtrreD. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N.

1903. §Varwell, H. B. 2 Pennsylvania Park, Exeter.

1884, {Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-cardens, W.

1895, §Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Botanical Laboratory, The University,
Glasgow.

1875. {Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

1883, {Vaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

1881. §Vetry, V. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

1873. *VERNEY, Sir EpMunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,
Bucks.

1883. *Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

1896. *Vernon, Thomas T, Wyborne Gate, Birkdale, Southport.

1896. *Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.

1864, *Vicary, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

1890. *Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. St. Mary’s, Meads-road,
Eastbourne.

1899, * Vincent, Swate, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, The University,

Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 97

Year of

Electi

ion.

1883. *Vines, SypNey Howarp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K,

1902.

1891.

1886.
1902.
1860.
1900.
1888.
1890.
1900.
1891.
1902.
1884.

1886.
1870.
1884,
1891.
1891.
1894.
1882.
1835,
1893.
1890.
1901.
1897.

1833.

1883.
1891
1897.
1894.
1866.
1896.
1890.
1894.
1866,
1866,
1884,
1888.
1887.
1883.

1895.
1896.
1896.
1883.
1863.

1897.
1901.
1892,

1901.

1900; Council, 1394-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

§Vinycomb, T. B. Riverside, Holywood, Co. Down.

Tt Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. 33 Portland-street, Leaminzton.

Tt Waddell, Rev. C. H. The Vicarage, Saintfield.

{Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

t Waddington, Dr.C. E. 2 Marlborough-road, Manningham, Bradford.

TWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§Wacer, Harotp W. T., F.L.S. Arnold House, Basz-streat, Darby.

{Wagstaf, C.J.L, B.A, 8 Highfield-place, Manningham, Bratford.

TWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

§ Wainwright, Joel. Finchwood, Marple Bridge, Stockport.

t Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

tT Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.

{ Wake, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.

{Waldstein, Professor C., M.A., Ph.D. Kiag’s College, Cambridge.

t Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.

TWalford, Edward, M.D. ‘Thanet House, Cathe dral-road, Cardiff,

{Watrorp, Epwin A., F.G.S. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

*Wallden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.

t Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen,

§ Waiker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe Place, Maidstone, Kent,

TWalker, A. Tannett. ‘The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.LC. 8 Crown-terrace, Glasgow.

*Watker, B. E., F.G.8S. (Lozal Sec. 1897). Canadian Bank of
Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

tWalker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.

tWalker, EK. R. 19 Roe-lane, Southport.

T Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leads.

tWalker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.

*Watker, G.T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

TWalker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

tWalker, Dr. James. 19 Springfield, Dundee.

*Watker, James, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*“Watrer, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York,

{Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.

{t Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, S.E.

{Walker, Sydney F. Bloomtield-crescent, Bath,

tWalker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, S.W.

tWalker, Thomas A. 7 Cambridge-road, Southport.

Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh,

§Watker, Witttam G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.

§ Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.

TWalker, W.J. D. Glenhanna, Laurencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.

tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

{Wattace, ALFRED RussEL, D.O.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. 1D).
1876; Council 1870-72). Broadstone, Wimborne, Dorset.

tWallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada,

§ Wallace, James Sim, M.D., D.Sc. 304 Wimpole-street, W.

t Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

: {Wallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow,

903. G

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1889.
1895.

1885.
1884.
1886.

1894.
1887.
1891,
1903.
1895.

1902.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1881.
1879,

1890.
1874.
1887.
1857.
1880.

1887.
1882.
1867.
1901.
1858.

1884.
1887.

1878.

1884.
1896.
1887.

1898.
1893.
1875.

1870.
1900.
1892.
1875.

1884.
1901.

1886.

*Watier, Aveustus D., M.D., F.R.S. 82 Grove End-road, N.W.

* Wallis, Arnold J., M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.

tWatuis, E. Wuire, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.

{Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caiug College, Cambridge.

Wallis, Herbert. 289 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

*WatmisLey,A.T.,M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

{Walmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.

§ Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.

§Walsh, W. T. H. Toynbee Hall, Whitechapel, E.

{WatsincHaM, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S, (Vice-Presi-
pent 1904.) Merton Hall, Thetford.

*Walter, Miss L. Edna. 88 Woodberry-grove, Finsbury Park, N.

{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.

tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.

tWarp, A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.

§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

tWarp, H. Marswatn, D.Sc, F.RS., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1897;
Council 1890-97), Professor of Botany, University of Cam-
bridge. New Museums, Cambridge.

tWard, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.

§ Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.

tWarp, Jonny, F.G.S. 28 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.

tWard, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.

*Ward, J. Wesney. 4 Chepstow-mansions, Chepstow-place, Bays-
water, W.

tWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.

tWard, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton,

{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street. Dundee.

§ Wardlaw, Alexander, 21 Hamilton-drive, Hillhead, Glasgow.

tWardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.8. St. Edward-street, Leek, Stafford-
shire.

{ Wardwell, George J. 51 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.

*Waring, Richard S. Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{Warrneton, Rozert, F.R.S., F.C.8. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

{Warrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.
tWarreEn, Lieut.-General Sir CHartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1887). Atheneum Club, 8. W.

t Warrington, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwith.

t Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.

*WatERHOUSE, Major-General J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham,
Kent.

t Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

§Waterston, David, M.D. 23 Colinton-road, Edinbureh.

{Waterston, James H. 387 Lutton-place, Edinbureh.

tWatherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

{ Watson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

*Watson, Arnold Thomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent-
road, Sheffield.

*Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham,

EE ee SL ny

LIST OF MEMBERS, 99

Year of
Election,

1885,
1892,
1885.

1884.
1889.
1865.
1863.
1867.
1894,

1892.
1879.

1882.
1884,
1901.

1888.
1875.
1884,

1870.

1896.
1873.

1883,

1891.
1869,
1883.
1871.
1886,

1891.
1859,
1884,

1903.
1889,
1890.

1886.
1865,

1902.
1894,
1876.

1880.
1897.
1881.
1879,
1881.
1894,

tWatson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

§ Watson, G., Assoc.M.Inst.C. fi. 21 Springfield-mount, Leeds.

{ Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

{Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

{ Watson, John, F.I.C. P.O. Box 317, Johannesburg, South Africa.

{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

{ Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

tWatson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.

*Watson, Professor W., D.Sc, F.R.S. 7 Upper Cheyne-row,
S.W.

§Watson, William, M.D. The Lea, Corstorphine, Midlothian.

*Warson, WILLIAM Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Steelfield Hall, Gosforth,
Cumberland.

tWatt, Alexander. 29 Grange Mount, Claughton, Birkenhead.

tWatt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

§Watt, Henry Anderson. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay, Argyll--
shire.

{Warrs, B. H. (Local See. 1888). 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

*Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Watts, Rey. Canon Robert R. The Red House, Bemerton. Salis-.
bury. .-

§ Watts, William, F.G.8. Little Don Waterworks, Lanesett, near -
Penistone.

tWatts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.

*Warts, W. Marswaty, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, and
Carrholme, Stackhouse, near Settle.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., Sec.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903; Council
1902- ), Assistant Professor of Geology in the University,
Birmingham, Holmwood, Bracebridge-road, Sutton Coldfield.

tWaugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tWay, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

t Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

{Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton,

§WEBBER, Major-General C. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E.
gardens, S. W.

§ Webber, Thomas. The Laurels, 83 Newport-road, Roath, Cardiff,

tWebster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.
Jahustrasse 5, Karlsruhe.

§ Weekes, R. W. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

tWeeks, John G@ Bedlington.

*Weiss, F. Ernest, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester. ‘

{ Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

fWelch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall
East, S.W.

{Welch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.

{Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*“WeLDoN, Professor W. F. R., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS. (Pres, D,51898).
The Museum, Oxford.

*Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

{ Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada,

§ Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

§Wetts, Cuartzs A., A.L.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

§ Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

tWells, J.G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

G 2

17 Egerton~:

100

LIST OF MEMBERS

Year of
Election.

1883,
1881.

1864.
1886.

1865,

1853.
1898.
18538.
1900.
1905,
1897.
1882,
1882.
1882.

1900.
1885.

1884,

1878.
1888.
1893.
1888.
1888.
1879.

1898,
1874,
1883,
1859.

1884,

1886.
1897.
1886.
1876.
1886.
1898.
1882.
1885.
1873.
1885.
1865.
1895,

1884.
1898.
1859.
1877.

t Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.
*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Rog¢lyn, Walland’s Park, Lewes.

*Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry inthe Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

{Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.

t{West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

{ West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

{ West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

§ West, William, F.L.S. 26 Woodville-terrace, Horton-lane, Bradford.

§ Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

t~Western, Alfred E. 56 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Westlake, Ernest, F.G.8. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

tWestiake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

{WerHeEreD, Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-
ham.

§Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

*Wuarron, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.B.S., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1894; Council 1820-91), Hydrographer to
the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-road, Wimbledon Pari, Surrey.

tWheeler, Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,
U.S.A.

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

§Whelen, John Leman, 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

*Wuernim, W.C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge.

*Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

*Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

*\WHIDBORNE, Rey. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Hammerwood
Lodge, East Grinstead, Sussex.

*Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

t Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam-terrace, Belfast.

*Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in- Wharfedale.

*WHITAKER, WILLIAM, B.A., F.RS., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895;
Council 1890-96.) 38 Campden-road, Croydon.

t{Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{ Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham,

{Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

{ White, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.

{White, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

t{White, George. Clare-street House, Bristol.

{ White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, Southampton.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

tWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

{White, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

{ White, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada,

{ White, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

{White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 20 Hillersdon-ayenue, Church-road, Barnes, S.W.

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS, 101

Election.

1897.
1904.

1885.
1893.

1881.
1900.
1891.
1896.
1897.
1901.
1887.

1887.
1883.
1870.

1897.

1888.
1865.
1886.
1896.
1878.
1889,

1887.
1887.
1896.
1900.
1892,
1886,
1887.
1872.
1890.
1872.
1903.

1894,
1891.
1861.

1887.
1883.
1861.

1875.

1883.
1888.

1891.
1883.
1887,
1888.

1875.

1901.
-1891.

*Wuiure, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1899; Council 1897-
1900). Cedarcroft, Putney Heath, 8.W.

§WHITEHEAD, J.E.L., M.A. (Locan Srcrerary 1904). Guildhall,

se Cambridge.

{ Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.0.S., F.LC. 5 Bagnall-street, West
Bromwich.

t Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

tWhitley, E. N. Heath Royde, Halifax.

§Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Hyde Park, Leeds.

§Whitney, Colonel C. A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

tWauirraker, KE. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§ Whitton, James. City Chambers, Glasgow.

*Wauitty, Rev. Joun Inwinz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Alpha Villa,
Southwood, Ramseate.

{Whitwell, William. Overdene, Salthburn-by-the-Sea.

TWhitworth, James. 36 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

{tWickett, M., Ph.D. 339 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

tWickham, Rey. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

j Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.

t Weggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{ Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.

}Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

*WILBERFORCE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool.

{Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Wixpz, Henry, D.Sc., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Cheshire,

tWildermann, Meyer. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W.

§ Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford.

t Wilkinson, Rev. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston, Herts.

*Wiilkinson, J. H. Elmhurst Hall, Lichfield.

*Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.

Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

tWillans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{ Wutterr, Henry (Local Sec. 1872). Arnold House, Brighton.

§ Willett, John E. 3 Park-road, Southport.

tWilley, Arthur, D.Sc., F.R.S. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon,

{ Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

t Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

“Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea,

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

}Willams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.

§ Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Lingfield Grange, Bianksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W.

tWilliams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.

*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke-vale
Clifton, Bristol.

*Williams, M. B. Killay House, Killay, R.S.O.

*Williams, Miss Mary. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W.

fWilliams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

102 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election,

1886. { Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

1883. t Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

1883, { Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

1877. *Wirtiams, W. Carterton, F.C.S. University College, Sheffield.

1850. *WittramMson, ALEXANDER W., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(Present 1873; GENERAL TREASURER 1874-91; Pres. B,
1863, 1881; Council 1861-72). High Pitfold, Haslemere.

1857, {WittriAmson, Bensamin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

1876, { Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

1894, *Williamson, Mrs. Janora. Ardoyne, Birkbeck-road, Muswell Hill, N.

1895. {Wuttmk, W. (Local Sec. 1896). 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

1895. { Willis, John C., M.A., F'.L.S., Direetor of the Royal Botanical
Gardeus, Peradeniya, Ceylon.

1896, {Wuttison, J. 8. (Local Sec. 1897). Toronto, Canada.

1859, *Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred, Saxholm, Basset, Southampton.

1898. { Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.

1899. § Willson, George. 12 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Streatham, S.W.

1899. § Willson, Mrs. George. 12 St. Leonard’s-terrace, Streatham, S.W.

1886, { Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

1901. {Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

1878. { Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

1876. { Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

1894. *Wilson, Charles J., F.I.C., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmin-
ster, S. W.

1903. § Wilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge.

1874, {Wutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres E, 1874, 1888). The Athenzeum Club,
S.W.

1876, {| Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

1900. *Wilson, Duncan R. Menethorpe, Malton,

1890, { Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

1865. { Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

1847. * Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

1905. §Wilson, George. Owens College, Manchester.

1874. *Wilson, George Orr. 20 Berkeley-street, W.

1863, {Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

1895, {Wilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s College, Belfast.

1901. § Wilson, Harold A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1902. *Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 146 Hich-street, Southampton.

1888. *Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, R.S.0.,
Kent.

1879. { Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheflieid.

1885. {Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1890. {Wilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall-gate, Doncaster.

1865. {Wutson, Ven. Archdeacon James M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage,
Rochdale.

1884, {Wilson, James 8. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

1879, { Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

1901. *Wilson, Joseph. Columba Villa, Oban, N.B.

1901. § Wilson, Mrs. Mary R., M.D. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1876. tWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W.

1847. *Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

1883. {Wilson, T, Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

1892, §Wilson,T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edebaston, Birmingham,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1887. § Wilson, W., jun. Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire,

1871. *Witson, WitiiaAm E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete,
Rathowen, Ireland.

1903. §Wilson-Barker, Captain D., R.N.R., F.R.S.E. Thames Nautical
Training College, off Greenhithe, Kent.

1877. {Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes. ;

1886. {WinpLz, Bertram C, A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor o
Anatomy, The University, Birmingham.

1863, *Winwoop, Rev. H. H. M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864),
11 Cavendish-crescent. Bath.

1888. {Woprnovusg, Right Hon. E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S.W.

1875. {Wotrr-Barry, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1898 ; Council, 1899-1903). 21 Delahay-street, Westminster,
S.W.

1883. {Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

1898. { Wollaston, G. H. Clifton College, Bristol.

1884, { Womack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied
Mathematics at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Bedford College,
Baker-street, W. 3

1883. tWood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey,

1863. “Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

1885. t Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1901. *Wood, Miss Ethel M. 3 Shorncliffe-road, Folkestone.

1875. *Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

1878. {Woop, Sir H. Trurman, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street,
Adelphi, W.C.; and 16 Leinster-square, Bayswater, W.

1883, *Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne-road, Birkdale.

1893. {Wood, Joseph T, 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.

1864. {Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

1871. {Wood, T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,

1899. *Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,

1901. *Wood, William James. 266 George-street, Glasgow.

1872. {Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.

1845. *Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A.,D.D, Waldington, Combe Park,
Bath.

1884. { Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.

1883. t Woodcock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.

1884. {Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.

1896. §WoopHEaD, Professor G. Sims, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

1888. *Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.

Woops, Samvrt. 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C,

1887. *Woopwarp, ArtHuR SuitH, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Council
1903- ), Keeper of the Department of Geology, British
Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, S.W.

1869. *Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. 127 Metchley-lane, Harborne,
Birmingham.

1886. t Woodward, Harry Page, F.G.S. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.

1866. }Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. OC, 1887;
Council, 1887-94). 129 Beaufort-street, Chelsea, S.W.

1870. | Woopwarp, Horace B., F.R.S., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, S.W.

1894. *Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.

1884. *Woolcock, Henry. .Rickerby House, St. Bees.

1890, *Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.1.Inst., F.S.8., M.R.L.A.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland). 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

104

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Electiou.

1888.
1856.
1878.

1865,
1901.
1855.

1884.
1896.
1883,
1883.
1890.
1886.
1884,
1876,
1902,
1874.
1865.
1884,

1876,
1905,
LS 7a

1898,
1902.
1897,
1901.
1902.
1885,
1871.
1862.

1899,

1875.
1901.

1894.
1896.
1884.
1877.
1884,
1891.
1886,

1884,
1894,
1884,
1876.
1896.
1885.
1901.

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

tWoolley, Thomas Smith. South Collingham, Newark.

tWormell, Richard, M.A*, D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

§ Worth, J. T. Oakenrod Mount, Rochdale.

*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford. Stour-
bridge.

tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

{ Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire.

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, M.A. Queers’ College, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

{ Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{ Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

§Wright, John. The White House, Burns-street, Nottingham.

t Wright, Joseph, F.G.S. 4 Alfred-place, Belfast.

{Wri¢ght, J. S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

tWericut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College,
Toronto, Canada.

tWright, William. 51 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

§ Wright, William. The University, Birmingham.

tWricutson, Sir THomas, Bart.,M.P., M.Inst.C.1., F.G.S8, Neasham
Hal), Darlington.

tWrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada.

§Wyatt,G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

tWyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Wylie, Alexander. Mirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

tWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

{Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

tWynn, Mrs. Williams. Plas-yn-Cefn, St. Asaph.

tWywnk, ArtHur Brevor, F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

tWrywe, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Fis cnet Society of Great Britain. 9 Selwood-terrace,
South Kensington, S.W.

tYabbicom, Thomas Henry. 23 Oaktield-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Yapp, R. H., M.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp's Mount, Doncaster.

*Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.

TYates, Rev.S. A. Thompson. 48 Phillimore-gardens, S.W.

TtYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.

TYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.

§Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 53a Algiers-road, Ladywell, S.E.

*Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S. (Local See. 1887), Professor of
Anatomy in Owens College, Manchester.

TYoung, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.

*Young, George, Ph.D. University College, Sheftield.

t Young, Professor George Paxton. ]21 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Young, John. 2 Montague-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tYoung, J. Denholm, 88 Canningy-street, Liverpool.

tYoung, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tYoung, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 105

Wection.

1883, *Youne, Sypnery, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor-of Chemistry in the Uni-
versity of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.

1887. {Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

1890. {Young, 1. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland.

1901. Young, William Andrew. Milburn House, Renfrew.

1903, §Yoxall, J. H.,M.P. 67 Russell-square, W.C.

1886, {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham,
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Birmingham,

106

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1892.

1881.
1897.

1894.
1894,
1887.
1892.

1894.
1893.
1880,
1887.
1884.

i890.
1895.

1887.
1884.

1894.
1897.

1887.
1887.

1894,

1861.

1901.
1894.
1887.

1875.
1889.

1901.

1872.
1870.

1890.

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18).

Professor G. a Barker. 8909, Locust-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Carl Barus, Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor F, Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.

Professor E. van Beneden. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.

Deputy Surgeon-General J. S. Billings. 40 Lafayette-place, New
York, U.S.A.

Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark,

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. XVIII. Haizingergasse 26, Vienna.

Professor Lewis Boss. Dudley Observatory, Albany, New York,
U.S.A.

Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D., LL.D. Harvard Medical School,
Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.

Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A.

Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. CO. 8, No. 9, Mannheim, Germany.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 Rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universititstrasse 15, Leipzig.

Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. A. Chauveau. Rue Cuvier 7, Paris.

F. W. Clarke. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.

Wie e Le United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,

S.A.

Dr. Yves Delage. Paris,

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 4 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107

Year of
Electiou.

1876.
1894.
1892.
1901.
1894.

1892.
1901.
1874.
1886,
1887.
1894.
1872.
1901.
1894,
1887.
1892.
1881.
1866.
1901.
1884,
1892.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1884.
1892,

1876,
1881.
1895.

1887,
1893.
1894.
1893.

1893.
1897,
1887.
1881.

1887.
1884.

1867.
1876.

1881.

1887.
1876.
1884.
1873.
1894.
1896.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingtors, Finland.

Professor H. Elster, Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15,
Berlin, N.W.

Professor Léo Errera. 38 Rue de la Loi, Brussels.

Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

Dr. W, Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S.W. 48.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden.

Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 20, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague, Bohemia.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheen Strasse 35, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Professor Dr. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rkode Island, U.S.A.

Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Professor Gustave Gilson. Jl Université, Louvain, Belgium.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, U.S.A.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids ct Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 37 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 23, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitit, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Professor W. His. Kénigstrasse 22, Leipzig.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. The University,
Utrecht, Netherlands.

Dr, Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A.

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. W. J. Janssen, Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
land.

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 82 East Preston-street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 153 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 19 Via Fatebenefratelli, Milan.

Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen. {

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Dr. Kohlrausch. Marchstrasse 258, and Physikalisch-technische
Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, Berlin.

108 CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Year of ae
Election.

1856. Professor A. von Kélliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.
1894. Professor J. Kollmann. St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.
1894. Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes, France.
1887. Professor W. Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/I, Charlottenburg, bei
Berlin.
1877. Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. Universitit, Bern,
Switzerland.
1887. Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 108, Breslau.
1887. Professor J. W. Langley. 77 Cornell-street, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A.
1882. Dr. S. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, U.S.A.
1872. M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.
1901. Professor Philipp Lenard. Kiel.
1887. Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna.
1883. Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich,
1877. Dr. M. Lindemann. Sennorrstrasse 62, II, Dresden.
1887. Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. Universitat, Zurich.
1871. Professor Jacob Liiroth. Mozartstrasse 10, and Universitat, Freiburg-
in-Breisgau, Germany.
1894. Professor Dr. Otto Maas. Universitit, Munich.
1887. Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A,
1867. Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris.
1887. Dr. ©. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.
1890. Professor E. Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 rue de l'Université,
Paris.
1887. Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. Université, St. Petersburg.
1887. Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.
1884. Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A,
1887. Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
1894, Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djuysholm, Stockholm.
1893. Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).
1877. Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte.
Marne, France.
1894, Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III/3.
1897. Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.
1897, Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A.
1887. E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.
1889. Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.
1894, Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padova,
Italy.
1864, Dr. G. Mewiaiar: Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
1884, eae Simon Newcomb. 1620 P-street, Washington, D.C.,
S.A
1887. Professor Emilio Noelting, Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.
1894. Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.
1894. Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.
1890. Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.
1889. Professor A. S. Packard. Brown University, Providence, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.
1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 20 Route de Malagnou, Geneva.
1895. Professor F. Paschen. Universitit, Tiibingen.
1887. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany.
1901. Professor A. Penck. Vienna.
1890. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockhoms Hogskola, Stockholm.
1894, Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS, 109

Year of
Election.

1870. Professor Felix Plateau, 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.

1886. Professor F. W. Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

1887. Ero Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-

erg.

1868, L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 Rue de l'Université, Paris, France.

1873. Professor Baron von Richthofen, Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin, W.

1896. Dr. van Rijekevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

1890. A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

1895. Professsr Karl Runge. Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 5, Kirchrode, bei
Hannover.

1901. Gen.-Major Rykatchew. Central Physical Observatory, St. Peters-

ure.

1894, Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands,

1874. Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.

1897. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

1892. Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands, de Bilt, near Utrecht.

1887. Professor H. Graf Solms. Botanischer Garten, Strassburg.

1887. Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

1888. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1889, Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘he University, Athens.

1894. Professor E. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

1881, Professor Dr. Rudolf Sturm. Frinkelplatz 9, Breslau.

1887, Dr. T, M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

1887. Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University

of Pesth, Hungary.

1890. Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff. Uhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin.

1889, Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineralogical Museum, Moscow.

1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

1887. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltke Strasse 60, Kiel.

1887. Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

1887. Dr. H. OC. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

1881. Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

1887. Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. (O/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-
gasse, Leipzig.)

1887. Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.

1887. Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Siegmundshof, Berlin, N.W. 23.

1876. Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

1887. Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1896. Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

1887. Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

110

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bradford, Philosophical Society.
Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Cardiff, University College.

Chatham, Royal Engineers’ Institute.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.
Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

Treland.

, Royal Geological Society of
Treland.

——,, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

, Royal Medical Society of.

, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science.

, Philosophical and Literary
Society of.

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

, Anthropological Institute.

——,, Arts, Society of.

——, Chemical Society.

——, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——, East India Library.

—.,, Geological Society.

, Geology, Museum of Practical,
28 Jermyn Street.

——, Greenwich, Royal Observatory.

——, Guildhall, Library,

—, Kew Observatory.

, Royal College of Surgeons in |

London, King’s College.

, Linnean Society.

——., London Institution.

, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

, Physical Society.

| ——, Meteorological Office.

| ——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——., Royal Astronomical Society.

——., Royal College of Physicians.

» Royal College of Surgeons.

, Royal Geographical Society.

—-, Royal Institution.

——,, Royal Meteorological Society.

——, Royal Society.

——,, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——., United Service Institution,

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

——., Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

, Mechanics’ Institute.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Natural History
Society.

| ——., Radcliffe Observatory.
| Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association,
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Sheffield, University College.

| Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies.

111

EUROPE.
PSOTIIT 5.0.0. + csiose Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.
demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.
schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
FIORE <5 scss ess. University Library. |—— _......... University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of | Munich ......... University Library.
Sciences. Naples’ sccs. score Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Paris ............ Association Frangaise
seryatory. pour l’Avancement
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of des Sciences.
Sciences. $$ saveceeerene Geographical Society.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, ———seseeeeevese Geological Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. Sar Sbacennuccs Royal Academy of
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- Sciences.
Gide wales SMe eel AS codes oon School of Mines.
Geneva............ Natural History So- | Pultova ......... Imperial Observatory.
ciety. NOME! setae cee sect Accademia dei Lincei.
Gottingen ...... University Library. | —— ............ Collegio Romano.
BGIHIGZ << -. 02 edanes Naturwissenschatft- $$ reseveceeees Italian Geographical
licher Verein. Society.
PETELOD (coclocesccss Leopoldinisch-Caro- | —— ............ Italian Society of
linische Akademie. Sciences.
Harlem ....Société Hollandaise | St. Petersburg . University Library.
Ges Scignces. |) er carcee Imperial Observatory.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Helsingfors......University Library. AMER RIA AP icocorcene Royal Academy of
BUCA en... c-no00 University Library. Sciences.
Kazan, Russia ... University Library. Wipsallas cs. essence Royal Society of
ISG) ORSae eee Royal Observatory. Science.
BG Viercs--ocne+000 University Library. Witrecht <:5....< .University Library.
Lausanne......... The University. Vilenna. 6.065.505 The Imperial Library.
Leyden ......... University Library. | —— .......e Central Austalt fur
LIGGG) SaaaenEeeeeS University Library Meteorologie und
Lisbon ............ Academia Real des Erdmagnetismus.
Sciences. AAT CHiviesians.«s see General Swiss Society.
ASIA.
20) ae The College. |. Caleutta:...\..... Medical College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | ——-_......... Presidency College.
tion. Ceylon... sei0-3 The Museum,Colombo,
— “Shecocte Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory.
LETESE ey Gala inh sf fi Peer University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. ROKVOW scchcceaasce Imperial University.
— abaceonse Hooghly College.
AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope .

. The Royal Observatory.

AMERICA.
EMO oagssoes The Institute. | New York...
Amherst ......... The Observatory. |
Baltimore ......Johns Hopkins Uni- | —— ......
versity. |
Boston .......000ee American Academy of | Ottawa ......
Arts and Sciences. |
California ...... The University. Philadelphia
LS epic Lick Observatory. |
Peaeci Academy of Science. |, —— __......
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | —— ......
Library. |
Chicago ........./ American Medical Toronto ...
Association. a eee
$= eeeesesee Field Columbian Mu-
ROUT VC) od ne es
Kingston .........Queen’s University. Washington
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | —— ......
tific Society. |
IMGXICO | A. catewds Sociedad Cientifica —— ......
‘Antonio Alzate, | —— ......
Missouri ......... Botanical Garden.
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and |
Manufactures. | rt cash

ee
eeeeee

...McGill University.

AUSTRALIA.
Adelaide .

...American' Society of
Civil Engineers.
Lyceum of Natural

History.

Geological Survey of
Canada.

... American Philosophical
Society.

Franklin Institute.

University of Pennsyl-
vania.

The Observatory.

The Canadian Insti-
tute.

...The University.

...Bureau of Ethnology.

Smithsonian Institu-
tion.

The Naval Observatory,

United States Geolo-
gical Survey of the
Territories.

Library of Congress.

Board of Agriculture

wee

see

wee

one

. The Colonial Government.
. The Royal Geographical Society.

Brisbane ‘ . Queensland Museum,
Melbourne . Public Library.
Sydney . . Public Works Department.

. Australian Muse
. Royal Society.

Tasmania.
Victoria .

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury M .
3 OEE 1904

Pr -

PRINTED BY

um,

. The Colonial Government.

SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUARE

LONDON

iw rt

ety ae sole pe aphl> L ems bm ;

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