lA.'?^
REPORT
OF THE
EIGHTY.THIRD MEETING OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE
BIRMINGHAM: 1913
SEPTEMBER 10-17
'^
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1914
Ojfice of the AssociaiiGii : Btirlingtou House, Loudon, II'
CONTENTS.
Page
Ofpicees and Council, 1913-1914 iii
Rules of the British Association v
Tables : Past Annual Meetings : *
Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1913) 'xxi
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1913) .xii
Chairmen and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates (1901-1913) xxix
Evening Discourses (1901-1913) xxix
Lectures to the Operative Classes and Public Lectures (1901 -1913) xxxi
Places and Dates, Presidents, Attendances, Receipts, and Sums
paid on account of Grants for Scientific Purposes (1831-191:'>) xxxii
Analysis of Attendances xxxiv
Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1912) xxxvi
Repoet of the Council to the Geneeal Committee, 1912-1913 ... xli
Geneeal Tebasueer's Account, 1912-1913 xlvi
BlEMINGHAM MEETING, 1913:
General Meetings xlviii
Sectional Officers xlviii
Officers of Conference of Delegates 1
Committee of Recommendations 1
Research Committees li
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso Ixii
Resolutions referred to the Council Ixii
Synopsis of Grants of Money Ixiv
Address by the President, Sie Olivee J. Lodge, D.Sc, LL.D.,F.R.S. 3
Reports on the State op Science 45
* Particulars for early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will
be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years.
a2
n CONTKNTS.
Page
Tbansactions of the Sections :
A. — Mathematical and Physical Science o67
Ji.— Chemistry 408
C . — Geol ogy -15o
D.— Zoology 500
E. — Geography o30
F. — Economic Science and Statistics ofJO
< i . — Engineering 587
1 1 . — Anthropology 6 1 o
I.— Physiology 652
K.— Botany 01>2
L. — Educational Science 7'J'2
M. — Agriculture 758
Evening Discourses 78;j
Al'PKNLilX: Papers ordered to he printed i)i rrteiian 788
Index 815
List of Members, &c 100 pages
LIST OK PLA'l'ES.
Plate I. — Ilhislrating the Report on Seisniolo'jical Investigations.
J'lates it., III., AND IV.— Illustrating the lleporl on the lurlher 'I'al.uhition
on Be.ssel and other Function-'.
officp:rs and council, i;»i3-iyi4.
PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
PRESIDENT.
Siu OLIVER J. LODGE, U.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hou. tlio Lord Mayor of Uinuingham ' The Right Hon. Jiispii'n Chambebi.ain, 1) f L
(Lieut.-Ool. E. Mautineau, JI.A., V.U.). M.P., Cliaiicclloi- of tlie University of Birniiii"-'
Tlie Right Hon. the Earl of Cravex, Lor J- linm.
Lieutenant of War-vickshire. , The Vicc-Chauccllor of the University of Birining-
Tlio Worshipfnl the High Sheriff of Warwickshire I hara (Gilheiit Bauling, M.B., F.R.O.S.).
(Sir F. E, Wallkk, Bart.). The Right Hon. JussK Coli.ings, il.P., Hon. Prcsi-
Tlie Right Hon. the Earl •)¥ Covkxtry, Lord- ' deut of the Birmingham Chamber of Oomuioroe.
Lieutenant of Worcestershire. ] AMerman the Right Hon. William Kexrick.
The Right Hon. the Earl ok D.A.liTMOurH, V.D., The Deputy Lord Mayor of Birmingliam (Alderman
Lord-Lieuteuaiit of Staffordshire. W. H. Bo\vatei; ). "
The Right Re", tlie Lord Bishop of Birmingham Professor Charles Lapworth, LL.D., F.R.S.
(Dr. H. Ru.ssELL Wakefield). ' Professor J. H. PoTXTixti, Sc.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
Profe.s.sor William Batesox, M.A., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His E.Kcellency the Governor-General of the Com- ■ The Honourahlc the Premiers of New South Wales,
mouwealth of Australia. ■ Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western
Their Excellencies the Governors of New South Australia, Tasmania.
Wales, Victoria, (^neenslaud, Sonth Australia. The Right Houonrable the Lord Mayors of Syduev
Western Australia, Tasmania. and Melbourne.
The Houourable the Prime Minister of the Com- | The Right Worshipful the Mayors of Brisijane,
monwealth. Adelaide, Perth, Hobart.
The Chancellors of the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Tasmania, Qneeusland,
Western Australia.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor Joh.v Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor W. A. Herd.man, D.Sc, F.R.S. | Professor H. H. Tl-kxek, D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
O. J. R. HiiWARTH, M.A., Burlington House, Loudon, W.
CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. 0. Stewardson, Burlington House, London, W.
FEDERAL COUNCIL FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.
I'.esicli'xt : The Hon. the Prime Minister of the Oo^[.MOx«^:AL■rH.
Chairman : Professor Orme Massox, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Seerelnrn : M. L. Shepherd, Prime Minister's Department, Melbourne.
GENERAL ORGANISING SECRETARY FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.
.\. C. D. RiVETT, B.A., D.Sc, University of Melbourne, Victoria.
[I'.r.o.
IV OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.
LOCAL OFFICERS FOR THE AUSTRALIAN MEETING.
Nkw South ViXhES.— Chairman : Professor T. W. Eduewokth David, O.M.G..
D.Sc, F.K.S.
Secretary: J. H, Maidex, F.L.S.
Treasurer: H G. Ghapmax, M.D., B.S.
Victoria. — Chairman: Professor OitME Massox, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Secretary: Professor BALnwix Spexceh, M.&.., O.M.G,, F.ll.S.
Treasurer: Fuederick White.
QUEEXSLAXD. — Chairman : Professor B. D. Steele, D.Sc.
Secretary: T. E. Joxes, B.A.
South Australia —Chairman: Professor E. 0. Stirlixo, M.D., D.Sc, F.H.S.
Secretary : Professor Kerr GiiAXT, M.Sc.
Treasurer: Thomas Gill.
Westeux Australia.— CA«)nH((»; Sir Wixthrop Hackbtj', K.C.M.G., LL.D.
Secrttary: James S. Battye, JI.A., LL.B.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Arustroxg, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Hall, A. D., F.R.S.
Brabrook, Sir Edward, G.B. Halliburtox, Professor \V. D., F.R.S.
Bragg, Professor W. H., F.R.S. IM Thurx, Sir E. F., K.C.M.O.
Clerk, Dr. Ddgald, F.R.S. Lodge, Alfred, M.A.
Graigie, Major P. G., G.B. Lyoxs, Captain H. G.. F.R.S.
Crooxe, W., B.A. Marr, Dr. J. E., F.R.S.
Dexdy, Professor A., F.R.S. Meldoi.a. Professor R., F.R.S.
Dixey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. Myres, Professor J. L., M.A.
Dixox, Professor H. B., F.R.S. Praix, Sir David, O.I.E., F.R.S.
Far.mer, Professor J. B., F.R.S. Sherringtox, Professor C. S., F.R.S.
Grifpiths, Principal E. H., FJl.S. Teall, Dr. J. J. H., F.R.S.
Haddox, Dr. A. C., F.R.S. Thompson, Dr. Silvaxus P., F.R.S.
Troutox, Professor F. T., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Tile Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for tlie year, the
President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past
Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
The Right Hon. Lord Ravt.ei6H, O.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir Arthur W. Rxjcker, M.A., D.Sc. LL.D., F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacMahox, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Lord Rayleifh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir A. W. RUcker, D.Sc, F.R.S. Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S.
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir James Dewar, LL.D., P.R.S. , Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S.
Sir A.Geikie.O.M., K.G.B., F.R.S. Sir Norman Lockyer,K. G.B. , F.R.S. ' Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, O.M., Pres.R.S. Arthur J. Balfoui-, D.C.L., F.R.S. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir W. Turner, K.O.B., F.R.S. SirE.EayLankester,K.O.B.,F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S.
PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Prof. T. G. Bonney, Sc.D., F.R.S. I Sir E. A. Schafer, LL.D., F.R.S. I Dr. J. G. Garson.
A. Vernon Harcourt, D.C.L., F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. Major P. A. MacMaliou, F.R.S.
Sir A. W. Rucker, D.Sc, F.R.S. | Dr. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S. |
AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, G.B. | Professor H.McLeod, LL.D., F.R.S.
RULES OF
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
[Adopted hy the Geiieral Committee at Leicester, 1907,
"vith mhseqvent amendments.']
Chapter I.
Objects and Constitution.
1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance- Objects,
ment of Science are : To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.
The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.
2. The Association shall consist of Members, Associates, Constitution.
and Honorary Corresponding JMembers.
The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth ; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.
3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or Annual
longer, and at such other times as the Genei-al Committee Meetings,
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.
Chapter II.
The General Committee.
1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the Constitution,
following persons : —
(i) Permanent Members —
(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past
and present Presidents of the Sections.
Admission.
Meetings.
Functions.
VI PJll.ES OK THE JililTISIl AsSOCIATK )\.
(b) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furtheied the, advancenitnl of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.
(ii) Tanijwrary Members —
(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.
(b) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.
(c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies.
{d) Delegates — not exceeding altogether three in
number — from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.
"2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.
(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting,
(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.
3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annua!
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.
4. The General Committee .shall
(i) Receive and consider the report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the report of the Committee of
Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(\) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council,
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors,
(x) Elect the officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion f<ir the next Annual
Meeting.
c:OMMnTEK OK KWDMMKNnATlU^y.
ClIArTKR IIT.
Committee of Recommendalions.
1. *The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom- Constitution.
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the Chairman of tlie Conference of Delegates, the
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and
the Presidents of the Association in former years.
An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.
If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.
2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and Functions.
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.
Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.
Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.
3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble. Procedure,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting.
* Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909.
VUl
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Chapter IV.
Research Committees.
Procedure. 1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.
In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee, composed of Members of the Association, to
conduct research or administer a grant in aid of research,
and in any case to report thereon to the Association ; and the
Committee of Recommendations may include such recom-
mendation in their report to the General Committee.
Constitution. 2. Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.
3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.
All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.
Tenure. 4. Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant — or a further grant — of money.
Reports. 5- Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed. Interim
Reports, whether intended for publication or not, must be sub-
mitted in writing. Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain
whether a Report has been made by each Research Committee
appointed on their recommendation, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations on or before the Monday of
the Annual Meeting.
Proposals by
Sectional
Committees.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
G. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on, the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.
Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.
The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un-
expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the
first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain
an unexpended balance when or before its report is presented,
due reason being given for such application.*
When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.
In making grants of money to Reseai'ch Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.
A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.
7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.
Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made
by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.
All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Ofiice of the Association.
Grants.
(a) Drawn by
Chairman.
(J) Expire on
June 30.
(c) Accounts
and balance
in hand.
id) Addi-
tional Grant.
(e) Caveat.
Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,
&c.
* Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912.
KULFS UK ri]E ISHITiyn AS^UC;iATlUi\.
C H A P I' E R V".
Tlie Council.
Constitution. 1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and nf
Ordinary Meml)ers elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.
(i) The ex officio Members are — the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.
(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-hvc in
number. Of these, not more than twenty sliall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
pi-evious year.
Functions. 2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
oil behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.
In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.
The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.
The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.
Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on the list.
The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.
TIIR COtlNTIL. XI
3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same Elections.
time as that of the OfKcers of the Association,
(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :
(a) Three of the Members who have served for the
longest consecutive period, and
(f)) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.
Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.
(u) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,
in their Annual Report, thie names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council,
(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.
Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five members at least require it to be by ballot.
Chapter YT.
The President., General Officers, and Staff.
1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi-
Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address. '^^"'■•
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.
The President shall preside at all meetings' of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
Ijy a Vice-President or past President of the Association.
2. The General Officers of the Association are the General General
Treasurer and tlie General Secretaries. Officers.
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
The General
Treasurer.
The General
Secretaries.
The Assistant
Secretary.
Assistant
Treasurer.
It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.
3. The General Treasurer shall be responsiljle to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.
4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general I'outine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.
5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during tiie
pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.
The Assistant Secretaiy shall he charged, subject as afore-
said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.
6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.
The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.
Financial
Statements.
Chapter VII.
Finance.
1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all suras of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account ; and, after
FINANCE. xm
June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet of the Funds of the
Association.
2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited, Audit,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.
3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay- Expenditure,
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.
4. The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the Investments,
account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.
5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable, Cheques.
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.
Chapter VIII.
The Annual Meetings.
Local Offi-
cers and
Committees.
1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.
2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
she.U be empowered to enrol Members and Associates, and to
receive subscriptions.
3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under- Functions,
tak e the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
naiie of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.
KLLES OF illE liKITLSII ASSOCIATIUN.
The
bECTlUNS.
Sectional
Officeis.
liooiiis.
Sectional
committke-
Constitution.
Chapter 1 X.
I'he Work of the Sectioits.
1. The scieiitilic woik of the Association shall be trans-
acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time
to time by the General Committee.
It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of connnunica-
tions addressed to that Section.
2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or
more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for ejicli Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as tlie Officeis of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.
Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.
3. The Section Rooms and the appi'oaches thereto shall
not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.
4. The work of each Section shall be conducted by a
Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following : —
(i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.
(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.
(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Conmiittce,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :
Privilege of
Old Members
Daily
Co-optation.
Provi'led always that —
(ffl) Any Member of the Association wlio has served on
the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.
{b) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.
THE W'OHK OF THE SECTIONS. XV
(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the Additional
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons Jice-Presi-
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
yection, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.
5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the Executive
President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on Functions
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.
The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi- Of President
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.
The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans- and of
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of Recorder,
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.
6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the Organising
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own Committee,
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.
Each Organising Committee shall hold such Meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.
Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other- Sectional
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting : to co-opt t'ommittcu.
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.
No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been Papers and
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted Reports.
on its Minutes.
XVI
RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Recommen-
dations.
Any report or paper read in any one Section nJay be read
also in any other Section.
No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of tlie Association unless the manuscript has
been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close
of the Annual Meeting.
It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, furtlier, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required : to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research
Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the ta.sk
of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-
tions, or Departments of His Majesty's Government. The
appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.
No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Com-
mittee.
7. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports
of Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere
than in the Annual Report without the express sanction of
the Council.
8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association.
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES.
Chapter X.
Admission of Members and Associates.
1. No technical qualification shall be required on the Applications.
part of an applicant for admission p.s a Member or as an
Associate of the British Association ; but the Council is
empowered, in the event of special circumstances arising, to
impose suitable conditions and restrictions in this respect.
* Every person admitted as a Member or an Associate Obligation.s.
shall conform to the Rules and Regulations of the Association,
any infringement of which on his part may render him liable
to exclusion by the Council, who have also authority, if they
think it necessary, to withhold from any person the privilege
of attending any Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of
admission already issued.
It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the. next
Meeting.
2. All Members are eligible to any office in the Association. Conditions
(i) Every Life Member shall pay, on admission, the sum and Privileges
of Ten Pounds. ship^''"^"""
Life Members shall receive gratis the Annual
• Reports of the Association.
(ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
sum of Two Pounds, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.
Annual Members shall receive gratis the Report
of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay,
vnthout intermission, their annual subscription. An
Annual Member who omits to subscribe for any
particular year shall lose for that and all future
years the privilege of receiving the Annual Reports
of the Association y?-a<t5. He, however, may i-esume
his other privileges as a Member at any subsequent
Annual Meeting by paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound,
(iii) Every Associate for a year shall pay, on admission,
the sum of One Pound.
* Amended by the General Committee at Didilin 1908
1913
XV
RULES OF THE HRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Conespond-
intr Member!-
Annual Sub-
scriptions.
Till.' Annual
U'.'port,.
Associates shall not receive tlie Annual Report
gratuitously. They shall not be eligible to serve on
any Committee, nor be qualified to hold any office in
the Association,
(iv) Ladies may become Members or Associates on the
same terms as gentlemen, or can obtain a Lady's
Ticket (transferable to ladies only) on the payment
of One Pound.
3. Corresponding Members may be appointed by the
Ceneral Committee, on the nomination of the Council. They
shall lie entitled to all the privileges of Membership.
4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year on June 30 of the following year.
5. The Annual Report of the Association shall be forwarded
gratis to individuals and institutions entitled to receive it.
Annual Members whose subscriptions have been inter-
mitted shall be entitled to purchase the Annual Report
at two- thirds of the publication price ; and Associates for a
year shall be entitled to purchase, at the same price, the
volume for that year.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication can only be issued by direction of the Council.
Affiliated
Societies.
Associated
Societies.
Chapter XI.
Corresponding Societies : Conference of Delegates.
Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows :
1 . (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves-
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.
Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become a Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of
the General Committee,
(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the BritisJi
Association.
COKRESrONDIN(i SOCIETIKS : CONKKKENt'I-: Ol'' DELECiATKS. XIX
Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become either
Members or Associates of the British Association,
and shall have all the rights of Delegates appointed
by the Affiliated Societies, except that of member-
ship of the General Committee.
2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed Applications.
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the 1st of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.
3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an- Cokke-
nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the ^ponding
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves qommittek.
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Aiinual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.
(i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year I'locedure.
to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or
before June 1, such particulars in regard to the
Society as may be required for the information of
the Corresponding Societies Committee.
(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by
the Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them — those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.
4. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti- Confekknce
tute a Conference, of which the Chaii-man, Vice-Chairman, °*' Dele-
PATES
and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The
members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be
ex officio members of the Conference.
(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by Procedure and
the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during functions.
a2
KULIiS OF THE IsKlTISH ASSOCIATION.
each Annual Meeting of the Associatiun, and shall
be empowered to invite any Member or Associate
to take part in the discussions.
(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee of Ptecom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Committee.
(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall
be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Confei'ence of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.
(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make
themselves familiar with the purport of the several
re'commendations brought before the Conference,
in order that they may be able to bring such re-
commendations adequately before their respective
Societies,
(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic o1)-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater
uniformity in the method of publishing results.
Chaptkh XII.
Aiaeiidinents and Neio Rulea.
Alterations. Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee.
TEUSTEES, GENERAL OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1913
TRUSTEES.
1832-70 (Sir) K. 1. Mukchison (Bait.),
F.R.S.
John Tayloe, Esq., F.R.S.
C. Babbage, Esq., F.R.S.
F. Baii.y, Esq., F.R.S.
Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S.
General E. Sabine, F.R.S.
Sir P. Egerton, Bart., F.R.S.
1832-62
1832-30
1 839-44
1844-58
1858-82
18()2-81
1872- rSir J. Lubbock, Bart, (after-
191 3 'i wards Lord Avebuey), F.R.S.
1881-83 W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres.
R.S.
1883- Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards Lord)
Playfaie, F.R.S.
1898- Prof. (Sir) A. W. Ruckee, F.R.S.
1913- Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.
GENERAL TREASURERS.
1831 Jonathan Geay, Esq.
1832-62 John Tayloe, Esq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. Spottiswoode, Esq., F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
1891-98 Prof. (Sir) A. W. Ruckee,
F.R.S.
1898-1904 Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S.
1904- Prof. John Peeey, F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
1832
1835.
1836.
1837-
1839-
1845-
1850-
1852-
1853-
1859-
1861.
1862-
1863-
1865-
1866-
1868-
35 Rev. W. A^EENON Harcouet,
F.R.S.
36 Rev. W. Vernon Harcouet,
F.R.S., and F. Baily, Esq.,
F.R.S.
37 Rev. W. Veenon Haecourt,
F.R.S., and R. I. Muechison,
Esq., F.R.S.
39 R. I. Muechison, Esq., F.R.S.,
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.S.
45 Sir R. I. Muechison, F.R.S.,
and Major E. Sabine, F.R.S.
.50 Lieut.-Colonel E.Sabine,F.R.S.
.52 General E. Sabine, F.R.S., and
J. F. ROYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
■53 J. F. RoYLE, Esq., F.R.S.
■59 General E. Sabine, F.R.S.
-61 Prof. R. VValkee, F.R.S.
.62 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S.
63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S.
65 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S,
66 F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S.
68 F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. IIiest, F.R.S.
71 Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.E.S., and Dr.
T. Thomson, F.R.S.
1871-72
1872-70
1876-81
1881-82
1882-83
1883-95
1895-97
1897- ]
1900 I
1900-02
1902-03
1903-13
1913-
Dr.T.THOMSON,F.R.S.,andCapt.
Douglas Galton, F.R.S.
Capt. D. Galton, F.R-.S., and
Dr. Michael Foster, P.R.S.
Capt. D. Galton, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. Sclatee, F.R.S.
Capt. D. Galton, F.R.S., and
Prof. F. M. Balpoue, F.R.S.
Capt. Douglas Galton, F.R.S.
Sir Douglas Galton, F.R.S.,
and A. G. Veenon Haecourt,
Esq., F.R.S.
A. G. Veenon Haecourt, Esq.,
F.R.S., and Prof. E. A.
Schaper, F.R.S.
Prof. Schaper, F.R.S., and Sir
W.C.Roberts-Austen,F.R.S.
Sir W. C. Roberts-Austkn,
F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scott,
F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., and
Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.
Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. Herdman,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.,
and Prof. H.H.TuENEE, F.R.S.
ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c. : 1831-1904.
1831
1832
1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,
Secretary.
1885-90 A. T. Atchison, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.
1890 G. Griffith, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1890-1902 G. Griffith, E.sq., M.A.
1902-04 J. G. Garson, Esq., M.D.
ASSISTANT SECRETARIES.
1878-80 J. E. H. Gordon, Esq., B.A. I 1909- O. J. R. Howarth, Esq., M.A.
1904-09 A. SiLVA White, Esq. |
John Phillips, Esq., Secretary.
Prof. J. D. Forbes, Acting
Secretary.
1832-62 Prof. John Phillips, F.R.S.
1862-78 G. Griffith, Esq., M.A.
1881 G. Griffith, Esq., M.A., Acthig
Secretary.
TRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association,
1901-1913.
SECTION A. 1— MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
1901. Glasgow ...iMajorP.A.MacMahon.F.R.S.i
j — Bep. of Astronomy, ?Tot.\
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.
1902. Belfast IProf. J.Purser,LL.D..M.R.I.A.I
I — De2}- of Aatronomy, Prof.
A. Schuster, F.R.S.
C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. — Bep.
of Astronomy anil Mtteor-
ology,T)T.\\'.N. Shaw,F.R.S.
Prof. H. Lamb, F.B.S.— Sub-
Section of Astronomy and
Cosinical Physics, Sir J.
Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.
Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Principal E. H.Griffiths.F.R.S.
1903. Southport
11)0-1. Cambridge
1905. South Africa
lOOG.
York.
H.S.Carslaw,C.H.Lees, W. Stewart,
Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.
H. S. Carslaw, A. R, Hinks, A.
Larmor, C. H. Lees, Prof. W. E.
Morton, A. W. Porter.
D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lee.s
.1. Loton, A. W. Porter.
A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Dr. C. H. Lees, Dr. W. J. S. Lock-
yer, A. W. Porter, W. C. D.
Whetham.
A. R. Hinks, S. S. Hough, R. T. A.
Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees.
Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,
A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter,
H. Dennis Taylor.
E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. X. G. Filon,
Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
Prof. A. W. Porter.
Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.
Filon, E. Gold, Prof. .J. A.
j McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter,
; Prof. E. T. Whittaker.
Prof. F. Allen, Prof. J. C. Fields,
I E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W.
Porter, Dr. A. A. Rambaut.
H. Bateman, A. S. Eddington, E.
Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. S. R.
Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter.
H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A. S.
Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W.
Porter, P. A. Yapp.
Prof. P. V. Bevan, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W.
Porter, W. G. Robson, F. J. M.
Stratton.
Prof. P. V. Bevan, Prof. A. S. Edding-
ton, E. Gold. Dr. H. B. Heywood,
Dr. A. O. Rankine, Dr. " G. A.
Shakespear.
SECTION B.2— CHEMISTRY.
1901. Glasgow ... Prof. Percy F. Frankland, W. C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
Leicester...
Dublin
Winnipeg
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee ...
1913. Birmingham
Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.
F.R.S.
Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S
Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S....
Prof. E. W. Hobson, F.R.S....
Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...
Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.
Dr. H. F. Baker, F.R.S
F.R.S.
1902. Belfast Prof. E. Divers, F.R.S
W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose.
R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope.
1903. Southport Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc, Dr. M. 0. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
F.R.S. derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope.
' Section A was constituted under this title in 183.5, when the sectional division
was introduced. The previous division was into ' Committees of Sciences.'
* ' Chemistry and Mineralogy,' 1835-1891.
TKESIDENTS AND SECHETAKIES OF THE SECTIONS,
Date and Place
1904. Cambridge
1905. South Africa
1906. York
1907. Leicester...
1908. Dublin
1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ...
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...
1913. Birminarham
Presidents
Prof. Sydney YouEg.F.R.S...,
George T. Beilby
Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,
F.R.S.
Prof. A. Smithells, F.E.S. ...
Prof. V. S. Kipping, F.R.S. ...
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S,
J. E. Stead, F.R.S
Suh-scction- of Ar/ricidtxrr
A. D. Hall, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S
Prof. A. Senier, M.D
Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S.
Secretaries
Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof.
W. J. Pope.
W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. 0. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson, C. F. Juritz.
Dr. E. F.Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross-
ley, S. H. Davies, Prof. W. J. Pope.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.
Crosslcy, J. H. Hawthorn, Dr.
F. M. Perkin.
Dr. E. F.Armstrong, Dr. A. McKenzio,
Dr. F. M. Perkin, Dr. J. H. Pollock.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. T. M. Dowry ,
Dr. F. M. Perkin, J. W. Shipley.
Dr. B. F. Armstrong, Dr. T. M.
Lowrjs Dr. F. M. Perkin, W. E. S.
Turner.
Dr. C. Crowther, J. Gelding, Dr.
E. J. Russell.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H.
Descb, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Dr. F,
Beddow.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H.
Desch, Dr. A. Holt. Dr. J. K.Wood.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Dr. C. H. Desch,
Dr. A. Holt, Dr.H. McCombie.
C.3
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
Glasgow
Belfast...
Southport
Cambridge
SouthAfrica
York
Leicester
Dublin..,
Winnipeg
Sheffield
Portsmouth
SECTION
John Home, F.R.S
Lieufc.-Gen. C. A. McMahon
F.R.S.
Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A.
M.Sc.
i Aubrey Strahan , F.R. S
i
' Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.
' F.R.S.
G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S
Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....
Prof. John Joly, F.R.S
Dr. A. Smith
! F.R.S.
Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S..
A. Harker, F.R.S
Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S
Dundee
Birmingham I Prof . E. J. Garwood, M.A
GEOLOGY.
... , H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton.
H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton,
J. St. J. Phillips, H. J. Seymour.
H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton.
H. L, Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
J. Lomas, H. Woods.
H. L. Bowman, J. Lomas, Dr. Molen-
graaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof. R. B.
Young.
H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,
Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.
Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,
Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas.
Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas, Prof.
S. H. Reynolds, H. J. Seymour.
Woodward, i W. L. Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
R.T.Hodgson, Prof. S.H. Reynolds.
W. L. Carter, Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse,
B. Hobson. Prof. S. H. Reynolds.
Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter, Dr.
A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. S. H.
Reynolds.
Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. R. Don,
Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. S. H.
Rej'nolds.
Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R.
Dwerryhouse, F. Raw, Prof. S. H.
Reynolds.
' ' Geology and Geography,' 1835-1830.
PRESIDENTS AND SECHETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
SECTION D."— ZOOLOGY.
1901.
1902.
Glasgow
Belfast...
1903. Southport
1904. Cambridge
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912
SouthAfrica
York
Leicester ...
Dublin
Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee ...
1913. Birmingham
Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.
Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...
Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R.S. ...
William Bateson, F.R.S
G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S
J. J. Lister, F.R.S
Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A
Dr. S. F. Harmer, F.R.S
Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ...
Prof. G. C. Bourne, F.R.S. ...
Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson,
C.B.
Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.
Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S
J. G. Kerr, J. Rankin, J. Y. Simpson.
Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
Simpson.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft,
A. Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Sirapaon, Dr.
H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims.
Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Dr. H. W. M.
Tims, Prof. J. Y. Simpson.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Oxley Grabham, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
E. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. n. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. A. Eraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr.
i J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
T. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D.
I Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims.
'Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie,
1 Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr. H. W.
M. Tims.
Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L.
I Boulenger, B. D. Laurie, Dr. H.
I W. M. Tims.
SECTION E.-^— GEOGEAPHY.
1901.
Glasgow ...
1902.
Belfast
1903.
Southport...
1904.
Cambridge
1905.
SouthAfrica
1906.
York
1907.
Leicester...
1908.
Dublin
Dr. H. R. Mill, F.R.G.S
Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...
Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,
F.R.S.
Douglas W. Freshlield.
Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton,
R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
George G. Chisholm, M.A. ...
Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G.,
R.E.
H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, G.
Sandeman, A. C. Turner.
G. G. Chisholm, E. Heawood, Dr.
I A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A. Lindsay.
E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
E. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C. Under-
wood.
E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.
A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, H. Y. Old-
ham.
E. Heawood, Dr. A. J. Herbertson,
E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld.
E. Heawood, 0. J. R. Howarth,
E. A. Reeves, T. Walker.
W. F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. R.
1 Howarth, E. A. Reeves.
* ' Zoology and Botany,' 1835-1847 ; 'Zoology and Botany, including Physiology,'
1848-1865 ; ' Biology,' 18C6-1894.
■■ Section E was that of ' Anatomy and Medicine,' 1835-1840; of 'Physiology'
(afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1841-1847. It was assigned to 'Geography
and Ethnology,' 1851-1868 ; 'Geography,' 1869.
PRESIDENTS AND SECKETAKFES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ..
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...
Secretaries
Col. SirD.Johnston.K.C.M.G., G. G. Chisholm, J. McFarlane, A.
C.B.. E.E. I Mclntyre.
Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A., ; Rev. W. J. Barton, Dr. R. Brown,
Ph.D. I J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves.
Col. C. F. Close, R.E., C.M.G. J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves, W. P.
Smith.
Col. Sir C. M. Watson, Rev. W. J. Barton, J. McFarlane,
K.C.M.G. ' E. A. Reeves, D. Wylie.
1913, Birmingham; Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc. ... Rev. W. J. Barton, P. E. Martineau,
J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves.
SECTION F.«— ECONOMIC .SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1901,
1902,
1903,
1904,
1905
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913
Glasgow ...
Belfast . . .
Southport
Cambridge
SouthAfrica
York
Leicester . . .
Dublin
Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee ...
Birmingham
Sir R. Giffien, K.C.B., F.R.S.
E. Cannan, M.A., LL.D
E. W. Brabrook, C.B
Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D
Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.
D.Sc.
A. L. Bowley, M.A
Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A
W. M. Acworth, M.A
Sub-sectio/i of Agriculture —
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett.
Prof. S. J. Chapman, M.A. ...
Sir H. Llewellyn Smith,
K.C.B., M.A.
Hon. W. Pember Reeves
Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.
Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A.
W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
Cannan, S. J. Chapman.
A. L. Bowlej^, ProL S. J. Chapman,
Dr. A. Duffin.
A. L. Bowley, Prof. S. J. Chapman,
Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G. Lloyd.
J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley, Prof.
S. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg.
R. 4 Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley, Prof.
H.E.S. Fremantle, H. O. Meredith.
Prof. S. J. Chapman, D. H. Mac-
gregor, H. 0. Meredith, B. S.
Rowntree.
Prof. S. J. Chapman, D. H. Macgregor,
H. 0. Meredith, T. S. Taylor.
W. G. S. Adams, Prof. S. J. Chap-
man, Prof. D. H. Macgregor, H. O.
Meredith.
A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson.
Prof. A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana-
han, Dr. W. R. Scott.
C. R. Fay, H. 0. Meredith, Dr. W. E.
Scott, R. Wilson.
C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott, H. A.
Stibbs.
C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott, E. Tosli.
C. R. Fay, Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R.
Scott.
SECTION G.'— ENGINEERING.
1901. Glasgow .,
1902. Belfast .,
1903. Southport
R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.
; Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S
C. Hawksley, M.Inst.C.E. ...
1904. Cambridge jHon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S. ...
1905. SouthAfrica Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieflf,
I G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E.
1906. York J. A. Ewing, F.R.S
1907. Leicester... Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson,
F.R.S.
1908. Dublin Dugald Clerk, F.R.S
H. Bamf ord, W.E. Dalby, W. A. Price.
M. Barr. W. A. Price, J. Wylie.
Prof. W. E. Dalby, W. T. Maccall,
W. A. Price.
J. B. Peace, W.T.Maccall.W. A.Price.
W. T. Maccall, W. B. Marshall, Prof.
H. Payne, E. Williams.
W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price, J. Triffit.
Prof. E. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,
: W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis.
Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,
, W. A. Price, H. E. Wimperis.
« ' Statistics,' 1835-1855,
' Mechanical Science,' 1836-1900.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ..
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...
lOlo. Birmingham
Presidents
Secretaries
Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., E.E.Brydone-Jack, Prof. E.G. Coker,
F.K.S. Prof. E. W. Marchant, W. A. Price.
Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A.jF. Boulden, Prof. E. G. Coker,
M.Inst.C.E. I A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Prof. J. H. Biles, LL.D., ! H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker, A. A.
D.Sc. Kowse, H. E. Wimperis.
Prof. A. Barr, D.Sc i Prof . E. G. Coker, A. R. Fulton,
i H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse, H. E.
Wimperis.
Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng.... Prof. E. G. Coker, J. Pur.ser, A. A.
Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.
SECTION H."— ANTHROPOLOGY.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
19-13
Glasgow ...
Belfast ...
Southport...
Cambridge
SouthAfrica
York
Leicester
Dublin ...
Winnipeg.
Sheffield .
Portsmouth
Dundee ...
Birmino;ham
Prof. D. J. Cunningham,
F.K.S.
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
Prof. J. Symington, F.R.S. ...
H. Balfour, M.A
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
E. Sidney Hartland, F.S.A....
D. G. Hogarth, M.A
Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A. ...
Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A
W. Crooke, B.A
W. H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S.
Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ...
\V. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
Gemmill, J. L. Myres.
R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,
J. L. Myres.
E. N. Fallaize, H. 8. Kingsford,
E. M. Littler, J. L. Myres.
W. L. H. Duckworth, E.'n. Fallaize,
H. S. Kingsford, J. L. Myres.
A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, E. S.
Hartland.
Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize, H. S.
Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize, H. S.
Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford, Dr.
F. C. Shrubsall, L. E. Steele.
H. S. Kingsford, Prof. C. J. Patten,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
B.N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford, Prof.
C. J. Patten, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
E. N. Fallaize, H. S. Kingsford,
E. W. Martindell, H. Rundle,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
D. D. Craig, E. N. Fallaize, E. W.
Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
E. N. Fallaize, E. W. Martindell,
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, T. Yeatos.
SECTION I.^'— .PHYSIOLOGY (including Experimental
Pathology and Experimental Psychology).
1901. Glasgow ... Prof.J.G.McKendrick, F.RS.lW. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof .
W. H. Thompson.
1902. Belfast ...Prof. W. D. Halliburton. J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne, Dr.
F.R.S. ' C. Shaw.
1904. Cambridge Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S. ; J. Barcroft, Prof. T. G. Brodie, Dr.
L. E. Shore.
1905. SouthAfrica Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S. ...JJ. Barcroft, Dr. Baumann, Dr. Mac-
j kenzle. Dr. G. W. Robertson, Dr.
I I Stanwell.
' Established 1884.
Established 1894.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1906. York
1907. Leicester ...
1908. Dublin
1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ...
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...
1913. Birminoham
Presidents
Secretaries
Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S
Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S
Dr. J. Scott Ilaldane, F.R.S.
Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S....
Prof. A. B. Macallum, F.R.S.
Prof. J. S. Macdonald, B.A.
Leonard Hill, F.R.S
Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins.
F.R.S.
J. Barcroft, Dr. J. M. Hamill, Prof.
I J. S. Macdonald, Dr. D. S. Long.
Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft, Prof.
J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A. Warner.
Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring,
Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr.H.E.Roaf.
Dr. N. H. Alcock, Prof. P. T. Herring,
Dr. W. Webster.
Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas,
Dr. H. E. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.
Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr. Keith Lucas,
Dr. H. E. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.
Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr.
1 H. B. Roaf, Dr. J. Tait.
'C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr.
; T. G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf,
i Dr. J. Tait.
SECTION K.'o— BOTANY.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
Glasgow ...
Belfast
Southport
Cambridge
SouthAfrica
York
Leicester ...
Dublin
Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ..
Prof. I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ...
Prof. J. R. Green, F.R.S
A. C. Seward, F.R.S
Francis Darwin, F.R.S
Sub-section of jigriouUure —
Dr. W. Somerville.
Harold Wager, F.R.S
Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ...
Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ...
Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S....
Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, CLE.,
F.R.S.
Suh-seetion of Agriculture —
Major P. G. Craigie, C.B.
Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S
1911. Port.smoutli Prof. F. E. Weiss, D.Sc
Subsection of Agriculture-
W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S.
1912. Dundee ... | Prof. F. Keeble, D.Sc
1913. Birmingham Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.8.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, G. F. Scott-
Elliot, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.
A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,
H. Wager, R. H. Yapp.
H. Ball, A. G. Tan.sley, H. Wager,
R. H. Yapp.
Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,
H. Wager, T. B. Wood, R. H. Yapp.
R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.
Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G. Tansley, Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T.
Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof .R.H. Yapp.
W. J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof.
J. Wilson.
B. H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.
R. H. Yapp.
C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof.
R. H. Yapp.
J. Golding, H. R. Pink, Dr. E. J.
Russell.
J. Brebner, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, D.
Thoday.
W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. B. Moss, D.
Thoday.
'• Established 1895.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
SECTION L.- EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
Date and Place
1901.
Glasgow ...
1903.
Belfa.st ...
1903.
Southport ..
1904.
Cambridge '
1905.
SoutbAfrica '
1906.
York '
1907.
Leicester . . .
1908.
Dublin
1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ...
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...
191.3. Birniinf;ham
Presidents
Sir John E. Gorst, F.R.S. ...
Prof. H. E.Armstrong, F.R.S.
Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Bishop of Hereford, D.D. ...
Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,
M.P.
Prof. M. E. Sadler, LL.D. ...
Sir Philip Magnus, M.P
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S
Rev. II. B. Gray, D.D
Principal H. A. Miers, F.R.S.
Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon,
D.D.
Prof. J. Adams, M.A
Principal E. H. Griffiths,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller, R. Y.
Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
H. L. Withers.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W. Kimmins,
Prof. H. L. Withers.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr. H. L. Snape.
J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
W. M. Heller, Dr. C. W. Kimmins.
A. D.Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C.W.
Kimmins, J. R. Whitton.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller,
Hugh Ricliardson.
W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory,
J. S. Laver, Hugh Richardson.
Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.
Gregory, Hugh Richardson.
W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L.
Holland, Hugh Ricliardson.
A. J. Arnold, W. D. Eggar, J. L.
Holland, Hugh Richardson.
W. D. Eggar,^ O. Freeman, J. L.
Holland, Hugh Richardson.
D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof.
J. A. Green, Hugh Richardson.
D. Berridge, Rev. S. Blofeld, Prof.
I J. A. Green, Hugh Richardson.
SECTION M.— AGRICULTURE.
1912. Dundee .,.'T. H. Middleton, M.A jDr. C. Crovvther, J. Golding, Dr. A.
Lauder, Dr. E. J. Rus.sell.
191.3. Birmingham Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A ! W. E. CoUinee, Dr. C. Crowther,
I J. Golding, Dr. B. J. Russell.
CHAIRMEN AND SECKETAKIKS OV CONFERENCES OF DEI.EdA TES. XXIX
CHAIRMEN AND SECRETARIES of the CONFERENCES OF
DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 1901-13.'
Date and Place
1901.
1902
1903.
1901.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1 909.
1910.
1911.
1913.
1913.
Chairmen
Glasgow ...
Belfast
Southport ..
Cambridge
London . . .
York
Leicester . . .
Dublin
London . . .
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
Dundee ...
Birmingham
F. W. Kudler, F.G.S
Prof. W. VV. Watts, T.G.S. ...
W. Whitaker, F.R.S
Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.
Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
F.R.S.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....
H. J. Mackinder, M.A
Prof. H. A. Mier.s, F.R.S
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
Dr. Tempest Anderson
Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....
Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ...
Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.
Secretaries
Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Souierville.
E. J. Bles.
F. W. Rudler.
F. W. Rudler.
F. W. Rudler.
F. W. Rudler.
F. W. Rudler, I.S.O.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
W. P. D. Stebbing.
EVENING DISCOUKSES, 1901-1913.
Date and Place
1901. Glasgow ...
1903. Belfast ...
1903. Southport...
1904. Cambridge
1905. South
Africa :
Cape Town ...
Durban
Pietermaritz-
burg.
Johannesburg
Pretoria
Bloemfontein...
Kimberley
Bulawayo
Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S
Francis Darwin, F.R.S
Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S....
Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S,
Dr. R. Munro
Dr. A. Rowe
Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S....
Prof. H. F. Osborn
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S....
C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S
Douglas W. Freshfield
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
j Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S....
H. T. Ferrar
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S. ...
Prof. J. O. Arnold
A. E. Shipley, F.R.S
A. R. Hinks
Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S
Prof. J. B. Porter
D. Randall-Maclver
Subject of Discourse
The Inert Constituents of the
Atmosphere.
The Movements of Plants.
Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.
Inheritance.
Man as Artist and Sportsman in the
Palaeolithic Period.
The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.
Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes.
Palasontological Discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains.
W. J. Burchell's Discoveries in South
j Africa.
Some Surface Actions of Fluids.
The Mountains of the Old World.
Marine Biology.
Sleeping Sickness.
The Cruise of the ' Discovery.'
The Distribution of Power.
Steel as an Igneous Rock.
Fly-borne Diseases : Malaria, Sleep-
ing Sickness, &c.
The Milky Way and the Clouds of
Magellan.
Diamonds.
The Bearing of Engineering on
Mining.
The Ruins of Rhodesia.
Established 1885.
EVENING DISCOURSES.
Date and Place
Subject of Discourse
1906. York I Dr. Tempest Anderson
Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S
1907. Leicester ... [W. Duddell, F.R.S
jDr. F. A. Dixey
1908. Dublin Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...
Prof. W. M. Davis
1909. Winnipeg ..iDr. A. B. H. Tutton, F.R.S....
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
'Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S...
' Prof. J. H. Povnting, F.R.S.
1910. Sheffield ... Prof. W. Stirling, M.D
D. G. Hogarth
1911. Portsmouth Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S
Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ...
1912. Dundee ... Prof. W. H. Brag?, F.R.S. ...
iProf. A. Keith, M.D
1913. Biimingham Sir H. H. Cunynghame,K.C.B.
Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
i F.RS.
Volcanoes.
The Electrical Signs of Life, and
their Abolition by Chloroform.
The Ark and the Spark in Radio-
telegraphy.
Recent Developments in the Theory
of Mimicry.
Halley's Comet.
The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.
The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi-
tecture.
Our Food from the Waters.
The Chemistry of Flame.
The Pressure of Light.
Types of Animal Movenient.-
New Discoveries about the Hittites.
The Physiology of Submarine Work.
Links with the Past in the Plant
World.
Radiations Old and New.
The Antiquity of Man.
Explosions in Mines and the Means
of Preventing them.
Missing Links among Extinct
Animals.
' ' Popular Lectures,' delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg.
■^ Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7.
LECT[]RES TO TilE OrEKATlVE CLASSES.
LECTUEES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.
Date and Place
Lecturer
H. J. Mackinder, M.A
Subject of Lecture
1901. Glasgow ...
The Movements of Men by Land
and Sea.
11)02. Belfast
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S
Gnats and Mosquitoes.
l'.»03. Southport...
Dr. J. S. Flett
Martinique and St. Vincent : 1 he
Eruptions of 1902.
1904. Cambridge..
Dr. J. E, Marr, F.R.S
The Forms of Mountains.
1906. York
Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.
The Manufacture of Light.
1907. Leicester...
Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S
The Growth of a Crystal.
1908. Dublin
Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S.
The Crystallisation of Water.
1910. Sheffield ...
C. T. Heycock, F.R.S
Metallic Alloys.
1911. Portsmouth
Dr. H. R. Mill
Rain.
PUBLIC OE CITIZENS' LECTUEES.
Date and Place
1912. Dundee
Prof. B. Moore, D.Sc
Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A,
Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ...
1913. Birmingham Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ,
Dr. Vaughau Cornish ,
Leonard Doncaster, M.A. ,
Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ,
Frederick Soddy, F.R.S
Science and National Health.
Prices and Wages.
The Sun.
The Decorative Art of Savages.
The Panama Canal.
Recent Work on Heredity and its
Application to Man.
Metals under the Microscope.
The Evolution of Matter.
ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.
Table sJioioing the Attendances and Heceijyis
Date of Meeting
Where held
Presidents
Old Life
Members
New Life
Members
1831, Sept. 27
1832, June 19
1833, June 25
1834, Sept. 8
1835, Aug. 10
1836, Aug. 22
1837, Sept. 11
1838, Aug. 10
1839, Aug. 26
1840, Sept. 17
1841, July 20
1842, June 23
1843, Aug. 17
1844, Sept. 26
1845, June 19
1846, Sept. 10 . ...
1847, June 23
1848, Aug. 9
1849, Sept. 12
1850, July 21
1851, July 2
1852, Sept. 1
1853, Sept. 3
1854, Sept. 20
1855, Sept. 12
1856, Aug. 6
1857, Aug. 26
1858, Sept. 22
1859, Sept. 14
1860, Jiuie27
1861, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1
1863, Aug. 26
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept. 4
1868, Aug. 19
1869, Aug. 18
1870, Sept. 14
1871, Aug. 2
1872, Aug. 14
1873, Sept. 17
1874, Aug. 19
1875, Aug. 25
1876, Sept. 6
1877, Aug. 15
1878, Aug. 14
1879, Aug. 20
1880, Aug. 25
1881, Aug. 31
1882, Aug. 23 . .
1883, Sept. 19 .
1884, Aug. 27
1885, Sept. 9
1886, Sept. 1 ....
1887, Aug. 31 .
1888, Sept. 5 ....
1889, Sept. 11
1890, Sept. 3
1891, Aug. 19
1892, Aug. 3
1893, Sept. 13
1894, Aug. K
1895, Sept. 11
1896, Sept. 16
1897, Aug. 18
1898, Sept. 7
1899, Sept. 13
1900, Sept. 5
York
Oxford
Viscount MUton, D.C.L., P.R.S
The Rev. W. Buckland, P.R.S
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, P.R.S
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., P.R.S. ...
The Rev. Provost Llo.yd,LL.D., P.R.S.
The Marquis of Lansdowne, P.R.S....
The Earl of Burlington, P.R.S
The Duke of Northumberland, P.R.S.
Tlie Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, P.R.S.
Tlie Marquis of Breadalbane, P.R.S.
The Rev. W. Whewell, P.R.S
The Lord Francis Egertou, P.G.S.
The Earl of Rosse, P.R.S
The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., P.R.S. . .
Sir John P. W.Herschel, Bart., P.R.S.
Sir Roderick I.Mm-chisou,Bart.,F.R.S.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., P.R.S. ...
TheMarquisotNorthampton,Pres.R.S.
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., P.R.S.
Sir David Brewster, K.H., P.R.S.
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, P.R.S.
Lieut.-General Sabine, P.R.S. ...
William Hopkins, P.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby, P.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll, P.R.S
Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., P.R.S.. . .
The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., P.R.S
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L., P.R.S... .
H.R.H. The Prince Consort
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., P.R.S. ...
William Pairbairn, LL.D., P.R.S
The Rev. Professor Willis,M.A.,P.R.S.
SirWUIiam G. Armstrong.O.B., P.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., P.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
William R. Grove, Q.O., P.R.S
The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.,P.R.S.
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, P.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., P.R.S
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., P.R.S. ...
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., P.R.S.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, P.R.S
Prof. A. W. Williamson, P.R.S
Prof. J. Tyudall, LL.D., P.R.S
Sir John Hawkshaw, P.R.S
Prof . T. Andrews, M.D., P.R.S
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., P.R.S
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., P.R.S
Prof. G. J. AUman, M.D., P.R.S. ...
A. 0. Ramsav, LL.D., P.R.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., P.R.S. ...
Dr. 0. W. Siemens, P.R.S
Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., P.R.S
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, P.R.S
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., P.R.S
Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., P.R.S
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F.R.S
Sir F. J. BramweU, P.R.S
Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B., P.R.S.
Sir P. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S.
Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S
Su- A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, P.R.S.
The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G.,P.R.S.
Sir Douglas Gal ton, K.C.B., F.R.S. ...
Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S. ...
Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S
Sir W. Crookes, P.R.S
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S.
Sir WiUiam Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
239
221
173
201
184
144
272
178
203
235
225
314
428
266
277
259
189
280
201
327
214
330
120
281
296
267
6^
169
28
150
36
10
18
3
12
9
8
10
13
23
33
14
15
42
27
21
113
15
36
40
44
31
25
18
21
39
28
36
27
13
36
35
19
18
16
11
28
17
60
20
18
25
86
36
20
21
24
14
17
21
13
31
8
19
20
13
Edinburgh
Bristol
Newcastle-on-Tyne...
Plymouth
Cork
York
Oxford
Birmingham
Belfast
Hull
Cheltenham
Dublin
Aberdeen
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Tyne. . .
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham ...
Dundee
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool
Edinburgh
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow
Plymouth
Dublin
Sheffield
Swansea
Y'ork
Southampton
Southport
Montreal
Aberdeen
Birmingham . .
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-on-Tyne. . .
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Oxford
Ipswich
Liverpool
Toronto
Bristol
Dover
Bradford
« Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.
t Tickets of Admission to Sections only-
[Continiced on p. xxxiv.
ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
Old
Annual
Members
New
Annual
Members
Asso-
ciates
Ladies
?oreiguers
1
Total
Amount
received
during the
Meeting
Sums paid
on account
of Grants
for Scientific
Purposes
Year
353
_
_
1831
—
—
1832
900
—
—
1833
1298
£20
1834
z
167
1835
_
1350
435
1836
__
1840
—
922 12 6
1837
1100*
2400
—
932 2 2
1838
34
1438
1595 11
1839
40
1353
1546 16 4
1840
4G
317
60»
891
—
1235 10 11
1841
75
376
33t
331*
28
1315
—
1449 17 8
1842
71
185
160
_
—
1565 10 2
1843
45
190
9t
260
—
—
981 12 8
1844
94
22
407
172
35
1079
—
831 9 9
1845
65
39
270
196
36
857
_
685 16
1846
197
40
495
203
53
1320
—
208 5 4
1847
54
25
376
197
15
819
£707
275 1 8
1848
93
33
447
237
22
1071
963
159 19 6
1849
128
42
510
273
44
1241
1085
345 18
1850
01
47
244
141
37
710
620
391 9 7
1861
63
60
510
292
9
1108
1085
304 6 7
1852
56
57
367
236
6
876
903
205
1853
121
121
765
524
10
1802
1882
380 19 7
1864
142
101
1094
543
26
2133
2311
480 16 4
1855
104
48
412
346
9
1115
1098
734 13 9
1856
156
120
900
569
26
2022
2016
507 15 4
1857
111
91
710
509
13
1698
1931
618 18 2
1858
125
179
1206
821
22
2564
2782
684 11 1
1859
177
59
636
463
47
1689
1604
766 19 6
1860
184
125
1589
791
15
3138
3944
lUl 6 10
1861
150
57
433
242
25
1161
1089
1293 16 6
1862
154
209
1704
1004
25
3335
3640
1608 3 10
1863
182
103
1119
1058
13
2802
2965
1289 15 8
1864
215
149
766
508
23
1997
2227
1591 7 10
1865
218
105
960
771
11
2303
2469
1750 13 4
1866
193
118
1163
771
7
2444
2613
1739 4
1867
226
117
720
682
45J
2004
2042
1940
1868
229
107
678
600
17
1856
1931
1622
1869
303
195
1103
910
14
2878
3096
1572
1870
311
127
976
754
21
2463
2575
1472 2 6
1871
280
80
937
912
43
2533
2649
1285
1872
237
99
796
601
11
1983
2120
1685
1873
232
85
817
630
12
1951
1979
1151 16
1874
307
93
884
672
17
2248
2397
960
1876
331
185
1265
712
25
2774
3023
1U92 4 2
1876
238
59
446
283
11
1229
1268
1128 9 7
1877
290
93
1285
674
17
2578
2615
725 16 6
1878
239
74
529
349
13
1404
1425
1080 11 11
1879
171
41
389
147
12
915
899
731 7 7
1880
313
176
1230
614
24
2557
2689
476 8 1
1881
253
79
516
189
21
1253
1286
1126 1 11
1882
330
323
952
841
5
2714
3369
1083 3 3
1883
317
219
826
74
26&60H.§
1777
1855
1173 4
1884
332
122
1053
447
6
2203
2256
1385
1885
428
179
1067
429
U
2453
2532
995 6
1886
510
244
1985
493
92
3838
4336
1186 18
1887
399
100
639
509
12
1984
2107
1511 6
1888
412
113
1024
579
21
2437
2441
1417 11
1889
368
92
680
334
12
1775
1776
789 16 8
1890
341
152
672
107
35
1497
1664
1029 10
1891
413
141
733
439
50
2070
2007
864 10
1892
328
67
773
268
17
1661
1653
907 16 6
1893
435
69
941
451
77
2321
2175
583 15 6
1894
290
31
493
261
22
1324
1236
977 15 5
1895
383
139
1384
873
41
3181
3228
llOi 6 1
1896
286
125
682
100
41
1362
1 1398
1059 10 8
1897
327
96
1051
639
33
2446
2399
1212
1898
324
68
548
120
27
1403
1328
1430 14 2
1899
297
1 45
801
482
9
1915
1801
1072 10
1900 1
i Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association were admitted asHon. Members for this Meeting
i9i;
[Contimied on p. xxxv.
XXXIV
ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.
Table shoiving the Attendances and Beceipts
Date of lloetiiig
Where hi-l.l
1901, Sept. 11
1902, Sept. 10
1903, Sept. 9
1904, Aug. 17
1905, Aug. 15
1906, Aug. 1
1907, July 31
1908, Sept. 2
1909, Aug. 25
1910, Aug. 31
igil.Aua-. 30
1912, Sept. 4
1913, Sept. 10
Belfast
Cambriilge
Sou til Africa
York
Dubliu
Sheffield
Portsmouth
Prof. A. W. Rucker, D.Sc.. Sec.R.S. ...
Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., P.R.S
Sir Norman Lookver, K.C.B., P.R.S,
Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., P.R.S.
Prof. G. H. Darwin. LL.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F.R.S
Dr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S
Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. .. ,
Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R S. . . .
Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B , P.R.S.
Prof. E. A. Sehafer. P.R.S
Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S ...
Uld Life
Members
310
243
250
419
115
322
27G
294
117
293
281
288
376
New Life
Members
% Iiii'liidi]i£; 848 Members of the South African Association.
ANALYSTS OF ATTENDANCES AT
[The total attendancffi for thf ypnrs 1832,
Ave.ragp, attendance at 79 Meetinyfi : ISHH,
Average
Attendanen
Average attendauce at. ,'') Mcotiug.', beginning during June, hctivi-rn
]833««f/! 18(iO 1260
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during Jvlij, hitween
]S41«//(n907 1122
Average attendance at 33 Meetings beginning during Annnsf, hetn-cen
1836«;w<! 1911 ' . . . 1927
Average attendance at 37 Meetings beginning during Srpti'iiilipr,
1)etween \%'i\ and \':W^ 1977
Attendance at 1 Meeting lield in <?r/«/;w, r<tw(//yvY/c/r, 1 8(;2 . . 1101
Meetings heyinniny dii.riny Aiiyit.i^t.
Average attontlanee at —
4 Meetings beginning during tlie 1st week in Avijvstt ( 1st- 7tli)
T) „ ^ „ „ „ 2nd „ „ „ ( 8tli-14th)
9 ,. „ „ „ 3rd „ „ „ (l.'>tli-21st)
14 » » ., >, 4tli „ „ „ (22nd- 31st)
] 90.'5
2130
1802
103.IJ
ATTENDANCES ANO I{J':CEIPTS.
xx.w
at Aiiniud MccLiiujs of llie Assucuitioii — (coiibiuucd).
OM
New
Aiuuial
Aniiuiil
Ueuibci's
Members
374
131
314
86
319
90
419
113
937T
411
356
93 i
339
61
165
112
290««
102
379
57
319
61
368
95 ,
480
149
Asso-
ciates
Ladies
Foreigners
Total
794
216
20
1912
647
305
6
1620
<:88
365
21
1754
1338
317
121
2789
430
181
16
2130
817
352
22
1972
659
251
"12
1C47
1166
222
11
2297
789
90
7
ur.s
563
123
H
1U9
414
81
31
1211 ■
1292
S59
88
2.11)1
1287
291
20
26l:j
Ainoiiiit
received
lUiriiig the
Meetinff
Siiuis paid
on account
of Gi-anta
for Scientific
Purposes
£2016 £920 9 U
1644
1762
2B50
2122
947
845 13 2
887 18 11
928 2 2
882 9
757 12 10
8
1811
1561 U
2317 1157 18
1623 U 1014 9 9
U:!9 U 963 17
1176 922
2349 , 845 7 6
2756 978 17 1
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1913
Incliidiug 137 Mctiibcrs of tlie American Association.
THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1913.
1835, 184:3, and 1844 a?'e unknoivn.]
Meetings hcginning during Septembci
Average attendance at —
13 Meetings beginning during the 1st week in September ( 1st- 7tli) .
17 „ „ „ „ 2nd „ „ „ ( 8tli-Htl)).
5 „ „ „ „ 3rd „ „ „ (15th-21st).
2 „ ,, ,, ,. 4th „ „ „ (22nd-30th).
Meeliji(is heginuiny duriiuj Jitmi, July^ and October.
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June It)) beginning during the old
week in June (15th-21st)
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in
June (22nd-30th)
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, July 2) beginning during the 1st
week in Jicly (lst-7th)
Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in
July (15th_21st)
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1{»07, July 31) beginning during the 5th
week in July (29th-31st)
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October 1) beginning during tlie Ist
week in <?(f()?>er (lst-7th)
Average
Attendaucp
2131
1906
2206
1025
lOZil
130G
710
1066
1647
1161
b 2
GENERAL STATEMENT.
General Statement of Sums which have been 'paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1912.
1901.
Electrical Stanclards
Seismological Observations...
Wave-length Tables
Isomorphous Sulphonic De-
rivatives of Benzene
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks
Underground Water of Nortlr-
west Yorkshire
Exploration of Irish Caves...
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples
Table at the Biological La-
boratory, Plymouth ".
Index Genorum et Specierum
Animalium
Migration of Birds
Terrestrial Surface Waves . . .
Changes of Land-level in the
Phlegrfean Fields
Legislation regulating Wo-
men's Labour
Small Screw Gauge
Resistance of Road Vehicles
to Traction
Silchester Excavation
Ethnological Survey of
Canada
Anthropological Teaching . . .
Exploration in Crete
Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone
Chemistry of Bone Man-ow...
Suprarenal Capsules in the
Rabbit
Fertilisation in Phseophyceje
Morphology, Ecology, and
Taxonomy of Podoste-
maceaj
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee
£
s.
d. <
45
!
75
I
4
14
35
20
50
!
15
100
20
75
10
5
50
15
45
75
10
?.0
5
145
•30
5
15
"
5
15
20
15
£920 9 11
1903.
Electrical Standards 40
Seismological Observations... 35
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Kites 75
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
mouth 80
Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Organic Sub-
stances 20
Wave-length Tables 5
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks 10
Exploration of Irish Caves ... 45
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples 100
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium 100
Migration of Birds 15
Structure of Coral Reefs of
Indian Ocean 50
Compound Ascidians of the
Clyde Area 25
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15
Legislation regulating Wo-
men's Labour 30
Small Screw Gauge 20
Resistance of Road Vehicles
to Traction 50
Ethnological Survey of
Canada 15
Age of Stone Circles 30
Exploration in Crete 100
Anthropometric Investigation
of Native Egyptian Soldiers 1 5
Excavations on the Roman
Site at Gelligaer 5
Changes in Hfemoglobin 15
Work of Mammalian Heart
under Influence of Drugs... 20
Investigation of the Cyano-
phycefe 10
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-
versities and Schools 5
Conditions of Health essen-
tial to carrying on Work in
Schools
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 15
£947
s.
d.
2
1903.
Electrical Standards 35
Seismological Observations... 40
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Kites 75
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
mouth 40
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances 20
Erratic Blocks 10
Exploration of Irish Caves ... 40
Underground Waters of North-
west Yorkshire 40
GRANTS OF MONKY.
XXXVll
£ s. d.
Life-zones in British Ciir-
boniferous Kocks 5
Geological Photographs \0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples 100
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium 100
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and
Beaches 15
Scottish National Antarctic
Expedition 50
Legislation affecting Women's
Labour 25
Researches in Crete 100
Age of Stone Circles 3 13 2
Anthropometric Investigation 5
Anthropometry of the Todas
and other Tribes of Southern
India 50
The State of Solution of Pro-
teids 20
Investigation of the Cyano-
phyceffi 25
Respiration of Plants 12
Conditions of Health essential
for School Instruction 5
Corresponding iSocieties Com-
mittee 20
£845 13' 2
1904.
Seismological Observations... 40
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Kites 50
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 60
Wave-length Tables of Spectra 10
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances 25
Erratic Blocks 10
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks 35
Fauna and Flora of the
Trias 10
Investigation of Fossiliferous
Drifts 50
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples 100
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium 60
Development in the Frog 15
Researches on the Higher
Crustacea 15
British and Foreign Statistics
of International Trade 25
Resistance of Road Vehicles
to Traction 90
Researches in Crete 100
Researches in Glastonbury
Lake Village 25
£ s. d.
Anthropometric Investigation
of Egyptian Troops 8 10
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 25
The State of Solution of Pro-
teids 20
Metabolism of Individual
Tissues 40
Botanical Photographs 4 8 11
Respiration of Plants 15
Experimental Studies in
Heredity 35
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee .... 20 J) J)
£887 18 11
1905.
Electrical Standards 40
Seismological Observations... 40
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
Kites 40
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
mouth 50
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra 5
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances 25
Dynamic Isomerism 20
Aromatic Nitroamines 25
Fauna and Flora of the British
Trias 10
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples 100
Index Generum et Specierum
Animalium 75
Development of the Frog ... 10
Investigations in the Indian
Ocean 150
Trade Statistics 4
Researches in Crete 75
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions of Egj-ptian Troops... 10
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 10
Anthropometriclnvestigations 10
Age of Stone Circles 30
The State of Solution of Pro-
teids 20
Metabolism of Individual
Tissues 30
Ductless Glands 40
Botanical Photographs 3
Physiology of Heredity 35
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 50
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 20
£928
4
8
17
(i
XXXVIU
fi KNICHAL STATEMENT.
1906.
£
Electrical Slandards 25
Reismological Observatious... 40
Magnetic Observations at Fal-
moutli 50
Magnetic Survey of South
Africa 99
Wave-lengtli Tables of Spectra 5
St\i(i}' of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances S.T
Aromatic Nil roaiuines 10
Fa una and Flora of the Britisli
Trias 7
Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey 30
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion, Naples 100
Index Animalium 75
Development of the Frog 10
Higher Crustacea , 15
Freshwater Fishes of South
Africa 50
Rainfall and Lalie and River
Discharge 10
Excavations in Crete 100
Lake Village at Glastonbury 10
E.TCavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 30
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions in the British Isles ... 30
State of Solution of Proteids 20
Metabolism of Individual
Tissues 20
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease 20
Research on South African
Cycads 14
Peat Moss Deposits 25
Studies suitable for Elemen-
tary Schools 5
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 25
£882_
1907. ~
Electrical Standards 50
Seismological Observations... 40
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 40
Magnetic Survey of South
Africa 25
AVave - length Tables of
Spectra 10
Study of Hydro -aromatic
Substances 30
Dynamic Lsomerism 30
Life Zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks 10
Erratic Blocks 10
Fauna and Flora of British
Trias 10
Faunal Succession in the Car-
lioniferous Limestone of
South-Wcst England 15
s.
d.
12
6
8
u
1
1
f
!
19
4 '
1
y '
1
£ s. d.
Correlation and Age of Soutli
African Strata, &c 10
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples 100
Index Animalium 75
Development of the Sexual
Cells 1 11 S
Oscillations of the Land Level
in the Mediterranean Basin 50
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom ... 8 19 7
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions in the Britisli Isles... 10
Metabolism of Individual
Tissues 45
The Ductless Glands 25
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease 55
Physiology of Heredity 30
Research on South African
Cycads 35
Botanical Photographs 5
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5
Marsh Vegetation 15
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 16 14 1
£757 12 10
1908.
Seismological Observations ... 40
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Functions 15
Investigation of Upper Atmo-
sphere by means of Kites... 25
Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis 25
Geodetic Arc in Africa 200
V/ave-lengthTables of Spectra 10
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances 30
Dynamic Isomerism 40
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines 30
Erratic Blocks 17 16 6
Fauna and Flora of British
Trias 10
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles 10
Pre-Devonian Rocks 10
Exact Signiticance of Local
Terms 5
Composition of Charnwood
Rocks 10
Table at the Zoological Station
at Naples 100
Index Animalium 75
Hereditary Experiments 10
Fauna of Lakes of Central
Tasmania 40
Investigations in the Indian
Ocean .^.0
(iKANTS OK iMONEV.
XXX IX
£ s. d.
Exploralion in Spitsbergen ... .30
Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom ;! 7 G
Electrical Standards .50
Glastonburj' Lake Village ... 30
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 15
Age of Stone Circles 50
Anthropological Notes and
Queries 40
Metabolism of Individual
Tissues 40
The Ductless Glands ■. 13 14 8
Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease 35
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30
Electrical Phenomena and
Metabolism of Arum Spa-
diecs 10
Marsh Vegetation 15
Succession of Plant Remains 18
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 25
£1157 18 8
1900.
Seismological Observations... (iO
Investigation of the Upper At-
mosphere by means of Kites 10
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 50
Establishing a Solar Ob-
servatory in Australia 50
Wave-length Tables of Spectra 9
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances 15
Dynamic Isomerism 35
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines K)
Electroanalysis 30
Fauna and Flora of British
Trias
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles 8
Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and
the West of England 9
Igneous and Associated Sedi-
mentary Rocks of Glensaul 1 1
Investigations at Biskra 50
Tableat the Zoological Station
at Naples 100
Heredity Experiments 10
Feeding Habits of British
Birds 5
Index Animalium 75
Investigations in the Indian
Ocean 35
Gaseous Explosions 75
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 5
6
8
13
9
£ s. d.
Age of Stone Circlus 30
Researches in Crete 70
The Ductless Glands 35
Electrical Phenomena and Me-
tabolism of A rum. S/mdiceg 10
Reflex Muscular Rhythm 10
Anesthetics 25
Mental and Mu.scular Fatigue 27
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5
P>otanical Photographs 10
Experimental Study of
Heredity 30
Symbiosis between Tur-
bellarian Worms and Algaj 10
Survey of Clare Island 65 (I
Curricula of Secondary Schools 5
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 21 G
£1014 9" ! )
1910.
Measurement of Geodetic Arc
in South Africa 100
Republication of Electrical
Standards Reports 100
Seismological Observations... (iO
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 25
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere 25
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances 25
Dynamic Isomerism 35
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines 15
Electroanalysis 10
Faunal Succession in the Car-
boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles 10
South African Strata 5 o
Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples 100
Index Animalium 75
Heredity Experiments 15
Feeding Habits of British
Birds 5
Amount and Distribution of
Income 15
Gaseous Explosions 75
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury. . . 5
Excavations on Roman Sites
in Britain 5
Neolithic Sites in Northern
Greece 5
The Ductless Glands 40
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 20
An.^esthetics 25
Tissue aietabolism 25
Mental and Muscular Fatigue 18 17
Electromotive Phenomena in
Plants 10
xb
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£ s. d.
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 10
Experimental Study of
Heredity .'^O
Survey of Clare Island oO
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 20
£963 17
1911.
Seismological Investigations 60
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 25
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere 2.5
Grant to International Com-
mission on Physical and
Chemical Constants .30
Study of Hydro -aromatic Sub-
stances 20
Dynamic Isomerism 25
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines 1.5
Electroanalysis 15
Influence of Carbon, &c., on
Corrosion of Steel 15
Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey 2
Mammalian Fauna in Miocene
Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu-
chistan 73
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples 100
Index Animalium 75
Feeding Habits of British
Birds 5
Belmullet Whaling Station... .SO
Map of Prince Charles Fore-
land .30
Gaseous Explosions 90
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... .5
Age of Stone Circles 30
Artificial Islands in Highland
Lochs 10
The Ductless Glands 40
Anesthetics ., 20
Mental and Muscular Fatigue 25
Electromotive Phenomena in
Plants 10
Dissociation of Oxy-Hremo-
globin 25
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15
Experimental Study of
Heredity 45
Survey of Clare Island 20
Registration of Botanical
PhotograjDhs 10
Mental and Physical Factors
involved in Education 10
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 20
£922 "o
1912.
£ s. d.
Seismological Investigations 60
Magnetic Observations at
Falmouth 25
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere 30
Grant to International Com-
I mission on Physical and
Chemical Constants 30
Further Tabulation of Bessel
Functions 15
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances 20
Dynamic Isomerism 30
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines 10
Electroanalysis 10
Study of Plant Enzymes 30
Erratic Blocks 5
Igneous and Associated Rocks
of Glensaul, &c 15
I/ist of Characteristic Fossils 5
Sutton Bone Bed 15
Bembridge Limestone at
Creechbarrow Hill 20
Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples 50
Index Animalium 75
Belmullet Whaling Station... 20
Secondary Sexual Characters
in Birds 10
Gaseous Explosions 60
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... 5
Artificial Islands in High-
land Lochs 10
Physical Character of Ancient
Egyptians 40
Excavation in Easter Island 15
The Ductless Glands 35
Calorimetric Observations on
Man 40
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15
Experimental Study of
Heredity 35
Survey of Clare Island 20
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 15
Overlapping betvyeen Second-
ary and Higher Education 118 6
Curricula, &c., of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools 10
Influence of School Books
upon Eyesight 3 9
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee 25
Collect ions illustrating
Natural History of Isle of
Wight , 40
£845 7 6
REPORT OF THK COUNCIL. *xli
KEPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1912-13.
I. The Council have to record their profound sorrow at the death of
Sir WilUam H. White, K.C.B., P.R.S., President-Elect. A resolution
expressing their deep sympathy with the members of his family was
conveyed to Lady White by the President.
The Association was represented at the funeral by Professor E. A..
Schafer, President, Major P. A. MacMahon, General Secretary, and a
number of Members of the Council and others.
IL A Resolution expressing the Council's sympathy and deep sense of
loss at the death of Sir George Darwin, F.R.S., ex-President, was conveved
to the members of his family ; and the Association was represented at the
funeral by Major P. A. MacMahon, General Secretary.
III. A Resolution expressing the Council's regret and sympathy at the
death of the Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, F.R.S., ex-President and Trustee of
the Association, was conveyed to the members of his family.
IV. Sir H. A. Miers, F.R.S., was appointed to represent the Association
at the International Geological Congress at Toronto in August, 1913.
V. Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S., has been unanimously nominated
by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association for 1914 -15
(Australian Meeting).
VI. (a) The arrangements for the Australian Meeting have occupied
the attention of a Committee appointed by the Council to assist the
President and General Officers, and are progressing favourably. Draft
programmes have been prepared, furnishing details of the arrangements
proposed.
(6) The Council have considered what alterations, if any, it may be
necessary to make in the transaction of business at the Austrahan meeting
in consequence of the exceptional distance. They recommend that the
General Committee hold only two meetings in Australia (following the
precedent of previous oversea meetings), and are of opinion that it will
probably be found most convenient to hold these at Adelaide and Brisbane,
the Committee of Recommendations being held at Sydney during the
intervening period : they further recommend that a third meeting of the
General Committee should be held in London, after the Austrahan meeting,
if necessary for the consideration of outstanding business.
(c) The Committee appointed to advise the Council in respect of any
action to be taken in connection with the proposed exploration in Oceania
in 1914 was authorised to approach the Secretary to the Admiralty, and
subsequently the Federal Government through the High Commissioner for
Australia, on behalf of the Council, and negotiations and inquiries are
proceeding.
(d) A letter has been received from Dr. A. Loir, of Havre, Local Secretary
for the Meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Science
in Havre in 1914, intimating that the municipality of Havre desires to
invite as guests leading Members of the British Association who do not
Xlit EEPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
attend the meeting in Australia, and that all Members not attending that
meeting will be welcomed at tlie meeting of the French Association ; also
proposing that the Conference of Delegates should meet in Havre. Informa-
tion has also been received from Dr. Loir that a Local Committee, including
some of the principal British residents in Havre, has been formed for the
reception of Members of the British Association.
It was resolved that the invitation be cordially accepted, in general
terms, and that details of the arrangements be left to the consideration of
the President and General Officers and a committee appointed to assist
them.
(e) The attention of the Coimcil has been drawn to the question of relax-
ing for the year 1914 (Australian Meeting) the rule under which Annual
Members intermitting their subscrijrtions for one year lose thereafter the
right to receive the Annual Report free. This question was referred by
the General Committee at Sheffield to the consideration of the Council.
The Council have resolved to rej)ort that they are unable to support the
proposal to relax this rule.
VII. (a) The Council, having considered the question of the disposa
of Sir J. K. Caird's gift of 10,000L to the Association, have resolved to
recommend : —
That the income remain in the hands of the Council under the
name of ' The Caird Fund ' ; and be available for allocation by the
Council at any time for special scientific purposes. The Council are
also of opinion that further consideration might be given hereafter
to the question as to whether the capital or a part thereof should be
spent on some special scheme or schemes.
(b) The following memorial, to which were appended the signatures
of an influential body of biologists, sixty-nine in number, has been
received : —
' The biologists whose names are subscribed desire to call the atten-
tion of the Council to the urgent importance of the maintenance of a
table at the Zoological station at Naples for the use of British subjects.
They consider that it is very desirable that the table which has for
many years been known as the "' British Association Table " should
be given a permanent endowment, so that its maintenance should no
longer depend upon the vote in the Committee of Recommendations
at the yearly meetings of the Association. The Zoology Organisa-
tion Committee will be pleased to appoint a small deputation of
biologists to wait upon the Council to discuss the arrangements that
should be made.'
The Council, in consideration of the interest on Sir J. K. Caird's gift
accumulating during the present year, authorised the payment of 50^ to the
Committee appointed to aid investigators to carry on work at the Zoo-
logical Station at Naples, in addition to the grant made to the Committee
at the Dundee Meeting.
VIII. Resolutions referred to the Council by the General Committee
at Dundee : —
Fwm Section A.
'That it is desirable that a detailed Magnetic Survey of the British
Isles, on the lines of that of Professors Rlicker and Thorpe for
KEPORT OF THE COUNCIL. XllU
the epoch of 1891, should now be repeated, in order to answer the
question as to the local variations of tlie terrestrial magnetic
elements within twenty-tive years.
' That a representation to this effect be made to the Royal Society,
the Admiralty, the Ordnance Survey, and the Meteorological
Committee.
' That having regard to the importance of the observations at Falmouth
in the work of the previous Survey and in other work in connection
with terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, steps be taken to assist
an appeal for a Treasury grant, in order that the Observatory at
Falmouth may be efficiently maiiitained.'
The Council appointed a Committee to consider and report on any
necessary steps in connection with the above proposals. The Committee
was subsequently empowered to act as might be necessary, and resolved
that its report be communicated to the Royal Society, as it was under-
stood that the Society already had the matter under consideration.
The Committee's report is as follows : —
I.
The Committee is of opinion that it is desirable to repeat without delay
the Magnetic Survey of the British Isles carried out under the auspices of
the Royal Society between the years 1886-96 ; and further considers that
the approximate number of stations for the fundamental survey should
be about 200, and that about 50 more will be wanted for testing the
permanence of the position of one of the chief ridge hues. It is estimated
that such a survey could be carried out for a sum of, approximately,
1,000/.
The Committee recommends that the British Association make a
substantial contribution towards this sum.
IT.
While the Committee attaches importance to the existence of a station
in the south-west, it was of opinion that if the Survey were carried
through rapidly the maintenance of the observations at the Falmouth
Observatory would not be essential. After consideration and enquiry
it was unable to recommend that steps be taken to assist an appeal for
a Treasury grant, in order that the Observatory might be maintained.
From Section D.
' Tliat the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destruction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that immediate steps should be taken
to secure the preservation of all species of animals and plants
irrespective of their economic or sporting value.'
The Council approved the principle of the above Resolution, and resolved
to give expression to it in the following terms :— -
* That the British Association for the Advancement of Science deplores
the rapid destniction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and
regards it as an urgent duty that steps should be taken, by the
Xliv REPOET OF THE COUNCIL.
formation of suitably placed reserves, or otherwise, to secure the
preservation of examples of all species of animals and plants,
irrespective of their economic or sjiorting value, except in cases
where it has been clearly proved that the preservation of particular
organisms, even in restricted numbers, and places, is a menace to
human welfare.'
From Section H.
' Tliat the copies of the fourth edition of Notes and Queries in Anthro-
pology, now on the point of jDublication through the Committee
appointed for the purpose of its preparation, be delivered as
heretofore to the Royal Anthropological Institute for sale to its
members and to the pubhc ; the proceeds to be reserved at the
disposal of the Association towards the expenses of any future
editions, and accounts of the sales to be submitted to the General
Treasurer of the Association on demand.'
The Council resolved to confirm the arrangements proposed in the above
resolution, and further (a) that members of the Association and Fellows
of the Royal Anthropological Institute may obtain copies at 3s. Qd. each
(the price to the pubhc being 5s.) ; (b) that the President of the Royal
Anthropological Institute may occasionally present copies to workers who
in his opinion are likely to make good use of them.
IX. The following Nominations are made by the Council : —
Conference of Delegates. — Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell {Chairman), Sir
H. G. Fordham (Vice-Chairman), Mr. W. P. D. Stebbiag (Secretary).
Corresponding Societies Committee. — Mr. W. Whitaker (Chairman),
Mr. W. P. D. Stebbing (Secretary), Rev. J. 0. Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook,
Sir H. G. Fordham, Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H. Griffiths, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Mr. T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev.
T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. W. Mark Webb, and the President and General
Officers of the Association.
X. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. His Accounts from July 1, 1912, to June 30, 1913,
have been audited and are presented to the General Committee.
XI. The retiring members of the Council are : —
Sir Oliver J. Lodge (on becoming a member ex-officio and President
for the year) ; Mr. E. Sidney Hartland and Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell (by
seniority) ; Dr. Tempest Anderson and Sir Lauder Brunton (resigned
during the year).
The Council have nominated the following new members : —
Prof. W. H. Bragg,
Dr. F. A. Dixey,
Mr. Alfred Lodge,
leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.
liEPUKT OF THE COUNCIL.
xlv
The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows : —
Prof. H. E. Armstrong.
Sir E. Brabrook.
Prof. W. H. Bragg.
Dr. Dugald Clerk.
Major P. G. Craigio.
W. Crooke.
Prof. A. Dendy.
Dr. F. A. Dixev.
Prof. J. B. Farmer.
Principal E. H. Griffiths.
Dr. A. C. Haddon.
A. J). Hall.
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
Capt. H. G. Lyon.s.
Alfred Lodge.
Dr. J. E. Marr.
Prof. R. Meldola.
Prof. J. L. Myres.
Sir D. Prain.
Prof. C. S. Sherrington.
J. J. H. Teall.
Prof. S. P. Thompson.
Prof. F. T. Troiiton.
XII. Major P. A. MacMalion lias been nominated by the Council as a
Trustee of the Association in succession to the late Lord Avebiiry.
XIII. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council
as follows : —
General Treasurer : Prof. J. Perry.
General Secretaries : Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Prof. H. H. Turner.
The Council have received with great regret Major P. A. MacMahon's
intimation of his intention to resign the office of General Secretary at the
Birmingham Meeting.
XIV. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee : —
Mrs. E. A. Newell Arber.
Dr. T. Ashby.
Dr. Henry Bassetfc.
Miss M. J. Benson.
Sidney G. Brown.
F. Balfour Browne.
Dr. W. S. Bruce.
Miss Florence Buchanan.
E. R. Burdon.
W. Lower Carter.
Prof. F. J. Cole.
Dr. W. Cramer.
Major H. A. Cummins.
Dr. 0. V. Darbishire.
J. Burtt Davy.
Prof. H. H. Dixon.
Prof. W. E. Dixon.
W. G. Fearnsides.
H. T. Ferrar.
Dr. F. E. Fritsch.
Dr. R. R. Gates.
Dr. J. F. Gemmil.
R. P. Gregory.
Prof. D. T. Gwyiine-Vaughan.
Dr. H. S. Harrison.
Prof. J. P. HiU.
Prof. G. W. O. Howe.
Dr. A. A. Lawson.
Dr. R. Marloth.
Prof. A. Meek.
Dr. S. R. Milner.
Prof. B. Moore.
Sir F. W. Moore.
W. M. Mordey.
Dr. C. E. Moss.
Prof. T. G. B. Osborn.
Prof. H. H. W. Pearson.
Prof. R. W. Phillips.
Prof. A. W. Porter.
R. Lloyd Praeger.
Dr. W. Rosenhain.
Miss E. R. Saunders.
Dr. S. Schonland.
R. E. Slade.
Miss A. Lorrain Smith.
Dr. 0. Stapf.
W. Stiles.
Dr. Marie C. Stopes.
D. Thoday.
Prof. A. H. Trow.
Dr. E. W. Ainley Walker.
Miss E. J. Welsford.
Prof. G. S. West.
Dr. J. C. WiUis.
Prof. R. H. Yapp.
xlvi
GEiNEKAL TKEA.SL'KEH 8 ACCOUNT.
Dr.
THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
1012-1913. KECEIPTS.
Balance brought forward
Life Compositions (including Transfers)
New Annual Members' Subscriptions
Annual Subscriptions
Sale of Associates' Tickets
Sale of Ladies' Tickets
Sale of Publications
Sale of Great Indian Peninsula Railway ' B' Annuity
Sir James Caird's Gift
Interest on temporary investment thereof
Interest on Deposit at Dundee Bank
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned : £ j. ,i.
Belmullet Whaling Station G 2 it
Gaseous Explosions 15
Solar Observatory in Australia 50
£
229
356
286
642
1,262
357
203
617
10,000
75
39
15 9
11
8 6
11 1
1 6
Income Tax returned
Dividend on Consols
- Dividend on India 3 per Cent. Stock
Dividend on Great Indian Peninsula Railway ' B ' Annuity
Dividend on India 3| per Cent. Stock, ' Caird Fund'
Dividend on London and North-Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock, ' Caird Fund '
Dividend on London and South-Western Railway Consoli-
dated 4 per Cent. Preference Stock, ' Caird Fund '
3Iem. : Receipts on account of the Birmingham Meeting
(1913) amounting to ^^84. 10«. id., are not included in
this Account, but are paid to a Separate (No. 2) Account
at the Bank.
Investments.
Nominal Amount. Value at 30tb June, 1913.
£ i. it.
2| per Cent. Consolidated Stock 4,169 4 9
India 3 per Cent. Stock 2,700
£43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway
'B' Annuity (cost) 827 16
India 3i per Cent. Stock,' Caird Fund' 2,285 10 6
London and North-Western Railway
4 per Cent. Preference Stock,' Caird
Fund' 2,525
Canada 3^ per Cent. 1930-1950 Regis-
tered Stock, ' Caird Fund ' 2,325
London and South-Western Railway
4 per Cent. Consolidated Pre-
ference Stock, ' Caird Fund ' 2,475
Sir Frederick Bramwell's Gift : —
2i per Cent. Self-cumulating Con-
' solidated Stock.
[To be awarded in 1931 for a japer
dealing with the whole question
of the prime movers of 1931, and
especially with the then relation
between steam engines and internal
combustion engines.]
71
2
9
55
12
4
134
4
8
101
14
39
3
4
21
12
11
47 1
47 1 8
£
.5.
(/.
5,701
10
5
3,600
879
14
9
2,627
10
2,500
2.5U0
2,500
76 1 3
£14,585 11 1
John Perky, General Treasurer.
GENERAL TREASURERS ACCOUNT.
xlvii
WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
July 1, 1912, to June 30, 1913.
Cr.
1912-1913.
PAYMENTS.
Rent and OflSce Expenses
Salaries, &c
Printing, Binding, &c
Expenses of Dundee Meeting
Purcliase of Stock
Kelvin Memorial Volume
Grants to Research Committees : —
Seismological Investigations
luvestigatioi] of the Upper Atmosphere
Grant to International Commission on Physical and
Chemical Constants
Further Tabulation of Bessel Functions
Study of Hydro-aromatic Substances
Dynamic Isomerism
Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamiues
Study of Plant Enzymes
Igneous and Associated Rocks of Glensaul, &c
List of Characteristic Fossils
Exploration of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den
Geology of Ramsey Island
Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples
Ditto ditio (Special Grant)
Nomenclature Animalium Genera et Sub-genera
Belmullet Whahug Station
Ditto (Special Grant)
Gaseous Explosions
Lake Tillages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury
Age of Stone Circles (Special Grant)
Artificial Islands in the Highlands of Scotland
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain
Hausa Manuscripts
Ductless Glands
Calorimetrlc Observations on Jtan
Dissociation of Oxy-Hiemogloblu at High Altitudes ....
Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart
Structure of Fossil Plants
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire
Vegetation of Dltcbam Park, Hampshire
Influence of School Books on Eyesiglit
Corresponding Societies Committee
£
».
'/.
16!»
(1
H
09.5
7
ri
1,078
11
7
232
2
0.000
55
13
6
£ s.
GO
50
40
30
20
30
20
30
75
10
15
50
50
100
15
10
15
20
40
45
15
20
15
4 12
45
P.alance at Bank of Scotland, Dundee (includ- £ .,.
ing accrued Interest) l,l!j(i 4
Balance at Bank of England
(Western Branch), including
£191 7s. 4d. Income from the
Caird Fund £327 3 0'
Ca-sh not paid in 2
329 3
ZfM Cheques not presented 110 18
Petty Casli in hand.
218
1
978 17 1
1,375 13 3
£14,585^ U 1
A» Accovnt of ahout £910 h out standing (hie to Messrs. Spottiswoode ,$• Co.
I liave examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers of the Associa-
tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the
Bankers, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of the Trustees. W. ]{. Keen, Chartered Accountant.
Approved— 23 Queen Victoria Street, E.C.
Edward Brabrook, "I . ... J«Z?/ 31, 1913.
Herbert McLeod, j^"'^'''"'
xlviii GENERAL MEETINGS.
GENERAL MEETINGS AT BIRMINGHAM.
On Wednesday, September 10, at 8.30 p.m., in the Central Hall, a
communication was read from Sir E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., who was
unavoidably absent, resigning the office of President to Sir Oliver J.
Lodge, F.R.S., who took the Chair and delivered an Address, for which
see p. 3.
On Thursday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m., the Lord Mayor held a
Reception and Conversazione in the Council House and Art Gallery.
On Friday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the Central Hall, Sir H. H.
Cunynghame, K.C.B., delivered a Discourse on 'Explosions in Mines and
the means of preventing them.'
On Monday, September 15, Evening Entertainments were given by the
Local Committee in the Prince of Wales' Theatre (Opera), the Repertory
Theatre, and the Picture House.
On Tuesday, September 16, in the Central Hall, Dr. A. Smith Wood-
ward, F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on 'Missing Links among Extinct
Animals.'
On Wednesday, September 17, at 3 p.m., the concluding General
Meeting was held in the Midland Institute, when the following
Resolutions were adopted : —
1. That the cordial thanks of the Association be given to the Right
Hon. the Lord Mayor and Corporation of the City of Birmingham for
the hearty welcome accorded to this Meeting, and to the citizens for their
generous hospitality.
2. That a cordial vote of thanks be extended to the goveining bodies
of the University of Birmingham and other Institutions for their kind-
ness in placing their buildings and resources at the disposal of the
Association.
3. That a cordial vote of thanks be extended to the ladies and gentle-
men who, in the kindest manner, gave themselves personal trouble in
the recejjtion of members of the Association, both in connection with
excursions and also private garden parties and other receptions ; and to
the firms which generously threw open their works to members of the
Association.
4. That a cordial vote of thanks be given to the Honorary Local
OiHcei's, to the Executive Committees, and to the members of the General
Committee for the admirable arrangements made for the Meeting.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE BIRMINGHAM MEETING.
SECTION A. — MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.*
Pre.ndent.—Di: 11. F. Baker, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.^Vvot R. S. Heath,
iJ.Sc. ; Prof. E. W. Hobsou, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. H. Povntiug, F.R.S. ; R. Threlfall,
F.R.S. ; Prof. A. W. Porter, F.R.S. ; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. Secretaries.—
Prof. P. V. Bevan, Sc.D. {Recorder) ; Prof. A. S. Eddington, M.Sc. ; E. Gold,
M.A. ; Dr. H. B. Heywood : Dr. A. 0. Rankiue ; Dr. G. A. Shakespear.
* The name of Prof. J. E. A. Steggall was omitted in error from the list of Vice-
presidents of this Section in the Report of the Dundee Meeting, 1912.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. xlix
SECTION B. — CHEMISTRY.
President. — Prof. W. P. ^Vynne, F.R.S. Vice-Fi-esidents. — Prof. Adrian .T.
lirown, FR.S. ; Madame Curie; Prof. P. Fninkland, F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Senier,
M.D. ; Prof. T. Turner. Secretaries. — Dr. E. F. Armstrong [liecorder); Dr. C. 11.
Descb; Dr. A. Holt; Dr. Hamilton McCombie.
SECTION C. — GEOLOGY.
President. — Prof H J. Garwood, M.A. Vice-Presidents. — George Barrow ;
Prof T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. Cadman, D.Sc. ; Dr. Victor Goldsclimidl ;
Prof. Cbas. Lapwortb, F.R.S. Secretaries. — Dr. A. R. Dwerrybouse {Pecorder) :
Prof. W. S. Boulton, D.Sc. ; Prof. S. H. Reynolds ; F. Raw,"B.Sc.
SECTION D. ZOOLOGY.
Presideyit.—Br. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S. Vice-Preside7its.— G . T. Betbune-Baktr ;
Dr. F. A. Dixey, F.R.S. ; Prof. Louis DoUo ; Prof. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S. ; Prof.
F. Keibel; Dr. P. Gbalmers Mitchell, F.R.S. Sea-etaries.—Di: H. W. Marett
Tims (Recorder); Dr. J. H. Asbwortb ; Dr. 0. L. Boulenger: R. Douglss Laurie.
M.A.
SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.
President. — Prof JL N. Dickson, D.Sc. Vice-Presidents. — Dr. AV. S. Bruce ;
G. G. Cbisbolm, M.A. ; Col. C. F. Close, C.M.G. ; Dr. J. Scott Keltic; Sir C. P.
Lucas, K.C.M.G. ; Capt. H. G. Lyons, F.R.S. Secretaries.— 'Ray. W. J. Barton,
M.A. (Pecorder); J. McFarlane, M.A. ; P. E. Marticeau ; E. A. Reeves.
SECTION F. — ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President. — Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A. Vice-Presidents.— Trof. W. .1.
Asbley, M.A. ; Dr. A. L. Bowley, M.A. ; Prof. E. Cannan, LL.D. ; Neville
Chamberlain; Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B. Secretaries. — Dr. W, R. Scott
(Pecorde?-) ; 0. R. Fay, M.A. ;' Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, M.A.; Prof. H. 0. Mere-
dith, M.A.
SECTION G. — ENGINEERING.
President. — Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng. Vice-Presidents. — Prof. A. Barr,
D.Sc. ; Prof. S. M. Dixon, M.A. ; G. R. Jebb ; G. G. Stoney, F.R.S. ; Dr.
W. E. Sumpner. Secretaries. — Prof. E. G. Coker, D.Sc. [Recorder); A. A.
Rowse, B.Sc. ; H. E. Wimperis, M.A. ; J. Purser, M.Sc.
SECTION H. — ANTHROPOLOGY.
President. — Sir Richard Temple, Bart., CLE. Vice-Presidents. — Dr. G. A.
Auden, M.A.; Sir Everard im Thurn, K.C.M.G. ; Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. ;
Prof. E. A. Sonnen.ficbein ; Prof. P. Thompson, M.D. Secretaries. — E. N. Fallaize
{Recorder) ; E. W. Martindell, M.A. ; Dr. F. C. Shrubsall ; T. Yeates, M.B.
SECTION I. — PHYSIOLOGY.
President.— T>r. F. Gowland Hopkins, F.R.S. Vice-Presidenfs.-Vrof. E. "\V.
Wace Carlitr, M.D. ; Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S.; Prof Leonard Hill, F.R.S. ;
Prof. R. F. C. Leith, M.A. ; Prof. J. 11. Muirhead, LL.D. Secretaries —Tir.
n. E. Roa^ (Recorder) ; C. L. Burt, M.A. ; Prof. P. T. Herring, M.D. ; Dr. T. (!.
Maitland ; Dr. J. Tait.
1913.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.
SECTION K. — BOTANY.
President. — Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S. Vice-Presidents. — Prof. F. Keeble,
F.ll.S. ; Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.K.S. ; Sir David Prain, C.M.G., F.R.S. ; Dr. D. H.
Scott, F.R.S. ; Prof. A. 0. Seward, F.R S. ; Prof. G. E. AVest, D.Sc. ; Prof.
R. H. Yapp, M.A. Secretaries. — Prof. D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, M.A. {Recorder) ;
W. B. Grove, M.A. ; Dr. C. E. Moss ; D. Ttioday, M.A.
SECTION L. — EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
President. — Principal E. II. Griffiths, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents. — 11. Gary
Gilson, M.A. ; Sir A. Hopkinson ; Prof. A. Hughes, M.A. ; Sir G. H. Kenrick;
A. Moselv, C.M.G. Secretaries. — Prof. J. A. Green (^Recorder); D. Berridge,
M.A. ; Rev. S. Blofeld, B.A. ; H. Richardson, M.A.
SECTION M. — AGRICULTURE.
President.—FioL T. B. \^'ood, M.A. Vice-Presidents.— VroL ^V. Bateson,
F.R.S.; A. D. Hall, F.R.S.; T. H. Middleton, C.B. : Prof. W. Somerville, M.A.
Secretaries. — Dr. E. J. Russell {Recorder) ; W. E. CoUinge, M.Sc. ; Dr. C.
Orowther; J. Golding.
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES.
Chairman. — Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S. Vice- Chairman. — Sir II. G
Fordham. Secretary. — W. P. D. Stebbing.
COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.
The President and Vice-Presidents of the Association ; the General Secretaries ;
the General Treasurer ; the Trustees ; the Presidents of the Association in former
years ; the Chairman of the Conference of Delegates ; Dr. F. H. Baker ; Prof.
H. H. Turner ; Prof. W. P. Wynne ; Dr. E. F. Armstrong ; Pi of. E. J. Garwood ;
Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse; Dr. H. F. Gadow ; Dr. Marett Tims; Prof. H. N.
Dickson; Rev. W. J. Barton; Rev. P. H. Wicksteed ; Dr. W. R. Scott; Prof.
Gisbert Kapp ; Prof. E. G. Coker; Sir R. 0. Temple; E.N. Fallaize ; Dr. F.
Gowland Hopkins; Dr. H. E. Roaf; Miss E. Sargant; Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan; Principal E. If. Griffiths; Prof. .7. A. Green: Prof. T. B. Wooi ;
Dr. E. J. Russell ; Sir H. G. Fordham.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
LIST OF GRANTS : Birmingham, 1913.
Research Committees, etc., appointed by the General Committee
AT THE Birmingham Meeting : September 1913.
1. Receiving Grants of Money.
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Section A.— MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
Seismological Observations.
Investigation of the Upper Atmo-
sphere.
Annual Tables of Constants and
Numerical Data, chemical, phy-
sical, and technological.
Calculation of
Tables.
Mathematical
Disposing of Copies of the
' binary Canon' by presentation
to Mathematical yocioties.
Chairman. — ProfessorH.H.Turner.
Secretary. — Professor J. Perry.
Mr. Horace Darwin, Dr. R. T.
Glazebrook, Mr. M. H. Gray,
Mr. R. K. Gray, Professors J. W.
Judd and C. G. Knott, Sir J.
Larmor, Professor R. Meldola,
Mr. W. E. Plummer, Dr. R. A.
Sampson, Professor A. Schuster,
Mr. J. J. Shaw, and Mr. G. W.
Walker.
Chairman. — Dr. W. N. Shaw.
Secretary. — Mr. E. Gold.
Mr. D. Archibald, Mr. C. J. P. Cave,
Mr.W. H.Iiines, Dr. R. T. Glaze-
brook, Sir J. Larmor, Professor
J. E. Petavel, Dr. A. Schuster,
and Dr. W. Watson.
Chairman. — Sir W. Ramsay.
Secretary — Dr. W. C. McC. Lewis.
Chairman. — Professor M. J. M.
Hill.
Secretary. -Fvoiessox J. W. Nichol-
son.
Mr. J. R. Airey, Professor Alfred
Lodge, Professor L. N. G. Filon,
Sir G. Greenhill, and Professors
E. W. Hobson, A. E. H. Love,
H. M. Macdonald, and A. G.
Webster.
Chairman. — Lieut. -Col. A. Cun-
ningham.
Secretary. — Professor A. E. H,
Love.
Major P. A, MacMahon.
Grants
60
s.d.
0=
25
40
20
» 111 aililitiou, the Oouuoil was authorised to expend a sum not exceeding £70 for tlie printiuf of
ciruuliirs, etc., iu connection with the Committee on Seismological Observations. See also C.Tirci
Fund, p. l.^vi.
c 2
lli
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Grants
Section B.— CHEMISTRY.
The Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
stances.
Dynamic Isomerism.
-ProfessorW.H.Perkin.
Professor A. W. Cross-
Chairman
Secretary.
ley.
Dr. M. 0. Forster, Dr. Le Sueur,
and Dr. A. McKenzie.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary. — Dr. T. M. Lowry.
Professor Sydney Young', Dr. Desch,
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. O.
Forster.
£ s. a.
15
The Transformation of Aromatic
Nilroamines and allied sub-
stances, and its relation to
Substitution in Benzene De-
rivatives.
The Study of Plant Enzymes,
particularly with relation to
Oxidation.
Chairman. — Professor F. S. Kip- 15
ping.
Secretary. — ProfessorK.J.P.Ortou.
Dr. S. Euhemann and Dr. J. T.
Hewitt.
Chairman.— M.r. A. D. Hall.
Secretary. — Dr. E. F. Armstrong.
Professor H. E. Armstrong, Pro-
fessor F. Keeble, and Dr. E. J.
Russell.
Correlation of Crystalline Form
with Molecular Structure.
Chairman. — Professor W. J. Pope.
Secretary. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Mr. W. Barlow and Professor
W. P. Wynne.
Study of Solubility Phenomena.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary. — Dr. J. V. Eyre.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor A.
Findlay, Dr. T. M. Lowry, and
Professor W. J. Pope.
Section C— GEOLOGY.
To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.
Chairman. — Mr. R. H. Tiddeman.
Secretary. — Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse.
Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Rev. S. N. Harrison,
Dr. J. Home, Mr. W. Lower
Carter, Professor W. J. SoUas,
and Messrs. W. Hill, J. W.
Stather, and J. II. Milton.
15
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
liii
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Grants
. 1
To consider the preparation of a
Chairman. — Professor P. F. Ken-
J£ s. (1.
5
List of Characteristic Fossils.
dall.
Secretary. — Mr. W. Lower Carter.
Mr. H. A. Allen, Professor W. S.
Boulton, Professor G. Cole, Dr.
A. R. Dwerryhouse, Professors
J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Hol-
land, G. A. Lebour, and S. H.
Reynolds, Dr. Marie C. Stopes,
Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E.
Marr, Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.
The Geology of Kamsay Island,
Chairmati. — Dr. A. Strahan.
10
Pembrokeshire.
Secretary — Mr. H. H. Thomas.
Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. J. W.
Evans, and Professor 0. T.
Jones.
The Old Red Sandstone Eocks of
Chairman. — Professor Grenville
10
! Kiltorcan, Ireland.
Cole.
Secretary. — Professor T. Johnson.
Dr. J. AV. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.
' Fauna and Flora of the Trias of
Chairman. — Mr. G. Barrow.
10
the AYestern Midlands.
1
Secretary. — Mr. L. J. Wills.
Dr. J. Humphreys, Mr. AV. Camp-
bell Smith, Mr. D. S. Watson,
and Professor AV. AV. AVatts.
To excavate Critical Sections in
Chairman. — Professor AV. W.
1.5
the Lower Palreozoic Rocks of
AVatts.
j England and Wales.
Secretary. — Professor AA''. G.
Fearnsides.
Professor AA^ S. Boulton, Mr. E. S.
Cobbold, Mr. A^ C. Illing, Dr.
Lapworth, and Dr. J. E. Marr.
Section
D.— ZOOLOGY.
To investigate the Biological
Chairman. — Dr. A. E. Shipley.
20
Troblems incidental to the Bel-
Secretary. — Professor J. Stanley
mullet Whaling Station.
Gardiner.
Professor AV, A. Herdman, Rev.
W. Spotswood Green, Mr. E. 8.
Goodrich, Dr. H. W. Marett
Tims, and Mr. R. M. Barrington.
Nomenclator Auimalium Genera
Chairman. — Dr. C!halmers Mit-
uO
et Sub-genera.
chell.
Secretary.— 'R&v. T. R. R. Stebbing.
Dr. M. Laurie, Dr. Marett Tims,
and Dr. A, Smith AA'oodward.
llv
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
1. Meceivmff Gfrants of Money — continued.
B'lembers of Committee
To provide assistance for Major
G. B. H. Barrett-Hamilton's
Expedition to Soutli Georgia to
investigate tlie position of the
Antarctic Whaling Industry.
Chairman.— Dr. S. F. Harmer.
Secretary. — Dr. W. T. Caiman.
Dr. Bather, Dr. W. S. Bruce, and
Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.
Section E.— GEOGEAPHY.
To inquire into the choice and
style of Atlas, Textual, and Wall
Maps for School and University
Use.
Strengths and Directions of Tidal
Currents in the Moray Firth
and adjacent firths.
Chairman. — Professor J. L. Myres.
Secretary. — Rev. W. J. Barton.
Professors R. L. Archer and
R. N.R. Brown, Mr. G. G. Chis-
holm. Col. C. F. Close, Professor
H.N. Dickson, Mr. A. R. Hinks,
Mr. 0. J. R. Howarth, Sir Dun-
can Johnston, and Mr. E. A.
Reeves.
Chairman. — Dr. H. N. Dickson.
Secretary. — Mr. A. G. Ogilvie.
Dr. J. Home and Dr. J. S. Owens.
Section G.— ENGINEEEING.
The Investigation of Gaseous Ex-
plosions, with special reference
to Temperature.
To report on certain of the more
complex Stress Distributions in
Engineering Materials.
Chairman. — Sir W. H. Preece.
Vice- Chairman. -'Dr. Dugald Clerk.
Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby.
Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Bur-
stall, H. L. Callendar, E. G.
Coker, and H. B. Dixon, Drs.
R. T. Glazebrook and J. A.
Harker, Colonel H.C. L. Holden,
Professors B. Hopkinson and
J. E. Petavel, Captain H. Riall
Sankey, Professor A. Smithells,
Professor W. Watson, Mr. D. L.
Chapman, and Mr. H. B.
Wimperis.
Chairman. — Professor J. Perry.
Secretaries. — Professors E. G.
Coker and J. E. Petavel.
Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree,
Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor
W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Bwing,
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs.
A. R. Fulton and J. J. Guest,
Professors J. B. Henderson and
A. E. 11. Love, Mr. W. Mason,
Sir Andrew Noble, Messrs. F.
Rogers and W. A. Scoble, Dr.
T. B. Stanton, and Mr. J. S.
Wilson.
Grants
s. a.
40
40
50
5)0
RESEABCH COMMITTEES.
1. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Iv
Members of Cornmittee
Grants
Section H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
To investigate the Lake Villages
in the neighbourhood of Glas-
tonbury in connection with a
Committee of the Somerset
Archfeological and Natural
Historj' Society.
To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the Age
of Stone Circles.
To investigate and ascertain the
Distribution of Artificial Is-
lands in the lochs of the High-
lands of Scotland.
To investigate
Characters of
Egyptians.
the Physical
the Ancient
To co-operate with Local Com-
mittees in Excavations on
Roman Sites in Britain.
To conduct Anthropometric In-
vestigations in the Island of
Cyprus.
To excavate a Palajolithic Site in
Jersej'.
Chairman. — Professor Boyd Daw-
kins.
Secretary. — Mr. Willoughby Gard-
ner.
Pro fessorW. Ridge way, Sir Arthur
J. Evans, Sir C. H. Read, Mr.
H. Balfour, and Dr. A. Bulleid,
Chairman. — Sir C. H. Read.
Secretary. — Mr. H. Balfour.
Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W.
Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro, Pro-
fessors Boyd Dawkins and J. L.
Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, and
Mr. H. Peake.
Chairman. — Professor Boyd Daw-
kins.
Secretary. — Mr. A. J. B. Wace.
Professors T. H. Bryce, W. Boyd
Dawkins, J. L. Myres, and W.
Ridgeway.
Chairman. — Professor G. Elliot
Smith.
Secretary. — Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Dr. A. Keith,
and Dr. 0. G. Seligmann.
Chairman. — Professor W. Ridge-
way.
Secretary. — Professor R. C. Bosan-
quet.
Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby
Gardner, and Professor J. L.
Myres.
Chairman. — Professor J. L. Myres
Secretary. —Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. A. C. Haddon.
Chairman. — Dr. R. R. INIarett.
Secretary. — Col. Warton.
Dr. C. W. Andrews, Dr. Dunlop,
Mr. G. de Gruchy, and Professor
A. Keith.
Section I.— PHYSIOLOGY.
The Ductless Glands.
Chairman. — Sir E. A. Schafer.
Secretary. — Professor Swale Vin-
cent.
Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E.
Shore, and Mrs.W. H.Thompson.
£ s. d.
20
20
.5
3i 16 G
20
5)
50
35
Ivi
RESEARCH COiMMITTEES.
I. Receiving Grants of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
To acquire further knowledge,
Clinical and Experimental, con-
cerning AnEesthetics — general
and local — with special refer-
ence to Deaths by or during
Ansesthesia, and their possible
diminution.
Calorimetric Observations on Man
in Health and in Febrile Con-
ditions.
Further Researches on the Struc-
ture and Functicm of the Mam-
malian Heart.
The Binocular Combination of
Kinematograph Pictures of dif-
ferent Meaning, and its rela-
tion to the Binocular Combina-
tion of simpler Perceptions.
Members of Committee
Chairman. — Dr. A. D. Waller.
Secretary. — Sir F. W. Hewitt.
Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner,
and Dr. G. A. Buckmaster.
Chairman. — Professor J. S. Mac-
don aid.
Secretary. — Dr. Francis A. Duffield.
Dr. Keith Lucas.
Chairman. — Professor C. S. Sher-
rington.
Secretary. — Professor Stanley Kent.
Chairman. — Dr. C, S. Myers.
Secretary. — T. H. Pear.
Section K.— BOTANY.
The Structure of Fossil Plants.
The Investigation of the Jurassic
Flora of Yorkshire.
The Investigations of the Flora
of the Peat of the Kennet Valley,
Berks.
The Investigation of the Vegeta-
tion of Ditcham Park, Hamp-
shire.
Experimental Studies ii
Physiology of Heredity.
the
The Renting of Cinchona Botanic
Station in Jamaica.
To carry out Breeding Experi-
ments with (Enotheras.
Chairman. — Professor V.W .Oliver.
Secretary. — Professor F. E Weiss.
Mr. E. Newell Arber, Professor A.C.
Seward, and Dr. D. H. Scott.
Chairman. — Professor A. C.
Seward.
Secretary. — Mr. H. Hamshaw
Thomas.
Mr. H. W. T. Wager and Pro-
fessor F. E. Weiss.
Chairman. — -Professor F. Keeble.
Secretary. — Miss M. C. Rayner.
Professors F. \V. Oliver and F. E,
Weiss.
Chairman.— My. A. G. Tansley.
Secretary. — Mr. R. S. Adamson.
Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H.
Yapp.
Chairman. — Prof essorF.F. Black-
man.
Secretai-y. — Mr. R. P. Gregory.
Professors Bateson and Keeble.
Chairman. — Professor F. O. Bower
Secretary. — Professor R. H Yapp.
Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver,
and F. E. Weiss.
Chairnian. — Professor W. Bateson.
Sierctary. — Professor F. Keeble.
Mr. R. P. Gregorv.
Grants
£ s. d.
20
40
30
10
15
.5
15
20
30
25
20
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
1. Rcceicing Grants of Money — continued.
Ivii
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Section L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
lo inquire into and report upon
the methods and results of
research into tlie Mental and
Physical Factors involved in
Education.
The Influence of School Books
upon Ejesight.
To inquire into and report on the
number, distribution and re-
spective Values of S jholarships,
Exhibitions and Bursaries held
by University Students during
tlieir undergraduate course, and
on funds private and open avail-
able for their augmentation.
To examine, inquire into and re-
port on the Character, Work
and Maintenance of Museums,
with a view to their Organisa-
tion and Development as In-
stitutions for Education and
Research ; and especially to
inquire into the Requirements
of Schools.
Chairman. —
Secretary Professor J. A. Green.
Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A.
Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Mr. C. Burt, Professor
E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F.
Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro-
fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, Professor W. Mc-
Dougall, Dr. C. S. Myers, Dr.
T. P. Nunn, Dr. w". H. R.
Rivers, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, Mr.
H. Bompas Smith, Dr. (J. Spear-
man, and Mr. A, E. Twentyman.
Chairman. — -Dr. G. A. Auden.
Secretary. — Mr. G. F. Daniell.
Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.
Eggar, Professor R. A. Gregory,
Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.
Sumpner, and Mr. Trevor Walsh.
Chairvian. — Sir Henry Miers.
Secretary. —Professor Marcus Har-
tog.
Miss Lilian J. Clarke, Miss B.
Foxley, Professor H. Bompas
Smith, and Principal Griffiths.
Chairman, — Professor J. A. Green.
Secretaries.— Mr. H. Bolton and
Dr. J. A. Clubb.
Dr. Bather, Mr. E. Gray, Professor
S. F. Harmer, Mr. M. D. Hill,
Dr.W. E. Hoyle, Professors E.J.
Garwood and P. Newberry, Sir
Richard Temple, Mr. H. H.
Thomas, Professor F. E. Weiss,
Mrs. Dr. White, Eev. H. Browne,
Drs. A. C. lladdon and H. S.
Harrison, Mr. Herbert R. Rath-
bone, and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.
Chairman. — Mr. W. Whitaker.
Secretary. — Mr. W.P. D. Stebbing.
Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham,
Dr. J. G. Garson, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr.
T. V. Holmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. W. Mark Webb,
and the President and General
Officers of the Association.
Grants
£ s. d.
30
15 15
5
10
2.5
Iviii
KESEARCH COMMITTEES.
2. Not receiving Orants of Money*
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Seotiont a.— mathematics AND PHYSICS.
*Radiotelegraphic In vestigat ions.
To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.
To consider the Nomenclature and
Definitions of Magnetic and Elec-
trical Quantities.
Chairman. — Sir Oliver Lodge.
Secretanj. — Dr. W. H. Eccles.
Mr. S. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Professor
A. S. Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murraj,
Professors J. A. Fleming, G. W. 6.
Howe, and H. M. Macdonald, Sir H.
Norman, Captain H. R. Sankey, Dr.
A. Schuster, Dr. W. N. Shaw, and
Professor S. P. Thompson.
Chairman. —
Secretary.— Dr. W. G. Duffield.
Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A.
Schuster and H. H. Turner.
Chairman. — Professor Silvanus Thomp-
son.
Secretary. — Professor F. G. Baily.
Professors H. L. Callendar, J. A. Fleming,
A. W. Porter, and A. Schuster, and Mr.
F. E. Smith.
Section C— GEOLOGY.
The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.
To investigate the Microscopical and
Chemical Composition of Charnwood
Rocks.
The further Exploration of the Upper
Red Sandstone of Dura Den.
To consider the Preparation of a List
of Stratigraphical Names, used in the
British Isles, in connection with the
Lexicon of Stratigraphical Names in
course of preparation by the Inter-
national Geological Congress.
Chairman. — Professor J. Geikie.
Secretaries. — Professors W. W. Watts and
S. H. Reynolds.
Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. C.
V. Crook, Professor E. J. Garwood,
and Messrs. R. Kidston, A. S. Reid,
J. J. H. Teall, R. Welch, W. Whitaker,
and H. B. Woodward.
Chairman. — Professor W. W. '\\'atts.
Secretary. — Dr. T. T. Groom.
Dr. F. W. Bennett and Dr. Stracey.
Chairman. — Dr. J. Home.
Secretary. — Dr. T. J. Jehu.
Messrs. H. Bolton and A. W. R. Don,
Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. B. N. Peach, and
Dr. A. Smith Woodward.
Chairman. — Dr. J. E. Marr.
Secretary. — Dr. F. A. Bather.
Professor Grenville C< le, Mr. Bernard
Hobson, Professor Lebour, Dr. J.
Horne, Dr. A. Strahan, and Professor
W. W. Watts.
E xcopting the case of Ccirrnittces recthing grants from the Cairrl 'FuimI, for which see p. Ixvi.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
2. Not receiving Grants of Afoney — continued.
lix
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Committee
Section D.— ZOOLOGY.
*To aid competent Investigators se-
lected by the Committee to carry on
definite pieces of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples.
To investigate the Feeding Habits of
British Birds by a study of the
contents of the crops and gizzards
of both adults and nestlings, and by
collation of observational evidence,
with the object of obtaining precise
knowledge as to the economic status
of many of our commocer birds
affecting rural science.
Todefray expenses connected with work
on the Inheritance and Development
of Secondary Sexual Characters in
Birds.
To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.
To nominate competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.
To enable Mr. Laurie to conduct Ex-
periments in Inheritance.
To formulate a Definite System on
which Collectors should record their
captures.
A Natural History Survey of the Isle
of Man.
Chairman. — Mr. E. S. Goodrich.
Secretary. — Dr. J. H. Ashworth.
Mr. G. P. Bidder, Drs. W. B. Hardy and
S. F. Harmer, Professors. J. Hickson,
Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor W. C.
Mcintosh, and Dr. A. D. Waller.
Chairman. — Dr. A. B. Shipley.
Secretary.— '^[r. H. S. Leigh.
Messrs. J. N. Halbert, Robert New-
stead, Clement Reid, A. G. L. Rogers,
and F. V. Theobald. Professor F. E.
Weiss, Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, and
Professors S. J. Hickson, F. W. Gam-
ble, G. H. Carpenter, and J. Arthur
Thomson.
CJiairman. — Professor G. C. Bourne.
Secretary. — Mr. Geoffrey Smith.
Mr. E. S. Goodrich, Dr. W. T. Caiman,
and Dr. Marett Tims.
Chairman. — Sir E. Ray Lankester.
Secretary. — Professor S. J. Hickson.
Professors G. C. Bourne, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog, and W. A. Herdman, Mr.
M. D. Hill, Professors J. Graham Kerr
and Minchin, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
Professors E. B. Poulton and Stanley
Gardiner, and Dr. A. E. Shipley.
Chairman and Secretary. — Professor A.
Dendy.
Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, Professor Sydney H. Vines, and
Mr. E. S, Goodrich.
Chairman. — Professor W. A. Herdman.
Secretary. — Mr. Douglas Laurie.
Professor R. C. Punnet t and Dr. H. W.
Marett Tims.
Chairman. — Professor J. W. H. Trail.
Secretary. — Mr. F. Balfour Browne.
Drs. Scharff and E. J. Bles, Professors
G. H. Carpenter and E. B. Poulton,
and Messrs. A. G. Tansley and R. Iiloyd
Praeger.
Cliairman. — Professor W. A. Herdman,
Secretary. — Mr. P. M. C. Kermode.
Dr. W. T. Caiman, Rev. J. Davidson,
Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Professor E. W.
Mac Bride, and Lord Raglan.
Ix
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
2. Kot receiving Grantg of Money — continued.
Subject for Investigation, or Pui-pose
Members of Committee
Section F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
The question of Fatigue from tiie
Economic Standpoint, if possible in
co-operation with Section I, Sub-
section of Psyeliology.
Chairman. — Professor Muirliead.
Secretary. — Miss Hutchins.
Miss A. M. Anderson, Professor "VV. J.
Asliley, Professor F. A. Baiubridge,
Mr. E. Cadbury, Mr. P. Sargant
Florence, Professor Stanley Kent, Mr.
W. J. Layton, Dr. T. G. Maitland,
Miss M. C. Matheson, Dr. C. S. Myers,
Mr. J. W. Ilamsbottom, and Dr.
Jenkins Robb.
Section H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
The Collection, Preservation and
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.
To conduct Archffiological and Ethno-
logical Researches in Crete.
To produce certified copies of the Hausa
Manuscripts in the possession of
Major Treroearne, for deposit in
centres at which Hausa is taught and
students prepared for the Govern-
ment Service.
To report on the present state of know-
ledge of the Prehistoric Civilisation
of the Western Mediterranean with
a view to future research.
To co-operate with a Local Committee
in the Excavation of a Prehistoric
Site at Bishop's Stortford.
To conduct Excavations in Easter Island.
To report on Palfeolithic Sites in the
West of England.
Chairman. — Sir C. H. Read.
Secretary. — Mr. E. AV. Martindell.
Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, and
Professor J. L. Myres.
Chairman. — Mr. D. G. Hogarth.
Secretary. — Professor J. L. Myres.
Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H.
Duckworth, Sir A. J. Evans, Professor
W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Chairman. — Mr. E. Sidney Hartland.
Secretary. — Professor J. L. Myres.
Mr. W. Crooke and Major A. J. N. Tre-
mearne.
Chairman. — Professor W. Ridgewa}-.
Secretary. — Dr. T. Ashby.
Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. D. G.
Hogarth, Sir A. J. Evans, and Professor
J. L. Myres.
Chairman. — Professor W. Ridgeway.
Secretary. — Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, and Dr.
H. W. Marett Tims.
Chairman. — Dr. A. C. Haddon.
Secretary. — Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.
Mr. R.R. Marett and Dr. C. G. Seligmann.
Chairman. — Professor Boyd Dawkins.
Secretary. — Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth.
Professor A. Keith.
RESEARCH COjMMITTEES.
2. Not receiving Grants of Money — continued.
hi
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
The Teaching of Anthropology.
To excavate Eatlj Sites in Macedonia.
To report on the Distribution of Bronze
Age Implements.
Members of Committee
Chainiian. — Sir Richard Temple.
Secrefary. — Dr. A. C. Haddon.
Sir E. F. im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr.
C. G. Seligmann, Professor G. Elliot
Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor '•
P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden.Pro- ;
fessors T. H. Bryce, P. Thompson, :
R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure, and J. L. j
Myres, and Sir B. C. A. Windle. [
Chairman. — Professor AV. Eidgeway.
Secretary. — Mr. A. J. B. Wace.
Professors K. C. Bosanquet and J. L.
Myres.
Chairman. — Professor J. L. Myres.
Secretary. — Mr. H. Peake.
Sir Arthur Evans, Professor W. Ridge-
way, Mr. H. Balfour, Sir C. H. Read,
and Professor W. Bovd Dawkins.
Section I.— PHYSIOLOGY.
Effect of Low Temperature on Cold-
blooded Animals.
Electromotive Phenomena in Plants.
The Dissociation of Oxy-Hajmoglobin
at High Altitudes.
Colour Vision and Colour Blindness.
To investigate the Physiological and
Psychological Factors in the produc-
tion of Miners' Nystagmus.
Chairman. — Professor Swale Vincent.
Secretary. — Mr. A. T. Cameron.
Chairman. — Dr. A. D. Waller.
Secretary. — Mrs. Waller.
Professors J. B. Farmer and Veley and
Dr. F. O'B. Ellison.
Chairman. — Professor E. H. Starling.
Secretani. — Dr. J. Barcrof t.
Dr. W. B. Hardy.
Chairman. — Professor E. H. Starling.
Secretary. — Dr. Edridge-Green.
Professor Leonard Hill, Professor A. W.
Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, Professor C. S.
Sherrington, and Dr. F. W. Mott.
Chairman. — Professor J. H. Muirhead.
Secretary.—'Dr. T. G. Maitland.
Dr. J. Jameson Evans and Dr. C. S. Mj-ers.
Section K.— BOTANY.
To consider acd report on the ad-
visability and the best means of
securing definite Areas for the
Preservation of Types of British
Vegetation.
Chairman. — Professor F. E. Weiss.
Secretary. —Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Professor J. W. H. Trail, Mr. R. Lloyd
Praeger, Professor F. W. Oliver, Pro-
fessor R. W. Phillips, Dr. C. E. Moss,
and Messrs. G. C. Druce and H. W. T.
Wager.
Ixii
RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
2. IVot receiving Grants of Money —contm.vi.&A.
Subject for Investigation, or Purpose
Members of Ccmmiltee
Section L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
To take notice of, and report upon
changes in, Regulations — whether
Legislative, Administrative, or made
by Local Authorities — affecting
Secondary and Higher Education.
The Aims and Limits of Examinations.
Chairman. — Professor H. E. Armstrong.
Secretary. — Major E. Gray.
Miss Coignan, Principal GriflSths, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Sir Horace Plunkett,
Mr. H. Kamage, Professor M. E.Sadler,
and Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon.
Chairman. — Professor M. E. Sadler.
Secretary. — Blr. P. J. Hartog.
BIr. D. P. Berridge, Professor G. H.
Bryan, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Professor
R. A. Gregory, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Miss C. L. Laurie, Dr. W.
McDougall, Mr. David Mair, Dr. T. P.
Nunn, Sir VV. Ramsay, Rt. Rev. J. E. C.
Welldon, Dr. Jessie White, and Mr.
G. U. Yule.
Communications ordered to he printed in extenso.
Section A. — As many of the remarks made in the Discussion on Radiation as
the Recorder may be able to obtain.
Section B. — The Papers comprising the Discussion on the Proper Utilisation
of Coal and Fuels derived therefrom.
Section C. — Professor W. J. Sollas : The Formation of ' Rostro-carinate ' Flints.
Section. D.— Professor J. Yersluys : The Carapace of the Chelonia.
Section Gf.— Professor F. W. Burstall : Liquid, Solid, and Gaseous Fuels for
Power Production.
Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable,
for action,
(a) Resolutions eelating to the Caikd Fund (see p. xlii).
(1) That the Council be asked to appoint a Committee to can-y out the request of
Sir J. K. Caird in his letter of September 10 (viz., that his further gift of 1,000^. be
earmarked for the study of Radio-activity as a branch of Geophysics.
(2) That the request of Section A (Mathematics and Physics) for a grant from
the Caird Fund of 500Z. for Radiotelegraphic Investigations tie sent to the Council
for consideration and action.
(3) That a grant of lOOZ. for the comiog year be made to the Committee on the
Naples Table from the Caird Fund, and that the Council be requested to consider
the advisability of endowing the Committee with a capital sum yielding an annual
income of lOOZ.
(4) That a grant of 1001. for the coming year be made to the Committee on
Seismological Investigations from the Caird Fund, and that the Council be asked
to consider the advisability of endowing tlie Committee with a capital sum yielding
an annual income of 100/.
(b) Other Resolutions.
From Sections A and E.
That the terms First Oider, Second Order, Third Order, and Fourth Order of
Triangulation, as connoting different degrees of preciiion, be used to describe
RESOLUTIONS, ETC. Ixiii
triangulation, even though the tcims now in use (eg., Major, Minor, etc.), whioh
have only a local significance, are also employed.
That this resolution be communicated through the proper channels to (a) the
Geodetic Association, and {b) the Institute of Surveyors.
From Section I.
That in view of the fact that numerous deaths continue to take place from
auresthetics administered by unregistered persons, the Committee of the Section of
Physiology of the British Association appeals to the Council of the Association to
represent to the Home Office and to the Privy Council the urgent need of legislation
to protect the public against such unnecessary risks.
From Scctio?i I.
The Committee of Section I requests the Council of the Association to forward to
the Board of Trade the following resolution: —
(i) That co'our vision tests are most efficiently conducted by means of what
is known as the ' Lantern Test.'
(ii) That the best form of such lantern has not yet been finally decided upon,
and can be arrived at only after further expert report,
(iii) That the actual application of sight tests requires the co-operation of an
ophthalmic surgeon with a practical navigator.
Ixiv SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.
Synopsis of Grants of Money {exclusive of Grants from tlic Caird
Fund) api^ropriated for Scientific Purposes by tie General Gotmnittee
at the Birmingham Meeting^ September 1913. The Names of
Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer for th e Grants ri re
prefixed to the respective Research Committees.
Section A.- — Mathematical and Fltysical Science.
£ s. d.
*Turner, Professor H. H. — Seismological Observations 60
Tn addition, the Council are authorised to expend on the
printing of circulars, cfec, in connection with the Com-
mittee on Seismological Observations a sum not exceeding 70
*Bhaw, Dr. W. N. — Upper Atmosphere 25
*Ramsay, Sir W.— Grant to the International Commission on
Physical and Chemical Constants 40
*Hill, Professor M. J. M.— Calculation of Mathematical
Tables -20
Cunningham, Lieut.-Col. A. — Copies of the ' Binary Canon,'
for presentation •")
Section B. — Chemistry.
*Perkin, Dr. W. H. — Study of Hydro- aromatic Substances 15
* Armstrong, Professor H. E. — Dynamic Isomerism 25
*Kipping, Professor F. B. — Transformation of Aromatic Nitro-
amines 15
* Hall, A. D.— Study of Plant Enzymes 25
Pope, Professor W. J. — Correlation of Crystalline Form with
Molecular Structure 25
Armstrong, Professor H. E. — Solubility Phenomena 15
Section C. — Geology.
*Tiddeman, R. H.— Erratic Blocks 5
*Kendall, Professor P. F. — List of Characteristic Fossils 5
Strahan, Dr. A. - Geology of Ramsay Island, Pembroke ... 10
Cole, Professor Grenville. — Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan • 10
Barrow, G.— Trias of Western Midlands 10
Watts, Professor W. W. — Sections in Lower Palfeozoic
Eocks 15
Section D. — Zoology.
*Shipley, Dr. A. E.—Belmullet Whaling Station 20
Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers. — Nomenclator Animalium 50
Harmer, Dr. S. F. — Antarctic Whaling Industry 90
Carried forward £555
* Reappointed.
SYXOrslS 01'' GRAN'l'S OF MONEY. Ixv
£ s. d.
Brought forward 555
Section E. — Geography.
*Myres, Professor J. L. — Maps for School and University Use 40
Dickson, Professor H. N. — Tidal Currents in Moray and
adjacent Firths 40
Section (J. — Engineering.
*Preocp, Sir W. H. — Gaseous Explosions 50
*Perry, Professor J.— Stress Distributions 50
Section H. —Anthropology.
Dawkins, Professor Boyd. — Lake Villages in the neighljour-
hood of Glastonbury 20
*Read, Sir C. IL— Age of Stone Circles 20
Dawkins, Professor Boyd. — ^Artificial Islands in Highland
Lochs 5
*Sinith, Professor G. Elliot. — Physical Chai'acters of the
Ancient Egyptians 34 IG (i
* Ridge way. Professor W. — Roman Sites in Britain 20
Myres, Professor J. L. — Anthropometric Investigations in
Cyprus 50
Marett, ] )r. R. R. ~ PaliTolithic Site in Jersey 50
I
Section I. — PhysioJngy.
•*Schafer, Sir E. A.— The Ductless Glands .35
*Waller, Dr. A. D. - Auipsthetics 20
*Macdonald, Profes.sor J. S. — Calorimetric Ob.servations 40
Sherrington, Professor C. S. — Mammalian Heart 30
Myers, Dr. C. S. — Binocular Combination of Kinematograph
Pictures .' 10
Section K. — Botany.
' Oliver, Professor P. W.— Structure of Fossil Plants 15
Seward, Professor A. C. — Jurassic Flora of Yorksliii'e ..... 5
Keeble, Professor F. — Flora of Peat of Kennet Valley \f)
Tansley, A. G.— Vegetation of Ditcliam Park ". 20
Blackmail, Profe.s.sor F. F. — Physiology of Heredity 30
Bower, Professor F. O. — Renting of Cinchona Botanic Sta-
tion, Jamaica 25
Bate.son, Professor W. — Breeding E.Kperiinents in Oenotheras 20
Carried forward £1,199 IC G
* Iteappointed.
1918. d
XVI SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF JIONEY.
£ s. d.
Brought forward 1,199 16 6
Section L. — Ediication.
— Mental and Physical Factors in-
volved in Education 30
*Auden, Dr. G. A.— Influence of School Books on Eyesight... 15 15 o
*Miers, Sir H.— Scholarships, e^c, held by University Students 5
Green, Px-ofessor J. A. — Character, Work, and Maintenance
of Museums 10
Corresijonding Societies Coinmittee.
*Whitaker, W.— For Preparation of Report 25
Total £1,285 11 9
* Reappointed.
Cairo Fund.
An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.
The Council in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting made certain recommendations as to the administration
of this Fund (§ VII., p. x\n). These recommendations were adopted,
with the E,eport, by the General Committee at its meeting on Sep-
tember 10, 1913.
Recommendations were made by certain Sectional Committees at
Birmingham of grants from the Caird Fund, for which see p. Ixii.
The following allocations have been made from the Fund V)y the
Council (including those made at the Council meeting on November 7,
1913, the first ordinary meeting following the Birmingham Meeting) : —
JVnjAe.i ZooJogiccd Station Cominidee (p. lix).— 50/. (1912-13); 100/.
(1913-14) ; 100/. annually in future, sul^ject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee's report.
Seismology Committee (p. li). — 100/. (1913-14) ; 100/. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee's report.
Hadiotelegraphic Conunitlee (p. Iviii). - 500/. (1913-1 1).
Magnetic He-survey oj the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).— 250/.
Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000/.
to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.
Annual Meetings, 1914 and 1915.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1914 will be held in
Australia in August ; in 1915, at Manchester.
PEESIDENT'S ADDKESS.
1913.
ADDEESS
BY
Sir OLIVEE J. LODGE, D.Sc, LL.D., F.E.S.,
PRESIDENT.
CONTINUITY.
First let me lament the catastrophe which has led to my occupying
the Chair here in this City. Sir William White was a personal friend
of many here present, and I would that the citizens of Birmingham
could have become acquainted with his attractive personality, and
heard at first hand of the strenuous work which he accomplished in
caiTying out the behests of the Empire in the construction of its first
line of defence.
Although a British Association Address is hardly an annual stock-
taking, it would be improper to begin this year of Office without refer-
ring to three more of our losses: — One, that cultured gentleman,
amateur of science in the best sense, who was chosen to preside over
our Jubilee meeting at" York thirty-two years ago. Sir John Lubbock,
first Baron Avebury, cultivated science in a spirit of pure enjoyment,
treating it almost as one of the Arts ; and he devoted social and political
energy to the welfare of the multitude of his fellows less fortunately
situated than himself.
Through the untimely death of Sir George Darwin the world has
lost a mathematical astronomer whose work on the Tides and allied
phenomena is a monument of power and achievement. So recently as
our visit to South Africa he occupied the Presidential Chair.
By the third of our major losses, I mean the death of that brilliant
Mathematician of a neighbouring nation who took so comprehensive
and philosophic a grasp of the intricacies of physics, and whose eloquent
though sceptical exposition of our laws and processes, and of the
modifications entailed in them by recent advances, will be sure to
attract still more widespread attention among all to whom the rather
abstruse subject-matter is sufficiently familiar. I cannot say that I
find myself in agreement with all that Henri Poincar6 wrote or spoke
B 2
4 president's address,
in the domain of physics, but no physicist can help being interested in
his mode of presentation, and I may have occasion to refer, in passing,
to some of the topics with which he dealt.
And now, ehminating from our purview, as is always necessary, a
great mass of human activity, and hmiting ourselves to a scrutiny on
the side of pure science alone, let us ask what, in the main, is the
characteristic of the promising though perturbing period in which we
live. Different persons would give different answers, but the answer
I venture to give is — Eapid progress, combined with Fundamental
scepticism.
Eapid progress was not characteristic of the latter half of the nine-
teenth century, — at least not in physics. Fine solid dynamical founda-
tions were laid, and the edifice of knowledge was consolidated; but
wholly fresh ground was not being opened up, and totally new
buildings were not expected.
' In many cases the student was led to believe that the main
facts of nature were all known, that the chances of any gi^eat
discovery being made by experiment v,'ere vanishingly small, and
that therefore the experimentalist's work consisted in deciding
between rival theories, or in finding some small residual effect,
which miglit add a more or less important detail to the theory.' —
Schuster.
With the realisation of predicted ether waves in 1888, the discovery
of X-rays in 1895, spontaneous radioactivity in 1896, and the isolation
of the electron in 1898, expectation of fui'ther achievement became
vivid; and novelties, experimental, theoretical, and speculative, have
been showered upon us ever since this century began. That is why I
speak of rapid progress.
Of the progress I shall say little, — there must always be some
uncertainty as to whicli particular achievement permanently contri-
butes to it; but I will speak about the fundamental scepticism.
Let me hasten to explain that I do not mean the well-worn and
almost antique theme of Theological scepticism : that controversy is
practically in abeyance just now. At any rate the major conflict is
suspended; the forts behind which the enemy has retreated do not
invite attack; the territory now occupied by him is little more than
his legitimate province. It is the scientific allies, now, who are waging
a more or less invigorating conflict among themselves; with Philoso-
phers joining in. Meanwhile the ancient foe is biding his time and
hoping that from the struggle something will emerge of benefit to
himself. Some positions, he feels, were too hastily abandoned and
may perhaps be retrieved ; or, to put it without metaphor, it seems
possible that a few of the things pi-ematin-ely denied, because asserted
president's address. 5
un inconclusive evidence, may after all, in bome form or other, have
really happened. Thus the old theological bitterness is mitigated, and
a temporising pohcy is either advocated or instinctively adopted.
To illustrate the nature of the fundamental scientific or philosophic
controversies to which I do refer, would require almost as many
addi-esses as there are Sections of the British Association, or at any
rate as many as there are cliief cities in Australia; and perhaps my
successor in the Chair will continue the theme; but, to exhibit my
meaning very briefly, I may cite the kind of dominating controversies
now extant, employing as far as possible only a single word in each
case so as to emphasise the necessary brevit^nd insufficiency of the
reference.
In Physiology the conflict ranges round Vitalism. (My inunediate
predecessor dealt with the subject at Dundee.)
In Chemistry the debate concerns Atomic structure. (My pen-
ultimate predecessor is well aware of pugnacity in that region.)
In Biology the dispute is on the laws of Inhcrilance. (My
nominated successor is likely to deal with this subject; probably
in a way not deficient in liveliness.)
And besides these major controversies, debate is active in other
sections : —
In Education, Curricula generally are being overhauled or funda-
mentally criticised, and revolutionary ideas are promulgated
concerning the advantages of freedom for infants.
In Economic and Pohtical Science, or Sociology, what is there
that is not under discussion? Not property alone, nor land
alone, but everything, — back to the Garden of Eden and the inter-
relations of men and women.
Lastly, in the vast group of Mathematical and Physical Sciences,
' slurred over rather than summed up as Section A,' present-day
scepticism concerns what, if I had to express it in one word, I
should call Continuity. The full meaning of this term will
hardly be intelligible without explanation, and I shall discuss
it presently.
Still more fundamental and deep-rooted than any of these sectional
debates, however, a critical examination of scientific foundations gene-
rally is going on; and a kind of philosophic scepticism is in the
ascendant, resulting in a mistrust of purely intellectual processes and
in a recognition of the limited scope of science.
For science is undoubtedly an affair of the intellect, it examines
everything in the cold light of reason; and that is its strength. It is
a commonplace to say that science must have no likes or dislikes, must
aim only at truth; or as Bertrand Eussell well puts it: —
i'- ' The kernel of the scientific outlook is the refusal to regard
b PRESIDENT S ADDRESSj
our own desires, tastes, and interests as affording a key to the
understanding of the world.'
This exclusive single-eyed attitude of science is its strength ; but, if
pressed beyond the positive region of usefulness into a field of dogmatic
negation and philosophising, it becomes also its weakness. For the
nature of man is a large thing, and intellect is only a part of it : a recent
part too, which therefore necessaiily, though not consciously, suffers
from some of the defects of newness and crudity, and should refrain
from imagining itself the whole — perhaps it is not even the best part —
of human nature.
The fact is that some of the best things are, by abstraction, excluded
from Science, though not from Literature and Poetry; hence perhaps
an ancient mistrust or dislike of science, typified by the Promethean
legend. Science is systematised and vieirical knowledge, and in
regions where measurement cannot be applied it has small scope ; or, as
Mr. Balfour said the other day at the opening of a new wing of the
National Physical Laboratory,
Science depends on measurement, and things not measur-
able are therefore excluded, or tend to be excluded, from its
attention. But Life and Beauty and Happiness are not measur-
able. ' And then characteristically he added: — 'If there could
be a unit of happiness, Politics might begin to be scientific. '
Emotion and Intuition and Instinct are immensely older than
science, and in a comprehensive survey of existence they cannot be
ignored. Scientific men may rightly neglect them, in order to do their
proper work, but philosophers cannot.
So Philosophers have begun to question some of the larger generali-
sations of science, and to ask whether in the effort to be universal and
comprehensive we have not extended our laboratory inductions too far.
The Conservation of Energy, for instance, — is it always and every-
where valid ; or may it under some conditions be disobeyed ? It would
seem as if the second law of Thermodynamics must be somewhere dis-
obeyed — at least if the age of the Universe is both ways infinite, — else
the final consummation would have already arrived.
Not by philosophers only, but by scientific men also, ancient postu-
lates are being pulled up by the roots. Physicists and Mathematicians
are beginning to consider whether the long-known and well-established
laws of mechanics hold true everywhere and always, or whether the
Newi;onian scheme must be replaced by something more modem, some-
thmg to which Newton's laws of motion are but an approximation.
Indeed a whole system of non-Newtonian Mechanics has been
devised, having as its foundation the recently discovered changes which
PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. 7
must occur in bodies moving at speeds nearly comparable with that of
light. It turns out in fact that both Shape and Mass are functions
of Velocity. As the speed increases the mass inci-eases and the shape
is distorted, though under ordinary conditions only to an infinitesimal
extent.
So far I agi-ee ; I agree with the statement of fact ; but I do not
consider it so revolutionary as to overturn Newtonian mechanics.
After all, a variation of Mass is familiar enough, and it would be a great
mistake to say that Newton's second law breaks down merely because
Mass is not constant. A raindrop is an example of variable mass; or
the earth may be, by reason of meteoric dust ; or the sun, by reason of
radio-activity; or a locomotive, by reason of the emission of steam.
In fact, variable masses are the commonest, for friction may abrade
any moving body to a microscopic extent.
That Mass is constant is only an approximation. That Mass is
equal to ratio of Force and Acceleration is a definition, and can be
absolutely accurate. It holds perfectly even for an electron with a
speed near that of light ; and it is by means of Newton's second law that
the variation of Mass with Velocity has been experimentally observed
and compared with theory.
I urge that we remain with, or go back to, Newton. I see no
reason against retaining all Newton's laws, discarding nothing, but
supplementing them in the light of further knowledge.
Even the laws of Geometry have been overhauled, and Euclidean
Geometry is seen to be but a special case of more fundamental generali-
sations. How far they apply to existing space, and how far Time
is a reality or an illusion, and whether it can in any sense depend on
the motion or the position of an observer : all these things in some form
or other are discussed.
The Conservation of Matter also, that main-mast of nineteenth
century chemistry, and the existence of the Ether of Space, that sheet-
anchor of nineteenth century physics, — do they not sometimes seem
to be going by the board?
Professor Schuster, in his American lectures, commented on the
modern receptive attitude as follows: —
' The state of plasticity and flux — a healthy state, in my
opinion, — in which scientific thought of the present day adapts
itself to almost any novelty, is illustrated by the complacency with
which the most cherished tenets of our fathers are being aban-
doned. Though it was never an article of orthodox faith that
chemical elements were immutable and would not some day be
resolved into simpler constituents, yet the conservation of mass
seemed to lie at the very foundation of creation. But now-a-days
8 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
the student finds little to disturb him, perhaps too little,
in the idea that mass changes with velocity; and he does not
always realise the full meaning of the consequences which are
involved. '
This readiness to accept and incorporate new facts into the scheme
of physics may have led to perhaps an undue amount of scientific
scepticism, in order to right the balance.
But a still deeper variety of comprehensive scepticism exists, and
it is argued that all our laws of nature, so laboriously ascertained and
carefully formulated, are but conventions after all, not truths: that
we have no faculty for ascertaining real truth, that our intelligence
was not evolved for any such academic purpose; that all we can do
is to express things in a form convenient for present purposes and
employ that mode of expression as a tentative and pragmatically useful
explanation.
Even explanaliini, however, has been discarded as too ambitious
by some men of science, who claim only the power to describe. They
not only emphasise the how rather than tlie why, — as is In some sort
inevitable, since explanations are never ultimate — but are satisfied with
very abstract propositions, and regard mathematical equations as
preferable to, because safer than, mechanical analogies or models.
' To use an acute and familiar expression of Gustav Kirchboff,
it Is the object of science to describe natural phenomena, not to
explain them. When we have expressed by an equation the
correct relationship between different natural phenomena we have
gone as far as we safely can, and if we go beyond we arc entering
on purely speculative ground. '
But llic modes of statement preferred by those who distrust our
power of going correctly into detail are far from satisfactory. Pro-
fessor Schuster describes and comments on them thus: —
' Vagueness, which used to be recognised as our great enemy,
is now being enshrined as an idol to be worshipped. Wo may
never know what constitutes atoms, or what is the real structure
of the ether; why trouble, therefore, it is said, to find out more
about them. Is It not safer, on the contrary, to confine our-
selves to a general talk on entropy, luminlferous vectors, and un-
defined symbols expressing vaguely certain physical relation-
ships? What really lies at the bottom of the great fascination
which these new doctrines exert on the present generation is
sheer cowardice; the fear of having its errors brought home
to it.' . . .
' I believe this doctrine to be fatal to a healthy development
of science. Grnniing the impossibility of penefrnting beyond tlie
PRESIDENT S ADDRESS. V
most superficial layers of observed phenomena, I would put the
distinction between the two attitudes of mind in this way : One
glorifies our ignorance, while the otlier accepts it as a regrettable
necessity.'
With this criticism I am in accord.
In further illustration of the modern sceptical attitude, I quote from
Poincar^ : —
' Principles are conventions and definitions in disguise. They
are, however, deduced from experimental laws, and these laws
have, so to speak, been erected into principles to which our mind
attributes an absolute value.' .
' The fundamental propositions of geometry, for instance
Euclid's postulate, are only conventions; and it is quite as un-
reasonable to ask if they are true or false as to ask if the metric
system is true or false. Only, these conventions are con-
venient.'
' Whether the etiier exists or not matters httle, — let us leave
that to the metaphysicians; what is essential for us is that every-
thing happens as if it existed, and that this hypothesis is found
to be suitable for the explanation of phenomena. After all, have
we any other reason for believing in the existence of material
objects? That, too, is only a convenient hypothesis.'
A needed antidote against over-pressing these utterances, however,
is provided by Sir J. Lai^mor in his Preface : —
' There has been of late a growing trend of opinion, prompted
in part by general philosophical views, in the direction that the
theoretical constructions of physical science are largely facti-
tious, that instead of presenting a valid image of the relations of
things on which further progress can be based, they are still little
better than a mirage.'
' The best method of abating this scepticism is to become
acquainted with the real scope and modes of application of con-
ceptions which, in the popular language of superficial exposition —
and even in the unguarded and playful paradox of their authors,
intended only for the instructed e3'e — often look bizarre enough."
One thing is very notable, that it is closer and more exact know-
ledge that has led to the kind of scientific scepticism now referred to;
and that the simple laws on which we used to be working were thus
simple and discoverable because the full complexity of existence was
tempered to our ken by the roughness of our means of observation.
Kepler's laws are not accurately true, and if he had had before him
all the data now available he could hardly have discovered them. \
10 president's address.
planet does not really move in an ellipse but in a kind of hypocycloid,
and not accurately in that either.
So it is also with Boyle's law, and the other pimple laws in Physical
Chemistry. Even Van der Waals' generalisation of Boyle's law is only
a further approximation.
In most parts of physics simplicity has sooner or later to^ give place
to complexity : though certainly I urge that the simple laws were true,
and are still true, as far as they go, their inaccuracy being only detected
by further real discovery. The reason they are departed from becomes
known to us ; the law is not really disobeyed, but is modified through the
action of a known additional cause. Hence it is all in the direction of
progress.
It is only fair to quote Poincar6 again, now that I am able in the
main to agree with him —
^' Take for instance the laws of reflection. Fresnel established
them by a simple and attractive theory which experiment seemed
to confirm. Subsequently, more accurate researches have shown
that this verification was but approximate; traces of elliptic polari-
sation were detected everywhere. But it is owing to the first
approximation that the cause of these anomalies was found, in the
existence of a transition layer; and all the essentials of Fresnel 's
theory have remained. We cannot help reflecting that all these
relations would never have been noted if there had been doubt in
the first place as to the complexity of the objects they connect.
Long ago it was said : If Tycho had had instruments ten times as
precise, we would never have had a Kepler, or a Newton, or
Astronomy. It is a misfortune for a science to be born too late,
when the means of observation have become too perfect. That is
what is happening at this moment with respect to physical
chemistry : the founders are hampered in their general grasp by
third and fourth decimal places ; happily they are men of robust
faith. As we get to know the properties of matter better we see
that continuity reigns It would be difficult to justify [the
belief in continuity] by apodeictic reasoning, but without [it] all
science would be impossible.'
Here he touches on my own theme, Continuity; for, if we had to
summarise the main trend of physical controversy at present, I feel
inclined to urge that it largely turns on the question as to which way
ultimate victory lies in the fight between Continuity and Discontinuity.
On the surface of nature at first we see discontinuity ; objects
detached and countable. Then we realise the air and other media, and
so emphasise continuity and flowing quantities. Then we detect atoms
president's address. H
and numerical properties, and discontinuity once more makes its
appearance. Then we invent the ether and are impressed with con-
tinuity again. But this is not likely to be the end ; and what the ulti-
mate end will be, or whether there is an ultimate end, is a question
difficult to answer.
The modern tendency is to emphasise the discontinuous or atomic
character of everything. Matter has long been atomic, in the same
sense as Anthropology is atomic; the unit of matter is the atom, as the
unit of humanity is the individual. Whether men or women or chil-
dren — they can be counted as so many ' souls.' And atoms of matter
can be counted too.
Certainly however there is an illusion of continuity. We recognise
it in the cose of water. It appears to be a continuous medium, and yet
it is certainly molecular. It is made continuous again, in a sense, by
the ether postulated in its pores ; for the ether is essentially continuous.
Though Osborne Reynolds, it is true, invented a discontinuous or
granular Ether, on the analogy of the sea shore. The sands of the
sea, the hairs of the head, the descendants of a Patriarch, are typical
instances of numerable, or rather of innumerable, things. The difficulty
of enumerating them is not that there is nothing to count, but merely
that the things to be courted are very numerous. So are the atoms in
a drop of water, — they outnumber the drops in an Atlantic Ocean, — -
and, during the briefest time of stating their number, fifty millions or so
may have evaporated; but they are as easy to count as the grains of
sand on a shore.
The process of counting is evidently a process applicable to discon-
tinuities, i.e., to things with natural units; you can count apples and
coins, and days and years, and people and atoms. To apply number to
a continuum you must first cut it up into artificial units; and you are
always left with incommensurable fractions. Thus only is it that you
can deal numerically with such continuous phenomena as the warmth
of a room, the speed of a bird, the pull of a rope, or the strength of a
current.
But how, it may be asked, does discontinuity apply to number?
The natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc., are discontinuous enough, but
there are fractions to fill up the interstices ; how do we know that they
are not really connected by these fractions, and so made continuoua
again ?
(By number I always mean commensurable number ; incommensur-
ables are not numbers : they are just what cannot be expressed in
numbers. The square root of 2 is not a number, though it can be
readily indicated by a length. Incommensurables are usual in physics
and are frequent in geometry; the conceptions of geometry are essen-
tially continuous. It is clear, as Poincar6 says, that ' if the points
12 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
whose co-ordinates are commensurable were alone regarded as real, the
in-circle of a square and the diagonal of the square would not. intersect,
since the co-ordinates of the points of intersection are incommensur-
able.')
I want to explain how commensurable fractions do not connect up
numbers, nor remove their discontinuity in the least. The divisions on
a foot rule, divided as closely as you please, i-epresent commensurable
fractions, but they represent none of the length. No matter how
numei'ous they are, all the length lies between them ; the divisions arc
mere partitions and have consumed none of it ; nor do tliey connect up
with each other, they are essentially discontinuous. Tlie interspaces
are infinitely more extensive than the barriers which partition them off
from one another; they are like a row of compartments with infinitely
thin walls. All the incommensurables lie in the interspaces; the com-
pai'tments are full of them, and they are thus infinitely more numerous
than the numerically expressible magnitudes. Take any point of the
scale at random, tliat point will certainly lie in an interspace : it will
not lie on a division, for the chances are infinity to i against it.
Accordingly inconunensurable quantities are the rule in physics.
Decimals do not in practice terminate or circulate, in other words vulgar
fractions do not accidentally occur in any measurements, for this would
mean infinite accuracy. We proceed to as many places of decimals as
correspond to the order of accuracy aimed at.
Whenever, then, a commensurable number is really associated with
any natural phenomenon, there is necessarily a noteworthy circum-
stance involved in the fact, and it means something quite definite and
ultimately ascertainable. Every discontinuity that can be detected and
counted is an addition to knowledge. It not only means the discovery
ol natural units instead of being dependent on aiiificial ones, but it
throws light also on the nature of phenomena themselves.
For instance: —
The ratio between the velocity of light and the inverted square root
of the product of the electric and magnetic constants was discovered by
Clerk Maxwell to be i ; and a new volume of physics was by that dis-
covery opened.
Dalton found that chemical combination occurred between quantities
of different substances specified by certain whole or fractional numbers ;
and the atomic tlieory of matter sprang into substantial though at first
infantile existence.
The hypothesis of Prout, which in some modified form seems likely
to be substantiated, is that all atomic weights are commensurable
numbers; in which case there must be a natural fundamental unit
underlying, and in definite groups composing, the atoms of every form
of matter.
president's address. 13
The small number of degrees of freedom of a molecule, and the
subdivision of its total energy into equal parts corresponding thereto,
is a theme not indeed without ditHculty but full of importance. It is
responsible for the suggestion that energy too may be atomic !
Mendelejeff 's series again, or the detection of a natural grouping of
atomic weights in families of seven, is another example of the signi-
ficance of number.
Electricity wns found by Faraday to be numerically connected with
quantity of matter; and the atom of electricity began its hesitating but
now brilliant career.
Electricity itself — i.e. electric charge — strangely enough has proved
itself to be atomic. There is a natural unit of electric charge, as
suspected by Faraday and Maxwell and named by Johnstone Stoney.
Some of the electron's visible effects were studied by Crookes in a
vacuum; and its weighing and measuring by J. J. Thomson were
announced to the British Association meeting at Dover in 1899 — a
fitting prelude to the twentieth century.
An electron is the natural unit of negative electricity, and it may not
be long before the natural unit of positive electricity is found too. But
concerning the nature of the positive unit there is at present som.e divi-
sion into opposite camps. One school prefers to regard the unit of
positive electricity as a homogeneous sphei'e, the size of an atom, in
which electrons revolve in simple harmonic orbits and constitute nearly
the whole effective mass. Another school, while appreciative of the
simplicity and ingenuity and beauty of the details of this conception, and
the skill with which it has been worked out, yet thinks the evidence
more in favour of a minute central positive nucleus, or nucleus-group,
of practically atomic mass; with electrons, larger — i.e. less concen-
trated — and therefore less massive than itself, revolving round it in
astronomical orbits. While from yet another point of view it is in-
sisted tliat positive and negative electrons can only differ skew-symmet-
rically, one being like the image of the other in a mirror, and that the
mode in which they are grouped to form an atom remains for future
discovery. But no one doubts that electricity is ultimately atomic.
Even magnetism has been suspected of being atomic, and its
hypothetical unit has been named in advance the magneton : but I con-
fess that here I have not been shaken out of the conservative view.
We may express all this as an invasion of number into unsuspected
regions.
Biology may be said to be becoming atomic. It has long had
natural units in the shape of cells and nuclei, and some discontinuity
represented by body-boundaries and cell-walls; but now, in its laws of
heredity as studied by Mendel, number and discontinuity are strikingly
apparent among the reproductive cells, and the varieties of offspring
14 president's address.
admit of numerical specification and prediction to a surprising extent;
while modification by continuous variation, which seemed to be of the
essence of Darwinism, gives place to, or at least is accompanied by,
mutation, with finite and considerable and in appearance discontinuous
change.
So far from Nature not making jumps, it becomes doubtful if she
does anything else. Her hitherto placid course, more closely examined,
is beginning to look like a kind of steeplechase.
Yet undoubtedly Continuity is the backbone of evolution, as taught
by all biologists — no artificial boundaries or demarcations between
species — a continuous chain of heredity from far below the amceba up
to man. Actual continuity of undying germ-plasm, running through all
generations, is taught likewise; though a strange discontinuity between
this persistent element and its successive accessory body-plasms — a dis-
continuity which would convert individual organisms into mere tem-
porary accretions or excretions, with no power of influencing or con-
veying experience to their generating cells — is advocated by one school.
Discontinuity does not fail to exercise fascination even in pure
Mathematics. Curves are invented which have no tangent or differ-
ential coefficient, curves which consist of a succession of dots or of
twists ; and the theory of commensurable numbers seems to be exerting
a dominance over philosophic mathematical thought as well as over
physical problems.
And not only these fairly accepted results are prominent, but some
more difficult and unexpected theses in the same direction are being
propounded, and the atomic character of Energy is advocated. We had
hoped to be honoured by the presence of Professor Planck, whose theory
of the quantuvi, or indivisible unit or atom of energy, excites the
greatest interest, and by some is thought to hold the field.
Then again Radiation is showing signs of becoming atomic or dis-
continuous. The corpuscular theory of radiation is by no means so
dead as in my youth we thought it was. Some radiation is certainly
corpuscular, and even the etherial kind shows indications, which may
be misleading, that it is spotty, or locally concentrated into points, as
if the wave-front consisted of detached specks or patches; or, as J. J.
Thomson says, ' the wave-front must be more analogous to bright
specks on a dark ground than to a uniformly illuminated surface,' thus
suggesting that the Ether may be fibrous in structure, and that a wave
runs along lines of electric force ; as the genius of Faraday surmised
might be possible in his ' Thoughts on Ray Vibrations. ' Indeed
Newton guessed something of the same kind, I fancy, when he super-
posed ether-pulses on his corpuscles.
Whatever be the truth in this matter, a discussion on Radiation,
of extreme weight and interest, though likewise of great profundity and
president's address. 15
technicality, is expected on Friday in Section A. We welcome Pro-
fessor Lorentz, Dr. Arrhenius, Professor Langevin, Professor Prings-
heim, and others, some of whom have been specially invited to England
because of the important contributions which they have made to the
subject-matter of this discussion.
Why is so much importance attached to Eadiation? Because it is
the best-known and longest-studied link between matter and ether, and
the only property we are acquainted with that affects the unmodified
great mass of ether alone. Electricity and magnetism are associated
with the modifications or singularities called electrons : most phenomena
are connected still more directly with matter. Eadiation, however,
though excited by an accelerated electron, is subsequently let loose in
the ether of space, and travels as a definite thing at a measurable and
constant pace — a pace independent of everything so long as the ether
is free, unmodified and unloaded by matter. Hence radiation has much
to teach us, and we have much to learn concerning its nature.
How far can the analogy of granular, corpuscular, countable, atomic,
or discontinuous things be pressed? There are those who think it can
be pressed very far. But to avoid misunderstanding let me state, for
what it may be worth, that I myself am an upholder of ultimate
Continuity, and a fervent believer in the Ether of Space.
We have already learnt something about the ether; and although
there may be almost as many varieties of opinion as there are people
qualified to form one, in my view we have learnt as follows :
The Ether is the universal connecting medium which binds the
universe together, and makes it a coherent whole instead of a chaotic
collection of independent isolated fragments. It is the vehicle of
transmission of all manner of force, from gravitation down to cohesion
and chemical affinity ; it is therefore the storehouse of potential energy.
Matter moves, but Ether is strained.
What we call elasticity of matter is only the result of an alteration
of configuration due to movement and readjustment of particles, but
all the strain and stress are in the ether. The ether itself does not
move, that is to say it does not move in the sense of locomotion,
though it is probably in a violent state of rotational or turbulent
motion in its smallest parts; and to that motion its exceeding rigidity
is due.
As to its density, it must be far greater than that of any form of
matter, millions of times denser than lead or platinum. Yet matter
moves through it with perfect freedom, without any friction or
viscosity. There is nothing paradoxical in this : viscosity is not a
function of density; the two are not necessarily connected. When a
solid moves through an alien fluid it is true that it acquires a spurious
or apparent extra inertia from the fluid it displaces; but, in the case
16 president's address.
of matter and ether, not only is even the densest nialter excessively
porous and discontinuous, with vast interspaces ui and among the
atoms, but the constitution of matter is such that there appears to be
no displacement m the ordinary sense at all; the ether is itself so
modified as to constitute the matter in some way. Of course that
portion moves, its inertia is what we observe, and its amount depends
on the potential energy in its associated electric field, but the motion
is not like that of a foreign body, it is that of some inherent and
merely individualised portion of the stuff itself. Certain it is that
the ether exhibits no trace of viscosity.^
Matter in motion. Ether under strain, constitute the fundamental
concrete things we have to do witli in pliysics. The first pair represent
kinetic energy, the second potential energy; and all the activities of
the material universe are represented by alternations from one of these
forms to the other.
^Yhenever this transference and transformation of energy occur,
work is done, and some effect is produced, but the energy is never
diminished in quantity : it is merely passed on from one body to
another, always from ether to matter or vice versa, — except in the case
of radiation, which simulates matter — and from one form to another.
The forms of energy can be classified as either a translation, a
rotation, or a vibration, of pieces of matter of different sizes, from stars
and planets down to atoms and electrons; or else an ethei'ial strain
which in various different ways is manifested by the behaviour of such
masses of matter as appeal to our senses. -
Some of the facts responsible for the suggestion that energy is
atomic seem to me to depend on the discontinuous nature of the
structure of a material atom, and on the liigh velocity of its constituent
particles. The apparently discontinuous emission of radiation is, I
believe, due to features in the real discontinuity of matter. Disturb-
ances inside an atom appear to be essentially catastrophic ; a portion is
liable to be ejected with violence. There appears to be a critical
velocity below which ejection does not take place; and, when it does,
there also occui-s a sudden re-arrangement of parts which is presumably
responsible for some perceptible etherial radiation. Hence it is, I
suppose, that radiation comes off in gushes or bursts ; and hence it
appears to consist of indivisible units. The occasional phenomenon of
new stars, as compared with the steady orbital motion of the millions
of recognised bodies, may be suggested as an astronomical analogue.
The hypothesis of quanta was devised to reconcile the law that
' For details of ihy experiment on this subject see Phil. Trans. Itoy. Soc. for
1893 and 1897 ; or a very abbreviated reference to it, and to the other matters
above-mentioned, in my small book The Ether of Syacc.
' See, in the Philo.^ophical Maijazinc for 1879, uiy article on a Classification
of the. forms of energy.
president's address. 17
llie energy of a group of colliding molecules must in the long run be
equally shared among all their degrees of freedom, with the observed
fact that the energy is really shared into only a small number of equal
parts. For if vibration-possibilities have to be taken into account, the
number of degrees of molecular freedom nmst be very large, and
energy shared among them ought soon to be all frittered away ; whereas
it is not. Hence the idea is suggested that minor degrees of freedom
are initially excluded from sharing the energy, because they cannot be
supplied with less than one atom of it.
I should prefer to express the fact by saying that the ordinary
encounters of molecules are not of a kind able to excite atomic vibra-
tions, or in any way to disturb the ether. Spectroscopic or luminous
vibrations of an atom are excited only by an exceptionally violent kind
of collision, which may be spoken of as chemical clash; the ordinary
molecular orbital encounters, always going on at the rate of millions
a second, are ineffective in that respect, except in the case of phos-
phorescent or luminescent substances. That common molecular
deflexions are ineffective is certain, else all the energy would be dissi-
pated or transferred from matter into the ether ; and the reasonableness
of their radiative inefficiency is not far to seek, when we consider the
comparatively leisurely character of molecular movements, at speeds
comparable with the velocity of sound. Admittedly, however, the
effective rigidity of molecules nmst be complete, otherwise the sharing
of energy must ultimately occur. They do not seem able to be set
vibrating by anything less than a certain niiniuium stimulus; and that
is the basis for the theory of quanta.
Quantitative applications of Planck's theory, to elucidate the other-
wise shaky stability of the astronomically constituted atom, have been
made; and the agreement between results so calculated and those
observed, including a determination of series of spectrum lines, is very
remarkable. One of the latest contributions to this subject is a paper
by Dr. Bohr in the ' Philosophical Magazine ' for July this year.
To show that I am not exaggerating the modern tendency towards
discontinuity, I quote, from M. Poincare's ' Dernieres Pensees,' a
proposition which he announces in italics as representing a form of
Professor Planck's view of which he apparently approves: —
' A physical system is susceptible of a finite number only of
distinct conditions; it jumps fi-om one of these conditions to
another without passing through a continuous series of inter-
mediate conditions. '
Also this from Sir Joseph Larmor's Preface to Poincare's ' Science
and Hypothesis ' : —
Still mure recently it has been luund that the good Bishop
iyi3. o
18 president's address.
Berkeley's logical jibes against the Newtonian ideas of fluxions
and limiting ratios cannot be adequately appeased in the rigorous
mathematical conscience until our apparent continuities are re-
solved mentally into discrete aggregates which we only partially
apprehend. The irresistible impulse to atomise everything thus
proves to be not merely a disease of the physicist : a deeper
origin, in the nature of knowledge itself, is suggested. '
One very valid excuse for this prevalent attitude is the astonishing
progress that has been made in actually seeing, or almost seeing, the
molecules, and studying their arrangement and distribution.
The laws of gases have been found to apply to emulsions and to
fine powders in suspension, of which the Brownian movement has
long been known. This movement is caused by the orthodox mole-
cular bombardment, and its average amplitude exactly represents the
theoretical mean free path calculated from the ' molecular weight ' of
the relatively gigantic particles. The behaviour of these microscopi-
cally visible masses corresponds closely and quantitatively with what
could be predicted for them as fearfully heavy atoms, on the kinetic
theory of gases; they may indeed be said to constitute a gas with a
gram-molecule as high as 200,000 tons ; and, what is rather important
as well as interesting, they tend visibly to verify the law of equiparti-
tion of energy even in so extreme a case, when that law is properly
stated and applied.
Still more remarkable — the application of X-rays to display the
arrangement of molecules in crystals, and ultimately the arrangement
of atoms in molecules, as initiated by Professor Laue with Drs.
Friedrich and Knipping, and continued by Professor Bragg and his
son and by Dr. Tutton, constitute a series of researches of high interest
and promise. By this means manj^ of the theoretical anticipations of
our countryman, Mr. "William Barlow, and — working with him — Pro-
fessor Pope, as well as of those distinguished crystallographers von
Groth and von Pedorow, have been confirmed in a striking way.
These brilliant researches, which seem likely to constitute a branch of
Physics in themselves, and which are being continued by Messrs.
Moseley and C. G. Darwin, and by Mr. Keene and others, may be
called an apotheosis of the atomic theory of matter.
One other controversial topic I shall touch upon in the domain
of physics, though I shall touch upon it lightly, for it is not a matter
for easy reference as yet. If the ' Principle of Relativity ' in an
extreme sense establishes itself, it seems as if even Time would become
discontinuous and be supplied in atoms, as money is doled out in
pence or centimes instead of continuously; — in which case our cus-
tomary existence will turn out to be no more really continuous than
president's address. 19
the events on a kinematograph screen; — while that great agent of
continuity, the Ether of Space, will be relegated to the museum of
historical curiosities.
In that case differential equations will cease to represent the facts
of nature ; they will have to be replaced by Finite Differences, and the
most fundamental revolution since Newton will be inaugurated.
Now in all the debatable matters of which I have indicated possi-
bilities I want to urge a conservative attitude. I accept the new
experimental results on which some of these theories — ^such as the
Principle of Eelativity — are based, and am profoundly interested in
them, but I do not feel that they are so revolutionary as their pro-
pounders think. I see a way to retain the old and yet embrace the
new, and I urge moderation in the uprooting and I'emoval of landmarks.
And of these the chief is Continuity. I cannot imagine the exer-
tion of mechanical force across empty space, no matter how minute ; a
continuous medium seems to me essential. I cannot admit discon-
tinuity in either Space or Time, nor can I imagine any sort of experi-
ment which would justify such a hypothesis. For surely we must
realise that we know nothing experimental of either space or time, we
cannot modify them in any way. We make experiments on bodies,
and only on bodies, using ' body ' as an exceedingly general term.
We have no reason to postulate anything but continuity for space
and time. We cut them up into conventional units for convenience'
sake, and those units we can count ; but there is really nothing atomic
or countable about the things themselves. We can count the rotations
of the earth, or the revolutions of an electron, or the vibrations of a
pendulum, or the waves of light. All these are concrete and tractable
physical entities ; but space and time are ultimate data, abstractions
based on experience. We know them through motion, and through
motion only, and motion is essentially continuous. We ought clearly
to discriminate between things themselves and our mode of measuring
them. Our measures and perceptions may be affected by all manner
of incidental and trivial causes, and we may get confused or hampered
by our own movement; but there need be no such complication in
things themselves, anymore than a landscape is distorted by looking at
it through an irregular window-pane or from a travelling coach. It
is an ancient and discarded fable that complications introduced by the
motion of an observer are real complications belonging to the outer
universe.
Very well, then, what about the Ether? Is that in the same
predicament? Is that an abstraction, or a mere convention, or is
it a concrete physical entity on which we can experiment ?
Now it has to be freely admitted that it is exceedingly difficult
to make experiments on the ether. It does not appeal to sense, and
c 2
20 president's address,
we know no means of getting hold of it. The one thing we know
metrical about it is the velocity with which it can transmit transverse
waves. That is clear and definite, and thereby, to my judgment, it
proves itself a physical agent; not indeed tangible or sensible, but
yet concretely real.
But it does elude our laboratory grasp. If we rapidly move
matter through it, hoping to grip it and move it too, we fail: there
is no mechanical connection. And even if we experiment on light
we fail too. So long as transparent matter is moving relatively to
lis, light can be affected inside that matter; ])nt when matter is
relatively stationary to matter nothing o])servablo takes place, how-
ever fast things may be moving, so long as iliey move together.
ITence arises the idea that motion wilh respect to Ether is mean-
ingless : and the fact that only relative motion of pieces of matter
with respect to each otlier has so far been observed is the foundation
of the Principle of Eelativity. It sounds simple enough as thus
stated, but in its developments it is an ingenious and complicated
doctrine, embodying surprising consequences, which have been \\orked
out by Professor Einstein and his disciples with consummate ingenuity.
What have I to urge against it? Well, in the first place, it is
only in accordance with common sense that no effect of the first
order can be observed without relative motion of matter. An Ether-
stream through our laboratories is optically and electrically undetect-
able, at least as regards first-order observation; this is clearly
explained for general readers in my book 'The Ether of Space,'
Chapter IV. (Also in Nature, vol. 46, p. 497.) But the Principle of
Eelativity says more than that ; it says that no effect of any order of
magnitude can ever be observed without the relative motion of matter.
The trutli underlying this doctrine is that absolute motion without
reference to anything is unmeaning. But the narrowing down of
' anything ' to mean any pieee of matter is illegitimate. The nearest
approach to absolute motion that we can physically imagine is motion
through or with respect to the Ether of Space. It is natural to
assume tjhat the Ether is on the whole stationary, and to use it as
a standard of rest; in that sense motion with reference to it may
be called absolute, but in no other sense.
The Principle of Eelativity claims that we can never ascertain -such
motion : in other words it practically or pragmatically denies the
existence of the Ether. Every one of our scientifically observed
motions, it says, are of the same nature as our popularlj^ observed
ones, viz., motion of pieces of matter relatively to each other; and
tliat is all that we can ever know. Everything goes on — says the
Principle of Eelativity — as if the Ether did not exist.
Now the facts are that no motion with reference to the ether
president's address. 21
alone has ever yet been observed : there are always curious com-
pensating effects which just cancel out the movement-terms and
destroy or effectively mask any phenomenon that might otherwise
be expected. When matter moves past matter observation can be
made; but, even so, no consequent locomotion of ether, outside the
actually moving particles, can be detected.
It is sometimes urged that rotation is a kind of absolute motion
that can be detected, even in isolation. Tt can so be detected, as
Newton pointed out ; but in cases of rotation matter on one side the
axis is moving in the opposite direction to matter on the other side
of the axis ; hence rotation involves relative material motion, and
therefore can be observed.
To detect motion through ether we must use an etherial process.
We may use radiation, and try to compare the speeds of light along
or across the motion; or we might try to measure the speed, first
with the motion, and then against it. But how are we to make the
comparison? If the time of emission from a distant som'ce is given
by a distant clock, that clock must be observed through a telescope,
that is by a beam of light; which is plainly a compensating process.
Or the light from a neighbouring source can be sent back to us by a
distant mirror; when again there will be compensation. Or the start-
ing of light from a distant terrestrial source may be telegraphed to us,
either with a wire or without; but it is the ether that conveys the
message in either case, so again there will be compensation.
Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, are all effects of the ether.
Use Cohesion, then; have a rod stretching from one place to
another, and measure that. But cohesion is transmitted by the ether
too, if, as believed, it is the univei'sal binding medium. Compensa-
tion is likely; compensation can, on the electrical theory of matter, be
predicted.
Use some action not dependent on Ether, then. Very well, where
shall we find it?
To illustrate the difficulty I will quote a sentence from Sir Joseph
Larmor's paper before the International Congress of Mathematicians
at Cambridge last year: —
' If it is correct to say w^ith Maxwell that all radiation is an
electrodynamic phenomenon, it is equally correct to say with
him that all electrodynamic relations between material bodies are
established by the operation, on the molecules of those bodies,
of fields of force which are propagated in free space as radiation
and in accordance with the laws of radiation, from one body to
the other.'
i'lio fact is we are living in an e[ioch of some very comprehensive
22 president's address.
generalisations. The physical discovery of the twentieth century, so
far, is the Electrical Theory of Matter. This is the great new theory
of our time; it was referred to, in its philosophical aspect, by Mr.
Balfour in his Presidential Address at Cambridge in 1904. We are
too near it to be able to contemplate it properly ; it has still to establish
itself and to develop in detail, but I anticipate that in some form or
other it will prove true.^
Here is a briefest possible summary of the first chapter (so to
speak) of the Electrical Theory of Matter.
(1) Atoms of Matter are composed of electrons, — of positive and
negative electric charges.
(2) Atoms are bound together into molecules by chemical affinity,
which is intense electrical attraction at ultra-minute
distances.
(3) Molecules are held together by cohesion, which I for one
regard as residual or differential chemical affinity over
molecular distances.
(4) Magnetism is due to the locomotion of electrons. There
is no magnetism without an electric current, atomic or
otherwise. There is no electric current without a moving
electron.
(6) Radiation is generated by every accelerated electron, in
amount proportional to the square of its acceleration; and
there is no other kind of radiation, except indeed a corpus-
cular kind; but this depends on the velocity of electrons,
and therefore again can only be generated by their accelera-
tion.
The theory is bound to have curious consequences ; and already it
has contributed to some of the uprooting and uncertainty that I speak
of. For, if it be true, every material interaction will be electrical,
i.e., etherial; and hence arises our difficulty. Every kind of force is
transmitted by the ether, and hence, so long as all our apparatus is
travelling together at one and the same pace, we have no chance of
detecting the motion. That is the strength of the Principle of Rela-
tivity. The changes are not zero, but they cancel each other out of
observation. (Nature, vol. 46, page 165, 1892.)
Many forms of statement of the famous Michelson-Morley experi-
ment are misleading. It is said to prove that the time taken by light
to go with the ether stream is the same as that taken to go against or
across it. It does not show that. What it shows is that the time
taken by light to travel to and fro on a measured interval fixed on a
' For a general introductory account of the electrical theory of matter my
Komanes lecture for 1903 (Clarendon Press) may be referred to.
president's address. 23
rigid block of matter is independent of the aspect of that block with
respect to any motion of the earth through space. A definite and
most interesting result : but it may be, and often is, interpreted loosely
and too widely.
It is interpreted too widely, as I think, when Professor Einstein
goes on to assume that no non-relative motion of matter can be ever
observed even when light is brought into consideration. The relation
of light to matter is very curious. The wave front of a progressive
wave simulates many of the properties of matter. It has energy, it
has momentum, it exerts force, it sustains reaction. It has been
described as a portion of the mass of a radiating body, — which gives it
a curiously and unexpectedly corpuscular ' feel.' But it has a definite
velocity. Its velocity in space relative to the ether is an absolute
constant independent of the motion of the source. This would not
be true for corpuscular light.
Hence I hold that here is something with which our own motion
may theoretically be compared ; and I predict that our motion through
the ether will some day be detected by the help of this very fact, — by
comparing our speed with that of light : though the old astronomical
aberration, which seemed to make the comparison easy, failed to do so
quite simply, because it is complicated by the necessity of observing
the position of a distant source, in relation to which the earth is
moving. If the source and observer are moving together there is no
possibility of observing aberration. Nevertheless I maintain that
when matter is moving near a beam of light we may be able to detect
the motion. For the velocity of light in space is no function of the
velocity of the source, nor of matter near it; it is quite unaffected by
motion of source or receiver. Once launched it travels in its own
way. If we are travelling to meet it, it will be arriving at us moi'e
quickly; if we travel away from it, it will reach us with some lag.
That is certain; and observation of the acceleration or retardation is
made by aid of Jupiter's satellites. We have there the dial of a clock,
to or from which we advance or recede periodically. It gains while we
approach it, it loses while we recede from it, it keeps right time when
we are stationary or only moving across the line of sight.
But then of course it does not matter whether Jupiter is standing
still and we are moving, or vice versa:' it is a case of relative motion
of matter again. So it is if we observe a Doppler effect from the right
and left hand limbs of the rotating sun. True, and if we are to permit
no relative motion of matter we must use a terrestrial source, clamped
to the earth as our receiver is. And now we shall observe nothing.
But not because there is nothing to observe. Lag must really occur
if we are running away from the light, even though the source is
running after us at the same pace: unless we make the assumption, —
24 president's address.
true only for corpuscular light,- — that the velocity of light is not an
absolute thing, but is dependent on the speed of the source. With
corpuscular light there is nothing to observe; with wave light there
is something, but we cannot observe it.
But if the whole solar system is moving through the ether I
see no reason why the relative ether drift should not be observed by
a different residual effect in connection with Jupiter's satellites or the
right and left limbs of the sun. The effect must be too small to
observe without extreme precision, but theoretically it ought to be
there. Inasmuch however as relative motion of matter with respect
to the observer is involved in these effects, it may be held that the
detection of a uniform drift of the solar system in this way is not
contrary to the Principle of Eelativity. It is contrary to some state-
ments of that principle ; and the cogency of those statements breaks
down, I think, whenever they include the velocity of light; because
there we really have something absolute (in the only sense in which
the term can have a physical meaning) with which we can compare
our own motion, when we have leai'nt how.
But in ordinary astronomical translation — translation as of tlie
earth in its orbit — all our instruments, all our standards, the whole
contents of our laboratory, are moving at the same rate in the same
direction ; under those conditions we cannot expect to observe anything.
Clerk Maxwell went so far as to say that if every particle of matter
simultaneously received a graduated blow so as to produce a given
constant acceleration all iji the same direction, we should be unaware
of the fact. He did not then know all that we know about radiation.
But apart from that, and limiting oui'selves to comparatively slow
changes of velocity, our standards will inevitably share whatever
change occurs. So far as observation goes, everything will be prac-
tically as if no change had occurred at all ; — though that may not be
the truth. All that experiment establishes is that there have so far
always been compensations; so that the attempt to observe motion
through the ether is being given up as hopeless.
Surely, liowever, the minute and curious compensations cannot
be accidental; they must be necessary? Yes, tliey are necessary; and
I want to say why. Suppose the case were one of measuring thermal
expansion ; and suppose everything had the same temperature and
the same expansibility; our standards would contract or expand with
everything else, and we could observe nothing; but expansion would
occur nevertheless. That is obvious, but the following assertion is not
so obvious. If everything in the Universe had the same temperature,
no matter what that temperature was, nothing would be visible at all;
the external world, so far as vision went, would not appear to exist.
president's address. 25
Visibility depends on radiation, on differential radiation. We must
have differences to appeal to our senses ; they are not constructed for
uniformity.
It is the extreme omnipresence and uniformity and universal agency
of the ether of space that makes it so difficult to observe. To observe
anything you must have differences. If all actions at a distance are
conducted at the same rate through the ether, the travel of none of
them can be observed. Find something not conveyed by the ether
and there is a chance. But then every physical action is trans-
mitted by the ether, and in every case by means of its transverse or
radiation-like activity.
Except perhaps Gravitation. That may give us a clue some day,
but at present we have not been able to detect its speed of transmission
at all. No plan has been devised for measuring it. Nothing short
of the creation or destruction of matter seems likely to serve : creation
or destruction of the gravitational unit, whether it be an atom or an
electron or whatever it is. Most likely tlie unit of weight is an electron,
just as the unit of mass is.
The so-called non-Newtonian Meclianics, witli mass and shape
a function of velocity, is an innnediate consequence of the electrical
theory of matter. The dependence of inertia and shape on speed is
a genuine discovery and, I believe, a physical fact. The Principle
of Eelativity would reduce it to a conventional fiction. It woidd
seek to replace this real change in matter by imaginary changes in
time. But surely we must admit that Space and Time are essentially
unchangeable : they are not at the disposal even of mathematicians ;
though it is true that Pope Gregory, or a Daylight-saving Bill, can
play with our units, can turn the .Srd of October in any one year
into the 14th, or can make the sun South sometimes at eleven o'clock,
sometimes at twelve'
But the changes of dimension and mass due to velocity are not
conventions l)ut I'ealities : so I urge, on tlie basis of the electrical
tlieory of matlor. Tlie Fitzgerald-Lorentz hypothesis I have an
affection for. I was present at its birth. Indeed I assisted at its birth ;
for rfc was in my study at 21 Waverley Eoad, Liverpool, with Fitzgerald
in an armcliair, and while I was enlarging on the dilTiculty of recon-
ciling the then new Michelson experiment with the theory of astrono-
mical aberration and with other known facts, that he made his brilliant
surmise: — 'Perhaps the stone slab was affected by tlio motion.' I
In the historical Ccase of Governnifiital interference with tlie calendar no
wonder the populace rebelled. Surely someone might have explained to the
authorities that dropping leap-year for the greater part of a century would do
all that was wanted, and that the horrible inconvenience of upsetting all engage-
ments and shortening a single year by eleven days could be avoided.
26 PRESIDENT S ADDRESS.
rejoined that it was a 45° shear that was needed. To which he replied,
' Well, that's all right, — a simple distortion.' And very soon he said,
' And I believe it occurs, and that the Michelson experiment demon-
strates it.' A shortening long-ways or a lengthening cross-ways
would do what was wanted. (See Nature for June 16, 1892, p. 165.)
And is such a hypothesis gratuitous? Not at all: in the light of
the electrical theory of matter such an effect ought to occur. The
amount required by the experiment, and given by the theory, is
equivalent to a shrinkage of the earth's diameter by rather less than
three inches, in the line of its orbital motion through the ether of
space. An oblate spheroid with the proper excentricity has all the
simple geometrical properties of a stationary sphere; the excentricity
depends in a definite way on speed, and becomes considerable as the
velocity of light is approached.
All this Professoi's Lorentz and Larmor very soon after, and quite
independently, perceived ; though this is only one of the minor achieve-
ments in the electrical theory of matter which we owe to our dis-
tinguished visitor. Professor H. A. Lorentz.
The key of the position, to my mind, is the nature of cohesion.
I regard cohesion as residual chemical affinity, a balance of electrical
attraction over repulsion between groups of alternately charged mole-
cules. Lateral electrical attraction is diminished by motion; so is
lateral electric repulsion. In cohesion both are active, and they nearly
balance. At anything but molecular distance they quite balance, but
at molecular distance attraction predominates. It is the diminution
of the predominant partner that will be felt. Hence while longitudinal
cohesion, or cohesion in the direction of motion, remains unchanged,
lateral cohesion is less ; so there will be distortion, and a unit cube
X y z moving along x with velocity u becomes a parallelepiped with
sides l/k^, k, k; where l/k« = l-uVv^^
The electrical theory of matter is a positive achievement, and has
positive results. By its aid we make experiments which throw light
upon the relation between matter and the Ether of Space. The
Principle of Eelativity, which . seeks to replace it, is a principle of
negation, a negative proposition, a statement that observation of
certain facts can never be made, a denial of any relation between
matter and ether, a virtual denial that the ether exists. Whereas if
we admit the real changes that go on by reason of rapid motion, a
* Different modes of estimating the change give slightly different results ;
some involve a compression as well as a distortion — in fact the strain associated
with the name of Thomas Yoiing; the details are rather complicated and this is
not the place to discuss them. A pure distortion, as specified in the text, is
simplest ; it appears to be in accord with all the experimental facts- — including
some careful measurements by Bucherer, — and I rather expect it to survive.
president's address. 27
whole field is open for discovery; it is even possible to investigate the
changes in shape of an electron — appallingly minute though it is —
as it approaches the speed of light; and properties belonging to the
Ether of Space, evasive though it be, cannot lag far behind.
Speaking as a physicist, I must claim the Ether as peculiarly our own
domain. The study of molecules we share with the chemist, and matter
in its various forms is investigated by all men of science, but a study
of the ether of space belongs to physics only. I am not alone in feeling
the fascination of this portentous entity. Its curiously elusive and
intangible character, combined with its universal and unifying per-
meance, its apparently infinite extent, its definite and perfect properties,
make the ether the most interesting as it is by far the largest and most
fundamental ingredient in the material cosmos.
As Sir J. J. Thomson said at Winnipeg: —
' The ether is not a fantastic creation of the speculative
philosopher; it is as essential to us as the air we breathe. . . .
The study of this all-pervading substance is perhaps the most
fascinating and important duty of the physicist.'
Matter it is not, but material it is; it belongs to the material
universe and is to be investigated by ordinary methods. But to say
this is by no means to deny that it may have mental and spiritual
functions to subserve in some other order of existence, as Matter has
in this.
The ether of space is at least the great engine of continuity. It
may be much more, for without it there could hardly be a material
universe at all. Certainly, however, it is essential to continuity; it is
the one all-permeating substance that binds the whole of the particles
of matter together. It is the uniting and binding medium without
which, if matter could exist at all, it could exist only as chaotic and
isolated fragments : and it is the universal medium of communication
between worlds and particles. And yet it is possible for people to deny
its existence, because it is unrelated to any of our senses, except sight, —
and to that only in an indirect and not easily recognised fashion.
To illustrate the thorough way in which we may be unable to detect
what is around us unless it has some link or bond which enables it to
make appeal, let me make another quotation from Sir J. J. Thomson's
Address at Winnipeg in 1909. He is leading up to the fact that even
single atoms, provided they are fully electrified with the proper atomic
charge, can be detected by certain delicate instruments, — their field of
force bringing them within our ken — whereas a whole crowd of
unelectrified ones would escape observation.
' The smallest quantity of unelectrified matter ever detected
is probably that of neon, one of the inert gases of the atmosphere.
28 president's address.
Professor Slrutt has shown that the amount of neon in ]/20 of
a cubic centimetre of the air at ordinary pressures can be detected
by the spectroscope ; Sir Wilham Eamsay estimates that the neon
in the air only amounts to one part of neon in 100, OUO parts of
air, so that the neon in 1/20 of a cubic centimetre of air would
only occupy at atmospheric pressure a volume of half a millionth
of a cubic centimetre. When stated in this form the quantity
seems exceedingly small, but in this small volume there are about
ten million million molecules. Now the population of the earth
is estimated at about fifteen hundred milhons, so that the smallest
number of molecules of neon we can identify is about 7,000 times
the population of the earth. In other words, if we had no better
test for the existence of a man than we have for that of an
unelectrified molecule we should come to the conclusion that the
earth is uninhabited. '
The parable is a striking one, for on these lines it might legitimately
be contended that we have no right to say positively that even space
is uninhabited. All we can safely say is that we have no means of
detecting the existence of non-planetary immaterial dwellers, and that
unless they have some link or bond with the material they must always
be physically beyond our ken. We may therefore for practical purposes
legitimately treat them as non-existent until such link is discovered,
but we should not dogmatise about them. True agnosticism is legiti-
mate, but not the dogmatic and positive and gnostic variety.
For I hold that Science is incompetent to make comprehensive
denials, even about the Ether, and that it goes wrong when it makes
the attempt. Science should not deal in negations : it is strong in
affirmations, but nothing based on abstraction ought to presume to
deny outside its own region. It often happens that things abstracted
from and ignored by one branch of science may be taken into con-
sideration by another: —
Thus, Chemists ignore the Ether.
Mathematicians may ignore experimental difficulties.
Physicists ignore and exclude live things.
Biologists exclude Mind and Design.
Psychologists may ignore human origin and human destiny.
Folk-lore students and comparative Mythologists need not trouble
about what modicum of truth there may be in the legends which they
are collecting and systematising.
And Microscopists may ignore the stars.
Yet none of these ignored things should be denied.
Denial is no more infallible than assertion. There are cheap and
president's address. 29
easy kinds of scepticism, just as there are cheap and easy kinds of
dogmatism; in fact scepticism can become viciously dogmatic, and
science has to be as much on its guard against ipersonal predilection in
tlie negative as in the positive direction. An attitude of universal
denial may be very superficial.
' To doubt everything or to believe everytliing are two equally
convenient solutions; both dispense with the necessity of
reflection. '
All intellectual processes are based on abstraction. For instance,
ITistory must ignore a great multitude of facts in order to treat any
intelligently: it selects. So does Art; and that is why a drawing is
clearer than reality. Science makes a diagram of reality, displaying
the works, like a skeleton clock. Anatomists dissect out the nervous
system, the blood vessels, and the muscles, and depict them separately,
— there must be discrimination for intellectual grasp, — but in life they
are all merged and co-operating together; they do not really work
separately, though they may be studied separately. A scalpel
discriminates : a dagger or a bullet crashes through everything. That
is life, — or rather death. The laws of nature are a diagrammatic frame-
work, analysed or abstracted out of the full comprehensiveness of reality.
Hence it is that Science has no authority in denials. To deny
effectively needs much more comprehensive knowledge than to assert.
And abstraction is essentially not comprehensive : one cannot have it
both ways. Science employs the metliods of abstraction and thereby
makes its discoveries.
The reason why some physiologists insist so strenuously on the
validity and self-sufficiency of the laws of physics and chemistry, and
resist the temptation to appeal to unknown causes — even though the
guiding influence and spontaneity of living things are occasionally
conspicuous as well as inexplicable — is that they are keen to do their
proper work ; and their proper work is to pursue the laws of ordinary
physical Energy into the intricacies of ' colloidal electrolytic structures
of great chemical complexity ' and to study its behaviour there.
What we have clearly to grasp, on their testimony, is that for all
the terrestrial manifestations of life the ordinary physical and chemical
processes have to serve. There ai'e not new laws for living matter, and
old laws for non-living; (he laws are the same; or if ever llioy differ,
the burden of proof rests on him who sustains the difference. The
conservation of energy, the laws of chemical combination, the laws of
electric currents, of radiation, etc., etc., — all the laws of Chemistry and
Physics, — may be applied without hesitation in the Organic domain.
Whether they are sufficient is open to question, but as far as they go
30 president's address.
they are necessary ; and it is the business of the physiologist to seek out
and demonstrate the action of those laws in every vital action.
This is clearly recognised by the leaders, and in the definition of
Physiology by Burdon Sanderson he definitely limited it to the study
of ' ascertainable characters of a chemical and physical type.' In his
Address to the Sub-section of Anatomy and Physiology at York in 1881
he spoke as follows: —
' It would give you a true idea of the nature of the great advance
which took place about the middle of this century if I were to
define it as the epoch of the death of " vitalism." Before that
time even the greatest biologists — e.g. J. Miiller — recognised that
the knowledge biologists possessed both of vital and physical
phenomena was insufficient to refer both to a common measure.
The method, therefore, was to study the processes of life in
relation to each other only. Since that time it has become funda-
mental in our science not to regard any vital process as understood
at all unless it can be brought into relation with physical standards,
and the methods of physiology have been based exclusively on
this principle. The most efficient cause [conducing to the
change] was the progress which had been made in physics and
chemistry, and particularly those investigations which led to the
establishment of th© doctrine of the Conservation of
Energy.' ....
' Investigators who are now working with such earnestness
in all parts of the world for the advance of physiology, have
before them a definite and well-understood purpose, that purpose
being to acquire an exact knowledge of the chemical and physical
processes of animal life and of the self-acting machinery by which
they are regulated for the general good of the organism. The
more singly and straightforwardly we direct our efforts to these
ends, the sooner we shall attain to the still higher purpose — the
effectual application of our knowledge for the increase of human
happiness. '
Professor Gotch, whose recent loss we have to deplore, puts it more
strongly : —
'It is essentially unscientific,' he says, 'to say that any
physiological phenomenon is caused by vital force. '
I observe that by some critics I have been called a vitalist, and in
a sense I am ; but I am not a vitalist if vitahsm means an appeal to an
undefined ' vital force ' (an objectionable term I have never thought
of using) as against the laws of Chemistry and Physics. Those laws
must be supplemented, but need by no means be superseded. The
president's address. 31
business of science is to trace out their mode of action everywhere, as
far and as fully as possible ; and it is a true instinct which resents the
mediaeval practice of freely introducing spiritual and unknown causes
into working science. In science an appeal to occult qualities must be
illegitimate, and be a barrier to experiment and research generally;
as, when anything is called an Act of God — and when no more is said.
The occurrence is left unexplained. As an ultimate statement such a
ptu'ase may be not only true but universal in its application. But there
are always proximate explanations which may be looked for and dis-
covered with patience. So, lightning, earthquakes, and other portents
are reduced to natural causes. No ultimate explanation is ever attained
by science: proximate explanations only. They are what it exists for;
and it is the business of scientific men to seek them.
To attribute the rise of sap to vital force would be absurd, it would
be giving up the problem and stating nothing at all. The way in which
osmosis acts to produce the remarkable and surprising effect is dis-
coverable and has been discovered.
So it is always in science, and its progress began when unknown
causes were eliminated and treated as non-existent. Those causes, so
far as they exist, must establish their footing by direct investigation
and research; canied on in the first instance apart from the long-
recognised branches of science, until the time when they too have
become sufficiently definite to be entitled to be called scientific. Out-
landish Territories may in time be incorporated as States, but they
must make their claim good and become civilised first.
It is well for people to understand this definite limitation of scope
quite clearly, else they wrest the splendid work of biologists to their
own confusion, — helped it is true by a few of the more robust or less
responsible theorisers, among those who should be better informed and
more carefully critical in their philosophising utterances.
But, as is well known, there are more than a few biologists who,
when taking a broad survey of their subject, clearly perceive and teach
that before all the actions of live things are fully explained some
hitherto excluded causes must be postulated. Ever since the time of
J. E. Mayer it has been becoming more and more certain that as regards
performance of work a living thing obeys the laws of physics, like
everything else; but undoubtedly it initiates processes and produces
results that without it could not have occun-ed, — from a bird's nest to
a honeycomb, from a deal box to a warship. The behaviour of a ship
firing shot and shell is explicable in terms of energy, but the dis-
crimination which it exercises between friend and foe is not so explic-
able. There is plenty of physics and chemistry and mechanics about
every vital action, but for a complete understanding of it something
beyond physics and chemistry is needed.
32 president's address.
And life introduces an incalculable element. The vagaries of a
fire or a cyclone could all be predicted by Laplace's Calculator, given
the initial positions, velocities, and the law of acceleration of the mole-
cules; but no mathematician could calculate the orbit of a common
house-fly. A physicist into whose galvanometer a spider had crept
would be liable to get phenomena of a kind quite inexplicable, until
he discovered the supernatural, i.e. literally superphysical, cause. I
will risk the assertion that Life introduces something incalculable and
purposeful amid the laws of physics; it thus distinctly supplements
those laws, though it leaves them otherwise precisely as they were
and obeys them all.
We see only its effect; we do not sec Life itself. Conversion of
Inorganic into Organic is effected always by hving organisms. The
conversion under those conditions certainly occm-s, and the process
may be studied. Life appears necessary to the conversion; which
clearly takes place under the guidance of life, though in itself it is a
physical and chemical process. Many laboratory conversions take
place under the guidance of life, and, but for the experimenter, would
not have occurred.
Again, putrefaction, and fermentation, and purification of rivers,
and disease, are not purely and solely chemical processes. Chemical
processes they are, but they are initiated and conducted by living
organisms. Just when medicine is becoming biological, and when the
hope of making the tropical belt of the earth healthily habitable by
energetic races is attracting the attention of people of power, philo-
sophising biologists should not attempt to give their science away to
Chemistry and Physics. Sections D and H and I and K are not really
subservient to A and B. Biology is an independent science, and it is
sensed, not dominated., by Chemistry and Physics.
Scientific men are hostile to superstition, and rightly so, for a
great many popular superstitions are both annoying and contemptible;
yet occasionally the term may be wrongly applied to practices of which
the theory is unknown. To a superficial observer some of the practices
of biologists themselves must appear gi-ossly superstitious. To combat
malaria Sir Eonald Boss does not indeed erect an altar; no, he oils a
pond, — making libation to its presiding genii. What can be more
ludicrous than the curious and evidently savage ritual, insisted on by
United States Officers, at that hygienically splendid achievement the
Panama Canal, — the ritual of punching a hole in every discarded tin,
with the object of keeping off disease ! What more absurd, again —
in superficial appearance — than the practice of burning or poisoning
a soil to make it extra fertile !
Biologists in their proper field are splendid, and their work arouses
keen interest and enthusiasm in all whom they guide into their domain.
president's address. 33
Most of them do tlieii' work by intense concentration, by narrowing
down their scope, not by taking a wide survey or a comprehensive
grasp. Suggestions of broader views and outlying fields of knowledge
seem foreign to the intense worker, and he resents them. For his own
purpose he wishes to ignore them, and practically he may be q^uite
right. The folly of negation is not his, but belongs to those who mis-
interpret or misapply his utterances, and take him as a guide in a
region where, for the time at least, he is a stranger. Not by such aid
is the universe iu its broader aspects to be apprehended. If people
in general were better acquainted with science they would not make
these mistakes. They would realise both the learning and the limita-
tions, make use of the one and allow for the other, and not take the
recipe of a practical worker for a formula wherewith to interpret the
Universe.
What appears to be quite certain is that there can be no teiTestrial
manifestation of life without matter. Hence naturally they say, or
they approve such sayings as, 'I discern in matter the promise and
potency of all forms of life.' Of all terrestrial manifestations of life,
certainly. How else could it manifest itself save through matter?
' I detect nothing in the organism but the laws of Chemistry and
Physics,' it is said. Very well: naturally enough. That is what
they are niter; they are studying the physical and chemical aspects
or manifestations of life. But life itself — life and mind and con-
sciousness — they are not studying, and they exclude them from their
purview. Matter is what appeals to our senses here and now ;
Materialism is appropriate to the material world; not as a philosophy
but as a working creed, as a proximate and immediate formula for
guiding research. Everything beyond that belongs to another region,
and must be reached by other methods. To explain the Psychical in
lei-ms of Physics and Chemistry is simply impossible; hence there is
a tendency to deny its existence, save as an epiphenomenon. But all
such philosophising is unjustified, and is really bad Metaphysics.
So if ever in their enthusiasm scientific workers go too far and say
that the things they exclude from study have no existence in the
universe, we must appeal against them to direct experience. We
ourselves are alive, we possess life and mind and consciousness, we have
first-hand experience of these things quite aipart from laboratory
experiments. They belong to the common knowledge of the race.
Births, deaths, and marriages are not affairs of the biologist, but of
humanity; they went on before a single one of them was understood,
before a vestige of science existed. We ourselves are the laboratory
in which men of science, psychologists and others, make experiments.
They can formulate our processes of digestion, and the material
1913. B
34 president's addrksSi
concomitants of willing, of sensation, of thinking; but the hidden
guiding entities they do not touch.
So also if any philosopher tells you that you do not exist, or that the
external world does not exist, or that you are an automaton without free
will, that all your actions are determined by outside causes and that
you are not responsible, — or that a body cannot move out of its place,
or that Achilles cannot catch a tortoise, — then in all those cases appeal
must be made to twelve average men, unsophisticated by special studies.
There is always a danger of error in interpreting experience, or in
drawing inferences from it; but in a matter of bare fact, based on our
own first-hand experience, we are able to give a verdict. We may be
mistaken as to the nature of what we see ; stars may look to us like
bright specks in a dome; but the fact that we see them admits of no
doubt. So also Consciousness and Will are realities of which we are
directly aware, just as directly as we are of motion and force, just as
clearly as we apprehend the philosophising utterances of an Agnostic.
The process of seeing, the plain man does not understand ; he does not
recognise that it is a method of etherial telegraphy ; he knows nothing
of the ether and its ripples, nor of the retina and its rods and cones,
nor of nerve and brain processes; but he sees and he hears and he
touches, and he wills and he thinks and is conscious. This is not an
appeal to the mob as against the philosopher; it is appeal to the
experience of untold ages as against the studies of a generation.
How consciousness became associated with matter, how life exerts
guidance over chemical and physical forces, how mechanical motions are
translated into sensations, — all these things are puzzling, and demand
long study. But the fact that these things are so admits of no doubt;
and difficulty of explanation is no argument against them. The blind
man restored to sight had no opinion as to how he was healed, nor could
he vouch for the moral character of the Healer, but he plainly knew
that whereas he was blind now he saw. About that fact he was the
best possible judge. So it is also with ' this main miracle that thou art
thou, With power on thine own act and on the world. '
But although Life and Mind may be excluded from Physiology, they
are not excluded from Science. Of course not. It is not reasonable to
say that things necessarily elude investigation merely because we do Jiot
knock against them. Yet the mistake is sometimes made. The ether
makes no appeal to sense, therefore some are beginning to say that it
does not exist. Mind is occasionally put into the same predicament.
Life is not detected in the laboratory, save in its physical and chemical
manifestations ; but we may have to admit that it guides processes
nevertheless. It may be called a catalytic agent.
To understand the action of life itself, the simplest plan is not to
think of a microscopic organism, or any unfamiliar animal, but to make
president's addres? 35
use of our oWn experience as living beings. Any positive instance serves
to stem a comprehensive denial ; and if the reality of mind and guidance
and plan is denied because they make no appeal to sense, then think how
the world would appear to an observer to whom the existence of men
was unknown and undiscoverable, while yet all the laws and activities
of nature went on as they do now.
Suppose, then, that man made no appeal to the senses of an observer
of this planet. Suppose an outside observer could see all the events
occurring in the world, save only that he could not see animals or men.
He would describe what he saw much as we have to describe the
activities initiated by life.
If he looked at the Firth of Forth, for instance, he would see piers
arising in the water, beginning to sprout, reaching across in strange
manner till they actually join or are joined by pieces attracted up from
below to complete the circuit (a solid circuit round the current). He
would see a sort of bridge or filament thus constructed, from one shore
to the other, and across this bridge insect-like things crawling and
returning for no very obvious reason.
Or let him look at the Nile, and recognise the meritorious character
of that river in promoting the growth of vegetation m the desert. Then
let him see a kind of untoward crystallisation growing across and begin-
ning to dam the beneficent stream. Blocks fly to their places by some
kind of polar forces ; ' we cannot doubt ' that it is by helio- or other
tropism. There is no need to go outside the laws of mechanics and
physics, there is no difficulty about supply of energy — none whatever, —
materials in tin cans are consumed which amply account for all the
energy; and all the laws of physics are obeyed. The absence of any
design, too, is manifest; for the effect of the structure is to flood an area
up-stream which might have been useful, and to submerge a structure
of some beauty; while down stream its effect is likely to be worse, for it
would block the course of the river and waste it on the desert, were it
not thai fortunately some leaks develop and a sufficient supply still goes
down — goes down in fact more equably than before : so that the ulti-
mate result is beneficial to vegetation, and simulates intention.
If told concerning either of these structures that an engineer, a
designer in London, called Benjamin Baker, had anything to do with
it, the idea would be preposterous. One conclusive argument is final
against such a superstitious hypothesis — he is not there, and a thing
plainly cannot act where it is not. But although we, with our greater
advantages, perceive that the right solution for such an observer would
be the recognition of some unknown agency or agent, it must be
admitted that an explanation in terms of a vague entity called vital force
would be useless, and might be so worded as to be misleading; whereas
O 2
36 president's address.
a statement in terms of mechanics and physics could be clear and
definite and true as far as it went, though it must necessarily be
incomplete.
And note that what we observe, in such understood cases, is an
InterarJion of Mind and Matter ; not Parallelism nor Epiphenomenalism
nor anything strained or difficult, but a straightforward utilisation of the
properties of matter and energy for purposes conceived in the mind, and
executed by muscles guided by acts of will.
But, it will be said, this is unfair, for we know that there is design
in the Forth Bridge or the Nile Dam, we have seen the plans and under-
stand the agencies at work : we know that it was conceived and guided
by life and mind, it is unfair to quote this as thougli it could simulate
an automatic process.
Not at all, say the extreme school of biologists whom I am criticis-
ing, or ought to say if they were consistent, there is nothing but
Chemistry and Physics at work anywhere; and the mental activity
apparently demonstrated by those structures is only an illusion, an
epiphenomenon ; the laws of chemistry and physics are supreme, and
they are sufficient to account for everything !
Well, they account for things up to a point; they account in part
for the colour of a sunset, for the majesty of a mountain peak, for the
glory of animate existence. But do they account for everything com-
pletely? Do they account for our own feeling of joy and exaltation,
for our sense of beauty, for the manifest beauty existing throughout
nature? Do not these things suggest something higher and nobler and
more joyous, something for the sake of which all the struggle for
existence goes on?
Surely tliere must be a deeper meaning involved in natural objects.
Orthodox explanations are only partial, though true as far as they go.
When we examine each particoloured pinnule in a peacock's tail, or
hair in a zebra's hide, and realise that the varying shades on each are so
placed as to contribute to the general design and pattern, it becomes
exceedingly difficult to explain how this organised co-operation of parts,
this harmonious distribution of pigment cells, has come about on merely
mechanical principles. It would be as easy to explain the sprouting
of the cantilevers of the Forth Bridge from its piers, or the flocking of
the stones of the Nile Dam by chemiotaxis. Flowers attract insects
for fertilisation; and fruit tempts birds to eat it in order to carry
seeds. But these explanations cannot be final. We have still to
explain the insects. So much beauty cannot be necessary merely to
attract their attention. We have further to explain this competitive
striving towards life. Why do things struggle to exist? Surely the
effort must have some significance, the development some aim. We
thus reach the problem of Existence itself, and the meaning of
Evolution.
president's address. 37
The mechanism whereby existence entrenches itself is manifest, or
at least has been to a large extent discovered. Natural Selection is a
vera causa, so far as it goes ; but if so much beauty is necessary for
insects, what about the beauty of a landscape or of clouds? "What
utilitarian object do those subserve? Beauty in general is not taken
into account by science. Very well, that may be all right, but it exists
nevertheless. It is not my function to discuss it. No; but it is my
function to remind you and myself that our studies do not exhaust the
Universe, and that if we dogmatise in a negative direction, and say
that we can reduce everything to physics and chemistry, we gibbet
ourselves as ludicrously narrow pedants, and are falling far short of
the richness and fullness of our human birthright. How far preferable
is the reverent attitude of the Eastern Poet: —
* The world with eyes bent upon thy feet stands in awe with
all its silent stars. '
Superficially and physically we are very limited. Our sense organs
are adapted to the observation of matter; and nothing else directly
appeals to us. Our nerve-muscle-system is adapted to the production
of motion in matter, in desired ways ; and nothing else in the material
world can we accomplish. Our brain and nerve systems connect us
with the rest of the physical world. Our senses give ns information
about the movements and arrangements of matter. Our muscles enable
us to produce changes in those distributions. That is our equipment
for human life; and human history is a record of what we have done
with these parsimonious privileges.
Our brain, which by some means yet to be discovered connects us
with the rest of the material world, has been thought partially to dis-
connect us from the mental and spiritual realm, to which we really
belong but from which for a time and for practical purposes we are
isolated. Our common or social association with matter gives us certain
opportunities and facilities, combined with obstacles and difficulties
which are themselves opportunities for struggle and effort.
Through matter we become aware of each other, and can communi-
cate with those of our fellows who have ideas sufficiently like our own
for them to be stimulated into activity by a merely physical process
set in action by ourselves. By a timed succession of vibratory move-
ments (as in speech and music), or by a static distribution of materials
(as in writing, painting, and sculpture), we can carry on intelligent
intercourse with our fellows; and we get so used to these ingenious
and roundabout methods, that we are apt to think of them and their
like as not only the natural but as the only possible modes of com-
munication, and that anything more dix-ect would disarrange the whole
fabric of science.
38 president's address.
It is clearly true that our bodies constitute the normal means of
manifesting ourselves to each other while on the planet; and that if
the physiological mechanism whereby we accomplish material acts is
injured, the conveyance of our meaning and the display of our personality
inevitably and correspondingly suffer.
So conspicuously is this the case that it has been tpossible to suppose
that the communicating mechanism, formed and worked by us, is the
whole of our existence: and that we are essentially nothing but the
machinery by which we are known. We find the machinery utilising
nothing but well-known forms of energy, and subject to all the laws of
chemistry and physics,— it would be strange if it were not so, — and from
that fact we try to draw valid deductions as to our nature, and as to the
impossibility of our existing apart from and independent of these
temporary modes of material activity and manifestation. We so
uniformly employ them, in our present circumstances, that we should
be on our guard against deception due to this very uniformity. Material
bodies are all that we have any control over, are all that we are experi-
mentally aware of ; anything that we can do with these is open to us ;
any conclusions we can draw about them may be legitimate and true.
But to step outside their province and to deny the existence of any other
region because we have no sense organ for its appreciation, or because
(like the Ether) it is too uniformly omnipresent for our ken, is to wrest
our advantf.ges and privileges from their proper use and apply them to
our own misdirection.
But if we have learnt from science that Evolution is real, we have
learnt a great deal. I must not venture to philosophise, but certainly
from the point of view of science Evolution is a great reality. Surely
evolution is not an illusion; surely the universe progresses in time.
Time and Space and Matter are abstractions, but are none the less
real : they are data given by experience ; and Time is the keystone of
evolution. ' Thy centuries follow each other, perfecting a small wild
flower. '
We abstract from living moving Eeality a certain static aspect, and
we call it Matter; we abstract the element of progressiveness, and we
call it Time. When these two abstractions combine, co-operate,
interact, we get reality again. It is like Poynting's theorem.
The only way to refute or confuse the theory of Evolution is to
introduce the subjectivity of time. That theory involves the reality
of time, and it is in this sense that Prof. Bergson uses the great phrase
' Creative Evolution. '
I see the whole of material existence as a steady passage from past
to future, only the single instant which we call the present being actual.
The past is not non-existent however, it is stored in our memories, there
president's address, 39
is a record of it in. matter, and the present is based upon it ; the future
is the outcome of the present, and is the product of evolution.
Existence is like the output from a loom. The pattern, the design
for the weaving, is in some sort ' there ' already ; but whereas our
looms are mere machines, once the guiding cards have been fed into
them, the Loom of Time is complicated by a multitude of free agents
who can modify the web, making the product more beautiful or more
ugly according as they are in harmony or disharmony with the general
scheme. I venture to maintain that manifest imperfections are thus
accounted for, and that freedom could be given on no other terms, nor
at any less cost.
The ability thus to work for weal or woe is no illusion, it is a reality,
a responsible power which conscious agents possess; wherefore the
resulting fabric is not something preordained and inexorable, though by
wide knowledge of character it may be inferred. Nothing is inexor-
able except the unifoiTn progress of time ; the cloth must be woven, but
the pattern is not wholly fixed and mechanically calculable.
Where inorganic matter alone is concerned, there everything is
determined. Wherever full consciousness has entered, new powers
arise, and the faculties and desires of the conscious parts of the scheme
have an effect upon the whole. It is not guided from outside but
from within, and the guiding power is immanent at every instant.
Of this guiding power we are a small but not wholly insignificant
portion.
That evolutionary progress is real is a doctrine of profound signi-
ficance, and our efforts at social betterment are justified because we
are a part of the scheme, a part that has become conscious, a part
that realises, however dimly, what it is doing and what it is aiming
at. Planning and aiming are therefore not absent from the whole,
for we are a part of the whole, and are conscious of them in
ourselves.
Either we are immortal beings or we are not. We may not know
our destiny, but we must have a destiny of some sort. Those who
make denials are just as likely to be wrong as those who make assertions :
in fact, denials are assertions thrown into negative form. Scientific men
are looked up to as authorities, and should be careful not to mislead.
Science may not be able to reveal human destiny, but it certainly should
not obscure it. Things are as they are, whether we find them out or
not; and if we make rash and false statements, posterity will detect
us — if posterity ever troubles its head about us. I am one of those
who think that the methods of Science are not so hmited in their
scope as has been thought: that they can be applied much more
widely, and that the Psychic region can be studied and brought under
law too. Allow us anyhow to make the attempt. Give us a fair
40 president's address.
field. Let those who prefer the materiahstic hypothesis by all means
develop their thesis as far as they can ; but let us try what we can do
in the Psychical region, and see which wins. Our methods are really
the same as theirs — the subject-matter differs. Neither should abuse
the other for making the attempt.
Whether such things as intuition and revelation ever occur is an
open question. There are some who have reason to say that they do.
They are at any rate not to be denied off-hand. In fact, it is always
extremely difficult to deny anything of a general character, since evi-
dence in its favour may be only hidden and not forthcoming,
especially not forthcoming at any particular age of the world's history,
or at any particular stage of individual mental development. Mys-
ticism must have its place, though its relation to Science has so far
not been found. They have appeared disparate and disconnected, but
there need be no hostility between them. Every kind of reality must
be ascertained and dealt with by proper methods. If the voices of
Socrates and of Joan of Arc represent real psychical experiences, they
must belong to the intelligible universe.
Although I am speaking ex cathedra, as one of the representatives
<il orthodox science, I will not shrink from a personal note summaris-
ing the result on my own mind of thirty years' experience of psychical
research, begun without pi'edilection — indeed v^^ith the usual hostile
prejudice. This is not the place to enter into detail or to discuss
facts scorned by orthodox science, but I cannot help remembering
that an utterance from this chair is no ephemeral production — it
remains to be criticised by generations yet unborn, whose knowledge
must inevitably be fuller and wider than our own. Your President
therefore should not be completely bound by the shackles of present-
day orthodoxy, nor limited to beliefs fashionable at the time. In
justice to myself and my co-workers I must risk annoying my present
hearers, not only by leaving on record our conviction that occurrences
now regarded as occult can be examined and reduced to order by the
methods of science carefully and persistently applied, but by going
further and saying, with the utmost brevity, that already the facts
so examined have convinced me that memory and affection are not
limited to that association with matter by which alone they can
manifest themselves here and now, and that personality persists beyond
bodily death. The evidence — nothing new or sensational, but cumula-
tive and demanding prolonged serious study — to my mind goes to prove
that discarnate intelligence, under certain conditions, may interact with
us on the material side, thus indirectly coming within our scientific
ken; and that gradually we may hope to attain some understanding of
the nature of a larger, perhaps etherial, existence, and of the conditions
regulating intercourse across the chasm. A body of responsible in-
prestd'ent's address. 41
vestigcators has even now landed on tlie treacherous but promising
shores of a new continent.
Yes, and there is more to say than that. The methods of science
are not the only way, though they are one way, of being piloted to
truth. ' Uno itinere 11011 potest perveniri ad tarn grande secreium.'
Many scientific men still feel in pugnacious mood, towards Theo-
logy, because of the exaggerated dogmatism which our predecessors
encountered and overcame in the past. They had to struggle for
freedom to find truth in their own way; but the struggle was a deplor-
able necessity, and has left some evil effects. And one of them is
tliis lack of sympathy, this occasional hostility, to other more spiritual
forms of truth. We cannot really and sei'iously suppose that truth
began to ari'ive on this planet a few centuries ago. The pre-scientific
insight of genius — of Poets and Prophets and Saints — was of supreme
value, and the access of those inspired seers to the heart of the
universe was often profound. But the camp followers, the scribes and
pharisees, by whatever name they may be called, had no such insight,
only a vicious or a foolish obstinacy : and the prophets of a new era
were stoned.
Now at last we of the new era have been victorious, and the stones
are in our hands. But for us to imitate the old ecclesiastical attitude
would be folly, for it cannot be sustained; humanity would ultimately
rise against us, and there would come yet another period of reaction,
in which for a time we should be worsted. Through the best part of
two centuries there has been a revolt from religion, led by Voltaire
and other great writers of that age ; but let us see to it that the revolt
ceases when it has gone far enough. Let us not fall into the mistake
of thinking that ours is the only way of exploring the multifarious
depths of the universe, and that all others are worthless and mistaken.
The universe is a larger tiling than we have any conception of, and no
one method of search will exhaust its treasures.
Men and brethren, we are trustees of the truth of the physical
universe as scientifically explored : let us be faithful to our trust.
Genuine religion has its roots deep down in the heart of humanity
and in the reality of things. It is not surprising that by our methods
we fail to grasp it : the actions of the Deity make no appeal to any
special sense, only a universal appeal; and our methods are, as we
know, incompetent to detect complete uniformity. There is a Prin-
ciple of Relativity here, and unless we encounter flaw or jar or change,
nothing in us responds ; we are deaf and blind therefore to the Imma-
nent Grandeur, unless we have insight enough to recognise in the woven
fabric of existence, flowing steadily from the loom in an infinite pro-
gress towards perfection, the ever-growing garment of a transcendent
God.
42 president's address^
Summary of the Argument.
A marked feature of the present scientific era is the discovery
of, and interest in, various hinds of Atomism; so that Continuity
seems in danger of being lost sight of.
Another tendency is toward comprehensive negative generalisa-
tions from a limited point of view.
Another is to take refuge in rather vague forms of statement, and
to shrink from closer examination of the puzzling and the obscure.
Another is to deny the existence of anything which makes no
appeal to organs of sense, and no ready response to laboratory experi-
TYient.
Against these tendencies the author contends. He urges a belief
in ultimate continuity as essential to science; he regards scieniiflG
coyicentration as an inadequate basis for philosophic generalisation; he
believes that obscure phenomena may be expressed simply if properly
faced; and he points out that the non-appearance of anything perfectly
uniform and omnipresent is only what should be expected, and is no
argument against its real substantial existence.
KEPOETS
STATE OF SCIENCE.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Seismological Investigations. — Eighteenth Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner {Chairman),
Mr. J. Milne (Secretanj), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Mr. Horace
Darwin, Mr. F. W. Dyson, Dr. R. T. (Ilazebrook, Mr.
M. H. Gr.\y, Mr. R. K. Gray, Professor J. W. Judd, Pro-
fessor C. G. Knott, Professor E. Meldola, Mr. E. D.
Oldham, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. Pldmmer, Dr. E. A.
Sampson, and Professor A. Schuster. (Drau-n up by the
Secretary.)
[Plate I.]
Contents. p^^^
I. General Notes, Registers, Visitors, Stations 4.5
II. Seismic Activity in 1910 40
III. On the 443 or 452 Day Period 51
IV. On the Determination of the Position of Epicentres .... 51
V. On the Variation of Earthquake Speed with the Variation in the Direction of
Propagation 52
VI. Comparison of the Amplitudes of the East- West and North-South Motion at
a given Station 55
VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake Motion is most easily propagated . 56
VIII. On the Times of Occurrence of Maximum Motion on Pendidums di^erently
Oriented 59
IX. Disturbances only recorded at Two or Three Widely Separated Stations , 60
X. Recurrence of Megaseismic Groups 61
XI. Frequency of Earthquake Followers 62
XII. Large Earthquakes recorded at different Observatories, January to June 1910 63
XIII. Seismic and Volcanic Activities 65
XIV. Report on an Improved Seismograph 67
XV. Indexing Materials published by the British Association and the Seismo-
logical Society of Japan relating to Geophysics . . ... 68
XVI. Shinobu Hirota : Obituary Notice ... 85
XVII. John Milne; Obituary Notice , ... 85
I. General Notes.
Tub; above Committee seek to be reappointed with a grant of 60Z.
The expenditure in connection with seismological work dming the
last twelve months exceeded 300/. This covered the salaries of two
assistants, sundry expenses connected with the Observatory at Shide
in carrying out the work connected with 58 co-operating stations.
Out of the above sum 200L was kindly placed at the disposal of your
Secretary by the Government Grant Committee of the Eoyal Society.
Registers. — During the last year Circulars Nos. 26 and 27 have
been issued. They contain 117 pages of entries which refer to the
following stations : Shide, Kew, Bidston, Stonyhurst, West Bromwich,
46 KEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Guildford, Haslemere, Eskdalemuir, Paisley, Edinburgh, Cork, Ponta
Delgada, Eio Tinto, San Fernando, Valetta, Cairo, Beirut, Ascension
Island, St. Vincent, Cape of Good Hope, Fernando Noronha, Trinidad,
Toronto, Victoria, B.C., Honolulu, Alipore, Bombay, Kodaikanal,
Colombo, Seychelles, Mauritius, Adelaide, Sydney, Wellington,
Christchurch.
Mr. Alan Owston, of Yokohama, kindly sends me records of earth-
quakes he has noted at that place; whilst Mr. Joseph Eippon, of the
West India Cable Co. , and Mr. Maxwell Hall, of the Weather Office,
Jamaica, send records relating to that country. Observers in various
parts of the world send from time to time results of their observations.
Visitors. — Baron Kujo; H. M. B. Cooke, Kolas Gold Field, South
India; Dr. J. B. A. Treusch, Fanning Island; G. Hewett, Paramaribo;
Sir H. B. Donkin; Lord Tennyson; Hon. A. E. D. Elliott; Officers
of the Eoyal Fusiliers; L. F. Eichardson, Eskdalemuir; G. F. 0. Searle
ajid D. L. Scott, Cambridge; Prof. W. J. Sollas and a party of
geological students from Oxford; G. Owen, Liverpool University;
Prof. H. H. Turner, Oxford.
Stations.
Fanning Island, 159° 40' W., 4° N.— This is a Coral Atoll about
30 miles in circumference, no part of which is more than 1000 feet
distant from the sea and not more than 10 feet above it. The instru-
ment is in charge of Dr. J. B. A. Treusch.
Agincourt. — In the Eeport for 1912, page 70, this appeared as if
it were a station at which there was a seismograph, which, however,
is not the case. Certain of the magnetometers at the Agincourt
Observatory are, however, occasionally disturbed by teleseismic motion,
which did not happen with the same instruments when they were
installed in Toronto.
Toronto.- — The seismograph here was furst installed in the old
Observatory buildings. In March 1908, when these were abolished,
it was temporarily erected in a dwelling-house. On September 30,
1909, it was permanently installed in the barograph room in the
basement of the new Meteorological Office, which is a.bout half a mile
north of the site of the old Observatory.
Shide, Wireless Telegra-phy at. — At the end of last year Mr. J. J.
Shaw, of West Bromwich, very kindly installed me a wireless tele-
graphic system, the object of which was to obtain time signals from
the Eiffel Tower or North Germany. Up to date it has worked
satisfactorily, giving time to within half a second. This it has done
in all kinds of weather, when it was impossible to make an observa-
tion on the sun or to obtain a Greenwich signal. The cost of an
installation for this purpose is less than lOZ.
II. Seismic Activity in 1910.
The following catalogue is a continuation of catalogues published
iu the British Association Eeport, 1911, p. 57, and 1912, p. 70.
The number given to an earthquake corresponds to that which
is given to the same disturbance in the Shide Eegisters, published as
British Association Circulars. The numbers with an asterisk (*) refer
to earthquakes which have disturbed the whole world. Those which
are not thus marked have been recorded over areas of not less than two
17
P,
>y
0-
ke
ns
le
;n
is
es
d.
r-
ze
a-
er
e-
to
;h
ih
.16
)n
3d
ORIGINS OF LARGE EARTHQUAKES, 1910.
ON SEISMOLOGIOAL INVESTIGATIONS.
47
continents. These numbers are reproduced on the accompanying map,
and those which are underhned correspond to numbers in the catalogue
which carry an asterisk (*j. For a description of the methods by
which the position of origins has been determined see British Asso-
ciation Eeport, 1900, p. 79. When the time at which an earthqualie
originated is followed by plus or minus so many minutes, this means
that there is a coiTesponding uncertainty as to the position of the
origin. The names of places at which an earthquake has only been
felt is followed by the letter F. If destruction has taken place it is
followed by the letter D. The dotted lines on the map are the axes
of troughs or ridges from which large earthquakes have originated.
In the column for remarks I have made a few references to deter-
mination of origins by other investigators. Those given by Prince
Gahtzin are of interest from the fact that they are made from observa-
tions at a single station. ^ The detemiinations by Dr. Kurt Wegener
depend upon observations made at three to six stations.^
In connection with my own observations, to make which I fre-
quently had materials from 30 or 40 stations, it is interesting to
note that these stations could sometimes be divided into groups, each
of which would give different epicentres, the distances between which
might be as much as six degrees. One interpretation of this is the
assumption that the earthquake originated over an area the dimension
of which is indicated by the distances which separate the calculated
epicentres.
Date
No.
Time at
District
Lat. and long.
Remarks.
1910
origin
in degrees
F=felt, D=destructive
Jan. 1*
2194
11.2
C'l
90 W. 24 N.
Wegener gives 82 W.
25 N., time 11.2.26.
kSeismograms evi-
dently refer to two
or three disturbances
.. 6
2200
19.54i:2
E3
125 E. 25 N.
IsLigakijima, Loochoo,
F.
In Chili, Kwangsu and
8
2204
14.48±2
K.
122 E. 35 N.
Shantung, F.
15
2212
22.15
E3
125 E. 5 N.
Mindanao, Agusan
VaUey, F., also Hal-
mahera and Talaud,
F
19
2220
14.50±4
Mo
180 E. 4 y.
22*
2225
8.48
J-
19 W. 67 N.
Gahtzin gives 17 W
68 N.
St. Vincent, George •
23*
2228
18.48ca
<^2
55 W. 12 N.
town, Paramaribo,
F.
Probably a dual earth-
30*
2241
3.45ca
i-'l
168 E. 33 S.
Feb. 3
2247
16.34ca
F,
168 E. 17 S.
quake.
4*
2248
14.0ca
F.
168 E. 17 S.
Lifu in Loyalty Is.,
F. Wegener gives
177 W. IS S., and
times 13.59.7,
15.40.2, 17.36.5 and
18.32.5.
I See Bulletin del'AcademiedesScieTicesdeSt.-Peiersbourg, No 13 1911 n 0^,.,
» See d. Kgl. Qts. d. Wise, rmth.-phyt. Kl. 1912, Heft 3. ' '^' ^''"'
48
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.— 1913.
Date
Time at
District
Lat. aud long.
Remarks. 1
1910
No.
origin
in degrees
F=felt, D = destructive
. i
Feb.
7
2255
15.40
121 E. 13 N.
N. Mindoro at Calapan,
F. j
CentralJapan, F. Gal-
12*
2262
18.G
El
141 E. 32 N.
itzin gives 131.5 E.
34.58 N.
13
2264
16.21c-a
Fi, r„ Ej
125 E. N.S.
^^
18
2267
5.11
Ks
24 E. 36 N.
Crete, Varipetro, D.
27
2278
14.27crt
El, K, E3
145 E. 37 N.
Central Japan, F.
28*
2280
21.0±4
At
150 W. 47 N.
Mar.
1
2281
11.22
M,
170 W. 13 S.
11
2284
6.50ca
A.,
121 W. 38 N.
Central California, F.
25
2297
15.17i2
Di, 1).
80 W. 20 S.
Antofagasta, F.(?)
2.5
2298
18.38
E, "
121 E. 25 N.
N. Formosa, F.
30*
2301
16.55
i\
168 E. 17 8.
31*
2302
18.13i3
I.
6 W. 71 S.
April
1
13.46
F^
129 E. 4 S.
Ambon and Neiia, F.
Not recorded at
Shide.
"
8
2308
16.28i:5
M,
175 W. 2 N.
Wegener gives 171 W.
16 S. Time 16.34.7.
9
2309
9.274-4
K,
93 E. 22 N.
12*
2313
0.22
E3
124 E. 26 N.
Formosa and Loochoo,
F. Galitzin gives
122.55 E. 27.31 N.
AVegener gives 122 E. .
23 N. Time 0.21.6.
„
13
2314
G.41
B
84 W. 11 N.
Costa Rica, Cartago,
1).
Ambon and Neira, F.
16*
2318
12.30
F-z
130 E. 5 S.
17
2319
0.52crt
H
30 W. 30 S.CO
Possibly 10 W. 65 S.
20
2323
22.12c«
M,
166 E. 8 N.
May
1*
2329
18.30.4
e;
170 E. 18 S.
AVegencr's determina-
tion. ;
.
4
2332
15.17ca
E-,
137 E. 17 N.
5*
2334
0.26
B
84 W. 9 N.
Co.sta Rica, Cartago, D.
9
2335
9.47
El
142 E. 36 N.
E. Coast N. Japan, F.
1
10
2337
9.29
E3
130 E. 26 N.
10
2338
13.55
El
140 E. 34 N.
10*
2340
17.42f«
L
20 W. 55 S.
Origin doubtful.
11
7.38ca
Ci
71 \V. 18 N.
Haiti, W. Indies, D.
Not recorded at
Shide.
11
2341
15.51ca
K2
71 E. 42 N.
Talas Ala-tau in
Turkestan.
12 2344
3.21
E,
141 E. 33 N.
Off Boso, E. Coast 1
Japan, F. '■,
13*
2345
7.57ef(
P
163 W. 48 N.
15
2348
16.3±3
E2
122 E. 10 S.
Maoo Merc in Flores, :
also in Timor, F.
18
2351
8.58
38 E. 9 S.
Tanganyika and Ger-
man E. Africa, F.
20*
2354
12.9ca
Ct
58 W. 22 N.
21
2355
7.46ca
K,
12 E. 21 N.
22*
2356
6.25
El
145 E. 42 N.
N.E. Japan, Yoke- 1
hama, Kushiro, F.
23
2357
18.38
Ex
142 E. 3 N.
27
2361
11.59ca
K,
9 E. 28 N.
28
2362
0.21c(t
25 E. 14 S.
Rhodesia, Livingstone, '
F. 1
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS,
49
Date
1910
No.
Time at
origin
District
Lat. and long,
in degrees
Remarks.
F=felt. D=destructive
May
30
2365
12.33ca
22 E. 15 N.
"
31*1 2366
4.54
B
105 W. 10 N.
Galitzin gives 92.16 W.
23.5 N.
June
1* 2367
!
5.57±2
Fi
165 E. 23 S.
Wegener gives approxi-
mate origin as 170 E.
18 S. at 5.55.1.
1 »
9*i 2376
11.47
El, E,, E3
138 E. 28 N.
Benin Is. and C. E.
Japan, F.
„
14 2379
19.39ca
H
' 44 W. 32 N.
"
16 2381
4.15
Ks
2 W. 37 N.
S. Spain, Almeria,
Malaga and Algeria,
D.
New Caledonia and
J,
16* 2382
6.30
Fi
166 E. 19 S.
1
Loyalty Is., F.
„
17 2384
5.26
E,
128 E. 22 N.
Formosa, Pescador
Is., Batanes Is.,
and N. Luzon, F.
"
23
2391
2.50ca
E.
121 E. 2 N.
Celebes, Posso and
Paleleh, F.
"
23
2393
18.52.5
Mo
174 W. 18 S.
D e term i n e d by
Wegener.
"
24
2394a
13.27.5
Ks
4 E. 36 N.
Algeria, Aumale, Tab-
lat, D.
"
25
2395
19.26
K.
34 E. 41 N.
Asia Minor, Iskelib,
F.
C. Japan, F.
„
26
2398
15.57
El
139 E. 35 N.
,,
29*
2402
10.49ca
M^
180E.W.15S.
,,
29*
14.21ca
M,
178 W. 28 S.
Not recorded at Shide.
,,
29
18.9c«
K
130 E. 18 S.
Not recorded at Shide.
„
30
2404
2.55
E3
127 E. 4 N.
S.E. Mindanao, F.
July
2
2406
5.37
E3
125 E. 7 N.
Agusan River, E. Min-
danao, F.
,,
3
2412
9.9
Ai
135 W. 59 N.
Skagway, F.
„
5
2415
18.30
E3
128 E. 25 N.
Loocboo, Naba, F.
,,
7
2417
4.41
Ai
135 W. 60 N.
Skagway, F.
„
7*
2418
8.17
F3
108 E. 12 S.
Kediri, Soerakarta, F.
"
8
2419
3.59
F.
108 E. 11 S.
Madioen, Pasoeroean,
F.
Not recorded at Sbide.
„
10
2422
15.9ca
Ci
69 W. 16 N.
„
11
2424
20.33ca
Fi
170 E. 33 S.
12
2427
7.31(?)
K.
72 E. 40 N.
Galitzin gives 35.55 N.
69.18 E. N. Af-
ganistan, nr. Hindu
Kush Mts.
„
12
2428
21.6
El
163 E. 29 S.
„
15
2433
12.1ca
E
174 E. 23 S.
»»
21
2443
22.17ca
Gi
60 E. 3 N.
„ *
22
2444
14.13
E3
126 E. 10 N.
Surigao, F.
„
24 ,
2446
15.19ca
Mj
176 E. 7 S.
„
29*,
2450
10.27±3
El
145 E. 3 N.
lug.
1 ,
2454
10.43
K,
19 E. 39 N.
Italy, South, F.
,„
1
2455
22.15ca
K5
35 E. 35 N.
<„
2
2456
2.35ca
K5
21 E. 37 N.
"
5
2460
1.30ca
Ai
117 W. 48 N.
Galitzin gives 116.50 W.
39.48 N.
„
7
2461
20.45
Ks
28 E. 38 N.
Smyrna, F.
>»
10
2465
20.16ca
E^
Ill E. 10 S.
„
11
2466
16.37 i
C'l
70 W. 25 N. i
"
13 :
2472
21.19
K,
90 E. 28 N. 1
1913.
50
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
Date
No.
2473
Time at
District
Lat. and long.
Remarks.
1910
origin
in degrees
F=felt, D=destructive
Aug. U
7.33ca
H
32 W. 10 N.
16
—
7.27ca
F^
118 E. 3 S.
Not recorded at Shide.
IV
2477
11.58
Ks
68 E. 30 N.
Galitzin gives 28.39 N.
67.10 E. Sind and
Shikarpur, F.
21*
2486
5.20
M^
165 E. 9 N.
21
2487
16.0ca
In the Shide Register
the date is given
wrongly as Aug. 24.
North of India.
Sept. 1*
2500
0.45
Ea
122 E. 21 N.
GaUtzin gives 120.22
E. 23.30 N. Taito
Taichu and Keelung
in Formosa, also in
Batanes Is., F.
1*
2501
14.20
Ea
122 E. 24 N.
Galitzin gives 119.54 E.
23.13 N. Taihoku
Keelung, Tainan,
Taichuin,Formosa,F.
6*
2506
19.59crt
Di.D,
82 W. 21 S.
At 20. 32 ±2 a shock
originated 5 W. 2 S.
At 20.14i3 shocks
were noted at Andal-
gala, in Catamarca,
Argentina.
7*
2508
7.10±2
F:
155 E. 5 S.
Wegener gives a
locality near to
USE. 4 S. at 7.10.4.
9*
2513
1.11
P
170 W. 45 N.
Gahtzin gives 160.24 E.
45.26 N., E. of the
Kuriles. Unalaska
and Bogoslof Is., F.
14
2522
]3.53
F,
116 E. 10 S.
Soembawa and Bah, F.
16
2525
23.7
E3
125 E. 19 N.
N. Luzon, F.
24
2533
3.23=a
Di
102 W. 2 S.
Arizona, F.
24
2535
1512ca
D2
69 W. 35 S.
Rioja, San Juan, and
Mendosa, in Argen-
tina, F.
Oct. 2
2541
20.33 &
21.15
E3
123 E. 12 N.
Nueva Caceres and
throughout S.E.
Luzon, F.
4*
2543
22.51ca
Ml
132 E. 51 S.
7
2545
6.52
M,
180 E. or W.
10 S.
7
2546
11.54
Ex
171 E. 18 S.
Valparaiso, F.(?)
7
2547
16.2
E3
89 E. 2 N.
13
2551
14.56
Ex
142 E. 38 N.
Eastern part of Central
Japan, F.
18
2553
2.36
El
171 E. 19 S.
i
20
2554
5.3ca
E.
97 E. 4 S.
Padang, Bovenlanden,
Sumatra, F.
27
2560
0.59
Ks
5 W. 35 N.
Fez in Morocco, also in
Tetuan, Melilla, in
Malaga, F.
30
2561
7.33
M.,
180 E. or W.
10 S.
Nov. 6
2572
20.29
Ai
135 W. 63 N.
9*
2578
5.51ca
F,
164 E. 12 S.
Mallieolo, in New 1
Hebrides, F. |
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
5i
Date
Time at
District
Lat. and long.
Remarks.
1910
No.
origin
in degrees
F=felt, D=destructive
Nov. 10*
2579
12.11ca
M.,
160 E. N.S.
14*
2585
7.33
E3
120 E. 21 N.
N. Formosa, F.
15*
2589
14.18ca
L
16 W. 62 S.
24
2594
15.41ca
F3
90 E. 6 N.
25
25966
19.12
E3
125 E. 6 N.
S.E. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.
26*
2598
4.39ca
Ft
167 E. 8 S.
Not recorded at Shide.
29*
2599
2.24
E,
125 E. 25 N.
E. coast Formosa, F.
Dec. 1
2601
15.42
El
135 E. N.S.
About this time an
earthquake was re-
corded in Tondano
in Menado.
3
2603
4.5ca
Ei
155 E. 4 S.
Namatani, New Ire-
land, F.
3*
2604
7.47ca
E,
155 E. 4 S.
4*
2606
11.0m
E,
140 E, 10 S.
About this time an
earthquake was re-
corded in Ambon.
5
2609
16.21
E,
150 E. 42 N.
Off N.E. Japan.
10*
2612
9.25
El
159 E. 8 S.
Recorded in Ambon.
13*
2620
11.34
33 E. 9 S. or
30 E. 7 S.
14*
2622
20.27ca
M^
176 E. 10 N.
16*
2624
14.45
E3
125 E. 5 N.
S. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.
16
2625
18.50
E3
125 E. 5 N.
S. Mindanao, Saran-
gani Is., F.
17
2627
6.33
E3
127 E. 4 N.
N.E. Celebes.
18
2629
2.42ca
E3
127 E. 4 N.
N.E. Celebes, S. Min-
danao.
23
2639
0.29ca
Ki
150 E. 62 N.
26
2640
5.34ca
E,
149 E. 18 N.
27
2642
18.50ca
e;
123 E. 5 N.
29
2647
13.5
E3
122 E. 3 N.
Ambon and Mindanao,
F.
Mindanao, Samar,
30*
2650
0.4oca
E3
128 E. 8 N.
Leyte, Butuan, D.
III. On the 443 or 452 Day Period.
In the Eeport for 1912, p. 94, I pointed out that marked periods of
rest followed groups of megaseisms every 443 days. Professor H. H.
Turner increased this period to 452 days. December 14, 1899, is the
middle of a rest period, and we find similar periods every successive
448 days. The last period — which, however, is only one of partial
quiescence — was about September 3, 1909; we should expect the next
one about November 20, 1910. The fact that the accompanying
catalogue shows that between November 14 and 24 no large earth-
quake was recorded verifies the expectation.
IV. On the Determination of the Position of Epicentres .
In the British Association EepoTt, 1896, p. 230, I showed by
example that the distance of an epicentre could be determined from
the duration of preliminary tremors. In 1911 Prince Galitzin showed
that not only could a distance be determined from these precursors,
E 2
52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
but the first of them gave the direction in which we should seek for
an origin. In the British Association Eeport, 1900, p. 79, I gave
several methods which I use when mapping the position of epicentres.
These methods were dependent on a number of observations made
at several more or less widely separated observatories.
As a slight addition to these I submit the following : If we have
registers from a number of stations for large earthquakes it is usually
easy to read the times of commencements and other phases of motion,
together with the amplitudes. An inspection of the records which
refer to a given earthquake shows the stations nearest to its epicentre,
and any one of these should give us the distance of the same, and
if we know this we can easily compute the time at which the shock
originated. The difference between this and the arrival of the large
waves or the maximum motion at other stations enables us to compute
their respective distances from the district from which they radiated.
The intersection of arcs, which I draw upon a 'black globe,' which
correspond to these distances should represent the epifocal area.
I venture to mention this simple and self-evident way of procedure
because it is frequently of use when other methods fail. Preliminary
tremors may have been eclipsed by air tremors or microseisms, or
they may have died out on their journey, with the result that the
seismogram may only present very small records which represent the
large waves or maximum motion.
V. On the Variation of Earthquake Speed ivilh Ihc Variation in the
Direction of Propagation.
In the British Association Report, 1908, p. 74, I showed that
megaseismic motion was propagated from its origin farther to the
east and west than it was in the direction of a meridian. One
explana'tion for this is that in the former direction the rigidity of the
propagating medium may be greater than it is in the latter direction —
a suggestion that falls in line with the observations of Dr. Hecker
on the gravitational influence of the moon on the crust of our world.
If this hypothesis is correct it might be inferred that the velocity of
propagation of earth waves would be greatest in an east-west direction.
To test this I took earthquakes Nos. 859, 860, 884, 1111, 1170,
1260, 1363, and 1632 (see British Association Report, 1912, p. 71).
I selected these particular disturbances because the positions of their
epicentres and times of origin were known, and also because they
had been recorded at widely separated stations. For any particular
earthquake the only observations considered were those made at stations
the bearings of which from the epicentre were within 30 degrees of
east and west or within 30 degrees of north and south. The following
tables only refer to maximum motion or large waves : —
Earthquake No. 859, June 25, 1904, origin 160° E. 53° N.
Per see.
I Bombay, time to travel 48 m., distance 74°, velocity 2'85 km.
^ , ^^ , J Mauritius, „ 68 m., „ 114°, „ 3-10 km.
Ji.a9t.-west 1 Kodaikanal, „ 48 m., „ 77°, ., 2-93 km.
\ Calcutta, „ 41 m., „ 61°, „ 2-75 km.
Average . . . 2'90 km.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
58
Per sec.
( Shide time to travel
Kew, „
48 m.
distance
76°,
vel
Doity
2-92 km.
49 m.
75°,
2-83 km.
Bidston, „
43 m.
72°.
3-09 km.
North -South -
Edinburgh „
44 m.
71°,
2-98 km.
Paisley, „
54 m.
71°,
2-43 km.
San Fernando, „
55 m.
90°,
3-02 km.
I Wellington, „
80 m.
95°,
2-19 km.
Average
•
2-78 km.
Earthquake No. 860, June 25, 1904, origiiv 160° E. 53° N.
/ Mauritius, time to travel
68 m.
distance 101°, velocity
2-74 km
Calcutta, „
37 m.
jj
60°,
3-00 km.
East-West
•j Bombay, „
49 m.,
jj
72°,
2-72 km
Kodaikanal, „
50 m.
,,
76°,
2-81 km.
^ Honolulu, „
[ Shide, time to travel
26 m.
52 m.
Average
distance
44°,
76°, velocity
313 km
2-88 km
2-70 km
Kew,
49 m.
75°,
2-84 km
North-South
^ Bidston, „
Edinburgh, „
43 m.
43 m.
72°,
71°,
3-02 km
3-05 km
San Fernando, „
56 m.
90°,
2-97 km
V Christchurch „
81m.
97°,
2-21 km.
2-79 km.
Earthquake No. 884, August 24, 1904, d-igin 135° E. 32° N.
1^ Beirut, time to travel
55 m.
distance 79°, velocity
2-65 km
East-West
Calcutta, „
25 m.
42°,
3-09 km
Kodaikanal, „
44 m.
67°,
2-39 km
[ Cape Town „
Shide, time to travel
85 m.
60 m.,
,, 129°,
Average .
distance 88°, velocity
2-80 km
2-73 km
2-71 km.
Kew,
59 m.,
86°,
2-72 km.
Bidston „
58 m.
85°,
2-75 km
North-South -
Edinburgh „
59 m.
84°,
2-71 km
Toronto „
72 m.
98°,
2-51 km.
Christchurch „
40 m.
84°,
2-88 km
^ Wellington „
44 m.
.. 82°,
3-51 km
Average
2-82 km.
Earthquake No. 1111, January 21, 1906, origin 143° E. 34° N.
East- West /Calcutta, time to travel 23 m., distance 49°, velooi(.y 3'94 km.
\Honolulu „ 38 m., „ 51°, „ 2*48 km.
3-20 km.
{Baltimore,
Bidston,
Perth,
time to travel
72 m.
53 m.
56 m.
37 m.
, distance 98°, velocity 2'51 km.
89°, „ 3-10 km.
88°, „ 2-90 km.
„ 71°, „ 355 km.
Average . . , 3'01 km.
54
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Earthquake No. 1170, April 18, 1906, origin 121° W. 38° N.
Per sec.
/ Cape Town,
time to travel
83 m., distance 148°,
velocity 3-29 km.
Toronto
21 m.,
33°,
„ 2-90 km.
Batavia,
91 m.,
125°,
2-54 km.
East-West .
Perth,
74 m..
132°,
3-30 km.
Honolulu,
17 m.,
34°,
„ 3-70 km.
Samoa,
33 m.,
69°,
3-86 km.
Manila,
Victoria,
time to travel
56 m., „ 100°,
Average .
5 m., distance 10.5°
3-30 km.
. 3.27 km.
velocity 3-86 km.
Mauritius,
98 m.,
158°,
2-98 km.
Calcutta,
68 m..
112°,
3-04 km.
North-South -
Bombay
82 m..
121°,
„ 2-73 km.
Kodaikanal,
74 m.,
127°,
3-17 km.
Irkutsk,
53 m.,
80°,
„ 2-78 km.
Cairo,
82 m.,
Average
107°,
„ 2-41 km.
. 2-95 km.
Earthquake No. 1260, September 7, 1906, origin 145° E. 35° N.
(calculated by Mr. J. Horikawa).
time to travel
Ent-West
I Bombay,
' Calcutta,
• Kodaikanal,
Cape Town,
Mauritius,
46 m., distance 65°, velocity 2"61 km.
34 m., „ 50°, „ 2-73 km.
44 m., „ 65°, „ 2-72 km.
86 m., „ 137°, „ 2-94 km.
67 m., „ 100°, „ 2-78 km.
Average
2-74 km.
North-South
/ Shide,
I Kew,
Bidston,
-, Edinburgh,
Paisley,
Perth,
^ Wellington,
time to travel 60 m., distance 92°, velocity 2'64 km.
56 m.,
54 m.,
58 m.,
62 m.,
59 m.,
63 m..
86°,
85°,
86°,
72°,
82°,
2-9 km.
2-94 km.
2-71 km.
2-56 km.
2-25 km.
2-40 km.
Average
2-62 km.
Earthquake No. 1363, April 18, 1907, origin 123° E. 13° N.
Bombay,
time to travel
31m.
distance 48°, velocity 2-43 km
East - WesC
Kc'daikanal,
„
32 m.
45°, „ 2-60 km.
Samoa,
jj
32 m.
70°, „ 4-04 km.
Honolulu,
Shide,
time to travel
45 m.
64 m.
„ 75°, „ 3-08 km.
Average . , . 3 '04 km.
distance 101°, velocity 2*91 km.
Kew,
71m.
100°, „ 2-60 km
Edinburgh,
64 m.,
99°, „ 2-86 km.
North-South -
Paisley,
63 m.
„ 100°, „ 2-93 km.
Tokio,
13 m.
27°, „ 3-84 km.
Perth,
33 m.
46°, „ 2-57 km.
Christchurch
, „
43 m.
73°, „ 3-14 km.
Average
km.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
55
Earthquake No. 1362, April 18, 1907, origin 124° E. 13° N.
For sec.
( Bombay, time to travel 31 m., distance 49°, velocity 2'92 km.
Eai5t-West ] Kodaikanal, „ 40 ra., „ 45°, „ 2-08 km.
( Honolulu, „ 43 m., „ 74°, „ 3-19 km.
North-South
' Irkutsk,
Shide,
Kew,
Bidston,
Edinburgh,
V Tokio,
time to travel
Average
2-73 km.
28 m., distance 42°, velocity 2'77 km.
65 m., „ 102°, „ 2-90 km.
63 m.
54 m.',
59 m.,
14 m.,
102°,
99°,
99°,
27°,
Average
2-90 km.
3-39 km.
3-07 km.
3-56 km.
3-09 km.
Earihquake No. 1632, Octx:yber 13, 1908, origin 102° W. 18° N,
East- West Honolulu, time to travel 28 m., distance 52°, velocity 3 '43 km.
f Victoria,
time
to travel
23 m.
distance 35°,
velocity
2-81 km
Irkutsk,
,,
60 m.,
105°,
3-23 km
Tashkend,
„
60 m..
,
122°,
3-76 km
North-South -
Victoria,
Beuut,
Edinburgh,
Bidston,
..
23 m.,
82 m.,
54 m.,
54 m.,
• ;
35°,
114°,
81°,
79°,
2-81 km
2-56 km
2-77 km
2-70 km
Average
2-95 km.
When we look at the averages at the end of the above nine tables,
it appears that in seven instances the velocity for East-West motion
has been greater than that given for North-South motion. In two
instances — viz., those for Earthquakes Nos. 884 and 1362 — the reverse
has been the case.
If we combine the results for all nine earthquakes we get 35
observations for East- West motion, which give an average velocity of
2'96 km. per second, and 58 observations for North-South motion, the
average velocity for which is 2"88 km. per second.
VI. Comparison of the Amplitudes of East-West and North-South
Motion at a given Station.
At Eskdalemuir during the year 1910 two Milne pendulums, one
of which recorded North-South motion and the other Easb-West motion,
had periods which did not differ from each other more than one second.
At times they had the same period, but usually the former had a
period of 17 seconds and the latter 18 secoTids. From this we should
expect that, if the displacement of the booms was due to tilting, the
amount of this as measured in millimetres would be slightly greater
in the East-West direction than in the North-South direction. For
40 earthquakes recorded during this year this was the case, but there
are 16 instances in which the boom recording North-South motion
showed the greatest displacement. In nine instances the amount of
displacement was the same on both pendulums. It may be added
(hat for a short period — viz., from January 1 to February 12 — the
56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
boom recording North-Sotith motion was as sensitive or more sensitive
than the one recording East-West motion. Notwithstanding this, the
amphtudes for East-West motion were usually greater than those for
the North-South motion.
If, instead of comparing boom displacements measured in miUi-
metres, we convert these into angular units, the conclusion arrived at
is that East-West tilting is usually greater than that at right angles.
VII. On the Direction in which Earthquake Motion is most easily
propagated.
In the British Association Eeport for 1908, p. 74, I discussed
the direction in which megaseismic motion is most freely radiated.
Two general conclusions at which I arrived were, first, that the motion
of large earthquakes travelled farther westwards than it did eastwards,
and, second, that the range of motion across the equator was shorter
than it is to the East or West.
In the following note this inquiry has been extended to four groups
of earthquakes, the members of each group having origins in the same
district. Each earthquake is designated by a number corresponding
to entries in the Shide Register, in the Circulars issued by the British
Association, and also in a-Catalogue published in the Eepnrt for 1912,
p. 71.
District No. 1. — West Coast of Central America, or approximately
90° W. 6° N.
The earthquakes considered are Nos. 806, 1164, and 1450. As
there are only three members in this group no single station can have
more than three records.
At 11 stations lying northwards from this origin 25 records were
made, or on the average 2'2 records per station. At five stations lying
to the south of the origin eight records were obtained, the average
therefore being I'G per station.
Inasmuch as all stations within 60 degrees of the origin each
obtained the possible three records, I find that if these are omitted
when comparing records obtained in the North with those obtained
in the South I get the following results: —
Nine northerly stations recorded on the average two shocks. Four
southern stations recorded on the average 1"5 shocks.
I also find that the avei'age distance from the origin of the 11 North-
lying stations is 98 degrees, whilst that of the five southerly stations
is 77 degrees.
From these examinations it would appear that for the three earth-
quakes considered, two of which were recorded at Batavia, 159 degrees
distant from the origin, that motion was transmitted moi-e freely
towards the North than in the opposite direction.
If we compare the transmission of motion eastwards with that
which is transmitted towards the West we obtain the following: —
At. 11 eastern stations 19 records were obtained, or an average
of 1"8 per station.
At eight western stations 17 records were obtained, or an average
of 2'1 per station.
ON SEISMOLOGIOAL INVESTIGATIONS. 57
If we omit the stations lying within 60 degrees of the origin,
the above two averages respectively become 1'5 and 2'0.
The average distance from the origin of the eastern stations is
88 degrees, whilst that of the western stations is 90 degrees — two
distances which are practically equal.
The inference is that motion is transmitted more freely towards
the West than it is towards the East.
District No. 2. — North of India, or approximately 80° E. and
40° N.
The earthquakes considered are Nos. 832, 886, 982, 1070, 1293,
and 1468.
The number of records obtained at 9 stations lying to the North of
this district was 46; the average per station was therefore 5.1.
At 8 stations lying to the South of this district 29 records were
obtained, the average per station therefore being 3'6.
If we only consider stations more than 60 degrees distant from
the origin, these two averages respectively become 5'2 and 3'8. Here,
again, we are led to the conclusion that motion was propagated more
freely towards the North than in the opposite direction.
It must, however, be pointed out that the average distance of these
BCuthern stations from the origins was somewhat greater than that
of the northern stations, these distances being respectively 65 and
85 degrees.
To the East of long. 80° E. 33 records were obtained at 9 stations,
or 3'6 records per station. To the West of this meridian 38 records
were obtained at 9 stations, or on the average 4*2 records per station.
It would seem, therefore, that in this district, as in District No. 1,
motion was propagated more freely towards the West.
The average distances from the origin of these East and West
stations are respectively 76 and 75 degrees.
District No. 3. — East Coast of Japan, or approximately 140° E.
40° N.
The earthquakes considered are Nos. 884, 1031, 1266, 1427, and
1510.
Nine stations with northerly bearings recorded 28 distui'bances,
or on the average 3'1 per station.
Eight stations with southerly bearings noted 20 disturbances, or
on the average 2*5 per station.
If we only consider stations more than 60 degrees distant from
this district these averages become 3'0 and 2"6.
The average distance from the origin for the southerly stations is,
however, soinewhat greater than for the northerly stations, these
distances respectively being 91 and 77 degrees.
Five stations lying to the East of 150° E. long, gave 13 records,
or an average of 2-6 per station.
Eleven stations lying to the West of this same region yielded 34
records, or on an average 3'1 per station. Here again we observe
motion has been propagated more freely towards the West.
District No. 4. — North and North-East of Now fininea, or approxi-
mately 150° E. and 0° N. or S.
58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.— 1913.
The earthquakes considered are Nob. 977, 1025, 1128, 1190, 1272,
1301, and 1460.
Eleven stations Korth of the Equator recorded 61 disturbances,
or an average of 6'5 per station. Six stations South of the Equator
recorded 29 disturbances, or an average of AS per station. If we
only consider statio'ns more than 60 degrees distant from an origin
these averages respectively become 6"4 and 5-
That the average number of northern records preponderates over
those obtained in the South seems more remarkable when we consider
the average distances of these two gioups of stations from the origin —
the former being 95 degrees and the latter 75 degrees.
Six stations lying to the East of long. 150° E. noted 32 disturb-
ances, or on the average 5"3 per station.
Twelve stations lying to the West of this meridian noted 65 dis-
turbances, or an average of 5"4 per station.
This last result suggests that the quantity of motion propagated
eastwards is the same as that which is propagated towards the West.
With this exception, the four gi'oups of earthquakes considered
indicate that motion travels to greater distances northwards and west-
wards than it does southwards and eastwards.
If we take the four districts together we find the following: —
40 northerly stations gave 160 records, or 4"0 per station.
27 southerly ,, 86 ,, 3-2
40 westerly ,, 154 ,, 3-7
31 easterly ,, 97 ,, S'l
District No. 5. — West of South America, or approximately 80° W.
30° S.
The earthquakes considered are Nos. 1248, 1248b, 1277, 1398, 1851,
and 1852.
Each of these six disturbances was recorded at two or more stations
in Great Britain, 105 degrees distant from the origin.
Five were noted at San Fernando, Honolulu, and Cape Town, the
respective distances of which from the origin are 95, 88, and 78 degrees.
The average distance is 87 degrees.
Four were recorded at Toronto, Victoria, Azores, Tokio, Perth,
and Zikaiwei. The distances of these from the origin are respectively
73, 83, 85, 145, 115, and 160 degrees. The average distance is 110
degrees.
Three were noted at New Zealand, Mauritius, Bombay, and
Calcutta. The distances of these places are respectively 85, 125,
155, and 170 degrees. The average distance is 134 degrees.
Two were noted at Colombo, Kodaikanal, and Irkutsk, the distances
of which are 150, 150, and 160 degrees; the average distance is 163
degrees.
One was noted at Sydney, 100 degrees distant.
This examination simply shows that stations near to an origin
obtain more records than those at a great distance.
The average number of records for stations lying westwards from
the origin is 3*4, and the average distance of these stations from the
origin was 105 degrees. The average number of records for stations
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 59
lying eastwards from the origin was 4"6, and the average distance of
these stations was 102 degrees.
The average number of records for stations lying northwards from
the origin vas 4' 6, and the average distance of these stations was 101
degrees.
The average number of records for stations lying southwards from
the origin was 3'2, and the average distance of these stations was 95
Although the average distance of stations was practically the same,
the greater number of records had been obtained at stations lying
eastwards and nort-hwards from the origin.
District No. 6. — Near New Zealand, or approximately 180° East
or West, 40° South.
The earthquakes considered are Nos. 804, 877, 922b, and 1768.
Each of these four disturbances was recorded in New Zealand,
and at approximately 180 degi'ees distance in Great Britain.
Three were recorded in Toronto, Perth, Honolulu, San Fernando,
and India. The distances of these stations from the origin are 122,
52, 65, 180, and 105 degrees; the average distance is 105 degrees.
Two were noted at Victoria, B.C., Cape Town, Irkutsk, Mauritius,
Cordova, and Batavia. The distances of these places from the origin
are 102, 105, 112, 100, 85, and 72 degrees. The average distance
is 96 degrees.
Only one disturbance was noted at Cairo and Sydney, the distances
of which from the origin are respectively 150 and 22 degrees.
Ten stations with a northerly bearing recorded on the average 2'4
shocks, the average distance of these stations from the origin being
109 degrees.
Cape Town, which has a southerly bearing from the origin, recorded
two shocks; its distance from the origin is 105 degrees.
Material for comparing propagation in these two directions is
evidently too scanty.
Three stations to the eastward of the origin recorded on the average
2"3 shocks, the average distance being 103 degrees.
Six stations to the westward of the origin recorded 2'1 shocks,
the average distance being 76 degrees.
The result of these examinations does not suggest that earthquake
motion is radiated more freely in one particular direction rather than
in some other.
For the six groups of earthquakes originating in six different
districts it appears that more motion has been propagated towards the
North than towards the South. For the first four groups more records
were obtained to the westward of an origin than were obtained to the
East of the same. For Groups 5 and 6 this is reversed, but it
is based on observations which were comparatively few in number.
\III. On the Times of Occurrence of Maximum Motion on Pendulums
Differently Oriented.
In the records from certain stations (see British Association Circu-
lars) we observe that the maximum for East-West motion is frequently
reached from one to four or even more minutes before that for North-
60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
South motion. A good illustration of this is found in all the registers
from Eskdalemuir. In 1910 the East-West and North- South pendulums
indicated a maximum 12 times simultaneously; the East-West
pendulums, however, had a maximum 41 times in advance of and
six times later than the North-South instrument. When the natural
period of the pendulums was not identical they did not vary from each
other more than one second, the period for the East-West recording
instrument being 18 seconds whilst that for the North-South was
17 seconds. This slight difference in sensibility in the two instru-
ments does not, however, explain why the East-West component,
although usually giving earlier I'ecords, should occasionally give them
simultaneously with and sometimes after the North-South instrument.
At San Fernando in South Spain there is a pair of Milne pendulums
mounted to record East- West and North-South motion. The natural
period of the first of these instruments is 16 sees., and 1 mm. deflection
of the outer end of the boom corresponds to a tilt of 0"*43. The
peiiod of the second is 20 seconds, and 1 mm. deflection of the outer
end of the boom is equivalent to a tilt of 0"'25. As regards the
displacement produced by tilting, the first of these instruments, which
records East- West motion, has only half the sensitiveness of the other.
Notwithstanding this, in 1910 the maximum for East-West motion
was obtained before North-South motion 17 times. Twice both
pendulums recorded maxima simultaneously, while the very sensitive
North-South instrument showed maxima 26 times earlier than the
East-West boom.
IX. Disturbances only recorded at Two or Three Widely Separated
Stations.
In the British Association Eeport for 1858, p. 55, Mallet refers
to a number of shocks which had been felt simultaneously, or nearly
so, at two distant places. The most remarkable pair are shocks noted
at Okhotsk and Quito, places which are nearly antipodal to each
other. As these coincidences cannot be assured within several hours.
Mallet agrees with Mylne ^ that ' the probability of anything more
than mere coincidence is extremely slight. '
In the British Association Reports, 1908, p. 64, and 1909, p. 51,
I called attention to 148 small disturbances which had been noted in
Jamaica. Fifty-one of these were undoubtedly recorded 43 minutes
later at several stations in Great Britain. They were not, however,
noted in Europe. This absence of records across the Channel was
attributed to a want of sensibility in the seismographs which were
there employed. Although we know that the seismograph recording
photographically will pick up very small movements which may or
may not be visible on the record received on smoked paper, whether
a microseism shall or shall not be noted apparently depends not
only on the sensibility of the recording instrument but on other
conditions not yet defined.
As illustrative of this I called attention to the fact that from
time to time Batavia and Cairo have recorded the same earthquake,
which, however, has not been recorded at stations lying between
' yee ' liiit. Eartlii£iiakes,' Edin. Phil. Journ., vol. 31.
ON SEISMOLOQICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 61
these places or at any other station in the world. The distance
between these places is 80 degrees, and the times taken for com-
pressional, distortional, and surface waves, or Pj, Pj and P3, to travel
t'his distance would be 15, 24, and 50 minutes. A disturbancfe
originating in Java might after one of these intervals be recorded
in Cairo or it might in the vicinity of Cairo bring into existence
a secondary disturbance. There would be practically the same time
intervals between the observations at these two places if the primary
disturbance had its origin somewhat to the East of Java. Had the
origin of the primary been between Batavia and Cairo the time
intervals might be anything less than the given three intervals. If
the time intervals exceed 50 minutes it is extremely likely that these
two records refer to independent earthquakes.
The following are illustrations of records peculiar to Batavia and
Cairo made in 1911 : —
Feb. 4 at 7.8 in Batavia and Gi m. later in Cairo.
Feb. 8 at 4.0 „ ., „
Feb. 9 at 18.40 „ 42 m.
Feb. 10 at 17.25 „ 42 m.
Feb. 11 at 0.54 „ • 32 m. „ . Felt in Sumatra.
March 6 at 9.57 „ 11m. earlier in Cairo.
March 19 at 0.59 „ 41 m. later in Cairo.
April 26 at 10.0 „ 16 m.
Aug. 2 at 10.7 „ 22 m.
Aug. 19 at 0.49 „ 12 m. „ . Felt in Sumbawa.
Sept. 14 at 23.16 in Samoa and 19 m. later in Cairo.
The fact that with but one exception all these disturbances were
recorded at Batavia before they were recorded at Cairo suggests that
their origins were nearer to the former place than the latter.
Well-equipped stations nearer to Batavia than Cairo, and at which
we should have expected to find records of these earthquakes, are
the following: Mauritius, Tokio, Irkutsk, Zikawei, Tsing-tau, Calcutta,
Bombay, Kodaikanal, Manila, Perth, Sydney, Wellington, Christ-
church, Tiflis, Beirut, Harpoot, and Tashkend.
X. Recurrence of Megaseismic Groups.
Between 1899 and 1909 I find 88 groups of megaseisms. The
number of disturbances in a group varies from 2 to 14, while the
number of days over which a group extends varies between 1 and
25. The former numbers divided by the latter give what I call the
seismicity of a group period. If three earthquakes have taken place on
one day I call the seismicity 3, but if four have happened in 5 days
I call it "8. These seismicities, or earthquake-activity numbers, vary
between '4 and 3. In the following lines I give in the form of
numerators and denominators the relationship between seismicities
and the average number of days of rest which have followed each
group.
•4 ^ j^7 S '9 1:0 L2 LI L5. 1:5 2;2 2;^ 3j)
15 10 i6 8 11 7 8 9 8 8 11 8 ' 10 6
No definite conclusion can be drawn from these figures, but in
connection with them I must call attention to a .somewhat similar
investigation referred to in the Report for 1910, p. 54, where it is
62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
shown that great megaseismic activity is followed by long periods
of rest. In that case the intensity of a group was considered inde-
pendently of the number of days over which it was spread.
XI. Frequency of Earthquake Followers.
In the British Association Reports, 1899, p. 227, and 1900, p. 71,
under the title of 'Earthquake Echoes,' I discussed the vibrations
which follow the main shock or shocks of an earthquake and which
bring the same to a conclusion. These occur in groups, and as these
rise and fall in amplitude it may be inferred that an earthquake does
not become extinguished at a unifonn rate, but it dies in surges.
I sought for the origin of these surgings, particularly for those groups
which resemble each other in form, in the hypothesis of i-epeated
reflection.
Another possible explanation is to assume that these repetitions
are interference phenomena consequent on the difference in period
between the free swing of the recording pendulum and that of the
earth.
Now steady-point seismographs have shown for earthquakes we can
feel that their period increases as they die out at a given station,
and that it also increases as they radiate from an origin. Assuming
this to be correct for megaseismic motion, then beats or recurrences
at stations at diffei'ent distances from an origin should show differences
in their frequency. To test this I have compared' the time frequency
of pulsatory recurrences for disturbances recorded in the Isle of Wight
which originated in different localities.
The localities chosen were as follow : —
1. East Coast of Japan, distant from Shide . . . 80° to 85°.
2. West Coast Central America, distant from Shide . 80° to 85°.
3. Central Asia, distant from Shide . . . . 50° to 60°.
4. Between East New Guinea and Fiji, distant from Shide 130° to 140°.
The earthquakes originating in these four districts, and of which
I have seismograms recorded in the Isle of Wight, are referred to
by numbers corresponding to the numbers given in the Earthquake
Catalogue published in the British Association Eeports, 1911, p. 57,
and 1912, p. 71.
For District No. 1 these numbers were 263, 397, 405, 425, 431,
446, 448,, 450, 457, 483, 493, 514, 884, 1031, 1266, 1427, and 1510.
The average time interval between successive groups was found to be
2'8 minutes.
For District No. 2 the numbers were 248, 264, 407, 415, 417,
432, 447, 536, 576, 606a, 642, 806, 924b, 1164, 1450. The average time
interval for these disturbances was 3'4 minutes.
For District No. 3 the numbers were 542, 558, 626, 644, 662,
663, 832, 886, 982, 1064, 1070, 1293, 1468. The average time interval
for these disturbances was 2'7 minutes. -
For District No. 4 the numbers were 351, 352, 354, 377, 435,
515, 530, 581, 977, 1025, 1128, 1190, 1272, 1301, and 1460. The
average time interval for these disturbances was 28 minutes.
If we compare the time intervals for Districts 1, 3, and 4, it would
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
63
appear that these are not dependent on the distance at which they
are recorded from an origin.
XII. Large Earthquakes recorded at different Observatories, January
to June 1910.
The total number of large earthquakes, each of which disturbs
a continental area, between January and June 1910, was about 166.
Each of these was recorded at from 3 to 50 or 60 different observatories,
and all extended to a distance of more than 20 degrees from their
origin. In the following tables, drawn up by th'e late Shinobu Hirota,
instruments which record photogi'aphically are followed by the letter P,
whilst those which write mechanically on a smoked surface are
marked S. The Milne instruments, unless otherwise stated, are
single-boom instruments recording East and West motion only.
District I. — British Islands, Central aiid Western Europe.
Station
Fouudatiou
Seismographs
Instru-
ment
No. of
Cor.
Record.s
Shide
Disintegrated Chalk
Milne, twin boom
P.
144
Hamburg
AUuvium
Wiechert, Hecker
P. & S.
131
Edinburgli
Andesite Lava
Milne
P.
111
Bidston
New Red Sandstone
Milne
P.
75
Strassburg .
Thick Compact
Gravel
Wiechert, Rebeur-
Ehlert, Milne, Vicen-
tini, Schmidt,
Mainka
P. & s.
68
Gottingen
Wiechert
p. &s.
64
Vienna .
Alluvium .
Wiechert
s.
64
Paris
Wiechert, Bosch-
Mainka
s.
59
Kew
Thick Alluvium
Milne ....
p.
58
San Fernando
Calcareous Rock
Milne, two machines .
p.
56
W. Bromwich
Thick Alluvium
Milne ....
s.
55
Grenada
Limestone
Stiatesi, Wiechert,
Vicentini and Omori
s.
50
Laibach
Alluvium .
Vicentini, Grablovitz-
Belar, Rebeur-Ehlert
p. & s.
43
Eskdalemuir .
Palaeozoic Rock
Milne, twin boom
p.
27
Catania .
Rock ....
Cancani, Vicentini,
Agamennone, Omori
s.
26
Malta
Limestone
Milne ....
p.
26
Azores
Basalt
Milne ....
p.
23
Tortosa .
Alluvium .
Vicentini, Grablovitz .
s.
22
Monte Cassino
Limestone
Cancani
s.
17
DiSTBICT II.
— North America.
Station
Foundation
Seismographs
. , No. of
Instru- (^oj..
^'^n* Records
Victoria, B.C.
Toronto
Ottawa .
St. Louis,
j U.S.A.
Hard Pan above Ig-
neous Rock
Alluvium .
Boulder Clay .
Alluvium .
MUne ....
Milne ....
Bosch ....
Wiechert
P
P.
P.
S.
36
35
34
13
64
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE.— 1913.
District III. — W. Pacific, Australia, and New Zealand.
Station
Foundation
Seismographs
Instru-
ment
No. of
Cor,
Records
Cairo
Eocene Limestone .
Milne, two instruments
P.
91
Tiflis .
Rock ....
Milne, Rebeur-Ehlert,
Bosch, Zollner and
Cancani
P. &s.
85
Adelaide
Thick Alluvium
Milne ....
p.
76
Batavia
Alluvium .
Milne, Rebeur-Ehlert,
Wiechert
p. &s.
67
Zikawei .
Thick Alluvium
Omori, Wiechert
s.
53
Osaka
Thick AUuvium
Omori ....
s.
52
Honolulu
Coral Limestone
Milne ....
p.
52
Riverview,
Sandstone
Wiechert
s.
51
Sydney
Manila .
Alluvium .
Gray-Milne, Bertelli,
Cecchi, Vicentini,
Omori
p. &s.
48
Sydney .
Clay and Ironstone
Shale
Milne ....
p.
45
Tsintau
Wiechert
s.
45
Mauritius
Alluvium on Basalt
Milne ....
p.
38
Kodaikanal .
Rock ....
Milne ....
p.
37
Calcutta
Alluvium .
Milne ....
p.
31
Wellington,
Milne ....
p.
34
N.Z.
Colombo
Laterite
Milne ....
p.
27
Mizusawa
Alluvium .
Omori ....
s.
24
Bombay
Red Earth above
Basalt
Milne, Colaba, Omori
p. &s.
22
Tokio .
Alluvium .
Milne ....
p.
21
Perth, West
Limestone
Milne
p.
15
Australia |
Reykjavick .
Volcanic Materials .
Wiechert
s.
16
A glance at the preceding tables shows that while one station
has recorded 144 of the possible 166 disturbances, another station
has only recorded 15. These marked differences in the number of
records in different places are dependent upon many conditions, and
at no two stations are the conditions exactly the same. At one, rapid
changes in temperature may be accompanied by air tremors, which
may eclipse all but the largest seismic records. In this respect
I have found marked differences between adjoining rooms. At certain
obsei'vatories insects, particularly small spiders, cause trouble. A
more important cause leading to differences in the number of earth-
quakes recorded at stations in the same district is difference in the
adjustment of the instrument. If two horizontal pendulums have
different periods, the one with the longer period yields the greater
number of records. Unfortunately, however, it is the one most
influenced by air tremors. The expiring efforts of large earthquakes,
which at a distance from their origin may be represented by minute
ripples or thickenings in consequence of their smallness, have fre-
quently been overlooked. Proximity to or remoteness from epicentral
district has naturally a considerable influence upon the number of
records obtained at a station.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL IKVESTIGATIONS. 65
Those stations which are in or near to areas in whicli large earth-
quakes radiate, as, for example, Batavia, Manila, and Osaka, should
obtain more records than Toronto, Ottawa, and St. Louis, which are
distant from sites of seismic activity. For this reason stations have
been grouped according to their relative distances from seismic regions.
The first group refers to stations in the British Isles, Central and
Western Europe, the second group is in Nortli America, and the
third group is India, the Western side of the Pacific, Australia, and
New Zealand.
The average number of records obtained in these three districts
is respectively 58, 29, and 41, but why the average for the first
of these districts should exceed that for the last is contrary to expec-
tations, and to explain it we must look for something more than
nearness to or distance from epicentral regions.
If we consider the average number of records given by different
types of instruments in different districts, the results we arrive at are
as follow : —
In District 1 the average number of photographic records was G9
1 „ smoked-paper „ 55
2 „ photographic ,, 35
2 „ smoked-paper ,, 13
3 „ photographic ,, 39
3 „ smoked-paper ,, 45
Districts 1 and 2, together with records from Cairo, Tiilis, and
Reykjavick, indicate that with photographic recording apparatus more
records can be obtained than with mechanical registration. The same
is true if we take all the records, including those for District 3, en bloc,
but for this latter district by itself the conclusion is reversed.
If we next turn to the character of the foundations we find for
Districts 1 and 3 that the average number of records obtained if this
was rock was 62, but where it was alluvium it was 60.
Other observations bearing upon this subject will be found in
British Association Reports for 1901, pp. 43 and 51; 1902, p. 68;
1903, p. 81; and 1904, p. 42.
Xin. Seismic and Volcanic Activities.
In the Report for 1912, p. 102, I pointed out the material in
certain catalogues suggested that volcanic and -seismic activities in
the world increased and decreased independently of each other. From
this it might be inferred that if there is any periodicity in volcanic
activity it would not be the same as the one exhibited by the
megaseisms. With the object of examining this question more closely
I asked Mr. Leo Kelley, of Dublin, who has made an extensive
collection of materials in connection with volcanoes, to furnish me
with a list of eruptions which have taken place during the last 200
years. This he kindly did, but unfortunately in many instances the
authors from whom he has quoted only mention the year in which
an eruption took place and omit the month and date. In the first
1913. F
66
REPORTS ON THE STATE OV SCIENCE. — 1913.
column of the accompanying table the year is given, and in the second
and third columns the number of eruptions and eartliquakes. The
earthquake numbers are taken from the ' Catalogue of Destructive
Earthquakes,' published in the Eeport for 1911. In this table we
have entries relating to 110 years. AVhen v/e compare successive
years we see, for example, that in 1790 thei'e were 14 eruptions and
11 earthquakes, but in the year following the number of eruptions
had fallen to seven, while the number of earthquakes remained
constant — volcanic activity had decreased while seismic activity
suffered no change.
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. of
No. of
Year
Erup-
Earth-
Year
Erup-
Earth-
Year
Erup-
Earth-
tions
quakes
1827
tions
quakes 1
tions
quakes
1790
14
11
20
16
1864
10
33
1791
7
11
1828
21
23
1865
10
24
1792
7
7
1829
10
15
1866
5
28
1793
12
5
1830
15
18
1867
9
32
1794
5
11
1831
10
14
1868
15
41
1795
5
4
1832
9
7
1869
21
41
1796
10
6
1833
8
9
1870
12
28
1797
11
4
1834
10
11
1871
16
33
1798
5
6
1835
12
11
1872
24
30
1799
8
9
1836
16
11
1873
5
38
1800
5
6
1837
7
9
1874
9
32
1801
5
6
1838
18
7
1875
12
31
1802
5
11
1839
8
16
1876
9
20
1803
7
6
1840
10
11
1877
22
21
1804
6
4
1841
9
23
1878
24
32
1805
7
6
1842
8
7
1879
11
25
1806
10
15
1843
18
15
1880
8
35
1807
6
3
1844
11
14
1881
5
45
1808
6
7
1845
14
21
1882
5
27
1809
4
10
1846
12
26
1883
29
27
I8I0
3
8
1847
19
29
1884
7
33
1811
7
8
1848
14
20 i
1885
18
57
1812
11
18
1849
12
17
1886
18
29
1813
2
6
1850
11
14
1887
8
34
1814
7
10
1851
10
30
1888
8
34
1815
7
10
1852
30
35
1889
7
33
1816
4
3
1853
11
35
1890
5
19
1817
7
5
1854
16
27
1891
5
20
1818
9
9
1855
17
36 i
1892
8
24
1819
8
12
1856
27
30
1893
17
30
1820
13
7
1857
20
32
1894
19
42
1821
9
12
1858
8
36
1895
5
20
1822
22
14
1859
10
24
1896
3
26
1823
12
7
1860
11
26
1897
3
35
1824
8
10
1861
8
35
1898
4
21
1825
17
9
1862
10
43
1899
8
18
1826
10
8
1863
8
34
1900
3
—
Prof. H. H. Turner writes to me about the above table as' follows :
' If we calculate tlie correlation between tbese animal totals
they stand, we obtain the coefficient
r=-^- 0-45 ±0-05.
But there is a systematic effect which should first be eliminated.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
67
mere glance at the figures shows that the number of recorded earth-
quakes steadily increases; in the first 50 years (1790-1839) there are
4:71, and in the last 50 years (1850-1899) there are 1555. The number
of eruptions also increases, though not so markedly : in the first
50 years there are 465, and in the last 50 years 601. Now it seems
probable that these increases are chiefly due to increased facilities for
newsgathering; at any rate, a real secular change of this kind would
require independent evidence. Further, it is clear that if the two
series of numbers are both steadily increasiug there will be a tendency
for small numbers in one series to be associated with small numbers
in the other, and large with large — that is to say, we shall get a
spurious correlation (or rather, a spurious increase in the correlation)
due to this cause.
' Hence a further computation was undertaken in which the secular
effects were eliminated in the following manner: —
• Taking 10
yearly
sums.
the numbers
and their logs
are :-
-
No. of
No. of
Years
Erup-
tions
Log.
Calc.
0-C
Earth-
quakes
Log.
Calc.
0-C
1790-9 .
84
1^92
1^71
-^•21
74
1^87
1^67
+ •20
1800-9
61
1-78
1-84
-•06
74
1^87
1^81
+
06
1810-9
65
1^81
194
-•13
89
1^95
1-95
00
1820-9
142
215
201
-•06
121
2-08
2-07
+
01
1830-9
113
205
2-07
-•02
113
205
2-16
11
1840-9
127
2-10
2^10
•00
183
2-26
2-26
00
1850-9
160
2^20
211
+ •09
299
2^48
2-34
+
14
186i)-9
107
2 03
2 09
-•06
337
253
2-41
+
12
1870-9
144
2^16
2-06
+ •10
290
2-46
2-47
01
1880-9
113
2 05
2-00
+ •05
374
2^57
2-51
+
06
1890-9
77
1^89
r9i
-•02
255
2^51
2^55
-•14
' The " calculated " columns are from the formulae
Eruptions 210 + nx 0-020 - n^ x 0*0114,
Earthquakes 226 + n x 0*087 - n^ x O'OOeO,
where n is the number of the term, counting from the middle term
(1840-9). Part of these assumed secular terms may, of course, be
real; but we have no means of testing the point, and for the present
we shall assume that they are spurious and therefore to be eliminated.
' When these formulae are suitably modified and applied to the
individual years and the correlation again calculated it is found to
be
r = 0-39±0^05.
This is still quite comparable with the former value, and the conclusion
seems justifiable that earthquakes and eruptions are affected by the
same cause. '
XIV. Report on an Improved Seismograph.
Experiments are being made by Mr. J. J. Shaw, of West Bromwich,
with a view to increase the efficiency and economy of the Milne-type
seismograph.
K 2
6S UErORTS ON TIIR RTATK OF ROTKNCR. — 1910.
The improvements it is proposed to incorporate are electro-magnetic
damping, more delicate means of calibrating, clearer definition in the
trace of seismograms, a still further economic use of the sensitised
paper, increased maximum amplitude, adjustable light slits, &c.
Hitherto these pendulums have been quite undamped (except for
the natural damping of the mechanism), and herein has partly lain
the secret of its very high degree of sensitivity. The fact has long
been recognised that most forms of damping, such as the air and liquid
systems used on the Continent, would be too crude to apply to so
sensitive an apparatus.
The Galitzin method of electro-magnetic damping seemed to offer
the best opportunities for development ; but the lightness and delicacy
of the Milne booms is such that the addition of heavy copper plates
was impracticable. Tests have been made with aluminium foil, and
it has been found that this metal is superior to copper for the purpose,
in so far that its conductivity is higher than that of copper, weight
for weight.
Partly due to the feeble inertia of these pendulums and partly to
the efficiency of the aluminium as a damping medium, it is found that
a strong magnetic field acting upon five grains of the metal will give
a damping effect of 8:1. Any lower value is readily obtained by a
sliding adjustment.
The new calibrating device will obviate the usual disturbance of
the apparatus in the process, either by opening cover cases or walking
round the pedestal. The usual calibrating screw is fitted with a worm
and wheel; one whole turn of the worm produces a 2-degree turn of
calibrating screw, which gives a tilt of 2" of arc.
The worm is operated from the vicinity of the clock-box by means
of an intervening length of flexible cable, and the movement of the
calibrating screw is read on a scale fixed on top of the recording case.
The angular motion is read by means of a beam of light from a mirror
fixed to the calibrating screw. This direct reading eliminates any error
due to flexure in the cable or womi.
XV. Indexing Materials published by the British Association and the
Seismological Society of Japan relating to Geophysics.
Although the British Association has since the year 1841 published
fifty-three Annual Eeports and other notices about seismology and other
branches of geophysics, it is but rarely these are referred to by modern
investigators. To make these publications better known and to give
to geophysicists an easy means of reference to them, the following
index has been compiled. With these a few references are made to
the ' Transactions of the Seismological Society of Japan ' and the
' Seismological Journal.' The former are indicated by the letters
T.S. and the latter by S.J. These for the most part are detailed
accounts of investigations which in the Eeports of the British Asso-
ciation are only referred to as abstracts.
Authors' names are attached to all reports and writings, \^■ith the
exception of those written by myself.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVE.STIGAXJOJSIS.
Gd
Aftcr-Sliock« ((Jiuuri)
Aftcr-iShocks of the Jamaica Earthquake,
Jauuaiy 14, 1907
After-Shocks of the Jamaica Earthquake,
January 14, 1907
Air Tremors at Cardiff, Mitigation of
AmpHtude in relation to Continental and
Suboceanic Paths
AmpHtude, Relation of, in Seconds of Arc, to
the Distance of an Origin
Analyses for J 888 and 1889 . . . .
Analyses of Earthquakes recorded in 1 899
,, of Records for the year 1900
Animals, Effects of Earthquake on .
Antarctic Earthquakes
Areas from which Shocks felt in Tokio and
Yokohama emanate
Areas from which Shocks felt in N. Japan
emanate
Areas shaken by Earthquakes in 1885 and 188G
Areas shaken by Earthquakes (Mallet) .
Artificial Earthquakes, Experiments in the
Alluvium of the Tokio plane
Ditto
Artificial Disturbance ])rodueed by the Ex-
plosion of a Charge of Dynamite
Artificially-produced Disturbances, Experi-
ments of Mallet, Abbot, Fouque, Lev}',
Gray and Milne
Astatic Suspension (Ewing) ....
Astronomical and Meteorological Phenomena
and Earthquakes, Connection between
(Mallet)
Atami, Hot Springs of (Kuwabara)
(Dan) .
Atmospheric Phenomena
Aurora (Mallet)
Azumasan (Omori) ....
B.
Bandaisan (Odium)
(Sekiya)
„ (Kikuchi)
(Knott)
(Smith)
Barometer and Earthquakes (Mallet)
Barometrical Effects on Horizontal Pentlu-
lums
Bibliography of Earthquakes (Mallet)
Bifilar Pendulum (Darwin)
Buildings, Effects of Earthquakes on
,, in Earthquake Countries
Choice of a Site
Foundations
Archwork .
S. J.
T. S.
T.S.
T. S.
T.S.
S.J.
T. S.
T. S.
T.S.
T. S.
T.S.
S.J.
T.S.
Vol.
111.
XII.
VI.
III.
V.
III.
XI II. pt. 1
XIII. pt. 2
XIII. pt. 2
XIII. pt. 2
XIII. pt. 2
III.
II.
Year
Pago
1908
64
1909
51
1912
102
1900
69
1912
88
1892
98
1900
(iO
1901
41
1906
100
1881
200
1882
205
1884
241
1888
424
1890
164
18.W
30
1881
203
1882
210
1883
213
18.51
272
1895
159
1850
63
1850
74
1850
74
1889
301
1850
68
1893
218
1858
106
1885
372
1889
303
1889
304
1889
305
1889
307
70
EEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
— Vol.
Year Page
Buildings, Doors and Windows
1889 307
, Chimneys
—
—
1889 308
, Roofs
. — .
—
1889 309
WaUs
—
—
1889 309
, Balconies and Cornices .
—
—
1889 310
, Shape and Orientation of Buildings
—
—
1889 • 310
, Floors ".
—
—
1889 311
, Ceilings
—
—
1889 311
, Staircases
—
—
1889 311
, Materials
— ■
—
1889 311
, Types of Buildings
—
—
1889 312
, Conclusions
—
—
1889 313
, in Earthquake Countries
T. S.
XIV., XV.
— —
, ,, ,, . , .
T. S.
XI.
— 1
, to resist Earthquake Motion, Ex-
—
—
1884 , 248
periments on
'
„ to resist Earthquake Motion, Ex-
— ■
—
1885 371
periments on
C.
Carisbrooke Castle and Shide, Observations at
1897 146
Catalogue of Earthquakes (Mallet), 1606 B.C.
—
—
1852 1
to December 11, 1755 a.d.
Catalogue of Earthquakes (MaUet), December
—
—
1853 —
13, 1755, to August 1785
Catalogue of Earthquakes (Mallet), August
—
—
1854 2
1784 to December 1842
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1881-1885 .
T. S.
X.
— —
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1885
T. S.
X.
— j —
(Sekiya)
Catalogue of Earthquakes at Tokio, 1883-1885 .
T. S.
VIII.
—
—
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
— 1 —
1886
414
May 1885— May 1886
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
—
—
1887
212
May 1886— May 1887
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
— .
1888
435
June 1887— June 1888
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
—
—
1889
295
June 1888— March 1889
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
—
—
1890
160
March 1889— April 1890
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
— .
—
1891
123
May 1890— April 1891
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
—
—
1892 93
May 1891— April 1892
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
. —
—
1893 214
May 1892— April 1893
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
_
1895 i 82
April 1893— May 1894
1
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded at Tokio,
—
—
1895 1 114
May 1893— February 1894
May 1895— February 1896
—
—
1897
133
Catalogue of Earthquakes, Japan, 1887-1890 .
T. S.
XV.
—
—
Catalogue of 8,331 Earthquakes recorded in
—
—
1895
149
Japan between Jan. 1885 and Dec. 1892
Catalogue of Earthquakes recorded in Tokio,
—
—
1898 189
December 17, 1896 — December 16, 1897
Catal
Dgue of Destructive Earthquakes
—
—
1908
78 I
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
71
—
-
Vol.
Year
Page
Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes in Ice-
—
—
1910
64
land (Tboroddsen)
Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes in
—
—
1910
57
Russian Empire (MusketofE and Orlofi)
Catalogue of Chinese Earthquakes (Hirota) .
—
—
1908
82
„ „ „ (Omori)
S.J.
I.
—
- — •
„ „ „ (Parker) .
—
—
1909
62
Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes in the
—
—
1910
69
S. Andes (S. Peru), Chile, Bolivia, W. Argen-
tina) (Ballore)
Catalogue of Perrey's Memoirs (Mallet) .
■ —
—
1858
122
„ of large Earthquakes, 1910
—
—
1910
65
Cause of Earthquakes (Daubree)
S.J.
III.
—
—
„ „ (Mennier)
T. S.
XIII. pt. 1
—
—
Causes producing Movements which may he
—
—
1895
182
Mistaken for Earth Tremors
Centres of Earthquake Vibrations and the
—
• —
1847
90
Requisites of the Instruments to be em-
ployed (Hopkins)
Changes in Temperature, Effects on Hori-
—
—
1893
217
zontal Pendulums
China, Earthquakes in (MacGowan)
T. S.
X.
—
—
Civil Time employed throughout the World
—
—
1898
255
Clinometric Experiments
—
—
1902
70
Column, A Rocking of (Perry) ....
T. S.
III.
—
—
Comrie, Earthquake of Aug. 8, 1872 (Bryce) .
—
—
1873
194
pt. 1
„ Shocks in (W. Buckland and D. Milne)
—
—
1843
121
„ Shocks observed at, July 1841—
— ■
—
1842
93
June 8, 1842 (D. Milne)
Construction of Chimneys ....
—
—
1895
180
Criticisms and Analyses (Knott)
■
1900
74
D.
Daily Change in Position of Pendulums .
1895
130
Daily Tilting
—
—
1895
95
„ „ .......
—
—
1893
216
Daily Wave Records
—
—
1895
122
Destructive Earthquakes, Notes relating to .
—
. —
1911
47
Developing, Fixing, and Copying a Film .
—
—
1909
61
Displacements of Horizontal Pendulums .
—
1895
128
Distribution of Earthquakes in 1909
—
—
1910
47
„ „ Motion in a small
—
—
1889
297
Area
„ „ in Time
—
—
1888
423
» » i>
—
—
1890
167
„ in Space (Mallet) .
_
—
1868
57
Diurnal Waves ....
—
— .
1897
176
„ „ also see
—
—
1906
99
fj »»••••
. —
1895
131
>» »»•••.
.
—
1896
212
Double and Multiple Earthquakes
—
—
1911
32
Duration of Earthquakes (Mallet)
—
—
1850
29
„ of two Rectangular Components of
—
—
1912
91
Earth-Movement at a given Station
E.
Earth Currents (Shide)
T. S.
IX.
_
,. „ Experiments on the produc-
—
— 1882
211
tion
72
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
—
-
Vol.
Year
Page
Earth Currents, Observations on . . .
1884
251
„ Interna] Heat of
T.S.
IV.
„ Mitigation of Earthquake Effects
S.J.
I.
„ Pulsations
T.S.
IV.
,, „
S.J.
I.
„ „ or Earth Waves
— ■
—
1893
219
„ Temperatures
—
—
1885
379
„ Tremors
T.S.
VII., XL,
XIIL
—
—
„ „ Earth Pulsations
—
—
1884
249
„ „ „ „ . . . .
—
—
1885
374
,, „ and Fire Damp ....
—
—
1892
107
,. or Earth Tips ....
—
—
1892
107
Kesults of Analysis in .Japan .
—
—
1888
433
,, „ Work done in Japan .
—
—
1887
221
„ ,, Notes relating to Work done in
—
—
1887
219
Italy
,, ,, The Recording of
. —
—
1881
202
,, ., Observations regarding .
—
—
1883
211
„ Waves of Earthquakes ....
_
_
1893
221
,, „ or Pulsations ....
.
—
1893
219
Earth's Crust form, Solidification, and Thick-
—
1847
40
ness of (Hopkins)
Earthquake, October 28, 1891
S. .1.
L, IL
—
,, >, )» ...
—
—
1892
114
June 20, 1894 .
—
—
1895
111
February 22, 1880
T.S.
I.
July 25, 1 880 (Knipping) .
T.S.
IIL
—
March 8, 1881 (Ewing)
T. S.
IIL
, .
„ March 8, 1881, Horizontal and
T. S.
IIL
,
Vertical Motion of
May 9, 1877, Peru .
T. S.
IL
.
„ January 15, 1887, JajDan
T. S.
XL
(Sekiya)
March 11, 1882 (Ewing) .
T. S.
IV.
and Magnetometer, Disturbance
_-
—
1899
233
„ Catalogue, Construction of
_
_
1851
317
(Mallet)
„ Commencements as P>,ecorded at
1903
82
Strassbiirg and in Britain
,, Echoes
—
—
1899
227
,, ,, .....
—
1900
71
„ Effects, Emotional and Moral .
T. S.
XL
„ „ on Structures (Powaall)
T. S.
XVI.
—
—
„ Frequency (Knott)
T. S.
IX., XV.
189G
220
,, Intensity, Curve of . . .
—
1883
214
„ Motion, Direction of . . .
1912
90
,, Motion, Dissipation of, as
—
1908
67
Measured by Amplitude and
Duration
„ Motion, General Character of
— .
—
1885
363
,, „ ,, ,, „
—
—
1898
218
„ „ Normal
1885
364
„ „ in a Small Area
T.S.
XIIL pt. 1
„ Motion, Relative Extent and
—
—
1881
203
Variation in Direction of an
Earthquake passing over a
Limited Area, the Contour
and Geological Structure of
which is Irregular
„ Ditto Ditto
—
—
1882
200
ON SElSMOLOfUC'AL INVESTIGATIONS.
Vol.
Earthquake Motion, Determine the Nature of
„ „ Direction in whicli it is
most freely propagated
„ „ Maximum Velocity and
Intensity of
;, Movement as recorded at a
Great Distance from its Origin
,, Measurements (Gray)
,, Measurements in a Pit and on the
Surface (Sekiya and Omori)
„ Observing Stations round the
World, Establishment of
„ Observations in Italy and
Europe
Oliservations, 1885 (Sekiva) .
188r. .
1887 .
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
„ Periodicity
,, Precursors ....
,, Projjagation, Velocity of
,, Records ivom Japan and other
Places
,, Records obtained at British
Stations
„ Recurrences
„ Shocks, Effects produced on In-
struments (D. Milne)
,, Varieties and Diu'ation
,, in India (D()3'le) ....
in Scotland, "187.3 (Bryoe) .
,, ,, (Bryce)
EarlJKiniikes, Peru and North Chile (H. Hojie-
Jones)
„ and Changes in Latitude
„ (Knott) .
,, and Rain (,s-ff Rain)
„ and Timekeepers a( Observa-
tories
of 1885-1880 ....
of 1886-1887 ....
of 1886
of 1888-1889 ....
„ in 1885 and 1880, Area shaken
by
in 1887
„ in connection with Electric and
Magnetic Phenomena
„ in connection with Magnetic
and Electric Phenomena 1. —
Magnetic
„ II. Electric ....
„ Recorded by Horizontal Pendu-
lums in Tokio
T. S.
T. S.
111.
XVI.
■r. s.
X.
T. s.
X.
T. S.
XIII. |)t. 1
T. S.
XV.
T. S.
XVI.
T. S.
XVI.
S.J.
I.
'I', s.
IV,
Year
Page
1881
202
1882
208
1908
74
1885
365
1902
71
1898
170
1898
258
1912
94
1899
230
1890
171
1897
153
1909
59
1900
66
1842
94
1899
225
1874
241
1871
197
1911
45
1906
97
1907
91
1900
107
1900
100
1900
105
188G
416
1887
214
1888
422
1892
95
1888
424
1890
163
1891
128
1850
72
1890
169
1850
72
1890
169
1895
147
74
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
-1913.
— Vol.
Year
Page
Earthquakes recorded at SMde, Edinburgh,
1898
191
Bidston, and certain Stations
in Europe, with Discussions on
the same
,, recorded in Japan, Feb. 1893 .
— —
1893
223
,, „ inTokio
— —
1888
426
„ recorded by the Kamakura In-
— —
1895
91
strument
„ Simultaneous ....
— _.
1858
55
,, AVhere Wave Paths have been
— —
1895
163
long (Newcombe, Button,
Agamennone, Ricco, Cancani,
Von Rebeur-Paschwitz, Milne)
„ Where Wave Paths have been
— —
1895
163
short (Milne and Omori)
El May on (Casariego)
T. S. V.
—
—
Electrometer (Mallet)
1850
72
Electric and Magnetic Phenomena .
T. S. XV.
—
—
,, ,, ,,....
S. J. III.
—
—
Emptying a Well, Effects produced nn a Hori-
— . —
1895
107
zontal Pendulum
Eruption of Bandaisan
— — ■
1889
301
Eruptions in relation to Months and Seasons
— —
1886
424
„ Intensity of
— —
1886
426
„ Number of
— — .
1886
423
Evaporation, Experiment on, in connection — —
1895
106
with a Horizontal Pendulum
Experiences of Lady Moncrieff at Comrie — —
1844
89
House (D. Milne)
Experiments at Oxford with a Horizontal — —
1896
216
Pendulum (Prof. Turner)
Experiments in Pits in the Midlands (J. J.
— —
1911
40
Shaw)
Experiments made in Granite (Mallet) . . — —
1851
294
„ on Piers ...... — —
1901
43
F.
Fault, Selection of a. Locality Suitable for — —
1900
108
Observations on Earth Movements (Clement
Reid)
Fire Damp and Earth Tremors .... — —
1892
112
Fissures (Mallet) — —
1850
52
Force due to Shock, Indirect Estimation of — —
1858
134
(Mallet)
Fractions of an Hour (S. Hirota) ... — —
1898
257
Fracturing of Brick and other Columns
— —
1891
126
„ and Overturning of Columns
— —
1892
113
,, ,, jj
— —
1893
226
„ „ ,,
S. J. L, IL
—
—
Frequency of Earthquakes
— ■ —
1850
64
,, jj . .
1 — . —
1888
422
Frequency of Earthquakes (see ' Seismic
— —
1890
163
Energy in Relation to Time ')
Frequency of Earthquakes at different Stations
— —
1901
41
„ and General Character of recent
i — —
1886
415
Earthquakes
„ of Waves, No. of Waves in 20 sees. .
— —
1884
245
Fujiyama (Wada) ....
T. s. : IV.
—
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
75
Vol.
Fujij'ama, Pendulum Experiments of
(Mendenhall)
.G.
General Notes on Stations and Registers
T. S.
II.
Year Page
Geographical Distribution of Megaseisms and
Thermometric Gradients
Geological Structure and Direction of Move-
ments of Horizontal Pendulums
Geology, Notes on Dynamics of (Kangsmill)
Gravity at Tokyo (Mendenhall)
Gray-MUne Seismograph, Observations with
Great Britain, Earthquakes in
Great Circles and Charts of the World
Great Earthquake of October 28, 1 89 1 .
H.
Horizontal Pendulum Observations at Kama-
kura
„ Pendulum Records obtained ir
1894
„ Pendulum Observations in Tokio .
„ Pendulum Observations at Yoko-
hama and Kanagawa
„ Pendulums (Paschwitz)
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
1912
1912
T. S.
T. S.
S.J.
S.J.
Description of . . i —
Movements of . . | —
Installation, Character 1 —
of Movements ■
Records from 3 at Shide ' —
III.
I.
,, Velocity and Coseismal Line, De-
termination of (MaUet)
„ Comparison of three differently
installed H.P.'s.
I.
Influence of the Season of the Year and Time
of Day on Earthquakes (Mallet)
Instrumental Seismometry and the Construc-
tion of Seismometers (MaUet)
Instruments, Description of (D. Milne) .
„ which will record Earthciuakes
of Feeble Intensity
1895
1895
1895
1895
1895
1893
1895
1902
1903
1904
1858
1909
77
41
83
92
83
60
48
44
30
69
97
1893 218
1884 , 247
1886 413
1887 ' 212
1889 I 295
1897 ; 132
1843 , 121
1898 256
1892 114
96
94
109
85
215
115
68
81
42
95
53
1850
64
1858
86
1842
94
1896
181
76
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ^1913.
Vol.
Year Page
Intensity of Shocks
Interior of the 'World, Speed of Earthquake
Motion and Inferences based thereou
relating to
International Co-operation for Scismological
Work
Ditto Ditto
International Seismological Association, Re-
lationship to
Intervals between Preliminary Tremors and
Large Waves
Intervals in Days from the Commencement f)f
one Group to the Commencement of Another
Intervals and Days between Successive Mega-
seisms in Particular Districts
Inverted Pendulum Seismometer (D. Milne) .
Ischia, Earthquakes of (DuBois)
,, ,, Further Notes on
Ital}', Instruments Used in (Dr. Davison)
Jamaica Earthquake, After-shocks
,, Instruments in
Japan Earthquakes, 1883-1884
„ 387 Earthquakes in
„ Great Earthquakes of .
Kumamoto Earthquake
Otsuka
Kurile Islands, Volcanoes
18.58 134
1903 84
1904 45
1905
1908
1900
1912
1912
1841
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
VII.
Vill.
1908
1910
XV.
Lady MoncricS, Experiences at Comrie House,
(D. Mihie)
Lakes and Rivers Formed (Mallet) .
Landshps (MaUet)
Large Earthquakes, Miscellaneous Notes re-
liting to
Large Earthquakes, Relationship to each
other and to Volcanic Eruptions
Large Earthquakes and Small Changes in
Latitude
Large Earthquakes in Relation to Time and
Space
Large Waves, Nature of
Lavas, Lithological and Chemical Character of
Letter from Lieut. Baird Smitli (Buckland
and D. Milne)
Letter from J. Bryce to D. Milne, July 1841
(D. Mihie)
Letter from Mr. Mathie Hamilton, M.D. (W.
Buckland and D. MQne)
Letter to Assistant Secretar}' to British
Association (MaUet)
Level, Changes in
„ „ on two Sides of a Valley
„ ,, due to Tides ....
92
60
65
97
97
47
1896 220
64
47
VII. — —
VII., pt. 2 — —
III. — —
1890 163
1886 418
1844
89
1850
1850
1895
50
49
179 '
1906
97
1903
78
1906
95
1 1900
' 1886
1843
73
425
123
1841
49
1843
124
1850
88
1 1910
1906
1 1910
49
99, 102
49 1
ON RKTSMOLOOTCAL INVRRTIOATIONR.
Vol.
Lisbon, Great Earthquake (Pereira) .
Luminous Effects from certain Rocks
„ „ obtained from Rock Sur-
faces
Luzon Earthquake in 1880 (Garcia) .
M.
Magnetic Movements and their Possible Re-
lationship with Horizontal Pendulums
Magnetic Declination in Japan (Naumann)
Maf^net<iineter Distuiljanccs and Earthquakes
Map of the World (R. D. Oldham) . .
Measurement of Earth((uakes (Sekiya) .
Mestaseisinio Activity and Rest
,, Activity and Periods of Quies-
cence
„ Frequency ....
,, „ in Different Seasons .
„ Acti^aty, Possible Cause of .
Meteorological Observations at Comrie, Im-
portance of (D. Milne)
Meteorological Tables for Tokio
Meteorology of Japan (Knipping)
Meteors (Mallet)
Milne Horizontal Pendulum, Installation and
Working of
Mine Gas and Earth Pulsations
Miscellaneous Notes on Large Earthquakes,
Vibrations of a Ghimney
Model of an Earthquake (Sekiya)
Moon
Molten Metal disturbed by an Earthquake
(Gergens)
Motion relative to two Points
,, recorded in Buildings
Motions of the Bubbles of Two Delicate Levels
Mountains, Theoretical
Movements of Horizontal Pendulums
"„ Daily Tilting ....
,, Effects of Changes in Tem]iera-
ture
„ Barometrical Effects .
,, Possible Relationship with
Magnetic Movements
„ Geological Structure and Direc-
tion of Movements
,, Irregular Movements .
„ Barometric Pressure .
„ Strata at Ridgeway Fault (H.
Darwin)
,, Strala at Ridgeway Fault
Water in a Well
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
XIL
V.
XI.
T. S.
S. J.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
VIIL
IIL
XL
VI.
XII.
XIL
Year
Page
1907
1909
87
60
1893
218
1898
1899
1850
1908
220
233
72
82
1910
1912
54
92
1911
1912
1912
1842
38
92
101
97
1895
143
1850
1897
74
137
1805
181
1858
32
—
—
1883 212
1880 i 429
1895 ! 90
1893 I 215
1893 i 210
1893 ! 217
i
1893 218
1893 218
1893 218
1893
1901
1900
ll^Ol
1902
HK)4
1895
219
119
52
51
104
78
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913,
Vol.
Year • Page
N.
Nausea (Mallet)
Nebulosity of Solar System
New Departure in Seismology
New Installations
New Zealand Earthquakes in 1855 (Mallet)
0.
Observation of Earthquakes ....
Observations with Horizontal Pendulums : —
Instruments, Installation, Character of
Movements
Daily Wave Records
Tremors, Mioroseismic Disturbances or
Earth Pulsations
Slow Displacements of Pendulums
Periodic Movements of Several Days .
Wandering of the Pendulum
Daily Change in Position of the Pendulum
Diurnal Wave
Tremors
Meteorological Tables for Tokio .
Observations with Milne Pendulums T. and U,
1895 to 1896
LocaUties and their Geology
The Instruments T. and U. and their
Installation
Artificially-produced Disturbances .
Sudden Displacements and Earthquakes
in the Isle of Wight
Earthquakes recorded in Europe and
possibly noted in the Isle of Wight
Notes on Special Earthquake (also Ap-
pendix, p. 229)
Tremors and Pulsations, their Relation-
ship to the Hours of the Day, Air Cur-
rents, Effects of Barometric Pressure,
Temperature, Frost, Rain, &c.
Diurnal Waves
Observations in a Pit 10 feet deep .
Observing Stations and Registers obtained
from the same. Notes on
Orientation of an Instrument with regard to
Building in which it is placed
Origins, Determination of : —
By Comparison between Time Intervals
By Method of Circles
By Time Intervals between P.T.'s and
L.W.'s
By Seismic Recurrences ....
Origins of Large Earthquakes recorded in
1902 and since 1899
Ditto in 1903
„ 1904
Origins of Earthquakes recorded in 1905
1906
1907
1908
T. S.
1858
133
—
1847
56
—
1910
48
—
1908
60
—
1858
105
IV.
—
—
—
1895
115
1895
122
—
1895
126
1895
128
— .
1895
129
—
1895
129
—
1895
130
—
1895
131
—
1895
139
—
1895
143
—
1896
184
1896
184
1896
187
1896
188
—
1896
189
—
1896
191
—
1896
199
—
1896
200
1896
212
—
1885
371
—
1899
162
—
1908
63
1900
79
—
1900
79
—
1900
79
1900
80
1
1858
95
1903
78
1904
43
—
1905
91
—
1906
94
—
1907
86
—
1908
63
—
1909
51
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
79
Origins for the Earthquakes of 1899 . . . —
Origins of Earthquakes (Foster) . . . j T. S.
„ of Earthquakes recorded in 1899, —
1900, and 1901
Oscillographs, Double (Bertin) . . . . T. S.
Overturning and Fracturing of Brick and —
other Columns
Ditto —
Ditto —
Paths followed by Earthquake Motion, Hypo-
theses of Hopkins, Seebach, Schmidt
Pendulum, Astatic (Gray) ....
„ with a Single Bob (Ewing)
,, Duplex (Sekiya) ....
Periodicity in Earthquake Frequency, New
(H. H. Turner)
Perrey's Catalogues, Discussion of (Mallet) .
Perrey's Memoirs, A List of (Mallet)
PerryTromometer(Prof. J. Perry) .
Peru and N. Chile Earthquakes (H. Hope-
Jones)
Peruvian Earthquake, May 9, 1877 .
Phenomena and Theories of Volcanoes (Hop-
kins)
„ Connected with Earthquake Pro-
pagation (Hoefer)
„ Demanding Solution
Philippine Islands Earthquakes, 1881
Photograms obtained with Seismometer
(Plummer)
Photographic Record Receivers
Photography appUed to Seismology (Burton) .
Piers, Experiments on
Pit, 18 ft. deep, observations ....
Point, Experiments on Direction of Motion of
Prehminary Tremors, Duration of .
Prehminary Tremors, Duration of (R. D.
Oldham)
Publication of a Seismological Journal .
Q.
Quick Vibrators as Applied to Seismometry .
R.
Rain and Earthquakes
Rate of Wave Transit in the Killiney Bay
Sand (MaUet)
Recent Earthquakes (Ewing) ....
Records obtained from Three Horizontal Pen
dulums at Shide
Ditto
Ditto
Records obtained from Two Similar Seismo-
graphs at Kew (Di\ Chree)
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
S. J.
Vol.
XV.
XV.
Year
III.
VI.
VIII.
II.
XIII.
XII.
IV.
1900
1902
1891
1892
1893
1895
1912
1858
1858
1896
1897
1911
1847
1898
1907
1909
1900
1850
1851
T. S.
III.
Page
SO
61
126
113
226
173
95
1
122
218
181
45
33
272
85
1901
43
1891
24
1884
244
1902
64
1907
93
1893
226
55
106
72
273
1902 i 68
1903
1904
1901
81
42
51
80
REI'URTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — I'Jlo,
i
Vol.
Year
Page
Records obtained at Tokio by the Gray- 1 —
1905
92
Milne Seismograph for the years 1886-1901,
Tabulation of (R. D. Oldham)
Record-Receiver, Improved .... —
—
1904
43
Register of Earthquake Shocks, .July 1842 . 1
_ 1
1844
86
to September 1844 (D. Milne) 1
I
1843
126
Registers, Discussion of —
—
1899
192
Registers, Comparison of, from Sliide, Kew, |
- 1
1901
43, 51
Bidston and Edinburgh J
1902
73
Ditto . . . " —
—
1903
81
Ditto —
—
1904
42
Relative Motion of Two Neighbouring Points — •
— •
1882
211
of Ground, Experiments to Determine
Report upon the Facts of Earthquakes (Mallet) —
—
18.W
25
Reports, Form of —
—
1899
238
Reports relating to Earthquakes ijublishcd by —
—
1898
276
the British Association
Ridgeway Fault, Relative Movement of —
—
1900
119
Strata (H. Darwin)
Ditto —
—
1901
52
Ditto —
—
1902
75
Ditto —
— ■
1904
51
Rivers, Stoppage of (Mallet) .... — •
—
1858
131
Rookfolding, Seismic and Volcanic Activities, —
—
1902
72
Relationship between
s.
Safety Lamps for Earthquake Countries 1 . S.
XIL
(Sekiya)
San Francisco and Columbian Earthquakes, — ■
—
1907
93
Duration of First Preliminary Tremors
(R. D. Oldham)
Sea Waves (Mallet) —
— ■
1850
45, 60
—
■ — ■
1858
124
Seiche's (Forel) T. S.
XV.
—
—
,, at Hakone (Burton) . . . . T. S.
XVI.
—
—
Seismic Activity in Different Districts, Syn-
chronism between J
1"
1909
56
" 1
1911
36
Seismic Activity in Japan, Italy, and America —
—
1911
36
during the years 1700-1900 (F. M. Walker)
Seismic Activity in .Japan . . . . T. S.
IV.
—
—
1899-1903 . . . . —
—
1911
55
1904-1909 inclusive . . —
—
1912
70
„ ,, an I Volcanic Activity . . —
—
1912
102
,, Energy in Relation to Season . . —
—
1858
51
„ Energy in Relation to Time, Seasons, —
—
1858
1,47
Months, Position of Moon (Mallet)
—
1858
57
„ „ Distribution of . . .1 —
— .
1888
422
1890
163
„ „ Force of (Mallet) ... —
—
1858
134
„ Experiments i T. S.
VIIL
—
—
,, Science in Japan j T. S.
I.
■ — ■
—
„ Survey in Tokio T. S.
X.
—
—
„ Survey of the World (Letters sent to —
—
1897
129
the Foreign and Colonial Offices)
Scismogram obtained in London, Oct. 16, 1907 —
—
1908
81
„ Interpretation of (Alexander) . ' T. S.
VI.
—
—
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
81
Seismogranis, Illustrations of
Seismograph, the Gray-Milne .
Seismographs, Modern Forms of
„ The Cocchi (Dubois)
,, A Pendulum (Ewiug)
,, A Ball and Cup (Alexander)
,, Vertical Motion (Gray) .
,, A Torsion Pendulum (Gray)
A Parallel Motion (West) .
„ Vertical Motion (Ewing) .
Seisaiological Journal, PubUcation of
„ Notes (Ewing)
,, Stations already establislietl
,, ,, Abroad & in Gt. Britain
,, Work, Directions iii which it may
be extended
„ Work in Progress
Seismology, Experimeuts ....
,, New Departure in.
Seismometer at Comrie (Bryce)
,, at Liverpool Observatory, Ex
amination of Photograms (W
E. Plummer)
„ Common Pendulum (D. Milne)
,, Duplex Pendulum
„ On a (Wagner) .
„ for Mantelpiece .
Seismometers, Construction under the Super
intendence of Major James (Col. Portlook)
Seismometry applied to Trains
SensibiUty of Seismographs recording on a
Smoked Surface
Sensitiveness of the Horizontal Pendulum
Severe Earthquakes
Shide, Instruments at
Shocks in Comrie and elsewhere (W. Buck-
land and D. Milne)
Shocks Observed at Comrie, July 1841 to
June 8, 1842(0. Milne)
Simultaneous Observation of Earthquakes at
Three Stations in Telegraphic Connection
Ditto at Several Stations in Electrical Con
nection
Situation of Stations : — ■
Abassia (Cairo) . . ' .
Azores
Baltimore
Batavia
Beirut
Bidston
Bombay
Calcutta (ibid. 1899, p. 177)
Cape of Good Hope
Coimbra
Edinburgh
Helwan (Cairo)
Honolulu
1913.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
Vol.
XV.
XII.
XII.
VIII.
I.
VI.
III.
I.
VI.
ILL
Year
1900
Page
87
V.
1893 226
1899 ' 161
1900 59
1901
1902
1904
40 i
59 1
48 i
III.
VIII.
I.
XVI.
XV.
1904 I 46
1910 48
1872 1 241
1898 I 272
1841 i 46
1854 370
1858 ' 73
1911 I 66
1895 i 94
1890 168
1902 60
1843 121
1842 93
1884 , 244
1885 367
1905
, 1905
I 1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
i 1905
1905
i 1005
84
84
85
85
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
87
82
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Situation of Stations (cont.) : —
Kew •
Kodaikanal
Mauritius
Paisley
Perth (W. Australia)
San Fernando
Shide
Strassburg
Sydney
Toronto (ibid. 1899, p. 170)
Trinidad
Victoria, B.C
Akhakalaki
Batoum
Borshom
Shemakha
Derbent
Tiflis .... ....
Pilar (Argentina)
Colombo (Ceylon)
Perth (W. Australia)
Lima
Eskdalemuir
Toronto (Canada)
Porto Rico (W. Indies)
Stonyhurst
Guildford
West Bromwich
Zikawei
Agincourt
Sonora Earthquake in 1887 (Hunt and
Douglas)
Sound Phenomena
Sounding Asama Yama
Sounds, Earthquake (Knott) ....
Special Earthquakes in Japan
,, „ W. Indies, Notes on.
Speed of Earthquake Motion and Inferences
based thereon relating to the Interior of
the World
Speed of Earthquakes (Ewing)
Strong Shocks, List of, in United States and
Dependencies (H. F. Reid)
Sub-oceanic Changes
Bradyseismic Action
Sedimentation and Erosion ....
Causes resulting in the Yielding of Sub-
marine Banks
Cable Fracture
Conclusions and Suggestions for a Seismic
Survey of the World
Sub-oceanic Changes in Relation to Earth-
quakes
Subterranean Forces on the SoUd Crust of the
Earth, Effects of (Hopkins)
State of Tension of the Elevated Mass
Formation of Fissures ....
,, Systems of Fissures
Application of the Theory
Vol.
Year
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
XII.
XII.
XII.
111.
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1905
1906
1906
1906
1906
1906
1906
1907
1907
1908
1908
1909
1909
1909
1909
1910
1910
1912
1912
1887
1888
1898
1903
1911 I 41
1897 I 181
1897 182
1897 187
1897 I 188
1897 ! 189
1897 j 204
1898 I 251
1847 j 57
1847 I 57
1847 I 68
1847 I 60
1847 I 60
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIOATIONS.
83
Subterranean Forces, &c. (cont.) : —
Secondary Phenomena of Elevation .
Relative Displacement of Stratified Beds
at a Fault
Horizontal Pressure
Folded Strata
Inverted Strata
Thickness of Fractured Portions of the
Earth's Crust
Contraction of the Earth's Crust
Contemporaneity of Elevation
Slow Movements of Elevation and De
pression and their Relation to Par^
oxysmal Movements
Sunspots
Survey of Earthquake Theories (Mallet) .
T.
Theoretical Mountains ....
Theories of Earthquakes (Mallet) .
Theories of Volcanoes, Fundamental Hypo-
theses (Hopkins)
Thermometer and Earthquakes
Thickness of Earth's Crust, Form and SoUdi-
fication (Hopkins)
Tidal Load at Ryde, I.W., Observations on
Tidal Load Experiments in Pennsylvania Rail-
way Tunnels
Tidal Observations
Time Curves for Earthquakes recorded during
the four years ending Dec. 31, 1900
Time Indicator
Time of Origin of Earthquakes, Determina
tion of (R. D. Oldham)
Time Signals
Timekeepers at Observatories and Earth
quakes
Times of Occurrence of Earthquakes (Mason)
Tokio Earthquakes, 1882-1883
Tokio Earthquake, June 20, 1894 .
Tokio and Yokohama Earthquakes, Com-
parison of
Transit Rates of Wave Propagation (Mallet) .
Transit Velocity of Waves, Experiments at
Holyhead
Tremors
Micro-seismic Disturbances or Earth
Pulsations
Vol.
Year
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1847
1858
1850
Page
T. S.
T. S.
XV.
VL
Preliminary
Underground Observatory, Establishment of
„ „ Notes on
V.
Velocity of Earthquake Propagation . .
„ of Propagation of Earthquake
Motion, Nature of (Dr. Knott, Lord
Kelvin, Lord Rayleigh)
1847
1850
1847
1911
1911
1884
1902
1898
1906
1908
1900
1895
1890
1861
1861
1892
1895
1895
1895
1896
1902
1907
1884
1884
1890
1895
62
62
63
67
68
69
71
37
2
1886 , 429
1850 —
36
70
40
39
40
251
65
255
100
60
105
111
170
219
201
109
109
139
126
210
64
93
249
250
171
170
n2
84
REPORTS ON TIIK STATE OP SOIENf'E. — 1013.
Vol.
Velocities of Earthquake Waves
of Earth Waves (Lord Kelvin)
for Large Waves
,, Preliminary Tremors .
Highest Apparent, at which Earth
Waves are propagated
,, with which Waves and Vibrations
are propagated on the Surface of
and through Rock and Earth
Vertical, Changes in, Observed at Tokio .
,, Motion Diagrams (Omori)
,, .Spring Seismograph Experiments
Vibration, Effect of Ground on
,, Produced in the Ground liy Trains
(Paul)
Vibrations, Artificially jiroduced (Palmer)
,, of Locomotives, Rolling Stock,
and Structures
,, of Chimneys and Buildings .
Vibratory Motions of Earth's Crust produced
by Earthquakes (Hopkins) .
Volcanoes and Earthquakes (Mallet)
„ ChemicalTheory of (Hopkins)
,, Form of Japanese ....
„ Japanese, Position and Relative
Age of
,, Map of Japanese .
,, Number of Japanese
,, of Honshin and Kinshii
,, of Japan .
,, of Yezo
,, Phenomena and Theories of (Hop
kins)
Volcanic Action, Theory of (Hopkins, Bischoff)
,, Eruptions, Effect on People
W.
Wandering of Pendulums
Water Level, Five Miles long (Mayet)
Waves, Diurnal * .
„ Frequency of Number in 20 Seconds
,, of Earthquakes at Great Distances
(Paschwitz)
Wave Surface, Production of (Hopkins) .
Weather and Earthquakes
West Bromwich and Guildford, New Stations
Wind and Earthquakes ....
Yokohama, Earthquakes in (Pereira)
S.J.
Year Page
1850 ! 37
1851 312
1900 61
IIL
T. S.
T. S.
T. S.
XVL
IIL
1900
1900
1897
1895
1896 215
64,70
63
172
158
T. S. IX. pt. 2
S.J.
S.J.
IL
II.
T. S.
S.J.
XV.
III.
1902
1885
71
363
1889
303
1895
181
1847
74
1850
26
1847
38
1886
427
1886
425
1886
418
1886
422
1886
420
1886
418
1886
419
1847
33
1847
5,39
1886
430
1895
99
1895
129
1897
176
1884
245
1847
88
1850
66
1910
46
1850
1
73
—
—
ON SEISM0L06ICAL INVKSTIGATIONS. 85
XVI. Shinobu Hirota.
Many in the Isle of Wight, and many more outside, will regret
lo hear of the death of Shinobu Hirota, which sad event took place
;it his home in Japan on April 24. He came to England in 1895,
and within a week of his arrival the seismograph which he brought
with him was at work at Shide. To convince those who had doubts
as to the possibility of recording an earthquake which had originated
even so far away as our antipodes and to corroborate whatever records
might be obtained at Shide, a second instrument was installed at
Carisbrooke Castle. To look after this Hirota had, wet or fine, a
daily walk of four miles. The fact that these two instruments gave
similar records and also that from a single record we could tell the
distance from which a megaseism had oi'iginated, naturally attracted
some attention. Directl}' it was shown tliat certain sub-oceanic dis-
turbances had interrupted cables, Colonies desirous of knowing the
cause of these sudden isolations from the rest of the world set up
seismographs. This was the commencement of the British Association
co-operation of seismological stations. To bring this into being Hirota
played an active part. He knew personally many of the directors,
and gave instruction to their officers. In practical seismometry
he made many innovations, some of which have rendered instruments
more sensitive. His multiplying levers made of grass stems gathered-
I'rom ' bents ' give pointers exactly one-third the weight of their
equivalent in aluminium and yet twice if not three times as stiff. It
was by using these that we got at Bidston the first record of rock
deformation due to tidal load. In the workshop he was a good all-
round workman, and in the Observatory office he kept most careful
records. For photographic work he held a gold medal from the Isle
of "Wight Photographic Society. Above all this, his sharp eyes would
find in a seismogram two records where at other stations only one
had been discovered.
In view of the great attention and large sums which have been
spent, particularly in foreign countries, on the new seismological
ileparture, I feel it my duty to give recognition to an assistant pioneer
in these new studies. His work is embodied in annual Seismological
lieports for the last seventeen years and twenty-six Circulars, being
tlie records received from obsei-vatories. His chief work at Shide was
lo assist in working up an absolutely new branch of geophysics, which
lias received recognition throughout the world. He died at the age
of forty-three.
XVII. John Milne.
The above Report was, as stated in the heading, drawn up by the
Secretary of the Committee, and in correcting the proof alterations
have been made as sparingly as possible.
It falls to the lot of the Chairman to add a paragraph recording the
sudden removal of the mainstay of the work. John Milne died, with
but a few days' warning, on July 31. This is not the time or place
for an adequate account of his life and work ; but it may fitly be recalled
that since he became Secretary of this Committee in 1895, seismology
86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
has become a new science, largely owing to his own initiative. During
twenty years' residence in Japan he became acquainted with earthquakes
as disasters, and devoted himself to the study of them at close quarters,
with a view to preventing loss of life. On his return to England he
looked for a place where these studies at close quarters might be con-
tinued on minor disturbances, and Shide was selected after consultation
with Professor J. W. Judd, F.E.S., then Chairman of this Committee.
But almost simultaneously the possibility of detecting large earthquakes
at a distance was realised ; at once Milne seized the new opportunity ;
he devised a simple instrument for collecting such distant records, and
stimulated the establishment of stations equipped with this instrument
scattered over the globe, especially in British territory. Their records
were sent to him at Shide, and he gave them information in return
which maintained their interest and enthusiasm. The results are
embodied in the annual reports of this Committee, in which the growth
of a new department of knowledge can be traced. Facts about the
structure of our globe are now familiar which were not only unsuspected
in themselves when Milne began work, but to which it was not sus-
pected that we had the means of access. Milne was cordially recog-
nised, at the last meeting of the International Seismological Associa-
tion, as the pioneer in their discoveiy.
Such a man cannot be replaced. At a meeting of the Committee
held on September 10, 1913, it was determined that the vvork he had
organised should for the present be carried forward as nearly as possible
on the same lines as before. Mr. J. H. Burgess, who has for some
years past been assisting Professor Milne at Shide (especially since
the departure of Shinobu Hirota for Japan last year), will carry on
the routine, under the general direction of the Chairman of the Com-
mittee. Professor Perry has accepted nomination as Secretary of the
Committee, as a purely temporary expedient, which will allow of full
consideration of a successor. It will not be easy to raise funds for
the proper continuation of the work, even on the present lines, since
Professor Milne himself subsidised the work to an unknown amount ;
but this provision of funds is under consideration.
The following resolution was passed by the General Committee of
the British Association on September 17: —
' That this Committee desires to put on record its deep sympathy
with Mrs. Milne, and its profound sense of the loss which
seismology, and especially British seismology, has sustained
in the death of John Milne. As Seci'etaiy of the Committee
from 1895 to his death, he secured the establishment of half a
hundred observing stations scattered over the face of the earth ;
he organised a co-operative scheme of work among them and
incorporated the results of it in a series of Keports of this Com-
mittee which have revolutionised the science, if indeed they
may not rather be said to have created it. '
ON THE TABULATION OF BRf=!SEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 87
The ftirthcr Tahidation of Bessel and other Functions. — Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hill (Chair-
man), Professor J. W. Nicholson (Secretary), Mr. J. E.
AiREY, Professor L. N. G. Filon, Sir George Geeenhill,
Professor Alfred Lodge, and Professor A. G. Webster.
[Plates II., III., and IV.]
The grant of 30/. given to the Committee during tlie past year has been
expended on the calculation of the ElHptic Function Tables, according to
the scheme of Sir George Greenhill approved by the Association. The
Tables of these functions, printed in the present report, are accompanied
by some graphs, and by a further explanation prepared by Sir George
Greenhill. One of these Tables is given only in a skeleton form in the
present report.
The Committee desires reappointment, with a further grant of 30Z.
during the coming year. It is proposed that this should be expended
mainly on the further calculation of the I, Y, and K Bessel Functions, as
the Secretary has received several requests for such Tables from scientific
workers during the past year. The remainder of the approved scheme of
work on the Elliptic Function Tables does not require much expenditure
for the present.
Mr. Airey has completed his Tables of the Neumann Fimctions or
Bessel Functions of the second kind, for an argument a;=0-00 to a:=15-26,
at intervals of 0-01. The functions are of order zero and unity, and the
Tables can be made a basis for the accurate calculation of the functions
of higher orders. The Committee desires to point out that this very
complete and important Table is entirely the work of Mr. Airey, and has
been calculated without a grant. The necessity of a grant for the con-
tinuation of this part of the work will be apparent.
The Committee seeks the formal sanction of the Association for a
change of name to ' The Committee for the Calculation of Mathematical
Tables.' Its scope has been enlarged several times by the Association,
and this change of name seems now to be necessary.
The Committee desires to recommend that, in view of the scarcity of
the past reports, more copies should be printed, and at the same time a
smaller number placed on the tables at the meeting, so that the greater
number of those printed should be placed in the hands of the Secretary
for distribution.
88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SOIENOE. — ] 0] 3.
' Part I. Elliptic Functions.
Report III. on Tables of the Elliptic Function.
Ten new tables have been calculated, for whicli the ratio of the periods
K'^72' ^2' 2 v/2, 2v'3, 3, A, 3v/2, 3^/3, 4, 5.
The square root of a rational number was chosen as the period ratio,
so as to utiHse the singular modulus of the elUptic function which arises
in the theory of Complex Multiplication, and thence obtain an independent
numerical check.
The table of the period ratio K'/K = v/3 and modular angle = 15°
has been printed already ; also of K/K' = \/3, 6 = 75° ; and thence the
table for K/K'=-2v/3 or 3v/3 was derived hy the quadric or cubic
transformation.
The table for
was calculated by a quadric transformation of K = 2K', given in
Keport II., and it could have been calculated immediately from K = K'
by a quartic transformation; and K = 5K', sin 2^ =(2 sin 18°)'- was
calculated by a quintic transformation of K =K'.
A sketch of the table for
K = 7K', .sin 26= (^^ + ^.^^^l^^y\ i/. + ^.'=^^^2,
is ,sul)mitted, oljtained from K=K' by a transformation of the seventh
order, with a view of showing the shape of the curve for E (r), D (r), A (r)
in a penultimate form, when the modular angle is undistinguishable from
a right angle.
Curves of the function E (r), D (r), A (/•) are given in the figures to show
the change of shape as the modular angle 6 increases from 0° to 90°.
It will be observed that these curves are featureless for 6 up to 15°,
and even to 45°, showing that the elhptic fimction does not require tabula-
tion for a modular angle much below 45°, as E(r), D(r), A(r) may be re-
placed by a circular function formula within the limits of accuracy of tlie
four significant figures required in a practical problem.
But in the important cases which arise in physical applications of a
modular angle in the last degree of the quadrant it will be noticed that
the curve of a function preserves a definite character in a penultimate
form, even when the modular angle is imdistinguishable from a right
angle, provided the period ratio is as!3igned.
The tabulation must be abandoned here which takes the modular
angle as a parameter of the function ; and the period ratio K/K', or else
Jacobi's q = exp( — ttK'/K), must be adopted instead, as the parameter of
a table.
To ensure the accuracy of a transformation formula employed in the
calculation of a table the check values were apphed at the beginning and
end, r— and 90 ; half-way, at bisection, where r=45 ; and then at tri-
ON TITR TABin.ATTO.V OF BESSES AND OTHER FUNCT[ONS. 89
section, r=30, 60 ; and at qmnquesectiou, when possible, where r=l8,
36, 54, 72 ; in accordance with the formulas of Report I., pages 6, 7, which
provide an algebraical numerical value to contrast with the number
obtained by the expansion of a g' series, or else by the formula of trans-
formation.
These check values can be assigned for a singular modulus, and are
given as they arise in the calculation of a table, and entered at once on
the sheet of numbers to serve as standard points of reference in the same
way as the cyclotomic values in a table of the circular function.
Thus in all cases we have the check values —
E(0)=0, D(0)==1, A(0)=0,
E(90)=0, D(90)=J-,, A(90)=l;
E(4G)-^ 7', D(4r.)-.(^)' Am=^{^^^\ tan ^(45)^^^,^0(90).
The trisection and quinquesection foi'mulas are given on pages 6, 7,
Report I., and at full length in the ' Phil. Trans.,' 1904, pages 261, 264 ;
and they can be quoted as required in the check of a table.
Thus the new table for K'IK=-^2, K=^2-l=sm 24°-47, required
the g' series formulas for a complete tabulation ; and it was checked at
trisection by taking fc=v/3+s/2.
The table for K/K'— \/2, k=^2-1, can be derived by the second
quadric transformation, and checked at trisection by 6:=n/3 — \/2.
Another quadric transformation gave K/K'=2^2, and here
?,•-':=( ^/2+l) (2+v/3) for tiisectiou.
Any function, sucli as A(/'), may be distinguished as regards the period
ratio by writing it
('4).
and the formulas of the second quadric transformation are written
K
4'4H.4).;|l
(-■4)-
:(..,^,)
d(2,,|)
90
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
So also for the second cubic transformation, requiring in going from
K/K' to 3K/K', the formulas can be written, putting for simpUcity A(r)
for A(r, K/K'), . . . ,
A if 3K/K') - A (r)3 P (^0, K'/K)^ / D {r^ A (eCK'/Krn
D(r,3K/K)-D(») |_1 + p (^p g ^qq^ ;g^./£^)2j
A/ N -D/ ^ n/ N A (60, KVK)^
A(r) B(r) C(r) ^ )« ' i^,' '
ME (r, 3K/K') = 3E (r) + 2/c
D (r, 3K/K')
B (60, K'/K)^
M=
1+cnJK
1-cn IK
In this way the table was obtained of
At the trisection check
M=6= V3^-^i;'^-^=2V3 sin 75°, 3(^/3+^2), 3(^3 -y2), . . .
In deriving K = 5K' from K = K', the formulas of the quintic trans-
formation were
Mr 5)-A(r).^p(36)' + ^W'^(^^n [5(72) D(,)^ A(72)n
^ ' '^>-'^^^> LD(36)2^ A(r)2 D(36)2j LD(72^ ^ Mr)'' 0(72)^]
■^^ ' '' ^' L DW B(36)-^J L D('-)' B(72)'^J
ME(r, 5) = E(r) + 2E(2r) +
A(2r)
'D(0)D(2r)
— A(r)^ , A(36)^
D(r )^"^B(36)^
, , A(r)2 A(3^)2
_ ^D(r)'^-B(36p
A(r)2 A(72)2-
I p{rY "*" B( 72p
J A(r)"2 A(72)2
D(r)2 B(72)2_J
_ 1+^^^K 1 + en f K ^ ^5 _ 2_
l-cn|K l-cn|K
ON THE TABULATION OF BBSSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 91
A quill quesection test can be applied here of tlie formulas on page 7,
Eeport I., by taking
c - 1 = 64 (sin 18°)-^ = 2 {^'-Y = 5y 5 - 11,
So also for K=7K' from K=K' ; the transformation formulas would be
f3Go)2 ^ D(r)2 A(^«-&)2-
A{ry D(
3G 0)2-1
D(r)2 A(^^)n
i(r)2 D(A4-0)2j
V . ; V ; ^ -r -^^^^2 B(if^)n
n , A(r)2 A(^-]
L ^ D(r)2 B(^fi^)2j
fi 4- M^' Aizizin
L ^ D(r)-^ B(i|^)2j
ME(r,7)=B(r) + 3E(r).
+
A{2r) ^
D{0)D(2r)
D(r)2"+'B(-Lf'-t)2
1 +
A(r)2 A(i4ii)
2 +
A(r'
D(r)2
A(ii^fi)^
D(r)2 B(ifi)2
1 +
~A(r)2 A(^l-'^)2
D(r)2 B(^fo-)''
A(r)2
D(r)2
+
B(A4 0)2
^ D(r)2 B("^ii)2_J
M^
l+cnjK l+cn|K l+cnyK
1— cnfK ' 1— cn^K 1— cnVK'
The calculation has been made at r=4:5, . . . , so as to show the
general shape of the curve of the elHptic function of penultimate
character.
Some appKcations of the ElHptic Function Table were mentioned in
Report II., p. 7, including the potential of a spherical bowl, which can be
given by cil-\-r'il' instead of the expansion in a series of spherical har-
monics, as in Maxwell's ' Electricity and Magnetism,' II. §694, where it is
denoted by P ; and then
Pr = era + c^', leading to ^(Pr) = cfi, as in §695.
dr
92
IlEPORTS ON THK STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
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ON TILE TATllTLATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTION,^.
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94
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
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XI. ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 113
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114 KEPOUTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.— ] 913.
PART II. BESSEL FUNCTIONS.
See p. 115.
7) 00 IX tD '
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90
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i
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 1 15
Part II. Bessel Functions.
Mr. Airey's Table.
Tables of the Neumann Functions GrJ^x) and Ct,(x) or Bessel Fu clioJis
of the Second Kind.
Tables of the first solution y = J„{x) of Bessel's diffeiential equation
dx' X ax \ x'l
when n =Oancl ?i = 1 have been calculated by MeisseP from the ascending
series
JiW - 2 ~ 2^4 '^ 2^TPT6~ ■ ■ ■
to 12 places of decimals from x = 0-00 to x = 15-50 by the interval 0-01.
For greater values of x than 15-50, these functions can be found from the
semi- convergent expansions.
It is possible, however, to use these semi-convergent series to deter-
mine the values of Jo(a;), J,(x), etc., to 12 places of decimals' for values of
X as small as 8.
Tables of the second solution'' of BesseFs equation — viz.
Y,{x), Y,(x), G,{x), G,{x) . etc.—
are much less complete, and as these functions — Bessel functions of
the second kind or Neumann functions, as they are sometimes called —
are of considerable importance in their application to many physical
problems, tables of Gg{x) and G^{x) have been calculated to seven places of
decimals.
Different writers have given different definitions of these second
solutions.
The Neumann cylinder function^ defined by
Y„(,r) = ^
(2) - (1 + ^)5) + • • • - (log 2 - 7 - loge ^) Ju (t) J ,
2!-
etc, differs from the G^i^) and Gi(x) function only by the factor -.
' Gray and Mathews, Treatise on Bessel Functions, 1S95.
- Archil', der Math. u. Physik. III. Reihe, XX., 1913.
•* B. A. Smith, Messenger 0/ Mathematics, 26, 1897; Smith, Phil. Mag., 45, 1898 ;
Aldis, Proc. Royal Society, London, C4, 1898-9.
'' Nielsen, Theorie der Zylinderfunktionen, p. 12.
I 2
110 REPORTS ON TJfR STATE OP Sf'IRNOE.— 1913.
On the otlier hand, the Neumann function"' Y^{x), etc., defined by
xo fxV fxy
Y„(a;) = Jo(x).log,=c+(|)-(l-f I)v2; + (l + i+*)l2i_. . . etc.,
are found readily from Gq (x), etc. by the relation
Y„(x) = (log 2 - y) J„(x) - G„(a;).
The following tables were calculated, with some slight corrections, from
those already published,'^ by interpolation, first to fifths and then to
halves.
The values for .r =^ 001 to .r = 0-40 were found from the ascending-
series,
-(U^ = Uj-i^
,&
. -(I.,g2-y-
/(■) .i;(.i:), etc.
2P
To determine the value of Go{x) and Ct,(.«) for intermediate values of the
argument, interpolation formula; may be used, such as
and
Go (X ± /.) ^ [ 1 - I' . . . ] G., {X) + [+ h + y G,(.T)
g,(. + ^)=[it^^^^(i-|)...]g.(.)+[±^-J\..]g„(..).
Neumann Functions or Bessel Functions of the Second Kind. Oo(.r) and Gi(.r).
.V
Go(.v)
«i{-'-)
.r
Go(.r)
VnU)
001
+4-7209587
+ 1000261051
0-20
+ 1-6981963
+5-2210521
0-02
+4-0274517
+ 50-0452769
0-21
+ 1-6471663
+4-9887552
003
+ 3-6214494
+ 33-3951624
0-22
+ 1-5983499
+4-7778488
0-04
+ 3-3330736
H-25-0766778
0-23
+ 1-5515475
+4-58,55201
005
+ 3-1090945
+ 200902576
0-24
+ 1-50658.55
1-4-4094258
006
+2-9258067
+ 16-7694905
0-25
+ 1-4633116
-1 4-2475986
007
+ 2-7705685
+ 14-4002597
0-26
+ 1-4215915
+4-0983739
0-08
+ 2-6358361
+ 12-625.5419
0-27
+ 1-381,3067
+3-9603349
0-09
+ 2-5167454
+ 11-24701,37
0-28
+ 1-3423516
+ 3-8322673
0-10
+ 2-4099764
+ 10-14.56966
0-29
+ 1-3046317
+ 3-7131248
Oil
+2-3131625
+ 9-2458884
0-30
+ 1-2680624
+ 3-6020011
012
+2-2245569
+ 8-4971288
0-31
+ 1-2325676
+3-4981072
013
+ 2-1428339
+ 7-8644903
0-32
+ 1-1980784
+ 3-4007530
014
+ 2-0669638
+ 7-3230293
0.33
+ 1-1645327
H-3-3093323
015
+ 1-9961309
+ 6-8544580
0-34
+ 11318738
+ 3-2233107
016
+ 1-9296778
+ 6-4450632
1 0-35
+ 1-1000.501
+ 3-1422149
0-17
+ 1-8670675
+ 6-0843612
0-36
^- 1-0690145
+ 3-0656245
0-18
+ 1-8078556
+ 5-7642001
0-37
(-1-0387238
+ 2-9931649
019
+ 1-7516700
H-5-4781456
0-38
+ 1-0091385
+ 2-9245007
^ Gray and Mathews, Bessel Functions, p. 14.
^ Report of the Mathematical Tables Committee: British Association, 1911,
pp. 73-78.
J
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 117
Neuinaim Functions — continued.
0-39
0-40
0-41
0-42
0-43
0-44
0-45
0-46
0-47
0-48
0-49
0-50
0-51
0-52
0-53
0-54
0-55
0-56
0-57
0-58
0-59
0-60
0-61
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-68
0-69
0-70
0-71
0-72
0-73
0-74
0-75
0-76
0-77
0-78
0-79
0-80
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-84
0-85
0-86
0-87
0-88
0-89
0-90
0-91
0-92
0-93
0-94
0-9.5
0-96
Go(.r)
+0-9802222
+0-9519412
+0-9242645
+0-8971635
+0-8706115
+0-8445840
+0-8190579
+0-7940117
+0-7694257
+0-7452813
+0-7215610
+0-6982484
+0-6753283
+0-6527865
+0-6306094
+0-6087844
+0-5872995
+0-5661436
+0-5453060
+0-5247768
+ 0-5045465
+0-4846062
+ 0-4649474
+0-4455622
+0-4264429
+ 0-4075825
+0-3889740
+0-3706111
+0-3524875
+0-3345974
+ 0-3169352
+0-2994958
+0-2822740
+ 0-2652650
+0-2484643
+0-2318674
+0-2154704
+0-1992692
+0-1832600
+0-1674391
+0-1518031
+0-1363487
+0-1210727
+ 0-1059722
+0-0910442
+0-0762859
+0-0616946
+0-0472680
+0-0330034
+0-0188985
+0-0049511
-0-0088409
-0-0224797
-0-0359671
-0-0493051
-0-0624956
-0-0755403
I -0-0884409
Gi(.v)
+2-8593316
+ 2-7973873
+ 2-7384238
+ 2-6822210
+ 2-6285790
+ 2-5773161
+ 2-5282673
+ 2-4812818
+ 2-4362218
+ 2-3929611
+2-3513837
+ 2-3113834
+ 2-2728620
+ 2-2357292
+ 2-1999014
+ 2-1653015
+ 2-1318578
+20995041
+ 2-0681786
+ 2-0378241
+ 2-0083871
+ 1-9798181
+ 1-9520705
+ 1-9251008
+ 1-8988685
+ 1-8733358
+ 1-8484670
+ 1-8242286
+ 1-8005894
+ 1-7775199
+ 1-7549924
+ 1-7329808
+ 1-7114606
+ 1-6904087
+ 1-6698031
+ 1-6496233
+ 1-6298497
+ 1-6104640
+ 1-5914488
+ 1-5727875
+ 1-5544646
+ 1-5364653
+ 1-5187754
+ 1-5013818
+ 1-4842717
+ 1-4674332
+ 1-4508548
+ 1-4345258
+ 1-4184358
+ 1-4025749
+ 1-3869340
+ 1-3715040
+ 1-3562765
+ 1-3412435
+ 1-326.3972
+ 1-3117303
-1-1-2972359
+ 1-2829072
0-97
0-98
0-99
1-00
1-01
1-02
1-03
1-04
1-05
1-06
1-07
108
1-09
1-10
1-11
1-12
1-13
1-14
1-15
1-16
1-17
118
119
1-20
1-21
1-22
1-23
1-24
1-25
1-26
1-27
1-28
1-29
1-30
1-31
1-32
1-33
1-34
1-35
1-36
1-37
1-38
1-39
1-40
1-41
1-42
1-43
1-44
1-45
1-46
1-47
1-48
1-49
1-50
1-51
1-52
1-53
1-54
GoU-)
-0-1011991
-0-1138162
-0-1262939
-0-1386337
—0-1508369
-0-1629049
-0-1748389
-0-1866402
-0-1983100
-0-2098494
-0-2212596
-0-2325417
-0-2436966
-0-2547254
-0-2656290
-0-2764084
-0-2870644
-0-2975980
-0-3080099
-0-3183010
-0-3284721
-0-3385240
-0-3484573
-0-3582727
-0-3679711
-0-3775529
-0-3870190
-0-3963698
-0-4056061
-0-4147283
-0-4237372
-0-4326332
-0-4414169
-0-4500887
-0-4586493
-0-4670990
-0-4754385
-0-4836681
-0-4917884
-0-4997997
-0-5077026
-0-5154974
-0-5231845
-0-5307644
-0-5382375
-0-5456041
-0-5528647
-0-6600195
-0-5670691
-0-5740137
-0-5808537
-0-6875894
-0-5942212
-0-6007494
-0-6071744
-0-6134964
-0-6197158
-0-6258329
Gi(x)
+ 1-2687378
+ 1-2547216
+ 1-2408530
+ 1-2271262
+ 1-2135361
+ 1-2000774
+ 1-1867454
+ 1-1736355
+ 1-1604432
+ 1-1474643
+ 1-1345946
+ 1-1218304
+ 1-1091679
+ 1-0966036
+ 1-0841341
+ 1-0717560
+ 1-0594664
+ 1-0472622
+ 1-0351405
+ 1-0230987
+ 1-0111340
+0-9992441
+0-9874264
+0-9756787
+0-9639989
+0-9523848
+0-9408343
+0-9293456
+0-9179169
+0-9065463
+0-8952321
+0-8839729
+0-8727670
+0-8616128
+ 0-8505091
+ 0-8394545
+0-8284477
+0-8174875
+ 0-8065726
+0-7957021
+0-7848748
+0-7740897
+ 0-7633458
+0-7526423
+0-7419783
+ 0-7313528
+ 0-7207651
+0-7102146
+0-6997004
+0-6892220
+0-6787786
+0-6683696
+ 0-6579946
+0-6476529
+0-6373441
+0-6270677
+0-6168232
, 4 0-6066102
118
REPORTS ON THE STATE OV SCIENCE. — 1913.
Neumann Functions — con'binued.
1-55
Go(.r)
-0-6318481
Gi(.r)
.r
Go(.i')
Gi(.r)
+0-5964284
2-13
-0-8161870
+0-0557487
1-56
-0-6377616
+0-5862773
2-14
-0-8167024
+0-0473427
1-57
-0-6435737
+0-5761566
2-15
-0-8171340
+0-0389723
1-58
-0-6492848
+0-5660661
2-16
-0-8174820
+00.306376
1-59
-0-6548951
+0-5560054
2-17
-0-8177469
; +0-0223391
1-60
-0.6604050
' +0-5459743
2-18
: -0-8179289
1 +0-0140769
1-61
-0-6658147
+ 0-5359725
2-19
' -0-8180285
+0-0058514
1-62
-0-6711246
+0-5259999
2-20
j -0-8180460
' -00023370
1-63
-0-6763348
+0-5160561
2-21
-0-8179819
' -0-0104881
1-64
-0-6814458
+0-5061411
2-22
-0-8178364
'■ -00186016
1-65
-0-6864578
+0-4962547
2-23
-0-8176099
-0-0266772
1-66
-0-6913710
+ 0-4863967
2-24
; -0-8173029
-0-0347145
1-67
-0-6961858
+ 0-4765671
2-25
-0-8169158
-0-0427132
1-68
-0-7009024
+0-4667656
2-26
-0-8164488
-0-0506730
1-69
-0-7055212
+0-4569922
2-27
-0-8159025
-0-0585936
1-70
-0-7100424
+0-4472469
2-28
-0-8152771
-0 0664747
1-71
-0-7144662
H-0-4375296
2-29
-0-8145731
-00743159
1-72
-0-7187930
+0-4278403
2-30
-0-8137909
-0-0821170
1-73
-0-7230231
+ 0-4181789
2-31
-0-8129309
-00898776
1-74
-0-7271567
+0-4085454
2-32
-0-8119935
-0-0975974
1-75
-0-7311941
+0-3989398
2-33
-0-8109791
-0-1052760
1-76
-0-7351356
+ 0-3893622
2-34
-0-8098881
-0-1129132
1-77
-0-7389814
+0-3798125
2-35
-0-8087210
-01205086
1-78
-0-7427319
+0-3702909
2-36
-0-8074781
-0-1280619
1-79
-0-7463874
+ 0-3607974
2-37
-0-8061599
-0-1355728
1-80
-0-7499480
+0-3513320
2-38
-0-8047668
-0-1430409
1-81
-0-7534141
+0-3418948
2-39
-0-8032992
-0-1504660
1-82
-0-7567860
+0-3324859
2-40
-0-8017576
-0-1578477
1-83
-0-7600639
+ 0-3231054
2-41
-0-8001424
-0-1651857
1-84
-0-7632482
+ 0-3137534
2-42
-0-7984540
-0-1724796
1-85
-0-7663391
+0-3044301
2-43
-0-7966929
-0-1797292
1-86
-0-7693369
+0-2951355
2-44
-0-7948596
-0-1869341
1-87
-0-7722419
+0-2858699
2-45
-0-7929544
-0-1940940
1-88
-0-7750544
+0-2766333
2-46
-0-7909779
-0-2012086
1-89
-0-7777747
+0-2674260
2-47
-0-7889304
-0-2082776
1-90
-0-7804030
+ 0-2582480
2-48
-0-7868125
-0-2153006
1-91
-0-7829397
+0-2490996 !
2-49
-0-7846246
-0-2222774
1-92
-0-7853851
+ 0-2399809 1
2-50
-0-7823671
-0-2292077
1-93
-0-7877394
+ 0-2308921 i
2-51
-0-7800406
-0-2360911
1-94
-0-7900030
+ 0-2218335
2-52
-0-7776454
-0-2429272
1-95
-0-7921762
+ 0-2128052
2-53
-0-7751822
-0-2497159
1-96
-0-7942592
+0-2038074
2-54
-0-7726513
-0-2564567
1-97
-0-7962524
+0-1948404
2-55
-0-7700532
-0-2631493
1-98
-0-7981561
+01859044
2 56
-0-7673884
-0-2697937
1-99
-0-7999706
+0-1769996
2-57
-0-7646575
-0-2763893
2.00
-0-8016962
+0-1681262 1
2-58
-0-7618608
-0-2829359
201
-0-8033332
+0-1592844
2-69
-0-7589989
-0-2894332
2-02
-0-8048820
+0-1504746
2-60 j
-0-7560723
-0-2958808
203
-0-8063429
+01416970
2-61
-0-7530815
-0-3022785
2-04
-0-8077161
+0-1329518
2-62
-0-7500269
-0-3086260
2-05
-0-8090020
+01242393
2-63
-0-7469091
-0-3149230
206
-0-8102010
+0-1155598 1
2-64
-0-7437286
-0-3211692
2-07
-0-8113133
+0-1069134
2-65
-0-7404859
-0-3273644
2-08
-0-8123394
+0-0983006 j
2-66
-0-7371815
-0-3335082
2-09
-0-8132795
+0-0897216
2-67
-0-7338159
-0-3396004
210
-0-8141339
+0-0811766
2-68
-0-7303897
-0-3456406
211
-0-8149031
+ 0-0726659 I
2-69
-0-7269033
-0-3516286
2-12
-0-8155873
+0-0641898
2-70
-0-7233573
-0-3575642
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 119
Xeiinimin Functions — toutiiiueil.
•c
Go(.r)
GU.i-) ]
3-29
Go(a-) !
Ou.r)
2-71 i
-0-7197522
-0-3634471
-0-4287691 i
-0-6068260
2-72 1
-0-7160885
-0-3()92769 '
3-30
-0-4226887
-0-6092380
2-73 1
-0-7123668
-0-3750535
3-31
-0-4165846
-0-6115874
2-74
-0-7085876
-0-3807765
3-32
-0-4104572
-0-6138742
2-75
-0-7047515
-0-3864457
3-33
-0-4043073
-0-6160985
2-76
-0-7008589
-0-3920609
3-34
-0-3981354 i
-0-6182601
2-77
-0-6969104
-0-3976218
3-35
-0-3919422
-0-6203590
2-78
-0-6929066
-0-4031281
3-36
-0-3857284
-0-6223963
2-79
-0-6888480 i
-0-4085796 '
3-37
-0-3794946
-0-6243689
2-80
-0-6847352 \
-0-4139761
3-38
-0-3732413
-0-6262797
2-81
-0-6805687 ;
-0-4193173
3-39 :
— 0-3669692
-0-6281279
2-82
-0-6763490 \
-0-4246030
3-40 t
-0-3606789
-0-6299133
2-83
-0-6720768 j
-0-4298329
3-41
-0-3543711
-0-6316361
2-84
-0-6677526 i
-0-4350067
3-42
-0-3480464
-0-6332962
2-85
-0-6633769
-0-4401244
3-43
-0-3417054
-0-6348936
2-86
-0-6589503
-0-4451856
3-44
-0-3353487
-0-6364283
2-87
-0-6544734
-0-4501901
3-45 j
-0-3289771
-0-6379004
2-88
-0-6499467
-0-4551378
3-46 ^
-0-3225910
-0-6393099
2-89
-0-6453708
-0-4600284
3-47 1
-0-3161911
-0-640656a
2-90
-0-6407463
-0-4648616
3-48
-0-3097780 '
-0-6419411
2-91
-0-6360737
-0-4696373
3-49
-0-3033524
-0-6431630
2-92
-0-6313537
-0-4743552
3-50 1
-0-2969150
-0-6443225
2-93
-0-6265868
-0-4790153
3-51 t
-0-2904662
-0-6454196
2-94
-0-6217736
-0-4836172
3-52
-0-2840068
-0-6464542
2-95
-0-6169147
-0-4881608
3-53
-0-2775374
-0-6474266
2-96
-0-6120106
-0-4926458
3-64
-0-2710585
-0-6483368
2-97
-0-6070620
-0-4970722
3-55
-0-2645708
-0-6491849
2-98
-0-6020694
-0-5014397
3-56
-0-2580750
-0-6499709
2-99
-0-5970334
-0-5057482
3.57
-0-2515716
-0-6506949
300
-0-5919546
-0-5099974
3-58
-0-2450613
-0-6513570
301
-0-5868337
-0-5141872
3-59
-0-2385446
-0-6519573
3 02
-0-5816711
-0-5183175
3-60
-0-2320223
-0-6524959
303
-0-5764675
-0-5223880
3-61
-0-2254949
-0-6629728
304
-0-5712235
-0-5263987
3-62
-0-2189630
-0-6533882
3-05
-0-5659397
-0-5303493
3-63
-0-2124273
-0-6537422
306
-0-5606167
-0-5342397
3-64
-0-2058884
-0-6540349
307
-0-5552552
-0-5380698
3-65
-0-1993469
-0-6542664
308
-0-5498556
-0-5418394
3-66
-0-1928033
-0-6544369
309
-0-5444186
-0-5455484
3-67
-0-1862583
-0-6545464
310
-0-5389448
-0-5491967
3-68
-0-1797125
-0-6545951
311
-0-5334348
-0-5527841
3-69
-0-1731666
-0-6545831
312
-0-5278893
1 -0-5563105
i 3-70
-01666211
-0-6645106
313
-0-5223088
1 -0-5597758
! 3-71
-0-1600766
-0-6543777
314
-0-5166940
-0-5631798
3-72
-0-1536338
-0-6641845
3-15
-0-5110454
-0-5665225
3-73
-0-1469932
-0-6539312
316
-0-5053637
-0-5698037
3-74
-0-1404554
-0-6536181
317
-0-4996495
! -0-5730233
3-75
-0-1339210
-0-6532452
318
-0-4939035
] -0-5761813
3-76
-0-1273907
-0-6528126
319
-0-4881261
' -0-5792776
3-77
-0-1208650
-0-6523206
3-20
-0-4823181
1 -0-5823120
3-78
-0-1143445
I -0-6517694
3-21
-0-4764801
-0-5852845
3-79
-0-1078298
-0-6611590
3-22
-0-4706126
i -0-5881950
3-80
-0-1013215
-0-6504898
3-23
-0-4647163
i -0-5910433
1 3-81
-0-0948202
-0-6497619
3-24
-0-4587919
-0-5938295
I 3-82
-0-0883265
! -0-6489755
3-25
-0-4528400
-0-5965535
1 3-83
-0-0818409
-0-6481308
3-26
j -0-4468611
! -0-5992152
3-84
-00753640
; -0-6472279
3-27
! -0-4408559
-0-6018146
3-85
-0-0688965
-0-6462671
3-28
-0-4348250
1 -0-6043515
: 3-86
, -0-0624389
, -0-6452486
120
RRPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENOE. — 1013.
Ni'umann Fiinr I ions— continued.
.V
Go(.r)
Gi(.r)
.r
Go(.v)
Gl(.r)
3-87
-00559917
-0-6441727
' 4-45
+0-2816955
-0-4928942
3-88
-0-0495556
-0-6430395
4-46
+0-2866048
-0-4889507
3-89
-0-0431311
-0-6418493
4-47
+0-2914745
-0-4849697
3-90
-0-0367188
-0-6406022
4-48
+0-2963041
-0-4809515
3-91
-0-0303192
-0-6392986
4-49
+0-3010934
-0-4768966
3-92
-0-0239330
-0-6379386
4-50
+0-3058419
-0-4728055
3-93
-00175606
-0-6365225
4-51
+0-3105494
-0-4686786
3-94
-00112027
-0-6350506
4-52
+0-3152154
-0-4645163
3-95
-0 0048598
-0-6335231
4-53
+0-3198396
-0-4603190
3-96
+ 0-0014676
-0-6319402
4-54
+0-3244216
-0-4560873
3-97
+0-0077788
-0-6303022
4-55
+0-3289612
-0-4518215
3-98
+00140734
-0-6286093
4-56
+0-3334580
-0-4475222
3-99
+0-0203509
-0-6268619
4-57
+0-3379116
-0-4431897
400
+00266105
-0-6250602
4-58
+0-3423217
-0-4388246
401
+0-0328518
-0-6232045
4-59
+0-3466880
-0-4344272
402
+0-0390744
-0-6212950
4-60
H-0-3510101
-0-4299980
403
+0-0452776
-0-6193321
4-61
+0-3552878
-0-4255376
4-04
+00514609
-0-6173160
4-62
+ 0-3595207
-0-4210463
4-05
+0-0576237
-0-6152470
4-63
+ 0-3637086
-0-4165246
4-06
+00637656
-0-6131254
4-64
+0-3678511
-0-4119730
4-07
+0-0698860
-0-6109515
4-65
+0-3719480
-0-4073920
4-08
+0-0759844
-0-6087255
4-66
+0-3759989
-0-4027820
4-09
+0-0820603
-0-6064479
4-67
+0-3800035
-0-3981435
4-10
+0-0881132
-0-6041189
4-68
+0-3839616
-0-3934770
4-11
+0-0941425
-0-6017388
4-69
+0-3878729
-0-3887829
412
+0-1001478
-0-5993080
4-70
+0-3917372
-0-3840617
4-13
+0-1061285
-0-5968267
4-71
+0-3955541
-0-3793140
4-14
+0-1120842
-0-5942953
4-72
+0-3993234
-0-3745401
4-15
+0-1180143
-0-5917141
4-73
+0-4030448
-0-3697406
4-16
+0-1239183
—0-5890835
4-74
+0-4067181
-0-3649160
4-17
+0-1297958
-0-5864038
4-75
+0-4103431
-0-3600667
418
+0-1356462
-0-5836752
4-76
+0-4139194
-0-3551933
419
+0-1414691
-0-5808982
4-77
+0-4174468
-0-3502961
4-20
+ 0-1472640
-0-5780732
4-78
+0-4209252
-0-3453757
4-21
+0-1530304
-0-5752004
4-79
+0-4243543
-0-3404327
4-22
+0-1587679
-0-5722801
4-80
+0-4277338
-0-3354674
4-23
+0-1644759
-0-5693129
4-81
+0-4310636
-0-3304804
4-24
+0-1701540
-0-5662990
4-82
+0-4343433
-0-3254721
4-25
+0-1758017
-0-5632387
4-83
+0-4375729
-0-3204432
4-26
+0-1814186
-0-5601325
4-84
+0-4407521
-0-3153940
4-27
+0-1870042
-0-5569807
4-85
+ 0-4438807
-0-3103250
4-28
+0-1925581
-0-5537837
4-86
+ 0-446958()
-0-3052368
4-29
+0-1980798
-0-5505419
4-87
+ 0-4499854
-0-3001299
4-30
+0-2035688
-0-5472556
4-88
+0-4529611
-0-2950047
1 4-31
+ 0-2090247
-0-5439253
4-89
+0-4558854
-0-2898618
4-32
+0-2144472
-0-5405513
4-90
+0-4587583
-0-2847016
4-33
+0-2198356
-0-5371340
4-91
+0-4615795
-0-2795247
4-34
+0-2251897
-0-5336737
4-92
+0-4643488
-0-2743316
4-35
+0-2305090
-0-5301709
4-93
+0-4670661
-0-2691228
4-36
+0-2357930
-0-5266261
4-94
+0-4697312
-0-2638987
4-37
+0-2410413
-0-5230395
4-95
+0-4723440
-0-2586599
4-38 .
+0-2462536
-0-5194116
4-96
+ 0-4749043
-0-2534069
4-39
+0-2514294
-0-5157428
4-97
+0-4774121
-0-2481402
4-40
+0-2565683
-0-5120335
4-98
+0-4798671
-0-2428603
4-41
+0-2616699
-0-5082841
4-99
+0-4822692
-0-2375677
4-42
+0-2667338
-0-5044951
5-00
+0-4846184
-0-2322629
4-43
+ 0-2717i>96
-0-5006668
5-01
+0-4869145
-0-2269464
4-44
+0-2767470
-0-4967997 ,
5-02
+0-4891573
-0-2216188
ON THK TABULATION OF BKSSEL AND OTHKR FI'NOTrONS.
121
Neumann Functions — continued.
.V
Go(.v)
Gi(.v)
X
Go(x)
Gi(x)
503
+0-4913468
-0-2162805
5-61
+0-5259967
+0-0943309
5-04
+0-4934828
-0-2109321
5-62
+0-5250279
+0-0994135
505
+0-4955654
-0-2055740
5-63
+0-5240084
+0-1044775
50G
+0-4975943
-0-2002068
5-64
+0-5229384
+0-1095224
5-07
+0-4995695
-0-1948310
5-65
+0-5218180
+ 0-1145478
508
+0-5014908
-0-1894470
5-66
+0-5206475
+ 0-1195532
509
+0-5033583
-0-1840555
5-67
+0-5194270
+01245381
510
+0-5051719
-0-1786568
5-68
+0-5181568
+ 0-1295023
511
+0-5069314
-0-1732515
5-69
+0-5168371
+0-1344452
512
+0-5086369
-0-1678402
5-70
+0-5154680
+0-1393663
513
+0-5102883
-0-1624233
5-71
+0-5140498
+0-1442653
514
+ 0-5118854
-0-1570014
5-72
+0-5125828
+0-1491418
515
-1 0-5134283
-0-1515749
5-73
+0-5110671
+ 0-1539954
51(i
+ 0-5149169
-0-1461444
5-74
+0-5095029
+0-1588255
517
+0-516351L
-0-1407103
5-75
+0-5078906
+ 0-1636319
5-18
+0-5177311
-0-1352732
5-76
-(-0-5062304
-1 01684141
519
+0-5190567
-0-129833G
5-77
+0-5045224
-hO-1731716
5-20
+ 0-5203278
01243919
5-78
+0-5027670
-1 0-1779041
5-21
+0-5215445
-0-1189488
5-79
+0-5009644
-1-0-1826112
5-22
+ 0-5227068
-0-1135046
5-80
+0-4991149
-1-01872925
5-23
+ 0-5238140
-0-1080599
5-81
+0-4972187
+ 0-1919476
5-24
+0-5248680
-0-1026152
5-82
+0-4952760
+0-1965760
5-25
+0-5258669
-0-0971711
5-83
+0-4932872
+ 0-2011775
5-26
+0-5268114
-0-0917279
5-84
+0-4912520
+0-2057515
5-27
+0-5277015
-0-0862862
5-85
+0-4891723
+0-2102978
5-28
+ 0-5285371
-0-0808465
5-86
+0-4870467
+0-2148159
5-29
+ 0-5293184
-00754094
5-87
+0-4848761
+ 0-2193055
5-30
+ 0-5300453
-0-0699752
5-88
+0-4826607
+0-2237661
5-31
+0-5307179
-0-0645446
5-89
+0-4804009
+ 0-2281974
5-32
+ 0-5313362
-0-0591179
5-90
+ 0-4780969
+0-2325991
5-33
+ 0-5319003
-0-0536958
5-91
+0-4757490
-1-0-2369708
5-34
H 0-5324101
-0-0482786
5-92
+0-4733576
-1-0-2413120
5-3a
+ 0-5328658
-0-0428669
5-93
+ 0-4709229
-1-0-2456225
5-30
+ 0-5332675
-0-0374612
5-94
+ 0-4684453
+0-2499019
5-37
+0-5336151
-0-0320620
5-95
-1 0-4659250
+0-2541499
5-38
+0-5339088
-0-0266697
5-96
+0-4633624
-1-0-2583660
5-39
+0-5341486
-0-0212848
5-97
+ 0-4607578
+0-2625500
5-40
+ 0-5343345
-0-0159079
5-98
+0-4581115
+ 0-2667015
5-41
+ 0-5344667
-0-0105393
5-99
+0-4554239
+ 0-2708201
5-42
fO-5345453
-0-0051797
6-00
+0-4526952
+ 0-2749056
5-43
+ 0-5345703
+ 0-0001705
6-01
+0-4499259
+ 0-2789576
5-44
+ 0-5345419
+0-0055109
6-02
+0-4471162
+0-2829757
5-45
4 0-5344602
+0-0108409
6-03
1 0-4442665
+0-2869596
5-46
+0-5343252
+0-0161601
6-04
+0-4413771
+0-2909091
5-47
+0-5341370
+00214680
6-05
+0-4384484
+0-2948238
5-48
+ 0-5338958
+0-0267642
606
+0-4354807
+0-2987034
5-49
+0-5336017
+ 0-0320482
607
+0-4324744
+0-3025475
5-50
+0-5332549
+0-0373194
6-08
+0-4294298
-1-0-3063559
5-51
+0-5328554
+ 0-0425774
609
+ 0-4263474
+0-3101283
5-52
+0-5324034
+0-0478218
6-10
+0-4232274
+ 0-3138643
5-53
+ 0-5318990
+0-0530520
6-11
+ 0-4200703
+ 0-3175637
5-54
+ 0-5313424
+ 0-0582677
0-12
-1 0-4168763
+0-3212261
5-55
+ 0-5307337
+ 0-0634683
613
+0-4136459
+ 0-3248514
5-56
+0-5300731
+ 0-0686535
614
+0-4103794
+ 0-3284391
5-57
+0-5293607
+0-0738227
615
+ 0-4070772
+0-3319890
5-58
+ 0-5285967
+ 0-0789755
6-16
+0-4037397
+0-3355009
5-59
+0-5277812
+ 00841115
6-17
+0-4003673
+0-3389745
5-60
+0-5269145
+00892301
6-18
+0-3969604
+0-3424094
122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1!)]3.
Neumann Functions — continued.
.r
CfoGr)
C4i(.r)
6-77
Go(a-)
c;i(.i-)
619
+0-3935193
+0-3458055
+0-14988.39
+0-4693276
6-20
+0-3900444
-1-0.3491624
6-78
-1-0-1451867
+0-4701097
6-21
+0-3865361
+0-3524799
6-79
+ 0-1404819
+ 0-4708447
6-22
+0-3829949
+0-.3557578
6-80
-1-0-1357699
+0-4715325
6-23
+0-3794211
1-0-3589958
6-81
+0-1310513
+0-4721732
6-24
+0-3758152
+0-3621937
6-82
+0-1263266
-HO-4727668
6-25
+0-3721774
+0-3653512
6-83
+0-1215962
+0-4733133
6-26
+0-3685083
+0-3684681
6-84
+0-1168605
-hO-4738128
6-27
+0-3648082
+0-3715441
6-85
+0-1121200
+ 0-4742652
6-28
+0-3610775
+ 0-3745790
6-86
+0-1073753
+ 0-4746705
6-29
+0-3573167
-1-0-3775726
6-87
+0-1026268
+0-4750288
6-30
+0-3535262
+0-3805247
6-88
+0-0978749
+ 0-4753401
6-31
+0-3497063
+0-3834350
6-89
+00931202
+0-4756045
6-32
+0-3458576
+0-3863034
6-90
+0-0883630
+ 0-4758220
6-33
+ 0-3419804
+0-3891296
6-91
+ 0-0836039
+0-4759926
6-34
+ 0-3380752
+0-3919135
6-92
+0-0788433
+0-4761164
6-35
+0-3341423
+0-3946547
6-93
+0-0740817
+0-4761934
6-36
+0-3301823
+0-3973532
6-94
+0-0693196
+ 0-4762237
6-37
+0-3261954
+0-4000087
6-95
+ 0-0645575
+ 0-4762074
6-38
+0-3221822
+0-4026211
6-96
+0-0597957
+0-4761445
6-39
+0-3181431
+ 0-4051902
6-97
+ 0-0550348
+ 0-4760351
6-40
+0-3140786
+0-4077157
6-98
+0-0502752
+0-4758793
6-41
+0-3099890
+0-4101975
6-99
+0-0455174
+0-4756771
6-42
+0-3058748
+0-41263.55
7-00
+0-0407618
+0-4754286
6-43
+0-3017.365
+0-4150295
7-01
+ 0-0360090
+0-4751339
6-44
+0-2975744
+0-4173793
702
+0-0312.593
+0-4747932
6-45
+0-2933890
+0-4196848
7-03
+0-0265133
+0-4744065
6-46
+0-2891808
+0-4219457
7-04
+0-0217713
+0-4739738
6-47
+ 0-2849503
+0-4241620
7-05
+0-0170340
-f 0-4734954
6-48
+0-2806978
+0-4263334
7-06
+ 0-012.3016
+ 0-4729713
6-49
+0-2764238
+0-4284600
7-07
+00075747
+0-4724016
6-50
+0-2721287
+ 0-4305415
7-08
+ 0-0028537
+0-4717865
6-51
+0-2678131
+0-4325778
7-09
-0-0018609
+0-4711260
6-52
+0-2634773
+0-4345687
7-10
-0-0065687
+0-4704203
6-53
+0-2591218
+0-4365142
7-11
-00112692
+0-4696695
6-54
+0-2547471
+0-4384142
7-12
-0-0159620
+0-4688738
6-55
+0-2503537
+0-4402685
7-13
-0-0206466
+0-4680333
6-56
+0-2459419
+0-4420769
7-14
-0-0253225
+0-4671481
6-57
+0-2415123
+0-4438395
: 7-15
-0-0299894
-1-0-4662183
6-58
+0-2370652
+ 0-4455560
j 7-16
-0-0346467
+ 0-4652442
6-59
+0-2326012
+0-4472265
7-17
-0-0392941
+0-4642259
6-60
+0-2281208
+0-4488507
7-18
-0-0439311
+0-4631635
6-61
+0-2236244
+0-4504287
719
-0-0485572
+0-4620572
6-62
+0-2191124
+0-4519603
7-20
-0-0531721
+0-4609071
6-63
+0-2145853
+0-4534455
7-21
-0-0577752
+0-4597135
6-64
+0-2100436
+0-4548841
1 7-22
-0-0623662
+ 0-4584764
6-65
+0-2054877
+0-4562762
7-23
-0-0669446
+0-4571962
6-66
+0-2009182
+0-4576216
7-24
-0-0715100
+0-4558729
6-67
+0-1963355
+0-4589203
7-25
-0-0760619
+0-4545067
6-68
+0-1917400
+0-4601723
7-20
-0-0806000
+0-4530979
6-69
+0-1871322
+0-4613774
7-27
-0-08512.38
+0-4516466
6-70
+0-1825126
+0-4625356
7-28
-0-0896328
+0-4501530
6-71
+0-1778816
+0-4636469
7-29
-0-0941267
+0-4486173
6-72
+0-1732398
+0-4647113
7-30
-0-0986050
+ 0-4470397
6-73
+0-1685876
+0-4657287
7-31
-0-1030674
+0-4454205
6-74
+0-1639254
+0-4666990
1 7-32
-0-1075133
+0-4437598
6-75
+0-1592538
+ 0-4676223
7-33
-0-1119424
+0-4420578
6-76
+0-1545731
+0-4684985
7-34
-0-116.3543
+0-4403148
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND^OTHER FUNCTIONS, ^^ 123
Neumann Functions — coiutinued.
7-35
Go(.>-)
Oi(u-)
7-93
Go(a-)
Gi(..-)
-0-1207486
+0-4385310
-0-3328025
+0-2745266
7-36
-0-1251248
+0-4367067
7-94
-0-3355294
+0-2708413
7-37
-0-1294826
+0-4348420
7-95
-0-3382193
+0-2671340
7-38
-0-1338215
+0-4329371
7-96
-0-3408720
+0-2634050
7-39
-01381412
+0-4309923
7-97
-0-3434873
+0-2596548
7-40
-0-1424412
+0-4290079 ,
7-98
-0-3460650
+0-2558838
7-41
-0-1467212
+0-4269841 1
7-99
-0-3486049
+0-2520923
7-42
-0-1509808
+0-4249211
8-00
-0-3511068
+0-2482808
7-43
-0-1552195
+0-4228192
8-01
-0-3535705
+0-2444496
7-44
-0-1594370
+0-4206787
8-02
-0-3559957
+0-2405992
7-45
-0-1636329
+0-4184997
8-03
-0-3583823
+0-2367298
7-46
-0-1678069
+ 0-4162826
8-04
-0-3607302
+0-2328420
7-47
-0-1719585
+0-4140277
8-05
-0-3030391
+0-2289361
7-48
-0-1760873
+0-4117351
8-06
-0-3653089
+0-2250120
7-49
-0-1801930
+ 0-4094051
8-07
-0-3675393
+0-2210718
7-50
-0-1842753
+0-4070381
808
-0-3697303
+0-2171141
7-51
-0-1883337
+0-4046343
8-09
-0-3718816
+0-2131399
7-52
-0-1923679
+ 0-4021940
8-10
-0-3739930
+ 0-2091497
7-53
-0-1963775
+0-3997174
8-11
-0-3760645
+ 0-2051438
7-54
-0-2003621
+0-3972049
8-12
-0-3780958
+ 0-2011227
7-55
-0-2043214
+0-3946567
8-13
-0-3800869
+0-1970867
7-56
-0-2082551
+0-3920731
8-14
-0-3820375
+0-1930362
7-57
-0-2121628
+0-3894644
8-15
-0-3839476
+0-1889717
7-58
-0-2160441
+0-3868010
8-16
-0-3858169
+0-1848937
7-59
-0-2198987
+0-3841131
8-17
-0-3876454
+0-1808024
7-60
-0-2237262
+0-3813910
8-18
-0-3894329
+0-1766983
7-61
-0-2275264
+ 0-3786350
8-19
-0-3911793
+0-1725818
7-62
-0-2312988
+0-3758455
8-20
-0-3928845
+0-1684534
7-63
-0-2350431
+0-3730227
8-21
-0-3945483
+ 0-1643134
7-64
-0-2387591
+0-3701669
8-22
-0-3961707
+0-1601623
7-65
-0-2424464
+ 0-3672786
8-23
-0-3977515
+0-1560005
7-66
-0-2461046
+0-3643579
8-24
-0-3992907
+0-1518283
7-67
-0-2497334
+ 0-3614053
8-25
-0-4007881
+0-1476462
7-68
-0-2533326
+0-3584210
8-26
-0-4022436
+0-1434547
7-69
-0-2569018
+0-3554054
8-27
-0-4036571
+0-1392542
7-70
-0-2604406
+0-3523587
8-28
-0-4050286
+0-1350450
7-71
-0-2639488
+0-3492814
8-29
-0-4063580
+0-1308276
7-72
-0-2674261
+0-3461738
8-30
-0-4076451
+0-1266023
7-73
-0-2708722
+0-3430362
8-31
-0-4088900
+0-1223697
7-74
-0-2742867
+ 0-3398689
8-32
-0-4100925
+0-1181301
7-75
-0-2776695
+0-3366724
8-33
-0-4112525
+0-1138840
7-76
-0-2810201
+0-3334469
8-34
-0-4123701
+0-1096318
7-77
-0-2843383
+0-3301927
8-35
-0-4134452
+0-1053738
7-78
-0-2876238
+0-3269103
8-36
-0-4144776
+0-1011106
7-79
-0-2908764
+0-3236000
8-37
-0-4154674
+0-0968425
7-80
-0-2940957
+0-3202621
8-38
-0-4164144
+ 0-0925700
7-81
-0-2972815
+0-3168970
8-39
-0-4173187
+ 0-0882935
7-82
-0-3004336
+0-3135051
8-40
-0-4181803
+0-0840133
7-83
-0-3035516
+0-3100867
8-41
-0-4189990
+0-0797299
7-84
-0-3066352
+0-3066421
8-42
-0-4197749
+0-0754438
7-85
-0-3096843
+0-3031718
8-43
-0-4205079
+0-0711554
7-86
-0-3126986
+0-2996761
8-44
-0-4211980
+00668650
7-87
-0-3156778
+0-2961554
■ 8-45
-0-4218452
+0-0625731
7-88
-0-3186216
+0-2926101
! 8-46
-0-4224495
+0-0582801
7-89
-0-3215299
+0-2890405
i 8-47
-0-4230108
+0-0539864
7-90
-0-3244024
+0-2854469
8-48
-0-4235292
+0-0496925
7-91
-0-3272388
+0-2818298
8-49
-0-4240047
+0-0453988
7-92
-0-3300389
+0-2781896
8-50
-0-4244372
+0-0411056
124
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — U>13.
Neuinann Functions — coutiuued.
X
Go(.r)
GiGr) 1
X '
(io'x)
(Ai(x)
8-51
-0-4248268
+0-0368134
9-09
-0-3763619
-0-1966875
8-52
-0-4251735
+0-0325227
910
-0-3743773
-0-2002230
8-53
-0-4254772
+0-0282338
9-11
-0-3723575 i
-0-2037348
8-54
-0-4257381
+0-0239471
912
-0-3703027
-0-2072227
8-55
-0-4259562
+0-0196631
9-13
-0-3682131
-0-2106863
8-56
-0-4261314
+0-0153821
9-14
-0-3660890
-0-2141254
8-57
-0-4262638
+00111046
9-15
-0-3639307
-0-2175395
8-58
-0-4263535
+00068310
916
-0-3617383
-0-2209284
8-69
-0-4264004
+0-0025617
9-17
-0-3595122
-0-2242918
8-60
-0-4264047
-0-0017028
9-18
-0-3572525
-0-2276293
8-61
-0-4263663
-0-0059622 ;
9-19
-0-3549596
-0-2309408
8-62
-0-4262854
-0-0102161 j
9-20
-0-3526338
-0-2342258
8-63
-0-4261620
-0-0144641 !
9-21
-0-3502752
-0-2374841
, 8-64
-0-4259961
-0-0187057
9-22
-0-3478842
-0-2407155
1 8-65
-0-4257879
-0-0229406
9-23
-0-3454611
-0-2439196
8-66
-0-4255373
-0 0271683
9-24
-0-3430059
-0-2470961
8-67
-0-4252445
-00313884
9-25
-0-3405192
-0-2502448
8-68
-0-4249096
-0-0356006 i
9-26
-0-3380011
-0-2533653
8-69
-0-4245325
-0-0398044
9-27
— 0-3354519
-0-2564575
8-70
-0-4241135
-0-0439995
9-28
-0-3328720
-0-2595210
8-71
-0-4236526
-00481854
9-29
-0-3302616
-0-2625556
8-72
-0-4231498
-0-0523618 '
9-30
-0-3276210
-0-2655609
8-73
-0-4226054
-0-0565282 !
9-31
-0-3249505
-0-2685368
8-74
-0-4220193
-0-0606842
9-32
-0-3222504
-0-2714829
8-75
-0-4213917
-0-0648296
9-33
-0-3195210
-0-2743991
8-76
-0-4207228
-0-0689638
9-34
-0-3167625
-0-2772851
8-77
-0-4200125
-0-0730865
9-35
-0-3139754
-0-2801405
8-78
-0-4192611
-0-0771972
9-36
-0-3111598
-0-2829652
8-79
-0-4184687
-0-0812957
9-37
-0-3083161
-0-2857590
8-80
-0-4176353
-0-0853815
9-38
-0-3054447
-0-2885215
8-81
-0-4167611
-0-0894542
9-39
-0-3025458
-0-2912526
8-82
-0-4158463
-00935135
9-40
-0-2996198
-0-2939520
8-83
-0-4148909
-0-0975590
9-41
-0-2966669
-0-2966195
8-84
-0-4138952
-0-1015903
9-42
-0-2936875
-0-2992548
8-85
-0-4128593
-0-1056070
9-43
-0-2906819
-0-3018578
8-86
-0-4117832
-0-1096087
9-44
-0-2876505
-0-3044282
8-87
-0-4106671
-0-1135951
9-45
-0-2845935
-0-3069658
8-88
-0-4095113
-0-1175658
9-46
-0-2815113
-0-3094704
8-89
-0-4083159
-0-1215204
9-47
-0-2784042
-0-3119417
8-90
-0-4070810
-0-1254586
9-48
-0-2752726
-0-3143796
8-91
-0-4058068
-0-1293800
9-49
-0-2721167
-0-3167839
8-92
-0-4044935
-0-1332842
9-50
-0-2689370
-0-3191543
8-93
-0-4031412
-0-1371709
9-51
-0-2657337
-0-3214907
8-94
-0-4017501
-0-1410397
9-52
-0-2625073
-0-3237928
8-95
-0-4003205
-0-1448903
9-53
— 0-2592580
-0-3260606
8-96
-0-3988524
-0-1487223
9-54
—0-2559862
-0-3282937
8-97
-0-3973461
-0-1525353
9-55
-0-2526923
-0-3304920
8-98
-0-3958017
-0-1563290
9-56
-0-2493765
-0-3326554
8-99
-0-3942195
-0-1601031
9-57
-0-2460393
-0-3347836
900
-0-3925997
-01638571
9-58
-0-2426810
-0-3368764
901
-0-3909424
-0-1675908
9-59
-0-2393019
-0-3389338
9-02
-0-3892479
-01713038
9-60
-0-2359024
-0-3409556
903
-0-3875164
-0-1749958
9-61
-0-2324829
-0-3429415
904
-0-3857481
-0-1786664
9-62
-0-2290437
-0-3448915
905
-0-3839431
-0-1823154
9-63
-0-2255852
-0-3468053
906
-0-3821018
-0-1859423
9-64
1 -0-2221077
-0-3486829
9-07
-0-3802244
-01895468
9-65
1 -0-2186117
-0-3505240
908
-0-3783110
; -0-1931287
9-66
-0-2150974
-0-3523286
ON TUK TAnUT.ATION OK BKSSEL ANI» OTHER FUNOTrONR. 125
NciiiiKinn F II m: I ions — continued.
.r
Go(.r)
Gi(.r)
i ■''■'
Go(.v)
Gi(.r)
9-67
-0-2115653
I -0-3540965
10-25
+0-0108311
-0-3910216
9-68
-0-2080156
-0-3558275
10-26
+0-0147388
-0-3905127
9-69
-0-2044488
-0-3575216
10-27
+0-0186412
-0-3899656
9-70
-0-2008653
-0-3591785
10-28
+0-0225380
-0-3893805
9-71
-0-1972654
! -0-3607982
10-29
+0-0264287
-0-3887574
9-72
-0-1936495
! -0-3623806
10-30
+0-0303130
-0-3880964
9-73
-0-1900179
-0-3639255
10-31
+0-0341905
-0-3873976
9-74
-01863711
1 -0-3654328
10-32
+0-0380608
-0-3866611
9-75
-0-1827094
! -0-3669024
10-33
+ 0-0419236
-0-3858871
9-76
-0-1790332
-0-3683343
10-34
+0-0457784
-0-3850756
9-77
-0-1753428
-0-3697282
10-35
+0-0496249
-0-3842267
9-78
-0-1716387
-0-3710842
10-36
i- 0-0534628
-0-3833406
9-79
-01679212
-0-3724021
10-37
+ 0-0572916
-0-3824174
9-80
-0-1641908
-0-3736818
10-38
+ 0-0611110
-0-3814573
9-81
-0-1604478
, -0-3749233
10-39
+0-0649206
-0-3804603
9-82
-0-1566925
, -0-3761264
10-40
+ 0-0687201
0-3794266
9-83
-0-1529254
1 -0-37729U
10-41
+0-0725090
- 0-3783563
9-84
-0-1491468
-0-3784172
10-42
-1-0-0762871
-0-3772496
9-85
-0-1453571
-0-3795048
10-43
+0-0800539
-0-3761066
9-80
-0-1415568
-0-3805538
10-44
+0-0838091
-0-3749274
9-87
-0-1377462
-0-3815640
10-45
+0-0875523
-0-3737122
9-88
-0-1339256
-0-3825355
10-46
+0-0912832
-0-3724612
9-89
-01300956
-0-3834682
10-47
+0-0950014
-0-3711745
9-90
-0-1262564
-0-3843620
10-48
+0-0987066
-0-3698522
9-91
-0-1224085
-0-3852168
10-49
+0-1023984
-0-3684940
9-92
-0-1185522
-0-3860327
10-50
+0-1060764
-0-3671018
9-93
-0-1146879
-0-3868096
10-51
+ 0-1097403
-0-3656739
9-94
-0-1108161
-0-3875474
10-52
+0-1133898
-0-3642112
9-95
-0-1069371
-0-3882462
10-53
+0-1170244
-0-3627138
9-96
-01030513
-0-3889058
10-54
+ 0-1206439
-0-3611819
9-97
-0-0991591
-0-3895263
10-55
-1-0-1242479
-0-3596157
9-98
-0-0952609
-0-3901076
10-56
-1-0-1278361
-0-3580153
9-99
-0-0913571
-0-3906497
10-57
+0-1314081
-0-3563810
1000
-0-0874480
-0-3911526
10-58
-1-0-1349636
-0-3547129
1001
-0-0835341
-0-3916163
10-59
-[-0-1385022
-0-3530112
1002
-0-0796158
-0-3920408
10-60
+0-1420237
-0-3512762
1003
-0-0756934
-0-3924261 :
10-61
+0-1455276
-0-3495080
1004
-00717674
-0-3927722
10-62
-t-0-1490137
-0-3477069
1005
-0-0678381
-0-3930791 ,
10-63
+ 0-1524817
-0-3458730
10-06
-0-0639059
-0-3933467
10-64
-1-0-1559311
-0-3440066
1007
-0-0599713
-0-3935751
10-65
+0-1593617
-0-3421079
1008
-00560346
-0-3937644
10-66
-1-0-1627731
-0-3401770
1009
-0-0520962
-0-3939145
10-67
+0-1661651
-0-3382142
1010
-0-0481564
-0-3940255
10-68
+0-1695373
-0-3362198
1011
-0-0442158
-0-3940974
10-69
+0-1728894
-0-3341939
1012
-0-0402746
-0-3941302
10-70
+0-1762211
-0-3321368
1013
-0-0363333
-0-3941240
10-71
+0-1795321
-0-3300487
1014
-00323922
-0-3940787
10-72
+0-1828220
-0-3279299
1015
-0-0284518
-0-3939945
10-73
+0-1860906
-0-3257805
1016
-0-0245125
-0-3938714 ;
10-74
+0-1893375
-0-3236009
10-17
-0-0205740
-0-3937094 '
10-75
+ 0-1925625
-0-3213912
1018
-0-0166384
-0-3935086
10-76
+0-1957653
-0-3191518
1019
-0-0127045
-0-3932690
10-77
+0-1989455
-0-3168828
10-20
-0-0087732
-0-3929908
10-78
+0-2021028
-0-3145845
10-21
-0-0048449
-0-3926739 ;
10-79
+0-2052371
-0-3122571
10-22
-0-0009199
-0-3923185
10-80
+0-2083479
-0-3099010
10-23
+0-0030014
-0-3919246
10-81
+0-2114350
-0-3075163
10-24
+0-0069185
-0-3914923 !
10-82
+0-2144981
-0-3051034
126
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — ]913.
Neumann Functions — continued.
X
Go(.i-)
C4i(.r)
X
Gr)''.i-)
iW(x)
10-83
+0-2175370
-0-3026625 !
11-41
+0-3441456
-0-1232874
10-84
+0-2205513
-0-3001938 :
11-42
+0-3453007
01197334
10-85
+0-2235408
-0-2976977 !
11-43
+ 0-3465402
-0-1161706
10-86
+0-2265051
-0-2951743
11-44
+ 0-3476841
-0-1125994
10-87
+0-2294441
-0-2926240
11-45
+0-3487922 i
-0-1090202
10-88
+0-2323575
-0-2900471
11-46
+ 0-3498644
-01054333
10-89
+0-2352450
-0-2874438
11-47
+0-3509007
-0-1018390
10-90
+ 0-2381063
-0-2848144
11-48
+0-3519011 1
-0-0982378
10-91
+0-2409412
-0-2821592
11-49
+0-3528655
-0-0946300
10-92
+0-2437494
-0-2794784
11-50
+0-3537937
-0-0910159
10-93
+0-2465307
-0-2767724
11-51
+0-3546858
-00873959
10-94
+0-2492848
-0-2740415
11-52
+0-3555416 !
-00837704
10-95
+0-2520114
-0-2712859
11-53
+0-3563611 ;
-0-0801398
10-96
+0-2547104
-0-2685059
11-54
+ 0-3571443
-00765043
10-97
+0-2573815
-0-2657018
11-55
+0-3578912
-00728644
10-98
+0-2600244
-0-2628740
11-56
+0-3586016
-00692204
10-99
+0-2626389
-0-2600226
11-57
+0-3592755
-0-0655727
11-00
+0-2652248
-0-2571481
11-58
+ 0-3599130
-0-0619217
11-01
+0-2677818
-0-2542507
11-59
+ 0-3605140
-00582677
11-02
+0-2703097
-0-2513307
11-60
+0-3610784
-0-0546110
11-03
+0-2728083
-0-2483884
11-61
+0-3616062
-00509521
11-04
+0-2752774
-0-2454242
11-62
+0-3620974
-0-0472912
11-05
+0-2777167
-0-2424384
11-63
+ 0-3625520
-00436288
11-06
+0-2801261
-0-2394312
11-64
+0-3629700
-0-0399653
11-07
+0-2825053
-0-2364030
11-65
+0-3633514
-00303009
11-08
+0-2848541
-0-2333541
11-66
+ 0-3636961
-0-0326360
11-09
+0-2871723
-0-2302848
11-67
+ 0-3640041
-0-0289711
11-10
+0-2894597
-0-2271954
11-68
+0-3642755
-00253064
11-11
+0-2917161
-0-2240863
11-69
+ 0-3645103
-0-0216424
11-12
+0-2939413
-0-2209578
11-70
+0-3647084
-0-0179793
11-13
+0-2961352
-0-2178102
11-71
+0-3648699
-0-0143176
1114
+0-2982975
-0-2146438
11-72
+0-3649948
-00106576
11-15
+0-3004280
-0-2114590
11-73
+0-3650831
-0-0069996
11-16
+0-3025266
-0-2082561
11-74
+0-3651348
-0-0033441
11-17
+0-3046931
-0-2050354
11-75
+0-3651500
+0-0003087
11-18
+0-3066272
-0-2017972
11-76
+0-3651286
+0-0039583
11-19
+0-3086289
-0-1985419
11-77
+0-3650708
+ 0-0076044
11-20
+0-3105980
-0-1952699
11-78
+0-3649766
+ 0-0112467
11-21
+0-3125343
-0-1919814
11-79
+0-3648459
+ 0-0148847
11-22
+0-3144376
-0-1886768
11-80
+ 0-3646789
+ 0-0185182
11-23
+0-3163078
-0-1853565
11-81
+0-3644756
+00221468
11-24
+0-3181447
-0-1820207
11-82
+0-3642360
+00257701
11-25
+0-3199481
-0-1786698
11-83
+0-3639602
+0-0293878
11-26
+0-3217180
-0-1753042
11-84
+0-3636483
+ 0-0329995
11-27
+0-3234542
-0-1719242
11-85
+0-3633003
+ 00366049
11-28
+0-3251565
-0-1685301
11-86
+0-3629162
+0-0402036
11-29
+0-3268248
-0-1651223
11-87
+0-3624962
+0-0437953
11-30
+0-3284589
-0-1617012
11-88
+0-3620403
+00473796
11-31
+0-3300588
-0-1582671
11-89
+0-3615486
+0-0509562
11-32
+0-3316242
-0-1548203
11-90
+0-3610212
+0-0545247
11-33
+0-3331551
-0-1513612
11-91
+ 0-3604581
+ 0-0580848
11-34
+0-3346514
-0-1478901
11-92
+0-3598595
+0-0616362
11-35
+0-3361129
-0-1444074
11-93
+0-3592254
+0-0651785
11-36
+0-3375395
1 -0-1409135
11-94
+0-3585560
+0-0687113
11-37
+0-3389312
! -0-1374087
11-95
+0-3578512
+0-0722344
11-38
+0-3402877
-0-1338933
11-96
+0-3571113
+00757474
11-39
1 +0-3416090
-0-1303677
11-97
+0-3563363
+0-0792499
11-40
) +0-3428950
-0-1268323
11-98
+0-3555263
+0-0827416
UN THE TABULATION OF liKSSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 127
Newnwun Functions — continued.
X
Go(.i')
Gi(,v)
.r
Go(.r)
Gl(.r-)
11-99
+0-3546815
+0-0862222
12-57
+0-2514309
+0-2584717
12-00
+0-3538019
+00896913
12-58
+0-2488347
+0-2607666
1201
+0-3528877
+00931486
12-59
+ 0-2462157
+0-2630338
12-02
+0-3519389
+0-0965938
12-60
+0-2435741
+0-2652730
12-03
+0-3509558
+0-1000266
12-61
+0-2409103
+0-2674841
12-04
+0-3499384
+0-1034466
12-62
+0-2382245
+0-2696669
12-05
+0-3488869
+0-1068535
12-63
+0-2355170
+0-2718212
1206
+0-3478014
+0-1102469
12-64
+0-2327882
+0-2739467
12-07
+0-3466820
+0-1136265
12-65
+0-2300382
+0-2760433
12-08
+0-3455289
+01169921
12-66
+0-2272674
+0-2781109
12-09
+0-3443422
+0-1203433
12-67
+0-2244761
+0-2801492
12-10
+0-3431221
+0-1236798
12-68
+0-2216645
+0-2821581
12-11
+0-3418687
+0-1270012
12-69
+0-2188330
+0-2841374
12-12
+0-3405821
+0-1303073
12-70
+ 0-2159819
+0-2860869
12-13
+0-3392626
+0-1335977
1 12-71
+0-2131114
+0-2880065
12-14
+0-3379103
+0-1368722
12-72
+0-2102219
+0-2898959
12-15
+0-3365252
+ 01401304
12-73
+0-2073136
+0-2917550
12-16
+0-3351077
+0-1433719
12-74
-1-0-2043869
+0-2935837
12-17
+0-3336579
+0-1465965
12-75
+0-2014421
+0-2953818
12-18
+0-3321759
+ 0-1498040
12-76
+0-1984794
+ 0-2971491
12-19
+0-3306619
+0-1529940
12-77
+0-1954992
+0-2988856
12-20
+0-3291161
+0-1561661
12-78
+0-1925018
+0-3005910
12-21
+0-3275387
+0-1593202
12-79
+0-1894875
+0-3022652
12-22
+0-3259298
+0-1624558
12-80
+0-1864566
4-0-3039080
12-23
+0-3242896
+0-1655727
12-81
+0-1834094
+ 0-3055194
12-24
+0-3226184
+0-1686706
12-82
+0-1803463
+ 0-3070991
12-25
+0-3209163
+0-1717493
12-83
+0-1772676
+ 0-3086471
12-26
+0-3191835
+0-1748084
12-84
+0-1741735
+0-3101633
12-27
+0-3174202
+0-1778477
12-85
+0-1710644
+0-3116474
12-28
+0-3156266
+0-1808668
12-86
+0-1679406
+0-3130994
12-29
+0-3138029
+0-1838655
12-87
+0-1648025
+0-3145192
12-30
+0-3119493
+0-1868435
12-88
+0-1616503
+0-3159066
12-31
+0-3100660
+0-1898006
12-89
+0-1584844
+0-3172616
12-32
+0-3081533
+0-1927364
12-90
+0-1553052
+ 0-3185840
12-33
+0-3062114
+ 0-1956507
12-91
+0-1521129
+0-3198737
12-34
+0-3042404
+0-1985432
12-92
+0-1489078
+ 0-3211307
12-35
+0-3022406
+0-2014136
12-93
+0-1456903
+0-3223547
12-36
+0-3002121
+0-2042617
12-94
+0-1424608
+0-3235458
12-37
+0-2981553
+0-2070873
12-95
+0-1392196
+0-3247038
12-38
+0-2960704
+0-2098900
12-96
+0-1359669
+0-3258287
12-39
+0-2939576
+0-2126696 •
12-97
+0-1327031
+ 0-3269204
12-40
+0-2918171
+0-2154258 ■
12-98
+0-1294286
+0-3279787
12-41
H-0-2896492
+0-2181584 '
12-99
+0-1261436
+ 0-3290036
12-42
+0-2874540
+0-2208672
1300
+0-1228486
+0-3299950
12-43
+0-2852319
+0-2235518
13-01
+0-1195439
+0-3309529
12-44
+0-2829831
+0-2262121 :
13-02
+0-1162297
+0-3318771
12-45
+0-2807078
+0-2288478
13-03
+0-1129064
+ 0-3327677
12-46
+0-2784063
+0-2314586
13-04
+0-1096744
+0-3336245
12-47
+0-2760788
+0-2340443
13-05
H-0-1062340
+0-3344475
12-48
+0-2737255
+0-2366047
13-06
+0-1028856
+0-3352366
12-49
+0-2713467
+0-2391396
1307
+ 0-0995294
+0-3359918
12-50
+0-2689428
+0-2416487
13-08
+0-0961659
+0-3367131
12-51
+ 0-2665139
+0-2441318 !
13 09
+0-0927953
+0-3374003
12-52
+0-2640603
+0-2465886
13-10
+00894180
+0-3380535
12-53
+0-2615822
+ 0-2490190
13-11
+00860344
+0-3386726
12-54
+ 0-2590800
+0-2514228
13-12
+0-0826447
+0-3392575
12-55
+0-2565539
+0-2537996
13-13
+00792493
+0-3398083
12-56
+0-2540041
+0-2561493
13-14
+0-0758486
+ 0-3403249
128
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
Nauniann Functions — c-outinued.
X
tio(.v)
Gi(.v)
a-
Go(.r)
Gi(.r)
13-15
+0-0724429
+0-3408073
13-73
-0-1220050
+0-3111202
13-16
+0-0690326
+0-3412554
13-74
-0-1251089
+0-3096586
1317
+0-0656180
+0-3416692
13-75
-01281981
+0-3081673
13-18
+0-0621994
+0-3420488
13-76
-01312722
+0-3066465
1319
+0-0587771
+0-3423941
13-77
-01343310
+0-3050963
13-20
+0-0553516
+0-3427052
13-78
-01373741
+0-3035168 1
13-21
+00519232
+0-3429820
13-79
-0-1404013
+0-3019083
13-22
+0-0484921
+0-3432244
13-80
-0-1434122
+0-3002710
13-23
+0-0450588
+0-3434325
13-81
-0-1464066
+0-2986050
13-24
+0-0416235
+0-3436064
13-82
-0-1493842
+0-2969105
13-25
+0-0381867
+ 0-3437460
13-83
-0-1523447
+0-2951877
13-26
+0-0347487
+0-3438513
13-84
-0-1552879
+0-2934368
13-27
+0-0313098
+0-3439224
13-85
-0-1582134
+0-2916580
13-28
+0-0278703
+0-3439592
13-86
- 0-1611210
+0-2898514
13-29
+00244306
-f-0-3439618
13-87
-0-1640103
+0-2880174
13-30
-1-0-0209912
+0-3439302
13-88
-01668812
+0-2861560
13-31
-|-0-017o522
-1-0-3438645
13-89
-0- 1697334
+0-2842675
13-32
+00141140
+ 0-3437646
1390
-01725665
+0-2823521 '
13-33
+00106770
+0-3436306
13-91
-01753803
+0-2804100
13-34
H-00072415
H- 0-3434625
13-92
-0-1781746
+0-2784414
13-35
-hO-0038078
+0-3432604
13-93
-01809491
+0-2764465
13-36
+0-0003764
+0-3430244
13-94
-01837035
+0-2744256
13-37
-0-0030525
+0-3427544
13-95
-01864375
+0-2723788
13-38
-0-0064786
+0-3424506
13-96
-01891509
+0-2703064
13-39
-00099014
+0-3421130
13-97
-01918435
+0-2682086
13-40
-00133207
+ 0-3417416
13-98
-01945150
+0-2660856
13-41
-0-0167361
+0-3413365
13-99
-01971652
+0-2639377
13-42
-0-0201473
+0-3408978
1400
-0-1997937
+0-2617651
13-43
-00235539
+0-3404255
1401
-0-2024004
+0-2595680
13-44
-0-0269557
+0-3399197
1402
-0-2049850
+0-2573466
13-45
-0-0303522
+0-3393805
1403
-0-2075472
+0-2551012
13-46
-00337432
+ 0-3388080
1404
-0-2100869
+0-2528321
13-47
-00371283
+0-3382022
1405
-0-2126038
+0-2505395
13-48
-00405072
+0-3375633
1406
-0-2150976
+0-2482235
13-49
-0-0438795
+0-3368913
14-07
-0-2175682
+0-2458845
13-50
-00472449
+0-3361863
14-08
-0-2200152
+0-2435227
13-51
-0-0506031
+0-3354484
1409
-0-2224385
+0-2411383
13-52
-0-0539538
+0-3346777
14-10
-0-2248379
+0-2387317
13-53
-0-0572966
+0-3338743
14-11
-0-2272131
+0-2363030
13-54
-00606311
+0-3330383
1412
-0-2295639
+0-2338526 '
13-55
-00639572
+0-3321698
1413
-0-2318901
+0-2313806
13-56
-00672744
+ 0-3312689
1414
-0-2341914
+0-2288874
13-57
-00705824
+ 0-3303358
14-15
-0-2364677
+ 0-2263732 1
13-58
-00738810
+0-3293705
14-16
-0-2387188
-10-2238382 ]
13-59
-00771697
+0-3283732
14-17
-0-2409444
+0-2212828 1
13-60
-00804483
+ 0-3273439
14-18
-0-2431444
+0-2187071 i
13-61
-00837164
-1-0-3262828
1 14-19
-0-2453185
+0-2161115 !
13-62
-0-0869738
-fO-3251901
1 14-20
-0-2474666
+0-2134962
13-63
-0-0902201
+ 0-3240658
14-21
-0-2495884
+ 0-2108615
13-64
-0-0934550
+0-3229102
14-22
-0-2516838
+0-2082077
13-65
-0-0966782
+0-3217233
14-23
-0-2537525
+0-2055351
13-66
-00998894
+0-3205053
14-24
-0-2557944
+0-2028439
13-67
-0-1030882
+0-3192563
14-25
-0-2578093
+0-2001344
13-68
-0- 1062744
+0-3179765
14-26
-0-2597970
+0-1974069
13-69
-01094476
+0-3166660
14-27
-0-2617574
+0-1946617
i 13-70
-0-1126076
+0-3153249
14-28
-0-2636902
+ 0- 1918990
13-71
-01157540
+0-3139535
14-29
-0-2655953
+01891192
i 13-72
-01188866
+0-3125519
, 14-30
-0-2674725
H 01863225
ON THE TABULATION OF BESSEL AND OTHER FUNCTIONS. 129
Neumann Functions — continued.
X
«o(.r)
Gi(a-)
.V
' Go(a-)
Gi(x)
14-31
-0-2693217
+0-1835092
14-89
-0-3244344
+0-0024150
14-32
-0-2711426
+0-1806797
14-90
-0-3244423
-0-0008299
14-33
-0-2729352
+0-1778342
14-91
-0-3244178
-00040726
14-34
-0-2746992
+0-1749729
14-92
-0-3243608
-0-0073127
14-35
-0-2764346
+01720962
14-93
-0-3242715
-00105499
14-36
-0-2781411
+0-1692044
14-94
-0-3241498
-00137839
14-37
-0-2798186
+0-1662978
14-95
-0-3239958
-0-0170143
14-38
-0-2814669
+0-1633767
14-96
-0-3238096
-0-0202409
14-39
-0-2830860
+0-1604414
14-97
-0-3235911
-0-0234633
14-40
-0-2846757
+0-1574921
14-98
-0-3233403
-0-0266812
14-41
-0-2862358
+0-1545292
14-99
-0-3230574
-00298944
14-42
-0-2877662
+0-1515530
15-00
-0-3227425
-0-0331024
14-43
-0-2892668
+0-1485638
15-01
-0-3223955
-0-0363050
14-44
-0-2907374
+0-1455619
15-02
-0-3220164
-0-0395018
14-45
-0-2921780
+0-1425476
15-03
-0-3216054
-0 0426926
14-46
-0-2935884
+0-1395211
15-04
-0-3211626
-00458770
14-47
-0-2949684
+0-1364829
1505
-0-3206880
-0-0490547
14-48
-0-2963180
+0-1334332
15-06
-0-3201816
-0-0522255
14-49
-0-2976370
+0-1303723
15-07
-0-3196435
-0 0553890
14-50
-0-2989254
+0-1273006
15-08
-0-3190738
-0-0585448
14-51
-0-3001830
+ 0-1242183
15-09
-0-3184726
-00616927
14-52
-0-3014098
+ 0-1211258
1510
-0-3178400
-0-0648324
14-53
-0-3026056
+ 01 180234
1511
-0-3171760
-00679636
14-54
-0-3037702
+ 0-1149113
15-12
-0-3164808
-0-0710859
14-55
-0-3049037
+0-1117900
15-13
-0-3157544
-0-0741991
14-56
-0-3060060
+0-1086597
1514
-0-3149968
-00773028
14-57
-0-3070769
+0-1055207
1515
-0-3142083
-0-0803968
14-58
-0-3081164
+01023734
1516
-0-3133889
-0-0834807
14-59
-0-3091244
+00992181
15-17
-0-3125387
-00865543
14-60
-0-3101008
+00960550
15-18
-0-3116579
-00896172
14-61
-0-3110455
+0-0928846
15-19
-0-3107464
-00926692
14-62
-0-3119585
+00897071
15-20
-0-3098045
-0-0957100
14-63
-0-3128396
+0-0865228
15-21
-0-3088322
-0-0987393
14-64
-0-3136889
+0-0833321
15-22
-0-3078297
-01017567
14-65
-0-3145063
+0-0801353
15-23
-0-3067971
-0-1047620
14-66
-0-3152917
+0-0769327
15-24
-0-3057345
-0-1077550
14-67
-0-3160450
+0-0737246
15-25
-0-3046420
-0-1107352
14-68
-0-3167661
+0-0705114
15-26
-0-3035198
-0-1137025
14-69
-0-3174551
+0-0672934
15-27
-0-3023680
-0-1166565
14-70
-0-3181120
+0-0640708
15-28
-0-3011867
-0-1195969
14-71
-0-3187366
+0-0608441
15-29
-0-2999761
-0-1225235
14-72
-0-3193289
+0-0576135
15-30
-0-2987363
-0-1254361
14-73
-0-3198889
+0-0543793
15-31
-0-2974675
-0-1283342
14-74
-0-3204165
+0-0511419
15-32
-0-2961697
-0-1312177
14-75
-0-3209117
+0-0479017
15-33
-0-2948432
-01340863
14-76
-0-3213745
+0-0446589
15-34
-0-2934880
-0-1369396
14-77
-0-3218049
+0-0414138
15-35
-0-2921044
-0-1397774
14-78
-0-3222028
+00381668
15-36
-0-2906925
-0-1425994
14-79
-0-3225682
+00349182
15-37
-0-2892525
-0-1454055
14-80
-0-3229011
+0-0316683
15-38
-0-2877845
-0-1481952
14-81
-0-3232015
+0-0284175
15-39
-0-2862887
-0-1509684
14-82
' -0-3234694
+0-0251660
15-40
-0-2847652
-0-1537247
14-83
-0-3237048
+0-0219142
15-41
-0-2832143
-0-1564639
14-84
; -0-3239077
+0-0186624
15-42
-0-2816360
-0-1591858
14-85
-0-3240781
+0-0154110
15-43
-0-2800306
-0-1618901
14-86
-0-3242159
+0-0121602
15-44
-0-2783983
-0-1645765
14-87
! -0-3243212
+0-0089104
15-45
-0-2767391
-0-1672448
14-88
, -0-3243940
+0-0056619
15-46
-0-2760534
-0-1698948
1913.
130
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Neumann Functions — continued.
X
Go(^-)
Gi(x)
X
GouO
Gi(.i-)
15-47
-0-2733413
-0-1725261
15-74
-0-2178739
-0-2356711
15-48
-0-2716030
-0-1751385
1 15-75
-0-2155071
-0-2376877
15-49
-0-2698386
-0-1777318
15-76
-0-2131203
-0-2396794
15-50
-0-2680484
-01803057
15-77
-0-2107136
-0-2416460
15-51
-0-2662326
-0-1828600
15-78
-0-2082874
-0-2435872
15-52
-0-2643913
-0-1853945
15-79
-0-2058420
-0-2455029
15-53
-0-2625248
-0-1879088
! 15-80
-0-2033775
-0-2473930
15-54
-0-2606332
-0-1904029
1 15-81
-0-2008943
-0-2492573
15-55
-0-2587168
-0-1928764
15-82
-0-1983925
-0-2510955
15-56
-0-2567757
-0-1953291
15-83
-0-1958724
-0-2529076
15-57
-0-2548102
-0-1977608
15-84
-0-1933344
-0-2546934
15-58
-0-2528205
-0-2001712
15-85
-0-1907787
-0-2564527
15-59
-0-2508068
-0-2025602
15-86
-0-1882055
-0-2581853
15-60
-0-2487694
-0-2049274
15-87
-0-1856151
-0-2598912
15-61
-0-2467084
-0-2072727
15-88
-0-1830077
-0-2615701
15-62
-0-2446240
-0-2095959
15-89
-0-1803837
-0-2632219
15-63
-0-2425165
-0-2118967
15-90
-0-1777434
-0-2648464
15-64
-0-2403861
-0-2141750
15-91
-0-1750869
-0-2664436
15-65
-02382330
-0-2164305
15-92
-0-1724146
-0-2680132
15-66
-0-2360575
-0-2186630
15-93
-0-1697267
-0-2695552
15-67
-0-2338598
-0-2208723
15-94
-0-1670236
-0-2710693
15-68
-0-2316401
-0-2230582
15-95
-0-1643055
-0-2725555
15-69
-0-2293987
-0-2252205
15-96
-0-1615726
-0-2740136
15-70
-0-2271358
-0-2273590
15-97
-01588253
-0-2754436
15-71
-0-2248516
-0-2294735
15-98
-01560638
-0-2768452
15-72
-0-2225464
-0-2315638
15-99
-0-1532885
-0-2782184
15-73
-0-2202204
-0-2336297
16-00
-0-1504996
-0-2795630
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere, in co-operation with a
Committee of the Royal Meteorological Society. — Twelfth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. W. N. Shaw
(Chairman) , Mr. E. Gold (Secretary), Messrs. D. Archibald,
C. J. P. Cave, and W. H. Dines, Dr. E. T. Glazebrook,
Sir Joseph Larmor, Professor J. E. Petavel, Dr. A.
Schuster, and Dr. W. Watson.
A MEETING of the Joint Committee was held in the rooms of the
Royal Meteorological Society on April 8, 1913. It was decided to
continue the ascents at Mungret College, Limerick, with funds pro-
vided by the Eoyal Meteorological Society, and to approve of the
allocation of the grant of 501. made by the Association at Dundee to
the purchase of instruments and balloons for the meteorologist accom-
panying the ice ship ' Scotia,' Mr. G. I. Taylor, Schuster Eeader in
Meteorology.
Ascents have been made at Mungret College on July 6, 31,
October 4, November 7, 1912, January 3, July 3, 1913, and also on
four days during the International week (May 5-10), when observations
were obtained which, in conjunction v»ith others made at Pyrton Hill
and Eskdalemuir (forming with Limerick a nearly equilateral triangle),
give a remarkable series in illustration of the structure of a cyclonic
1
ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE.
131
disturbance having its centre near Limerick on three of the four days
A brief summary of the results obtained is given in the accompanying
table.
The results of ascents at Barbadoes have been discussed in a paper
by Mr. J. S. Dines, read before the Eoyal Meteorological Society.
Mr. Taylor, who returned at the end of August, I'eports that owing
to continued unfavourable weather and other conditions no ascents of
registering balloons could be undertaken with any prospect of regaining
the balloon and instrument. He succeeded, however, in obtaining a
valuable set of kite observations, especially on occasions of fog, and a
report on these will appear in due course.
In view of the possibility of a further opportunity of investigation
over the ocean next spring, the Committee ask for reappointment with
a grant of 25L
Summary of Registering Balloon Ascents at Limerick, July 1912 to July 1913.
!
Place of Pall
Appro.xi-
mate
Pressure
at Sea
Character of
Date
Time
Maxi-
mum
Height
H..
Tc.
Gra-
1 dient
! Velo-
! city
Gra-
dient
Direc-
tion
Curvature of
Isobars,
(a = anticyclouic,
c= cyclonic,
Dist-
ance
Direc-
tion
s=straight)
1912
a.m.
km.
km.
o
km.
°A.
m/s.
,
mm.
July 6 . .
7.15
15
55
320
10.1
221
?
?
765
No gradient
„ 31 . .
7.15
14.8
107
56
9.0
227
12
155
751
October 4
7.0
15.7
88
160
«
«
13t
225+
777
a
November 7 .
7.15
14.1
131
82
11.9
208
15
220
768
s
1913
January 3
7.15
9.8
27
85
9.0
225
11
225
752
s
May 5 . .
7.0
11.3
60
130
9.4
217
?
?
756
Irregular
„ 6 . .
7.12
14.9
12
30
8.2
225
13
330
750
c
„ 7 . .
7.7
10.5
32
355
7.8
223
17
350
743
c
„ 9 . .
7.13
14.2
56
327
7.3
222
13
130
744
c
July 3 . .
7.17
15.3
66
192
11.9
207
7
7
770
a
• The temperature gradient above 9 km. is so irregular that no definite value can be assigned
to He
t Gradient at 6 p.m. At 7 a.m. the station was in the central calm area of au autioyclone
Radiotelegraphic Investigations. — Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir Oliver Lodge {Chairman), Dr. W. H. Eccles
{Secretary), Mr. Sidney G. Brown, Dr. Erskine Murray,
Professors J. A. Fleming, G. W. 0. Howe, ayul H. M.
Macdonald, Captain H. Eiall Sankey, and Professor Sil-
van us Thompson.
At a meeting held on June 13, 1913, the Committee came to the
conclusion that the most urgent and most profitable work they could
promote was the investigation of the following large-scale phenomena :-
1. The influence of sunrise and sunset, of daylight and dark-
ness, and of meteorological conditions, on the propagation of
electric waves over long distances ;
2. The origin and the laws of ' strsiys ' — i.e., natural electric
waves.
K 2
132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
These are subjects which seem particularly suitable for the British
Association, since they are such as cannot be efficiently pursued by
uncoordinated individual effort.
In order to promote the necessary widespread observations, the
Committee propose to draw up a simple scheme of instructions which
will be circulated to amateurs throughout this country, and also,
with the permission of the Companies concerned, to operators on ships.
These instructions would include directions for simultaneous observa-
tions of. forexnmple, the strength of the time-signals from such stations
as the Eiffel Tower, and the average strength and frequency of strays.
The observations would subsequently be classified and reduced by this
Committee ; and it is felt that this work would open up at once an
almost unexplored, and exceedingly promising, branch of research —
one which cannot be entered upon in any other way. It is, of course,
essential that the work should be carried out over a very large area and
by very numerous observers ; and after full consideration of this fact
the Committee resolved to apply for a grant of 200L to enable the work
to be started in a thorough manner.
Estahlishinq a Solar Ohservatory in Australia. — Beport of the
Committee, consisting of Sir David Gill (CJiairman) ^ Dr.
W. G. DuFFiBLD (Secretary), Rev. A. L. Cortib, Dr.
W. J. S. LocKYER, Mr. F. McClean, and Professors A.
Schuster and H. H. Turner, appointed to aid the work of
Estahlishinq a Solar Ohservatory in Australia.
The following Resolution was passed by the Council of the Eoyal
Meteorological Society in October 1912: —
' The Council of the Royal Meteorological Society desires to asso-
ciate itself with the movement to establish a Solar Observatory in
Australia and expresses the decided opinion that such an observatory in
the longitude of Australia or New Zealand is essential for the elucida-
tion of the connection between solar changes and meteorological con-
ditions upon the earth. It regards with great satisfaction the oppor-
tunity at present afforded to the Government of Australia of acquiring
the equipment necessary to initiate this work.'
The opportunity referred to was the offer of the balance of the
necessary equipment of a Solar Observatory which comprised a spectro-
heliograph, pyrheliometer, and Littrow spectrograph. The Fisher
Ministry did not at the time see its way to the immediate acceptance
of this offer on the ground that ' the establishment of scientific observa-
tories is a matter for the future, and the organisation of such institu-
tions should perhaps be left in the hands of those who may at some
future time be appointed to take charge of them. '
Mr. Fisher's Ministry passed out of office during the year and has
been succeeded by that of Mr. Cook. The new Ministry has been
ON ESTABLISHING A SOLAR OBSERVATORY IN AUSTRALIA. 133
uppi-oaclied with a view to their carrying tlie intentions of tlie i)revioua
Coahtion Cabinet into effect.
It is understood that the Commonwealth Government contemplates
the erection of a Solar Observatory upon a large scale, but it is unlikely
that any further step will be taken before the British Association visits
Australia next year, when, it is officially announced, a report embodying
observations of the intended site which have been made for a period
of more than a year will be presented and further advice sought.
News has reached England of the offer by Mr. Cawthron, of Nelson,
New Zealand, of 15,000L to erect a Solar Observatory in the neigh-
bourhood of that town. Miss Proctor, to whom belongs the immediate
credit of obtaining the munificent offer, had previously lectured in
Australia in support of the Solar Observatory to be established in
that country.
Need still exists for a Solar Observatory in lower southern latitudes
than that of Nelson, New Zealand, and Mr. C. G. Abbot writes
urging that the Australian Observatory shall undertake the study of
Solar Radiation, for which he regards the conditions as favourable.
In spite of the Government's attitude towards the recent offer of
apparatus, the Commonwealth will shortly accept delivery of the
Parnham telescope. This is the last of the three telescopes accepted
in 1909 when the Commonwealth Government offered lOOL for its
repair and alteration for Australian latitudes. A prominence spectro-
scope has been added to it out of the funds provided.
At the International Solar Union at Bonn in August 1913, it was
proposed by Professor Campbell, Director of the Mount Hamilton
Observatory, that the resolution passed at Meudon in 1907 be re-
affirmed, and that the desirability of the erection of an Australian
station be again urged upon the Commonwealth Government.
Experiments for improving the Construction of Practical Stan-
dards for Use in Electrical Measurements. — Report of the
Committee, consisting of Lord Eayleigh (Chairman), Dr.
E. T. Glazebrook (Secretary), Professors J. Perry and
W. G. Adams, Dr. G. Carey Foster, Sir Oliver Lodge,
Dr. A.Muirhbad, Sir W. H. Preece, Professor A. Schuster,
Dr. J. A. Fleming, Professor Sir J. J. Thomson, Dr. W. N.
Shaw, Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Eev. T. C. Fitzpatrick,
Professor S. P. Thompson, Mr. J. Eennib, Principal E. H.
Griffiths, Sir Arthur Eucker, Professor H. L. C.\llendar,
Professor T. Mather, and Mr. F. E. Smith.
The republication of the Eeports of the Committee from 1862 to
1870 and from 1881 to 1912 is now complete. The volume consists
of about 800 pages, with several plates, and is published by the
Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Association.
The Committee are indebted to Mr. R. K. Gray for a generous
donation towards the expenses of the republication, and are glad to report
134 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
that the Council have taken over the volume as a publication of the
Association.
During the year the death of Mr. G. Matthey, F.K.S., has deprived
the Committee of a valued colleague. His ready help was always
given when questions dealing with the purity of the metals required
for the work of the Committee were under discussion.
In 1861 the first work to be undertaken by the Committee was the
realisation of the absolute unit of resistance. In 1882, 1883, 1888,
1894, and again in 1897, other measurements were made by members
of the Committee, and in this their last Eeport they are pleased to
be able to announce a further development. The new Lorenz apparatus
at the National Physical Laboratory is now complete, and measure-
ments of resistance can be made by means of it with an uncertainty
of not more than a few parts in 100,000. During the present year
a large number of such measurements have been made, and the results
obtained are now being prepared for jDublication.
A satisfactory feature oi the machine is that it can be used at
all times for absolute measurements, and the plans adopted for the
re-determination of the dimensions of the coils ensure an accuracy in
the future as great as that obtained in the recent measui'ements. The
nominal values of the resistances measured are O'OOl, 0"002, and
,0*01 ohm. As an instance of the care taken, it may be mentioned
that the dimensions of the coils have been measured with a current
flowing through them, and the radius of a disc 63 cm. in diameter
has been determined within O'Ol mm. when running at 1,200 revolu-
tions per minute. Electrical methods of setting the coils parallel and
coaxial with the shaft proved to be more sensitive than the usual
methods, and a Wheatstone bridge with a condenser in one arm proved
to be the most sensitive indicator of constancy of speed. This instru-
ment, together with the Ayrton-Jones current balance, enables the
fundamental electrical units to be realised with an accuracy sufficient
for all present purposes. It is hoped to re-wind the coils of the current
balance and leave them uncovered with paraffin wax so that their
dimensions may be determined at any time.
The Committee are pleased to report that the original rotating-coil
apparatus, designed by Lord Kelvin in 1861, is in good condition,
and steps are being taken for its inclusion in the Science Museum,
South Kensington. Some rough measurements of resistance were
made by the apparatus in the spring of this year, and the coils used
by Lord Eayleigh in 1882 were also experimented with. An account
of the apparatus is given in the Secretary's ' Kelvin ' Lecture to the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
A statement on international comparisons of resistances and
standard cells was included in last year's Eeport and sufficiently
indicates the arrangements that have been made for the maintenance
of constant electrical standards in the future. The Committee regard
these arrangements as satisfactory. They do not ask for reappoint-
ment.
ON THE STUDY OF HYDRO-AROMATIC SUBSTANCES. 135
The Study of Hydro -aromatic Substances. —Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. H. Perkin {Chairman),
Professor A. W. Crossley {Secretary), Dr. M. 0. Forster,
Dr. H. K. Le Sueur, and Dr. A. McKenzie.
1. Bromoxylenols obtained from dimethyldihydroresorcin^ — During
the past year work has been largely concerned with the transformation
of certain hydro-aromatic substances into bromoxylenols. These con-
versions were originally noticed^ during the action of phosphorus
pentabromide on dimethyldihydroresorcin, when the main initial pro-
ducts are not bromoxylenols, but are hydro-aromatic in nature, the prin-
cipal ones isolated being dibrorao- and tribromodimethylcyclohexenones.
As the original reaction is very complicated, it was decided to study
the transformations using the pui'e above-mentioned cyclic ketones, and
as a result of the work so far concluded it has been established that :
(a) The action of heat on dibromodimethylcyclohexenone (I) gives
vise to 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol (II) and 6-bromo-o-4-xylenol (III).
CH,
am,),
H,,C| |CH,
CBi-
OH
II. HI.
In the first of these rearrangements a methyl group has wandered,
as previously noted, from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 2; but in the
second case from carbon atom 1 to carbon atom 6.
{b) The action of dilute alcoholic potassium hydroxide on dibromo-
dimethylcyclohexenone gives rise to 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol and
4 : 5-dibromo-o-3-xylenol (V).
(c) Tribromodimethylcyclohexenone (IV) gives, under the influence
of heat or alcoholic potassium hydroxide, mainly 4 : 5-dibromo-o-3-
xylenol (V) and another bromoxylenol, which has not, so far, been
characterised.
C(CH,), CHj
H,C, ^CHBr
C Br Br
IV. V.
The constitutions of 5-bromo-o-3-xylenol, 6-bromo-o-4-xylenol, and
1 : 5-dibromo-o-3-xylenol have been definitely established by synthetic
methods.^
2. Derivatives of isopropyldihydroresorcin. — The method for the
preparation of isopropyldihydroresorcin * has been improved so as to
yield 75 per cent, of the theoretical amount of the dihydroresorcin.
» Troc. C.S., 1912, 28, 332. « j.c.s., 1903, 83, 110. ^ J.C.S., 1913, 103.
^ J.C.S., 1902, 81, 675.
136
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
l-Isopropylcyclohexan-3-ol and l-isopropylcyclohexan-3-one have
been prepared, and it is intended to use them as starting-points for the
px-eparation of several meta-terpene derivatives.
The Transformation of Aromatic Nitroamines and Allied Sub-
stances, and its Relation to Substitution in Benzene Deriva-
tives. — Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
F. S. Kipping (Chairman), Professor K. J. P. Orton
(Secretary), Dr. S. Euhemann, and Dr. J. T. Hewitt.
The Transformation of Acetylchloroaminohenzenes and the Chlorination
of Anilides. The Reactions of Chloroamines in Aqueous Solution.
[With W. H. Gray, B.Sc]
In a previous report, • we have given a summary of the results of a large
number of experiments on the transformations of chloroamines into the
isomeric chloroanihdes : Ar . NCI . Ac ^Cl Ar . NH . Ac ; it was shown that
this change could not be regarded as an intramolecular rearrangement, but
consisted primarily of a reversible reaction of hydrogen chloride with the
chloroamine : thus,
Ar . NCI . Ac + HCl ->Ar . NH . Ac + C1,,->C1 Ar . NH . Ac + HCl,
followed by a direct irreversible interaction of chlorine and the aniUde.
In these experiments the medium was aqueous acetic acid containing
not less than 50 per cent, of acetic acid. We have now examined the
behaviour of acetylchloroaminobenzene in pure aqueous solution, and have
discovered an interesting modification of the ordinary reaction.
The production of hydrogen chloride during the transformation of a
chloroamine, in the presence of hydrogen chloride, was first indicated by
Blanksma,^ who foimd that the amount of this acid at the end of the
reaction was slightly greater than that originally introduced. Moreover,
it was demonstrated by Chattaway and Orton ^ that any change of the
chloroamine which occurred in the presence of other acids — for example
sulphuric — was invariably accompanied by the appearance of hydrogen
chloride. The first quantitative experiments were made by Orton and
Jones (compare Reports, 1910). These were carried out in an acetic acid
medium containing from 0-35 per cent, of water, both in the presence and
absence of various acids. The following table shows some of the results : —
Table I.
Medium
Acid
Time of Reaction
Chloroamine
Disappeared
Chloroamine
Reduced
Per cent.
65 HA
none
H.,SO,
HiSfO,
HCIO,
Days
22
13
7
9
Per cent.
50-8
49-16
54-96
48-0
Per cent.
6-04
11-2
3-72
18-67
' Reports, 1910.
- Recueil des Trav. Chim. 1903, 22, 290.
Proc. Chem. Soc. 1902, 18, 200.
TRANSFORMATION OF NITROAMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 137
The following experiment serves as a comparison when a chloroamine,
which cannot yield an isomeride, is used : —
65 per cent. HA H.,SO, 16 clays 8-25 per cent. 81 per cent.
In the following experiments hydrogen chloride (1 molecular proportion)
is initially present : —
Per cent.
Glacial puriss. Reaction complete 3-24
,, ordinary. ,, 6-0
93-4 per cent, puriss. ,, 1-96
75 per cent, puriss. „ 1-84
There can be little "doubt as to the manner of this reduction. In all
aqueous media some hydrolysis of the chloroamine occurs :—
Ar . NCI . NAc + H.^O ^ HCIO + Ar . NH . Ac.
The reduction of hypochlorous acid is rapid in aqueous acetic acid
even when carefully shielded from light. From an aqueous solution
of chloroamine it is possible to distil off hypochlorous acid under
reduced pressure. Thus at 25° and under 13-9 mm. the first .50 cc.
of distillate from 250 cc. of a 0-1 per cent, solution of a chloro-
amine had a titre of 2-57 cc. of N/20 thio. No chlorine was foixnd in the
distillate, and there was no loss of chloroamine from the mother hquor
other than by hydrolysis. The distillation of an equivalent solution of
hypochlorous acid showed that the hydrolysis of the chloroamine is not
extensive ; for the first 50 cc. gave a titre of 30 cc. N/20 thio.
Reditction of the Chloroamine, in Aqueous Solution. — The behaviour of
acetylchloroaminobenzene in pure water would be expected to show a
marked difference from that in concentrated acetic acid media on several
grounds. If it be granted that the mechanism of tlie isomeric transforma-
tion consists in a reaction between chloroamine and hydrogen chloride,
yielding anilide and chlorine, which then react to form the C-chloro-
derivative, any extensive hydrolysis of the chlorine should lead to ab-
normalities and retard the production of chloroanilides. Jakowkin^
showed that the reversible hydrolysis of chlorine, which is governed by the
equation KfCl.,] = [HCIO] [HCl]', is very extensive in dilute aqueous
solution. Thus, for example, over 90 per cent, of the chlorine at a con-
centration of 0-05 per cent, and less is present as hypochlorous and
hydrochloric acids. From the form of the equation it will be seen that
the proportion of free chlorine in the system would rapidly increase as the
concentration of hydrogen chloride was raised ; according to Jakowkin in
solutions of hydrogen chloride above 0-1 N very little of the chlorine is
present as hypochlorous acid. Above these limits of concentration of
hydrogen chloride, therefore, the ordinary conversion of chloroamine
would predominate.
Our experimental study is generally in harmony with these anticipa-
tions. With a high concentration of hydrogen chloride, the main reaction
is a transformation of the chloroamine into monochloroacetanilides, but
with low concentrations the reactions are greatly modified. In fact, the
behaviour with hydrogen chloride then closely resembles that with other
acids.
Aqueous solutions of acetylchloroaminobenzene change very slowly
< Zeit. f. Physik. Chem., 1899.
i;38 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 11»13.
if due regard is had to the purity of the water, and the protectiou of the
solution from contamination with reducing materials. At 2.5° a 0-1 per
cent, aqueous solution of this chloroamine drops only a few per cent, in
titre in the course of several weeks ; at 60°, however, .50 per cent, has
disappeared in 38-5 hours. The addition of small quantities of an acid
(1-2 molecular proportions, which give a concentration of 0-0058-0-0116)
increases the rate of change, which is, however, still very slow ; about .50
per cent, of the chloroamine disappears in one month at 25°, but in less
than a day at 60°. There is no great difference between different acids,
including hydrochloric, in their effect. Careful examination of the re-
actions, which lead to a fall in titre both in aqueous and highly dilute acids,
discloses the fact that the principal change is a simple reduction of the
chloroamine to anihde and hydrogen chloride ; at the same time a small
and very variable amount of chlorate appears. The production of chloro-
anihdes is quite subsidiary. The most obvious interpretation of the facts is
that the chloroamine is hydrolysed :
Ar . NCI . Ac + H^O ^ HC104- Ar . NH . Ac
and the hypochlorous acid then reduced. It is not so easy to see how
the latter change is brought about. Both an aqueous solution of
hypochlorous acid and also solutions containing a strong acid are quite
stable. Moreover, the pure anilide does not reduce hypochlorous acid ;
the sole interaction is the equihbrium represented above. It seems most
probable that the reduction is effected by aniline arising from the hydrolysis
of the anilide — a change which has been shown to occur, but slowly, under
the circumstances. The hydrolysis of the anihde in pure water is yet
slower than in acids, and hence the permanence of solutions of chloro-
amine in this medium at ordinary temperatures. The development of the
characteristic colour reactions of aniHne with liypochlorous acid in the
course of the change is in harmony with this suggestion. Further, aniline
is particularly effective as a reducing agent for hypochlorous acid, since
one molecular proportion reduces several of the acid.
At higher concentrations of the acids (0-023 N) the specific effect of
hydrogen chloride appears ; but with the other acids the speed of hydro-
lysis and reduction is merelj' increased. But even with very great excess
of hydrogen chloride, when the disappearance of the chloroamine is rela-
tively rapid, the hydrolysis and reduction can still be detected as a sub-
sidiary reaction. The formation of hydrogen chloride by reduction in the
experiments with other acids is the obvious cause, as previously indicated,
of the production of the small quantities of chloroanilide.
Method of Experiment. — Aqueous solutions of acetylchloroaminoben-
zene containing about 1 gram per litre were used, the reactions being
carried out at 25° and 60°. After more than 50 per cent, of the chloroamine
has disappeared, the hydrogen chloride is estimated. The remaining
chloroamine (and the very small amount of hypochlorous acid) is reduced
by arsenite, and the chloridion weighed as silver chloride. In order to
estimate any chlorate which has been formed from the hypochlorous acid
the reduction in another portion is carried out by sulphite. The chloro-
anilide is assumed to be given by difference, but it is quite possible that
some chlorine disappeared in the oxidation of the aniline or in chlorinating
free aniline. Some of the results are shown in Table II.
TRANS FORM ATtON OF NITRO.AMINES AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. 139
Table 11.
Aci.l
Tempera-
ture
Percentage
of Chloroaniine converted into :
(a) C'l'
(b)Cr + CIO.'
If) Chloroanilide
HCl (2 mob.) .
25°
54-24
8-12
37-64
H.,SO, (1 mol.)
jj
68-77
12-74
18-52
H.,SO, (4 mols.)
jj
65-39
15-46
J9-14
HNO;, (1 mol.)
^,
76-56
5-59
17-85 :
{COOH)..(lmol.)
„
74-36
—
25-64
HCl (10 mols.)
,,
12-2
—
87-78
HCl (20 mols.)
,,
7-73
—
92-28
HCl (4 mols.) .
fiO"
25-42
3-93
70-65
HCl (10 mols.)
GO"
11-47
—
88-54
HCl(2moK) .
58-5°
43-76
9-36
46-98
Water
60°
63-59
—
36-42
H,SO, (1 mol.)
60°
60-85
12-19
26-96
H,SO< (10 mols.
60°
73-86
0-91
25-23
The times wliicli the reaction occupies in various cases are very different.
The chlorination of the anihde is in an aqueous medium an extremely rapid
reaction (Orton and Jones, loc. cit.), and hence in circumstances when
chlorine and anilide are present at relatively liigh concentrations, the
chloroaniine rapidly disappears, and a large proportion of chloroaniUde is
formed. This condition is reaHsed when the concentration of the hydrogen
chloride is sufficiently raised, for, as was shown in the foregoing, the hypo-
chlorous acid is then replaced by chlorine : H'+ CI' + HCIO - Cl^+HvO,
and further hydrolysis of the chloroaniine follows from disturbance of tho
equilibrium : Ar . NCI . Ac + H2O ^ Ar . NH . Ac + HCIO.
The time of the half-change in a number of the experiments is shown in
Table III.
T.VBLE III.
E\pt rinient
Acid
HCl (2 mols.)
Tempera-
ture
Half-period
Percentage of
Chloroanilide
25°
16-75 days
37-64 '
11
HCl (2 mols.)
60°
8-2 hours
43-6
in
HCl (4 mols.)
60°
2-8 hour.s
70-65
IV
HCl (10 mols.)
60°
40-5 mins.
88-54
V
H.,SOj (1 mol.)
25°
31-5 days
18-52
VI
H.,SO, (4 mols.)
25°
11-3 days
19-14
Vll
H.,SO, (1 mol.)
60°
18-7 hours
26-96
\aii
H.SO^ (10 mols.)
60°
4-9 hours
25-23
(i) A comparison of the experiments in which hydrogen chloride was
used with that in which sulphuric acid was used at equivalent concentra-
tion (i with V and ii with vii), whether at 25° or 60°, shows that with
double the production of chloroaniUde, the speed of the disappearance of
chloroamine is also approximately doubled.
(ii) With increase in the concentration of the hydrogen chloride, the
production of chloroaniUde rapidly increases. Raising the proportion of
hydrogen chloride from 10 to 20 mols., roughly quadruples the speed, but
only slightly raises the proportion of chloroaniUde (from 88 to 92 per cent.).
(iii) Increase in the concentration of the sulphuric acid is accompanied
by an increase in the rate of disappearance of the chloroamine. But in
marked contrast to the effect of hydrogen chloride, the reaction is still
140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913;
identical ; tlie production of cliloroanilide and the reduction remain in
the same proportion.
These results illuminate some recent observations of Rivett'' on the
* transformation ' of acetylchloroaminobenzene in aqueous solution. In
one series of experiments he used hydrogen chloride, biit never below a
concentration of 0-1351. Although the values for
ki/[HCl]2 (= 0-0413-0-0419)
between the limits of •2702-0-4797 for [HCl], are very close, he
seeks for an explanation of the slightly divergent values outside these
limits of concentration only in the degree of ionisation of the hydrogen
chloride, and in the secondary influences of the ions on one another or on
the unionised molecules on the ions. Our demonstration of the existence
of a subsidiary side reaction would indicate another cause for the diver-
gence from strict constancy of the expression ki/ [HCl]^. We have pre-
viously attempted (Eeports 1910) to show how this relation, ki/ [HCl]'^
= const., is accounted for on our view of the transformation.
The speed of the formation of chloroanilides is given by the equation :
d [chloroanilide] / di = Jcu [CI2] [anilide] = hi K [chloroamine] [HCl]^,
since
K [chloroamine] [HCl]'^ = [CI 2] [aniUde],
from the equilibrium :
Ar.NCl.Ac+H'+Cl'v-Cl. + Ar.NH.Ac;
Hence as chloroamine is the only variable,
d [chloroanilide] / rfi = {kn . K [HCl]') [chloroamine] = hi [chloroamine].
Apart from the completeness of the ionisation of the hydrogen chloride,
and apart from the slight increase in the concentration of the hydrogen
chloride during the reaction, the quantity of chloroamine in the equation
is supposed to be sensibly identical with that used in the preparation of the
system, the reaction with hydrogen chloride being disregarded. These
approximations would imdeniably cause variation in the expression,
^•i/[HCl]-^.
The final form of the equation is not changed if the hydrolysis of the
chloroamine is taken, as seems necessary in an aqueous medium, as the
first step.
Ar . NCI . Ac + H,0 .Ar . NH . Ac+HClO and HClO+H' + Cl'.-Cl^+H.O.
For
K^ [chloroamine] [H.^O] = [aniUde] [HCIO],
Kb [CI2] [H2O] = [HCIO] [HC1]^
Ka [chloroamine] / Kb [CL,] = [anilide] / [HCl]^,
or
K [chloroamine] [HCl] ' = [CL] [anilide].
In Rivett's experiments with a pure aqueous medium, and also with
other acids, he fails to recognise that the transformation of the chloroamine
to the chloroanihdes is merely a side-reaction, and that hydrolysis and
reduction are tlie primary changes. His measurement of the rate of dis-
' Zeit. j. Physilc. Chem., 1913, 82, 201.
TRANSFORMATION OF N1TR0AMINE3 AND ALLIED SUBSTANCES. HI
appearance of chloroamine iu these solutions led him to the conclusion
that hydrogen chloride was produced, but he does not determine the
amoimt of hydrogen chloride, and thus misses this fact. Without attempt-
ing to examine his views as to the series of changes (reversible) by which
he supposes hydrogen chloride to be produced, it may be stated that he does
not suggest the reduction of chloroamine or hypochlorous acid. Moreover,
it may be pointed out that the pink or purple colour referred to above,
which appears during the decomposition of the chloroatnine, is without
doubt identical with the ordinary colour reaction of bleaching powder
and aniline, and not as is suggested due to a compound, Ar . Nx . Ac,
produced together with hydrogen chloride in a reversible reaction with the
acid :— Ar . NCI . Ac + Hx v- Ar . Nx . Ac + HCl.
Sumviary.
1. The decomposition of acetylchloroaminobenzene iu pure aqueous
solution, or in the presence of all acids including hydrochloric, at a very low
concentration is mainly hydrolysis and reduction of the hypochlorous
acid :
Ar . NCI . Ac + H„0 ^ Ar . NH . Ac + HCIO
Ar . NH . Ac + H^O^Ar . NHo + CH, . CO.H.
x(HClO) 4- Ar . NHo^ (Ar . NH.^ + xO) + xHCl.
The transformation of the chloroamine into chloroanihdes, which
follows from the formation of hydrogen chloride, is quite subsidiary.
2. With higher concentrations of hydrogen chloride, more chlorine
appears in the system from the reaction H' + CI' + HCIO ^ CIj + H.jO.
According to Jakowkin's measurements, chlorine is nearly completely
hydroiysed in water at concentrations below 0-05 in the absence of excess
of hydrogen chloride, whilst on the other hand in solutions of hydrogen
chloride above 0-1 N, hydrolysis of the chlorine is nearly absent. Hence,
now that chlorine and anilide are both at relatively high concentrations,
the transformation of chloroamine to chloroanilide is the main reaction.
3. With acids other than hydrogen chloride, increase iu the concentra-
tion cannot cause a similar change in the reaction.
4. The results of the study of the decomposition of chloroamine in
aqueous solution are in complete harmony with the earher view as to the
part played by hydrogen chloride in the conversion of chloroamines to the
isomeric chloroanihdes.
The Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 201.
The Report is a summary of the work which has been carried out. A
detailed account of the experimental work will be pubhshed later in one
of the chemical journals.
Dynamic Isomerism. — Rej)ort of the Committee, consisthuj of
Professor H. E. Armstrong {Chairman) , Dr. T. M. Lowry
(Secretary), Professor Sydney Young, Dr. C. H. Desch,
Dr. J. J. Dobbie, and Dr. M. 0- Forster. (Drawn up by
*he Secretary.)
A. Rotatory Dispersion.
The past year has witnessed the culmination of an investigation that
has a close relationship to the main line of research for which the
142 BEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Committee is responsible. The marked progress that has been made
in the study of rotatory dispersion may be shown by the hst of papers
which have been pubhshed during the year. These include a paper on
' Optical Eotatory Dispersion, Part I. The Natural and Mag-
netic Eotatory Dispersion in Quartz of Light in the Visible
Eegion of the Spectrum' ('Phil. Trans.,' 1912, A. 212,
261-97),
which will be followed shortly by Part II., in which the extension
of the poiarimetric method through the ultra-violet and infra-red regions
of the spectrum will be described.
The application of these new physical methods to the study of
chemical problems is described in a second series of papers, of which
the following have been published already, or are in preparation for
publication in the autumn :
' The Rotatory Dispersive Power of Organic Compounds. '
I. The Measurement of Eotatoiy Dispersion (' Trans. Chem. See.,'
1913, 103, 1062-1067).
II. The Form of the Eotatory Dispersion Curves (' Trans. Chem.
Soc.,' 1913,103,1067-1075).
III. The Measurement of Magnetic Eotatory Dispersion C Trans.
Chem. Soc.,' 1913, 103, 1322-1331).
IV. Magnetic Eolation and Dispersion in some simple Organic Liquids
(' Proc. Chem. Soc.,' June 19, 1913).
V. A Comparison of the Optical and Magnetic Eotatory Dispersion
in some simple Organic Liquids.
VI Anomalous Eotatory Dispersion (' Proc. Chem. Soc.,' June 5,
1913).
Attention may also be directed to a paper by Armstrong and Walker
on ' The Causes of Variation in the Optical Eotatory Power of Organic
Compounds and of Anomalous Eotatory Dispersive Power ' (' Proc. Eoy.
Soc.,' 1913, A. 88, 388-403), in which the close relationship between
rotatory dispersion and dynamic isomerism is specially emphasised.
The general result of these investigations has been to show that a
knowledge of the phenomena of dynamic isomerism is essential for the
interpretation of optical rotation, especially in the case of liquids which
show anomalous rotatory dispersion ; conversely, it is believed that the
study of rotatory dispersion will open up a new and fruitful field for
the investigation of dynamic isomerism in the case of large groups of
important compounds.
B. Successive Isomeric Changes.
The past year has also seen the completion of a long series of
experiments on the complex isomeric changes which take place in the
amide and piperidide of camphor-carboxylic acid. Nearly five years
ago it was discovered that these substances were capable of giving
inflected mutarotation curves. An investigation of ' The Equations for
Two Consecutive Unimolecular Changes ' (Lowry and John, ' Trans.
Chem. Soc.,' 1910, 97, 2634-2645) showed that inflected curves might
be produced by two successive isomeric changes, but the experimental
ON DYNAMIC ISOMERISM. 143
curves were found to be more complex, giving indications of at least
three successive changes involving four isomeric compounds. These
experiments have been described in detail in two papers published during
the past year (Glover and Lowry, ' Trans. Chem. Soc.,' 1912, 101,
1902-1912; 1913, 103, 913-924).
Experiments are now in progress with a view to investigating
Forster's a-benzoyl camphor, the enolic form of which has been found
to give inflected mutarotation curves when ethylene chloride is used as
a solvent in place of chlox'oform. Even nitrocamphor has been found
to give inflected curves if dissolved in ethylene chloride or in benzene
(Lowry and Courtman, 'Trans. Chem. Soc.,' 1913, 103, 1216), but
it is believed that these are due to the gradual absorption of a catalyst
from the walls of the polarimeter tube, and not to successive isomeric
changes.
0. Influence of Light.
A series of experiments on the influence of light on isomeric change
(Lowry and Courtman, 'Trans. Chem. Soc.,' 1913, 103, 1214-1221)
has shown that no marked acceleration is produced by exposing nitro-
camphor, glucose, galactose or maltose to the action of powerful ultra-
violet light. In the case of aminomethylene camphor, however, verj-
marked acceleration occurs whilst the Light is acting, but the actioii
reverts to its original slow rate of change when the light is withdrawn.
In the case of (enolic) a-benzoyl camphor a similar acceleration is pro-
duced, but the effect continues after the light has been extinguished;
it is believed that this permanent stimulation of the action is due to the
liberation of benzoic acid acting as a catalytic agent.
The Study of Plant Enzymes, particularly with relation to
Oxidation. — Second Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. A. D. Hall (Chairman) , Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Secre-
tary), Professor H. E. Armstrong, Professor F. Keeble, and
Dr. E. J. EussELL.
The inquiry has been continued in various directions during the past
year, as shown by the following list of communications to the Eoyal
Society : —
(a) Herbage Studies. II. Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium
repens, cyanophoric plants. By IT. E. Armstrong, E. F. Armstrong,
and E. Horton.
(b) Studies on Enzyme Action. XIX. Urease. II. Observa-
tions on Accelerative and Inhibitive Agents. By H. E. Armstrong,
M. S. Benjamin, and E. Horton.
(c) Studies on the Processes operative in Solution (XXX.) and on
Enzyme Action (XX.). The nature of enzymes and of their action as
hydrolytic agents. By E. P. Armstrong and H. E. Armstrong.
(d) Studies on Enzyme Action (XXt.). Lipase. III. By H. E.
A.rmstrong and H. W. Gosney.
(e) The Pole of Oxydases in the Formation of the Anthocyan Pig-
144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
ment of Plants. By P. Keeble and E. F. Armstrong [in the ' Journal
of Genetics '] .
(/) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. IV. The
Chromogens. By F. Keeble, E. P. Armstrong, and W. N. Jones.
(g) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. V. The
Chromogens of White Flowers. By W. N. Jones.
(h) The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. VI. By
F. Keeble, E. F. Armstrong, and W. N. Jones.
Considerable progress has been made in elucidating the part played
by oxidising catalysts in the production of plant pigments. By means
of suitable agents — in particular benzidine and a-naphthol — oxydases
and peroxydases can be localised in plants both in the flower petals
and in the vegetative parts. Evidence has been accumulat-ed in favour
of the hypothesis that the soluble sap pigments of plants are formed
by the oxidation of a colourless chromogen through the agency of an
oxydase. The method has been applied with success to certain pro-
blems in genetics.
The sap pigment may be reduced to the colourless chromogen by
the agency of a reducing substance. Such a change takes place when
the coloured cell is stimulated by a hormone (a substance which pene-
trates the cell membrane) under conditions in which the amount of
water present is a minimum. When the conditions are reversed and
there is an excess of water in the system, the chromogen is reoxidised.
Both the reducing substance and the reduced pigment are soluble in
aqueous alcohol of a suitable strength (90 per cent.). After extraction
of a coloured petal by alcohol of this strength, both the solution and
the extracted petal are colourless; hut they can be caused to recover
their original colour — the solution on evaporation of the alcohol
and dissolution of the residue in water, the petal on warming in
water. There is evidence that the flower contains an excess of
chromogen beyond that normally converted into pigment. The
reducing substance is not destroyed by boiling : it cannot therefore
be classed as an enzyme. The experiments afford proof of the exist-
ence of an oxidising-reducing mechanism in the cell sap which controls
the formation of flower colour and is itself regulated by the condition of
concentration of the cell sap. Dilution favours oxidation, concentra-
tion alters the balance in the opposite direction.
Very little progress has yet been made in determining the chemical
nature of the sap piginents. The researches of A. G. Perkin have made
it almost certain that the soluble yellow pigments belong to the class of
hydroxyflavones of which quercetin is the best known representative.
On genetical grounds there is strong evidence in favour of regarding
these yellow pigments as antecedents of the red, magenta, and blue sap
pigments. By hydrolysis and subsequent reduction and oxidation or by
hydrolysis and oxidation, red pigments have been obtained from a
number of yellow flowers, such, for example, as the wallflower, daffodil,
and primrose; it is possible that the coloured varieties of these species
may arise in a similar manner.
The most fruitful discovery during the year has been the proof
afforded by Chodat that the action of tyrosinase on an amino- acid,
ON THE STUDY OF PLANT ENZYMEi?, 145
e.g.,, glycine,, gives rise to tlie production of fonnaldeliyde,
amnionia, and carbon dioxide. Elements are thus available for
the production of all manner of complex compounds and the method
has a wide application. Starting, for example, from a mixture
of the glucoside arbutin with glycine, it is possible, by the action
of emulsin and an oxydase at the ordinary temperature, to obtain
first a red compound, then a brownish black substance, as well
as a volatile compound possessing the characteristic odour of ripe
plums. In short, both the colour and odour of the ripe fruit are
obtained by a biological synthesis from the glucoside and an amino-
acid. This synthesis appears of general application and is being further
studied. Presumably the colours produced in this manner are those
characteristic of the fruit and leaves of the plants rather than of the
flower petals. The interaction appears to involve the oxidation of the
phenolic constituent of the glucoside either to an ortho- or to a para-
quinone, the condensation to quinhydrone and the interaction of this
compound with ammonia and formaldehyde. Meta- phenols do not
undergo the same transformation.
Erratic Blocks of the British Isles. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. E. H. Tiddeman (Chairman), Dr. A. E.
DWERRYHOUSB (Secretary), Dr. T. G. Bonney, Mr. F. W.
Harmer, Eev. S. N. Harrison, Dr. J. Horne, Mr. W.
Lower Carter, Professor W. J. Sollas, and Messrs. Wm.
Hill, J. W. Stather, and J. H. Milton.
England.
Reported hy the Rev. A. Irving, D.Sc, B.A., and Mr. Percy A.
Irving, B.A.
Localities all in the Upper Start Valley.
1. Thorley, Herts. (Boulder Clay.) 230 feet to 240 feet (O.D.).
(1) Hypersthene Andesite (Sin. by 7 in. by 4 in., weight 12 lbs.).
From the Boulder Clay. This is the same rock as an eiTatic recorded
as ' trap ' in the 1911 Report, from Parsonage Lane, which has been
recognised by Mr. G. Campbell Smith, of the British Museum (Natural
Histoiy), as ' quite comparable with some of the Cheviot andesites, and
may be referred to that district provisionally. ' Subangular, columnar,
both blocks extensively bleached by the leaching-out of the iron in
weathering. Fragments of this rock not uncommon in the Rubble-
Drift.
(2) Coarse Phyllite (13 in. by 12 in. by 5 in.) intersected by a
network of vein-quartz, considerably weathered with oxide of iron on
the divisional planes. It closely resembles the rock continuous with
the coarser type of slate of the Swithland quarries (Chai'nwood).
(3) Angular slab (5^ in. by 6 in. by li in). Fine-grained sandstone
(coal-measures?), pressure-scarred and coarsely striated on one surface.
1913. L
146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
2. Maple Avenue, Bishop's Stortford. (Rubble-Drift.) 300 feet.
(O.D.) All derived immediately from the glacial drift of the
Herts plateau.
Phyllite (subangular), fragment of a larger slab (3 in. by 2 in. by
f in.) : derived from the older and higher ' Drift ' of the Herts
plateau. This specimen strongly resembles some of the highly
altered bedded ' ash ' of Snowdonia.
Dolerite : bomb (broken), 2 in. in diam.
Fliul: extremely weathered ami devitrified (cortex of one extensively
flaked), probably result of Miocene weathering of the quondam
' Mercian ' chalk. (See Eeport in the 1911 volume, pp. 131 ff.)
Limestone : vermiculate, weathered, probably from the Cornbrash
or the Lias (6 in. by 5 in. by 2 in.).
Sandstone, cuboidal block, very hard and fine-grained
(2^ in. by 2 in. by 2 in.): Eothliegendes (?).
The erratics found here have mostly been obtained in the excavations
connected with the horse skeleton described at Sheffield (in 1910),
with further comparative anatomical notes at Portsmouth (1911),
Section H; see clso Repoi'ttothe Special Committee in the 1911 Eeport
(pp. 131 ff.). As a whole erratics from this source are far more exten-
sively ' weathered ' than those found in the Harlow Till, the Chalky
Boulder Clay of the lower plateau, and the still yoimger Valley Boulder
Clay at Thorley, where it is intercalated with the contorted gravels.
3. Hockerill Vicarage. (Excavations in Eubble-Drift.) 230 feet to
240 feet (O.D.).
(a) Quartz-porphyry : deeply weathered on exterior. Felspar more
or less kaolinised throughout, suggesting a Bunter pebble
(4 in. by 3 in. by IJ in.).
(b) Quartz-porphyry: slab-like, subangular; more felsitic in texture
than (a), slightly kaohnised.
Dolerite (3 in. by 2^ in. by 1| in.) : and several smaller fragments-
Hypersthene Andesite : several fragments.
Basalt : several fragments.
Rotelschiefer (3 in. by 3 in. by li in.) from Eothliegendes.
Rhaxella Chert (4 in. by 2 in. by 3 in.) : several smaller fragments,
4. Hallingbury Road. (Gravel-pit) (B.S. Urban Dist. Council.)
Quartz-porphyry (3 in. by 3 in. by li in.).
Bedded Ash (6 in. by 5 in. by 3 in.).
Same with included fragments (3 in. by 2 in. by 1^ in.).
Palaozoic Conglomerate (5 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).
SiUcified Wood (?) (8 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).
Boulder of vein-qiiartz (7 in. by 4 in. by 3 in.).
Several blocks of millstone-grit and of older grits (probably of
Cambrian age).
All from the ' interglacial sands, '210 feet to 230 feet (O.D.), which
are strongly current-bedded : probably dropped by ice-rafts.
Reported by Mr. Thomas Sheppabd, F.G.S., F.S.A.
Excavations continue to be made in the gravel pits at Burstwick
and Kelsey Hill in Holderness. In the latter pit enormous quantitiesf
ERKATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 147
of gravel have been removed, and have revealed many interesting
mammalian remains, including the bone of a seal, which is the first
record for that species from the Holderness drifts.
Ireland.
Reported by the Committee of the Geological Section of the Belfast
Naturalists' Field Club.
The Committee record the extension of the area of distribution of
Ailsa Craig Eiebeckite-eurite to Moys, two miles west of the Eoe, by
Madame Christen; the rock has also been found for the first time at
Limavady, Kilrea, Aghalee, Drumaneway, Dervock, and the White
Mountain, north of Lisbui-n; at the latter locality it was found by
Mr. Eobert Bell, at an elevation of 800 feet.
Dungannon , Tyrone, Briclcfield. Brown Boulder-Clay, overlain by
black Boulder-Clay. Erratics: — Jasper, green rock series of Mid-
Tyrone — red granite, ironstone nodules, dolomitic limestone, red lime-
stone, concretionary iron ore, sandstone (probably local) — porphyritic
syenitic granite, quartz-porphyry, probably Slieve Gallion — quartzit-e,
diorite, epidiorite, Dalradian series, chalk, flint, gneiss, basalt,
Carboniferous conglomerate.
Portstewart, Sand-hills. Epidiorites, metamorphic grits, granite,
quartzites, arkose, porphyritic felsite, metamorphic sandstone,
Dalradian, from Londonderry, Donegal, or Scotland — rhyolite
(? trachyte), Tertiary series, Antrim — coarse granite, orthoclase rock
(syenite group), granite-porphyry, syenite, Slieve Gallion, quai'tzite,
porphyries — granite, riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — schist, altered
diabase with epidote.
Limavady, Ballast-Pit near Railway Station. Erratics: — Riebeckite
rock, Ailsa Craig — gabbro, hypersthenite (Slieve Gallion) — meta-
morphosed grit, epidiorites, quartzite, vein quartz — fine gneiss,
granulite, Tyrone — red granites, hornblende schist — diorite, with
granular ground.
Derrybeg Briclcfield, Limavady, Boulder-Clay. Erratics: — Meta-
morphosed grit, Carboniferous sandstones, quartzite, diorite with
granular ground, mica hornblende-schist, red and pink granites, crushed
felsite, epidote granite with hornblende.
Moys, nearly four miles S. of Limavady, Gravel-Pit, Knockandunn.
Erratics: — Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — fine-grained granite — meta-
morphosed grits and sandstones, quartzite — pink granite. Carboniferous
sandstone — gneiss.
Aghadowey, Gravel-Pit, Clare Hill. Erratics: — ^Micropegmatitic
gi'anite, quartz -poi-phyry, grey granites — crushed granite — quartzite,
felsite, metamorphosed grit — vein quartz, epidiorite.
Kilrea Gravel-Pits. Erratics: — Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — red
and pink granites, green phyllite, rhyolite, diorite, gabbro — red
Carboniferous limestone — coarse gneiss, dark red granite — quartzite.
Cavanmore Boad, Gravel-Pit three miles from Kilrea. Erratics: —
Hornblendic granite, quartzites, grey granite, red granites — meta-
L 2
148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
morphosed sandstone, crushed felsite — limestone, probably Carboni-
ferous — dark red granite, diorite, flints.
Garvagh Quarries. Boulder-Clay and ' Sands and Gravels.'
Erratics: — Numerous red and pink granites, grey granite, hornblendic
lamprophyre (camptonite?). andesite, pebbly grits, quartz-porphyries,
syenite (Slieve Gallion) — mica schist, metamorphosed grits, quartzit-e.
Coohsiown District, Gravel-Pits. Erratics: — Numerous red and
pink granites, grey granite, aplite vein, felsites, felsite porphyries,
syenites, diorites, crushed fragmental rock, ophitic gabbro, quartz-
hornblende-porphyry, pink pegmatite, quartz -porphyry, Slieve Gallion
— dolerite — ^banded granite, gneiss, metamorphosed sandstones and
grits, quartzite (Dalradian).
Coalisland, Sand- and Gravel-Pits, fine current bedding. Erratics : —
Syenite, grey, pink, and red granites, hornblendic granite, crushed
felsite, felsite porphyries, quartz-porphyries, fine-grained gneiss,
hvpersthenite or pyroxenite, granite porphyries, lamprophyre, felsites,
Slieve Gallion — gneiss — quartzite, reddened by haematite, I'ed band of
Slieve Gallion — andesite, Tyrone Devonian — flint.
Sherrygroom Gravel-Pit, about five miles South of Cookstown.
Erratics: — Crushed conglomeratic sandstone (Dalradian), epidiorite
(Dalradian). syenites. felsit« porphyry, granite (aplite in), lamprophyre,
pink granites, hornblende schist, Slieve Gallion — granites, Barnes-
more (?) — andesite, Tyrone Devonian — diorite, Slieve Gallion or
Tyrone axis — gneiss — flint, basalt, mica schist.
' Blue Door ' or ' Finger ' Gravel-Pit, near Cookstown. Erratics: —
Ped granites, syenites, hornblendic gi'anites, Slieve Gallion — chalk,
flint, quartzit-e.
Glasgow Bill, esker one mile north of Cookstown. Erratics: —
Hornblendic granite, including pieces of diorite, coarse felsite porphyry,
granite with inclusions of mica schist, hornblendic granites, syenite,
diorites, porphyritic felsite, Slieve Gallion — granulitic gneiss, epidiorite,
chalk flint breccia (local) — flints, basalts, chalk, quartz.
Aghalee, Section of Sands and Gravels overlying basalt in a quarry
south of the Aghalee Bridge over Lagan Canal. Eiratics : —
Eiebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — granites, hornblendic granites, diorites,
syenite, aplitic gi-anite, quartz-felsite (altered rhyolite), Slieve Gallion —
fine-grained sandstone, rhyolite, clay ironstone, jasper, flint, chalk,
mica schist, white quartz.
Cullion Glen, North Slieve Gallion, Boulder-Clay overlying
Carboniferous limestone. Erratics: — Carboniferous conglomerate —
haematite and quartz, Red band Slieve Gallion — sheared felsite, Tyrone
axis to West — andesites, quartz andesite, syenites, granites, hornblendic
rock, diorites, camptonitic lamprophyre, local — chalk, flints, jasper,
schist, red sandstone, quartz.
Carmean, esker close to Railway Station, about two miles North of
Monevmore. Sands and Gravels. Sands of a red colour, and
numerous pink granites common throughout the section — jasper,
haemntite ore. fine graine^l sandst-on-e — granites, syenites, hornblende
granite, diorite, Slieve Gallion — Carboniferous conglomerate, sand-
stone (probably Lower Carboniferous), crushed pegmatite.
ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. 149
Driunanewaij, esker two miles west oi Raiulalbtow ii. Erratics; —
Kiebeckite rock, coarse and fine, Ailsa Craig — rliyolite.
Dervock, Carncullagh Gravel-Pit, one mile to East. Erratics: —
Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — rhyolite, pink granites, mica felsites,
gneiss, mica schists, quartz schists, fine granite, quartzites, granite
and quartz vein — granite, felsite with quartz and mica, sandstone.
Ballymoney, very small Gravel-Pits, Seacon. Erratics: — Rhyolite
— felsite, quartz-felsite — felsite, altered rhyolite. Heagles: — Rhyolite
— chalk with manganese dendrites, granite, granulitic felsite, felsite,
ironstone, quartzite. Ballybrates : — Ferrugmous sandstone, gneiss,
felsite, red granite from N.E. Another small pit near (Darcus) con-
sisted almost entirely of basalt boulders in a stiff matrix, but sand-
stone, red granite, and flint recorded.
Macfin, Gravel-Pit right bank of Bann near Macfin Station.
Erratics: — Granites, diorites, aplites, quartzites, felsites, flint, quartz.
Coleraine, Hillman's Fancy Sand-Pit, near Railway Station.
Erratics: — Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — pink granites, porphyritic
granite, crushed felsite, pegmatite vein in granite, diorite, granite in
diorite, andesite, granite, quartz felsite, syenite, felsite, red granite,
porphyritic felsite, jasperised rock (?), felsite, granite with micaceous
knots, andesite — chalk, flint, quartz, quartzite.
Monaghaii. Erratics: — Ferruginous jasperised shale, local, pos-
sibly Bally jamesduff area — sandstone, local — white chert, Carboniferous
limestone — from canal bank — calcareous pebbly sandstones, limestone,
dolerite, calcareous grit, sandstones, all local — felsite (?), local. From
Threemile House, S. of Monaghan — felspathic grit ?Silurian — felsite
porphyry, (?) Slieve GuUion — quartzite, quartz vein — sandstone, local,
metamorphosed grit, chert, local. From esker eight miles from
Monaghan — calcareous sandstone with cemented coating of pebbles,
felsp. grit, felsite, chert, limestone, sandstone, local — felsite porphyry,
(?) Slieve Gullion.
Ballymiirphy, Belfast (Springfield Brick-works), Boulder-Clay over-
lying Trias. Erratics: — Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig — chalk, flint,
chalcedony, basalt, quartzite, quartz, clay ironstone, dolerite, Rhgetic,
Lias, Old Red Sandstone, weathered granite.
Portrush, New Waterworks, Boulder-Clay. Grey granite. West of
Scotland.
Glenoe, Boulder-Clay. Rhyolite (Tardree type) and a few imperfect
fossils.
Armagh. Granite invading hornblende rock, Tyrone axis.
Maghaherry , near Moira. Hornblendic granite — epidiorites, Done-
gal or Tyrone type, also Co. Derry type — quartzite, mica schist, Ailsa
Craig rock 12 in. x 7 in. x 6 in.
White Mountain, North of Lisburn. Riebeckite rock, Ailsa Craig,
from an elevation of 800 feet.
Lagan, Bricl(field. Porphyritic felsite, hornblendic gi'anite.
150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913,
Investigation of the Igneous and Associated Rocks of the Glensaul
and Lough Nafooey Areas, Cos. Mayo and Galway.— Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Watts
(Chairman), Professor S. H. Eeynolds {Secretary), Mr.
E. G, Carruthees, and Mr. C I. Gardiner.
Mb. Gardiner and the Secretary visited the Lough Nafooey district
in April 1913 and completed their work in the field. A general
account of the structure is given in the report presented at the Dundee
Meeting (1912), page 143, and the work of the present year did not
disclose any additional facts of primary importance. It is hoped to
bring an account of the Lough Nafooey district before the Geological
Society during the coming session.
The Committee has now completed its work and does not seek
reappointment.
The Preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils. — Interim
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. F.
Kendall {Chairman), Mr. W. Lower Carter {Secretary),
Mr. H. L. Allen, Professor W. S. Boulton, Professor G.
Cole, Dr. A. E. Dwerryhouse, Professors J. W. Gregory,
Sir T. H. Holland, G. A. Lebour, and S. H. Eeynolds,
Dr. Marie C. Stopes, Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E. Marr,
Dr. A. Vaughan, Professor W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward, appointed for the considera-
tion thereof.
During the year, in response to the request of the Committee, lists
of fossils characteristic of the various geological formations have been
prepared and sent in by specialists, to whom the sincere thanks of
the Committee are due. The arrangement of these lists into a whole
has been undertaken and the result will be issued in print, at an
early date, to the members of the Committee, and subsequently to
teachers of geology throughout the United Kingdom.
The Committee ask for reappointment with a grant of 51.
The Upper Old Red Sandstone of Dura Den. — Preliminary Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Horne {Chairman),
Dr. T. J. Jehu {Secretary), Mr. H. Bolton, Mr. A. W. E.
Don, Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. B. N. Peach, Dr. E. H. Traquair,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward, appointed for the further
exploration thereof.
The Committee now present a preliminary report regarding the excava-
tions for fossil-fishes in the Upper Old Eed Sandstone at Dura Den,
ON THE UPPER OLD RED SANDSTONE OF DURA DEN. 151
Fife. At the outset they desire to acknowledge the courtesy of Mr.
Bayne-Meldrum, of Balmungo, the proprietor, who kindly granted
permission to continue the work and gave facilities for extending the
operations.
The excavations, begun so successfully by the Dundee local com-
mittee in 1912, ceased during the meeting of the British Association
in September last. They were not resumed till May 5, 1913, when
our Committee took the work in hand. They have been carried on
continuously since that date with marked success.
A definite plan has been followed in conducting these excavations.
The sandstone layer, rich in fish remains, is restricted to a zone
about 2 inches thick. It lies at an average depth of 9 feet from
the surface, and is overlain by about 4 feet of comparatively barren
sandstone, capped by about 4 feet of loose superficial materials. It
was arranged that the fish-bearing zone should be uncovered and
removed in successive sections. The first section laid bare 11 square
yards of the rich layer, the second 23 square yards, and the work now
in progress w-ill expose 28 square yards when completed.
The contractor was authorised to proceed with the third section
on July 3, when the Chairman, the Secretary, and Mr. Don met at
Dura Den. When this work is finished and. the ground levelled, the
outlay will exceed the British Association grant of 751. Mr. Bolton,
of the Bristol Museum, has kindly offered a contribution of 121. on
condition that some of the fossils be given to that museum. The Com-
mittee have accepted this offer, and should further funds be required,
the money will be raised privately.
The fish-remains obtained from the first and second sections have
been stored in an adjoining shed under lock and key. Those from
the third section will be placed beside them. Dr. Smith Woodward
is expected to undertake the determination of the fish-remains. A list
will appear, together with a ground plan of operations, in the detailed
report to be presented to Section C in 1914.
The Committee cordially acknowledge their obligations to Mr.
Dunlop, from Dunfermline, who, at the request of the Chairman,
undertook to superintend the work on the spot.
The Committee ask authority to distribute the fish-remains to various
public institutions.
Geology of Ramsay Island^ PemhroTceshire.— Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. A. Steahan (Chairman),
Mr. Herbert H. Thomas (Secretary), Mr. E. E. L. Dixon,
Dr. J. W. Evans, Mr. J. F. N. Green, and Professor O. T.
Jones.
The Committee have to report that the grant made to them to aid
Mr. ,T. Pringle in carrying out his researches in the West of Pembroke-
shire has been spent.
They have also to report that considerable progress has been made
152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
in the detailed mapping of the island, and a great number of fossils and
rocks has been collected.
The southern half of the island, excluding the high ground of Carn
Llundain, has been found to consist of Didymograptus bifidus shales,
which have been invaded by a large mass of quartz-porphyry. At Foel
Fawr these shales, with thick beds of tuff, ai'e conformably overlain by
dark grey rhyolites. Carn Llundain itself is built up of a series of
rhyolites, brecciated and banded tuffs, and thin beds of highly altered
sediments. A quartz -porphyry also occurs as an intrusive rock and is
indistinguishable from the large mass mentioned above. At Ogof
Colomenod there is a remarkable conglomerate. The lavas have proved
to belong to a volcanic outburst which took place in Lower Llanvirn
time.
In the northern half of the island a portion of the gi'ound occupied
by Lingula Flags and Didymogi'aptus extensus beds has been mapped
out, and a large collection of fossils has been made from the so-called
Tremadoc deposits, the T). extensus beds, and the Lower Llanvirn.
Many of the rock specimens have been sliced, and together with the
collection of fossils are undergoing investigation.
Neither the field-work nor laboratory examinations ai'e yet complete,
and the Committee ask that they may be reappointed with a grant
of lOZ.
The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland. — Report
of the Committee, consistinq of Professor Grenville Cole
(chairman), Professor T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. J. W.
Evans, Dr. E. Kidston, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
appointed for the Exploration thereof.
During the year further exploration of the Upper Devonian deposits
at Kiltorcan, co. Kilkenny, has brought to light more material of the
stem of Archaopteris hihernica and of, apparently, the stem of
Sphenopteris Hooheri, of which up to the pi'esent scraps of foliage
only had been found. Kiltorcan is particulai'ly rich in remains of
.4. hihernica and of Bothrodevdron hiltorkense. A few fish scales
were also found.
The Committee thought it desirable to examine other possible
sources of Devonian fossils. Accordingly Tallow Bridge (co. Water-
ford) was visited. The ' linear ' plant recorded from the Old Red
Sandstone there proved to be a Bothrodendron. It is very abundant
at the particular exposure sketched by J. B. Jukes in 1855. A little
material of (apparently) Arch(enT)ier\s hihernica was found.
This locality would repay thorough exploration. Your Committee
recommends its reappointment and a total grant for 1913-14 of 20Z.,
inclusive of the balance of 97. odd.
OCCUPATION OF A TABLE AT ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES, 153
Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor S. J.
HiCKSON {Chairman), Mr. E. S. Goodrich (Secretary),
Sir E. Eay Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh, Dr.
S. F. Harmer, Mr. G. P. Bidder, Mr. W. B. Hardy, and
Professor A. D. Waller, appointed to aid competent Investi-
gators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.
Since the last report of the Committee was written the table at
Naples has been occupied by the Hon. Miss Mary Palk from July 5,
1912, to April 16, 1913, and by Dr. Stuart Thomson from March 25,
1913, to April 16, 1913.
The Committee have received a grant of 50L from the Council of
the Association out of the Sir J. K. Caird benefaction, which can be
used towards the contribution for the table next session.
The Committee ask to be reappointed with a further grant of 501.
Dr. J. Stuart Thomson, of the University of Manchester, reports : —
' I beg to report that I occupied the British Association table at
Naples for one month during the Easter vacation of 1913. I made
histological studies on the muscles of the dorsal vibratile fin of
Hippocampus , and the impregnation of these muscles with haemoglobin
and myo-haematin, and also worked at Motella with the same object
in view. I devoted considerable attention to the general fauna, but
more especially to the Alcyonaria of the Gulf of Naples. I collected
and carefully preserved the brains of several genera of Elasmobranch
fishes for future work by the Weigert Pal and Bielschowsky methods
in connection with an investigation on which I am engaged on the
Telencephalon of Selachians.'
Nomenclator Animalium Generum et Suhgenerum. — Beport of
the Committee , consisting of Dr. Chalmers Mitchell (Chair-
man), Eev. T. E. E. Stbbbing (Secretary), Dr. M. Laurie,
Dr. Marett Tims, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward. (Drawn
up by the Chairman.)
I have to report that after consulting the Committee I paid over the
grant in full to Professor Schulze last December.
He writes to me that the amount has been expended in helping to
pay the large staff of specialists employed in carrying out the work,
and he has furnished me with detailed accounts and statistics showing
that he is making good progress with his gigantic task. The grant
made by the Association is, of course, only a very small part of the cost
of the work, but Dr. Schulze asks me to convey his thanks to the
Association for the encouragement and assistance extended to him.
The Committee asks for reappointment, and hopes that the Associa-
tion will be able to afford some further help for speeding the publi-
cation of the Nomenclator.
154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Zoology Organisation. — Report of the Committee, consisting oj
Sir E. Eay Lankester {Chairman), Professor S. J. Hickson
{Secretary), Professors G. C. Bourne, J. Cossar Ewart,
M. Hartog and W. A. Herdman, Mr. M. D. Hill, Pro-
fessors J. Graham Kerr and E. A. Minchin, Dr. P.
Chalmers Mitchell, Professor E. B. Poulton, and Dr.
A. E. Shipley.
The past session has been a quiet one as far as the work of the
Committee is concerned. Some cori'espondence has been carried on
regarding the question of the permanent endowment of the British
table at Naples.
The Committee ask to be reappointed.
Delmiillet Whaling Station. — Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. A. E. Shipley {Chairman), Professor J.
Stanley Gardiner {Secretary), Professor W. A. Herdman,
Eev. W. Spotswood Green, Mr. E. S. Goodrich, Dr. H. W.
Marett Tims, and Mr. E. M. Barrington, appointed to
investigate the Biological Problems incidental to the Belmullet
Whaling Station.
The Committee, having decided to further investigate the catch of
whales during 1913, requested Professor W. A. Herdman to nominate
one or more naturalists to proceed to Belmullet and also to direct
and advise them as far as might be necessary. He selected two of
his pupils, R. J. Daniel, B.Sc, and J. E. Hamilton, B.Sc, who
proceeded to Belmullet on June 24. At the request of the Board of
Agriculture and Fisheries Mr. Daniel was released on August 28 to
take up a temporary appointment as Assistant Naturalist for Hen'ing
Investigations, but Mr. Hamilton still remains at the Fishery.
The following is an extract from a short report sent to the
Secretary by Messrs. Daniel and Hamilton :
Blacksod, Belmullet, August 29, 1913.
Since June 26 we have examined altogether thirty-eight whales, of which
twenty-eight have been Common Rorquals. The remainder consisted of six
Sperm Whalee, all males, three Sibbald's Rorquals, and one Humpback. A com-
plete set of standardised measurements has been taken of each whale. The
length and sex of the whales caught at the neighbouring whaling station on
Rusheen Island have also been procured.
Four foetus of the Common Rorqual have been examined ; they were not
sufficiently small to be of embryological interest. The smallest, which had been
about four feet long, was almost completely destroyed by the explosion of the
bomb, and was considerably decayed.
The stomachs have been examined to ascertain the food of the different
species, but we believe that there is nothing of importance to record. The
Schizopod, which is the principal food of the Balsenopterid whales, has been
noted in many Rorquals, and also in the single Humpback examined. A nearly
complete cuttlefish of very large size was taken from the stomach of one of
the Sperm Whales.
The external parasites found include Penella and BalccnophUus on the
Common Rorqual, Cyamvs and Conchodervia on the Sperm Whales, and a large
Balanus-\\ke. Cirripede on the MegnpUra. Of internal parasites the sole
ON THR BEUIULLRT WHAIJXG STATION, 155
treniatode was Monostomum from DalcEnopteia muscularis. In B. sibbaldii a
ceetode and an echiuoihynch were foiuid, in Phi/seter nematodes and echino-
rhynchs, and in Majaptera a large echinorhynch.
In the whalebone whales we discovered a peculiar dendritic tubular process
projecting into the vena cava at the level of the kidneys. It appears to be the
blind termination of a series of branching tubes ramifying in the kidney, and is
nearly always stuffed with mineral matter in small irregular masses.
Although not as yet fully assured on the point, we are inclined to think that
Burfield's ' Problematical Organ' will prove to be the external aperture of a masa
of gland-like tissue situated between the mandibles at the symphysis.
Experiments in Inheritance. — Sixth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. A. Herdman (Chairman) , Mr. E.
Douglas Laurie (Secretary), Professor E. C. Punnett, and
Dr. H. W. Marett Tims.
The final report is unavoidably held over, and jiending its presentation
to the Association next year the Committee ask to be reappointed
without a grant.
Marine Laboratory , Plymouth. — Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. Dendy (Chairman and Secretartj),
Sir E. Eay Lankester, Professor Sydney H. Vines, and
Mr. E. S. Goodrich, appointed to nominate competent
Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine
Laboratory , Plymouth.
DuEiNG the past year the use of the table has been granted to Professor
J. Playfair McMurrich, of the University of Toronto, for one week, in
order to enable him to procure specimens of the various Sagartiidse that
are to be found in the neighbourhood; also to Mr. W. O. Eedman King,
B.A., of the University of Leeds, for a fortnight, to enable him to
investigate the temperature coefficient of the developing egg and the
enzymes in the ova and spermatozoa of echinoderms.
Natural History, &c., of the Isle of Wight. — Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. Clement Eeid (Chairman), Pro-
fessor J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. O. G. S. Crawford,
Mr. W. Dale, Professor E. B. Poulton, and Dr. A. B.
Eendle, appointed to co-operate with local bodies in acquiring
and arranging collections to illustrate the Natural History,
Geography, and Antiquities of the Isle of Wight.
In 1912 arrangements were made for transferring further archaeological
collections to Carisbrooke Castle, and half the grant was devoted to
this purpose. There was, however, no room available in the Castle
for anything but the archaeological collections ; and a recent visit by
the Chairman of your Committee shows also that this old castle is
scarcely suitable for the purpose.
156 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE — 1913.
The other avuihible collections are almost entirely geological. For
these, excellent accommodation has been found in the public library
at Sandown. Here a well-lighted large room has been devoted to
them, and they will be properly cared for. The cases from the old
museum at Newport have now been removed to Sandown, and with
a certain amount of adaptation and repair they will do very well.
The whole of the specimens, however, require re-tableting and cleaning.
The Committee has devoted the remainder of the grant to this work,
which is now being carried out by a local committee.
Your Committee does not ask to be reappointed.
Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for ScJiool and University Use. —
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor J- L. Myres
(Chairman) , Eev. W. J. Barton (Secretary), Professor R. L.
Archer, Dr. R. N. Eudmose Brown, Mr. G-. G. Chisholm,
Colonel C. F. Close, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Professor H. N.
Dickson, Mr. 0. J. R. Howarth, Colonel Sir D. A.
Johnston, and Mr. E. A. Peeves, appointed to inquire into
the Choice and Style thereof.
The Committee was appointed at the Dundee Meeting of the Association,
and has spent its first year in preliminary work in two principal direc-
tions. One Sub-Committee has devoted itself to questions of content
and arrangement; another to questions of style and draughtsmanship.
The former necessarily had to settle many important points before the
cartographical aspect of the matter could be discussed with profit; but
the members of the Cartographical Committee have taken the oppor-
tunities of map-inspection which are described below to meet the
members of the Contents Committee and discuss general points of
principle.
The needs of junior and senior students differ widely, and it was
found necessary from the outset to deal with them separately. But
throughout the inquiry it has been the object of the Committee to
provide as far as possible for a senior and a junior atlas which should
be consistent in their general plan and execution. In order to keep in
touch with the actual needs of teachers, and with the current practice
of map-publishers, the Committee held one oi its meetings at the School
of Geography in Oxford, where it was able, by the courtesy of Professor
Herbertson, to consult a very large collection of atlases, British and
foreign, and to frame a series of questions for circulation among
teachers and also among the Directors of Education in the larger
administrative areas. The replies to these questions, so far as they
shall havebeen received, are to be discussed at a conference to be held
in connection with the Binningham Meeting of the Association, and will
be summarised in an Appendix to this Eeport. The questions, mean-
while, are printed below.
The Cartographical Sub-Committee will then be in a position to draft
its recommendations with fuller knowledge of the limiting conditions of
ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 157
size, shape, and eventual cost, than would have been the case if it had
begun its part of the work earlier.
The Committee therefore asks to be reappointed. It also asks for a
grant to enable it to prepare the sp_ecimen sheets of maps which are
already seen to be essential, if the Committee is to illustrate adequately
the practical reforms which it hopes to recommend in map-production
and to obtain the criticisms both of teachers and of publishers on the
many points of detail and execution which arise at every stage.
The Committee desires to express its thanks to the many teachers
and geographers whom it has consulted, and particularly to the Royal
Geographical Society and the Oxford School of Geography for the oppor-
tunity of holding meetings and inspecting collections of geographical
material.
Letter and Questions addressed to Teachers and Directors of Education.
Dear Sib, — The above Committee, appointed by Section E
CGeography) at the Dundee Meeting (1912) of the British Association,
hopes to present a preliminary report for discussion at Birmingham
in September 1913. That the discussion may be effective, we venture
to send you (Enclosure 1) a portion of this report in draft, and to
invite your co-operation and, in particular, replies to the appended
questions.
It would enhance the value of the replies if you would kindly state
(a) what type of school you have in mind, and (b) what atlas is at
present in use in the school.
1. "What maps would you wish to see in duplicate, physical and
political?
2. What would be the order of utility for your purposes of the
large scale maps of the British Isles (1) A, B, C, D, E;
(2) a, b. c (Enclosure 2)?
3. What chief inconveniences have you remarked in existing maps,
and especially
(a) What regions are inadequately represented?
(b) What maps contain too many names? What maps too
few?
Any communication addressed to the Rev. W\ J. Barton, The
College, Winchester, before the end of August would be welcomed.
Thanking j^ou for your generous assistance, we have the honour
to be
Yours faithfully,
John T;. Myres, Chairman nf the Committee.
Walter J. Barton, Secretary of the Committee.
Enclosure 1.
Senior School Atlas.
' Royal ' paper (25" x 20") will give a map 101" x 8h" , single page.
Double-page maps should be mounted on guards.
To make maps readilv comparable, (a) all world maps should be
on the same projection fMercator's projection to be used for Map 7
only); (b) few scales should be employed. The continents should be
158
REPORTS ON THE STATE 6f SCIENCE. —l^l^.
shown on the same scale, and for larger scale maps simple sub-
multiples of this scale should be used.
List of Maps.
World Maps.
1. Maps of a selected region, to exhibit scales, methods of showing
relief, &c.
2. Hamispheres, heights, depths : section along 45° N.
European areas to be shown are enclosed by broken lines (Maps 13 and 17a)
and continuous lines (Maps 14, 15, 17b, and 18).
3. Hemispheres, political: inset Eiver Basins.
4. Hemispheres, population, density: Eaces insei.
5. Polar Eegions : Land and Sea Hemispheres.
6. Vesfetation : Ocean Currents.
ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 159
7. Mercator (Australia repeated), showing Commercial Highways
and Development.
8. Temperature: January, July, Year, Annual Range.
9. Pressure and Winds, two or four months. Eainfall : Year,
Seasonal.
Eiirope.
10. Europe (20 million), physical. Inset (40 million), tem-
perature: January, July.
11. Europe (20 million), political. Inset (40 million), rainfall,
seasonal.
12. (a) Population, density; languages. (5) Minerals and manu-
facturing regions.
13. Mediterranean (10 million).
14. Central Europe (5 million).
15. Italy and Balkans (5 million).
16. Alps.
17. (a) N.-W. Europe (10 million), (b) Spain (5 milhon).
18. (a) France (5 million), (b) British Isles (5 million).
19. Large scale maps — e.g., position of Vienna.
America.
20. (a) North America (40 million), physical. Inset (80 million),
temperature.
(b) North America (40 million), political. Inset (80 million),
rainfall.
21. (a) U.S.A. (20 million), (b) Atlantic Coast (10 million).
22. Canada (20 million), and Special Areas.
23. S. America (40 million), pohtical. S. America (40 milhon),
physical.
Asia.
24. Asia (40 million), physical. Inset (80 million), temperature:
January, July.
25. Asia (40 million), political. Inset (80 million), rainfall.
26. Southern Asia (20 million).
27. China, and Japan (20 million) ; Palestine.
28. India, pohtical (large scale); climate.
Australasia.
29. (a) Oceania, including East Indies (40 million), political,
(b) Australia (20 million), physical.
30. (a) E. Austraha, (S) New Zealand, larger scale.
Africa.
31. Africa, physical (40 milhon). Political (40 million).
32. S. Afi'ica (20 or 12 million). Insets, AY. Africa, Egypt,
temperature, rainfall.
160 reports on the state of science. — 1913.
Enclosure 2.
A, B, C, D,;E are areas, some of which might be shown by double-page maps on a
large scale {e.g. 1 : 500,000) ; a, b, c, single- page maps of holiday areas on a still
larger scale (say 1 : 200,000).
ATLAS, TEXTUAL, AND WALL MAPS. 161
British Isles.
England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, physical and political
(2 million).
Special regions. A, B, C, D, E, 1: 500,000.
Special regions, a, b, c, 1: 200,000.
Climate, Geology, Population, &c., to be determined.
About 40 double pages in all.
For a Junior School Atlas, one map of each continent (physical,
with political boundaries shown in red) would meet all needs. Maps 4
and 5 would be combined; also 8 and 9 (temperature and I'ainfall only).
For 26 and 27, India, China, and Japan (20 million) might be sub-
stituted, and the following maps omitted — viz. 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21b,
22, 29a, and 30a, together with 18a if France were shown on Map 14.
Geographical Teaching in Scotland. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. Horne (Chairman), Mr. T. S. Muir
(Secretary), Dr. E. N. Eudmose Brown, Dr. W. S. Bruce,
Mr. H. M. Cadell, Mr. G. G. Chisholm, Mr. J. Cossar,
Professor H. N. Dickson, Professor P. Geddes, Professor
A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. Scott Keltie, Mr. J. Malloch,
Mr. J. McFarlane, and Dr. M. Newbigin, appointed to
inquire into the present state thereof.
The following questions were issued in the form of a circular to all
the Secondary and Higher Grade schools, and to some of the Elemen-
tary schools in Scotland, care being taken in the latter case to select
representative areas: —
1. How many hours per week are devoted in your school to the
teaching of Geography in (a) the Qualifying stage? (b) Inter-
mediate stage ? (c) Post-Intermediate stage ?
2. Has that time increased, diminished, or remained stationary as
compared with previous years? (a) Qualifying? (b) Inter-
mediate ? (c) Post-Intermediate ?
3. What is the staple subject in your school outside of English?
How many hours per week are devoted to it? (a) Qualifying?
(b) Intermediate? (c) Post-Intermediate?
4. (a) How many candidates did you present in 1912 for the
Leaving Certificate in Geography ? (b) What proportion did the
number of candidates bear to the total Leaving Certificate candi-
dates from your school ?
5. (a) Have you a ' qualified ' teacher of Geography? (b) Is any
* practical ' work done ? (c) What kinds of maps and atlases are
in use?
6. Please add any remarks you think may prove helpful to the
Committee.
From the replies received, and from other sources, a considerable
mass of information has been accumulated which has enabled the
Committee to come to what it believes are trustworthy conclusions.
I. It is clear that in very many Elementary schools, especially in
1913. M
IG2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913,
country districts, Geography teaching is stiU on the old hnes. To
quote from one correspondent : ' All elementary teachers (in my
district) are of the old school — i.e., text-book, map, and memoiy. I
find great difficulty, more in this than in any other subject, in getting
them to teach Geography in a reasonable and attractive way.' The
causes of this unfortunate state of matters are : (1) lack of knowledge
on the part of the teachers, due to the extremely limited opportunities
for acquiring instruction; (2) the reluctance, frequently the refusal,
of School Boards to supply modern equipment, even such essentials
as proper text-books and physical wall-maps. Some Boards issue
admirable lists of approved text-books, &c., but, rightly or wrongly,
many teachers are of opinion that the smaller their annual bill for such
things is the more favourably they are looked upon by their employers.
Teachers here and there exist who, at the expenditure of their own time
and labour, construct wall-maps and simple instruments; but the
ordinary elementary teacher who has to undertake many subjects has
little. If any, leisure to devote to special work in one of these subjects.
Nor can it reasonably be expected of him.
The ' Memorandum on the Teaching of Geography in Scottish
Primai-y Schools ' issued by the Scotch Education Department in
1912, m spite of some defects which need not be mentioned here, as
they have already been noticed in several geographical reviews, un-
doubtedly marks a great advance, and will promote the setting up of a
higher standard than before in Elementary schools.
It is advisable that classes for teachers be held in suitable centres
all over Scotland. The experiment has been tried in at least one place
with considerable success, and correspondents indicate that the demand
for such instruction is both strong and widespi'ead. Secondly, pressure
should be brought to bear upon School Boards by inspectors or by
other means to equip their schools with at least modern text-books and
physical wall-maps.
II. In the Intermediate stage (ages 12 to 15) a higher standard
of teaching is maintained. The Intermediate Certificate examination
is here the end in view. Geography is compulsory, but is counted as
part of English on the basis of 100 marks to English and 50 to
Geography. No time allowance for teaching is prescribed, but one
and a half hours per week is recommended. Needless to say, that
allowance is rarely exceeded. Six schools only reported an allowance
of more than two hours, one of them giving three hours.
The Committee notes with satisfaction the recent improvement in
the type of paper set in the Intermediate examination, but thinks it
capable of improvement. The following is an account of the paper
set in 1913, which was of the same character as those for some years
past. The paper was divided into three sections : A, B, and C. Two
outline maps were provided — one of the World, the other of the British
Isles. Section A consisted of three parts : (a) to insert in their proper
places names such as Borneo, Lake Chad, Tibet ; (b) to show by a dot
and write beside it towns such as Bilbao, Canton, Colombo ; (c) either
to write names of races in their native places — e.g. , Kafir, Dyak, Ainu —
or to draw in the Arctic and Antarctic Circles and the two tropics.
Section B also consisted of three parts : (a) two towns famous for
certain industries — e.g., cutlery, brewing, &c. ; (b) indicating regions
ON GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING IN SCOTLAND. 163
of heavy and light rainfall ; (c) inserting certain names — e.g., Stranraer,
the Lizard, &c. In all, 42 separate facts were asked to be recorded
for a maximum of 26 marks. Both sections were compulsory, and
choice was given only in the case of part (c) of Section A. Section C
consisted of eight questions of a wide range, from which the candidate
was expected to select two. The marks for this section amounted to
24, making up for the paper a total of 50.
In the compulsory sections it would be of advantage that some
further choice be afforded to the candidates, that greater opportunity
be given for displaying knowledge of places associated with current
events, and that a more reasonable proportion of the marks be allotted
to that part of the paper which exercises the intelligence of the
candidate.
The written examination is supposed to be supplemented by an
oral examination conducted by an inspector, but this is usually per-
functorjf, and in some schools the inspector pays no attention whatever
to Geography. Throughout the Intermediate course a compulsory
minimum time-allowance of three and a quarter hours per week would
be very beneficial, and inspectors of Geography might encourage
attempts at a higher standard of teaching.
III. In the Post-Intermediate stage Geography is no longer a
compulsory subject, except in the case of junior students, who,
however, are at no time examined as to their knowledge of Geography.
In the Leaving Certificate examination Geography is separated from
English, which is the only compulsory subject, is put on a level with
other optional subjects, and is allotted 100 marks. It may form one
of a * group,' but the curriculum must then be submitted to the Scotch
Education Department for its specific approval. This is not required
if a school commits itself to English, Mathematics, and French; or to
English, Mathematics, and Latin. It is distinctly laid down that
Geography is on the same level with, for example, languages, and that
a candidate must spend upon it an adequate amount of time. The
Committee finds that the average amount of time spent upon languages
at this stage is seven hours per week. The following tabular statement
will help to make matters clear : —
1912. 1913.
No. of candidates for Group Leaving Certificate .... 2,202 2,290
Successful L711 1,739
No. of candidates with Geography as part of Group 195 146
Successful 155 92
No. of candidates who sat Geography examination 319 212
Successful 227 116
From these figures it will be seen that while in 1912 Geography
candidates formed only about 9 per cent, of the total number of Leaving
Certificate candidates, in 1913 even that small proportion was reduced
to a little more than 6 per cent. The presentations for Geography as
a separate paper also fell from 124 to 66 ; while the number of candi-
dates with Geography as part of their group fell from 195 to 146.
The Committee has received some information regarding 1912. It
is awars of 70 candidates who were accepted by the Department, and
who had had an hour and a half, or less, teaching per week. It is also
M 2
164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
aware of 35 of these candidates who passed. This last piece of informa-
tion was not asked for in the circular sent out, but some correspondents
gave it voluntarily. These figures speak for themselves.
From the returns received it is definitely proved that the making an
optional subject of Geography has practically killed it in the Post-
Intermediate stage. Only seventy-two schools sent in information on
this pomt. The average time allowance was just over an hour and a
half per week; in nine schools it was more than two hours. Some give
an hour or so for the first year, then drop it entirely. Twelve have
dropped it altogether. The Committee is aware of some others which
have made no returns, and which have also dropped Geography. It is
a fair inference that a complete census would reveal many more. In
only eleven schools has the time allowance been recently increased,
and in most cases this increase has been from a totally inadequate to
but a slightly less inadequate amount. The Committee is of opinion that
this is a very serious matter. It finds that in many Secondary schools,
some of them the largest and most important in the country, situated in
great educational centres, the pupils cease to study Geography at the
age of fifteen. Further, that the average time devoted to Geography up
to that age is only an hour and a half per week. Now the time up to the
close of the Intermediate stage should be devoted to providing that
foundation of fact which is the basis of scientific Geography, and it is
only in the Post-Intermediate stage that a pupil is mentally fitted to
build upon that foundation by studying Political and Economic Geo-
graphy — in other words, how man adapts himself to his environment,
and how that envii^onment reacts upon man. It is not considered
necessary to emphasise the value of Geography as an educational
subject beyond expressing the opinion that after a knowledge of the
English language there is nothing more essential to the mental equip-
ment of the modem Briton than a thorough grounding in Geography.
This is impossible of achievement under the present regulations. It
seems only reasonable that Geography be made a compulsory subject
throughout the Post-Intermediate stage, and that in this stage also a
minimum time allowance of three hours and a quai'ter per week be
fixed.
IV. Training Colleges. — It may be explained that students prepar-
ing for the Teaching Profession in Scotland may either receive their
training at the Training Colleges, where the course extends for two
years, or may continue their professional training with a University
course, or may first complete their graduation and then devote one year
to their professional training under the auspices of the Provincial
Conunittees for the Training of Teachers established in the four centres
— ^Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St. Andrews.
The University students in training at Edinburgh or Glasgow may
mclude Geography among the subjects required for graduation at the
University, but this is not possible at fhe other centres, where so far
there is no University teaching of the subject.
The position of the subject varies considerably at the different
centres. At the Training Colleges of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St.
Andrews, lecturers in Geography have been appointed, and at these
centres instruction in Geography forms an integral part of the cur-
riculum for all Training College students.
6iSI GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING IN SCOTLAND. 1G5
At Aberdeen Training College the previous training of tlie students
and their knowledge of the subject are regarded as satisfactory, so that
there is now no special instruction in the subject, and attention is
confined to the methods of teaching Geography. The classes consist of
thirty to forty students, and thirty periods are devoted to the methods
of teaching Mathematics, Nature Study, and Geography, so that if the
time is equally divided Geography can receive only ten periods.
At Edinburgh at least thirty periods are given to the study of
Geography, and the classes consist of forty to fifty students. At
Glasgow the Geography course extends to thirty periods, and for
lectures the classes average eighty students, while for practical work
they are reduced to twenty-seven. At St. Andrews sixty periods are
devoted to the study of Geography, and the classes number twenty-five
students.
The University students in training at the Edinburgh centre receive
no instruction in Geography unless they elect to include the subject in
their graduation course at the University; a considerable number do
so, but the larger number, who do not, are being sent out each year —
many to teach in Secondary schools — without any equipment to teach
the subject so far as the Training College is concerned.
At Glasgow the subject has been dropped from the curriculum
of the University students in training, and attention is confined to
methods in teaching Geography, in spite of the fact that in very many
cases the previous study of the subject has been quite insufficient.
Finally, recent legislation by the Scotch Education Department, and
local conditions at several of the Training Centres, now make it quite
possible for students who may have ceased the study of Geography
after obtaining the Intermediate Certificate to complete their professional
training without much, if any, further instruction in the subject.
In the opinion of the Committee it should be rendered necessary for
all University students in training to have obtained the Leaving
Certificate in Geography unless adequate instruction in the subject is
provided in their professional course, or unless they include the subject
in their graduation course at the University.
V. Universities. — Geography was first recognised by the Scottish
Universities in 1908, when a lecturer was appointed as head of a new
department in that subject in the University of Edinburgh. The
lecturer has an ordinary class extending over the whole session (three
terms) and two advanced classes, each of which is confined to a single
term. From the first the ordinary class has qualified for admission to the
M.A. examination. Geography being now one of the optional subjects
in that degree. One of the advanced classes is a non-graduation class.
The other, which is devoted especially to Economic Geography, is the
qualifying class for an optional paper for the degree of M.A. with
honours in Economic Science. In five years during which the ordinary
class has been held, the attendance has been 48, 40, 116, 132, 98. The
attendance at the advanced class varies from 5 to 10.
The only other Scottish University which so far recognises Geo-
graphy is Glasgow, where the lecturer was appointed on similar con-
ditions to those in Edinburgh in 1909. There Geography may now be
taken as a subject for either the M.A. or the B.Sc. degree. The
ordinary class is the qualifying clnss for the M.A., and the advanced
IGG REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913,
class for the honours degree of B.Sc, and was held for the first time
last winter. The attendance at the ordinary class for the four years
during which the lectureship has been in existence has been about 30,
65, 73, 94.
It should be added that under a recent regulation, which comes into
force next year, the position of Geography in the prehminary examina-
tion for admission to the Arts and Science Faculties of Edinburgh
University has been seriously prejudiced. Down to 1913 Geography was
one of the branches under the head of English, which is a compulsory
subject in the preliminary examination, but from 1914 onwards the
only recognition of Geography is in connection with the history of the
British people, one of the subjects included in the English syllabus.
' Candidates will be expected to show acquaintance with the social as
well as the political history of the British people and the relevant
geography. '
In conclusion the Committee is of opinion that while the worst
result of the present regulations for the Post-Intermediate stage is that
pupils leave school with a very imperfect and one-sided educational
equipment, a subsidiary result of nearly as much importance may soon
appear. It is that the majority of the pupils who intend to become
teachers will not care to take up the study of Geography again after the
lapse of two or three years. Thus the supply of capable teachers will
diminish, and once more, as in the past, even in the Intermediate stage.
Geography will be entrusted to the ' general ' teacher, and it will fall
back into its old position of memory work, unintelligent and uncom-
prehended.
Gaseous Explosions. — Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir W. H. Peeece {Chairman), Dr. Dugald Clerk
{Vice-Chairman), Professor W. E. Dalby {Secretary), Pro-
fessors Bone, Burstall, Callendar, Coker, and Dixon,
Drs. Glazebrook and Harker, Lieut. -Colonel Holden, Pro-
fessors B. HoPKiNSON and Petavel, Captain Sankey, Pro-
fessors Smithells and Watson, Mr. D. L. Chapman, and
Mr. H. E. WiMPERis, appointed for the Investigation of
Gaseous Explosions , with special reference to Temperature.
Note on the Proceedings of the Committee for the year 1912-13.
At the Dundee Meeting certain changes were made in the constitution
of the Committee. Sir Wilham Preece continues to be Chairman, but
Dr. Dugald Clerk and Professor Hopkinson resigned the joint secretary-
ship. Dr. Dugald Clerk, however, consented, to the great satisfaction
of the Committee, to act as Vice-President, and Professor Dalby was
appointed Secretary.
The Committee allocated the whole of the grant to the Secretary,
with the object of providing him with a permanent research assistant to
carry on the work. The moment is favourable for this action of the
Committee. The new laboratories of the Imperial College of Science
and Technology are approaching completion, and it is intended by the
governing authority of the college that these laboratories shall be
GASEOUS EXPLOSIONS. 167
devoted to research. Professor Dalby is working on a scheme with
Dr. Dugald Clerk for equipping one bay with internal-combustion
engines. It is recognised that the Imperial College would be materially
assisted in carrying out their ideals if the work of the Committee were
concentrated in the new laboratories.
Owing to a delay in the completion of the laboratories it is not
possible to present a report this year. Work, however, has been
carried on with the old plant by Professor Dalby with the aid of a
research scholar, and some important results have been obtained which
will be communicated in due course. The general work of the Com-
mittee has also gone steadily on during the year.
Three meetings have been held at the City and Guilds (Engineering)
College, at which the following Notes were presented and discussed: —
Note 26. ' The flow of heat from a charge of air subject to cyclical
variations of state in the cylinder of a gas engine,'
and
* The comparison of the temperature readings of a plati-
num thermometer with the temperature computed from
the pressure volume diagram.' By Professor Dalby.
Note 27. ' The flow of heat between a charge of air enclosed in a
gas-engine cylinder and the walls of the cylinder when
the charge is subjected to a cyclical variation of tem-
perature.' By Professor Dalby.
Note 28. ' Leakage of charge.' By Professor Dalby.
Note 29. ' Gas-engine temperatures.' By Professor Hopkinson.
Note 30. ' The effect of compression ratio on the efficiency of a
gas engine.' By Professors G. Asakawa and J. E.
Petavel.
Note 31. ' Determination of leakage by the method of alternate
compression and expansion.' By Dugald Clerk.
Note 26. — In this Not-e, which was presented last year, Professor
Dalby drew attention to a method of testing and coiTecting for leakage
in a gas-engine cylinder. A detailed explanation of this method was
given in the note, which was accompanied by eight photographic records
relating to the experiments referred to; these were carried out at one
constant speed. The observations were made by two research students
of the Imperial College — Messrs. Mawson and Begg — working under
the direction of Professor Dalby.
Note 27. This Note is a record of the results obtained by applying
the method to the same engine run at different speeds in order to
ascertain the effect of speed on the leakage. The paper was accom-
panied by eleven large blue prints giving the data and the deductions
drawn from them.
Note 28. There was considerable discussion at the Committee
regarding the amount of leakage found, and at the request of the
Committee Professor Dalby made some further experiments, the results
of which are embodied in Note 28. Tliis Note was accompanied by a
blue print of two curves and a photographic record.
Note 29. Professor Hopkinson 's Note consisted of general remarks
relating 1o the importance of knowing the suction temperature and its
influence on the heat flow.
168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Note 30. This Note relates to the efficiency of a gas engine with
varying degrees of compression, and is embodied in a paper which
is to be present-ed at the Birmingham Meeting of the Association.
Note 31. This Note, presented by Dr. Clerk, relates to experiments
on the determination of the specific heat of gases, with special relation
to the correction applied to eliminate the effect of the small amount of
leak of charge.
Certain of the More GompJex Stress Distributions in Engineering
Materials. — Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
J. Perry (Chairman) , Professors E. G. Coker and J. E.
Petavel (Secretaries), Professor A. Bare, Dr. C. Chree,
Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing,
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs. A. E. Fulton and J. J.
Guest, Professors J. B. Henderson and A. E. H. Love, Mr.
W. Mason, Sir Andrew Noble, Professor Karl Pearson,
Messrs. F. Eogers and W. A. Scoblb, Dr. T. E. Stanton,
and Mr. T. 8. Wilson, appointed to report thereon.
Bcfort on Combined Stress. By W. A. Scoble, B.Sc.
Index.
Historical . . 168
Theories 169
Failure 170
Materials 170
Systems of Stress 170
Rate of Loading and Repeated Loading 171
Mechanism of Failure 171
Early Engineering Tests 172
Experiments -with Ductile Materials under Combined Stresses .... 172
Brittle Materials under Combined Stresses 175
Friction Theory 176
Liider's or Hartmann's Lines 176
Some other Considerations in Combined Stress Researches 176
Alternating Combined Stresses 177
Separation of Materials 178
An Engineering View 178
Conclusion 179
(The small figures in the text refer to the bibliography.)
Historical. — Coulomb ^ appears to have been the first to study the kind of
strain we now call shear, and he considered that rupture takes place when
the shear of the material is greater than a certain limit. This is the first
recorded Theory of Strength, but since it refers to rupture, the shear
defined is a permanent set. Vicat^ drew attention to the flow of metals
when he discovered that the yield of iron is dependent on the time it is
stressed, but Tresca,^ by his extended researches, kindled great interest
in this subject, and he also stated that the maximum difference of the
greatest and least principal stresses is the measure of the tendency to
rupture. Theories of molecular action were devised by various investiga-
tors to account for the viscosity and the elastic afterworking.* Love
* See The Mathemntical Theory of Elasticity, Love, 2nd edit., p. 116.
COMPLEX STRESkS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 109
points out that the stress difference theory of Tresca leads to a limit which
is Kttle different from the shear strain hypothesis enunciated by Coulomb.
The Stress Difference Theory was applied by G. H. Darwin ^^ and C. Chree.^*
It is probable that they were influenced by Tresca, and also by the
knowledge that a brittle material fractures by shearing when loaded in
compression.
The Maximum Strain Theory is usually named after St. Venant,^ but he
attributed it to Mariotte,^ who wrote : ' que c'est le degre d'extension qui
fait rompre les corps.' St. Venant adapted this theory to the elastic
breakdown of a material by assuming that after the limit of mathematical
elasticity is reached, the body will ultimately be ruptured if it has to sus-
tain the same load.* He also rejected Coulomb's theory when applied to
rupture in compression, and followed Poncelet,^ who ascribed rupture by
compression to the transverse stretch which accompanies a longitudinal
squeeze.
Lame * assumed that the greatest tension had a limiting value to ensure
safety. This view was adopted by Rankine, who was followed by British
and American engineers, but when known as the Maximum Stress Theory
it is usually assumed to apply in compression as well as in tension.
A modification of the Stress Difference Theory was suggested by Navier,
and is based on the assumption that the shear stress at failure is modified
by the internal friction of the material to an extent proportional to the
stress normal to the plane of the shear. Perryj" has been the principal
exponent of this modified shear stress theory in this country. He notices
that cast iron, stone, brick, and cement fracture at angles greater than 45
degrees with the cross section. For cast iron the angle is 54f degrees,
which corresponds to a coefficient of internal friction equal to 0'35.
Perry also suggested that there is no internal friction in wrought iron and
mild steel, in which case the modification is eliminated, and the simple law
holds. Mohr ^ has proposed a further development of the shear theory to
take account of the kind of stress which is developed within the body.
Poisson's Theory indicated that the ratio which bears his name should
be J. The early determinations by Wertheim^ have been noted here
because they disproved the theory by giving different values, and thus
had a great influence on the rariconstancy and multiconstancy controversy
in the Theory of Elasticity.
1. Theories.
We desire to define the conditions which determine the failure of a
material when subjected to any system of stress. Theories have been
advanced which suggest as a criterion of strength : (a) the maximum
stress ; (b) the maximum strain ; (c) the greatest stress difference, or
shear stress or strain ; (d) the maximum value of the shear stress modified
by a friction term proportional to the stress perpendicular to the plane of
the shear.
The shearing stress and the stress normal to the plane of the shear have
received increasing attention, not always on the lines indicated by theories
(c) and (d), but these have to a great extent eclipsed the other suggestions.
In a recent paper, Mallock ''''■ ^^ considers the hmit of shear and the hmit
of volume extension as the fundamental limits of a material, and failure
is assumed to occur according to which is first reached.
* Todhunter and Pearson, History of the Theory of Elasiicidj, vol. ii., pfc. i., p. 107.
t Perry, Applied Mechanics, 1898, pp. 345 to 348, 356.
170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Too frequently tlie complexity of our subject lias not been realised,
and confusion has followed tbe omission of conditions and limitations.
This is particularly noticeable in early statements of theories, and has not
been eliminated in some of the most important modem contributions.
2. Failure.
The laws of failure for materials are important to elasticians, experi-
mentalists, theorists, and engineers, and we must inquire whether one
definition of failure can be generally acceptable. The theory of elasticity
is based on Hooke's Law which holds to the elastic limit, consequently the
elastic hmit is the fail point for the elastician, and also for the experimenter
who calculates his stresses from formulae based on Hooke's Law. But
the elastic limit is not a well-defined point even under the most favourable
conditions,* and many materials extensively used in engineering practice
have no elastic range. In the case of steel the yield point has been taken
for experimental purposes instead of the elastic limit,^^ and modern tests
imder simple loading indicate that these points coincide for some steels
initially in a state of ease. Engineers are justified in considering fracture '*
because in many structures the yield point is exceeded locally (as in riveted
joints), and where the stress intensity varies through the mass of the
material the distribution at rupture is entirely different from that within
the elastic range of the material.
These considerations lead to the suggestion that for the purpose of the
present investigation experiments should be arranged with uniform distri-
bution of stress, and then important data will be obtained at elastic failure
and at fracture. Experiments which employ non-uniform stress distribu-
tions will give useful results at the elastic limit and possibly at the yield
point of the material, but the data obtained at fracture or other complete
failure in such cases is of no value for the present purpose.
3. Materials.
We have to consider materials with widely different mechanical pro-
perties,f and it is certain that all materials do not behave similarly when
tested under identical conditions. To the present the distinction appears
to have been between ductile and brittle materials,^^' *^ which is better
than the frequent neglect of this consideration ; but this is not a complete
definition, and, furthermore, it does not readily enable the physical pro-
perties of a material to be defined with exactness. It is possible that
Mallock's suggestions will lead to more accurate scales, and consequently
to a knowledge of the relation between the elastic constants and the
behaviour under any system of combined stresses.
4. The Systems of Stress.
The stresses may be referred to the three principal stresses. Each
principal stress may be either a tension or a compression. In cases of
simple tension or compression two of the principal stresses are zero. With
two-dimensional stress one principal stress is absent, and we can have
combinations of two tensions, two compressions, or one tension and one
compression. There are corresponding combinations for three-dimensional
* The correspondence on this point should be consulted.
f Mallock " suggests relations between the unclassified mechanical properties,
brittle, ductile, tough, &c., and the measurable constants of the substances to which
they are applicable.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEEUINC MATERIALS. 171
stresses, but in this case there is very httle experimental evidence available.
It is certain that some materials do not fail in the same manner under all
systems of stress, and Mallock's double limit is an attempt to meet this
difficulty," by which the material is supposed to fail according to the
limit which is first reached.
It is probable that each of the principal theories contains a germ of
truth if its apphcation be properly limited. Difficulty has arisen because
a theory has been assumed to apply mider too wide a range of condition.?.
The experimental evidence will be shown later to indicate that a
ductile body fails when the maximum stress difference (or shear stress)
reaches a certain value. So far as is known, the intermediate principal
stress is without effect on the failure. If the failure be hmited to yield,
this limit will apply for compressive as well as tensile stresses.
A brittle material appears to fracture at a definite maximum principal
stress when this is a tension. Under compressive stress failure seems to be
by shearing modified by friction on the plane of the shear.
Theories (a) and {d} are so far justified under definite conditions by the
experimental evidence, and (c) is a particular case of (d), and not very
different frorn it, which applies to ductile steels because the coefficient
of internal friction is zero.^"
It will be noticed that Mallock's double limits cover all the above if the
shear theory is modified by friction, and maximum stress is used to replace
the volume extension. The double Hmits apply to brittle materials, and the
relation between them should be determined. It is difficult to conceive a
volume extension Hmit, because in two-dimensional stress a material
under tension in one direction would be strengthened by a compression
perpendicular to the tension. Further, the very dift'erent strengths of
most brittle substances in simple tension and simple compression are
accompanied by very different strains at fracture, and a maximum strain
theory could not always apply.
It is clear that tests will be incomplete unless they employ most of the
possible combinations of the principal stresses.
5. The Rate of Loading, and Bepealed Loading.
The most common and simplest method of applying the stresses is by a
slow rate of increase so that the material fails imder sensibly static con-
ditions. In engineering practice combined stresses are also appHed under
rhythmically repeated and shock conditions. The former is of special
interest because it is one of the most common cases of combined stresses,
and causes fractures which resemble those of brittle materials under
similar, but static loading. It is probable that the practical cases which
involve shock will require special treatment, but some attention might be
given to the matter in our investigations.
6. The Mechanism of Failure.
Consideration of this subject has been largely dissociated from that
of combined stresses, to the detriment of both. That there is the closest
connecrion is evident, and it is possible that a study of the mechanism of
failure might be of assistance in the case of a material to which the more
usual methods cannot be applied. Tlie matter is noted here as a reminder
rather than for present discussion.
172 keports on the state of science. — 1913.
Previous Researches.
7. Early Engineering Tests.
Reference has been made to the important experiments of Tresca,®
which led him to support the stress difference theory of rupture for ductile
materials, and his conclusions have been generally accepted. Most
modern researches have dill'ered from Tresca's because attention has been
concentrated on the yield point or the elastic limit of the material.
Experiments on steel by the Committee of Civil Engineers are of
interest because the tension and compression specimens were 1"5 inch
diameter and 10 feet long, so that the longitudinal strains could be mea-
sured accurately. There was little difference in the stress at the yield
point in any case, a result which supports the contention that the co-
ef&cient of mternal friction for steel is zero, and that Theory (c) is a par-
ticular case of {d) to suit ductile steels.
Hodgkinson ^ found that cast iron fractured at stresses of 7 tons per
square inch in tension, and 24 tons per square inch in compression. The
form of the fracture in compression m common with those of other brittle
materials has led to the acceptance of Theory {d) under these conditions,
in the absence of direct experimental evidence. It is remarkable that the
great differences in strength and form of fracture did not lead to an earher
recognition of the possibiUty of two limits for failure, at least for brittle
substances.
The tests of iron and steel in different ways by Appleby^^ and Kirkaldy^®
were of great engineering importance, but since results are given tor
fracture they lead to no definite conclusions for our purpose. This apphes
also to the later work of Piatt and Hayward,^'' which included tests of cast
iron in tension, torsion, and shear, because Scoble *^ has concluded that cast
iron yields too much before fracture to allow the elastic formula to be used
to calculate the true breaking stress in torsion. The results of the shearing
tests are not acceptable.
8. Exferiments tvith Ductile Materials under Combined Stresses.
WeJiage ^^ tested circular steel and wrought-iron plates supported roimd
their edges and loaded at their centres. The extension at the elastic limit
was about half that in simple tension.
Carus Wilson's paper ^'^ on ' The Rupture of Steel by Longitudinal
Stresses ' describes an attempt to test the stress difference theory (c)
employed by Darwin. ^^ Tension specimens of rectangular cross section
were tested to fracture when plain, with a ' V ' notch, and with a ' U ' notch
on each side. He used the true mean stresses calculated on the contracted
areas at fracture. The ' V ' notched specimens were weaker and the
' U's ' stronger than the original bar. The notches caused an uneven
stress distribution across the breadth of a bar, which tended to weaken it ;
they also reduced the tension area more than that which resisted the shear.
He concluded that the material fractured by shearing. He also found
that the shear stresses in tension, and in double shear tests agreed very
well if the true stresses at tensile fracture were taken.
Foppl^^ tested materials imder a uniform pressure of 50,000 lb. per
square inch and also with compression in two directions, and a third
principal stress absent. His experiments led to no definite conclusions.,
except that the uniform pressures apphed did not cause rupture.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 173
Guest"^ conducted by far the most important early research. He dis-
tinguished between brittle and ductile materials. Thin tubes of steel,
copper, and brass were tested to yield under combinations of tension, torsion ,
and internal fluid pressure. The principal stresses were two tensions, or
one tension and one compression, with the third always very small. An
abstract cannot do justice to Mr. Guest's paper, which raised the experi-
mental side of our subject to a higher level, and has directly suggested
much of the more recent research. He concluded that the condition for
initial yielding of a uniform ductile material is the existence of a specific
shearing stress, and that the intermediate principal stress is without efEect.
Colcer 2^ studied iron and steel under torsional stress, and included some
data in relation to torsion with tension or bending. This paper indicates
the general character of the effect of tension and bending on a specimen
subjected to torque.
Wehage"^^ presented no new experimental results. He contended that
although two tensile stresses at right angles counteract one another when
the extensions are considered, their destructive effect on the material ia
really superposed. The previous experiments of Guest prove him to be
wrong. Mohr's Theory is quoted as only considering the stress normal to
the plane of maximiim shear
Hancock ^^' ^^' *^' *^' ^^ first tested solid steel rounds, and then steel
tubing, in tension and tors'on. His results have been adversely criticised,
and certainly supported neither hypothesis, although the author favoured
the shear stress theory. Later tests under tension or compression with
torsion indicated that the maximum tension was seldom greater than the
tensile strength of the steel, but the maximum shear stress was often greater
than its shearing strength.
Izod ^^ tested materials to fracture in double shear. The discussion on
his paper malces it clear that shearing tests of this type are complicated by
cross stresses after yield. The ratio of shear to tensile strength was 0'62
to 0'78 for iron and steel, the tensile strength being the maximum load
divided by the original area of the cross-section. The results were con-
firmed by Goodman. Lilly held the surprising view that only under ex-
ceptional conditions was the shear strength less than the tensile, and that
isotropic materials were strongest in compression, next in pure shear and
weakest in tension. There was a rough indication that ductile materials
followed the shear rather than the maximum stress law of failure.
Fremont ^^ modified the usual shearing test by filing away the sheared
face from time to time to eliminate the friction between the steelings and
the sheared faces. He then found that the shear stress at fracture was
about 04 times the maximum tensile stress for irons and steels which had
a range of tensile strength from 19 to 65 tons per square inch.
Scoble^^'^^ employed combinations of bending and torsion on solid
round steel bars. Yield was taken as the point of failure. The maximum
shear stress varied from 29,170 to 33,500, and the maximum principal
stress from 29,170 to 64,600 lb. per square inch, having the low values in
pure torsion. The bending moment was not constant over the length of
a bar, which would tend to mask the yield and give a high stress
under bending. It was concluded that the maximum shearing stress was
approximately constant at yield, but it was also shown that engineering
materials are not perfectly isotropic, and consequently have different
shearing strengths in different directions. Later tests included steel and
171 KEP0F.T8 ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — lljlo.
copper tubes subjected to torque and a luiiform bending moment. The
maximum shear stress again varied, being greater in bending than in
torsion, but this deviation from the law is in tlie contrary direction to that
required by Tlieories (a) and (h).
Turner's ^^' ®^ early experiments were modelled on those of Cxuest. He
tested steel tubes in simple tension, and under simple torque, and included
a few tests under combined tension and internal pressure. The shear
stress theory was confirmed at elastic breakdown. Later he made a few
experiments with solid mild, tool, and nickel steels in simple tension and
torsion. The maximum shear stresses were : for mild steel 21.200 and
24,400, tool steel 33,900 and 38,400, and for nickel steel 40,600 and 40,800
lb. per square inch. He says : ' It is clear that the shear theory is no
general law which covers all elastic materials. The tool steel shows the
greatest inequality of shear in the two distributions of stress ; yet even for
it the theory that failure occurs through sliear is obviously very much
closer than the tension hypothesis.'
Three-dimensional stress was secured by the use of thick steel cylinders
under internal pressure and longitudinal tension. The tubes were so thick
that the radial compressive stress was usually about 11,000, but in one
case reached 17,200 lb. per square inch. The principal stresses were two
tensions and one compression. The external diameter of the cylinder
decreased at yield. For one tube the extreme value of the maximum
shearing stress were 16,600 in simple tension, and 20,900 under simple
torque. He deduces from these experiments that the shear theory is not
very far from true, but that it is sensibly untrue. The tube was used for
several tests with intermediate annealing. The maximum shear stress for
one test in simple tension was 18,500 lb. per square inch.
Smith 54. 59. 60, 68 tested solid steel specimens in tension or compression
with torsion. He supported Theory (c). Experiments with non-ferrous
metals demonstrated the attendant difficulties and did not lead to satis-
factory residts.
Mason ^^ extended the range of conditions by testing steel tubes in
tension, compression, compression and hoop tension, compression and
hoop compression. His experimental results show an approximate
agreement between the maximum shear stress at the yield point in com-
pression, and the jdeld point stress in pure shear (obtained by equal
tensile and compressive principal stresses), the mean difference in the
tests of annealed specimens being about 3 per cent. ' It appears, then,
that mild steel in direct compression yields by shearing ; and to a first
approximation that the value of this shear stress is independent of any
normal compressive stress on the planes of the slide.' The direct applica-
tion of two compressive principal stresses to steel was an important
advance.
Cooh and Robertson '^^ determined the strength of thick hollow cylinders
of cast iron and steel under internal pressure. They concluded that the
failure of cast-iron cyHnders is determined solely by the maximum principal
stress, and for mild steel cylinders the pressure is about 20 per cent, in
excess of that required by the shear stress theory, or nridway between that
indicated by Theories (b) and (c).*
* These results differ from those of other observers. Cast-iron cylinders fractured
according to the formula based on the principal stress law, but since this formula
applied also to the steel cylinders, there is no proof here that cast iron fractures
COMPLEX STRESS DISTHIBUTIONS IN ENGINEEHIiNG MATERIALS. 175
Bfidgman''^'''^ worked with extremely liigh-liuid pressures applied to
the curved surface of a rod of circular section, on the outside of plugged
liollow cylinders, and to the inside of heavy cyhnders. All tests were to
ruptui'e. Brittle materials were also tested. Little numerical data is
given. The original paper should be consulted since it does not lend itself
to abstraction, and the results are very remarkable. It is doubtful
whether the deductions, that all the theories of strength are not valid under
certain conditions, are justified by these experiments.
9. Brittle Materials under Combined Stresses.
Cams Wilson^^ fomid the tensile strength of cast iron to be 104, and
the shearing stress at fracture to be 546 tons per square inch, ratio 1-9.
Piatt and Hay ward found the ratio to be 2 '2 . The mean crushing strength
was 41 -5 tons per square inch. The rupture of cast iron in compression by
shearing is well known, and he appeared to consider that it also held for
tension.
Izod " gives the ultimate shear stress of cast iron from 11 to 1 -5 times
the ultimate tensile strength.
Scohle ^' ^ fractured round cast-iron bars by combined bending and
torsion. The calculated stresses followed neither law, but the angles of
fracture agreed well with the planes of maximum principal stress. On
the assumption of a redistribution of stress by yield the maximum princi-
pal stress varied 10 per cent, on either side of the mean value. Hardened
cast-steel bars were elastic to fracture. At least two tests were made on
each bar. The maximum principal stress was nearly constant at fracture
for each bar, and the bar broke along the plane of maximum principal
stress with extreme accuracy.
Williams *2 attempted to determine the effect of fluid pressure on the
strength of rock salt and hard aluminium. He claimed to disprove the
Poncelet Theory, but the range of the experiments was too hmited to draw
further conclusions.
Griihler^^ used cement mortar formed round a central shaft and
covered by a clamp which carried torsion levers. The shear stress was the
same at all points at the same distance from the axis. The cement failed
by tension, but never by shearing.
Kdrmdn'''^ compressed marble and sandstone and supplied latera
pressure by means of glycerine under pressure. He quotes Mohr's Law
as the shear stress law. With no side pressure these stones behave as
brittle materials, but with a pressure of 700 atmospheres the material
becomes perfectly plastic, and the elastic hmit is raised. Further deforma-
tion is possible after the elastic limit if the lateral pressure is increased,
but the effect is rapidly diminished at high pressures. The stones flowed
on planes at 45 degrees to the axis. Permanent set may take place by
relative shearing of the crystals for low values of the lateral pressure, or by
internal changes in the crystals at high values. The first kind of failure
occurs at a maximum value of the shear stress which depends on the
normal stress, but the second form takes place at a limiting constant
shear stress, and the material hardens.
according toJTheory (a). The results for steel are ratios depending on the tensile
.strength, and would be high unless the first yield was detected. Their cylinders
mcreased in diameter at yield. Turner's diminished.
170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 191B.
Adams,^^ and Nicholson,^^ and Coher *^ tested rocks in compression, and
supplied lateral support by enclosing each specimen in a steel cylinder
which bulged laterally. Marble flows as a plastic body imder difiereutial
pressure by distortion of the calcite grains, and the deformed specimen
retains 60 to 85 per cent, of its original compressive strength. Its specific
gravity is not increased. By Kick's process — in which the specimen is
embedded in a fused salt, usually alum, to fit the retaining cylinder —
minerals with hardness under 5 show plastic deformation, which is less
pronounced as they are harder. Still harder minerals, which do not flow,
have their structure broken down and are powdered. Fine-grained,
massive limestones show combined flow and fracture. Harder rocks, like
granite, crumble under pressure, but the flow structure is developed in
these by greater differential pressures.
10. The Friction Theory.
Many investigators have studied the internal friction of solids, and
when not associated with combined stresses the favourite method has been
by the decay of torsional oscillations. Only a few references are given
to the large volume of research of this type. Lord Kelvin ^^ pointed out
that the damping was caused by all the effects included under the class of
hysteresis phenomena. Bouasse dealt with torsional oscillation, and paper
No. 32 includes a review of his work. Ercolini*^ again pointed out that
the damping is due to hysteresis, and not to molecular friction. Guye's
work is of a similar character.
Reference has been made to the angles of fracture of brittle materials in
compression, which probably suggested Theory {d), and to the equality
of the yield stresses for steel in tension and compression .
In connection with combined stresses, Scoble *"• ^^ considered that the
friction theory does not apply to steel. Gulliver*' found that steel yields
in tension at an angle of 50 degrees to the axis {/x. = 0-176), but this is not
confirmed by yield at 40 degrees in compression. A study of combined
stress experiments led him to the same conclusion as that of Scoble, since
calculated values of ' /x " varied from —0-24:2 to 0-38. Smith's ^* tests did
not support the friction theory for steel, nor did those of Mason ^^ which
were specially well adapted to test it.
11. Liider's or Hartmann's Lines.
These markings have been studied in this country chiefly by
Gulliver^*' ^'^ in relation to the friction theory, and by Mason '^'' in connec-
tion with his combined stress experiments. Their papers will furnish
further references.
12. Some other Considerations in Combined Stress Researches.
The pecuUarities in the behaviour of steel — variation of the elastic hmit,
hysteresis, &c. — have been discussed elsewhere. It is possible that their
importance has been magnified, since the elastic limit and yield point
coincide approximately for thoroughly annealed steel, and the hysteresis
effect is extremely small. The difficulties are intensified in the case of
.other metals, because most have no elastic range and no well-defined yield.
Apparently we must study the fracture of these materials under uniform
stress distribution. Brittle substances, like rocks, cement, &c., are
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 177
probably simpler to deal with than non-ferroua metals, or even cast iron,
to a first approximation ; but Bauschinger found that the strength of
stone varies considerably with the proportions of the specimens ,^2 and
that stone has no elastic Umit, taking sets with small loads." Hard and
dense stones are better in these respects, and all are better at higher loads.
The difference in the strength of some rocks in different directions is very
great. Nagaoka^s ^\^q found rocks to be very imperfectly elastic, but
Adams and Coker''^ consider their elasticity in compression to be better
than that of cast iron, especially after they are loaded several times to
attain a state of ease.
The errors which are likely to be introduced in tests of rocks in com-
pression are now well known, and the best-conducted tests leave some
uncertainty regarding the true compressive strength. ^^
It is impossible to deal fully here with the behaviour of the crystals in a
material under stress. The researches of Ewing and Rosenhain are well
known, and those of Beilby deserve notice. The discussion on the papers
of Mason and Smith ^s included a reference to this matter by GulUver, and a
most suggestive contribution from M. Osmond.
Papers which deal with experiments made on rocks usually refer to the
behaviour of the separate crystals.
13. Alternating Combined Stresses.
The only experiments with which we are acquainted which have been
intended directly to investigate alternating combined stresses are those of
Turner.'^^ The plan of the research was not all that could be desired, but
was probably the best that could have been done with the available faciU-
ties. Specimens were tested under alternating bending and torsion, but
not combined. The torsion was taken as an example of combined stresses.
The chief results are shown in the table.
Material
Tube Steel
Mild Steel
Tool Steel
Nickel Steel
-
Elastic Limit .
Endurance
Elastic Limit .
Endurance
Per cent. Elong. (8)
Ib./sq. in.
31,000
29,000
17,000
16,000
24
Ib./sq. in.
42,300
40,000
24,000
22,000
29
Ib./sq. in.
67,000
50,000
38,400
38,000
9
Ib./sq. in.
81,200 1
59,000 )
40,800 1
35,000 i
14
Tension by
bending
Shear
At fracture
The tube and mild steel specimens conformed to the shear stress law
under alternating stresses. The tool steel was particularly weak in
alternating tension, and with nickel steel the drop in strength was greater
in tension than under torsion. The percentage elongations indicate that
the more ductile steels obey the shear stress law under repeated loadings,
and the behaviour of the more brittle samples approaches more closely to
that required by the maximum strain and maximum stress theories.
Wohler tested steels under repeated tension and compression, bendmg,
and torsion. It is difficult to compare his results for our purpose, since there
were considerable differences in the material included imder the same
title— the elongation at fracture for Krupp's cast steel for axles varied
from 11-7 to 23-7 per cent. The range of stresses which he selected from
all his tests probably refer to an average sample, and these for cast steel
1913. ^^
178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
axles are under tension, compression, or bending 13-38 to — 13-38, range
26-76 ; 23 to 0, range 23. Shearing or torsion 10-5 to -10-5, ran^e 21.
18-2 to 0, range 18-2. These figures would approximately fit the maximum
strain theory. It is evident that more work is required in this portion of
our field.
14. The Separation of Materials.
A distinction has been drawn between ductile and brittle materials.
Frimont "^ has arrived at the interesting conclusion that steel is brittle or
tough accorduig to whether the ratio of the elastic limits in tension and
compression is less or greater than one. It is quite possible that the usual
classification is not along correct lines, and this should be discovered when
greater attention is paid to substances of an intermediate character. The
latter appear likely to introduce considerable complexity. For com-
pletely ductile and brittle materials it appeared possible that double Hmits
would cover all the conditions, and these would be shear modified by fric-
tion, and possibly the maximum stress in tension. The intermediate steels
appear to show an intermediate behaviour, and then we cannot apply the
two limits. Scoble ^^ has suggested that a criterion might be found of the
form
Pi -1- mV-i = c
in which m depends on the degree of ductility of the material. This
equation is a general expression for all the laws except that of maximum
strain, which would require a P.2 term. For brittle materials m and c have
different values in tension and compression. A microscopic study is
particularly desirable to discover the mechanism of failure for the inter-
mediate materials, since it is possible that it is not of a simple character,
but a combination of that exhibited by the extremes. It is further neces-
sary to give each substance its correct position in a scale based on those
standard properties which determine its behaviour imder combined
stresses.
15. An Engineering Vieiv.
Yield has been taken to denote failure in most tests of ductile materials
under compound stress. The reason has sometimes been given that the
yield stress, and of course certain other considerations, fixes the working
stress. This is only partly correct ; the ultimate strength retains much of
its old importance, and the relative bearing of the yield and maximum
stresses depends on the conditions of the case under consideration. The
real reason for the selection of the yield point appears often to have been,
either that the scheme of the tests was such that they could not con-
veniently be continued to fracture, or that the stress distribution varied
from point to point and could be estimated only within the elastic range.
Although a knowledge of the ' Law of Failure ' is of great interest, it is
not of great importance to the engineer in cases of simple static loading.
He will prefer to fix his working stresses by tests which are modelled on the
working conditions. When combined stresses are produced by the loading,
the theories are liable to be misleading or of no assistance. Two examples
will illustrate this contention.
The yield and maximum stresses are considered to fix a workiag stress
for a sample of steel in tension. The yield stress should not be exceeded,
and the excess of the maximum over the yield stress is a reserve of strength.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 170
The experiments which have been recorded indicate that a plain shaft
subjected to combined bending and torsion shoukl be designed for an
equivalent torque, \/'M^ + T^. The maximum stress theory gives M +
VM^ + T^. The latter emphasises the importance of the bending moment,
and bending jaeld is much more serious than torsion yield. A small
bending yield would cause a considerable deflection of the shaft, but a
twist would fully stress more material with a strain of little importance.
It is not at all clear that the formula which gives the equivalent torque
to cause yield is the best for the purposes of design. The results of the
repeated loading tests, at least for the harder steels, lend further support
to this view.
The important cases of combined stresses in practice are usually accom-
panied by a variable stress distribution. We may assume that the shear
stress theory will allow the load at yield to be calculated, but the engineer
requires to know the fracture load to estimate the reserve of strength.
Bridgman ''*' ''^ states he found that he could raise the yielding pressure
of a thick cyhnder mider internal pressure tenfold by giving it a set. The
reserve strength here is not only due to the difference between the yield and
maximum stresses, but also to the understressed material. A law of
failure does not help an engineer to calculate to fracture in many such
cases, and he must depend on experiments made under the conditions of
each case.
The above considerations point to the ad^^sability of confining tests
on ductile steels to the elastic limit or yield point, and of considering the
importance of tests to fracture in cases of ' Special Problems ' which
involve complex stress distributions.
16. Conclusion.
Most experimental work has been done on ductile steel, but more tests
are required under three-dimensional stress, and particularly under com-
pressive stresses.
One point appears to have escaped notice. A material might appear
to have different shearing strengths under different sj^stems of stress, as
in the case of cast iron in shear and imder compression. The shearing
stress has been shown to be approximately constant at the elastic failure
of steel imder modification of the same general type of stress distribution.
Are these maximum shearing stresses the same imder all conditions of
loading ?
They have frequently been compared with the tensile strength, and the
differences do not seem to be great, but it would be of interest, and neces-
sary for further refiiiement, to test exactly the same material imder very
different combinations of principal stresses.
Few experiments have been made with the materials now classed as
brittle, and those already made should mostly be repeated. Here we can
assume that there is a clear field. The same apphes to non-elastic ductile
metals, and to those intermediate between ductile and brittle.
The methods of experiment will require further consideration. Simple
tension and compression are the most direct tests available. Longi-
tudinal tension and internal fluid pressure apphed to a thin hollow
cylinder appear to be the readiest means of securing two tensions.
Longitudinal compression and external fluid pressure have been used
N 2
180
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
for obtaining two compressions, but it is bardly satisfactory for all cases,
and might be replaced by external fluid pressure on a solid specimen with
free ends, as in Bridgman's pinching-ofE test, but this requires extremely
high pressures. A complete treatment of the problem in three dimen-
sions appears possible only by the use of high-fluid pressures.
Cases of combined stresses in engineering practice should be the sub-
jects for separate tests, and cannot entirely replace those which are in-
tended to determine the laws of failure. ComlDined alternating stresses
are mainly of practical interest, and here again the experiments should be
modelled to suit the engineering examples. Cases are not uncommon in
which compound stresses are apphed under shock conditions, but a further
consideration of this matter might well be the subject for a later report.
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16
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17
18
Piatt and
Hayward
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1888
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 181
19
1890
20
Wilson, C.
1890
21
22
Foppl, A.
Foppl, A.
1899
1899
23
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1900
24
Mohr, 0.
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25
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26
Martens, Foppl
and Berner
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1900
27
28
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Fremont, C.
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29
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1901
30
31
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J. T.
Filon, L. N. G.
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32
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33
34
Obermeyer,
Tammann,
Werigin,
Lewkogiw
GulUver, G. H.
1905
1905
35
Wehage, H.
1905
36
Hancock, E. L.
1905
37
Izod, E. G.
1906
38
Hancock, E. L.
1906
39
Fremont, C.
1906
40
Scoble, W. A.
1906
41
Scoble, W. A.
1907
42
VVUliams, W. E.
1908
43
Hancock, E. L.
1908
44
Bouasse, H.
Carriere, Z.
1908
45
Smith, C. A.
1908
Article ' Elasticity.' ' Encyc. Brit.,' or ' Math, and
Phys. Papers,' vol. iii., 1890, or see Lamb's ' Mathe-
matical Theory of Elasticity,' 1906, p. 115.
' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' vol. xlix., March 1890, and ' Phil.
Mag.,' June 1890.
' Mittheilungen (Miinchen),' xxvii., 1899.
The Relation of Failure to the Manner of Application of
Stress. ' Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung,' 1899.
Abstract in ' Proc. I.C.E.,' vol. cxl.
On the Strength of Ductile Materials under Combined
Stress. 'Phil. Mag.,' July 1900. ' Phys. Soc.
Proc.,' vol. xvii., Sept. 1900.
' Zeitschrift Ver. Deutschen Ing.,' Bd. 44, 1900.
The Elastic Constants of Rocks, &c. ' Phil. Mag.,'
1900.
The Relation of Failure to the Manner of Application
of Stress. ' Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung,' 1899,
p. 590 ; 1900, p. 147.
Theory of Solids. ' Ann. Phys.,' Ser. 4, March 1901.
Relation between Brittleness and Elastic Limits for
Tension and Compression. ' Compte.s Rendus,' 132,
Jan. 28, 1901.
Iron and Steel under Torsional and Combined Stress.
' Roy. Soc. Edinburgh Trans.,' 40, Nov. 12, 10, 1901.
An Experimental Investigation into the Flow of Marble.
' Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,' Series A, vol. cxcv.
Elastic Equilibrium of Circidar Cylinders under certain
Practical Systems of Load. ' Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans.,'
198, Feb. 28, 1902.
Deformation of Solids. ' Annal. Chim. Phys.,' 29,
July 1903.
Flow of Solids. 'Beiblatter Annal. Phys.,' vol. 29,
1905.
Permanent Deformation of Metals. ' Proc. I.M.E.,'
Jan., Feb. 1905.
Stresses in Materials simultaneously loaded in Several
Directions. ' Zeitsch. Ver. Deutsch. Ing.' 49, July 1,
1905.
The Effect of Combined Stresses on the Elastic Proper-
ties of Steel. ' Eng. News,' 54, Aug. 24, 1905.
Behaviour of Metals under Shear. ' Engineering,'
Dec. 22, 1905. ' Proc. I.M.E.,' Jan. 1906.
The Effect of Combined Stress in Iron and Steel. ' Phil.
Mag.,' 12, October 1906.
Shear Strength of Structural Materials. ' Soc. d'Encour.
Rev. de Metall.,' 3, July 1, 1906.
The Strength and Behaviour of Ductile Materials under
Combined Stress. ' Proc. Phys. Soc.,' xx., and ' Pliil.
Mag.,' Dec. 1906.
The Strength and Behavioiu- of Brittle Materials under
Combined Stress. ' Proc. Phys. Soc.,' xx., Jan. 1907.
Rupture of Materials under Combined Stress. ' Phil.
Mag.,' Jan. 1908.
The Effect of Combined Stress on Steel. ' Phil. Mag.,'
Feb. 1908.
Decay of Oscillations. 'Annal. Chim. Phys.,' 14,
Juno 1908.
Guest's Law on Combined Stresses. 'Engineering,'
July 10, 1908.
182
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
46
Hancock, E. L.
1908
47
Gulliver, G. H.
1908
48
49
Gulliver, G. H.
Ercolini, G.
1908-
1909
1909
50
Turner, L. B.
1909
51
Grill jler
1909
52
Coker, E. G.
1909
53
Poynting, J. H.
1909
54
Smith, C. A.
1909
55
Hancock, Ed.
1909
56
Guye, C. E.
Friedericksz, V.
1909
57
Schulze, F. A.
1909
58
Mason, W.
1909
59
Smith, C. A. M.
1909
60
1909
61
Scoble, W. A.
1910
62
Adams
1910
63
Morley, A.
1910
64
Scoble, AV. A.
1910
65
66
Adams, F. D.
Coker, E. G.
Turner, L. B.
1910
1910
67
Gulliver, G. H.
1909
1910
68
Smith, C. A. M.
1910
69
Turner, L. B.
1911
70
Mason, W.
1911
71
Karman, T. V.
1911
72
Houstoun. R. A.
1911
The Behaviour of Metals under Combined Stress.
' Phil. Mag.,' Nov. 1908.
The Cohesion of Steel and Relation between the Yield
Points in Tension and Compression. ' Proc. Roy.
Soc. Edin.,' 28, 1908.
■ Internal Friction in Cases of Compound Stress. ' Proc.
Roy. Soc, Edin.,' 29, 1908-09.
Recent Experiments on Elasticitj'. ' N. Cimento,' 17,
Jan. 1909.
The Elastic Breakdown of Materials under Combined
Stress. ' Engineering,' 87, Feb. 5, 1909.
Shear Strength and Elasticity. ' Zeitschr. Ver. Dcutsch.
Ing.,' 53, March 20, 1909.
Testing Machine for Combined Bending and Torsion.
' PhU. Mag.,' April 1909.
Pressure Perpendicular to Shear Planes and Lengthening
of Wires when Twisted. ' Proc. Roj'. Soc.,' A, 82,
July 1909.
Solid Steel Bars under Combmed Stress. ' Engineer-
ing,' 88, Aug. 20, 1909.
Design in Case of Combined Stress. ' Eng. News,
62, Sept. 2, 1909.
Internal Friction of Solids at Low Temperatures.
'Comptes Rendus,' 149, Dec. 6, 1909. See also
Guj'e and Mintz, ' Arch, des Sciences,' 26, 1908.
Guye and Schaffer, ' Comptes Rendus,' 150, April
1910.
Relation between the Elastic Modulus, Tension, Tor-
sion and Strain. ' Ann. d. Physik,' 31, Dec. 30, 1909.
Mild Steel Tubes in Compression and under Combined
Stress. ' Proc. I.M.E.,' 4, 1909.
Compound Stress Experiments. ' Proc. I.M.E.,' 4,
1909.
The Elastic Breakdown of Non-Ferrous Metals. ' Inst.
Metals Journ.,' 2, 1909.
Ductile Materials under Combined Stress. ' Proc.
Phys. Soc.,' vol. xxii. ' Phil. Mag.,' Jan. 1910.
Differential Pressures on Minerals and Rocks (Kick's
Process). ' Journ. of Geology,' Sept., Oct. 1910.
Strength of Materials under Combined Stress. ' En-
gineering,' April 29, 1910.
Further Tests of Brittle Materials under Combined
Stress. ' Proc. Phys. Soc.,' vol. xxii. ' Phil. Mag.,'
June 1910.
Experiments on the Flow of Rocks. I. The Flow of
Marble. ' Am. Jouru. Sci.,' 29, June 1910.
Stresses in a Thick Cylinder subjected to Internal
Pressure. ' Camb. Phil. Soc. Trans.,' 21, No. 14,
Sept. 12, 1910.
A New Experimental Method of Investigating Certain
Systems of Stress. ' Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,' 30,
1909-10.
The Elastic Breakdown of Certain Steels. ' Iron and
Steel Instit. Journ.,' 1910.
The Strength of Steels in Compound Stress and Endur-
ance under Repetition of Stress. ' Engineering,'
July 28, 1911.
Liider's Lines on Mild Steel. ' Phys. Soc. Proc.,' 23,
Aug. 1911.
Compression Tests of Marble and Stone. ' Zeits. Ver.
Deutsch. Ing.,' 55, Oct. 21, 1911.
A Relation between Torsion and Tension. ' Phil.
Mag.,' Nov. 1911.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERrNa MATERIALS. 183
73 Cook, G. 1911 The Strength of Thick Hollow Cylinders under Internal
Robertson, A. Pressure. 'Engineering,' 92, Dec. 15, 1911.
74 Bridgraan, P. W. 1912 The Collapse of Thick Cylinders under High Hydro-
static Pressure. ' Phys. Rev.,' 3-1, Jan. 1912.
75 1912 Breaking Tests under Hydrostatic Pressure and Con-
ditions of Rupture. ' Phil. Mag.,' July 1912.
76 Basquin, 0. H. 1912 The Circular Diagram of Stress and its Application to
1913 the Theory of Internal Friction. ' West Soc. Eng.
Journ.,' 17, Nov. 1912. ' Sci. Abs.,' Feb. 1913,
No. 149.
77 Mallock, A. 1912 Some Unclassified Properties of Solid' and Liquids.
' Proc. Roy. Soc. A.,' Deo. 1912.
78 Mallock, A. The Extension of Cracks in an Isotropic Substance.
' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' A. vol. 82, pp. 26-29.
79 1912 The Yield Point and the Elastic Limit. ' Engineer-
ing,' Jan. 26, 1912. Definitions by the Engineering
Standards Committee and Recommendation of the
Ships Committee.
80 Report on ' Theories and History.' Also Applied
Mechanics, Perry.
Report on Alternating Stress. By W. Mason, M.Sc, ivith Notes by
F. EoGERS, D.Eng., and E. M. Eden.
Index.
PAGf5
Introductory 183
Testing Machines 184
Data from Published Tests 184
Bausc hunger's Theory 184
Recovery of Elasticity 186
Elastic Hysteresis 189
Speed Effect 190
Divergent Results of Fatigue Tests 190
Carbon-Content of Steels and Resistance to Alternating Stress .... 191
Effects of Annealing and Quenching upon Resistance to Alternating Stress . 191
Tests with Repeated Cycles of Combined Stresses 192
Alternate Stress with Repeated Impact 122
Practical Utility oJE the Alternate Stress Test 192
Rapid Means of determining Endurance under Stress Repetition .... 192
Materials other than Wrought Iron and Steel 193
Suggestions for Research 193
Note by Dr. F. Rogers on Heat Treatment 194
Note by Dr. F. Rogers on Microscopic Effects of Alternating Stress . .195
Remarks on the Phrase ' Crystallisation through Fatigue ' 196
Note by Mr. E. M. Eden on Stress Alternation Curves for Bending Tests on
Rotating Bars 196
Note by Mr. E. M. Eden on Divergent Results of Alternating Stress Tests . 197
Appendix I. Review of recent Papers on Elastic Hysteresis . . . .198
Appendix II. Table of certain Data 200
Introductory.
By an ' alternating stress ' is meant a stress varying cyclically between
raaximnm and minimum values. Unless otherwise stated, it is implied
that the stresses are imposed without shock, and that the variation of
stress on either side of the algebraic mean of the maximum and minimum
stresses is, or is approximately, simple-harmonic. The range of stress is
the algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stresses.
The resistance of a material to alternating stress may be measured by
the values of the maximum and minimum stresses of the cycle whose
184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
repetition for some particular very large number of times will just produce
fracture. If unlimited time were available for testing, the very large
number referred to would be indefinitely great or would exceed the
number of repetitions which the material would be required to withstand
in service.
The cycle of stress having its maximum and minimum respectively of
equal (or nearly equal) positive and negative values is the most important
practically ; and the bulk of experimental work has been done with this
cycle. The usual method of finding experimentally the resistance of a
material is to make a number of tests to destruction with a series of ranges
of stress of this (equal i) cycle ; the first of the series having an appropriate
high range, and subsequent series a successively less and less range. This
succession of tests is continued until the number of the repetitions before
fracture is at least a million. Plotting the ranges of stress, '/ ' (or half the
range of the cycle of equal + and — stresses) , against the respective number
of repetitions, ' n,' before fracture, an ' f,n' curve, or ' endurance curve,'
is obtained. This curve (at any rate for iron and steel) becomes less and
less inclined to the axes of ' n ' as ' w ' becomes larger. Where the curve
becomes sensibly asymptotic to a line parallel to the axis of ' n,' the
ordinate — i.e., the range of stress — between the asymptote and the axis of
'«' is called the 'limiting range,' or the ' Wohler safe range.' This range
is a definite measure of the ' endurance ' under the type of stress and con-
ditions of test. The term ' endurance ' has been somewhat loosely used,
and it is not employed herein to denote any particular measure of the
resistance to alternating stress.
Testing Machines.
The machines used in making the alternating stress tests that have been
pubhshed are referred to in the bibHography and the notes contained
therein.
Data from Published Tests.
It has been suggested * that a list of all pubhshed data of tests should
be made out. Such a Hst should include (if available) information con-
cerning the chemical composition, manufacture, previous heat treat-
ment, testing machine, shape and preparation of specimen, and an attempt
to estimate how nearly the Wohler safe ranges have been approached in
each case. This matter is one of some magnitude, and is at present left
over for further discussion.
Bauschinger's Theory.
This theory is thus concisely stated by Bairstow (No. 2,f page 168,
Vol. VI. ' Collected Researches,' N.P.L.) : — ' The superior Hmit of elas-
ticity can be raised or lowered by cychcal variations of stress, and at the
same time the inferior Umit of elasticity will be raised or lowered by a
definite, but not necessarily the same, amount. The range of stress be-
tween the two elastic hmits has therefore a value which depends only on
the material and the stress at the inferior limit of elasticity. This elastic
range of stress is the same in magnitude as the maximum range of stress
which can be repeatedly applied to a bar without causing fracture, no
* By Prof. J. E. Petavel.
f The mimbers refer to the bibliography of this Section.
COMPLEX STRESS rtlSTRIBUTTONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 185
matter how great the number of repetitions. Bauschinger made experi-
ments to show that these definitions did not apply to the elastic limits as
measured on a previously unstrained specimen, and he made experiments
to show that the elastic Umits in this case, which he called primitive elastic
limits, were imstable, and that only a few reversals of stress were necessary
to produce a condition in which the theory was satisfied. In this latter
state Bauschinger defined the elastic Umits aa " natural elastic limits." '
It is interesting, here, to note that the ideas underlying Bauschinger's
theory had been published so long ago as 1848 by James Thomson * ; who
wrote : there are ' two elastic Hmits for any material, between which the
displacements or deflexions, or what may in general be termed changes of
form, must be confined, if we wish to avoid giving the material a set, or in
the case of variable strains, if we wish to avoid gi^^ng it a succession of sets
which would bring about its destruction ;'.. . these limits ' may there-
fore, with propriety, be called the superior and the inferior limit of the
change of form of the material for the particular arrangement which has
been given to its particles ; that these limits are not fixed for any given
material, but that, if the change of form be continued beyond either
hmit, two new Umits will, by means of an alteration in the arrangement
of the particles of the material, be given to it in place of those which it
previously possessed.'
There is now no doubt concerning the existence, for iron and steel, of
elastic ranges such as those foimd and actually measured by Bairstow.
Provided that these ranges, when once attained, are never exceeded, it
may be regarded as qviite certain that any number of cycles of any speed
of alternation can have no destructive effect. (See Article ' Elastic
Hysteresis ' of this Report.) But in most cases, certainly with cycles of
unequal ± stresses, and most probably with equal ± stresses, the elastic
range is reached through a partially elastic period which is gradually ended
by recovery and the attainment of elastic Umits adjusted to the range of
stress. Though it is improbable that these elastic ranges can be affected,
either in range or position of range, by speed of alternation, yet it seems
quite certain that the duration of the period and the number of cycles
necessary for the adjustment may be very largely influenced by this speed
(No. 43). It is not so certain that the range ^ of adjustment does not
depend on the temperature of testing ; but experimental evidence on this
point is wanting. Thus it is not quite certain that the elastic ranges found
by Bairstow would have been exactly the same if the temperatures of his
experiments had been different.
Mr. Bairstow's method of finding the values of the elastic ranges from
his observations is one that leaves a Uttle room for personal judgment ;
but since he estimates the probable error of this process to be within half
a ton per square inch, it is clear that the elastic ranges found were quite
definite.
The identity of these elastic ranges with the Umiting safe ranges of
fatigue tests can hardly be said to be conclusively proved. But there is
considerable evidence in favour of it, and it appears to the writer that this
identity may be regarded as sufficiently well estabUshed.
The term ' natural ' elastic limit is in certain respects a Uttle misleading.
A piece of material of a definite composition and crystalUne structure will
* Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal. The~paper is quoted by Kelvin
in his Article ' Elasticity,' Ency. Brit., 9th ed. vol. vii.," p. 800, § 19, but "does not
appear to be generally known; it has recently been pointed out by Prof. J. Perry.
186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
certainly possess ' natural ' elastic limits when it has been subjected to a
number of repetitions of stress of approximately the amount of the limiting
range ; and it has been shown by Bairstow that a hmit exists above which
the tension elastic limit cannot be raised, so long as the stress is entirely
removed in each cycle. The piece maij possess natural elastic limits when
the process of overstrain and recovery attempted by Bauschinger, and
carried out with more (though not complete) success by Bairstow, has been
applied to it. It has not yet been proved that the natural elastic limits
for equal ± stress cycles are the same as would be found in static tension
and compression by the use of an exceedingly dehcate extensometer on the
piece in its primitive state. The question has not been definitely settled
whether, when the primitive elastic limits have been altered, and the granu-
lar structure distorted, by cold working, the natural elastic hmits will or
will not remain the same ; though it is certain that the part of the /, n
curve for small values of n will be made to fall above the corresponding
part of the curve for the miworked stuf?. It appears from the Table,
Appendix II., that the annealing to which the specimens of pubHshed
repeated stress tests have been subjected produces, in general, some little
lowering of the ' natural ' elastic limits ; though the primitive elastic
limits may be very much altered by this heat treatment.
There appears to be no definite relation between the ' natural ' elastic
limits and either the prinutive elastic limit, the yield point or the ultimate
tensile stress.
Recovery of Elasticity.
It is a well-known fact, discovered by Weber in 1835, that ' when a body
is strained beyond the elastic hmit and is set free, part of the strain
disappears at once, and the strain that does not disappear gradually
diminishes. The body never returns to its primitive condition, and the
ultimate deformation is the permanent set ; the part of the strain that
disappears is called elastic after-strain.' * In the case of the metals of
engineering construction, the immediate re-apphcation of the stress after
such overstrain shows the metal to be in an imperfectly elastic state ; but
if the stress be re-appUed after a considerable period of rest, during which
the elastic after-strain disappears, the elasticity is found to be restored.
The period of rest may be shortened to one of a few minutes only, if the
temperature be raised to 100° C. ; presumably the elastic after-strain dis-
appears in this short interval, though, so far as the writer is aware, this has
not been verified experimentally. After this recovery the elastic Umit is
somewhat higher than at the first overstraining. Provided the recovery
is complete, further exposure to this temperature, or to considerably liigher
temperature in the case of many metals, produces no further effect ;
and the additional exposure has no more effect than on a piece of the
unstrained material.
It may be noticed here that the limit of proportionahty of wrought iron
is practically the same at 0° C. and 250° C, there being some little varia-
tion between these temperatures with a maximum about 200° C.f
It has been proved that, in general, non-elastic strain is effected by
cleavage plane shpping in the crystaUine grains. The parts of a crystal
not immediately contiguous to the slipped surfaces are, so far as can be
* Quoted from Love's Theory oj Elnsticity.
t A. Martens, Proc. Inst. C.E., vol. civ.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTIUBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. ] 87
detected imder the microscope, unaffected by plastic strain.* The effect
of the increase of temperature which promotes recovery of elasticity must
therefore be upon the material which, according to Beilby,f exists in an
altered physical and perhaps molecular condition between the slipped
surfaces; or, at any rate, upon material in the immediate neighboiu'hood
of these surfaces.
Recovery, then, is due to the effect of temperature on this material,
resulting in the heahng up of the crystaUine shps. It seems reasonable to
suppose the disappearance of ' elastic ' after-strain to be a phase of this
heahng process, rather than a distinct and different phenomenon. The
fact that recovery is much impeded or totally stopped in the case of iron
and steel at a temperature of 0° C. shows that rest, unless accompanied by a
suitable temperature, is ineffective in promoting restoration of elasticity ;
the rapidity of recovery — i.e., the duration of rest required — being thus a
function of the temperature.
Turning now to the consideration of cychcally apphed stresses, Ewing
has remarked : { ' When in the overstrained condition, and before re-
covery has taken place, iron and steel exhibit much hysteresis in the rela-
tion of extension to load. Any process of loading and unloading, repeated
imtil the changes become cychc, then shows a well-marked difference in
the length of the piece for any one amount of load in the two stages of the
process. The curves exhibiting extension in relation to load form a loop,
and this loop closes up as the piece gradually recovers its elasticity by pro-
longed rest.' Recovery of elasticity may thus be defined, for cychcally
apphed stresses, by reference to the hysteresis loop. With regard to the
physical meaning of this loop, may it be regarded as the cychc coimterpart
of the elastic after-strain before mentioned, or is it a combined effect of
permanent set and elastic after-strain ? The answer seems to be, in the
strict sense, neither ; for the cychcal apphcation of stresses, unless very
slowly made, leaves very httle time for the healing during rest. The
internal condition, then, would appear to be very similar to that of the
statically overstrained bar immediately after the elastic hmit is passed ;
and when, therefore, no period of rest has differentiated the strain into
elastic after-strain and permanent set.
In the ultimate stage of fatigue, the cracks which finally end in rupture
are doubtless produced by the continual to and fro shding along crystalline
cleavage surfaces. TMs action causes the attrition and removal of ma-
terial from between these surfaces (Ewing and Humphrey, No. 27). It is
reasonable to suppose that such to and fro sliding is in operation from the
time of appearance of a hysteresis loop ; and upon this is based the
commonly accepted explanation of plastic hysteresis.
The work of L. Bairstow (No. 4) has thrown much hght on plastic
hysteresis. When the cycles consist of vmequal + and — stresses, he has
demonstrated that, before adjustment of elastic hmits to a range of stress,
the hysteresis loop is not closed ; and that plastic hysteresis then consists
of a cychcal strain, called by him ' cychcal permanent set,' which is accom-
panied by an average strain of gradually increasing amoimt, named (the
tensile maximum stress being greater than the compressive) ' permanent
extension.' If the range is not too great, the ' permanent extension '
* ^oseahsin.. Iron and Sled Inst. Journal,vo\.hs.s.., 190G.
t The hard and soft states in metals. Engineering, May 19, 1911.
X Strength of Materials, Art. 41.
188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
gradually ceases to increase, and the ' cyclical permanent set' gradually tends
to disappear ; with such disappearance the elastic limits become adjusted
to the stresses, and the material recovers its elasticity. Recovery during
cycles of equal ± stress was observed by Bairstow (No. 4), the width of
the hysteresis loop being seen to decrease with repetitions of the same
stresses. Recovery under equal stress alternations is usually masked in
fatigue tests by the circumstance that the primitive elastic limits are
further apart than the adjusted hmits ; but some tests of Rogers (No. 62)
of heat-treated steel appear to show adjusted limits higher than those found
by static tests on the same treated material.
Recovery during repetitions of stress is difficult to explain. The heal-
ing up, which occurs with rest after a single overstrain, is not by itself a
sufficient explanation, for the stresses succeed each other too rapidly in
alternating stress tests for any material healing up to take place in any one
cycle. It has been shown (No. 82) that adjustment of elastic limits (and
therefore recovery) occurs not only with slow repetitions of two cycles per
minute, but also with 800 cycles per minute ; and, of course, the existence
of safe ranges of stress, one of whose limits may be outside the primitive
elastic limits, is a fact known since the time of Wohler. It may be con-
jectured that recovery during cyclical stressing is a slow continuous action
due to change in the material between shpping cleavage planes. The
slowness of this action, in tests at laboratory or workshop temperatures,
still obtains at higher temperatures ; but it appears from the experiments of
Unwin* (No. 91) and Howard (No. 47) that the resistance to fatigue was
somewhat greater at 400° to 500° F. It may be noticed that the energy
correspondmg to the hysteresis loop, which may cause considerable rise of
temperature of the test piece, is generated at the slipping cleavage surfaces,
wliich is the very locahty where increased temperature will have its
greatest effect.
The small increase of resistance to fatigue mentioned above may
possibly result either from a tendency to create a more extended elastic
range (due to recovery at the higher temperature, in which case the
adjusted elastic limits would be further apart) ; or merely from a greater
heahng tendency counteracting the disintegrating action of the to and
fro slipping, but not leading to any extension of the elastic range ; or from
both these two together : the three suggested alternatives being, of course,
different aspects of the same thing. The first of the three seems impro-
bable from some experiments of Bairstow (No. 4) on alternate boihng and
overstrain of a specimen previously subjected to repetitions of stress m his
machine. The considerations concerning temperature and recovery in
static tests, also, are in accordance with this view. In short, it seems
probable, though not quite certain, that for large hmits of temperature
the rapidity of (or rather slowness), or degree of tendency to, recovery
is somewhat affected, but not the extent of the elastic ranges of iron and
steel.
It should be noticed that Howard in a further paper (No. 48) found the
resistance to fatigue much increased for tests carried out at 400° to 600° F.
Whether the increase of 100° F. between the experiments of Howard's
papers No. 47 and No. 48 corresponds to some critical change in tempera-
* Unwin attributes the increased resistance rather ' to the annealing efiect each
evening when the bars were left to cool.'
COMPLEX STRKSS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 18'.)
ture effect on unstable material between slipping cleavage surfaces, it is
impossible, so far as the writer is aware, to say.
A point worthy of notice in Bairstow's experiments (No. 4) is that the
increase of width of hysteresis loop for a given increase of range applied was
greatest for equal ± stresses. It would be expected that, with the accom-
panying increase of ' permanent extension ' under unequal ± stresses, the
increase of width of loop would have been the greater. That it is otherwise
indicates that recovery must be in comparatively rapid operation during
the increase of ' permanent extension,' so as to efiect a continuous (because
less interrupted) heahng of the average amount of strain per cycle.
In view of Coker's (No. 18) and McCaustland's (No. 55) conclusions
concerning absence of recovery at 0° C, experiments such as Bairstow's,
conducted at 0° C, should throw light on the operation of recovery,
especially in the case of cycles of unequal ± stresses. Hopkinson has
already suggested that his own experiments (No. 43) should be carried
out at higher temperatures.
Elastic Hysteresis.
When a metal is put through a cycle of stress of which the extreme
stresses are less than any known elastic Umit or hmits of the material, the
stress-strain diagram is found to be not a straight line, but a closed curve
containing a very small area (No. 26). The name of ' elastic hysteresis ' ia
given to this phenomenon ; its physical nature is not understood.* A
review of recent papers on the subject is given in Appendix I. of this
Report.
In the first place, there is ground for beUef that the increased decrement
which has been observed after long- continued torsional oscillation of wires,
and the subsequent decrease of decrement with rest, are accidental circum-
stances pertaining to the use of wires in decrement experiments, but other-
wise quite extraneous to the phenomenon of elastic hysteresis. The draw-
ing process of wire-manufacture renders material Uable to give abnormal
results, and it appears probable that these effects are due to crystalhne
cleavage sHpping, of which they are quite characteristic. Hopkinson and
WilHams (No. 45) found no perceptible increase of hysteresis with a quarter
of a milhon stress-cycles on a steel bar ; correspondingly, if no ' fatigue of
elasticity ' (as this alleged increase of hysteresis has been called) occurs
there would be no corresponding recovery of elasticity. Should this
absence of fatigue of elasticity be supported by further experiment,
alleged points of resemblance between elastic hysteresis, and fatigue of
strength and recovery of elasticity in plastic hysteresis, would disappear.
It may be remarked that there is good ground for believing that elastic
hysteresis will always accompany plastic hysteresis. The latter is an
aggregate effect of movements in the crystals, and is of much greater
magnitude than the former ; but it seems clear that in general the cleavage
shpping of plastic hysteresis affects at the same time only parts of a por-
tion of the whole number of crystalhne grains composing a material ; thus
the remaining parts and grains will doubtless be affected with elastic
hysteresis.
The chief contrast between the two kinds of hysteresis is fiu'uished by
* The following articles should be consulted : ' Viscosity of Solids,' Art. 54 ;
Love's Theory of Elasticity ; Art. 56, Ewing's Strength of Materials ; Article ' Elasti-
city,' Lord Kelvin, Emy. Brit., 9th ed., vol. vii.
190 REPOETS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
certain effects of temperature. So far as the writer knows, there are no
actual measurements giving a comparison of the actual amounts of hys-
teresis, of either variety, at various temperatures. But it appears to be
certain from experiments on torsional oscillations of wires that increase
of temperature causes considerable increase of decrement of oscillations — •
i.e.. increased loss of energy by increased elastic hysteresis. On the other
hand, the effect of temperature on plastic hysteresis is complex (see article
' Recovery of Elasticity ' in this Report) ; the tendency is for decrease
with higher temperature, owing presumably to increased potency of
recovery by ' heahng ' together of displaced portions of crystals.
These temperature effects are evidence of a difference of nature,
and not merely of degree, between the two kinds of hysteresis. The
question arises whether elastic hysteresis under cyclically apphed stresses
causes weakening or predisposition to plastic hysteresis. The suggestion
of Bairstow (No. 4) that ' below the static yield-point, iron and steel appear
to be capable of maintaining an unstable condition for a considerable time
against cychcal variations of stress ' admits of a different and more simple
explanation (see No. 66). Hopkinson, as already mentioned, foimd no sign
of increase of (elastic) hysteresis with 250,000 repetitions of a range of
stress of 28-6 tons per square inch ; and the results of experiments on resist-
ance to alternating stress provide many instances of very long- continued
cyclic stressing without fracture. Thus, 200 milhon revolutions in a
rotating-bar machine with calculated stresses of ± 40,000 lb. per square
inch (No. 48) have been withstood without fracture by a steel specimen.
It is interesting to know that the experiments of Hopkinson and
Wilhams (No. 45) are being continued, with the general object of discover-
ing how elastic hysteresis is related to the elastic hmit.
Speed E-ffect.
The influence of high rate of alternation of stress is to increase the
number of repetitions required for fracture, and afparently to increase the
Wohler range (No. 43). It is pointed out in No. 43 that the range may not
really be increased ; but that, on account of the large number of cycles
required to fracture a specimen, the practical effect is virtually to increase
the endurance either in range or number of cycles.
Speed effect does not appear to become apparent at less than 2,000
reversals per minute. (See Nos. 23, 43, 80, 65, 82, and 84 ; also No. 59.)
The article on ' Probable Causes of Speed Effect ' on p. 147 of
No. 43 should be consulted ; and reference may be made to the article
' Recovery of Elasticity ' in this Report.
Divergent Results of Fatigue Tests.*
Suggested Causes. — (1) Impurities (No. 3), flaws, &c. (No. 94), in-
cipient cracks (No. 23) (such as would be left by a lathe cutting tool after a
deep cut) . The imj^roved endurance of ground specimens and of specimens
filed and polished, in alternate bending tests, is probably due to the re-
moval of small surface cracks. J. B. Kommers (No. 51) states that poHshed
and also ground specimens showed an increased resistance over turned
specimens of 45 to 50 per cent.
(2) Unrecognised stresses, due to bending in a direct stress ; to vibra-
* See Note by Mr. E. M. Eden (p. 41).
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 10 i
tion iu any kind of test ; or to stress accumulation (No. 58). From the
knowu difficulty of getting an axial pull or push in a direct static test, it is
to be expected that there will be some bending iu alternate stress tests
with directly apphed tension and compression. In No. 43 it would appear
that bending oscillations would surely have been detected by the apparatus
used to measure the lengthwise strain. The records of the only other
experiments in which strains corresponding to directly applied stresses were
measured, viz. Nos. 4 and 74, do not state that any bending effect was
observed. It is noteworthy that the experiments iu No. 82 with varying
ratios between the maximum tensile and maximum compressive stresses
gave httle variation in the values of the limiting range ; showing that
bending, if any, had httle effect ; or that the bending was caused equally
during tension and compression. Though it is difficult to draw conclusions,
it seems likely that the line of resultant force in the specimen does not
appreciably alter its position after the first few alternations of the approxi-
mate limiting stresses. This early change of position in this line would be
one tending to equalise the distribution of stress in the specimen.*
Alternate bending tests ujion sohd rotating bars give an apparently
greater value for the Wohler Umiting range. The number of revolutions
reqmred for fracture is considerably greater than the number of reversals
in tests with stresses directly apphed. The ' /, n' curves for the former
are not, generally speaking, even approximately parallel to the axis of
' n ' after 10® revolutions ; while in the latter there is indication that the
curve is asymptotic to a line, parallel to the axis ' n,' and not far removed
from the curve, at this number of cycles. It is to be expected that the
calculated maximum stresses in a bending test will be somewhat higher
than the actual, even when the bendings give the Wohler hmiting stresses,
because of stress equalisation near the ' skin ' of a specimen (see remarks
on No. 23). Unwin remarks f that 'Bending experiments are not less
trustworthy than tension experiments, and for stresses considerably less
than the statical breaking weight probably the error in the calculated stress
is not a large one.' Hollow test bars are foimd to give ' f, n' curves more
nearly approaching the curves for directly applied tension and compression.
Carbon-Content of Steels and Resistance to Alternating Stress.
Speaking of steels which consist partly of pearhte and partly of ferrite,
Rosenhain (No. 66) remarks : ' From the point of view of the resistance to
comparatively steadily apphed alternating stresses, the higher the carbon-
content up to 0-9 per cent, of carbon, the better the resisting power of the
metal.' Nos. 23, 47, 62, 82, 90, 93, and especially No. 48, contain evidence
in accordance with this statement. Heat treatment of steels may have, of
course, an enormous influence on their resistance.
Effects of Annealing and Quenching wpon Resistance to Alternating Stress.
The effect of the ' anneaUng ' which has been done | upon the speci-
mens of pubUshed alternate stress tests has been, in general, to diminish
the resistance as compared with that of the material in untreated com-
mercial condition ; and the effect of the quenching done has been to
* See No. 82, and Proc. I.C.E., clxvi. p. 100.
t The Testing of Materials oj Construction, 1 910 ed., j). 377.
j See Appendix II.
192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
increase the resistance greatly. It is pointed out elsewhere in the Eeport
(Note on ' Heat- Treatment ') by Dr. F. Kogers that for adequate study of
this branch of the subject very precise information concerning manufac-
ture and of treatment previous to the specific treatment given must be
available.
Tests with Repeated Cycles of Combined Stresses.
The question has been raised, notably by Turner (No. 90), whether a
common factor may not be found for all kinds of stress systems when these
systems are apphed in simple harmonically varying cycles. Since the
Wohler limiting ranges have been shown to coincide with the elastic ranges
(at any rate for direct stresses) this question becomes very pertinent.
, The main result of Turner's experiments is very briefly indicated in the
comments on No. 90 in the bibliography. More experimental data are
required. The Table (Appendix II.) gives all the information available at
present.
Alternate Stress with Repeated Impact.
The very important conclusion (see No. 83) arrived at by Stanton and
Bairstow seems to be well substantiated by Roos (No. 64). The practical
importance of the discovery may be gauged from the following quotation
from No. 83 : ' The authors are of opinion that conclusive evidence has
been shown that materials which are strong under alternating stresses are
in general strong under those shocks which are likely to be put upon them
in ordinary machine practice.'
Practical Utility of the Alternate Stress Test.
The practical bearing of Wohler's results has long been recognised,
witness the Launhardt and Weyrauch formulse. ('Proc. LCE.' Ixiii.
1880-1. See also No. 3.) In view of the result of No. 83, it would appear
that the repeated stress test ought to have enhanced importance. A
Wohler test is rarely specified by engineers, who rely on the general result
of research tests and on the convenient ' factor of safety.' Resistance to
sudden large shock is of at least equal importance with resistance to alter-
nate stress, and these in general seem to be somewhat opposing require-
ments. (See Nos. 3, 83, and 66.) The former necessitates ductihty, while
the latter requires a high natural elastic Umit. These exacting and in many
cases apparently inconsistent conditions would appear to render the
Wohler test, as well as a sudden large impact test (for the former does not
detect brittleness), all the more necessary. But it is unUkely, however,
that any test for resistance to repeated stress will be extensively used until
a rapid, simple, and inexpensive test has been discovered.
Rapid Means of determining Endurance under Stress Repetition.
(1) Prof. J. H. Smith's Method. (No. 74.)
The method seems to be open to certain objection, and confirmation is
required of its vahdity (see Notes on No. 74 in the bibUography) ; but
there is promise that it may meet the need for a quick method of finding
commercially the safe hmits for alternating stress.
(2) Professor J. 0. Arnold's Test. (Nos. 1, 2, and 3.)
This test does not profess to give the elastic ranges, but only to be a
practical substitute for the difficult Wohler test. The test, however, is
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 193
qualitative only ; it certainly detects brittleness, which the Wohler test
does not ; but whether it can give a quahty factor which, besides excluding
brittleness, includes resistance to repeated stresses of very small overstrain,
is a matter quite unproved.
(3) Method suggested by Bauschinger and latterly investigated by
Bairstow (No. 2), viz., a very few repetitions of alternate overstrain and
heating to 100° C. This has not been advanced as a quick method for
finding the elastic ranges ; indeed, further experiment is required. If the
method should prove satisfactory for certain classes of steel only, it would
seem to be worth while to design special apparatus for carrying out
expeditiously the present rather cumbersome process.
Should (i) or (3) be adopted means would have to be taken to discover
impurities and flaws, since these, which- vastly Hmit the endurance, would
not be detected.
Materials other than Wroiujht Iron and Steel.
The information concerning the resistance of materials other than
wrought iron and steel is not extensive ; what the writer has found may be
consulted by the aid of the following references :—
Cast Iron.
/No. 23. Alternate + and — bending.
No. 59. Alternate direct stress.
Endurance tests . . -i No. 93. Repeated bending in one
direction (see Unwin's
\ ' Testing of Materials ').
Elasticity and strains \
under repeated loading, INos. 8 and 9.
&c )
Coffer.
Endurance tests . . ■ -kt^' go' [ Alternate + and — bending.
No. 24. Alternate combined stress
(with considerable over-
strain).
Suggestions for Research.
The writer understands that the following researches are in progress :—
High-speed tests on resistance at temperatures of 100° C. and other
temperatures.
Experiments on elastic hysteresis on a high-speed direct-stress machine.
Experiments on alternating combined stress.
Experiments on the effect on resistance of keyways, &c.
The following suggestions for further research seem worthy of con-
sideration : —
(1) That experiments be made at 0° C. with imequal ± stresses, in
order to study the efEect of recovery and adjustment of the elastic hmits
at that temperature.
(2) That (as suggested by L. Bairstow, No. 2) experiments be made to
determine the ' permanent extension,' if any, when the range of stress
(direct) is less than the safe range.
(3) That the validity of the method of finding the safe elastic ranges by
1913. o
194 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
two or three repetitions of alternate small overstrain and boiling be
further tested.
(4) That the effect of cold working upon the ' natural ' elastic hmits be
further investigated.
(5) It would appear that two desiderata, viz., resistance to repeated
stress and resistance to large impact, require somewhat inconsistent
quaUties in the case of steel. (Nos. 83, 3, and 66.) Thus further work
(though probably mainly metallurgical and micrographic) should be done
in order to ascertain, if possible, the best conditions for maximum resist-
ance when both kinds of straining action above mentioned operate, as in
certain service conditions. A point to be tested is the resistance to sudden
impact of steel which has undergone test by alternating stress of approxi-
mately the Wohler safe range.
(6) That an elaborate series of alternating stress endurance tests, all
with the same material, be made on all the alternating stress testing
machines in use ; at the very least twenty test pieces to be tested in each
machine, and special precautions to be taken to ensure uniformity in the
material.*
Note on Heat Treatment. By Dr. F. Kogees.
The effects of heat treatment upon the resistance of metals to alternat-
ing stress form an almost entirely metallurgical aspect of the subject.
The value of some pubhshed work is very doubtful, because of the
vague use of such terms as ' annealing ' and ' quenching.' In order that a
heat treatment may be sufficiently specified the following particulars or
others from which they may be derived should be given : —
Composition of the steel, process of manufacture, its condition before
the treatment in question (whether as rolled or forged, or heat-treated and
how), the size of the piece, top temperature of the treatment, duration of
heating at that temperature, rate and manner of cooling, whether in a
furnace, in the air, or a hquid.
A so-called anneahng of a small piece may happen to be equivalent to
the quenching of a large piece at some point m the large piece, except in
so far as the result is affected by the previous treatment in each case.
The present state of knowledge is such that the condition of the ma-
terial can frequently be equally well, if not better, defined by the results of
various famihar mechanical tests, together with composition and micro-
structure, as by a precise statement of the known portions of the heat
treatment. On this account, when the effects of heat treatment on the
endurance imder alternating stress are being dealt with, it is desirable that
as much collateral information about the material as possible should also
be given. Largely on account of the more or less natural jealousy of
manufacturers, httle information of practical value has been published.
It may be as well to confine present attention to carbon steels of carbon
contents not exceeding what is usual in rails, say about 0-50 per cent.
carbon, since practically no information on the remaining steels is to be
found in the literature.
The complexity of the subject has already been suggested. Further,
however, it is necessary to remember that in any dynamic tests the relative
* Suggested by Mr. E. M. Eden.
COMPLEX STEESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 1!>5
importance of a flaw such as a crack, a non-metallic enclosure, or even a
tool-mark, is relatively very great, and depends upon the composition
generally, increasing, for example, with the carbon content. Heat treat-
ment may increase or decrease the relative importance of such flaws
according to the kind of treatment and the previous condition of the steel.
Apart from flaws of the kinds mentioned, steel in the rolled or forged
condition occasionally happens to be weak dynamically. For the present
purpose it appears necessary to consider the effects of heat treatments
upon steels in the rolled or forged condition which are not weak from
either of these causes.
There are then three main classes of treatments to consider : —
(1) Overheating. — This in general diminishes the endurance under
alternating stress (62 and 87). When extreme it merges into ' burning,'
from which it is distinguished technically. Slight overheating, on the
othor hand, is the same thing as some of the processes which are called
annealing.
(2) Reheating through the critical range is, in general, capable per se of
bringing the endurance to a normal high value, or of leaving it undisturbed,
according to the state of the steel before the treatment (Nos. 62, 85, 86,
and 87). The following factors tend to make the effects of such reheating
approximate more and more to those of overheating : (a) the more the
temperature exceeds the upper limit of the critical range ; (6) the greater
the duration of heating above the lower hmit of the critical range ; (c) the
slower the coohng through the critical range (62).
(3) The speed of cooling through the critical range has in any event a
most profound influence upon the endurance under alternating stress.
Generally speaking, it appears that the more rapid this cooling the greater
is this endurance (62, 33).
As to the effect of Cold Work upon endurance of alternating stress,
there are no data available. It is well known to manufacturers that it
increases the endurance greatly in some cases — for example, wire. This
fact also explains partly why in some pubUshed experiments (e.g., 62)
' anneahng ' diminished the endurance. The bars from which the tests
were cut were of small section, and therefore they were somewhat cold
worked, and also relatively rapidly cooled, in manufacture. They were
much more slowly cooled in some of the experimental anneahngs.
The effect of annealing after a metal has withstood large numbers of
alternations is also one which can only be answered when many practical
particulars of the metal are known. In (47) no effect was found. In (62)
it was clearly proved why no effects could be obtained from anneahng after
a certain stage of the fatigue had been passed. At a comparatively early
stage minute incipient cracks are sufficiently open to contain air. Hence
the faces oxidise, effectually ending any possibility of reunion.
Note on Microscopic Effects of Alternating Stress.
By Dr. F. Eogers.
This has been exhaustively elaborated in a very few papers. The main
conclusion is to show that cracks form by the development of repeated
cleavage, seen as shp-bands. This was done in (27) for iron, and in
(62, 63, and 82) for steel. In (63) and (82) the influence of the constituents
is noted, and in particular the avoidance of the harder carbon containing
196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
constituent by the incipient fracture is noted.* Further, the fatigue of
steels which had been variously heat-treated on systematic lines is simi-
larly studied. This helps to throw Ught upon the overheating of steel &c.
RemarTis on the Phrase * Crystallisation through Fatigue.'
From views which I have elsewhere expressed (No. 63a) as to the
microscopic nature of strain effects it will doubtless be expected that I do
not endorse the use of this hackneyed phrase. Twinning and the recrystal-
lisation of polyhedric steels might, however, be regarded as admissions of
the possibility of recrystallisation after straining, and therefore possibly
after fatigue. But my view is that the expression arose through' the
crystalline appearance which is well known upon the fracture of defective
iron, and was later sometimes found on fractures of relatively brittle steel.
I always find evidence that when such ' crystalline ' fractures are obtained
they can also be obtained without fatigue ; and, further, that metal which
gives a fibrous or silky fracture does not develop ' crystalline ' fractures
by fatigue.
Note on Stress Alternation Curves for Bending Tests on Rotating Bars.
ByE. M. Eden.
Wohler's rotating cantilever experiment showed that n (the number
of rotations to fracture) depended on / (the maximum stress). For two
materials ' Phoenix Iron ' and ' Homogeneous Iron ' a fairly definite curve
can be obtained by plotting the stress / against the number of alter-
nations n, the curve extending in the case of the Phcenix Iron from
n — 50,000 to n = 20,000,000, and in the case of the Homogeneous Iron
from n = 3,000 to n = 4,000,000.
The other materials experimented with by Wohler appeared to obey
similar laws, but the results were much more irregular.
Later rotating beam experiments than Wohler's on steel, iron, and
copper confirm the form of /, n curve given by these wrought-iron tests,
but the more modern experiments have usually only carried the /, n curve
up to n = 10^. The form of the /, n curve suggests that there is a limiting
value of the stress / below which fracture cannot be caused by any number
of alternations ; this limiting stress may be called /,. Values have been
assigned to this hmiting stress by Wohler, but I cannot see any reason for
thinking that the values he gives are correct.
In practice, material does not have to withstand an indefinite number of
alternations of stress, but the useful life of some machinery may involve
some hundreds of milhons of alternations of stress. In sohd rotating
beam tests the resistance of a material to 10* alternations (fui^) would
appear to be considerably lower than the resistance to 10^ alternations
(/lo^)- ... . . ,
fi, the limiting stress, is the value of / where the /, n curve is horizontal ;
as far as I know it has not been reached in any soUd rotating beam test.
Alternating stress tests in direct tension and compression on recipro-
cating weight-testing machines with a presumably uniform distribu-
tion of stress over the cross-section of the test piece show /, n curves,
which although in many cases rather vague in form are more nearly hori-
* For a review of this question ^ee 78,
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 197
zoutal after 10® alternations than the curves from solid rotating beam
tests, and it is possible that in these tests the limiting stress /, has been
nearly reached or that /,„** may not be much lower than /m". Quite lately
it has been shown that rotating cantilever tests with hollow test pieces
where the stress should be nearly imiform over the cross-section also give
a curve more nearly horizontal at 10® alternations than the curve from
sohd test pieces ;* in fact, /, appears to have been reached with 500,000
alternations.
These hollow cantilever tests help to explain the difference between
the form of /, n curve obtained from the rotating bar and reciprocating
mass types of testing machine, but unfortimately this is not the only
difference in the results of tests on the two machines.
Note on Divergent Results of Alternating Stress Tests.
By E. M. Eden.
In the reciprocating weight-testing machine, rate of alternation of
stress, number of revolutions per minute, largely affect the endurance
strength, whereas in a rotating-beam machine the endurance strength is
quite unaffected by speed.
Although, as far as I know, alternating stress tests of the same material
in different testing machines have not been pubUshed, yet it appears to be
impossible for the two types of machine just mentioned to give the same
endurance figures, as if they did agree at one speed they would not do
so at another. It appears that endurance under an alternating stress or
resistance to an alternating stress cannot at present be determined for
any material — the values obtained will depend on the testing machine that
is used.
In the Reynolds-Smith endurance tests with a reciprocating weight
machine a high tenacity steel showed a lower endurance strength than a
steel of much lower tenacity. Such a result has never been obtained with
a rotating-beam machine where increase in endurance usually accompanies
increase in tenacity, and this again rather points to some unexplained
difference in the destructive action of the two types of machine.
Apparently either the calculated stress in one or both types of testing
machine is not the true stress, or something else besides the intensity of the
alternating stress affects the endurance.
In either case the calculated values of f, and f, are not the only factors
affecting the endurance of a piece of material.
There are some other factors besides /, and /,, which are known to
affect endurance ; the distribution of the stress over the cross-section has
been referred to before, and the condition of the surface, and the form of
the test-piece, are also known to largely affect endurance, but none of these
can explain the speed effect.
In this connection it is, I think, worth noticing that it is not at all easy
to repeat an endurance test and obtain exactly the same result. Two test
pieces cut from the same bar of metal will not usually show the same
endurance when tested under what are intended to be the same conditions,
on the same alternating stress-testing machine ; a great deal depends on
the machine and on the care taken ; but in many pubhshed tests there is a
great want of agreement between different tests of what is said to be the
* ' Welded Joints in Iron and Steel.' Proc I.C.E., vol. clxxxviii.
198 IlEPOIiTa ox THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
same material, and it is probable tbat many impublislied tests would show
even larger variations.
This A^ariation in the apparent endurance strength of test pieces cut
from the same bar may be due to an actual variation in the material, to
local weak spots in the structure of the bar, or to differences in the amount
of surface damage in machining or grinding the test pieces, or they may be
due to the test piece really being treated differently in testing, such as one
piece being run more out of truth than another.
While there is no doubt that in the case of some materials there may
really be a difference in different parts of the same bar, yet there is some
evidence that the apparent variation in endurance strength is not always
due to this alone. In the alternating shock or Repeated Impact Tests of
Dr. Stanton * different test pieces from the same bar of steel gave prac-
tically identical endurance results. If the variation in endurance of
different test pieces from the same bar when tested in an alternating
stress-testing machine is due to variation in the material, it is remarkable
that alternating shock tests should not be affected in the same way, for the
impact tests referred to are really alternating stress tests with suddenly
apphed stresses, which are not calculated in tons per square inch.
Alternating stress in practice is often accompanied with repeated shocks
or occasional shocks or vibrations. In a testing machine such shocks or
\dbrations are as far as possible eUminated, but it may be that these or the
stresses caused by these affect the endurance.
Suggestions for Experimental Work. — There seems to be room for a
great deal of purely experimental work on alternating stress and endur-
ance ; to help to clear up some of the immediate difficulties of the subject I
would suggest : —
(1) An elaborate series of alternating stress endurance tests all with the
same material on all the alternating stress-testing machines in use, at the
very least twenty test pieces to be tested in each machine, and special
precautions to be taken to ensure uniformity in the material.
APPENDIX I.
Brief Review of the Papers in the Bibliography on Internal Friction,
Hysteresis, Effects of Magnetism, Temperature, and Oscillatory Discharge.
By Dr. F. Rogers.
The estimate (in 45) of the area of the hysteresis loop in ' static ' tests,
as being, say, 10 to 20 per cent, greater than in alternating tests at a speed
of average frequency of 136 alternations per second, is of much interest, and
it would be of value if direct confirmation could be otherwise obtained.
It is of great importance to inquire whether this hysteresis at stress well
below the elastic limit, determined statically by a good extensometer, is
(a) simply a matter of local permanent set beyond the elastic Hmit owing to
microscopically visible or other want of homogeneity ; or (b) strain of
some sort which is as homogeneously distributed as purely elastic strain is
commonly supposed to be, and therefore possibly dependent upon inter-
molecular distances, or even upon orientations of molecules or of relatively
small groups of molecules. Since magnetisation of a bar is accompanied
by a change of length, and since straining of a bar assists the bar to take
* Proc. Inst. Mech. Engs., No. 4, 1908.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERINO MATERIALS. 199
permanent magnetisation, it is conceivable that the mechanism involved,
whatever precisely it may be, is the same for both mechanical and magnetic
hysteresis ; or (c) a combination of these two.
Most frequently this aspect of the subject has been studied by observa-
tion of the torsional oscillations of wires. The decrement of oscillations
a ppears to be increased by :
Temperature above atmospheric (36, 38, 37).
Temperatures below — 80° C. for gold and magnesium (38), or — 40 for
gold (36).
Very high frequency oscillatory discharge (20).
It is decreased by :
Temperatures below atmospheric.
In No. 36 this decrease is fomid for copper, platinum, silver, and
steel ; gold having a minimum at — 40° C.
In No. 37 this decrease is foimd for silver, iron, and more especially
aluminium ; magnesium and gold having a minimum
at - 80° C.
(Exceptions are noted above.)
Magnetic field, particularly alternating (34, 19, 20).
Oscillatory discharge (34, 19, 20) .
(34 is concerned with tensile hysteresis.)
On the other hand (12), successive torsions decrease the magixetisation
ill a given field.
A relation between the decrement and the maximum strain is not in
most cases available, but would be desirable from the point of view of
answering the above inquiries. A glance at this summary suggests, how-
ever, that the analogy between mechanical and magnetic hysteresis (6)
finds some support. An important Hmitation is, however, suggested by
the fact that whereas an alternating magnetic field tends to diminish the
energy absorbed in mechanically straining (19, 20), yet, on the other hand,
repeated torsion causes an increase in the energy required for magnetisa-
tion (12).
The suggestion should be regarded rather as a basis for investigation,
than as based upon existing data.
Bibliography on Alternating Stress.
Drawn up by W. Mason and Dr. F. Eogers.
1 Arnold, J. 0. 1903 Dangerous Crystallisation of Mild Steel and Wrought
Iron. (Description of Main Features of Arnold's
Alternate Bending Machine.) 'Inst. C.E. Proc.,'
154. Supplement, 1903.
2 Arnold, J. O. 1904 Fracture of Structural Steels under Alternating Stress.
' Brit. Assoc. Report,' 1904. ' Science Abs.,' 1904,
Nos. 1929b, 2795b.
Some preliminary experiments indicated that the resistance of structural
steel to cycles of stress with considerable overstrain was inversely as the
rate of alternation.
3 Arnold, J. 0. 1908 Factors of Safety in Marine Engineering. ' Inst.
Naval Arch.,' L., 1908.
An analysis of ' factors of safety ' for various purposes is given ; and
the practical importance of the Wohler phenomenon shown.
The author demonstrates that the Wohler test does not detect brittle-
ness — a fact now accepted. He argues that the Wohler limiting stresses
200
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBHTIONS IN ENGINEERIKO MATERIALS. 201
(equal ± alternations of stress) are a ' reflection ' of the yield point or elastic
limit, giving figures in support — a contention not borne out by nearly all
other tests.
The e£Eect upon resistance to fatigue of microscopic ' rods ' of manganese
sulphide is shown ; tests being made with stresses parallel and also per-
pendicular to the length of the ' rods.'
i Bairstow, L. 1900 Elastic Limits of Iron and Steel under Cyclical Varia-
tions of Stress. ' Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,' 210,
Dec. 9, 1909.
This paper is a very important contribution to the subject of alternating
stress. The author has thrown much light on the strain history of the
Wohler test on iron and steel, and has revealed the nature of the stress-
strain relations, whetlier of hysteresis or permanent extension, throughout
his tests. The main conclusions are mentioned in various places in the
Report, and only one or two salient facts need be mentioned here. He has
proved the existence of elastic ranges of stress which were suggested by
Bauschinger as the explanation of Wohler's results ; and from comparison
of these elastic ranges (ranges for which the hysteresis loop disappears),
with the safe limiting ranges found by Wohler for presumably similar mate-
rial, he has concluded that the former are identical with the latter.
Work (previous to Bairstow's) on the points just mentioned is con-
tained in No. 7, Bauschinger ; No. 82, Stanton and Bairstow. See also
Unwin's 'Testing of Materials,' Article 253, edition 1910.
5 Baker, E. 1905 Report of Tests of Metals. Abstract in ' Iron and
Steel Inst. Journ.,' 1905, II., p. 7C8.
Tests of material at the Watertown Arsenal. Re-tests made of wrought
iron, following a period of rest of twenty -two years, showing that certain
tensile properties characteristic of the early overstraining still remain in the
iron.
6 Baker, Sir E. 1886 Influence on Steel of repeated subjection to Stress.
' Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers,' cxxiii. See Unwin's
' Testing of Materials.'
7 Bauschinger, J. 1886 Ueber die Veranderung der Elasticitatsgrenze und
Festigkeit des Eisen, etc. ' Mitthlg. aus dem Mechan-
ischtechnischen Laboratorium in Munchen.' See
Unwin's ' Testing of Materials,' also for Bauschinger's
earlier paper.
8 Berger, Karl 1899 Elasticity of Cast Iron subjected to repeated tensile
and Compressive Strain. See Abstract in ' Proc.
Inst. Civil Engs.,' cxxxvi. 370.
No particular value can be assigned for the elastic strain due to a definite
load, since this strain depends upon previous loadings. See No. 9.
9 Berliner, S. 1 906 Behaviour of Cast Iron under slowly Alternating Stress.
' Ann. de Physique,' 20, 3, June 1906. ' Sc. Abs.,'
1906, No. 1528.
Investigation of the amount of strain after successive loadings of cast
iron in equal tension and compression ± p'. An expression is given for the
strain at any stress p, after such loadings, in terms of p and p'. Similar
work for ± torsion of cast iron. See No. 8.
10 Blount, B. 1910 Tensile, Impact Tensile, and Repeated Bending Tests
Kirkaldy, W. G. of Steel. ' Inst. Mech. Engs. Proc.,' 2, 1910. ' Sci.
Sankey, H. R. Abs.,' A, 300, 1911.
In the repeated stress tests the specimen is bent to and fro in a machine
worked by hand. The angle of bending on either side is 46J°, and a very
few cycles break the specimen. The work done is automatically recorded
and is found to be a measure of the ductility. See No. 3.
11 Boiiasse, H., and 1908 Decay of Oscillations. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1908, No. 1225.
Carri^re, L. ' Annal. Chem. Phvs.,' 14, June 1908, also ' Annal.
Chem. Phys.,' 2, May 1904.
See Report, Appendix I.
202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
12 Bouasse, H., and 1907 Decay of Oscillations. ' Annal. Chem. Phys.,' 10,
Berthier Feb. 1907. ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1907, No. 710.
See Report, Appendix I.
1.3 Bondouard, 0. 1910 Tests on Metals by study of the damping of Oscillations.
' Comptes Rendus,' 150, Mar. 14, 1910. ' Sci. Abs.,'
1910, No. 645.
14 Bondouard, O. 1910 Tests of Metals by the Abatement of Vibrating Move-
ments. ' Comptes Rendus,' 152, Jan. 3, 1911. ' Sci.
Abs.,' 1911, No. 295.
15 Bondouard, 0. 1912 Breakdown Tests of Metals. (Alternate Bending.)
' Intern. Assoc, for Testing Materials,' Paper V. 3,
1912.
The tests of Nos. 13, 14, and 15 were made on bars 1 cm. x ^ em. x 20 cm.
to 30 cm. long ; these were clamped in a vice, and vibrations of the free end
started and maintained by an electro-magnetic device. The free end of the
bar carried a mirror, from which photographic records were obtained of the
oscillations.
Tests were made, under continued oscillation, of commercial steels of
0-3 per cent, carbon and other steels, the tests being made on this material as
received, after annealing, and after tempering. The resistance to fatigue
was found to be in the order just mentioned, the tempered specimens having
the lowest resistance. It is stated that the numbers of vibrations before
fracture are inversely proportional to the carbon content ; puddled iron being
more resistant than soft Martin's steel. Under the test, 0-3 carbon steels
showed no sensible difference between the ' annealed ' and hardened
states ; but with high carbon steels, hardening considerably diminished
the time for fracture at a given rate of oscillation.
These results are directly opposed to those of Nos. 23, 93, 02, 90, 47.
It is stated that the stresses were below the ' elastic limit,' but no
calculation is given of the stresses. The numbers of oscillations before
fracture were, however, between one and two millions in certain cases.
16 Breuss, E. About History of Fatigue Tests of Metals. ' Baumaterialen-
1905 kunde,' xi., pp. 24.5-249.
17 Coker, E. G. 1898 Endurance of Steel Bars subjected to Repetitions of
Tensional Stress. ' Proc. Inst. Civil Engineers,'
cxxxv. 294.
Shows that very large elongation may be produced by repetitions of a
process of alternate stressing beyond the yield point and annealing.
18 C'oker, E. G. 1902 Effect of Low Temperature on Over-strained Iron and
Steel. 'Phys. Rev.,' 15, Aug. 1902. 'Sci. Abs.,'
1903, No. 227. See also E. J. McCaustland, No. 55.
A temperature of 0° C. appears to prevent recovery from tensile over-
strain ; and moreover to retard recovery when the temperature is after-
wards made normal.
Recovery appears to proceed more slowly in the case of steels with larger
percentage of carbon.
19 Drago, E. 1911 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge on Decay of Torsional
Oscillations. ' Accad. Lincei,' Atti 20, pp. 100-107.
'Sci. Abs.,' A, 1911, 1423.
20 Drago, E. 1911 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge on Decay of Tor-
sional Oscillations. ' Accad. Lincei,' Atti 20, pp. 369-
376. ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1912, 2.
For Nos. 19 and 20, see Report, Appendix I.
21 Dudley, C. B. 1904 Alternate Bending Stresses. ' Iron and Steel Metal-
turgist,' Feb. 1904.
A photograph shows fatigue fractures of an axle, a bolt, and three rotating
bar test pieces. The conclusion is drawn that if one is having trouble with
' detail ' (i.e., fatigue) fractures the best cure is to adopt a stiffer,?!.c., harder,
steel.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 203
Three examples are given which illustrate the conclusion. These are
(1) On the Pennsylvania Railroad, many fatigue failures of axles were
obtained with acid oioen-hearth axles containing 0-25 to 0-28 per cent, carbon,
with a tensile strength of 29 tons per square inch, and 25 per cent,
elongation. The maximum calculated stiess in the middle of the axle was
G-8 tons, and in the journal 3 tons, per square inch. These axles failed
in the journal. Steel of about 36 tons tensile was then substituted, and
this cured the trouble.
(2) 0-22 to 0-25 per cent, carbon steel rollers for a sugar mill used to
break, and these were successfully replaced by rollers of 0-40 to 0-45 per
cent, carbon steel.
(3) A soft tough steel was successfully replaced by a higher carbon steel
for use in the form of piston rods for steam hammers.
On the above subject there is, and perhaps always will be, much diver-
gence of opinion. The chief reason is that conditions vary so greatly. The
treatment of the steel is obviously a very important factor. The axles,
for example, if treated at all, could have been treated so as to give different,
and probably much better, results, and to some users this would have formed
a more acceptable solution of the problem. One has to allow, arnongst
other things, for considerable shock and some ill-treatment. This is em-
phasised by the fact that the calculated stress in the journals is only 3 tons
per square inch. No Wohler test results are given.
22 Eden, E. M. 1910 Endurance of Metal under Alternating Stress and
Effect of Rate of Alternation on Endurance. ' Univ.
of Durham Phil. Soc. Proc.,' 3, 5, 1910. ' Sci. Abs.,'
1910, No. 1384.
23 Eden, E. M., 1911 The Endurance of Metals. ' Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,' 4,
Rose, W. N., Oct., Dec. 1911. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1912, No. 1145.
Cunningham,
P. L.
The main results of these well-known experiments were : —
No ' speed effect ' between 250 and 1,300 r.p.m. ; agreeing with Nos. 43,
80, 65 and 82.
Greater resistance of high tenacity steels ; agreeing with Nos. 93, 82, 62,
90, 47 and 48.
Tests with loaded rotating solid bars appear to give either a higher
limiting range of stress (calculated by the usual theory of bending) or require
a larger number of cycles to fracture than direct-stress experiments ; a
result in agreement with Nos. 47, 48 and 93. The tests of these papers
(Nos. 22 and 23) were carried to fracture or to 10" revolutions. In No. 43
a small difference only was found in some comparative tests on machines
of the rotating bar and reciprocating mass type.
Rest intervals during a test appear to have little effect. This appears to
be the case in all tests with cycles of equal ± stresses.
The effects of the kind of finishing process used in preparing the speci-
men, and of the kind of finished surface, are found to be important. See
also No. 51.
A few cast-iron and copper specimens were tested. The relative resist-
ance of certain forms of specimens was tested, with results in agreement
with Nos. 74, 75, 82 and 93.
24 Ercolini, G. 1900 Effect of Deformation upon Torsional Couple exerted
by a Twisted Wire. ' Accad. Lincei,' Atti 15, Sept. 2,
1906. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1906, No. 1807.
Some experiments with combined stress and with alternating combined
stress on copper wire. The strains appear to have been considerably beyond
the elastic limits.
25 Ercolini, G. 1909 Recent Experiments on Elasticity. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1909,
No. 965.
The following is quoted from ' Science Abstracts ' : ' It is concluded
that the damping of vibrations is due to the dissipation of energy corre-
204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
spending to the hysteresis efiect on taking a specimen through a cycle of
strain, and not to molecular friction.' The meaning of this is not clear.
26 Ewing, Sir J. A. 1889 On Hysteresis in the Relation of Strain to Stress.
' British Assoc. Report,' 1889. See also Ewing's
' Strength of Materials.'
27 Ewing, Sir J. A. 1902 Fracture of Metals under Alternations of Stress. 'Phil.
and Trans.,' A, 200.
Humfrey,J.C.W.
The important conclusions are well known, and therefore do not require
to be quoted. For further micrographic work, see Nos. 62, 63 and 82.
28 Fairbairn, Sir W. 1864 The Effect of Impact Vibratory Action and Changes
of Load on Wrought-iron Girders. ' Phil. Trans.
Roy. Soc' See Unwin's ' Testing of Materials.'
29 Finley, W. H. 1906 Case of Failure of Iron from Fatigue. ' Engineering
News,' 55, p. 487. ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1906, 1200.
Coupling pin of a ' mine trip ' found to be brittle. Toughness was
restored by ' annealing.'
30 Foster, F. 1903 Repetition of Stress. ' Mech. Eng.,' Nov. 22, 1902.
' Sci. Abs.,' 1903, No. 866.
It is suggested that fatigue is an effect of accumulated permanent strain,
the latter being the aggregate of a prolonged series of hysteresis loops. The
relation between permanent extension and hysteresis is cleared up in No. 4.
31 Fremont, C. 1910 The Fatigue of Metals and New Methods of Testing.
' Genie CivU,' Oct. 22, 1910.
32 Fremont, C. 1910 Continuation of No. 31. ' Genie Civil,' Nov. 19, 1910.
Accidents caused by the fracture of steel and attributed to mysterious
causes, notably fatigue, are in many cases due to bad quality of steel ; i.e.,
either bad quality generally, or local impurities.
See also Papers VIII. and X., International Congress for Testing Materials,
1912. See also Nos. 3, 23 and 94.
33 Gardener, J. C. 1905 Effect of Stress Reversals on Steel. ' Journ. Iron and
Steel Inst.,' 67, 1905. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1905, No. 1804.
Quenched steel specimens submitted to alternating stress in a rotating-
bar machine of cantilever (Wohler) type. High resistance was found. This
agrees with No. 65. See also No. 66.
34 Grimaldi, G., 1909 Influence of Oscillatory Discharge and of Magnetisation
and upon the Elastic Hysteresis for Extension of Iron.
AccoUa, G. ' Elettricista, Rome,' 8, pp. 329-31. ' N. Cimento,' 18,
pp. 446-77. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1910, 276.
35 Do. 1905 Influence of Magnetisation upon the Elastic Hysteresis
for Extension of Iron. See ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1905, 927.
36 Guye, C. E. 1912 Internal Friction of Solids, Variation with Tempera-
ture. ' Journ. de Ph}'sique,' 2 Ser. 5, Aug. 1912.
' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1912, 1793.
37 Guye and 1908 On Internal Friction of Solids at Low Temperatures.
Mintz ' Archives des Sciences,' 26, pp. 136 and 263, 1908.
38 Guye and 1909 Internal Friction of Solids at Low Temperatures.
Friedericksz (Decrement of Torsional Oscillations.) ' Comptes
Rendus,' 149, Dec. 6, 1909. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1910,
No. 224. 'Comptes Rendus,' 150, April 18, 1910.
'Sci. Abs.,' 1910, No. 1189.
Note. — For Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37 and 38, see Report, Appendix I.
39 Do. 1912 Description of Krupp's Laboratory. (Mentions battery
of six alternating-shock bending machines.) ' Revue
de M6tallurgie,' 9, 9, Sept. 1912.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 205
The machines are on the principle of Stanton and Bairstow'a alternating-
shock bending machine (No. 78).
Notched specimens are used ; the number of blows is 80 per minute.
The machines are arranged to give, if desired, jV of a turn to the specimen
after each blow. No results are given.
40 Haigh, B. P. 1912 Alternating Load Tests. ' British Association,' 1912-
' Engineering,' Nov. 29, 1912. ' Sci. Aba.,' 1912,
No. 1612.
A description of the author's machine for testing wire in repeated ten
sion. A few preliminary experiments only are recorded, the cycles having a
frequency of 60 per second, and the stresses varying between and a tensile
maximum.
41 Hancock, E. L. 1906 Tests of Metals in Reverse Torsion. ' Phil. Mag.,' 12,
pp. 426-30. ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1906, 1810.
This paper is concerned with alterations of elastic limits by torsional over-
strain in alternate directions of twist, the latter being slowly applied.
42 Haughton, S. A. 1905 Failure of an Iron Plate through Fatigue. ' Sci. Abs.,'
A, 1905, 1846.
FaUm-e of a barrel plate of a boiler. The plate had been exposed to
severe ' panting ' stresses.
43 Hopkinson, B. 1912 A High-speed Fatigue Tester and the Endurance of
Metals under Alternating Stress of High Frequency.
' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' A, 86, Jan. .31, 1912. ' Sci. Abs.,'
1912, No. 628.
Description of the Hopkinson high-speed macliine and of the checks on
the calculated stresses. A variety of results given for speeds of 7,000 cj^cles
per minute. It is conclusively shown that there is a very marked speed
efiect, both the number of cycles and the time required for producing fracture
being greater than with machines at one or two thousand cycles per minute.
Table of Limiting Ranges of Stress, with Three Machines of Different Type for
same Material.
Material
Stanton's Direct-
stress Machine.
1,100 perminute
Wohler Rotating-bar
Machine, N.P.L.
2,200 per minute
Hopkinson's
Machine.
7,000 per minute
C
D
tons per square inch
±25
±24
tons per square inch
±26-5
tons per square inch
±32
±31-5
It is inferred that ' recovery of elasticity ' is not an important factor in
tests with equal ± alternations at high speeds, though at low speeds ' re-
covery ' may be sufficient to mark the speed effect.
It is pointed out that it is not proved that the limiting range is higher,
but that the apparent resistance to fatigue (in time and in number of cycles)
is increased. The speed effect is shown to be the reverse of that found by
Reynolds and Smith, No. 59.
Nos. 23, 65, 80, 82 and 84 show that speed effect is apparently negligible
at speeds between 60 and about 2,400 cycles per minute.
44
Hopkinson, B.
and F. Rogers
1905
Elastic Properties of Steel at High Temperatures.
' Proc. Roy. Soc.,' A, 76, 1905.
Tensile testa of iron and steel, using an extensometer, at temperaturea
up to 900° C. Tests not carried to fracture.
The elastic time effect {i.e., that strain which occurs with lapse of time
under a constant load, and which disappears with lapse of time upon removal
of the load, as distinguished from hysteresis, which is independent of time)
probably increases with temperature, since it was found to be very great
at high temperatures.
206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
45 Hopkinson, B., 1912 The Elastic Hysteresis of Steel. ' Proc. Roy. Soc ,
and Nov. 21, 1912.
WUIiams, G. T.
See Report, Appendix I.
46 Howard, J. E. 1888 Watertown Arsenal Reports.
1893 See 'Massachusetts Institute of Technology.'
' Quarterly Proceedings,' 1899.
47 Do. 1906 Alternate Stress Testing and Heat Treatment of Steels.
' Engineering Record,' Sept. 22, 1906. ' Int. Assoc.
Testing Materials Congress,' 1908. ' Sci. Abs.,'
1906, No. 1808.
Rotating loaded bar tests, at 500 r.p.m. Material, steels 0-17 to 0-82 %
carbon. No steels were found to endure 100 x 10' rotations with greater
stresses than ±40,000 lb. per square inch (calculated); but below this
stress some bars withstood 150 x 10' rotations.
At 400' P. the endurance was rather greater than at ' atmospheric '
temperature.
48 Howard, J. E. 1909 Resistance of Steels to Rejieated Alternate Stresses.
Paper read Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials, 1909.
See also ' Mech. Eng.,' 24, Dec. 31, 1909. 'Sci.
Abs.,' 1910, No. 218.
Rotating bar tests. Bars, 1 inch diameter, loaded to give uniform
bending moment over 4 inches.
Speed, 500 r.p.m.
Material, G grades of open-hearth steel, hot rolled for commercial pur-
poses ; carbon content, 0-17 to 1-09 per cent.
Since the existence of or the possibility of finding a ' limiting range ' of
stress in rotating bar tests has been questioned the following results are
quoted : —
0-55 per cent. C. Steel —
With -b 35,000 lb. square inch rujDture occurred with 9 x 10'
rotations.
With ± 30,000 lb. square inch rupture did not occur with 76 x 10''
rotations.
0-82 per cent. C. Steel —
With ± 45,000 lb. square inch rupture occurred with 605 x 10''
rotations.
With ± 40,000 lb. square inch rupture did not occur with 202 x 10"
rotations.
See also some results of Wohler, page 378 Unwin's ' Testing of Mate-
rials.' Of the range of steels tested, the highest resistance was found for
the 0-73 per cent, and 0-82 per cent, carbon. This agrees with Rosenhain's
statement (No. 66), also substantially with Nos. 23, 62, 82, 90, 93. Occa-
sional annealing at intervals during a test did not increase the endurance.
See section Heat Treatment in Report.
The number of rotations necessary for fracture was much increased when
the temperature of the test was 400° F. to 600° E., a result which differs
somewhat from Unwin's (No. 91), and also from the author's own result in
No. 47.
49 Kapp, G. 1911 Alternating Stress Machine. ' Zeits. Vereines Deutscher
Ing.,' Aug. 26, 1911.
The stresses are direct tension and compression, and are obtained by the
pull of an electro-magnet excited by an alternating current.
50 Lord Kelvin Article Elasticity, ' Ency. Brit.,' vol. vii., 9th ed.
51 Kommers, J. B. 1912 Repeated Stress Testing. Papers V. 4a and V. 4b.,
' Intern. Assoc, for Testing Materials,' 1912. ' Sci.
Abs.,' A, 1912, 1794.
Tests on a Landgraf-Turner machine. To and fro bending given by
an oscillating die, the .slot in the die being longer in the direction of the
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 207
stroke than the (unfixed) end of the specimen engaging with it. The length
of the slot could be varied so as to give various proportions of impact (?)
Avith the bending. The stroke of the die could also be varied.
Speeds, 150 to 700 (double) strokes per minute.
Specimens, '} inch diameter and 8J inch long.
The maximum stresses were higher than the tensile elastic limit.
Material, cold rolled steel, carbon O'l per cent., annealed at a red heat.
Within the limits of the experiments it was found that the endurance
was independent of the proportion of the ' impact ' factor in the bending.
It is doubtful whether there was any dynamic effect at all at the moment
of highest stressing. See Nos. 65 and 83. The nature of the surface of the
specimen, whether turned, filed, or ground, had a marked etiect. The
polished and the ground specimens showed an increased resistance over the
turned ones of 45 per cent, to 50 per cent. See also No. 23.
An attempt is made in a second paper (Int. Cong, for Testing Materials,
1912) to find the stresses in the above experiments by observation of the
strains (beyond the elastic limit) and stresses in static bending tests, and of
the strains and stresses in a tensile test of the same material.
52 Lenoble, E. 1900 Permanent Deformation of Metallic Wire (Hysteresis
Loop). ' Journ. de Physique,' 9, Oct, 1900. ' Sci.
Abs.,' 1901, No. 7.
A hysteresis loop was obtained for a wire which was gradually loaded
and unloaded.
53 Lilly, W. E. 1910 A New Torsion-testing Machine. ' Proc. Inst, C.E.
of Ireland,' Nov. 2, 1910.
A machine for direct and reverse torsion worked by hand ; stress strain
diagram automatically drawn.
54 Do. 1911 The Elastic Limits and Strength of Materials. 'Proc.
Inst. C.E. of Ireland,' Dec. 6, 1911.
An account of some experiments on the machine of No. 53. The results
are believed by the author to confirm Bauschinger's theory.
55 McCaustland, 1906 Effect of Low Temperature on the Recovery of Steel
E. J. from Overstrain. ' Am. Soc. Min. Eng. Bull,' 9,
May 1906. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1906, No. 1176.
The results are similar to those of No. 17.
56 Memmler, K., 1910 Temperature Measurements during Repetition of Stress ;
and experiments with Pipes. ' Kgl. Material-Priifungs-
Sohob, A. amt. Mitt.,' 28, 6, pp. 307-33. ' Sci. Abs.,' A,
1910, 1382,
See Report, Appendix I,
57 Milton, J. T. 1905 Instit. of Naval Architecture, July 1905. Milton
mentions cases of failure of plates by fatigue. Also
' Engineering,' Aug. 4 and 11, 1905.
58 Pearson, Karl 1905 On Torsional Vibrations in Axles and Shafts. 'Drapers'
Company Memoirs,' Technical Series IV.
It is suggested that there may have been much higher stresses than those
calculated in Wohler's tests with ± alternate stresses, because the loadings
were repeated before the stress-waves sot up by the previous loadings had
ceased to be of importance. Thus the real maximum stresses would be
the sum of eifects due to several successive loadings. Since L. Bairstow
(No. 4) has obtained results corresponding quantitatively to Wohler's (about
60 per minute), with a rate of loading of only two per minute, it seems probable
that stress accumulation can only have been a very minor factor in Wohler's
results. Supposing a small number of successive peaks of stress to occur,
the duration of the peak stresses would be very short and unlikely to give
appreciable non-elastic strain (see No. 43) ; and moreover, though such
non-elastic strain (cleavage slipping) may be produced, yet, unless the stresses
producing these strains are many times repeated, cracking in the crystals
would not be produced (No. 82). The fact of possible stress accumulation
208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
cannot be ignored, and it is likely that some of the anomalous results of
fatigue tests may be due to it. It is remarkable that Stanton's repeated
shock tests (No. 83) should give results at least as consistent as those of
tests in which the stresses are not (or are intended not to be) impulsive.
59 Reynolds, 0., 1902 On a Throw Testing Machine for Reversals of Stress.
and 'Phil. Trans.,' A, 199, 1902. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1903,
Smith, J. H. No. 1302.
Two of the chief conclusions have been contradicted by subsequent
work. These are : —
That under a given range of stress the number of reversals before rupture
diminishes as the frequency of reversals increases. That ' hard ' steels
wUl not sustain more "reversals with the same range of stress than mild steels
when the frequency is high.
Some vibration of machine or specimen is supposed to be responsible
for the above results. See remarks by Messrs. Stanton and Pannell, No. 84,
pages 10 and II.
60 Ritchie, J. B. 1910- Dissipation of Energy in Torsionally Oscillating Wires ;
II Effects Produced by Change of Temperature. ' Proc.
Roy. Soc, Ed.,' 31, 1910-11. 'Sci. Abs.,' I9I1,
No. I3I0.
61 Do. 1910- Apparatus for Inducing Fatigue by Repeated Exten-
II sional and Rotational Strains. ' Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edinburgh,' 31, 1910-11. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1911, No. I3II.
For Nos. 60 and 61, see Report, Appendix I.
62 Rogers, P. 1905 Heat Treatment and Fatigue of Steel. ' Journ. Iron
and Steel Instit.' 1905. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1905, No. 1805.
Tests on rotating cantilever (Wohler pattern) machine, 400 r.p.m. Three
grades of steel tested.
See Report, note on ' Heat Treatment.'
63 Rogers, F. 1906 Microscopic Effects produced by the Action of Stresses
on Metals. ' Soc. d'Encouragement Rev. de Metal-
lurgie Mem.,' 3, Oct. I, 1906.
Fiu'ther details, with micrographs of the work of No. 62. Suggested
reasons why slip lines in iron and steel should be ' broken.'
See Report, Note on Heat Treatment.
63a Rogers, F. 1913 So-called CrystalUsation through Fatigue. Read before
Iron and Steel Institute, September 1913.
64 Roos, J. 0. 1912 On Endurance Tests of Machine Steel. Intern. Assoc.
Testing Materials. Paper V. 2a, I9I2.
65 Do. 1912 Some Static and Dynamic Endurance Tests. Intern.
Assoc. Testing Materials. Paper V. 2b, I9I2.
Two series of tests made on same material : —
(1) With rotating-bar machine of Wohler type. Speeds, 1,200 and 2,400
r.p.m.
(2) In a machine of author's design. Blows were given by hammers
striking a specimen alternately on either side. The maximum stresses
were calculated from the height of fall of hammer, on the assumption that
the whole energy of blow was taken up as elastic energy of the piece.
Material, steels of 010, 0-40, 0-65 per cent, of carbon, on which tests were
made after ' annealing ' and also after oil-tempering.
In (1) the endurance was rather higher with the higher sjjccd.
In (1) and (2) the oil-tempered sijecimens had much greater endurance.
The ' /, n curves ' for (1) and (2) corresponded very closely, confirming
Stanton's (No. 83) result, that '^- may be taken as a measure of the re-
2A
sistance to repeated shock, / being the ' real ' (natural) elastic limit.
66 Rosenhain, W. 1911 Two Lectures on Steel. ' Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.,'
Pt. II., pp. 280-83.
Remarks on resistance of steel to alternating stress.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERIXC} MATERIALS. 200
67 Sankey, H. R. 1905 Vibratory Testing Machine. ' Mech. Eng.,' Nov. 11,
1905.
08 Do. 1907 Hand Bending Test. ' Engineering,' Dec. 20, 1907.
' Engineering,' Feb. 15, 1907.
See No. 10.
09 Schuchart, A. 1908 Resistance of Wire to Repeated Bending. ' Stahl und
(Sen.) Eisen,' July 1 and 8, 1908.
Tests of wire, gripped in jaws with curved faces, over which the wire
was bent backwards and forwards into contact with the faces.
70 1908 Olsen Vibrating Testing Machine. ' Elect. Rev.,
April 17, 1908.
71 1909 Landgraf-Turner Alternating Impact Machine. ' Iron
and Steel Times,' June 24, 1909.
See No. 61.
72 Smith, J. H. 1905 Testing Machine for Reversals of Stress. ' Engineer-
ing,' March 10, 1905.
73 Do. 1909 Fatigue Testing Machine. ' Engineering,' July 23,
1909.
For direct stresses of any required range with any required mean stress
of range. The specimen is motionless. The machine has been (or is being)
used for various speeds of alternation.
74 Do. 1910 Experiments on Fatigue of Metals. ' Journ. Iron and
Steel Instit.,' 2, 1910. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1911, No. 568.
Tests with machine of No. 73. Speed of repetitions, 1,000 per minute ;
various values, both + and — , of the mean stress being used. An extenso-
meter was kept in position during the tests. A range of steels, of from 0-13
to 0-79 per cent, carbon content was tested ; also some nickel steels. Most
of the specimens were without heat treatment ; a few were tested both in
the untreated state and also after annealing.
The author proposes a new and very quick method of finding the Wohler
safe ranges. The validity of the method depends entirely on the experi-
mental agreement between the Wohler safe ranges, determined by the
endurance test, and what the author calls ' yield ranges.' A description
of the method of finding the latter is given in the paper. Very briefly, the
' yield range ' is reached when the specimen first shows, by the extenso-
meter indication, a small change of length, which appears to be similar to
that found by Mr. L. Bairstow (No. 4), and called by him ' permanent ex-
tension.' It is shown, however, m No. 4, that the.se ' permanent extensions '
may occur even if the range is a safe one. If Bauschinger's theory be accepted
it is difficult to see why these ' yield ranges ' should be the same as the
Wohler limiting (or safe) ranges. In Dr. Smith's method the successive
changes of mean stress from + to — will give little opportunity for the
adjustment of the elastic limits to the ujjper and lower limits of the range ;
whereas it is established that (Nos. 4, 7, and 82) such adjustment does take
place when the range is in the neighbourhood of the safe range, and the mean
stress is constant.
It would appear that before the method can be generally relied upon
the experiments should be repeated, preferably on a machine of another
type. The correspondence between the quickly determined ' yield ranges '
and the Wohler limiting range promises, however, to fulfil the need for a
commercial substitute for the tedious Wohler fatigue test.
75 Sondericker, J. 1899 Repeated Stresses. ' Massachusetts Inst, of Tech-
nology Quarterly Journ.,' 1899. (Description of
machine, 1892, ditto.)
Machine of rotating-bar type, with constant bending moment over a short
length. The materials tested were wrought iron and steels of carbon con-
tent 0-08 to 0-50 per cent., and the speeds 350 to 500 r.p.m. Two pointers were
clamped to the part under uniform bending moment, and the extreme fibre
strains measured ; sucli measurements were taken at intervals during each
test. The fibre stresses were high, often considerably above the observed
191^. P
:10 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913,
elastic limits in tension ; but the latter appear to ha\Q liad an unusually
low ratio to the tensile strength. Thus : —
Specimen of Wrouglit Iron Specimen of Steel
Range of stress ± 28,000 lb. sq. in. ± 42,000 |
Rest (to fracture) 2-5x10" (not broken) 3-31 X 10« [
Tensile E. limit, 23,400 lb. sq. in. 38,300 lb. square inch I
' Tensile strength, 50,510 lb. sq. in. 78,010 lb. square inch |
It is stated that the ' set ' observed ' did not appear to have a notable
influence in causing fracture until it reached -001 inch or -002 inch in a
length of 10 inches.' Rest was found to decrease the ' set.' It was noticed
that the specimens were always perceptibly warmer in the middle than
near the ends. The temperature increased with the amount of the ' set.'
Thi-ee specimens reached a blue heat (about 300° C.) ; the break occurred
where the shaft was coolest.
The effects of a V groove and of a square shoulder were investigated.
Some tests were made of flanged couplings, in which cracks commenced in
the keyways.
70 Spangenberg 1874 Ueber das Verhalten der Metalle bei wiederholten
Anstrengungen. See ' Handbook of Testing,' A.
Martens, or Unwin's ' Testing of Materials.'
77 Stanton, T. E. 1905 Alternating Stress-testmg Machine at the National
Physical Laboratory. ' Engineering,' Feb. 17, 1905.
' Sci. Abs.,' 1905, No. 670.
An investigation concerning the effect upon the calculated stresses of
the friction of the author's direct-stress reciprocating machine, and of the
fluctuation of angular acceleration of the shaft.
78 Do. 1906 Repeated Impact-testing Machine. ' Engineering,'
82, July 13, 1906. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1906, No. 1520.
The specimen is J inch diameter, with V notch turned 040 inch diameter
at bottom of V. It is placed on knife-edges 4^ inches apart, and receives
blows over the notch from a tup, and it is given a half -revolution between
each blow. Maximum speed, 100 blows per minute.
79 Do. 1907 A Factor in the Design of Machine Details. ' Engineer-
ing,' April 19, 1907.
On the effect of sudden changes of section in machine members, with
estimates of the reduction of resistance to alternating stress.
SO Do. 1908 New Fatigue Test for Steel. ' Journ. Iron and Steel
Inst.,' 76, 1908.
Test in simultaneous abrasion and fatigue. No speed effect was found
for speeds between 200 and 2,200 cycles per minute.
81 Do. 1912 Recent Researches made at the National Physical
Laboratory on the Resistance of Metals to Alternating
Stress. Intern. Congress for Testing Materials.
Paper V. 1, 1912.
82 Stanton and 1905 On the Resistance of Iron and Steel to Reversals of
Bairstow Direct Stress. ' Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,' clxvi.
' Sci. Abs.,' 1907, No. 373.
Tests made on commercial materials of iron and steel, ufsing Stanton's
direct-stress machine (No. 77) ; cycles 800 per minute, the ratio
maximum tensile stress of cycle
maximum conij). stress of cycle
being from 1-4 to 0-72.
Results : —
No reduction in endurance was found at 800 per minute as compared
with 60 per minute, thus agreeing with Nos. 23, 43, 65 and 80.
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 211
High carbon steela have superior endurance, thus agreein" with Nos. 23
48, 62, 90, 93.
The effect of ' rate of change ' of section of test pieces demonstrated,
and the endurance of various forms (screwed, &c.) compared. See Nos
23, 74, 75 and 93.
Strong evidence was found that the primitive elastic limits are fre-
quently unstable under alternating stress ; also evidence concerning the
coincidence of the Wohler limiting range and the ' natural ' elastic ranges.
See also, notably, No. 4.
Fracture occurs by cracking in one of the localities where slip bands are
massed together. Fracture goes through ferrite crystals, not only in iron
(No. 27), but also in medium carbon steels. This is in accordance with
Nos. 62 and 63. See also No. 66.
The mode of fracture is the same whether the stress is applied directly
or by means of bending (Nos. 62, 63).
83 Stanton and 1908 The Resistance of Materials to Impact. ' Proc. Inst.
Bairstow Mech. Eng.,' No. 4, 1908.
A macliine for giving alternating direct impact is described. The blow s
of a tup put the specimen into alternate tension and compression. One of
the chief objects of the research was to determine the limiting resistance
of the materials for which the resistance to alternating stress had already
been found. The important conclusion is reached that, if / is the ' real '
elastic limit derived from the Wohler test, then the measure of the
f-
resistance to repeated small ± equal impacts is ^-^ . This result is con-
firmed by Roos (No. 65). See also No. 51.
84 Stanton and 1911 Experiments on the Strength and Fatigue Properties
Pannell of Welded Joints in Iron and Steel. ' Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng.,' vol. clxxxviii., 1911.
85 Stead and 1903 Sorbitic Steel Rails. ' Iron and Steel Inst. Journ.,'
Richards 1903, II., p. 141.
Mentions rotating-bar (Wohler type) tests on rails specially heat-treated.
86 Do. 1903 Restoration of Dangerously Crystallised Steel by Heat
Treatment. Ibid., p. 119.
Rotatiiig-bar tests and heat treatment.
87 Do. 1905 Overheated Steel. Heat Treatment ; tests in Wohler
machine, and also in severe bending.
88 Thearle, S. J. P. 1913 Note on some Cases of Fatigue in the Steel Material
of Steamers. Inst. Naval Arch., June 1913. Also
' Engineering,' June 27, 1913.
89 Tobusch, H. 1908 Elastic and Magnetic Hysteresis. ' Ann. de Physik.,'
26, 3. ' Sci. Abs.,' A, 1908, No. 1482.
See Report, Appendix I.
90 Turner, L. B. 1911 The Strength of Steel in Compound Stress and En-
durance under Repetition of Stress. ' Engineering,'
July 28 to Sept. 8, 1911. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1911, No. 1315.
Bending Tests on cantilever specimens ; one end fixed, the free end
being made to describe a circle of constant small radius.
Torsion Tests. — One end fixed, the other end twisted to and fro through
a constant small angle.
Speed, 250 cycles per minute.
Materials. — Tube steel (annealed and untreated), luild steel, tool steel,
and nickel steel (annealed and untreated).
The main object of the research was to determine how far the shear-
stress criterion of elastic failure applies to alternating-stress tests. The
tests gave an affirmative result for tube steel and mild steel for both tension
and torsion, and a negative result for tool steel and nickel steel.
91 Unwin, W. C. 1905 Experiments on Rotating Bars at Different Tempera-
tures. 'Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,' clxvi. 'Sci. Abs.,'
1907, No. 373.
212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Rotating cantilever tests in which mild steel appeared to have slightly
greater endurance at 400° to 500° F. than at ordinary temperatures. J. E.
Howard (No. 48) finds that the number of rotations for fracture was very
much increased at temperatures of 400° F. to 600° F. This is partly a
metallurgical question, as the condition of the steel previous to the warming
may affect the result. Further, it is known that the elongation in tensile
tests of the steels dealt with would be slightly improved at the temperatures
named, which is broadly in agreement with these authors' results.
92 Unwin, W. C. General Considerations on Safe Working Limits of
Stress. ' Testing of Materials of Construction,' Art.
255, 1910 edition.
93 Wohler, A. 1871 Ueber die Festigkeitsversuche mit Eisen und Stahl.
See ' Engineering,' vol. II., or Unwin's ' Testing
of Materials.'
94 (Various writers) 1910 Enquete sur la fatigue des Metaux. ' La Technique
Moderne,' 1910, vol. 2, pp. 19-21, 83-84, 151-4,
210^, 280-4, 345-7.
Discussion of these questions, proposed by the Editors : —
1. Is it established that metals undergo, in time, fatigue which noticeably altera
their endurance ?
2. Are the circumstances of this known and can they be avoided ?
3. Are there means of recognising the symptoms of this state, and hence avoiding
disasters resulting from it ?
4. What inferences can be drawn from the existence of these phenomena from
the point of view of determining the safety of metallic machines and structures ?
The replies received are generally of the utmosb vagueness, or are quite platitudes
to all concerned materially in the subject, or are of little practical bearing (e.gr., most
of Retjo's theory).
A. Mesnager quotes Le Chaielier (Internat. Congr. for Testing Materials, 1900,
p. 90) that an alteration of the decrement would be produced by alteration of the
material, and seems to suggest this as an indication of the progress of fatigue in a
piece. [Evidently this would rarely be applicable. — F. R.]
P. Breuil refers to the fact that the vastly greater part of the work on the subject
is British, both combined stress and alternatmg. Eighty per cent, of the failures
are due to ignorance on the part of the designer (as to stress which will actually come
upon the piece). It is not known whether any stress, however small, will produce a
permanent deformation, or, if so, whether this deformation is local only. The micro-
scope is the best instrument at present available in this respect. It is necessary to
do fatigue tests above the elastic limit, and desirable to register deformation at each
alternation of the same stress, or to register each load necessary to give equal alter-
nating deflections. Importance of hysteresis. Importance of annealing to restore
from the effects of fatigue ; but this is not always practicable.
F. Schtde. — Microscope has not given a satisfactory answer to (2).
Do. — Suggests electric conductivity should be tried as a test for progress of fatigue
for (3).
(This is of very little use. — F. R.)
4. Suggests scrapping after a certain life ; i.e. ' life ' factor of safety.
A. Retjo. — Treats the subject mathematically, following Van der Waals and
L. Grenel. — It is not fully evident that annealing will restore fatigued material.
(Of course not. Qualification is necessary. See comment below. — ^F. R.)
In design, so far as possible, it should be endeavoured to calculate the shock
absorbable ; in general, he recognises the importance of resilience ; he suggests par-
ticularly tests of the .safe limit of repeated shock, accompanied by the use of a large
factor of safety.
Cellerier and Breuil. — Report on a broken rail. Failure ascribed to fatigue of
the intensely cold-worked (in service) surface layer.
L. Ouillet. — Troubles are usually due to bad treatment of metals. His answer to
(3) and (4) is ' Prudence,'
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 213
Comments by F. Rogers.
It is worUi noting at the outset that, rather ditTorcntly from us, the Jb'rcueh often
mean by 'fatigue' what we would eall simple oveistraui ; c.^., such as occurs in a
tensile test piece strained beyond the elastic limit. Li this particular series of
articles, however, this use of the term has not occurred considerably. Further,
there seems to be no reference to any question of an ' ageing ' efiect in metals, either
utuler steady stress or in the absence of stress.
Most writers, as is to be expected, agree explicitly or implicitly in answering (1) in
the affirmative.
There is no agreement as to unconditional scrapping after a specified life (measured
in time, or else number of stressings). This is as one would expect, since in most cases
the aim is to design for permanent use, except where unavoidable wear is concerned.
Railway cranks and axles are, however, used for a definite mileage only.
I consider that the suggestions made by Grenet are the crux of the problem,
although they are not individually novel. There is room for more research on resilience
from this point of view, particularly the values of elastic modulus in relation to en-
diirance of repeated stress and repeated shock, and the safe limit of repeated shock.
I have shown (No. 62) the increase of elastic modulus with brittleness due to
overheating of steel.
Periodical annealing during the useful life is only applicable to certain materials
and to certain forms. No large pieces, such as shafts, can be so dealt with, on account
of distortion and scaling. Small iron articles, such as chains, are annealed. I have
shown that at a certain stage amiealing is in any event incapable of restoring a mate-
rial. The original heat treatment of steels is often such that their properties would
l)e hopelessl}' ruined by any process which could fall under the vague term ' annealing.'
Springs are, however, sometimes annealed and re-tempered ; it is questionable whether
any advantage is gained.
The microscope is a valuable aid to research, but it is only in exceptional cases
that it is of assistance in finding hair-cracks in existing structures. In my experience
the hair-crack period is of short duration, and tests to destruction are the most reliable
index of the state of the material ; but in certain cases it would be worth while to keep
vital points polished ready for periodical exammation (and varnished), and approach-
ing fatigue could then be satisfactorily detected at a considerably earlier stage than
the appearance of hair-cracks.
In regard to Guillet's dictum that the original treatment of the metal is usually to
blame when metals fail under alternating stress, I do not think it is possible to arrive
at a general conclusion ; that is to say, each of the following three main classes contain
the usual sources of trouble, and many cases in practice have been traced to eacn of
these causes : —
(ffi) Flaivs, including pipe, fissures, blow-holes, impurity, and non-metallic en-
closures.
(6) Faulty original heat-treatment of pure metal. This includes, as a special case,
strains set up in manufacture, and overwork in the working processes,
(c) Under -estimation of stresses to be expected on the part of the designer. This
includes, as a special case, insufficient allowance for the effect of repetition
of a stress which would be harmless if applied once or steadily maintained.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS.
The Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. By Gilbert Cook, M.Sc.
(The small figures in the text refer to the bibliography.)
When a tMn cylindrical tube is subjected to a gradually increasing
external pressure, a point is reacted at which the equiUbrium becomes
unstable, any further increase in the pressure resulting in the collapse of the
tube. This pressure is known as the collapsing pressure. The subject of its
determination is one which has, from time to time, received considerable
attention both from mathematicians and engineers. Yet, in spite of tlie
214: REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
practical importauce of the subject, defiuite aucl exact knowledge is
lacking. A universal formula lias not yet been found by whicb the
strength of a tube of given dimensions and material may be estimated.
It is perhaps safe to say that it is impossible to devise such a formula
which will be sufficiently simple to be of any practical value. This will
at once be evident when the number of factors which enter into the
problem, and the lack of knowledge with regard to each, irrespective of
their mutual relations, are considered. These factors may be divided into
two main classes : («) those relating to dimensions and geometrical
form ; (b) those relating to the physical properties of the material. The
first of these may be subdivided as follows : —
(1) Lateral dimensions; i.e., diameter and thickness.
(2) Length.
(3) The boundary conditions at the end of the tube.
The statical condition of the tube at the moment of collapse being one
of unstable equihbrium, the influence of sUght variations from the circular
form or uniform thickness which are invariably found in practice must
also be considered.
It is proposed in the course of this report to consider separately the
influence of the above factors.
Laleral Dimensions.
Although the influence of length will be dealt witli later, it may be
stated here that it is foimd both from experiment and theory that, as the
length increases, the strength of a tube of given lateral dimensions tends to
a minimum constant value, which appears to be attained, for practical
purposes, when the length is greater than six times the diameter.^' ^^ It
is therefore proposed to consider here only the case of a tube of infinite
length. The strength of such a tube is dependent upon its diameter and
thickness, and it appears to be established, both from theoretical con-
siderations and from the experimental data available, that the collapsing
pressure is some function of the ratio of the thickness to the diameter f ,|.
A complication is at once introduced by the fact that the form of that
function depends upon the value of the ratio .
The problem is, in man}' respects, analogous to that of a column under
a direct compressive load, in which the conditions determining failure
depend on the ratio of k, the least radius of gyration of the cro.ss-section, to /,
k
the length. In the failure of a column, two ranges of values of maybe
distinguished.
(1) When is very small, failure occurs by pure buckling, Avithout
any departure from perfect elasticity, and it can be deduced mathemati-
cally that the stress at failure is
where a depends only on Young's modulus and the end conditions.
(2) When =■ exceeds a certain fairly definite value, failure is caused by
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 215
the elastic breakdown of tlie material in some part of the cohimn. If the
ratio is not too great, buckhng results from irregularities thus produced, and
the problem is not amenable to rigorous mathematical treatment owing
to the fact that such inequalities are largely the result of initial irregularities
in the form of the column.* When, however,- becomes large, bucklins
I '^ "
does not occur, and failure takes the form of uniform lateral expansion.
There is an analogy in the collapse of tubes to each of these cases.
(1) When the ratio ^ is very small, collapse will occur without over-
strain in any part of the material. As in the case of long columns, this is
the only case for which a complete mathematical solution has been found.
The problem was first investigated by Bryan,* and the theory subse-
quently improved by Basset ^ and Love,'^ and more recently by South-
well. '^' '^ The pressure at which the equihbrium becomes unstable is
given by
f = c
&)' >^>
where c is a constant depending only on the elastic properties of the
material, and is equal to
2 E
\—m-
where E is Young's modulus, and m Poisson's ratio.
Very elaborate and accurate experimental work carried out during
recent years by Carman^ and Stewart'^ has shown that the relation (1)
holds very nearly in the case of tubes in which the ratio - is less than -025.
a
The value of the constant c is, however, found to be considerably less than
the theoretical value. The discrepancy has been attributed by Slocum^^
to imperfections in the geometrical form of the tube, and by Southwell to
the fact that in the comparison of the theoretical and experimental results,
values of -^ were included which were great enough to allow elastic break-
down to precede instability.
(2) When the ratio exceeds '025, it is found by experiment that the
relation (1) no longer holds. It is evident that no tube can withstand,
without permanent deformation, a pressure greater than that which would
cause any part of the material to exceed the elastic limit. By Lame's
theory the maximum compressive stress occurs at the inner surface of the
tube, and, assuming that there is no longitudinal constraint, is given by
/= '
* It is possible to give a mathematical explanation of the form of the curve showing
the relation of load to " even in this case. See paper by P>. V. Soiitlnvell, 'The
Strength of Stmts,' Engineering, Aug. 23, 1912.
216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
and tlierefore the maximum pressure which could be appHed to the tube
without permanent deformation is theoretically
where /i = direct compressive stress at yield. How far the strength of the
material in compression does actually enter into the problem does not
appear to have been satisfactorily determined. It is probable that for a
certain range of the ratio , upwards from -025 the tube does not fail either
by simple buckling or by direct crushing, but by a combination of both.
It is found that the results of tests on tubes of this form may be con-
veniently expressed by the relation
where a and b are constants depending on the material.^- ^^ The upper
limit of the ratio - for which this relation holds has not been determined,
a
but its maximum value in the tests upon which it is based was about -07.
A question of some interest is the value of for which collapse in the
form of buckling ceases to occur. Recent experiments by Bridgman ^
have shown that the effect of the application of high hydrostatic pressure
to tubes of ductile materials in which the ratio of thickness to external
diameter is greater than 0*27 is to close up the hole in a uniform manner,
without any departure from the circular form.
Length.
Very little experimental data are available in regard to the influence of
the length upon the strength of a tube to resist collapse. Indeed, the
attention paid to this point has not been in any degree commensurate with
its importance.
Recent experimental work has shown that when the length is suffi-
ciently great it ceases to have any appreciable effect upon the strength.
An attempt has been made to define the length below which the strength is
materially increased, and the term ' critical length ' has been apphed to
this quantity by Love and Carman. Such a term suggests a point of dis-
continuity, the existence of which, in the above sense, is hardly conceivable.
An investigation by Love,^^ based partly on analysis, and partly on analogy
to simpler problems, leads to the result that, for thin tubes of different
lateral dimensions, the influence of the length becomes neghgible to the
same order when it is greater than some multiple of the mean proportional
of the diameter and thickness ; i.e., when
I > aJJt (2)
where a is a constant.
An important contribution to the theory of this subject recently made
by Southwell '^' '** has pointed to the desirability of a modification in the
meaning attached to the term ' critical length.' It is a well-known fact
that the number of lobes into which a tube collapses is dependent upon the
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 217
length of the tube ; the shorter the tube, the greater is the number of lobes.
Unwin ^'^ was the first to appreciate the importance of this fact, and he
used it in an attempt to set on a more rational basis the results of the
classical experiments of Fairbairn.* Southwell has shown, however, that
the collapsing pressure of any tube in which the ratio , is very small may
be expressed by
_ tr z fZ^ 1 K^-i t-i
^=^^ d Lk^(/<2_1) Ji "^ 3 (1 -m^y d'-j
where k is the number of lobes in the collapsed cross-section and Z is a
constant depending on the type of the end constraints. If, for a tube of
given thickness and diameter, the value of p be plotted against I for values
of K equal to 2, 3, 4 .... a series of curves is obtained ; and Southwell has
pointed out that, from an inspection of these curves, it will be seen that long
tubes will always tend to collapse into the two-lobed form, since the curve
for K = 2 then gives the least value for the collapsing pressure, but that at
a length corresponding to the point at which this curve intersects the curve
for /c = 3, the three-lobed form becomes natural to the tube, and for
shorter lengths still, for which the point of intersection of the curves for
K = S and /c = 4 gives the upper limit, the four-lobed form requires least
pressure for its maintenance. Thiis the true curve connecting pressure and
length is a discontinuous one, and therefore the collapsing pressure is not a
continuous function of the length.
It may be suggested therefore that the term ' critical length ' be applied
to the points of discontinuity; that is, the points of intersection of the curves
for K = n and k = m + 1, these points being rightly described as ' critical '
in the sense that the tube may collapse into either nor n -\- 1 lobes at these
points. With this meaning a tube will have a number of critical lengths
corresponding to the configuration of the collapsed cross-section, and it may
be shown that for different tubes the length corresponding to the critical
points is proportional to
'^' (3)
VT
Southwell has pointed out that the above expression is also the factor
determining the value of the critical length in the sense in which that term
has been generally used, e.g., by Love and Carman. Prof. Love has
accepted the above result as superseding the expression (2) given above.
It would appear from (3) that a thin tube may collapse into a greater
number of lobes than a thicker tube of the same length and diameter.
This has been verified in experiments carried out by the writer, but beyond
this no definite experimental confirmation of the above results has yet been
made, although work in this direction is in progress. It has usually been
assumed — and the assumption appears to be sufficiently justified by the
experimental work of Carman and Stewart — that, for practical purposes,
the influence of the length vanishes when it exceeds about six diameters,
and that below this value the strength of the tube may roughly be taken
as proportional to the reciprocal of the length, although the experimental
evidence in regard to the latter cannot be regarded as conclusive.
218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
End Conditions.
In dealing with the question of length no assertion was made in regard
to the statical conditions at the ends of the tube. In the experimental
work the ends were rigidly fixed to a true circular form of invariable
diameter, and were also held rigidly in a longitudinal direction. Southwell
has shown ^' that any variation in these conditions in the case of a short tube
will considerably aSect the resistance to collapse. It is reasonable to sup-
pose that where the ends are more or less flexible in any direction, the
strength will not be as great as when the tube is rigidly held parallel and
circular. It is, however, hardly to be expected, when the knowledge of the
general effect of length is so vague, that the effect of the end conditions
coiild be expressed in more exact terms.
Variations from True Geometrical Form.
The ideal conditions assumed in the derivation of the rational formula
are never realised in practice. The phenomenon of collapse is, however,
due to imperfections in form and material, and, in the mathematical
analysis of the ideal case, the collapsing pressure is that which would
produce a state of neutral equilibrium in the shell, although actual collapse
would only occur if some slight unsymmetrical deformation were caused.
It is evident that slight initial deviations from the perfect form must affect
the value of the collapsing pressure to a considerable extent. The earlier
experimental work in this subject by Fairbairn ^ was carried out on tubes
which were lap-riveted and in which therefore the variation from the true
circular form was at least equal to the thickness of the plate. Although
serving the purpose for which they were intended at the time, the results
have little application to modern tubes, which are either soUd drawn or
welded, and are much more perfect in form. The slight variations, how-
ever, which still occur are probably responsible in a large measure for
a considerable departure from the theoretical strength. Experiments
carried out within recent years on modern tubes have shown that the
relation
where <, and d^ are the average thickness and diameter, holds when the
average of a large number of tests is taken, but the constant is smaller than
the theoretical constant by about 30 per cent. Further, wide differences
in the collapsing pressure of tubes of the same average dimensions have
frequently been found. A theoretical formula for the calculation of the
effect of inequalities in diameter and thickness is hardly to be looked for,
even if it were possible or convenient to measure the latter, for any given
tube. Such a problem is, moreover, complicated by the fact that the
positions of greatest and least thickness may have any relation to those of
greatest and least diameters, with a corresponding variation in the com-
bined influence.
A series of tests was carried out by Stewart -" some six years ago on
steel tubes 10 inches in diameter in order to determine the effect of distor-
tion on the collapsing pressure. It was found that the results could be
expressed by the formula
,, = 0-0926 |^-_^j,.„ + 47.55
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENOINEERINO MATERIALS. 210
where fi — collapsing pressure of uormully round f:u1)e (in ll)s. per sq. in ).
j),^ =z^ collapsing pressure of distorted tube.
M = ratio of maximum to minimum diameter.
The utility of this formula is, however, somewhat doubtful, and
cannot in any case be taken as indicating the effect of initial deviations
from the true circular form, since f^ is the experimentally determined
collapsing pressure of what is described as ' a normally round tube,' whicli
in this case was merely a commercial tube of average quality.
It has since been proposed by Slocum^^ that the rational formula
may be made applicable to the practical determination of the collapsing
pressure by introducing a correction factor, C, so that
1 — in- \d,n„,cJ
where <, is now the average thickness and (Z„,,, the maximum diameter.
The assumption that the strength varies as the cube of the ratio of the
average tliickness to the maximum diameter is irot entirely valid, but it
has been found that the above formula gives a fairly close approximation,
and that C is nearly constant for any one class of tubes. Its value has been
found for the following cases, the tubes in each instance being of average
quahty : —
1. Lap -welded steel tubes = -69.
2. Solid-drawn weldless steel tubes = -76.
3. SoHd-drawn brass tubes = -78.
The values of E and m are known for most materials, and the maxi-
mum diameter and average thickness are the dimensional quantities
most readily and conveniently obtainable for a given tube. It is, however,
somewhat doubtful whether variations from true geometrical form would
account altogether for the reduction of 25 per cent, to 30 per cent, indicated
above. Southwell considers that too wide a range of values of - were
used in the comparison, and that in the thicker tubes the elastic limit of
the material was reached before the equilibrium became unstable, thus
producing a lower value of the collapsing pressure.*
Physical Properties of the Material.
It is evident, from statical considerations, that the whole of the
material composing a tube of circular form is in a state of compression in
a circumferential direction. The physical properties which it is natural to
suggest as determining the strength are Young's modulus, the elastic limit,
and, for thick tubes, the ultimate strength, all in compression. The two
latter quantities are difficult to determine, and the ultimate strength, in
materials usually employed in tubes, is a somewhat indefinite quantity.
The value of Young's modulus is known to be approximately the same in
compression and tension, and is easily determined. For thin, long tubes it
appears to be the only physical property influencing the resistance to
collapse. The custom of specifying, as in the case of boiler flues, the
ultimate tensile strength cannot therefore have any reference to the actual
collapsing pressure, but serves merely as a guarantee of the quality of the
* This question is fully discussed by Mr. Southwell in a paper which is to appear in
the Philosophical Magazine for September 1913.
220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
material employed. The elastic limit in compressioa enters into the
problem when the thickness is considerable, and also when the length is
short. The precise influence of the ultimate strength is not known, and
the uncertainty in regard to its value would render futile any attempt to
introduce it.
In conclusion, it may not be out of place to make a few general remarks
in regard to the practical side of the question. Few problems in engineer-
ing have given rise to a larger number or greater variety of formulae, and
it is not surprising that in actual practice the design of tubes to withstand
external pressure is based upon previous experience obtained from failures
of tubes of the same material and dimensions rather than upon theory or
even systematic general experimental work. In the case of boiler flues,
the rules formulated by the Board of Trade ^^ and Lloyds' ^^ differ, but are
based upon the same tests carried out upon flues of the same form as those
to which they are intended to be apphed, and are admittedly inapphcable
beyond the range of these tests. In these formulae, which stipulate the
safe working pressure, and not the collapsing pressure, allowance is made
for effects such as corrosion, associated with the particular purpose for
t^hich the tubes are used.
The case of long, thin, plain tubes, such as are employed for smoke tubes
in locomotive boilers, appears to be the only one for which it is possible
to propose a general and useful formula. The most convenient appears to
be that obtained by introducing into the rational formula a constant
depending only upon the material and mode of manufacture, and not on
the absolute size. It has been suggested by Slocum^^ ^^i^^t the most useful
purpose Hkely to be served by further experimental work is the determina-
tion of the factor for different kinds of tubes. This was proposed some
four years ago, but the difficulty and expense of systematic experimental
work of this character has limited the investigation to three classes of
tubes only.
Bibliography.
1 Basset, A. B. 1892 On the Difficulties of Constructing a Theory of the
Collapse of Boiler Flues. 'Phil. Mag.,' 1892, vol.
200, p. 221.
2 Belpaire, T. 1879 Note on the Resistance of Tubes to External Pressure.
' Annales du Genie Civil,' March 1879.
The formula
f = 3,427,152 f, - 56,892,400/'
la Id-
is given as representing the results of Fairbairn's tests.
3 Bridgman, P. W. 1912 The Collapse of Thick Cylinders under High Hydrostatic
Pressure. ' Physical Review,' vol. xsxiv., No. 1.
Jan. 1912. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1912, No. 427.
4 Bryan, G. H. 1888 Application of Energy Test to Collapse of Long, Thin Pipe
under External Pressure. ' Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.,'
vol. vi., p. 287. 1888.
Gives the derivation of rational formula
^ 2E t'
^ ~ 1 - «t^ ■ d'
5 Carman, A. P. 1906 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ' Physical Review,'
vol. 21, Dec. 1905, pp. 381-387. 'Sci. Abs.,' 1906,
No. 239.
Describes a series of tests on small brass tubes, diameters ranging from
COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 221
•891 to 1-78 cm. ; thickness from -041 to -135 cm. Length from 8 mm. to
210 mm. Results seemed to indicate that when length > 6 diameters,
strength practically constant. Below that length, strength appeared to be
inversely proportional to length, though it is stated that experiments are not
suificient to determine definitely the relation.
Carman, A. P., 1906 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ' Univ. of 111. Bull.,'
and Carr, M. L. vol. 3, No. 17, June 1906. ' Sci. Aba.,' 1906, No. 1986.
Describes tests carried out on a number of lap-welded steel tubes, seam-
less cold-drawn steel tubes and brass tubes.
Following formulae are given : —
(a) When ' le.ss than -025
d
■p = 25, 1 50,000 (^^y for brass tubes.
1) = 50,200,000( - ) for seamless steel tubes.
(6) When [ > 003
d
p = 93,365 ^ — 2,474 for brass tubes.
d
p = 95,520 — 2,090 for seamless cold-drawn steel.
d
p = 83,270 l - 1,025 for lap- welded ateel.
a
The last formula in each series agrees well with those obtained by Stewart.
Clark, D. K. Strength of Boiler Flues. ' Engineering,' vol. 46, p. 280.
From reports of Manchester Steam Users' Assoc, of six boUer-flues actually
collapsed, gives formula
, = .^(^jL00_500)
8 Fairbairn, W. 1858 Resistance of Tubes to Collapse. ' Phil. Trans.,' 1858,
p. 389. ' Brit. Assoc. Report,' 1857, p. 215.
Tests carried out on 32 wrought-iron tubes, lap-riveted, varying in
diameter from 4 to 12 inches and in length from 1 foot 3 inches to 5 feet.
Uniform thickness except in five cases, -043 inch. Results of tests repre-
sented by formula
p = 9,675,600 "'A"
l.d
ip in lbs. square inch, t,l.,dm inches).
9 Grashof, F. 1859 W. Fairbaim's 'Versuche iiber den Widerstand von
Rohren gegen Zusammendruckung.' 'Zeitschr. des
Vereines deutscher Ingenieure,' 1859, p. 234. Tod-
hunter and Pearson, ' History of Elasticity,' vol. ii.
p. 1 ; i., p. 666.
From Fairbairn's tests, deduces formulae
(a) p= 1,033,620 jT^^-^^gior thin tubes.
(6) p- 24,481,000 '■■^^'' for thick tubes.
Ld^"^'"*
Also considers a tube of slightly elliptical cross-section, and, using a
method previously suggested by Bresse, obtains the formula
p:
p=
2C '
a
■. ,3e d
2 t
222 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Where Co = compressive strength,
e = ellipticitj',
d = diameter of circular tube of same circumforeuce as ellipse.
10 Lilly, W. E. 1910 The Collapsing Pressure of Circular Tubes. 'Proc. Inst.
Civ. Eng. of Ireland,' Feb. 2, 1910.
The analogy of the problem of tube collapse to failure of columns is dis-
cussed, and a formula similar to the Rankine-Gordon formula is derived,
viz.
2/
« = i —
t mE ■ f
Avhere / = strength to comj)ression, and n is a constant to be determined
experimentally.
The investigation is also extended to corrugated flues.
11 Lorenz, R. 1911 Buckling of Thin- walled Cylinders. ' Phys. Zeitschr.' n.
12, pp. 241-260. April 1911. ' Sci. Abs.,' 1911,
No. 978.
12 Love, A. E. H. ' Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,' p. 530.
The theoretical formula
^ 2E «'
^' 1 - m"- d'
is given, and it is shown that when the pressure exceeds this limit, any flue
will collapse if its length exceeds a certain multiple of the mean proportional
between the diameter and thickness.
13 Luve, G. H. 1859 Sur la resistance des conduits interieurs a fumee dans
les chaudieres a vapeur. ' Memoires et Comptes
Rendus,' 1859, pp. 471-500. Todhunter and Pearson,
' Historj' of Elasticit}',' vol. ii.,pt. 1, p. 667.
The formula
p= 5,358,150^^ + 41,9064" + 1,323-
Id a d
is given as representing the results of Fairbairn's experiments.
14 Nystrom, J. W. ' Treatise on Steam Engineering,' p. IOC.
Derives the formula
2) = 692,000 ^'--,
as representing results of Fairbairn's tests.
15 Roelker, C. R. 1881 Experimental Investigation of Resistance of Flues to
Collapse. ' Van Nostrand's Magazine,' vol. 24, p.
208.
16 Slocum, S. E. 1909 Collapse of Tubes under External Pressure. ' Engineer-
ing,' Jan. 8, 1909, vol. 87, p. 35.
A discussion of Carman's and Stewart's experiments. Suggests that
discrepancy between theoretical formula and exj)erimental results due
to imperfections in geometrical form. Proposes the introduction of a
' correction factor ' C in the formula, thus :
r< 2E / t y
Following values of C are given :
Lap-welded steel tubes C = •69.
Solid-drawn weldless steel tubes C = -76.
Solid-drawn brass tubes C = -78.
17 Southwell, R. V. 1913 On the General Theory of Elastic Stabihty. 'Phil.
Trans.' (A), vol. 213 (1913), pp. 187-244.
Discusses the boilei'-flue problem as an example to illustrate a proposed
COMPLEX STKESS DISTRIBUTIONS IM ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 223
Uew method of rigorous iuvustigatiou for stability problems in general. It
obtains the general formula
d\_ k\k-- I) 10 ^ 3 1 - m- (V A
where k = number of lobes in collapsed cross-section and is proportional to
the length of the flue, the ratio depending on the terminal conditions. It is
shown that the above formula leads to a result differing from that of Prof.
Love (see No. 12) for the rate of decay oi end efiects.
18 Southwell, E. V. 1913 On the Collapse of Tubes by External Pressure. 'Phil.
Mag.,' May 1913.
An attempt to meet the difficulties suggested by A. B. Basset. (See
No. 1.) An investigation of the strength of short tubes is also given leading
to the formula given in No. 17.
19 Stewart, R. T. 1905-6 CoUapsmg Pressures of Bessemer Steel Lap-welded
Tubes 3 to 10 inches in diameter. ' Trans. Am. Soc.
Mech. Eng.,' 1905-6, vol. 27, pp. 730-822.
Over 500 tests canied out on lap-welded steel tubes. It was found that
the length of tube between transverse joints tending to hold it to circular
form has practically no influence on collapsing pressure so long as length not
less than about six diameters.
The formula
J) = 1,000 (l - ^1- 1'600 jj\
for values of p less than 581 lb. and values of ' less than -023, and v
d
= 86,670 ~ — 1,386 for values of f and - greater than the above, are given.
d d
It is also pointed out that the formula
J) = 50,210,000 C^ y
represents very nearly the results of the tests on tubes in which L is less
d
than -023. A series of curves is also given, showing the inapplicability of the
older formulae of Fairbairn, Nyf3trom, Grashof, Unwin, Belpaire, Wehage,
Clark, &e., to modern tubes.
20 Stewart, R. T. 1907 Collapsing Pressures of Lap-welded Steel Tubes. ' Trans.
Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng.,' 1907, vol. 29, pp. 123-130.
The eft'ects of the distortion due to successive re-tests on the collapsing
pressures of 10-inch lap-welded steel tubes. The following formula is given :
^ „^„„ Pi - 47-55
p, = 0-0926^j^j' -^^jj,..,, + 47-55
where jh = collajisiing pressure of normally round tube,
'p, = that of distorted tube,
M = ratio of max. to min. diameter.
21 Stewart, R. T. 1911 Stresses in Tubes. ' Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.,' 1911,
vol. 33, pp. 305-312.
An investigation showing that the stresses in the wall of a tube exposed
to an external fluid -pressure are of the same character as those in a column
having fixed ends.
-22 Unwin, W. C. 1875 Resistance of Flues to Collapse. ' Proc. Inst. Civ. En",
vol. 46, p. 225, 1875.
Showed, from shape of collapsed tube, that when length exceeded a
certain value, strength would become constant. Deduced the formula
E M- 1^
from analogy to struts.
224 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Where n = No. of arcs into which tube divides in collapsing.
E = Young's Modulus.
By comparison with Fairbairn's experiments, proposed the formula
2)= 115,000,000 --1
provided that I is less than 6-7 d-
and greater than 4,469 ^^
2.3 Westphal, M. 1909 Tubes under External Fluid Pressure. ' Zeitsehr.
Vereines D. Ing.,' 53, pp. 1188-1191, 1909. ' Sci.
Abs.,' 1909, No. 664.
24 Wilson, R., and 1876 'Engineering,' vol. 21, 1876, pp. .392, 410, 441, 458,
others. 483, 512; vol. 22, pp. 9, 30, 36, 75.
A discussion of Fairbairn's formula.
25 Board of Trade Rules for Survey of Passenger Steamships, 1913. §149, 'Circular
Furnaces.'
26 Lloyd's Rules for Survey and Construction of Engines and Boilers of Steam
Vessels. Section 16, ' Circular Furnaces.'
The Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury . — Report
of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. Munrg (Chairman) ,
Professor W. Boyd Dawkins (Secretary), Professor W.
EiDGBWAY, Sir Arthur J. Evans, Sir C. Hercules Ebad,
Mr. H. Balfour, and Mr. A. Bulleid, appointed to investi-
gate the Lake Villages in the Neighbourhood of Glastonbury
in connection with a Committee of the Somersetshire Archceo-
logical and Natural History Society. (Drawn up by Mr.
Arthur Bulleid and Mr. H. St. George Gray, the Directors
of the Excavations.)
The fourth season's exploration of the Meare Lake Village by the
Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society began on
May 15, 1913, and was continued until June 7. The ground excavated
was situated in the same field and was continuous with the work of
1910 and 1912. The digging included the examination of Mounds III.
and IV., the S. quarter of Mound V., the N.E. part of Mound XIII.
(remaining from last year's exploration), and portions of Mounds XV.,
XVII., and XVIII.
Structurally the excavations proved to be of considerable interest
and the number and importance of the relics discovered this season
were greater than those of the previous year.
"With reference to the construction of the mounds the attention of
the directors was centred in the examination of Mound XIII., which
revealed many features of exceptional interest. This mound consisted
of four clay floors having a total thickness of 6 ft. 8 in. The lower-
most floor was subdivided into a number of thin layers of clay of
various colours, each having a baked clay or stoned hearth in the
THE LAKE VILLAGES IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF GLASTONBURY. 225
centre. In all there were fourteen superimposed hearths. The hearths
belonging to Floors i., ii., and iii. were not superimposed, and \\ere
situated several feet to the N.E. of those belonging to Floor iv.
The substructure underlying the clay was of an average depth of
two feet in thickness, consisting of timber and brushwood, amongst
which were several well-preserved wattled hurdles, pieces of worked
wood, mortised beams, and squared planks of oak. The largest plank of
split oak measured 18 in. in width. Near the N.W. margin of
Hearths xi. and xii., belonging to Floor iv., two superimposed planks
of oak of nearly similar shape and size were discovered, separated by
a layer of clay 2 in. in thickness. Each plank was perforated with
three circular holes arranged in line, the holes of the upper plank
being placed immediately over the corresponding perforations of the
lower. Each pair of holes was filled by a pile driven vertically into
the substructure below. The corresponding edge in both planks was
cut semicircularly, resembhng somewhat the arms of a settle.
Among other points of interest may be mentioned the central post
of the dwelling erected over Floor iv., which was situated near the
E. margin of the hearths, and a large area of lias stone discovered near
the N. margin of the mound having the appearance of a landing-place.
Near the S.W. margin of the lias stone was a silty layer of clay con-
taining water-worn pebbles, grit, and a number of flint flakes. This
layer was at the level of Floor iv.
The structural details of Dwelling-mounds III. and IV. were of
less importance. The substructure, however, was noteworthy on
account of the absence of timber. Besides a little brushwood the
foundation had been increased by a layer of cut peat placed on the sur-
face of the bog. It was noticed that the substructure under the N.E.
half of Mound XIII. had been covered wdth a thick layer of peat,
amongst which were patches of compressed bracken and rush.
Small portions of Mounds XV., XVII., and XVIII., adjoining
Mound XIII., were examined, but a description of the structural
details discovered is reserved, and will be incorporated in a future
report when these dwellings have been fully explored.
The following is a summary of the objects found this year: —
Bone. — Two socketed tools with rivet-holes; a needle; an awl; two
tibiae of horse, sawn and perforated ; pieces of cut rib-bone, one having
two perforations ; parts of four worked scapulae (similar to several
others previously found); several perforated tarsal bones of sheep or
goat (? bobbins). Fifteen tarsal and carpal bones of sheep, not worked,
were found laid out in rows in Mound XIII. in black earth belonging
to Floor iv. — evidently a collection made for the purpose of converting
them into tools.
Antler. — Eight weaving-combs, some incomplete, some ornamented ;
two ' cheek-pieces ' for horse harness ; roe-deer antler knife-handle ;
several cut pieces of red and roe deer antler.
Beads. — Finely preserved amber bead (the second found at Meare) ;
two glass beads (one with spirals) ; and a baked clay bead.
Bronze. — Pair of tweezers; two finger-rings; flat ring; rivets; and
a few fragmentary objects. Also a solid bronze figure, perhaps
1913. Q
226 EEPORTS OK THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
intended to represent a boar with long ears — unfortunately the facial
portion has been broken, but it is seen that there was a perforation
through the forehead. Along the back there is a groove in which a
thin bronze crest was inserted, traces of which remain. In length the
figure is about 2h in. ; height over fore-legs about 1^ in. It is similar
in character to the series of bronze figures — three boars and two
nondescript animals — found at Hounslow,^ and another boar found at
Guilden Morden, Cambs.
Crucibles. — Two fragments.
Lead and Tin. — Two lumps of lead ore, and a flat, wide ring,
perhaps containing a large percentage of tin.
Iron. — The iron objects for the greater part are much corroded and
included a fragmentary ring encased in thin bronze, part of a file, a
punch or narrow chisel, and a large pointed bar, of square section,
which may have been an earth-anvil.
Kimmeridge Shale. — An earring; part of a vessel, or cup; a knife-
cut armlet (split); and parts of lathe-turned armlets.
Pottery. — Mound XIII. produced a large amount of pottery, the
thicker and ruder wares being found chiefly in the substructure. The
proportion of ornamented pottery was again large, but there is a great
amount of restoration work to do before the designs can be fully
described. One ornamented bowl was revealed in six pieces, which,
when joined, will make the vessel practically complete. The greater
part of a plain pot was discovered on the fourth floor of Mound XIII.
Ornamented bases of pots were also found this season.
Flint. — Chipped and polished celt, of Neolithic type, length 4J in.
(the second stone axe from Meare) ; an arrowhead and part of another ;
a hammerstone ; a dozen scrapers ; two cores ; and a large number of
flakes, some of which were burnt. Of the flint flakes, 154 were col-
lected from Mound XIII. and 16 from Mound III.
Sling-stones. — Two hundred and seventeen were collected this
season, including 89 from Mound III. and 75 from Mound XIII.
Thirteen baked clay sling-bullets and four unbaked ones were also
found. Ninety-one whetstones were collected, including 57 from
Mound XIII.
Querns. — Several quern fragments were found, but only one com-
plete saddle quern.
Spindle -whorls. — Seven specimens, all of stone, were found this
year in various stages of manufacture.
Human Remains. — Humerus found in the fourth floor of
Mound XIII.
Animal Remains. — Plentiful, including several bird-bones. In the
foundation of Mound XIII. a skeleton of roach (Leuciscus rutilus) was
uncovered.
1 Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd ser., iii., 90 ; Early Iron Age Guide, Brit. Mus,, 1903,
p. 135.
ON THE AGE OF STONE CIRCLES. 227
The Age of Stone Circles. — Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir C. Hercules Ebad (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour
(Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor W. Eidgeway, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Sir A. J. Evans, Dr. E. Munro, Professor
Boyd Dawkins, and Mr. A. L. Lewis, appointed to conduct
Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone
Circles. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
Owing to the smallness of the balance in hand, which only amounted
to two guineas, it has not been possible to carry out any work at
Avebury during the present year. It was hoped that this sum might
be available for re-levelling the inequalities in the ground caused by
shrinkage of soil disturbed during previous excavations; but as the
levelling will have to be done under skilled supervision, the small
amount would only suffice if a responsible person were on the spot,
and as there was no grant for excavation work there was no suitable
expert available. As soon as excavation work can be resumed at
Avebury the levelling and repairs can be conducted concurrently with
the more important operations and at trifling expense. In view of
the scientific results already obtained from the excavations in former
years, and as a means of adding to their value in determining the
period to which the Avebury stone circle should be assigned, it is
most important that fresh explorations should be made in another
portion of the earthwork. It is especially desirable that a portion of
the fosse to the east of the causeway leading from Kennet Avenue
should be excavated down to its original bottom. This is on the
opposite side of the causeway to the site of the previous excava-
tions. This important piece of work should either confirm or correct
the impressions derived from the sections cut through the fosse on
former occasions, and may be expected to lead to definite results pro-
vided that a sufficiently large area can be explored. With this object
in view, the Committee apply for re-election and for a grant of 50L,
together with the small balance in hand, which would still be allotted
to the repairing of damage caused by previous excavations. The
Committee also wish to apply for leave to invite subscriptions from
other sources, in order to acquire a sum sufficient for moderately
extensive investigation. Owing to the great depth of the silting in
the fosse, the cost of excavation is relatively high, and the grant
applied for would by itself only be sufficient for a very limited explora-
tion of the fosse; but if the grant is allotted, a further sum will be
available from private sources, enabling the work to be conducted on
a more substantial scale, with every prospect of valuable results. It
is important that excavations should be renewed at Avebury next
spring if possible, and not be delayed for another year, as there would
'be a better chance of enlisting the services of labourers who have
already been employed in this work and have learned something of
the requirements.
The Committee desire to express their deep regret at the death
of Lord Avebury, who had not only sei-ved upon the Committee for
several years, but had also freely given permission for excavations
228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
to be made in those portions of Avebury stone circle and earthworks
which were his own property. He was deeply interested in the work,
a.nd was anxious that it should be carried out in a thorough manner,
so as to yield results which might solve finally the problem of the
age of this splendid monument.
The Production of Certified Copies of Hausa Manuscripts. —
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. E. S. Hartland
(Chairman), Professor J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. W,
Crooke, and Major A. J. N. Tremearne.
Afteb careful consideration of the question in all its bearings the
Committee decided to accept the proposal of Messrs. Bale, Sons, &
Danielsson, Limited, to print the Hausa manuscript tales, collected
by Major Tremearne, as a companion volume to that already in pre-
paration for him, and to provide twenty copies for the purposes of
the Committee, in consideration of a grant of 201. towards the expense
of printing. Major Tremearne has undertaken to certify the accuracy
of these twenty copies, after comparison with his manuscript, and
to adopt an approved system of transliteration in preparing the tales
for the press. The printing is already in hand, and the volume of
tales should be ready for publication early in the autumn of 1913.
Artificial Islands in the Lochs of the Highlands of Scotland. —
Third Beport of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. Munro
(Chairman), Mr. A. J. B. Wage (Secretary), and Professors
W. Boyd Dawkins, J. L. Myres, and W. Eidgeway, on the
distribution thereof.
The Committee have received the following report from Dom Odo
Blundell, of Port Augustus, in continuation of the two previous reports
of the Committee. Much fresh information has been collected, and
a. grant has been made by the Carnegie Trust to Dr. Munro for the
excavation of the island in Loch Kinellan, which it is hoped to under-
take at the first opportunity. In view of the proposed excavation,
the Committee ask to be reappointed with the balance of last year's
grant and a fresh grant of 101.
APPENDIX.
Report from Dom Odo Blundell, O.S.B.
Since the report of last year several islands have been visited,
and an application has been made for means to excavate the
island in Loch Kinellan. By request of the shooting tenant, no work
was to be done in this island till after the end of June, so that up
to the date of writing it has not been possible to investigate this
example further.
Loch Tay. — ^Mr. Hugh Mitchell has continued his examination of
the examples in this loch, which he thus summarises in a recent letter :
ARTIFICIAL ISLANDS IN LOCHS OF HIGHLANDS OF SCOTLAND. 229
' The aiiificial islands in Loch Tay, so far as I can ascei-tain, are
as follows : —
' 1. The Priory Island, or " Y," of Loch Tay.
' 2. Cuigeal Mairi, or Mary's Distaff, about 200 yards west from
Ihe Priory Island, which is submerged when the loch is at its normal
height, but it is marked with a pole.
' 3. Island in Fernan Bay, which can be seen at low water, and
which is marked by a pole to prevent the steamer or boats striking it.
' 4. Eilean nan Brebean, which is quite complete, is in the bay
east of Morenish. It is almost wholly formed of stones of from
10 lb. to 40 lb. in weight.
' 6. In Finlarig Bay, to the west of Killin Pier. This island is
marked by a tree.
' 6. There is also a small island in good preservation on the west
side of Acharn Bay. It has no name. '
Loch Achnacloich. — At the invitation of Major Cuthbert, Factor
for Mr. Perrins, of Ardross Castle, I visited this loch on February 25.
Major Cuthbert was absent for the day, but his senior clerk, Mr.
Macdonald, motored me to the loch, about two miles distant. We
easily found the cairn at the east end of the loch and about 80 yards
distant from the shore. The top was covered by a few inches of water,
but we could see that it exactly resembled the islands in Loch Moy
and Loch Garry, which have been fully described elsewhere during
the present survey. At the outer edge of the rubble building the
depth of the water was from 8 to 10 feet, and the diameter of what
may be judged to have been the top of the island is about 50 feet.
With the boat-hook we could feel the wood that formed the founda-
tion of the island, and could bring up chips from the logs, but did
not succeed in dislodging one of these. The chips of wood showed
that the logs were of oak.
Loch Lomond. — Mr. Walter Macdermott, who has forty years'
experience of fishing on the loch, of which he knows every bay and
inlet, stated that there is a large cairn of stones in tlie loch just south
of Doune and another opposite Eowchoish — the one investigated by
Mr. Eobertson, Inversnaid. The Mill Cairn, in Boss Bay, he is sure
is artificial. On the west side of the loch Mr. Macdermott mentions
a large cairn in Luss Bay, just north of the pier, and another between
the two points of Straddan Bay, with a third just south of this last.
Mr. Henry Lamont, Secretary of the Loch Lomond Fishing Associa-
tion, confirms all the above suggestions, and repeated his assurance
that Insh Galbraith would be found to be artificial. Mr. Macdermott
suggested further examples, such as the cairn in Eossdhu Bay, and
another south of this and midway between AuchintulHch House and
the bum. He agrees with Mr. Lynn in suggesting the cairn opposite
Auchinheglish, and also the one opposite Cameron Point; while he
well remembers the occasion when Dr. Robert Munro and Mr. David
MacRitchie examined the island opposite Strathcashel Point. Dr.
Munro, the author of several well-known works on artificial islands
and the greatest living authority on the subject, informs me that it
230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.— 1913.
was in 1901 that he visited this island. As the water was low at
the time, they were able to stand on the woodwork of which the island
is partly composed. It then measured about 15 feet by 20 feet, and
is distant 25 yards from the shore.
Another resident in the Loch Lomond district, Mr. MacGregor,
farmer, Garabel, reported seeing a large cairn of stones or small island
at the mouth of the Eiver Falloch on the north or Ardleish side. This
he hoped to investigate more fully during the coming summer. From
the above information there is every reason to hope that this loch
will prove of great interest, for even if some of the islands suggested
prove to be natural, the fact that one has already been certified as
artificial by so competent observers as Dr. Munro and Mr. MacEitchie
leads one to suspect that others will be in the same category.
Additional Note.
By Mr. Hugh Muneo, C.E., Kilmarnock.
Description of a supposed Artificial Island in a small Loch near
Loch Ranza, Arran.
The loch with the island is situated about a mile up the valley
from Loch Ranza Pier and about 500 yards to the south of the public
road. It lies at the base of a steep hill, and a small bum flows from
the north-west end to the river. The bottom of the loch is gravelly,
and it does not appear to be of great depth. The island lies towards
the north shore, and is probably 40 feet long by 10 feet wide, and
covered with bushes (a species of willow). In one place there was
an almost continuous line of peaty matter from the island to the shore,
and I reached the island by laying ladders on this peat, which was
otherwise too soft to bear my weight. The island had a thick growth
of grass, and felt quite solid underfoot. Deer had formed a path around
it, and I learned afterwards that in dry summers children could wade
to it. I had no implements for digging, and so could not examine the
structure of the place, but quite close to the solid part I could push
a pole six or eight feet through soft mud. There is no evidence to
show that the island is artificial; my reason for supposing it to be so
is that the island appeared out of place in the geological configuration
of the neighbourhood of the loch.
The Organisation of Anthropometric Investigation in the British
Isles. — Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A.
Thomson (Chairman), Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (Secretary), Dr.
G. A. AuDEN, Dr. Duckworth, Professor A. Keith, and
Professor G. Elliot Smith.
The Committee fully considered the lines of possible future work, and
concluded that the most useful and pressing subject would be the corre-
lation and co-ordination of the records of physique now being accumu-
lated by the medical officers of the various education authorities. This
subject would, however, require a large part of the time of anyone who
ON ANTHROPOMETRIC INVESTIGATION IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 231
undertook to be Secretary of the Committee, if, indeed, it did not demand
his undivided attention. It would be difficult to find anyone who
could spare the time and energy devoted to this Committee by the late
Secretary, Mr. J. Gray. The Committee have therefore reluctantly
come to the conclusion that they could not undertake the task, but
recommend that if any suitable investigator becomes available the Section
should consider favourably the formation of a new Committee to render
assistance to the project. The work of the former Anthropometric
Committee of the Association has become so well known that it would
materially aid any future inquiry to be conducted under the aegis of the
Association.
Excavations on Roman Sites iri Britain. — Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor Kidgeway (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. C. BosANQUET (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr.
WiLLOUGHBY GARDNER, and Professor J. L. Myres, ap-
pointed to co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations
on Roman Sites in Britain.
This Committee was reappointed in September 1912, to co-operate
with the Abergele Antiquarian Association in the exploration of the
hill-fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood, Kinmel Park, Denbighshire.
In recent years several hill-forts in North Wales have been investi-
gated: (1) Tre'r Ceiri in Carnarvonshire, where sixty-four huts were
excavated in 1903 and 1906 by the Cambrian Archaeological Associa-
tion. (2) Pen-y-gaer, near Llanbedr-y-cenin, Carnarvonshire, ex-
amined by the Nant Conwy Antiquarian Society in 1905. (3) Pen-
y-corddyn Mawr, near Llanddulas, Denbighshire, examined by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association in 1905-9. (4) Braich-y-ddinas on
Penmaenmawr Mountain, Carnarvonshire, where a survey, accom-
panied by excavation, is being made for the Cambrian Archaeological
Association.
Eeports on (1), (2), and (4), by Mr. Harold Hughes and others, and
on (2) and (3) by Mr. Willoughby Gardner, have appeared in ' Archaeo-
logia Cambrensis,' ^ and have furnished data for comparing the methods
of construction used in these forts and determining the periods during
which they were occupied. The fact which directly concerns this
Committee is that three of them yielded Eoman pottery: Tre'r Ceiri
and Braich-y-ddinas, which are village-sites with numerous hut-circles,
producing much more than Pen-y-corddyn, which was rather a refuge
fort, bearing marks of hasty construction and demolition.
Similar evidence of occupation in Eoman times was recorded in
1850 by Mr. W. Wynne Foulkes for three of the native forts which
crown the heights of the Clwyd range on the borders of Flint and
' Sixth Series. (1) Tre'r Ceiri, iv. 1 and vii. 38. (2) Pen-y-gaer, vi. 241.
(3) Pen-y-corddyn. x. 79 (4) Braich-y-ddinas, xii. 169 and xiii. 353. The
work at Tre'r Ceiri was done by the Eev. S. Baring Gould and Mr. E. Burnard
in 1903, by Professor Boyd Dawliins, Col. L. W. Morgan, and Mr. Harold
Hughes in 1906.
232 KEPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Denbigh. The inference drawn at that time was that these sites had
been occupied ' by the Eomans. ' It has become increasingly plain in
recent years that ' Eoman ' pottery, both Continental ' Samian ' and
coarser home-made wares, was used by the natives throughout the
province of Britain, and in some cases also outside its limits ; and, as
much of this pottery can be dated, it may be expected to furnish a
useful index of the distribution of the native population at various
stages of the Eoman occupation. The excavations carried out in
recent years by Mr. E. Neil Baynes at Din Lligwy, on the north-east
coast of Anglesey, furnish an admirable example of the amount of
information as to native culture under Eoman influence which may be
recovered from a fortified village-site.^
From this point of view, the fort of Parc-y-meirch presents a most
promising field of inquiry. The excavation begun in 1912 by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association was originally suggested by the
Cambrian Archaeological Association, through its President, Professor
Boyd Dawkins, and has received generous support both from the
national society and from subscribers in the district. But the excep-
tional size of the fortifications — the main rampart rises fifty feet ver-
tically above the bottom of its encircling ditch — and the complexity of
the stratification, due to more than one destruction and rebuilding,
make it a very costly site to dig. The grant of 151. allotted to this
Committee has been spent in wages, supplementing the funds raised
from other sources, and has made possible a more extended examina-
tion of the ditches and gates. The work has been superintended by
Mr. Willoughby Gardner, whose account of this season's work is
printed as an appendix to this report. A full record has been made
in the form of plans, sections, and photographs. Professor Arthur
Keith has kindly undertaken to describe the human remains found
at more than one point in the rock-cut ditch.
The Committee asks to be reappointed and applies for a renewal
of its grant.
APPENDIX TO COMMITTEE'S EEPOET.
Further Excavations in the Ancient Hill Fort in Parc-y-meirch Wood,
Kinmel Park, Abegele, North Wales, during 1913. By
Willoughby Gardneb, F.L.S.
At the Dundee Meeting last September an account was given of some
excavations made, by kind permission of the owner, Colonel Hughes,
in this native hill fort by the Abergele Antiquarian Society and the
Cambrian Archaeological Association, as printed in abstract in the
' Eeport of the British Association,' 1912, pages 611-12. This year
further work has been done by the same societies during six weeks
upon this extensive site, by help of ten labourers and several amateur
assistants, and aided by Colonel Hughes in very many material ways.
Indeed, exploration of this wooded hill would have been impossible had
not Colonel Hughes most generously allowed trees to be cut down
whenever necessary and himself lent tackle for the work. This
' Arch. Camb., VI., viii. 183.
ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 233
season's excavation work has been much stimulated by the invahiable
co-operation of one of the Eesearch Committees of Section H of the
British Association, as well as helped by a grant of 151. from the same
source. Professor E. 0. Bosanquet, the Secretary of this Committee,
spent five days with us upon the site.
Attention was first directed to the interior area at the north end,
and to the artificial defences and an entrance near that end; subse-
quently the defences to the south and south-east were investigated,
and finally further examination was made of the south-east entrance.
Last year evidence was obtained of three occupations of the hill fort
in a section of three superincumbent roadways in this entrance. It
was shown by relics unearthed upon the topmost roadway that the
latest of these occupations was during the fourth century a.d. Many
similar relics (of which photographs were exhibited) were found
also in the interior area of the stronghold, proving that portions of the
hilltop at any rate were inhabited by a primitive-living native resident
population at that time.
During the present summer excavations have revealed relics, in
the form of pottery, coins, &c., belonging to the same period at the
northern end of the hill fort and elsewhere. It was thought at first
that the fourth-century occupation of the hill-top might have been
partial only, but identical remains have now been found within the
stronghold at the south-east, the south, the south-west, and the
north, proving an occupation of practically the entire site by a large
number of people, who, besides possessing implements and utensils
of home manufacture, used Eoman pottery and a Eoman currency.
All these foui"th-oentury relics were foimd very near to the present
surface, being covered by one to one and a half feet only of vegetable
humus.
Last year a plan showed the fourth-century roadway in the south-
east entrance as far as excavated. It was a passage with roughly
built side walls in dry masonry, thirty-eight feet long, cut through
wide-spreading ruins ; it has since been found that it was closed by
four gates set up at intervals within its course, of which the
holes for the wooden gate-posts, and some charred wood fragments
found in a few of them alone survive. Photographs exhibited showed
that portions of the side walls of this passage were built upon previous
ruins. Further excavations this season have revealed two guardhouses
here, one on each side within the entrance; these also are constructed
amid ruins, their sites being dug out of the fallen dSbris of earlier
guardhouses.
Work during 1912 showed that the inner ditch at the south side
of the stronghold was filled with the ruin of a wall which previously
stood on the rampart above. This year's investigations have shown
that apparently the whole lengt.h of this ditch was so filled as well as
a similar one at the north end. Cuttings were made across the second
ditch on the south-east, south, and south-west sides, and it also was
found to be more or less filled with stony clihris in the neighbourhood
of the entrance and on the south-west side. It was further discovered
this year that sometimes the first and sometimes the second of these
284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
ditches had been in part re-excavated at a later date. This was appa-
rently the work of the fourfh-century inhabitants of the stronghold.
The accumulated results of the two seasons' work now show that
during the fourth century, or earlier, the natives of the district re-
occupied the hill fort after its previous destruction at some unknown
time ; that they entrenched themselves behind ramparts roughly
constructed upon ruins and defended by shallow ditches re-excavated
in deeper ones previously filled up ; and that they cut a fresh entrance
to the south-east through the debris of an older one.
A closer date for this return to the hill-topis apparently obtained by
further finds, made this year, of Eoman ' third ' and ' small brass ' coins.
The total number found during the two seasons amounts to thirty-seven
from sixteen different sites; they are as follows: — One Trajan, very
worn; one Julia Mamaea, worn; four Gallienus, more or less worn;
one Claudius Gothicus. fair condition ; three Tetricus, cut and worn ;
two Carausius, in good condition; one Crispus, corroded; four Con-
stantinus Magnus (minted about a.d. 335), in fine condition; one
Constantinus II., in fine condition; one Constantius II., in good con-
dition ; ten Constans, in corroded to fine condition ; three Magnentius,
in corroded to good condition; one Valens, in good condition; one
Gratianus, in good condition; one illegible. It is to be noted that
though careful watch was kept for the ' minimi 'of the fifth century,
none were discovered. Most of the coins found were struck in
Gaul; the majority were minted a.d. 835 to a.d. 353, and the latest
about A.D. 380. On the numismatic evidence therefore this would
seem to point to a reoccupation of the site somewhere about a.d. 340,
and either to a final abandonment, or else to a cutting off of traffic with
the Eoman world, soon after a.d. 380. It is suggested that the return
of the natives to the ruined foi-t on the hill-top may have been caused by
raids of Irish or other sea pirates who boldly infested the coast after the
withdrawal of the Eoman troops from this district some time prior to
A.D. 340.
But, as has been previously pointed out, the above is a mere
episode in the story of this hill fort, which is of far earlier origin.
This summer's excavations have thrown further light upon its earlier
constructions. The plan of the more ancient entrance at the south-
east, also found to have two guardhouses, has been in part recovered
from the ruins. This entrance had a good gravelled roadway and side
walls in dry masonry better built than those of the later superin-
cumbent entrance ; it had apparently post-holes for a single gate only.
In many ways it resembles one of the three entrances excavated by the
Abergele Antiquarian Association some years ago in the ancient hill-
fortress on Pen-y-corddyn, three miles distant.
Eighteen cuttings made at various points in front of the ramparts
have revealed the courses of ditches for the most part previously hidden
from sight by di.hrh. At the north end there was a single ditch across
the spur of the hill below the main rampart, and this ditch was con-
tinued along the north-east side. It was V-shaped, and was cut, from
five to seven feet deep, and from seven to nine feet wide across its
top, out of solid rock. Opposite to a point where an entrance had
ON EXCAVATIONS ON ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 235
been previouBly located at the north-east of the hill fort, this ditch
vva3 found to curve slightly inwards, shallowing to less than two feet; a
similar ditch further on was found to curve slightly outwards, without
shallowing, so as to form an overlap on either side of the rock cause-
way which leads up to the entrance. This ditch was found to be
filled to the brim with limestone rubble and wall facing stones from
the ramparts above. That these stones had not fallen merely from
the natural decay of the wall, but rather that the ramparts had been
deliberately thrown down into the ditch, was shown by the rubble being
frequently clean and free from soil throughout. And that this throw-
ing down took place not long after the ditch was cut was made plain
by the fact of there being practically no silting upon the solid rock
below the stones. At the south side of the hill-fort this year's
excavations showed three more or less parallel ditches across
the level neck of land below the great main rampart; the inner
one was V-shaped and the others nearly so. The dimensions of the
inner one approximated to that of the ditch at the north end, but the
outer ones were generally wider and sometimes deeper. Here also
the inner ditch was found to be filled with the ruins of a dry masonry
wall which formerly existed upon the top of the main rampart. The
stones and rubble showed similar features to those described at the
north end, again proving that the wall had not merely fallen from
decay, but had been deliberately thrown down into the ditch not long
after the latter was cut. At the south-east side only two parallel
ditches were found on excavation, the first entirely, and the second
at the end near the entrance, being filled with debris in a similar way.
The ramparts also showed marks of destruction in many places. All
along the main south rampart the whole of the v/all just mentioned was
thrown down the slope with the exception of a few foundation stones
here and there. To the south-west not only the wall at the top, but the
entire rampart, had been deliberately destroyed — shovelled down the
slopes into the ditches below. At the north end the facing wall of
the rampart had been removed to its foundation stones. At well-nigh
every point where investigations have hitherto been made — in the south-
east entrance, in the ramparts, in the ditches to the north, the north-
east, the south-east, the south, and the south-west — destruction is
everywhere apparent; and, further, there are traces of a great con-
flagration at some early period in the large quantities of burned
limestone found in several places, e.g., below the floors and walls of
the guard-chambers in the south-east entrance. A few human remains
and some fragments of Eoman pottery have been found deep in the
ditches and upon the second road in the south-east entrance ; but relics
hitherto unearthed in definite strata of the ruins of the earher forti-
fications are disappointingly few, and do not include anything that has
yet been accurately dated.
Up to the present, therefore, no certain evidence of the time of
this destruction of the hill fort is forthcoming, except that it vvas
during an early period of its existence. But it is difficult to conceive
of its having been the result either of local tribal warfare or of piratical
raids, and it is suggested that it shows the work of the Eoman armies.
236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
perhaps during one of their expeditions into the district in the first
century a.d.
The section of the three roadways in the south-east entrance, of
which a photograph was shown last year, pointed to three occupations
of the hill fort — the fourth century one and two of earlier date.
This year's investigations afford similar evidence from other directions,
but it is not yet possible to apportion the superincumbent roadways
found to the various constructions and destructions of entrances, of
ramparts, and of ditches that have since been unearthed ; in particular,
a massive wall which suggests a still earlier entrance than that con-
taining the three superincumbent roadways has been brought to light,
eighteen feet to the east of the latter. It is hoped that this apportion-
ment may be accomplished by future excavations.
Although this year's work has advanced our knowledge of this
extensive site by several steps, the explorers feel that they are only
on the threshold of an investigation which promises much information
about a dark period in the early history of Wales.
Prehistoric Site at Bishop's Stortford. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor W. Eidgbway (Chairman), Dr.
W. L. H. Duckworth (Secretary), Professor W. Boyd
Dawkins, Dr. A. C. Haddon, and Dr. W. H. Marett Tims,
appointed to co-operate with a Local Committee in the excava-
tion thereon.
On Wednesday, May 7, Dr. Haddon and the Secretary visited Bishop's
Stortford at the invitation of the Eev. Dr. Irving, B.A., and with him
they made an inspection of the site on which the ' fossil horse ' was
found about three and a half years ago.
The site is at the western side of a meadow about half a mile west
of the town and at a considerable height above the Stort valley. The
actual excavation in which the skeleton was found is now a lily-pond.
A wire fence separates the meadow from the property occupied by Dr.
Dockray. A small trial trench in the meadow below the pond was
found to be filled with water. On the actual site there is at present
no exposure, trench, or section of any kind, further than that furnished
by the lily-pond itself, so that Dr. Haddon and the Secretary can give
only a bare statement of its position as described to them, and for
details must refer to reports already pubhshed. It would appear that
Dr. Dockray may possibly become interested in the meadow adjoining
his land, and in that event he may carry out extensive levelling or
scarping. Should this surmise be realised, the interest of the skeleton
already found calls for the maintenance of as close an inspection as
possible.
While regretting that there is little to report to the Committee in
connection with the special object with which it was originally
appointed, beyond what was reported by Dr. Irving in 1911 at the
Portsmouth Meeting, Dr. Haddon and the Secretary desire to express
PREHISTORIC SITE AT BISHOP's STORTFORD. 237
their appreciation of Dr. Irving 's efforts to elucidate the difficult local
probleTns in geology and archaeology, and to record their satisfaction
with the valuable work he has accomplished and continues to carry
out in keeping definite records of local discoveries. Dr. Irving 'b
publications will show the nature and scope of his activities, but in
this Eeport it is advisable to mention that he gave a general demonstra-
tion (of the local geological conditions) to Dr. Haddon and the Secre-
tary. In particular the gravel pit known as Frere's pit was visited,
and after the main exposure had been viewed, attention was directed
to a trench in the Boulder-clay (above the gravel) in which prehistoric
sherds and other objects were found in 3912 by Dr. Irving and his
sons. A visit was paid subsequently to Gilbey's gravel pit, and the
remarkable fact was demonstrated that the Boulder-clay so conspicuous
in Frere's pit is absent from Gilbey's, though the two are at most
some two hundred yards apart, a ' river-drift ' deposit occupying the
horizon of the Boulder-clay. Dr. Haddon and the Secretary were thus
enabled to gain a good idea of two tvpical exposures of the locality.
In terminating this report Dr. Haddon and the Secretary have to
express their opinion that under the present circumstances it does not
appear to them necessary that the special committee to investigate
the prehistoric site at Bishop's Stortford should be reappointed.
Palceolithic Sites in the West of England. — Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor W. Boyd Dawkins (Chair-
m,an), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth (Secretary), and Professor
A. Keith, appointed to report thereon.
The members of the Committee visited various caves in the West of
England during the early part of the present year (1913).
Inasmuch as they have not been able to meet for the purpose of
combining the results of their observations, the members of the Com-
mittee ask to be reappointed without a grant.
AncBsthetics. — Fifth Interim Eeport of the Committee, consist-
ing of Dr. A. D. Waller (Chairman) , Sir Frederic Hewitt
(Secretary), Dr. Blumfeld, Mr. J. A. Gardner, and Dr.
G-. A. Buckmaster, appointed to acquire further knowledge.
Clinical and Experimental, concerning AncBsthetics — espe-
cially Chloroform, Ether, and Alcohol — with special refer-
ence to Deaths hy or during Ancesthesia, and their possible
diminution.
During the past year we have acquired further experience of the use
of the chloroform-balance in the hospital and in the laboratory. Our
opinion has been confirmed that this apparatus affords the safest pos-
sible and the most convenient fixed means of inducing and maintaining
238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
ansestHesia upon man and animals. As a laboratory fixture, so far
from requiring a greater expenditure o! time and attention, its routine
use has proved to be economical in both these respects ; the smaller
animals, such as dogs, cats, rabbits, and mice, are most conveniently
prepared and kept ready for operation in a bell- jar or other confined
space by means of a continuous stream of chloroform and air at per-
centages rising from to 2 per cent., and subsequently falling from
1 to 0.6 per cent.
Our attention has been directed to the action of local anaesthetics —
cocaine, stovaine, * novocaine,' ' eucaine, ' &c., and we have undertaken
observations of their relative toxicities as measured by their effects
upon isolated tissues. But upon the present occasion we desire to
lay particular stress upon the practical dangers involved in the use of
these powerful poisons by unqualified persons, more especially in con-
nection with cheap dentistry.
This matter has been closely investigated by our Honorary Secre-
tary, Sir Frederic Hewitt, and we consider that the facts brought to
light in that investigation are of such gravity as to require the most
serious consideration of the British Association. The detailed report
of Sir F. Hewitt and a formal resolution arising out of that report have
been discussed at length in Section I, and the unanimous opinion of
the Section, after listening to the opinions expressed by several inde-
pendent authorities — Professor Barling, Dr. Saundby, Dr. McOardie,
Dr. George Foy, Mr. Vernon Harcourt, Mr. Leonard Hill, Mr.
Joscelyne, and Mr. Pearce — is to the effect that it is desirable at this
juncture that the Committee of Section I should consider, and if judged
proper forward to the Council of the Association, the following resolu-
tion : —
' That in view of th'e fact that numerous deaths continue to take
place from anaesthetics administered by unregistered persons, the Com-
mittee of the Section of Physiology of the British Association appeals
to the Council of the Association to represent to the Home Office and
to the Privy Council the urgent need of legislation.'
The Committee asks to be reappointed, and that its original reference
should be extended to include the study of ' local anassthetics, such as
cocaine and stovaine.'
APPENDIX.
An Account of Three Fatal Cases of Poisonmg hy Cocaine administered
hy Unqualified Persons. Bi/ Sir Frederic Hewitt.
As Honorary Secretary of the Committee, and as one of those who
have for some time past urged the need of legislation to prohibit
the administration of anaesthetics by unqualified persons, I venture to
draw the attention of the Committee to three coroners' inquests which
have taken place within the past few months upon members of the
working-classes to whom cocaine or some derivative thereof has been
administered for tooth-extraction by unregistered dentists.
The evidence given at the first of the three inquests went to show
that the deceased was a woman forty-five j^ears of age, the wife of a
ON ANAESTHETICS. 239
labourer earning 16s. a week. She consulted a wholly unqualified and
unregistered ' practitioner of dentistry,' agreeing to pay him four
guineas for preliminary tooth extraction and subsequent artificial teeth.
The ' practitioner of dentistry ' admitted that whilst the law permitted
him to use this title he could not call himself a ' dental practitioner. '
Before the extraction he injected a solution of cocaine and adrenalin,
disregarding the fact that the gums were very unhealthy. He also
ignored the warning on the label of the bottle containing the analgesic
eolution : ' The contents of this package are only to be used in accord-
ance with the prescription of a medical practitioner. ' Some hours after
the operation the patient became semi-delirious and retched. Next
morning she became unconscious and convulsed. She died early on the
following morning. The ' practitioner of dentistry ' stated in evidence
that he had only injected J gr. cocaine. At the post-mortem the guma
were found to be lacerated and the heart and kidneys to be diseased, but
the cause of death, in the opinion of the two medical men called in, was
cocaine poisoning. The jury returned a verdict of death by misadven-
ture, but ' asked the coroner to severely censure Mr. for admin-
istering such large quantities of cocaine without having the necessary
qualification. '
At the second inquest the evidence showed that the patient had been
a perfectly healthy woman, aged twenty-nine, the wife of a bricklayer.
Suffering from toothache she consulted a so-called ' dental operator,"
who injected cocaine and then extracted a decayed tooth. There was
considerable inflammation around the tooth — a state which is now
generally regarded as strongly contra-indicating injection. The patient on
her return home lay ' in a dizzy condition. ' A week after the operation
a medical man was called in who found the patient to be ' suffering
from some narcotic poison. ' She was in a ' collapsed condition. ' Next
day the narcotic symptoms passed off and the mouth was found to be
septic. The patient died four days later. At the post-mortem a condi-
tion of pyaemia was found originating in disease of the jaw around the
tooth socket. In his remarks to the jury the coroner said ' he thought
the position was certainly a very unsatisfactory one that people without
any qualification of having been apprenticed — in what he might call a
legal way — to a dentist should be allowed to operate by injecting cocaine
or any derivative of cocaine, or any other drug of that kind.' Owing,
no doubt, to the fact that the ' dental operator ' exercised his right to
answer no incriminating questions, the hands of the jury were to a
great extent tied, and after much difficulty they returned a verdict
' that the deceased died from blood-poisoning, but that there was not
sufficient evidence to show how it was produced. ' Fortunately, further
light was thrown upon this lamentable case some two months after the
inquest, when the husband of the deceased woman sued the so-called
' dental operator ' for damages in respect of his wife's death and
obtained judgment for 70Z. At the civil proceedings it was shown that
the defendant ' advertised painless extractions with no after-effects.'
The prosecution stated that ' the negligence complained of was that the
defendant wrongly injected a solution of cocaine into an abscess which
240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OE SCIENCE. — 1913.
he ought to have known to exist, thereby causing blood-poisoning and
death. ' In the course of the proceedings the defendant admitted that on
one occasion he had paid 21. compensation to a patient upon whom he
had performed an injection, and that in two other cases he had been
obliged to pay for medical advice required by patients after his opera-
tions. The judge found that the deceased ' was negligently treated by
the defendant — ignorantly of course, but negligently. This negligence
was the cause of the illness with which she was seized, and that illness
caused her death. '
The third inquest was held upon the body of a young married
woman twenty-three years of age, whose occupation had been that of
shirt-making. Though quite able to do her work her general health had
not been very good. She had suffered from toothache. The evidence
showed that she had obtained the services of a ' dental operating
mechanic,' who, having come to the house, injected cocaine as a pre-
liminary to tooth extraction. Very shortly after the injection the
patient complained of curious sensations in her hands and feet, and
rapidly became unconscious. ' Her lips, face and hands were blue, and
she was breathing heavily.' She died very shortly afterwards. The
post-mortem examination showed that the deceased was ' well-nour-
ished and sound. ' In summing up the coroner said ' he thought
that, in view of the fact that there was so much of this injecting going
on by unqualified persons, the sooner something was done to prevent
it the better it would be for the public' The jury returned a ' verdict
that death was due to misadventure, but added a recommendation that
the law should be so ainended as to prohibit the use of anaesthetics
except by fully qualified practitioners. ' The coroner said ' he cordially
agreed with the recommendation and would communicate it to the
Home Office.'
There have been several similar inquests in recent years. At one
of these, held in Ireland, upon a young woman of nineteen, to whom
cocaine had been administered, but whose death was more probably due
to haemorrhage, the jury strongly condemned the action of unqualified
persons going about the country performing dental operations. The
unqualified dentist was committed for manslaughter, and, in summing
up at the trial the judge said: ' So far as the citizens were concerned
he thought it was a highly dangerous thing that these young men should
be let out to try their apprentice hand — for it was nothing else — upon
patients. ' The prisoner was found guilty, but recommended to mercy
on the grounds of his ignorance, the judge considering the dental firm,
whose employe the prisoner was, more culpable.
It is highly important, in this connection, to bear in mind the
following facts with regard to cocaine and its derivatives : (1) The risk
attendant upon the injection of cocaine and similar analgesics is quite as
great from the septic as from tlie purely toxic side. It hence happens
that apart from the numerous cases of cocaine poisoning which occur,
a few of which terminate in inquests, there are a large number of
others which escape attention, the victims either suffering from pro-
longed impairment of health or dying from sequelae rarely traced to
ON ANESTHETICS, 241
their true causes. (2) The injection of cocaine or its derivatives may
lead to dangerous or fatal symptoms by (a) direct toxicity ; {b) the
introduction of septic organisms into the circulation through improper
sterilisation of injecting appliances ; (c) lacerating and reducing the
vitality and power of recovery of inflamed tissues into which the anal-
gesic solution may have been forced, with the result that sloughing or
necrosis follows; and (d) ' the injected fluid, not only driving out the
blood and lymph, but also dispersing pathogenic organisms into the
tissues and even into the general circulation ' (Gibbs). (3) It is hence
clear that without proper medical or dental education and training the
risks to the public of such injections are very great.
Electromotive Phenomena in Plants. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. A. D. Wallee (Chairman), Mrs. Waller
(Secretary), Professors J. B. Farmer and Veley, and Dr.
F. O'B. Ellison. (Drawn up by the Chairman.)
In previous reports we have stated that the presence of a ' blaze-
current ' is a sign that a given vegetable tissue is alive and also how
much it is alive, i.e., that it is a quantitative as well as a qualitative test
of the living state.
In a recent number of the ' Annals of Botany ' ^ W. Laurence
Balls, after a laborious attempt to estimate the vitality of cotton
plants by means of this test, comes to the conclusion that the method,
although holding good as a ' death-test,' does not seem to be a ' vitality-
test ' in a quantitative sense, and that it failed of its object with regard
to the testing of root samples, because the small roots give the most
insignificant results.
Mr. Balls has very courageously attacked a new and difficult
problem with very inadequate resources, i.e., with a galvanometer of
22 ohms resistance, with induction currents of excessive strength, and
with a circuit of such intricacy as to make it difficult to verify direction
of excitation and response, and impossible to obtain systematic data.
I think it is very much to Mr. Balls 's credit, and incidentally a very
encouraging sign of the applicability of the blaze-test, that it should
have been possible to obtain any result whatever under such conditions.
And I venture to forecast that the tenacity of pm'pose that has enabled
Mr. Balls to discover by his apparatus that the blaze-test is a death-test
will, if he pursues the inquiry under more favourable conditions, enable
him to discover further that the t«st can be employed as a ' measure of
vitality ' in particular cases more or less difficult. We have hitherto
applied the test quantitatively only in cases selected as being the most
easy and best adapted to the acquisition of comparable numbers by the
fewest number of trials, e.g., to seeds fresh and old, to parts of plants
presumably more or less active, or of which the activity has been
' 'Apparent Fallacies of Electrical Response in Cotton Plants,' by W.
Laurence Balls, M.A., Annnh of Botany, January 1913, p. 103.
1913. B
242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
more or less reduced by means of anaesthetics. We have not been
sanguine enough to attempt to measure the vitahty of a given set of
plants by applying the test to its roots; we have not even ventured
to attack preliminary questions, such as the comparative vitality of roots
and stems or of their different parts. In spite of the fact that we are
able to work under favourable conditions as regards apparatus and
method, we are only too familiar with the difficulty of securing uni-
formity of experimental conditions during the uninterrupted periods of
time required for the systematic recording of a sufficient number of
data. We have, therefore, refrained from enibarking upon difficult
problems such as that proposed to himself by Mr. Balls, although we
are by no means convinced that it is incapable of solution after its
necessary preliminaries have been mastered, and provided the observer
can then devote to it the necessary time and attention. But as a
practical proposition it certainly cannot be solved by sporadic or sum-
mary experiments such as are sufficient to establish the validity of its
principle.
Hitherto our reports have been directed to the establishment of the
method in principle, and in this respect we believe ourselves to have
been successful; we have shown, e.g., that the voltage of blaze-currents
and the vitality of seeds decline -pari passu with their age.
Our present report contains a detailed account of individual observa-
tions carried out during the months of July and August to serve as an
indication and sample of the procedure we think necessary to follow in
working out the test as a practical method of measuring the vitality of
seedlings.
A repetition of the description of method, precautions, results, &c.,
is not possible now; we must refer for such description to previous
publications, more especially to an article in the Journal of the Linnean
Society, Vol. XXXVII., on the blaze-currents of vegetable tissues,
and to my lectures on ' Signs of Life ' published by John Murray,
1903.
It is, however, necessary to say in preface to the following detailed
protocols :
1. That excitation by a single induction shock must be of given
constant strength, not too weak when little or no response is obtained,
nor too strong when after a large response the subsequent excitability is
impaired.
2. That it is convenient to have in circuit two galvanometers of
different sensitiveness, so that small responses are read upon the more
sensitive, large responses upon the less sensitive galvanometer. In the
protocols Gj is a less sensitive galvanometer of 5,000 ohms, Gj is a
more sensitive galvanometer of 70,000 ohms.
3. The voltage of response and the resistance in circuit are to be
calculated from the deflections through the plant and through a megohm
of a known fraction (one-hundredth) of a volt.
ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.
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ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.
249
3«.
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250
REPORTS ON THK STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
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ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANT8.
251
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252
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
006
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ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.
253
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254
REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
S X
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ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.
255
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256
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
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ON ELECTROMOTIVE PHENOMENA IN PLANTS.
2D7
1913.
OI/m *0S'H «! -JO^flA Ui BJiiotj
jnoq 1 10} iioifcjeuiuii Ja^jy tS -"oj uoisjauiiui aa!)jV'
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17
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voltage
ISS
r
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voltage
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258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
The foregoing data, scanty and imperfect as they are, indicate 3
general relation between plant-vitality and voltage of blaze-current.
But our principal object has been to indicate in detail the systematic
lines along which further observations are required from which —
multiplied a hundredfold — it can become legitimate to infer in given
instances how much the blaze-current actually varies with varying
degrees of plant-activity and (?) plant-health under given conditions.
2'he Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart. — Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor Francis Gotch
(Chairman) and Professor Stanley Kent (Secretanj),
appointed to make further researches thereon.
The investigation forms a portion of work which has been in
progress for some years.
The particular problem attacked this year has been the question: —
' Is the conducting path between am'icle and ventricle in the
mammalian heart single, or is it multiple? '
The problem has been attacked both from the histological and from
the experimental side.
The histological results have shown the existence of an alternative
anatomical path, whilst the experimental findings are most easily
explained on the supposition that this alternative path becomes
functional under certain conditions.
The results are of interest theoretically, and also from the point of
view of the clinician, who has found it impossible to explain — on the
supposition of a single path — conditions which occur not infrequently
in cases of cardiac disease.
Some of the results are being published in the Proceedings of
the Eoyal Society, but more work is necessary before the full details
can be available. For this further work a new grant is being sought.
Colour Vision and Colour Blindness. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor E. H. Starling (Chairman) , Dr. F. W.
Edridge-GtREBn (Secretary) , Professor Leonard Hill, Pro-
fessor A. W. Porter, and Professor A. D. Waller. (Drawn
up hy the Secretary.)
A CONSIDERABLE amount of work in colour vision has been done by
individual members of the Committee. The inadequacy of the wool
test even with additional colours as an efficient test for colour blindness
is now established. On April 1 of this year the Board of Trade
adopted a lantern test for colour blindness in addition to the wool test.
The total number of men examined by the Board in colour vision from
April 1 to May 31 was 1,689, and of these 105, or 6'22 per cent.,
failed. Of the 105 failures, 55 failed in both the wool test and lantern
test, and 50 in the lantern only. None failed in the wool test only.
ON COLOUR VISION AND COLOUR BLINDNESS.' 259
The four chief colour names (red, yellow, green, and blue) musfe
be used in any test for colour blindness, and if a daylight test be
required, the bead test of Edridge-Green is preferable. The chief
difficulty from a practical point of view is the line at which rejection
should take place, as there is every grade of transition between
total colour blindness and the normal colour sense. If a large
number of persons be examined with the Edridge-Green lantern
about 25 per cent, show defects of colour perception. In the
majority of cases these defects are slight, therefore it is necessary
to know the nearest distance at which a coloured light must be
recognised — i.e., the exact degree of colour weakness which is per-
missible^ — and that the hne of rejection should be fixed accordingly. It
is obvious that any man having even a slight defect of colour perception
is not quite as efficient as one not possessing this defect; this particu-
larly applies to the shortening of the red end of the spectrum, which
prevents the recognition of red light at the normal distance, particu-
larly when obscured by fog.
The Committee recommends that it be reappointed.
The Ductless Glands. — Report of the Committee, consisting of
Sir E. A. ScHAFER (Chairman), Professor Swale Vincent
(Secretary), Professor A. B. Macallum, Dr. L. E. Shore,
and Mrs. W. H. Thompson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)
The Secretary has been continuing his investigations 'upon various
points connected with the physiology and the comparative anatomy
of the ductless glands.
A study of the distribution and the detailed histology of the accessory
cortical adrenal bodies has been commenced, but as this involves a
large amount of serial section cutting, the work has not progressed
very far, and there are no new facts to report at this stage.
An investigation into the histological changes in the thyroids and
parathyroids (along with some of the other ductless glands) under
varying physiological and pathological conditions (different diets,
starvation, poisons, &c.) has been undertaken, and a large amount of
material for examination has been collected.
Mr. Cameron has been testing Hunter's method of iodine estima-
tion in organic substances.^ It is satisfactory for moderate amounts,
such as are found in the sheep's thyroid. It is not satisfactory for
very slight traces. Comparison tests are being made with this method
and some more recent modifications of it in the hope of finding a
rigid test for traces of iodine (one part in 500,000).
An initial attempt has been made to correlate other tissues with
the thyroid as regards iodine content. No definite results have yet
been obtained, but traces (of a second lower order of magnitude) appear
to be present in other organs of the series of ductless glands (e.g.,
testes, ovary, adrenal, thymus).
» J. Biol Chem., 1910.
S3?
200 REronxs on titk state of rotencr. — 19ir5.
The presence of iodine in the thyroid of frogs, fishes, and reptiles
is under investigation, and it is hoped to have some pubhshable data
shortly. This comparative work is being carried out with the assist-
ance of Mrs. Thompson.
This chemical work is preliminary to a thorough investigation (by
means of metabolism experiments) of the r6le of iodine in the animal
economy.
The Committee ask to be reappointed, with a grant of 40Z.
The Dissociation of Oxy-Hcemoglohin at High Altitudes. — Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. H. Stabling
(Chairman), Mr. J. Baeceoft (Secretary), and Mr. W. B.
Hardy.
In this report the blood will be termed ' mesectic ' when the balance
of ions in it is such that the dissociation curve of the individual is in
its normal position, ' pleonectic ' ^ when the curve is so shifted that
at any given pressure of oxygen the hfp.moglobin takes up more oxygen
than under nomial circumstances, and ' meionectic ' when it takes less
than its usual quantity of oxygen.
The curves in this report are calculated from the formula suggested
by Hill
y _ Krn
rso ~ r+^Ka;'
where y = the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen,
re = oxygen pressure in mm., K and « are constants for each curve.
In human blood n remains 2'5, therefore practically K is the only
variable.
The immediate effect of exercise, if sufficiently severe, is to shift
the curve in the direction of greater acidity ; this may take place even
though the carbonic acid tension is reduced.
For instance, the constants of Eoberts' mesectic curve are n = 2"5,
K = "0003.3, logK = 4"5785, his normal alveolar CO, pressure is 40 mm.
Some points on liis curve would be as follov/s : —
Percentage saturation . 9-4 22 37 51 62 85-5 95
Pressure of oxygen .10 15 20 25 30 50 80
After climbing 1,000 feet from sea level in 20 minutes up Carlingford
mountain, his curve became meionectic,
n = 2-5, K--0001805, log Iv = 4-2565, 00^-35 mm.
Percentage .saturation .6 U 24 35 47 76 91
Pressure of oxygen. . 10 15 20 25 30 50 80
At slow rates of climbing, 1,000 feet in 45 minutes, Barcroft's blood
remained mesectic.
' irXeovtKTiKSi, disposed to take^more than one's share. From irAsoveJia, a dispn]
sition to take more than one's share (Liddell and Scott). We are_indebted to ]")r
W. M. Fletcher and Mr. Harrison for this nomenclature.
THE DISSOCIATION OF 0XY-HA;MOGLomN AT HIGH ALTITUDES. 2G1
Till.' invL'sLigaliou was utiderfcaken for the imrpose of coutroUiDg
the results of shnilar cUinbs at high altitudes. The comparison is
us follows: —
1. Altitude up to 15,000 feet produces a lowering in the carbonic
acid pressure, nevertheless the blood remains mesectic in the resting
subject.
For instance, at the Capanna Margherita* on Monte Rosa the day
after arrival Eoberts' alveolar carbonic acid pressure was 26 mm.
The following points determined at these pressures fall on his mesectic
curve (see previous paper).
Percentage saturation .33 77 calculated from mesectic curve
Percentage saturation . 34 73 (observed)
Oxj'gen pressure . . .19 41
2. A given degree of meionexy is produced by a lesser degree of
activity at high altitudes. Thus at Col d'Olen, climbing 1,000 feet,
from an altitude of 9,000 feet to 10,000 in 38 minutes, Roberts'
curve became as follows: —
11 = 2-5, K = -000161, log K = 4-2068, 00^ = 36 mm.
The degree of meionexy is almost identical with that produced at
Carlingford when climbing the same height in 20 minutes.
3. A greater degree of meionexy is produced by a given amount
of exei'cise at high altitu'Ses. Thus Barcrolt, climbing from 9,000
feet to 10,000 feet in 45 minutes at Col d'Olen, moved the constants
of his curve as follows: —
Mesectic curve . n = 2-5, K = -000292,
log K = 4-4654
Meionectic curve n = 2-5, K = -000191,
log K = 4-2810,
COj = 33 mm.
Corresponding points would be
Percentage saturation 9 20 34
Percentage saturation 6 14 26
Oxygen pressure .10 15 20
48 58 84
37 48 77
25 30 50
94 mesectic
92 meionectic
80
Climbing from sea level to 1,000 feet at Carlingford also in 45
minutes no certain degree of meionexy could be ascertained. The
following points were observed: —
COj pressure 38 mm.
Perosntage saturation 58 calculated from mesectic curve.
Percentage saturation 56 per cent. — 55 per cent, observed.
Oxygen pressure 30 mm.
The Effect of Low Temperatures on Cold-blooded Animals. —
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Swale
Vincent (Chairman) and Mr. A. T. Cameron (Secretary).
(Drawn up hy the Secretary.)
Messes. Cameron and Brownlee have carried out a number of
experiments on frogs (R. pipiens) obtained from the neighbourhood
' For the amounts of acid added see Brit. Assoc. Report, 1911, p. 153.
262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913i
of Chicago. They freeze at a temperature of 0"4:4°-O'02° 0., in a
manner very similar to that of solutions isotonic with their body-fluids.
They will survive a temperature of — 1° 0. They will not survive a
temperatm'e of - 1*8° 0.
The heart-tissue, whether exsected or in vivo, of these frogs survives
a temperature of - 2"5°, but is killed by a temperature of — 3'0° C.
Other observers have shown that frog's muscular tissue will survive a
temperature of — 2"9° C, while the peripheral nerves are not killed by
much lower temperatures. Hence it appears probable that the cause
of death is connected with a specific temperature effect on the brain
or cord.
Full details of these results 'will appear shortly elsewhere. It seems
desirable to continue these experiments with the same species obtained
at different seasons, and with some tropical species.
The Committee tlierefore request to be reappointed, with a grant
of lOZ.
Calorimetric Observations on Man. — Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor J. S. Macdonald {Chairman), Dr.
F. A. DuFFiELD {Secretary), and Dr. Keith Lucas, appointed
to make Calorimetric Observations on Man in Health and in
Febrile Conditions.
Continuing the work reported on last year a large number of experi-
ments have been performed, in which the total heat-production has
been measured and contrasted with the mechanical work done. A
statement dealing with the results of these experiments has been
accepted for publication in the Proceedings of the Eoyal Society. In
each of these experiments a subject enclosed in the calorimeter cycled
against the known resistance of a definite brake at a uniform revolution-
rate for a period of two hours. Again, as in last year's experiments,
there was a noticeable difference between the measm-ed heat-production
of the first and second hour respectively in each experiment. To test
the meaning of this apparent difference between the events of the first
and second hour arrangements were made early in this year's work to
add to the measurements formerly made some means of determining
the carbon-dioxide production, and it is upon the progress made in this
direction that I have now to make some report.
It wUl be remembered that in the original Atwater and Benedict
calorimeter, from which the details of construction of the body of this
instrument in Sheffield have been lai'gely copied, apparatus of a very
perfect kind is arranged to deal with the gaseous exchange of the subject.
In that instrument the air-steam from the calorimeter is pumped
through a system of absorption vessels, and thus freed from carbon-
dioxide, and water is pumped back into the calorimeter with the addition
of just so much oxygen as suf&ces to maintain the normal barometric
pressure of the enclosed atmosphere. Prom the altered weight of the
absorption vessels and of the oxygen-cylinder exact data are obtained
as to the output of carbon-dioxide and aqueous vapour and the intake of
ON CALORIMETRIC OBSERVATIONS ON MAN. 263
oxygen. Largely from reasons of economy no attempt has been made
to copy this procedure and apparatus. In place of the closed circuit of
tubes through which air is led away from and back to the calori-
meter we have an open system. By a length of suitably wide tubing
the air-entrance is cari'ied to a point at some little distance from the
calorimeter, and therefore some distance from the air disturbed by the
presence of the observers. A powerful fan driving a large current of air
across the path of this tube further secures this separation. Similarly
by a length of tubing the air-exit is carried into another room, in which
the pump and gas meter are situated. The entrance and exit are thus
widely separated.
The tubes carrying the ' entering ' and the ' leaving ' air have each,
at a certain point, been subdivided into three separate paths, and suit-
able arrangements made so that sampling-bottles may be inserted or
removed from one of these short subdivisions of the air-path. Thus a
definite fraction of the air-stream traverses each sampling-bottle, and
is always allowed to traverse it for a time sufficient to ensure the com-
plete replacement of its original contents by air similar to that traversing
the remaining fraction of the air-path.
In twenty of the expernnents in which Professor Macdonald has
collected tlie data of heat-production I have analysed samples of the
' leaving air ' obtained in this way. In the earlier cases the ' entering
air ' was also sampled and analysed, but I found its content of carbon-
dioxide so relatively constant that I abandoned dealing with it for the
present. In thirteen of these experiments the ' leaving air ' was dealt
with as follows : — The sample-bottles were of large size (7 to 8 litres), to
the large volume of air contained in them baryta solution was added,
shaken up and allowed to stand, and then titrated with a known strength
of oxalic acid. In the application of this ' Pettenkofer method ' I owe
much to the assistance of Mr. W. J. Jarrard, B.Sc. The results
obtained by this method were consistent in the different experiments,
and in each experiment provided results giving, when plotted out,
comparatively smooth curves, which showed the' output of carbon-
dioxide from the calorimeter as gradually increasing towards a level
reached somewhere before the end of the first hour of cycling and then
sustained for the second hour.
In the remaining seven of these experiments I have replaced this
method by a volumetric method, using the apparatus devised by
Dr. ,T. S. Haldane (large laboratory type), substituting smaller sampling
vessels of approximately 70 c.c. capacity as now sufficient. Up to the
present the plotted curves of results obtained by this method have not
been as smooth as those originally obtained, but this will be improved
upon when the air-stream has been diminished so as to enable me to
deal with larger percentage values. The quantity of air traversing the
system has varied from .800-410 cubic feet per hour, and will next year
be substantially diminished in the interests of these gas-analyses, and
peculiarly so because of oxygen determinations, which Will then be
instituted. This desire to deal later with the oxygen values explains
a preference for the Haldane method.
Adding to the results of such experimental determinations of the
204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SOTENOR. — 1913.
carbon-dioxide output, corrections for the amount of carbon -dioxide
stored within the large space of the calorimeter (175 cubic feet approx. ;
see below), the plotted curves are practically converted into lines parallel
to the abscissa — that is to say, the difference apparently existing between
the first and second hours of cycling disappears. It would seem then,
as far as these experiments go, that the total transformation of energy
is the same in the two cases, varying with the amount of mechanical
work performed alone, and not with the length of time during which
this performance has been continued. The bearing of this conclusion
upon the still continuing differences in the measurements of apparent
total heat-production in the first and second hour has been dealt with by
Professor Macdonald in the communication already referred to.
A large number of special experiments (25) have been performed
to obtain an experimentally-derived method for estimating the precise
value of these corrections for internal storage of carbon-dioxide, in which
the experimental subject has been replaced by a measurable source of
carbon-dioxide production. Such experiments are still in progress, and
will be described better at a later period ; tlieir i-esulls are such, how-
ever, as to promise considerable security in dealing with the storage
coiTections.
Incidentally the internal volume of the calorimeter has been
measured, carbon-dioxide gas being injected until a certain definite per-
centage composition was attained in the well-mixed atmosphere within
the calorimeter, and the total quantity present then measured as it was
withdrawn in the air-current. The figure obtained by this method,
176 cubic feet, closely coincides with that obtained from measurements
of the average dimensions of the chamber (174 cubic feet). This coin-
cidence in the two sets of measurements is naturally accepted as evidence
of accuracy of the means used for measuring the carbon-dioxide outpiit
fmm the calorimeter.
The Investigation of the Jurassic Flora of Yorhshire. — Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. C Seward
(Chairman), Mr. H. Hamsh.\w Thomas (Secretary), Mr.
Harold Wager, and Professor F. E. ^YRISS.
The work of the year has been very satisfactory. The rich plant-beds
exposed on and near Eoseberry Topping have been carefully examined
and have yielded a large number of interesting forms, several of which
are new to Yorkshii'e. These plant-bearing strata are at the base of
the Estuarine series, and may be probably regarded as Liassic in age
and older than any of the previously known plant-beds. Among the
specimens found are many beautifully preserved examples of two
species of Thinnfeldia, a species of Ptilozamites, a species of
Hausviannia, and a new conifer. A brief sketch of the flora has been
given by the Secretary of the Committee in the ' Naturalist ' (p. 198,
19] 3). The occun-ence of the plant-beds in the locality has been studied
and proves to be very local. Some plant remains have been found
ON TUF, TNVRSTIflATION OF TUF JURAftSTO FLORA OP YORKSTTIRF. 2Ct~)
in the Middle Estiiarine beds of Eslon Hill, one of the northern outliers
of the Cleveland Hills.
The Gristhorpe bed continues to provide interesting forms. The
excavations which have been carried on this year in Cayton and
Gristhorpe Bays have resulted in the discovery of several new species.
Among them is a new type of GinkgoaHan leaf, which has been
described as Eretmophyllum pubescens, gen. et sp. nov.,^ and this
type has also been recognised at Whitby. A female flower of the
Williamfionia type, new to England and probably allied to the
Wieldandiella angiisti folia of Nathorst, has been found, also a new
fern and some seeds and cones of new types. Many specimens of the
rare species Beania gracilis, Carr., Baiera Lindleyana, Schimp., and
Cladothera undans, L. and H., have been found, also some interesting
foiTus of Gzehavoivslcia. Material has also been obtained for the study
of the cuticular structure of the Jurassic Cycadophyta, the results of
which will be published shortly.
The experience of the last few years has justified the opinion that
many new forms might be found by systematic search, even in the
oldest and most worked localities. During the last three years the
Secretary of the Committee, aided materially by grants made by the
Association, has succeeded in obtaining about twenty-two species new
to the Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire, which will be desciibed in due
course.
Tlir Flora of Lhe Peat of the Kennct Valley. — Interim Report of
the Committee , consisting 0/ Professor F. Keeble (Chairman),
Miss M. C. Rayner (Secretary), Professor F. W. Oliver, and
Professor F. E. Weiss, appointed for the investiejation thereof.
TiiERK are extensive deposits of peat in the Valley of the Kennet and
evidence of old peat workings in the neighbourhood of Newbury.
The peat occurs from four to five feet below the surface and may be
as much as eight feet below the present dry-wealher level of the river.
It varies in thickness from a few inches to about ten feet.
The present investigation was undertaken to map the distribution of
some of these peat deposits and to investigate and report on the plant
and animal remains which they contain.
The following data have been obtained: —
(1) A coarse flint gravel underlies the peat in all the completed
sections, at depths varying from six feet to fifteen feet.
This gravel may mark an early type of infilling of the valley, but is
more probably part of a gravel terrace formed during Palfeolithic times
which has since been buried beneath the rising flood plain. There is at
present no certain clue as to its age.
(2) The peat is of the 'valley' type, i.e., it includes varying
amounts of fine silt and contains land and fresh-water shells. Tt is
* Proceedings Cnmbridge Philosophical Society, 1913, p. 2t>CK
266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
mixed and sometimes interstratified with a loose calcareous tufa which
seems to be of concretionary origin, the calcareous matter having
surrounded the decaying vegetation in a way suggestive of the action of
a ' petrifying ' spring.
This tufa is not associated with any special abundance of shells, but
seems to occur at a level in the peat to which saturation may rise in
winter, but below which it falls in dry weather. In one section the tufa
occurs mainly in a layer about two feet thick, separating the peat into
two distinct layers, which are slightly different in character and give
some indication of containing remains of a different fauna and flora.
(3) The following remains have been collected from the peat and
identified : —
Bones of wild boar, red deer, and beaver ; shells of numerous species
of land and fresh-water Gasteropods.
The remains of beaver were found in the lowest layer of peat,
twelve feet below the surface, and are of .some interest as suggesting
that beaver dams may have been a factor in the formation of local
deposits of peat.
Plant remains are abundant Init badly preserved. Tlie following
have been identified: —
Trunks and roots of Alnus and Betula; rhizomes of Phragmiles
and Eqidsetum sp. (locally very abundant); seeds of Menyanthes
trifoliata; Carex sp. ; Poientilla sp.
Many more borings and sections are requii-ed in order to map the
distribution, and to determine with certainty whether there were any
marked changes of flora during the formation of the peat. Owing to
the occurrence of the peat below the present river level and the w^et
winter and spring of 1912-1913, field work was impossible during the
greater part of this year.
The Committee therefore ask for reappointment for another year,
with a renewal of the grant of 15L made last year.
The Vegetation of Ditcliam Pari', Hampshire. — Interim Pieport
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. G. Tansley (Chair-
man), Mr. R. S. Adamson (Secretary), Dr. C. E. Moss, and
Professor R. H. Yapp, appointed for the investigation thereof.
Considerable progress has been made with the investigations. A
general survey has been made of the area, which consists of chalk,
partly covered with clays, in parti calcareous and in part leached. The
principal plant communities have been mapped. The following are the
most noticeable ones on the area : —
(i) On chalk. — Beech wood with and without Taxus. All stages
between heech wood and chalk scrub, passing through Taxus wood and
ash wood. The chalk scrub is partly retrogressive and partly progres-
sive. Chalk grassland, with transitions to scrub, either retrogressive or
progressive.
ON THE VEGETATION OF DITCHAM PARK, HAMPSHIRE. ^^267
Calcareous coppice, both with standards of beech and ash and
without.
(ii) On clays. — Coppiced woods, showing transition stages from cal-
careous coppice where the soil is thin to coppiced woods with good oak
standards and hazel or ash coppice, and many non-calcareous elements
in the vegetation, such as Pteridium and Holcus mollis.
Grassland on clay with local patches of heath grassland, and to a
very Hmited extent of heath.
Special attention has been paid to natural regeneration of beech
woods. Large quantities of fruit were produced in 1912, and the fate
of the seedlings is being watched and investigated.
Two areas where beech wood and chalk scrub adjoin chalk grassland
have been fenced in to exclude rabbits and are receiving special attention.
Very considerable differences are observable on the two sides of the
fence ; the most striking being the height of the pasture plants. Outside
the turf is cropped like a lawn, while inside, in June, there was a
luxuriant growth averaging 12 to 18 inches in height.
Of more experimental work special attention has been paid so far
to evaporation. A large series of evaporimeters has been established
in selected parts of the woods and readings taken regularly. Tempera-
ture and humidity (by wet and dry bulb thermometer) are also being
recorded along with the evaporation. Very considerable differences
of evaporation, accompanied by changes in the ground vegetation, have
been noted in beech woods at different levels of the chalk escarpment
and on the tops of the hills.
Prehminary investigations have also been carried out on the light
intensity and on the different soils, which will be pursued in more
detail in the immediate future.
Botanical Photographs. — Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor F. W. Oliver (Chairman) , Professor F. E. Weiss
(Secretary), Dr. W. G. Smith, Mr. A. G. Tansley, Dr.
T. W. WooDHEAD, and Professor E. H. Yapp, for the Registra-
tion of Negatives of Photographs of Botanical Interest.
Owing to the small demand made for the loan of negatives of
botanical interest, due, no doubt, to the large number of photographs
and lantern slides available from various dealers, the Committee con-
siders that it is unnecessary now to continue its labours. It recom-
mends that all prints of ecological interest should be handed to the
newly founded Ecological Society, and that all other prints should be
housed in the Botanical Department of the University of Manchester,
where they will continue to be available for further reference. It
considers, however, that the Committee might now be dissolved.
^Oy KEPORIS UN THE STATE OE SCIENCE. — igij.
Report ^ of tlic Committee, consisting of —
Dr. G. A. AuDEN {Chairman), Mr. G. F. Daniell
[Secretary), Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.
Eggar, Professor R.A.Gregory, Mr. N. Bishop
Harman, Mr. J. L. Holland, Professor Priest-
ley Smith, and Mr. W. T. H. Walsh, appointed
to Inquire into the Inflnence of School-books upon
Eyesight.
The Committee was appointed at Portsmouth in
igii, and from the beginning of its investigations
has had the advantage of the assistance of Dr. H.
Eason, Professor H. R. Kenwood, Mr. R. B.
Lattimer, Miss Brown Smith, and Dr. Louisa
Woodcock.
In view of the fact that Local Education
Authorities are able greatly to influence the selec-
tion of school-books, the Committee made an
inquiry, on which is based the section of this report
headed ' Present Practice of Local Education
Authorities.' At the request of the Committee
Dr. H. Eason, Mr. Bishop Harman, and Professor
Priestley Smith drew up the ' Oculist Sub-Com-
mittee's Report.' The typographical section of
the report has been revised since its original
presentation at Dundee, and to this portion
oculists, school medical officers, directors of
education, teachers, publishers, printers, and type-
founders have contributed. The Committee desires
to record its sense of obligation to the pioneer
work of J aval.
1 This report is a revision (involving substantial alterations) of tliat
presented by the Committee in 1912, and is printed from the type in
which the report of 1912 was set up, at the request 01 the Committee,
subsequently to its issue in the ordinary type used for the Annual Report
of the Association.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 2^19
The Present Practice of Local Education Authorities
in England and Wales.
In a Circular (No. 596) issued by the Board of
Education in 1908 the functions of the School
Medical Officer are defined. Under the heading
of ' Arrangements for attending to the health and
physical condition of school children ' it is stated
that he will advise the Local Education Authority
with reference to improvements of the school
arrangements. It is further stated in the Circular
that ' As regards cases of defective eyesight he will
indicate such measures as can be taken to remed}^
or mitigate the defects by altering the position of
the children in the class, or improving the lighting
of the school in amount or direction ; and he will
call attention to the strain imposed on eyesight by
the use of too small type in text-books, the teaching
of very fine sewing, &c.' There can be no doubt
that this suggested advice has in many cases led
to an improvement where certain school arrange-
ments have been prejudicial to vision ; but hitherto
it has not been possible to deal efiectively with the
provision of satisfactory school text-books.
A circular letter was sent to the Education
Authority of each county and county borough
stating the objects of the Committee, and asking
for information on the following points : —
(i) Whether the eyesight of the children in
the schools of the Authority is tested at
regular intervals ;
(2) Whether advice on the care of the children's
eyesight is given to school teachers ;
(3) Whether the teachers instruct the children
in the general care of eyesight ;
(4) W^hat regulations (if any) have been adopted
for the selection of school-books and
270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
atlases (including limits of price, size of
type, character of illustrations, weight, &c.),
wall maps, charts, and diagrams ;
(5) Whether any definite principles or rules
have been laid down by or for those who
select school-books for the Authority,
Replies were received from sixty Authorities, to
whom and their officers the Committee is much
indebted for the information supplied.
Under the system of medical inspection now
general in public elementary schools, in accordance
with the day-school code, the eyesight of children
of school age is tested at least twice during their
school life, the test being made, with few excep-
tions, by means of the well known test-cards. A
few Authorities in both counties and county
boroughs go further, and employ a competent
oculist, either part or full time, his duty being to
examine special cases and prescribe spectacles or
recommend that medical or operative treatment
be obtained. Some Authorities have arrangements
under which spectacles according to the prescription
of their oculist are supplied to the children at cost
price, which is comparatively low by reason of
special contracts. Arrangements are also made
for free provision of spectacles in case of need,
frequently with the aid of voluntary associations.
The school medical officers and ophthalmic
surgeons on the occasion of their visits give advice
to the teachers concerning the treatment of children
with defective sight. With one or two important
exceptions, however, it would seem that instruction
concerning proper and improper use of the eyes in
school-work has not been given to teachers. The
Committee is pleased to report that, under the
new regulations for the training of teachers,
hygiene, including testing of eyesight, is now a
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 27I
compulsory subject for the Board of Education
examination of training-college students.
We learn that it is not customary for teachers
to give the children special instruction concerning
the care of their eyes. It is stated in several
instances that teaching of this kind is given
incidentally in the course of the lessons on hygiene
which form part of the school curriculum ; but
nothing more is done, and what is done amounts
to very little.
Speaking generally, no definite principles or
rules as to printing and other conditions of legibility
have been adopted in the selection of school-books,
atlases, diagrams, &c. Two or three Authorities,
when drawing up their book-lists, have given
considerable attention to their possible effects on
eyesight, but without formulating any definite
rules. Several state that the committee or officers
responsible for the supervision of the book-supply
pay attention to the type, paper, &c. ; several, on
the other hand, inform us that the selection of
books, &c., is left to the teachers.
Summarising the evidence generally, it may
be said that whilst effective arrangements for
the detection of existing defects in the eyesight
of elementary school children are general and
arrangements for the supply of proper spectacles
at cheap rates are not uncommon, practically no
systematic attention is given to the influence of
school-books upon eyesight.
The replies lead us to believe that the report
of the Committee will have attention from Local
Education Authorities.
Report of the Oculist Siib-Coininittcc.
The eye of the child is a growing eye. It is
immature both in structure and in function. At
272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OE SCIENCE. — I9I3.
birth the eye has a volume equal to about half
that of the full-grown eye ; the materials of v/hich
it is built are comparatively soft and yielding ; the
functional power of the visual apparatus is merely
a perception of light. By growth and develop-
ment, rapid at first, slower later on, the eye tends
progressively to acquire the dimensions and the
powers of the normal completed organ.
Nutrition by healthy blood, and the natural
stimulus of voluntary use, are essential to this
process. We know by experience that in early
infancy disease may arrest the growth of the eye,
and that suspension of use, as when a serious
ophthalmia prevents an infant for many weeks from
attempting to use its eyes, may check functional
development to an extent which cannot after-
wards be made good. On the other hand, exces-
sive efforts, due to unnatural demands on the
eyesight, are apt to be injurious in the opposite
direction. Unfortunately there is evidence to show
that the demand made on the eyesight of school
children is not infrequently excessive.
At the age when school life begins the visual
apparatus is still immature. The orbits, the eyes
themselves, and the muscles and nerves which move
them, have still to increase considerably in size..
The various brain-structures concerned in vision
have not only to grow but to become more complex.
The intricate co-ordinating mechanism which
later will enable the eyes, brain, and hand to work
together with minute precision is awaiting develop-
ment by training. The refraction of the eyes is
not yet fixed. It is usually more or less hyper-
metropic, with a tendency to change in the direction
of normal sight ; in other words, it has not reached
the ideal condition in which the eyes see distant
objects without accommodative effort, but is tend-
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 273
ing towards it. In short, the whole visual apparatus
is still unfinished, and is therefore more liable than
at a later age to injury by over-use.
Over-use of the eyes is chiefly to be feared in
such occupations as reading, writing, and sewing,
not in viewing distant objects. During near work
the head is usually bent forward, and the blood-
vessels of the eyes tend to become fuller ; the
focus of the eyes is shortened by a muscular effort
which alters the form of the crystalline lens ; the
visual axes, which in distant vision are nearlv
parallel, are held in a position of convergence,
and if the work be reading, they are also moved
continuously from side to side. It is near work,
therefore, that makes the greatest demand upon
the eyes, and the nearer the work the greater the
strain. Moreover it is chiefly in near work that
continuous mental effort is required.
Children who do too much close eye-work
suffer in various ways. Some simply from fatigue^
showing itself by inattention, mental weariness,
temporary dimness of sight, or aching of the eyes
and head. Some from congestion of the eyes, as
shown by redness, watering, and frequent blinking.
A certain number, in circumstances which pre-
dispose them to the disorder, develop strabismus, or
squint. Some others — and these cases are perhaps
the most important of all — develop progressive
myopia.
Myopia, or short sight, commonly depends on
undue elongation of the eyeball. It is never, or
hardly ever, present at birth. It is rare at five
years of age. It usually begins during school life,
and increases more or less from year to year during
the period of growth. It sometimes continues to
increase after growth is completed. It is not
necessarily, or always, associated with over-use of
191J. 1
274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — igi3.
the eyes, either in school or elsewhere, for we see
it arise after illness, we meet with it in illiterates,
and we know that the predisposition to it is strongly
hereditary. But it is everywhere most frequent
among the most studious, and there is a mass of
evidence to show that it depends very largely,
both in its origin and in its progress, on over-use
of the eyes in near work.
A moderate myopia which does not increase
may be regarded as an innocent, though somewhat
inconvenient, over-development of the eye. A
high myopia usually involves serious stretching
and thinning of the coats of the eye, and a liability
to further trouble. A high myopia in a child is a
very grave condition, for further deterioration
always follows. In connection with myopia alone,
to say nothing of other eye defects, the question of
school-work in relation to eyesight deserves more
attention than it has hitherto received.
The subject has many sides : the lighting of
school-rooms, the arrangement of the desks, the
design and proportion of individual desks, the
attitudes of the scholars, the amount of work
required, are all factors of importance ; but they
cannot be considered here. Our present effort is
directed to the standardising of school-books, a
very important step in the desired direction.
Small print leads the young scholar to look too
closely at his book. He is not yet familiar with
the forms of the words, and ]his attention is not
easily secured unless he has retinal images larger
than those which satisfy the trained reader. To
obtain these larger images he brings the book too
near to his eyes, or his eyes too near the book, and
this, for the reasons already given, is apt to be
injurious. Hence the importance of establishing
certain standards of legibility for school-books.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 275
having regard to the ages of the scholars who are
required to use them, and of employing only such
books as reach these standards.
The importance of the matter becomes still
more evident when we remember that, according to
recent medical inspection, at least lo per cent, of
the children in our elementary schools have serious
defects of vision, and about 20 per cent, errors of
refraction, and see less easily and clearly, even
when provided with proper glasses, than do normal-
sighted children.
At what age should children begin to read from
books ? From the hygienic point of view the later
the better, and there is reason to believe that little,
if anything, is lost educationally by postponing the
use of books in school until the age of seven at
earliest. Beginners may learn to read from wall-
charts ; and in the general instruction of young
children, teaching by word of mouth, with the help of
black-boards, large-printed wall-sheets, pictures, and
other objects which are easily seen at a distance, is
preferable from the medical standpoint, for it has the
great advantage of involving no strain on the eyes.
Hygienic Requiremetits with which School-books should
conform.
The Committee desires to acknowledge the
helpful advice received from Mr. J. H. Mason, Mr.
R. J. Davies, Mr. F. J. Hall, Mr. H. Fitzhenry, and
Mr. F. Killick in connection with the technical and
trade aspects of this section of its report ; also to
thank Messrs. Caslon & Co., the Chiswick Press,
John Haddon & Co., the Imprint Publishing Co.,
Miller & Richard, Shanks & Sons, Stephenson,
Blake & Co., R. H. Stevens & Co., for the loan
of specimen books, types, and printing papers.
T 2
276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — I0T3-
The factors which have been taken into con-
sideration are : (i) The nature of the psychological
process involved in reading ; (2) the quality of the
workmanship employed in book-production ; (3) the
quality of the paper on which text and illustrations
are printed ; (3a) the mode of binding books ;
(4) the character of the illustrations and the pro-
cess employed for their reproduction ; (5) the colour
and quality of the ink used in printing the text ;
(6) the mode of printing ; (7) the character of the
type ; (8) the size of the type faces and their
vertical and horizontal separation ; (9) the length
of the lines ; (10 to 18) particular requirements
of special subjects.
1. The psychology of the reading process. — The
special consideration to be here noted is that the
printing should be such as will facilitate the main
aim of reading — viz. the getting of the meaning of
what is read. The trained reader generally recog-
nises whole words and phrases at a glance. It is
therefore important that the process of beginners
should be made as easy as possible towards the re-
cognition of word-wholes and phrase-wholes by the
use of type suitable in character and judiciousl)-
spaced. The best type for isolated letters is not
necessarily the best for word-wholes, and attention
must be given to the comparative legibility of
letters as seen in context.
2. Workmanship. — It frequently happens that
much of the good effect of well-selected type, paper,
&c., is neutralised by inefficient workmanship. In
all the recommendations which follow, good work-
manship will be assumed.
3. Paper. — The paper should be without gloss.
Glazed paper is trying to the eyes by reason of
reflections which are apt to interfere with binocular
ON THE IfJFLUENCE Of SCHOOL-BOOKS LTPON EYESIGHT. 277
Vision. Pure white paper gives the greatest con-
trast with the ink, and therefore a paper which is
white or slightly toned towards cream-colour is to
be preferred under average conditions of class-room
illumination. A hard-wearing paper of suitable
quality should be used, as a soft paper has two
defects — (i) it is readily soiled, (2) the surface is
easily rubbed off and the detritus is injurious.
The surface should be fairly smooth, because a
rough-surfaced paper necessitates a heavy im-
pression in order that the unbroken surface of
each letter may appear, which impression is liable
to cause a still rougher surface on the other side
of the sheet. The print of one side must not
show through from the other, and the printing
must not affect the evenness of the surface of the
other side. These rules also apply to illustrations,
which afford a good test of the opacity of the
paper. Books are occasionally bound and pressed
before the ink is dried, and a faint impression of
the opposite sheets causes a haze. Copies with
this defect should be rejected.
3a. Mode of binding books. — Books should be
stitched with thread. Books should open flat and
should not require the restraint of the hand to keep
them so ; stabbing or clipping should therefore
be avoided. If not flat, the convex surface of
the page gives rise to eye-strain. On recent tests
of a large number of school-books Mr. Bishop
Harman reports that certain small books with very
good paper and type could not be passed as
satisfactory because they were clipped from side to
side with wire staples. The books could not be
opened flat ; the back margin was lost and some-
times even the print near the back. The excessive
handling needed to keep such books open would
soon cause the pages to be soiled. Even in the
278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
better samples of wire-stabbed and thread-stabbed
work the margin was reduced.
4. Illustrations include (i) pictures for young
readers, (2) diagrams and sketches, and (3) photo-
graphic reproductions involving considerable
elaboration of detail. For (i) it is important to
recollect that children are only confused by elabo-
rate or complex pictures. Bold, firm treatment
of a few objects is appropriate alike to their
visual powers and to their understanding. From
this point of view line blocks from pen-and-ink
drawings are preferable to half-tone blocks from
photographs or from wash-drawings. The pictures
should be of a good size, and the printed text
should not extend in narrow lines at the side. In
the case of (2) diagrams, it is important that the
lettering should not be too small to be easily read.
(3) For the older scholars it is sometimes necessary
to provide illustrations exhibiting details with the
precision most readily obtainable by photography.
For the sake of obtaining effective illustrations by
the half-tone method, use is frequently made of
highly glazed paper. Whenever this is done it is
important that such paper should be used for illus-
trations only, and not for the text. By the use of
recent methods it is possible to secure half-tone
prints with good rendering of detail on matt paper.
Blurred photographs not only fail to instruct;
they tend to injure eyesight.
5. Ink. — The ink should be a good black, and
it is important to secure a proper, sufficient, and
even distribution of it over the whole page. The
use of coloured inks for reading matter is strongly
to be deprecated, especially the use of more than
one colour on a page.
6. Mode of printing. — It is important that types
should be in true alignment along the base line.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 279
The practice of printing from stereos produces
quite satisfactory results, provided that the stereo
is carefully made from new or little-worn type. A
slight thickening of all the lines results from stereo-
typing, but this in no way detracts from legibility.
Stereos should not be used when they begin to show
signs of wear. The ordinary text of school-books
which are intended for continuous reading should
not be printed in double columns,
7. Character of type.^ — The type should be
clean-cut and well-defined. Condensed or com-
pressed type should not be used, as breadth is even
more important than height. The contrast between
the finer and the heavier strokes should not be great,
for hair-strokes are difficult to see. On the other
hand, a very heavy-faced type suffers in legibility
through diminution of the white inter-spaces, as, for
example, when the space in the upper half of the e
is reduced to a white dot. In an ideal type the
whites and blacks are well balanced in each letter,
and it is eas)^ to discriminate between e, c, and o^
between /and /, and between h and j5r; and to recog-
nise m, nn, nu^ nv, w, in. The general form of the
letters should be broad and square rather than
elongated vertically ; thus the letter o should
approach the circular shape. Legibility is not in-
creased by adding to the height of a letter without
adding to its width. There should be a lateral
shoulder on every type so that each letter is distinct.
Long serifs should be avoided, and any extension
sideways which forms or suggests a continuous line
along the top or bottom is detrimental.
The upper half of a word or letter is usually
more important for perception than is the lower
half, because the upper half of most letters has a
more distinctive shape than the lower. In some
' For explanation of technical terms, see Appendix.
2^0 REPORTS ON TfIR STATE OF SCIENCE. — I9I3.
recent type-faces the designers have accordingly
shortened the letters below the line, and lengthened
those above— thus the p is shortened and the h
lengthened, at the same time the upper parts of
the r have been raised. It is too early to pass
judgment on the results, and more experiment is
desirable.
With reference to the question of ' modern-
face ' versus ' old-face ' design for type, the
Committee is not prepared to advise the use of
either to the exclusion of the other, good and bad
varieties of both styles being at present in use.
Great contrast between the thick and thin strokes
is a serious defect which often appears in ' modern
face.' It is claimed for the * modern face ' that the
letters are more legible, and it may be conceded that
failure to provide the minimum height of the short
letters is more frequent in ' old face.' Hence the
letters of the ' modern face ' are sometimes more
legible in the case of sizes below twelve-point.
The advocates of the ' old face ' contend that the
' modern face ' letters remain isolated, whereas the
letters of the ' old face ' flow more naturally into
words ; thus the form of the word and its meaning
are apprehended smoothly. It is also claimed
that the basic design of the ' old face ' is of higher
aesthetic merit. The Committee insists on the
importance of the minimum height and breadth
for the small letters {vide columns 2 and 3 of the
table), and if this be secured leaves the decision
between the ' modern face ' and ' old face ' to
individual judgment helped by the criteria provided
in various paragraphs of this report.
Italics, being less easy to read than ordinary
type of the same size, should be used sparingl5\
8. The size of type-faces and their vertical and
horizontal separation. — The size of the type-face is
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 281
the most important factor in the influence of
books upon vision. LegibiHty depends mainly on
the height and breadth of the short letters, for the
larger the type the further from the eyes can it be
read with ease, and it is of the first importance to
induce the yoang reader to keep a sufficient
distance between eyes and book. Children under
seven years old should be able to lean back in
their seats and read from the book propped up on
the far side of the desk. (As a rule books should
not be too large or heavy to be held in the hand.)
The appended typographical table shows the
minimum requirements, in the opinion of the
Committee, for the various ages given ; the
dimensions are given in a form which can be
understood and utilised by readers unacquainted
with the technical terms used by printers.
The sizes and spacing of the type suggested
for age eight to nine years may be adopted for
older readers.
The column giving the minimum length of the
alphabet of the small letters {i.e., not capitals)
Standard Typographical
Table.
Age of
Reader
Minimum
Height of
Face of Short
Letters
Minimum
Length of
Alphabet of
Small Letters
Minimum
Interlinear
Space
Maximum
No. of Lines
per Vertical
100 mm.
or 4 inches
Maximum
Length
or Measure of
Line
Under 7 yrs.
7 to 8 yrs. .
8 to 9 yrs. .
9 to 12 yrs. .
Over 12 yrs.
35 mm.
25 mm.
20 mm.
r-S mm.
1-58 mm.
or ^ inch.
96 mm.
72 mm.
55 mm.
50 mm.
47 mm.
6-5 mm.
4-0 mm.
2-9 mm.
24 mm.
2*2 mm.
10
15
20
24
100 mm.
or 4 in,
93 mm.
or 3§ in.
93 mm.
or 35 in.
93 mm.
or 3g in.
I inch = 25.4 mm.
Specimens of printed matter conforming with the above
table will be found in a Supplement.
282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
affords a measure of the breadth of the types.
Strictly speaking, this cannot be measured b}^ the
reader of a book. A sufficiently good estimate
can be made when it is recollected that there are
twenty-six letters in the alphabet, and accordingly
a word of thirteen letters should not fall short, to
a material extent, of half the lengths stated in the
third column. A rough rule may be given thus :
The number of letters per running inch or 25 mm.
should not on the average exceed —
6 or 7 letters for readers under 7 years.
8 or 9 ,, ,, from 7 to 8 ,,
II or 12 ,, ,, ,, 8 to 9 ,,
13 .. » ,. 9 to 12 „
13 or 14 „ „ over 12 „
By ' interlinear space ' is meant the vertical
distance between the bottom of a short letter and
the top of a short letter in the next line below.
This space between the lines should vary in
proportion to the size of the type. Too little
space is a source of fatigue in reading, for it
involves difficulty in passing from the end of a line
to the beginning of the line below. Very wide space,
on the other hand, has no advantage as regards
legibility, and involves waste of paper and unde-
sirable increase in the size of the book. Columns
4 and 5 of the table indicate a suitable proportion.
9. The length of the line is important in a school-
book intended for continuous reading. Other
things being equal, the longer the line the greater
the excursions of the eyes and the greater the
difficulty in passing from one line to the next.
Very short lines, on the other hand, demand too
frequent a change of direction in the movement of
the eyes. The use of lines longer than the
maxima given in the last column of the table is
sure to cause fatigue to a considerable proportion
of readers.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 283
Approximate uniformity in length is desirable ;
but not absolute uniformity. It is doubtful
whether the power of fairly rapid intelligent reading
can be attained without the unconscious perform-
ance of the swing from near the end of each line
to near the beginning of the next. This swing
may be compared with the motion of an oarsman's
body between the strokes. An occasional slight
indentation in the lines helps the reader ; but large
ones, if frequent, hinder the acquisition of a good
habit of swing. Children of eight years old should
not have their reading confined to very short
paragraphs, as the habit of swing has been found
well established in good readers of between nine
and eleven years of age. In other words, these
readers made the necessary eye-movements with-
out conscious effort and with great regularity.
Unusual separation of letters should be
avoided. For beginners, lines should not end in
the middle of a word ; the whole word should be
carried to the next line and not be hyphened.
The admission in the table of a four-inch line for
the large type is a concession intended to meet the
difficulty of securing an even set of the letters in a
line of shorter measure.
Good margins are restful to the eye, and are
well worth their slight cost. As a rule the margin
at the top or ' head ' of a page should be less than
that at the bottom or ' tail ' ; less on the inner
side or 'back' than on the outer or 'fore-edge.'
So many influences, including optical illusions,
have to be considered in determining the proportion
of margin that it is not thought desirable to propose
formulae for the purpose. It should be considered
a defect in a school-book if the width of fore-edge
is less than half an inch, or of back-edge less than
three-eighths of an inch, at any page of the book.
284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Particular Requirements of special Subjects :
10. Bibles, Prayer-books, and Hymn-books. — It is
to be regretted that these books are so frequently-
printed in type which is injurious on account of its
small size. It is desirable that the standard given in
the table should not be lowered with respect to these
important books, which are frequently used under
poor conditions as regards illumination. The fact
must be faced that the Bible contains more matter
than can be squeezed into a volume of a size
which can be handled by children. It is desirable
that one or more volumes should be issued, con-
taining those parts of the Bible which are used in
schools. When it is considered desirable to place
the complete Bible in the hands of older pupils, this
should be in parts or fascicules. The public
demand for handy Prayer-books has led to the use
of compressed type and of thin paper which is
liable to show the print through. Children should
not read bijou editions of Bible, Prayer-book, or
Hymn-book.
loa. Poetry. — As it is occasionally impossible
to set poetry satisfactorily in type of the size given
for under seven years, except on a large page, a height
of face not less than 3 mm., with length of alphabet
not less than 84 mm. may be allowed in these cases.
11. Books for Evening Work. — The unfavourable
conditions resulting from artificial illumination and
fatigue of the learners make it highly desirable
that the rules ' from age twelve ' should be main-
tained for books to be used for home-work or for
evening continuation classes.
12. Exercises^ Sets of Examples, and Questions. —
These are important parts of a school-book,
and the rules for the printing of them should on
no account be less stringent than those applied to
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 285
the rest of the book. The same rules should be
applied to test-cards. The use of hektographing
or other multiplying processes is increasing in
schools. Care should be taken to secure clear and
legible copies.
13. The Types for Mathematical Symbols, includ-
ing those used for Algebra, should correspond
with, or be larger than, the sizes of type recom-
mended for the various ages. It is important that
the smaller symbols should not be too fine. For
children under twelve years no fractions should be
employed less than 4 mm. in height of face; thus
in I the distance from the top of the 3 to the
bottom of the 4 should not be less than 4 mm.
For pupils over twelve the minimum face height
for fractions should be 3*5 mm. There should be
a clear interval between the figures and the
separating line. It should be easy to discriminate
between the numerals 3, 6, 8 and g.
14. Squared Paper. — Use of squared paper
should be restricted to work for which it is really
required. If this be done, and paper with rulings
not less than one-tenth inch apart be used, there
will be little danger to vision. The use of milli-
metre paper should be restricted to students over
fourteen, and it should only be used by them in a
good light — on exceptional occasions.
15. Atlases. — It does not appear possible to
avoid some use in atlases of type which is below
the desirable standard of size, and the care which
should be exercised by teachers in regard to the
children's eyesight needs to be specially emphasised
in this connection. Their use should be avoided
when the illumination is below normal — the less they
are used for home-work the better. Location by
reference lines should be taught from the besfin-
286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — I9I3.
ning, and children should not be allowed to hunt
for a name in an undirected fashion, as they may
thus have to read fifty names in finding the one
sought. Atlases intended for use by children under
nine should have no type smaller than ten-point,
with minimum height of i'6 mm. or one sixteenth
inch for the short letters. No school atlas should
be printed with type smaller than eight-point, with
minimum height of i"2 mm. for the short letters.
The type should be extended ; italics should not
be used more than is necessary, and should not
have fine hair-lines.
It is not necessary that every map should be
coloured. (It has already been pointed out that
colour decreases legibility.) In the case of
beginners, the colour helps the appreciation of area ;
but for this purpose the colouring should be pale,
and few names inserted. For the pourtrayal of
relief, the practice of block-shading the contours is
better than heavy black hill-shading by hachures.
Maps should be duplicated where it is necessary
{e.g., Switzerland) to exhibit great variation of
contour together with several place-names. In
general it is better to multiply maps than to put
much detail into one.
If a system of inserting the names of every
town of a certain population be adopted, the
result is certain to be overcrowding of those
portions of the maps which represent highly-
populated countries. It would be better to avoid
this overcrowding, even at some sacrifice of system-
atic uniformity. Modern methods in the teaching
of geography are reducing the hunting for place-
names, and thereby diminishing eye-strain. This
advantage will be more general when the supply
of orographical maps to public elementary schools
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 287
is increased. The reading of Ordnance Survey
sheets by the older pupils is not objected to,
provided they are used in good daylight.
16. Music. — For the tonic sol-fa notation the
minimum height of the short letters should be
(a) for music, 2 mm. ; (6) for words, 1-5 mm. Stafl
music is often produced by lithography, in which
all gradations of size and shape are possible. Care
in printing is needed, so as to secure well-defined
stave-lines and tails. Advantage should be taken
of the elasticity in the length assigned to different
bars in the lithographed music, so as to avoid
compression of complicated passages. For begin-
ners music of the size of the ' Giant Note ' is
recommended. For others, the stave-lines should
not be less than 175 mm. apart, or the four spaces
should measure not less than 7 mm. The ruled
paper for music-writing should have lines not less
than 2 mm. apart.
17. Greek. — Greek type is troublesome to
beginners by reason of its unfamiliarity and of the
difficulty of synthetising accents and letters into
word-wholes. Type which has a line of uniform
thickness affords easy discrimination of individual
letters, and is legible in mathematical formulae,
even when small sizes are used. The variety of
Greek type which employs fine hair-lines should
be entirely abandoned. For reading, it is recom-
mended that no type smaller than twelve-point be
used for beginners, or eleven-point for experienced
readers.
18. German. — The older styles of German type
are not easily legible, partly on account of the ill-
placed hair-lines at the top of the letters. Recent
forms of the black letter used in German books
are improved in this respect ; but since Roman
288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — I9I3.
type is being used largely even for literary works in
Germany, the use of the less legible German types
may be reduced in our schools with some gain to
the security of eyesight.
Conclusion.
The Committee observes in conclusion that : —
(i) The existence of a very serious amount of
visual defect among children of school age is
established as a result of official inspection. Some
portion of this defect is preventable by greater care
in the selection of books.
(2) It is desirable that a standard of book-
production should be established, and that the
publication of books below standard should cease.
(3) It appears possible that the adoption by
local education authorities of a common standard
would render unprofitable the publication of books
which failed to reach such standard.
(4) It is hoped that this report may assist the
responsible authorities in the work of determining
the standard of book-production requisite for the
protection of the eyesight of children so far as it is
influenced by the books which the children are
compelled to read in school.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT, 289
APPENDIX.
Notes on Technical Terms used in this Report.
Type-body, type-face, lateral shoulder, large-face. —
The letters are cast on a ' type-body ' ; the part of
the type which actually leaves its impress is the
' face.' When the face is nearly as large as the
body will carry, the type is ' large face.' The
space on the upper surface of the body on each side
of the face is the lateral ' shoulder.' x\ll one reads
is the impress of the faces of the type.
Sei'if. — A type in which each letter had only its
bare necessary features would be 'without serif,'
the serifs being the terminals of the letters. If of
proper design, the serifs guide the eye from letter
to letter and give a balanced effect. In some styles
the serifs take the form of purposeless ornament,
which is undesirable in books which are intended
for continuous reading.
In condensed or compressed type the bodies are
narrow, so that the letters are narrow and close
together. Column 3 of the typographical table
excludes such type.
Old face and modern face refer to styles of type.
In the specimens in the Supplement the faults of
the more extreme varieties of each have been
avoided.
Heavy type, heavy fractions refer to type of which
the lines are thick.
Point is a unit of measurement. Unfortunately
manufacturers do not agree precisely as to the size
of ' point ' which they use. Approximately one
point=i/72 of an inch. Thus an eighteen-point
type has a body one- quarter inch high. The face
may be of any size smaller than the body.
i'Jill. u
290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
Solid and leaded. — If the types of consecutive
lines are set with no vertical interval between the
bodies, the type is * solid.' When there is a vertical
interval, say of a thirty-sixth of an inch, the type is
' two-point leaded.' A large face type of ten-point
body with two-point leading will produce about the
same vertical space between the short letters as a
small-face type of twelve-point body printed solid.
An indentation occurs in a line where the print
does not extend to the same length as in neigh-
bouring lines, e.g., the first line of this paragraph.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 29I
SUPPLEMENT
SPECIMENS OF TYPE.
The Committee draws attention to the fact that
there is considerable variation in the size of the
faces of the various types coming under the same
rating in point body, or bearing the same trade
description. The following specimens are inserted
for the purpose of illustrating the dimensional rules
proposed by the Committee in the Standard Table
(p. 281). The Committee does not undertake to
recommend these or other individual designs of type.
For the purpose of testing books reference
should be made to the Standard Table, as in several
instances the specimens exceed the minimum
requirements.
v2
292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — IQTJ.
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ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESlGHr. 293
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29t REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — I9I3.
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ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT, 295
NO. 4. AGE SEVEN TO EIGHT
This type may be used for books
to be read by children from seven
to eight years old. The letters are
larger than the minimum given in
the typographical table. Printed
from Eighteen Point Old Style
Antique.
No. 5. AGE SEVEN TO EIGHT
This type may be used for books
to be read by children from seven
to eight years old. The letters are
larger than the minimum given
in a typographical table. Printed
from Eighteen Point Old Style,
with 2 point Leading.
296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
No. 6.^ AGE SEVEN TO EIGHT
This type may be used for books to be
read by children from seven to eight
years old. The letters are slightly larger
than the minimum given in the typo-
graphical table. Printed from Old Style
Great Primer with 3 point Leading.
No. 7.* AGE EIGHT TO NINE
This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly larger
than the smallest given in the typographical
table. Printed from Fourteen Point Old Style
with 2 point Leading.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 2()']
No. 8. AGE EIGHT TO NINE.
This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly larger
than the smallest given in the typographical
table. Printed from Twelve Point Modern,
with 2 point Leading.
No. 8.* AGE EIGHT TO NINE.
This type is suitable in size for books to be
read by children from eight to nine years old.
The size of the letters is slightly larger than
the smallest given in the typographical table.
Printed from Twelve Point Antique Old Style
with 3 point Leading.
No. 9. AGE EIGHT TO NINE.
This type is suitable in size for books to
be read by children from eight to nine years
old. The size of the letters is slightly
larger than the smallest given in the
typographical table. Printed from Twelve
Point Old Style Antique, No. 7, with 2 point
Leading.
298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
No. 10. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books intended
for readers over nine years old. The size of the
letters is slightly larger than the smallest given
in the typographical table. Printed from Eleven
Point Modern, with 2 point Leading.
No. 11. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books Intended for
readers over nine years old. The size of the
letters is equal to the minimum g-Iven in the typo-
graphical table. Printed from 12 Point Old Style,
with I Point leading.
No. 12. AGE NINE TO TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books intended for
readers over nine years old. The size of the letters
is equal to the minimum given in the typographical
table. Printed from 12 Point Old, with 1 Point
leading.
ON THE INFLUENCE OF SCHOOL-BOOKS UPON EYESIGHT. 299
No. 13. OVER TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the smallest dimen-
sions given in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten Point Modern, with 2 point Leading.
No. 14. OVER TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the dimensions
given in the typographical table. Printed from ii
Point Old Style, with i Point leading.
No. 15.* OVER TWELVE,
This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in conformity with the smallest dimen-
sions given in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten point Antique Old Style, with 2 point Leading.
No. 16.* OVER TWELVE.
This type is suitable in size for books intended for
practised readers over twelve years old. The size of
the letters is in agreement with the requirements
specified in the typographical table. Printed from
Ten Point Old Style Antique, No. 7, with 2 Point
Leading."
300 UliPOKTS OX THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — lylj.
12 POINT CREEK.
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TONIC SOL-FA MUSIC.
(The smallest size suitable for school use.)
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Sleep on till j day,
OunANISATION OL^ INlJlTSTRTAL AND POOR-LAW SCHOOLS, 301
The Curricula and Educational Organisation of Industrial and
Poor-Law Schools.— Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. W. D. Eggae (Chairman), Mrs. W. N. Shaw (Secre-
tary), Professor E. A. Gregoey, Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr.
C. W. KiMMiNS, and Mr. J. G. Legge, appointed to inquire
thereinto, with special reference to Day Industrial Schools.
In furtherance of the Committee's recommendation copies of their
Report of 1912 were sent (by order of the Sectional Committee) to the
Board of Education, the Home Office, and the Local Government Board.
Tlie Committee were reappointed to watch for provision being made for
' adequate reports upon all educational work and training either to
central or local authorities.' In the event of no such provision bein"
made the Committee were authorised to arrange for a discussion to
elicit public opinion on the matter.
In a speech in the House of Commons on July 22 (reported in ' The
Times, ' -July 2.3) the President of the Board of Education asked : ' Would
the Iloiise believe him when ho said that it was not possible for him,
as Minister of Education, to say how many Secondary Schools there
were in this country, or what they were doing? There might be 10,000
or 15,000; he could not say hecmLse he had not the right to aslc' The
President might have included in this question Elementary as well as
Secondary Schools.
He went on : ' They told him that in the County of Middlesex there
were perhaps several hundreds of schools outside the purview of the
Board of Education altogether.' The British Association Report of
last year shows that this is undoubtedly true of many institutional
schools throughout the country. To quote the President further, ' The
State, having made education compulsory, ought, however, to be in a
position to give parents some guarantee that the education which their
children received was not positively harmful to their minds or bodies.'
To meet this state of things the Government would propose next
session ' that there should be power to make a comprehensive sun^ey of
educational institutions of every kind.' 'The Board of Education
would take power to decide what was and what was not education. '
Any survey of schools presupposes a knowledge of the existence
of the schools. It would not appear possible to obtain this knowledge
without the co-operation of the schools themselves. There are at
present no lists of schools which are complete for either elementally or
secondary education. What is required is power to obtain complete
lists.
The Committee have therefore airanged for a discussion on the
' compulsory registration of all schools, public or private, and of all
institutions giving instruction, technical or general, with the qualifica-
tions of the teachers.'
The Committee have considered the question of registration with a
local or central authority. The Board of Education appears to be in the
first_ instance the appropriate authoi-ity. As a Government department
dealing expressly with educational organisation and requirements for
the whole country it would appear that the primaiy need of such a
302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
department is complete knowledge of existing educational facilities, and
the Committee therefore desire to ascertain the views of representatives
of various classes of schools on the question.
In the discussion it is expected that papers will be read by the Eight
Eeverend Bishop Welldon, Dean of Manchester, the Eight Eeverend
Bishop Mclntyre, Eoman Catholic Bishop of Binningham, and Mrs.
Sophie Bryant, D.Sc.
The discussion will be continued by speakers representing girls'
private boarding-schools, waifs and strays schools, and others.
Mental and Physical Factors involved in Education. — Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor J. J. Findlay (Chair-
man), Professor J. A. Green (Secretary), Professor J.
Adams, Dr. G. A. Auden, Sir Edward Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Professor E. P. Culverwell, Mr. G. F. Daniell,
Miss B. FoxLEY, Professor E. A. Gregory, Dr. C. W.
KiMMiNS, Professor McDougall, Drs. C. S. Myers, T. P.
NuKN, W. H. E. EivERS, and F. C. Shrubsall, Mr. H.
Bompas Smith, Professor C. Spearman, Mr. A. E. Twenty-
man, and Dr. F. Warner, appointed to inquire into and report
upon the methods and results of research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in Education.
The Committee has been concerned with the problem of the
Psychology of Spelling with a view to the establishment of sound
methods of teaching. In pursuit of this end researches were instituted
under the guidance of Dr. Myei-s at Cambridge and Professor Findlay
at Manchester. The reports of these researches are given below. The
conclusions they embody have not, however, been accepted by the
Committee. They are submitted for discussion with the further hope
of stimulating additional research.
The thanks of the Committee are due to Miss Fairhurst and Miss
Suddards for the work they so kindly undertook. The Committee
desires to be reappointed.
1. Psychological Analysis and Educational Mclhod in Spelling.
By Miss Susie S. Fairhurst.
Spelling, as the reproduction of the constituent parts of a word-
whole, in speech or writing, involves a mechanism somewhat different
from that of reading, which is recognition of the word- whole. The
desideratum of teaching method is that it should involve the least
possible expenditure of time and energy in the production of efficiency
in spelling. A study of the actual processes involved, in children and
adults, is obviously of first importance.
In the total word-complex there are the visual and writing-motor
elements forming the written symbol, and the auditory and speech-
motor elements of the spoken symbol. The visual and auditory
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION. 303
elements may be either perception or imagery; the motor elements
either actual movement or imageiy. The writing-motor adjustment is
less highly specialised, more artificial, and more lately acquired than
the motor processes of speech. It is probable that its imagery does
not pass over so readily or so definitely into actual movement. The
impulse to image or actually to experience the writing movement on
hearing a word is much more controllable than the tendency to articu-
late on seeing it. The visual form of each letter carries a qualification
due to the tactual and muscular experiences of writing it; but those
experiences are not nearly so important for the comprehension of the
visual form of a new word as are the speech-motor elements. They
are probably more important with children than with adults. Writing
movements do not appear to act as an independent medium of memory,
as the speech movements may do; they rarely enter as a conscious
factor into recall, and, when present, are so as a qualification of the
visual memory. The intrinsic value of the writing memory appears
greater than it strictly is by virtue of the extra aids it affords to
visualism, to attention, and to the fusion of the visual and auditory
elements.
Articulation of syllables is usually introduced into any method of
learning. The visual form does not become a ' word ' until it is pro-
nounced, either aloud or internally. The tendency to pronounce on
seeing the word is almost universally irresistible and essential to learn-
ing, whatever the imaginal type of the observer. Anthropological con-
siderations throw some light on this tact — spoken language precedes
written.
The unit of spelling is usually the syllable — the syllable finds direct
expression as one whole, even in spelling by speech. And the syllable
is primarily a speech-unit; the letters are gi'ouped by sound-synthesis,
the visual form often showing syllabic grouping in correspondence.
There is visual synthesis of the general form of the word, as a visual
picture, apart from its sound-value, but the synthesis of syllabic group-
ing is determined by and follows on articulation. With a perfectly
familiar word, the articulatory syllable simply ' is ' the visual form —
the fusion is complete. As regards the correspondence of visual and
auditory constituents, the English language is in a peculiar position.
The visual word- whole contains its parts, the letters unchanged. The
auditory-motor whole is a very different thing from the sum-total of
the sound values of the letters (apart from letter-names) ; some of
them are not represented at all, and many are quite changed in value.
The auditory constituents of a word are strictly not the letters, but
phonetic units. A complicated and highly variable system of corre-
spondences between the spoken and written letters thus occurs. This
increases the strain on mechanical memoiy — a separate memory for
almost eveiy word being necessaiy.
Articulation of the letters Is thus no direct aid to the spelling
memory and a wasteful method of learning. Drill of some forai is,
however, essential to spelling efiiciency, since the spelling process is in
the nature of a habit, and efiiciency means a habit so fixed as to be
almost unconscious. Articulation of the syllables simultaneously with
304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. — 1913.
the wriluig of the word is probably the best method of learning — it
introduces every essential element, visual, auditory, and motor; by
producing the visual elements in succession it aids the exact analysis
of the speech-whole, it helps the synthesis of the visual elements in
accordance with the articulatory units, and therefore the fusion of the
written and spoken symbols.
The experiments on wliicii these conclusions are based will be
described at the meeting.
2. An Invesligaiion into Spelling at the Fielden Demonstraiion ScJiOol.
By Miss Ida Suddaeds (in collaboration with other members of
the staff, Miss Mitchell and Miss Matthias).
Pakt I. — Tlie Problem.
(a) Spelling is the reproduction from memory of certain aixauge-
ments of symbols to which convention has attached definite meaning
for the common purpose of written intercourse. The good speller
normally achieves success tlu'ough constant pi'actice in reading and
\\riting, whereby correct mental images, visual, auditory, and motor,
are obtained largely on the margin of attention. Practice in the correct
writing of words implies :
(1) Imitation, by means of which certain memory images develop
and the required habit is gradually formed;
(2) Picproduction by means of these memory images — notably motor
images.
The scholar reaches the end in view when the written symbol is
produced automatically in the conventional spelling.
(5) It is only necessary to be able to spell such words as we need
to write. The smaller the vocabulary the smaller the chances of bad
spelling. Many schools, especially some elementary schools, pro-
duce a great number of people who never spell badly because they use
so few words. The sacrifice of ideas to formalism necessarily restricts
growth of vocabulary, and scholars passing through such schools spell
correctly because of the limited number of \^•ords they have the oppor-
tunity of spelling incorrectly; but these are badly educated people.
Modern culture implies a wide experience in reading and writing;
hence it f oUow s that scholars must be allowed scope for reading and
writing freely.
(c) But here is the crucial point — the greater the opportunities for
enlai'gement of experience the more pronounced the spelling difficulty
becomes. Of the child's three vocabularies, (1) speaking, (2) reading,
(3) writing, the growth of (1) and (2) far outstrips (3), and in the
attevipt at a wider and 7nore complete expression the habit of bad
spelling is formed. It is this differentiation of rate in the acquirevient
of the three vocabularies which is at bottom the cause of bad spelling.
(d) To meet this difficulty some schools place undue emphasis on
spelling. The scholars spend time and effort on spelling lists and
rules as a separate branch of study. Any such attempt at basing
spelling on conscious processes fails in thnt it fixes attention on the
MENTAL AND PHYSICAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN EDUCATION. 305
mechanism of expression rather than on the thought to be expressed;
to have to think how to spell a word hinders expression. The problem
then is to insure the same standard of accuracy, but by means which
will not hinder development or waste time.
Part II. — Inve>siigation of tlus Frublem with Scholars ages 8 to 10.
(a) By the tests referred to in the paper the following points were
noted: —
1. The highest standard of accuracy was reached by the eight year
olds in Class II. who have no free written composition. The subject
matter of then- writing is given orally by the scholars, written on the
blackboard by the teacher and copied by the scholars into their books.
They see and write only the correct forms of words, and their written
vocabulary is thus under the control of the teacher.
2. Class III. (nine year olds) gave a higher percentage of error.
In this class free composition is first begun, the teacher loses control
of the written vocabulary, and the spelling disease begins to show
itself.
3. In Class IV. the speaking and reading vocabularies increase still
more rapidly, the teacher has still less control than in Class III., and
inaccurate spelling was shown to be on the increase.
(b) As a result of this diagnosis the following reforms are being
instituted: —
1. It is clearly better to spend time in the forming of accurate
spelling habits at the beginning than in the correction of wrong habits
later. In the early stages scholars may be prevented from spelling
incorrectly by never giving them the opportunity of doing so ; hence we
now delay ' free ' written composition so as to keep the scholars'
written vocabulary within the control of the teacher.
2. The transition to free written composition is made gradually with
strict oversight from the teacher. The scholars use small dictionaries
and are constantly reminded of the need for correct spelling in any
' free ' writing which they undertake.
3. In spite of these precautions some errors still occur. From the
result of a recent investigation by Mr. Stanley Wyatt at the F.D.S.
into methods of treating errors, the following procedure has been
adopted for the correcting of these : —
The misspelt words are to be actually obliterated and practice give a
in the writing of the correct symbols — i.e., the right form is brought to
the focus of attention. Each scholar keeps his own note book, where
such words are entered.
(c) In every class there are one or two scholars for whom the ,
ordinary class teaching is not sufficient. For these spelling is made
more of an independent study, and special methods are devised to meet
the needs of individual cases, taking time from other pursuits. Such
cases, however, are not permitted to stop the normal progress of the
class as a whole.
1913.
306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE. — 1913.
B:e2)ort of the Committee, consisting of Sir Henry Mibrs (Chair-
man), Professor Marcus Hartog (Secretary), Miss L. J.
Clarke, Miss B. Foxley, Professor H. Bompas Smith, and
Principal Griffiths, appointed to inquire into and report
on the number, distribution, and respective values of
Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Bursaries held by University
Students during their undergraduate course, and on funds
jmvate and open available for their augmentation.
YouE Committee sent out early in the spring a Questionary to the Heads
of all the Universities and University Colleges in the British Isles
(omitting professional and technical schools). Their answers, arranged
and somewhat abridged, will be found in Appendix I. We have omitted
much valuable information dealing with benefactions for post-graduate
and research study, and limited om'selves to answers dealing with the
courses for the primary degree. Appendix II., modified from the
evidence before the Eoyal Commission on the Civil Service, shows
in order of value of total emoluments the number of beneficiaries
entering the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively.
The Committee desire to express their warm thanks to those who
by their walling answers have enabled them to present so much
valuable information to the British Association, and suggest the desira-
bility of their reappointment.
APPENDIX I.
QUESTIONARY AND ANSWERS.
University College, Cork : March 11, 1913.
Dear
On behalf of the above Committee I write to ask if you will very kindly furnish
me with information in regard to the following questions : — •
I. The number, duration and respective values of Scholarships, Exhibitions,
and Bursaries in your College ?
II. Whether two or more such benefactions are tenable together ?
III. Whether any limit is imposed on the maximum armual income dei-ived
from endowments of all kinds by a single beneficiary ?
IV. Have you at j'our disposal any funds (a) of jiermanent endowment ; or
(b) of private benefaction to supplement Scholarships, &c., for the
complete maintenance of students of exceptional promise ?
V. (o) Have cases occurred in which successful candidates have been obliged
to decline Scholarships, &c., on the ground of inadequate personal
means ?
{h) Have any deserving beneficiaries retired during their course through
lack of adequate means ?
(c) Have such resignations been met by help from or through the College;
and if so in what way ?
^'I. AVUl you very kindly add any further suggestions or information bearing
on this matter ?
I am, dear
Faithfully yoms,
Marcus Haetog
(Secretary to the Committee).
SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 307
ANSWERS RECEIVED.
lUi.LioL College, Oxford.
I. Annual open, 4 minor Exhibitions o£ 40/. ; 3 Exlubitions of 70/. ; 7 Scholarships
of 80/. Annual close, 1 Exlxibition of 180/. ; 1 Scholarship of 60/. Every fourth
year, 1 close Exhibition of 40/. ; 1 Scottish Exliibition of 120/.
The above are generally tenable for the full Undergraduate course (four years).
Annual ; 1 Exliibition of 100/. for Senior Undergraduates of the College for two years.
II. No ; except last Exhibition of 100/., and a minor Exhibition of 40/. is tenable
with close Exhibition of 60/. when the candidate has taken a high place in the Open
School Examination.
III. No limit. Most scholars and some commoners hold subventions from School,
County Council or City Companies, and a few gain University Scholarships.
IV. A fund of 150/. per annum charged on College revenues, supplemented by
private benefactions, amounting to an average of 330/. for the last ten years. This
is used to help commoners as well as scholars who need a supplement. Exceptional
promise would be an additional inducement for grants, not a necessary condition.
V. (a) and (6) Not aware of such refusals for the last twenty years, but they
may have occurred earher. After the death of two predecessors it became known
that they had helped privately.
(c) The fund under {IV. ) would be appHcable. Cases where a man has for family
reasons to emigrate or begin earning money without completing his University career
cannot of course be met.
VI. ' Given a man of health and abihty sufficient to be successful in open com-
petition, and of sufficient previous education, I beUeve that there is nothing to deter
a poor man from a successful Oxford career. If there is any obstacle it must be
found on the " lower rungs of the ladder." I am told that opportunities differ con-
siderably in different parts of the country.'
Form sent to the father or guardian of scholars elect at BaUiol College, Oxford : —
Dear Sir, BaUiol College, Oxford.
Under a system by which Scholarships and Exhibitions are filled by open
competition, it will inevitably happen that they are sometimes gained by those who
are not in need of the emoluments attached to them. You will have seen that this
possibility is anticipated in the notice relating to Scholarships and the conditions of
their tenure issued before the Scholarship Examination.
If this is the case with Mr. who has been elected to a
at this College and you think it proper that he should surrender the whole or any
part of the emoluments to which he is entitled while retaining the status and other
privileges of a ,1 have to inform you that effect wiU be given by the College
to your wishes as to the application of such emoluments. Should you express no
such wishes as to the application, any money which he may surrender now, or which
at any future time he may feel himself to be in a position to surrender or repay, will
be paid into a Fund established in the College for the assistance of those who require
ass.stance to avail themselves of the advantages of a University education. Any
such renunciation of emoluments wiU be treated by the College as confidential, and
those receiving the help you give will only know that it comes to them through a
College Fund.
I enclose a memorandum which will inform you as to College expenses.
Will you kindly let me know what are your wishes in this matter ?
I am. Sir.
Yours faithfully,
blaster of BaUiol College.
Brasenose College, Oxford.
I. (a) Open :— 13 Scholarships of 100/. ; 4 (usually, number variable) of 80/. ; un-
fixed number of Exhibitions of 70/. (6) Restricted :— 4 Scholarships of 80?. ; variat Ic
number of Scholarships of 70/. ; 2 Exhibitions of 80/. ; 3 Exhibitions of 40/.
II. Blank.
III. No Umit.
IV. No funda specifically set aside, but men whose College emoluments are
X 2
308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOTENCE. — 1913.
supplemented by grants from sohool funds, &c., can sometimes support themselves
completely during their career.
V. (a) and (6) No.
(c)
VT. Scholarship Regulations contain proviso : ' The holder of any Scholarship to
which no pecuniary restriction is attached will be allowed to retain the status of a
scholar without receiving the emoluments, should he exjjress a wish to that effect.'
Christ Chuech, Oxford.
I. Open : 6 Scholarships of 80?. ; 3 Exhibitions of about 851. (money and
allowances). Close : 3 Scholarships of 801. All tenable for two years and renewable
for two more by the Governing Body, and ultimately for a fifth in satisfactory
circumstances.
II. No.
III. No limit for Scholarships. Candidates for Exhibitions must satisfy the
Dean that they are incapable of coming to the University without financial assistance.
IV. (a) Grants may be made from College Funds, not amounting in all to over
4001. in any one year, to scholars or commoners who need assistance. Such grants
are in practice made for one year only, but are renewable.
(6) There is a Poor Scholars' Fund which depends almost entirely on private
benefactions administered by the Dean.
V. (a) and (6) I know of none.
(c) Financial difficulties have been met under IV.
VI. The statutes make a similar provision to Brasenose College.
Exeter College, Oxford.
I. 11 Scholarships, open, of not more than 80/. and 1 of 100/. ; 8 close of not less
than 60/. and 1 or more of not more than 100/. (all of which may be opened in default
of the preferred class of qualified candidates) ; 2 Scholarships of 80/. for persons
intending to take Holy Orders and needing assistance at the University. Various
Exhibitions (mostly close), all limited to those needing assistance at the University.
III. None by Statute, but by College policy.
IV. No permanent endowment ; but a deserving scholar who is poor can be
helped by a grant from general College Funds or a special fund.
VI. {a) Only ScholarshiiM of less than 80Z.
(b) None.
Hertford College, Oxford.
I. Majority Scholarships, open to Churchmen only, 30 of 100/. for five years ;
10, varying from 40/. to 80/., for four years, besides a number of Exhibitions.
II. Not from College sources.
III. No limit.
IV. No.
V. (a) Exhibitions only.
Jesus College, Oxford.
I. Open Scholarships, 12 ; close Scholarships, 22 of 80/. to 100/. Exliibitions,
several open and several close, of 30/. to 60Z. All granted for two years and renewable
on satisfactory industry and good conduct for two more.
II. No, but a grant from the Exhibition fund may be made to a scholar or
exhibitioner.
III. No statutable limit, but no grant is made out of the Exhibition Fund except
to the really necessitous.
IV. («) The Exhibition Fund.
V. (a) Only one case in forty years unable to come up on 60/. per annum.
(b) No.
(c) In extreme eases exceptionally large grants have been made from the Exhibi-
tion Fund.
Lincoln College, Oxford.
I. Scholarships, about 17 of 80/. or 60/. ; Exhibitions, about 10 of 40/., or more
usually 30Z.
II. No ; but the value of a Scholarship may be increased, or an exhibitioner
elected to a Scholarship.
III. No limit ; the College is not always aware what other benefactions are held.
SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., HELD BY UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 309
IV. {a) There is a small fund applicable.
(6) Occasionally private benefactions are forthcoming, or the College may grant
remission of fees or other charges to deserving students.
V. (a) Yes, occasionally.
{b) and (c) I cannot recall such cases.
VI. A similar provision to that of Brasenose College."
Magdalen College, Oxford.
I. 30 Scholarships and Exhibitions in variable numbers, according to needs and
merits of candidate : tenable for not exceeding four years as a rule, in many cases
for only three, never exceeding five.
II. No ; except in so far as additional grants are made from the Exhibition Fund,
independently or in addition to Scholarships.
III. No limit ; but -we take maximum annual income into account in awarding
Exhibitions or grants. There are a certain number of Scholarships and Exhibitions
given by the County Councils and by the City Companies, sometimes on the results
of examinations, sometimes on recommendation, which are of very material assistance
to students.
IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund, which could in theory be used for complete main-
tenance of students of exceptional promise. But practically speaking, it is not so
used, as we always expect that the student should enjoy some other benefaction, or
that friends should come to his aid.
V. (a) I have known of no case.
(6) Very seldom.
(c) As a rule assistance has been given from the Exhibition Fund, supplemented
by donations from private friends.
VI. It not infrequently occurs that successful candidates decline to accept Scholar-
ships in whole or in part because they do not need the whole assistance. I am in-
clined to think that money given in Scholarships is at present too diffused, and that
it is better for County Councils and others to concentrate their resources on a few
candidates of marked ability rather than to spread them over a number of weaker
candidates who often are not able greatly to profit by an University education.
New College, Oxford.
I. 10 or 11 Scholarships of 501. in each year, tenable for two years, renewable for
two years, and in exceptional circumstances, for a fifth ; 6 Scholarships are restricted
in the first instance, but, if the limited candidates do not show sufficient merit, may be
thrown open for that competition. About 2 or 3 Exhibitions of 501., tenable for two
or three years, confined to those in need of assistance, not tenable with Scholarships.
II. Tenable with outside Exhibitions (School, County Council, &c.). We have
a private Exhibition, usually of the value of 301. a year, given to those men who may
be in need of assistance, tenable with a Scholarship.
IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund ; a loan fund.
{b) A small private benefaction.
V. (a) I can scarcely remember any such case.
(6) I can scarcely remember any deserving candidates who have had to retire
during their course for lack of means, though a man who is not succeeding well might
be allowed to retire.
Pembroke College, Oxford.
I. 34 ranging from lOOZ. downward, chiefly 801., mostly restricted to schools or
localities, tenable during residence for four years.
IV. No.
V. (a) and (6) Not during my Mastership.
St. John's College, Oxford.
I. Open Scholarships, 13 of 801. ; close Scholarships, 22 of 100?. (besides 4 open
to members of the College of 4 terms standing of 80Z., and only tenable for one or two
years). All oj)en Scholarships and 7 of the close, tenable for four years, which may
be increased to five ; 15 close Scholarships, tenable for five years.
At present, 7 open Exliibitions of 401. to 70?., tenable as open Scholarships ; 5
close Exhibitions of 40/. to 80Z., tenable as open Scholarships. Variable number
(o at present) restricted to undergraduates of 4 terms, of 20?. to 60?.
II. Scholarships and Exhibitions not tenable together.
310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, — 1913.
III. No limit.
IV. (a) The Exhibition Fund of not less than 600Z. per annum. It is not usual to
grant more than 601. in one year to an individual.
(b) A small fund of about 40Z. 