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REPORT

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

1917.

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1918

Office of the Association : Burlington House, London, W. x.

PREFACE.

Tue Annual Meeting of the British Association in 1917 was can-
celled, for the first time in the history of the Association, under
circumstances described in the Report of the Council included in this
volume.

The Organising Committees of the Sections, having been empowered
by the Council to do so, held in the early part of the summer such
meetings as were necessary to transact such business as was essential
in spite of the cancellation of the Annual Meeting, including the
forwarding to the Committee of Recommendations of proposals for
the appointment or reappointment of Research Committees, and for
grants of money to some of them. The Organising Committees were
also empowered to receive Reports from Research Committees, and to
recommend for printing in the Annual Report suchof these Reports
as it was thought undesirable to delay.

On July 6, 1917, in the rooms of the Linnean Society, meetings
were held of :—

The Council, at 11.30 a.m., to approve the Report of the
Council to the General Committee, and for other business ;

The General Committee, at 12 noon, to receive the Reports
of the Council and of the General Treasurer, to confirm the
arrangements made in connection with the cancellation of the
Annual Meeting, and for other business;

The Committee of Recommendations, at 2.30 p.m., to make
recommendations to the General Committee concerning the appoint-
ment of, and grants of money to, Research Committees, etc. ;

The General Committee, at 4 p.m., to receive the Report of the
Committee of Recommendations.

The present volume contains, as usual, the Reports of the Council
- and of the General Treasurer, and the list of Research Committees
appointed by the General Committee. The usual lists and other
records referring to previous meetings are omitted. For the rest,
the volume contains only the Reports of Research Committees, referred
to above, of which the General Committee, on the advice of the other
committees concerned, decided that it would be undesirable to delay
the issue. The Report of the Meeting of the Conference of Delegates
of Corresponding Societies, which was held in the rooms of the Geo-
logical Society on July 5 and 6, is also included.

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CONTENTS,

COMEIGERS AND COUNCIL, LOLTALUS icc... ccc cece secceesescecssocesce Se Pere tees
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL ComMITTEE, 1916-17.........

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT, 1916-17 ...... .......cececse covsoceeceseneees

OTST eC OMMEPURES sc vecieacancnvsyaingaed otteotuses Seca vieiieciemacctte dancin teeth oe xii

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Report of Committee on Seismological Investigations ...........:scseeeeeenee

Preliminary Report on Terrestrial Magnetism. By Dr. Charles Chree,
IRMA Mreeanecaecrcsac ites soccer cstracvorscseatecorasscatewsscusndscuteedensvesstssoens

Report of Committee on Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications
Viscosity of Colloids. By Emil Hatschek ..................ccceeeeee
Colloid Chemistry of Tanning. By Prof. H. R. Procter .........
General Review and Bibliography of Dyeing. By P. E. King...
Colloid Chemistry in the Fermentation Industries. By Prof.

NONIATY Pe STOWIN .. srocnsiassciasis oe,cad sce waaay nitions etaches dhaddenss4esbe
rubber. by eDr. Henry’ P. ‘Stevens: .<ds.csscoseals eewere--nesaeyesee
Colloid Chemistry of Starch, Gums, Hemicelluloses, Albumin,

Casein, Gluten, and Gelatine. By H. B. Stocks ...............

Colloids in the Setting and Hardening of Cements. By Dr.
epee) OSC iase succe assnce aseadicvere aoe seedanal Sa daae se sa suacwake sheen saceee
Nitro-Cellulose Explosives from the Standpoint of Colloidal

Chemusiry.. “By i. i. Chrystal” (ics scssstescchsccsecrseterscsse
Celluloid from the Standpoint of Colloidal Chemistry. By

Bape OLby Atal, ceecereancss<euvarsoaetesresdearsedderd.vadneadestensoene ss
Colloidal and Capillary Phenomena in their Bearings on

Physiology and Bio-Chemistry. By Prof. W. Ramsden......

101

iv CONTENTS.

PAGE
Report of Committee on Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-
Carboniferous, and Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere...... 106

Report of Committee on Engineering Problems affecting the Future
Erosperity ofthe Coumtiiy rr ccniae crise scweneseaee denen neath eats aeseneMeeet 120

Report of Committee on Exploration of the Palsolithic Site known as
La Cotte de, St; Brelade je) ens0ygarna sos hah sop's.och<.o=s0nceiesssosenenaeeteees 121

Report of Committee on the Structure and Function of the Mammalian
Flea tt occics csacccecnttans soc acee caer no cess ce sesh ee ate rear sca eee » 122

Report of the Committee on Science in Secondary Schools (with Contents) 123

Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee and of the Conference

of Delegates of Corresponding Societies ...........s.ceceseeeeneeeenereueens 208
Presidential Addo by John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., on the
Work and Aims of our Corresponding Societies .............6. 209
Resionalisurveys: By @.C. Page *s20c-22eucseeeeeneee eee ene 221
Money-Scales and Weights. By T, Sheppard °..............cccc00s 228

The Part to be played by Local Societies after the War in the
Application of Science to the Needs of the Country. By

We Mark MWe b bite. os wissen: sacbhirreacive case, aco enees Genee Reenter 237
List of Corresponding Societies ..........-.:ssssscsseenceetecesestscseees 243
Calis ope Ofsba Pers uence. caress saeacnen -eeteedesdacga oo Ceateneae a cere 248

IST IGF “PUBLICATIONS 5, enc ects ae oedee cues lcoeas nc lee ae eon ee 261

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1917-18.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING,

PRESIDENT.
Sm ARTHUR EVANS, D.Lirt., LL.D., Pres.s.A., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
The Hon. Sir OHARLES A, Parsons, K.O.B., Se.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

GENERAL SECRETARIES,
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. | Professor H. H. TURNER, D.Sc., D.O.L., F.R.S.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
0. J. R, HowarTH, M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. StEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W, 1.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Dr. E. F. KEI, Professor A., F.R.S.
Bonk, Professor W. A., F.R.S. Morris, Sir D., K.0.M.G
BRABROOK, Sir EDWARD, C.B. PERKIN, Professor W. H. oR RS.
OLERK, Sir DUGALD, K.B.E., F.R.S, RUSSELL, Dr. E, J., F.R. 8.
DENDY, Professor A., PRS. RUTHERFORD, Sir E., F.RS.
Dickson, Professor H. N., D.Sc. SAUNDERS, Miss E.

Dixey, Dr. F, A., F.R.S Scort, Professor W. R.

Dyson, Sir F. W., F. Rs STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S.
GREGORY, Professor R. A. STRAHAN, Dr. A., F.R.S.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. WEIss, Professor F. E., F.R.S.
HarMER, Dr. S. F., F.R.S. WHITAKER, W., F.R.S.

IM THORN, Sir E. F., K.0.M.G. Woopwanb, Dr, A, SMITH, F.R.S.

JEANS, J. H., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past.

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Raytriau, 0.M., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.8., F.RA.S.
Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Dr. @. CAREY Fostrer, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

vl OFFIOERS AND COUNCIL.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION,

Arthur J. Balfour, 0.M., F.R.S. | Sir E. A. Schifer, F.R.3,
Sir E.Ray Lankester,K. O.B, »f.R.S. | Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.

Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S.
Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., Pres.R.S.| Professor A. Schuster, F.R.S.
.sF.R.S. | Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.

Lord Rayleigh, 0.M.,
Sir A. Geikie, K.0.B.,
Sir W. Crookes, O.M.,
Sir James Dewar, FBS.
Sir NormanLockyer,K.0.

F.R.S.
O.M., F.R.S.
ERS.

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. Sir E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson.
Dr. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. Major P, A, MacMahon, F,R.S.
Dr. G. Oarey Foster, F.R.S.

AUDITORS.
Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B. | Sir Everard im Thurn, O.B,. K.0.M.G.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. vii

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1916-17.

I. At their meetive in March the Council, after discussion of con-
ditions arising out of the war as bearing upon the question of holding the
Annual Meeting of the Association, passed the following resolution for
transmission to the Executive Committee at Bournemouth :—

‘That the Council of the British Association recognise the
possibility that the continuous series of Meetings of the
Association may have to be broken this year, and, though
they would regret that contingency, they regard the question
as an open one, and wish their prospective hosts to feel entirely
free as to the question of renewing their invitation or not ; but
would welcome a reply at as early a date as possible.’

The meeting of the Council was adjourned pending a reply, but before
the date proposed for its resumption the General Officers were informed
of the possibilities (a) that buildings which the Association would have
occupied at Bournemouth might be required for purposes connected with
the war, (b) that official objection might be taken to the holding of the
Meeting. The first possibility did not take definite shape, but as regards
the second the General Officers learned, on consulting members of
H.M. Government, that a Meeting would be deprecated, especially on the
ground of the desirability of restricting railway travelling. Having
regard to this and other considerations, it was felt that there was no
option but to cancel the Annual Meeting.

The Council desire to place on record their grateful appreciation of
the cordial co-operation of the authorities at Bournemouth in the discus-
sions which have taken place ; they are glad to believe that the decision
to cancel the Meeting, while regretted, is approved in Bournemouth, and
: is hoped that the Meeting there may be only deferred, and to no distant

ate.

II. In consideration of the cancellation of the Meeting, the Council
recommend that Sir ARTHUR Evans’ term of office as PRrEesIDENT be
extended over the year 1917-18, and that the Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons’
tenure of that office be deferred to the year 1918-19 (Cardiff Meeting),
both these gentlemen having consented to this course.

III. Resolutions received by the General Committee at Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, and referred to the Council for consideration and, if desirable,
for action, were dealt with as follows :—

From Sections D and E.

That it be recommended to the Council that a grant of £100
from the ‘Caird Fund’ be made to Dr. W. 8S. Bruce for the
upkeep of the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory.

It was resolved that a grant of £100, for one year only (1916-17), be
made to Dr. W. 8. Bruce for the upkeep of the Scottish Oceanographical
Laboratory.

Vili REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

From Section K.

That the Council be recommended to ask the Government to
make Section K a grant of 500 reprints of a list of economic
plant products which has been prepared by Sir David Prain,
and is shortly to be published in the Kew Bulletin.

It was resolved to make the above request as recommended.

From Section L.

The Committee of Section L has evidence that the separate issue
of the sectional transactions has been of considerable utility
both during and after the Meetings, and it regrets their
discontinuance. While recognising that there are special
difficulties as regards printing and paper at the present time,
the Committee hope that the Council will resume next year
the publication of the sectional transactions containing the
President’s Address, Reports of Committees, and Abstracts
of Papers.

It was resolved that this expression of the Committee’s views should
receive consideration in due course.

IV. An informal suggestion, brought forward after consultation
between members of the- Research Committee on Fuel Economy and
members of the Advisory Committee of the Privy Council on Scientific
Research, was laid before the Council, to the effect that the work of the
Research Committee should be merged in that of a (proposed) Govern-
ment Standing Committee. The Council approved.

V. In view of the reduction in receipts caused by small attendance
at the Meeting in Newcastle, an application was made to the Royal
Society for a grant of £50 in aid of printing the Annual Volume. The
grant was made, and a vote of thanks was conveyed from the Council to
the Society.

VI. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. His accounts are presented to the General Com-
mittee, subject to audit.

VII. The retiring members of the Council are :—

By seniority. Dr. A. C. Haddon, Principal E. H. Griffiths.

By least attendance.—Prof, W. H. Bragg, Prof. H. B. Dixon.

The vacancy created by the death of Prof. Silvanus Thompson has
not been filled during the present year.

The Council has nominated the following new members :—

Mr. J. H. Jeans,
Prof. Arthur Keith,
Prof. W. H. Perkin,

leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.

ee Le eS ee”, ”tC

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. ix

The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows :—

Prof. W. A. Bone, Prof. A. Keith.

Sir E. Brabrook. Sir Daniel Morris.
Dr. Dugald Clerk. Prof. W. H. Perkin.
Prof. A. Dendy. Dr. E, J. Russell.
Prof. H. N. Dickson. Sir E. Rutherford.
Dr, F. A. Dixey. Miss E, R. Saunders.
Sir F. W. Dyson. Prof. W. R. Scott.
Prof. R, A. Gregory. Prof, EK. H. Starling.
Prof. W. D. Halliburton. Dr. A. Strahan.

Dr. 8S. F. Harmer. Prof. F. E. Weiss.
Sir Everard im Thurn, Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Mr. J. H. Jeans.

VIII. The Genzran Orricers have been nominated by the Council
as follows :—
General Treasurer: Prof. J. Perry.

General Secretaries: Prof. W. A. Herdman.
Prof. H. H. Turner.

IX. Mr. I. H. N. Evans and Miss N. Layard have been admitted
members of the General Committee.

X. ConFERENCE OF DELEGATES and CoRRESPONDING SOCIETIES
CoMMITTEE :—
The following appointments have been made by the Council :—

Conference of Delegates—Mr. J. Hopkinson (President), Dr. F. A.
Bather (Vice-President), Mr. W. M. Webb (Secretary).

Corresponding Societies Committee—Mr. W. Whitaker (Chairman),
Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary), Dr. F. A. Bather, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir
Edward Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. A. L.
Lewis, Mr. T. Sheppard, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, and the President and
General Officers of the Association.

The Council approved a proposal from the Committee that a
Conference of Delegates should be held in London on or about July 5,
and they therefore made the appointments above mentioned, as a matter
of urgency.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

RECEIPTS.

&s d,
To Balance brought forward :—

Lloyds Bank, Birmingham ................. sani ducdsumeateterawensnueuee evade 1

Williams Deacon’s Bank, Manchester ..,..............ccccseeceeceseeces i

Bank of England—Western Branch :—
On ‘ Caird Fund’ ..... bey . 290 7 10
On! GenerallAcconmntite cscs scesrrasseeeeert reer ee ieceeeneee OG

——_ 3,262

Life Compositions (including Transfers) ...........c.cceseccecsesecccecesccuecescuces 197
Annual Subscriptions .............c0:cccccccsees Be 684
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions .
Sale of Associates’ Tickets Fs
Sale of Ladies’ Tickets ..... A 73
Sale of Publications .., é a 56
Grant from Royal Society Publication Fund «
DONATIONS). £2 seen cernestece earn Seon seiese race cae es V7
Interest on Deposit, Barclays Bank, Newcastle
Bs “4 Lloyds Bank, Birmingham

as om Williams Deacon’s Bank, Manchester

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nw
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wonmnocoococeo

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Unexpended Balances of Grants returned
Dividends on Investments :—

Oonsols 24 per Cent. .. 5 j 29 ao

India 3 per Cent. ........ fp 81 0 0

4 3

(OE)

ee meee eee e ee neernnens weseneereeeretnrtees

Great Indian Peninsula A =
War Moan /4e Menem. cer.ccraveckcadersatrectorresutarrs hassics tes psactes ote a 80 1

——_ 273 6 4
Dividends on ‘Caird Fund’ Investments :—
ANGIAVSS PERI CEMLL Mee, - 2 ace <i. eeeeeeesasdceee Eee Rives ae ee 6819 0
Londonand North-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Oent. Preference
Stock

Canada 34 per Cent. Registered Stock .......ccccccccccceee eveceeee

x
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=

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a
wo
a

Investments.
Nominal Amount,

4,651 10 5 Consolidated 24 per Cent. Stock
3,600 0 O India 3 per Cent. Stock
879 14 9 £43 Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity

2,627 010 India 34 per Cent. Stock, ‘ Caird Fund’

2,100 0 0 London and North-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Cent.
Preference Stock, ‘Caird Fund’

0 0 Oanada 34 per Cent. (1930-50) Registered Stock, ‘ Caird Fund’

0 0 London and South-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Cent.
Preference Stock, ‘ Caird Fund’

87 4 9 Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift of 24 per Cent. Self-Cumulating
Consolidated Stock

0 0 War Loan, 44 per Cent., 1925-45

0 0 Lloyds Bank, Birmingham—Deposit Account iucluded in Balance

at Bank, Sir J. Caird’s Gift for Radio-Activity Investigation

£22,095 10 9 £5,448 19 9

The Market Value of these Securities on 30th June, 1917, amounted to £15,334 13 0,

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
July 1, 1916, to June 30, 1917.

PAYMENTS.

MaMERUE UAATICL OMCO-EARPENEES! Ty. cdetstrsvetes ctoresecccasaccsoseuncorarcedtewwrectcevheccoveee teers sesssaeee
Salaries, €tC. ..........ccccece “
Printing, Binding, etc................
MEH OM NeW GHRGIG WECEDMIEN D5 0 crt ncccrensepasicieranpnaneri eter anes sucesir cansbcaouapaetetna wares
Grants to Research Committees :— SPT.

Seismological Observations ..,..........cccccseeeeesencsesees aeatawine teva 100 0 0
Tables of Oonstants ..,. 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables eet A080
Dynamic Isomerism ..,.. eae eros
Absorption Spectra, ete. 00... ceececeeeee 10 0 0
Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorean 40 0
Fatigue from Economic Standpoint ........ 40 0 0
Physical Character of Ancient Egyptians : 21111
Paleolithic Site in Jersey...............ccc0000 2 et)
Archeological Investigations in Malta ce ey Oe A
Distribution of Bronze Age Implements 114 3
Artificial Islands in Highland Lochs = 210 0
Ductleas' Glands... Sey caichsathcncedesenaters aoe PROD
Psychological War Research,, = 30) -0..0
Physiology of Heredity .. 45 0 0
Hgolopyio£ Wingy 7.1. S, « .<sxerventeseeeauese sas sss a0 “ct 8 0 0
Mental and Physical Factors involved in “Education, ey ae A, Ff
MIMICS i a vat ca naspueccasecayause+ssee 2
School Books and Eyesight 5 0 0
Free Place System .... 4 15 0 0
Science Teaching in Secondary Schools. q 8? 0
Corresponding Societies Oommittee ooo... cececccceccessscenseesceeees 25 0 0
tants made Troms Oaird HONG < -......ccc2/z2canacacceseesccnsevicseboinoeceene
Balance at Lloyds Bank, Birmingham (with Interest accrued), including
Sir James Oaird’s Gift, Radio-Activity Investigation, of £1,000 and
Interest accrued thereon £104 185. 8d. oo... cece ccascceccsceseveeseceens 1,822 14 2
Balance at Williams Deacon’s Bank, Manchester (with Interest accrued) 421 11 5
Balance at Barclays Bank, Newcastle (with Interest accrued) ........, 281 0 4
Balance at Bank of England—Western Branch :—
Oni Oaprd utd? tates cccarvosecesccoacss arrentitcenict Recsiescents OLN dd 4
Less General Account Overdrawn ...,,,.....ccescececeseeees 1791310 13717 6
2,663 3 5
Less Petty Cash Account overspent ........... Reuhecara wetiventtreseinctanats 215 11

JOHN PERRY, General Treasurer.

Cr.

1,154 9 8

42717 2
250 U 0

2,660 7 6

£5,448 19 9

I have examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers of the Association, and certify the
same to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers, and have ascertained that the Invest-
ments are registered in the names of the Trustees, except £50 Investment in the War Loan 44 per Oent.

Stock, which stands in the name of the Treasurer.

EDWARD BRABROOK, ah
EVERARD IM ama Auditors.

W. B, KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
APPROVED— October 11, 1917,

Xli RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

LIST OF GRANTS, 1917.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,
MEETING IN Lonpon: Juny, 1917.

1. Recewing Grants of Money.

| Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee | Grants
|

Section AA—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Investigations. | Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turner. | 100 0
Secretary.—Mr. J. J. Shaw.
Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. |
Crombie, Mr. Horace Darwin, |
Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson,
Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Professors |
C. G. Knott and H. Lamb, Sir J.
Larmor, Professors A. E. H.
Love, H. M. Macdonald, J. Perry,
and H.C. Plummer, Mr. W. E.
Plummer, Professors R. A.
Sampson and A. Schuster, Sir
Napier Shaw, Dr. G. T. Walker,
and Mr. G. W. Walker. |

Secrion B.— CHEMISTRY.

| Colloid Chemistry and its In- Chairman.— Professor F. G.{| 10 00
dustrial Applications. Donnan.
Secretary.—Professor W. C. McC.
Lewis.
Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Professor
A. J. Brown, Dr. C. H. Desch,
Mr. E. Hatschek, Professors |
H. R. Procter and W. Ramsden,
Mr. A. 8. Shorter, Dr. H. P.
Stevens, and Mr. H. B. Stocks.

| Research on Non-Aromatic Dia- Chairman.—Dr. F. D. Chattaway. TAs
zonium Salts. Secretary.— Professor G. T. Morgan.
Mr. P. G. W. Bayly and Dr. N. V.
Sidgwick.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

To investigate the Geology of | Chairman.— Professor W. S. 15 00
Coal-Seams. | Boulton.
| Secretary.—Dr. W. T. Gordon.
| Mr.G. Barrow, Professors Cadman,
| Grenville Cole, and W.G. Fearn-
| sides, Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. Walcot
| Gibson, Professors J. W. Gregory
| | and P. F. Kendall, Dr. R. Kid-
} ston, Professors G. A. Lebour
and T. F. Sibly, Dr. A. Strahan, ©
| and Mr. J. R. R. Wilson.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1, Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

Members of Committee

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of |

Kiltorcan, Ireland,

SECTION

Experiments in Inheritance in
Silkworms.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Replacement of Men by Women
in Industry.

| The Effects of the War on Credit,
| Currency, and Finance.

Chairman.—Professor Grenville
Cole.

Secretary.—Professor T. Johnson.

Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,

| and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

Chairman.— Professor W. Bateson.

Secretary.—Mrs. Merritt Hawkes. |

Dr. F, A. Dixey and Dr. L. Don-
caster.

| Chairman.—Professor W. R. Scott.
| Sceretary.—Professor J. C. Kydd.
Miss Ashley, Ven. Archdeacon

Cunningham, Professor E. C.K. |

Gonner, Mr. J. E. Highton,
Professor A. W. Kirkaldy, Miss
Mellor, and Miss Stephens.

| Chairman.—Professor W.R. Scott.

Seeretary.—Mr. J. E. Allen.

Professor C. F. Bastable, Sir E.
Brabrook, Professor Dicksee,
Mr. B. Ellinger, Mr. A. H.
Gibson, Professor E. ©. K.
Gonner, Mr. F. W. Hirst, Pro-

Inglis Palgrave, and Mr, E.
Sykes.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

| To excavate a Palzolithic Site in |

Jersey.

| To conduct Archeological Inves- |

tigations in Malta.

Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett.

Secretary.—Mr. G, de Gruchy.

Dr. C. W. Andrews, Mr. H. Bal-
| four, Professor A. Keith, and
' Colonel Warton.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.
Seeretary.—Dr. T. Ashby.

| Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A. C, Haddon,
and Dr. R. R. Marett.

| Seeretary.— Mr. H. Peake.

| Professor W. Ridgeway, Mr. H.
Balfour, Sir C. H. Read, Pro-
fessor W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr.
| BR. R. Marett, and Mr. 0.G.S5.
Crawford.

) Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

fessor A. W. Kirkaldy, Sir R. H. |

Xili

Xiv

1. Receiving &

RESEARCH COMMITTEES,

rants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

Members of Committee

Grants

To investigate and ascertain the
Distribution of Artificial Islands
in the lochs of the Highlands
of Scotland.

To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the Age |

Chairman.—Professor Boyd Daw-
kins.

Professors T. H. Bryce and W.
Ridgeway, Mr. H. Fraser, Dr. A.
Low, and Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.
ae —Mrx. H. Balfour.

of Stone Circles.

i Dr.

A. Auden, Professor W.

nincenay, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
| Arthur Evans, Dr. R. Munro,

Professors Boyd Dawkins and
J. L. Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis,
and Mr. H. Peake.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

The Ductless Glands.

SECTION

Experimental Studies in the

Physiology of Heredity.

Chairman.—Sir E. A. Schafer.

Sceretary.—Professor Swale Vin-
cent.

Dr. A. T. Cameron and Professor
A. B. Macallum.

K.—BOTANY.

Chairman.—Dr. F. F. Blackman,

Secretary.—Mr. R. P. Gregory.

Professors Bateson and Keeble
and Miss E. R. Saunders.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

The Influence of School Books
upon Hyesight.

To inquire into and report upon
the methods and results of
research into the Mental and
Physical Factors involved in
Education.

i Chairman.—Dr. G. A. Auden.

| Seeretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell.
| Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D.
Eggar, Professor R. A. Gregory,
Dr.
J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.
Sumpner, Mr. A. P. Trotter, and
Mr. Trevor Walsh.

Chairman.—Dr. C. 8. Myers.

Secretary.—Professor J. A. Green.

Professor J. Adams, Dr. G. A.
Auden, Sir E. Brabrook, Dr. W.
Brown, Mr. C. Burt, Professor
E. P. Culverwell,

fessor R. A. Gregory, Dr.

C. W. Kimmins, Professor W. |
SU el oh
Nunn, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, Dr. |

McDougall, Professor

F. C. Shrubsall, Professor H.

Bompas Smith, Dr.C,Spearman,

and Mr. A. KE. Twentyman.

Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

N. Bishop Harman, Mr. |

Mr. G. F. |
Daniell, Miss B. Foxley, Pro- |

bo Ue
Se

5 2

= — a =
.

—_
=

_— —

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

The Effects of the ‘Free-place’
System upon Secondary Educa-
tion,

To consider and report upon the
method and_ substance of
Science Teaching in Secondary
Schools, with particular refer-
ence to its essential place in
general Education.

Clarke, Miss B. Foxley, Dr. W.
Garnett, Professor R. A.
Gregory, Mr. J. L. Paton,
Professor H. Bompas Smith,
Dr. H. Lloyd Snape, and Miss
Walter.

Chairman.—Professor R. A, Gre-

gory.

Secretary.—Dr. E. H. Tripp.
Mr. W. Aldridge, Professor H. E. |

Armstrong, Mr. D. Berridge,
Mr. C. A. Buckmaster, Miss

Chairman.—Mz. C. A. Buckmaster. |
Secretary.—Mr. D. Berridge.
Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Miss L. J. |

L, J. Clarke, Mr. G. F. Daniell, |
Miss I, M. Drummond, Mr. |

G. D. Dunkerley, Miss A. E.
Escott, Mr. Cary Gilson, Miss

C. L. Laurie, Professor T, P, |

Nunn, and Mr A. Vassall.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
Corresponding Societies Com- | Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Mark Webb.
Dr. F. A. Bather, Rev. J. O.

Bevan, Sir Edward Brabrook,
Sir H. G. Fordham, Mr. J.
Hopkinson, Mr. A. L. Lewis,
Mr. T. Sheppard, Rev. T. R. R.

Stebbing, and the President |

and General Officers of the
Association.

10 00

XVi

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.*

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

| merical Data, chemical, physical, and
technological.

| Calculation of Mathematical Tables.

| Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.

Determination of Gravity at Sea.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.

To discuss the present needs of Geodesy,
including its relation to other
branches of Geophysics, and to report
to the next meeting of the British
Association, with power to present
an interim report to the Council if
any question of urgency should
arise.

Section A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

| Annual Tables of Constants and Nu- |

Chairman.—-Sir E. Rutherford.
Secretary.—Dr. W. C. McC. Lewis.

Chairman.—Professor M. J. M. Hill.

Secretary.—Professor J. W. Nicholson.

Dr. J. R. Airey, Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Pro-
fessor L. N. G. Filon, Sir G. Greenhill,
Professor E. W. Hobson, Mr. G.
Kennedy, and Professors Alfred
Lodge, A. E. H. Love, H. M. Mac-
donald, G. B. Mathews, G. N. Watson,
and A. G. Webster.

Chairman.—Sir Napier Shaw.

Secretary.—

Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Mr. W. H. Dines, Sir
R. T. Glazebrook, Sir J. Larmor,
Professors J. HE. Petavel and A.
Schuster, and Dr. W. Watson.

Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge.

Secretary.—Dr. W. H. Eccles.

Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr, C. Chree, Sir F. W.
Dyson, Professor A. 8. Eddington, Dr.
Erskine-Murray, Professors J. A. Flem-
ing, G. W.O. Howe, H. M. Macdonald,
and J. W. Nicholson, Sir H. Norman,
Captain H. R. Sankey, Professor A.
Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, and Pro-
fessor H. H. Turner.

Chairman.—Professor A. E. H. Love.

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Mr. T. W. Chaundy and Professors A. S.
Eddington, A. Schuster, and H. H.
Turner.

Chairman.—Professor H. H. Turner.

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Rey. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, and Professor A.
Schuster.

Chairman.—Colonel Sir C. F. Close.

Secretary.—Colonel E. H. Hills,

Sir S. G. Burrard, Dr. W. G. Duffield,
Mr. Horace Darwin, Sir F. W. Dyson,
Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Mr..A. R. Hinks,
Sir T. H. Holdich, Professor Horace
Lamb, Sir Joseph Larmor, Professor
A. E. H. Love, Colonel H. G. Lyons,
Professor H. Macdonald, Mr. R. D.
Oldham, Professor A. Schuster, Sir
-Napier Shaw, Professor H. H. Turner,
and Dr. G. W. Walker.

* Excepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the ‘ Oaird Fund.’
+ Joint Committee with Section E. Empowered to report to Council.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

xvii

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To arrange meetings in the ensuing year
for the discussion of papers and re-
ports on Geophysical subjects, and to |
co-operate with existing Committees
in making recommendations for the
promotion of the study of such sub-
jects in the British Empire.

Chairman.—Sir F. W. Dyson.

Secretary.—Dr. 8. Chapman.

Dr. C. Chree, Colonel C. F. Close, Pro-
fessor E. B. Elliott, Mr. J. H. Jeans,
Professor A. E., H. Love, Major H. G.
Lyons, Professor A. Schuster, Sir
Napier Shaw, Dr. A. Strahan, Professor
H. H. Turner, and Dr. G. W. Walker.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Fuel Economy; Utilisation of Coal;
Smoke Prevention.

To report on the Botanical and Chemical
Characters of the Eucalypts and their
Correlation.

Dynamic Isomerism.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Con-
stitution of Organic Compounds.

Chemical Investigation of Natural Plant
Products of Victoria.

1917.

Chairman.—Mr. Robert Mond.

Secretary.—

The Rt. Hon. Lord Allerton, Mr. Robert
Armitage, Professor J. O. Arnold, Mr.
J. A. F. Aspinall, Mr. A. H. Barker,
Professor P. P. Bedson, Sir G. T.
Beilby, Sir Hugh Bell, Professor W. 8.
Boulton, Professor E. Bury, Dr. Charles
Carpenter, Sir Dugald Clerk, Pro-
fessor H. B. Dixon, Dr. J. T. Dunn,
Mr. S. Z. de Ferranti, Dr. William
Galloway, Professors W. W. Haldane
Gee and Thos. Gray, Mr. T. Y.
Greener, Sir Robert Hadfield, Dr. H S.
Hele-Shaw, Dr. D. H. Helps, Dr. G.
Hickling, Mr. Grevil Jones, Mr. W. W.
Lackie, Mr. Michael Longridge, Dr.
J. W. Mellor, Mr. C. H. Merz, Mr.
Bernard Moore, Hon. Sir Charles
Parsons, Sir Richard Redmayne, Pro-
fessors Ripper and L. T. O’Shea, Mr.
R. P. Sloan, Dr. J. E. Stead, Dr. A.
Strahan, Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, Mr.
Benjamin Talbot, Professor R. Threl-
fall, Mr. G. Blake Walker, Dr. R. V.
Wheeler, Mr. B. W. Winder, Mr. W. B.
Woodhouse, Professor W. P. Wynne,
and Mr. H. James Yates.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Secretary.—Mr. H. G. Smith.

Dr. Andrews, Mr. R. T. Baker, Professor
F. O. Bower, Mr. R. H. Cambage, Pro-
fessor A. J. Ewart, Professor C. E.
Fawsitt, Dr. Heber Green, Dr. Cuth-
bert Hall, Professors Orme Masson,
Rennie, and Robinson, and Mr. St.John.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Secretary.—Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Dr. Desch, Sir J. J. Dobbie, Dr. M. O.
Forster, and Professor Sydney Young.

Chairman.—Sir J. J. Dobbie.
Secretary.—Professor E. EB. C. Baly.
Mr. A. W. Stewart.

Chairman.—Professor Orme Masson.

Seeretary.—Professor Heber Green.

Mr. J. Cronin and Mr. P. R. H. St. John,
a

XViil

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

| Members of Committee

Section C.—GEOLOGY,

To investigate the Flora of Lower Car-
boniferous times as exemplified at a
newly-discovered locality at Gullane,
Haddingtonshire.

To excavate Critical Sections in the
Paleozoic Rocks of England and
Wales.

To excavate Critical Sections in Old
Red Sandstone Rocks at Rhynie,
Aberdeenshire.

To consider the Nomenclature of the
Carboniferous, Permo-carboniferous,
and Permian Rocks of the Southern
Hemisphere.

To consider the preparation of a List
of Characteristic Fossils.

| The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

An investigation of the Biology of the
Abrolhos Islands and the North-west
Coast of Australia (north of Shark’s
Bay to Broome), with particular
reference to the Marine Fauna.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Kidston.

Secretary.—Dr. W. T. Gordon.

Dr. J. S. Flett, Professor E. J. Garwood,
Dr. J. Horne, and Dr. B. N. Peach.

Chairman.—Professor W. W. Watts.

Secretary.—Professor W. G. Fearnsides.

Professor W. 8S. Boulton, Mr. E. 8. Cob-
bold, Professor E. J. Garwood, Mr.
V. C. Illing, Dr. Lapworth, and Dr.
J. KE. Marr,

Chairman.—Dr. J. Horne.
Secretary.—Dr. W. Mackie.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

Drs. J. 8. Flett, W. T. Gordon, G. Hick-
ling, K. Kidston, B, N. Peach, and
D. M. 8. Watson.

Chairman.—Professor T, W. Edgeworth
David.

Secretary.—Professor E. W. Skeats.

Mr. W. 8. Dun, Professors J. W. Gregory
and Sir T. H. Holland, Mr. W. Howchin,
Mr. A. E. Kitson, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh,
Dr. A. W. Rogers, Professor A. C.
Seward, Mr. D. M. S. Watson, and
Professor W. G. Woolnough.

| Chairman.—Professor P. F, Kendall.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Lower Carter.

Professor W. S. Boulton, Professor G.
Cole, Dr. A. R, Dwerryhouse, Professors
J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Holland, G. A.
Lebour, and S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Marie
C. Stopes, Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. J. E.
Marr, Professor W. W. Watts, Mr. H.
Woods, and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor KE. J. Garwood.

Secretary.—Professor 8. H. Reynolds.

Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Messrs.
C.V. Crook, R. Kidston, and A. 8. Reid,
Sir J. J. H. Teall, Professor W. W.
Watts, and Messrs. R. Welch and W.
Whitaker.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Herdman.

Secretary.—Professor W. J. Dakin.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Professor F, O. ,
Bower.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

X1X

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Nomenclator Animalium Genera et
Sub-genera.

To obtain, as nearly as possible, a Repre-
sentative Collection of Marsupials
for work upon (a) the Reproductive
Apparatus and Development, (4) the
Brain.

To aid competent Investigators se-
lected by the Committee to carry on
definite pieces of work at the Zoolo-
gical Station at Naples.

To summon meetings in London or else-
where for the consideration of mat-
ters affecting the interests of Zoology
or Zoologists, and to obtain by corre-
spondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with
power to raise by subscription from
each Zoologist a sum of money for
defraying current expenses of the
Organisation.

To nominate competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

Zoological Bibliography and Publica-
tion.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.

Secretary.—Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing.

Dr. M. Laurie, Professor Marett Tims,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor A. Dendy.

Secretaries.—Professors T. Flynn and
G. E. Nicholls.

Professor E. B. Poulton
H. W. Marett Tims. -

and Professor

Chairman.—My. E. §. Goodrich.

Secretary.—Dr. J. H. Ashworth.

Mr. G. P. Bidder, Professor F. O. Bower,
Drs. W. B. Hardy and 8. F. Harmer,
Professor S. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray
Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh,
and Dr, A. D. Waller.

Chairman.—Professor S. J. Hickson.

Secretary. Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

Professors G. C. Bourne, A. Dendy,
M. Hartog, W. A. Herdman, and J.
Graham Kerr, Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, and Professors EK. B. Poulton
and J, Stanley Gardiner,

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, and Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Poulton.

Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather.

Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. E. Hoyle,
and Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To aid in the preparation of a Bathy-
metrical Chart of the Southern Ocean
between Australia and Antarctica.

Chairman.—Professor T. W. Edgeworth
David.

Secretary.—Captain J. K. Davis,

Professor J. W. Gregory and Professor
Orme Masson.

Sxction F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

Industrial Unrest.

Chairman.—Professor A. W. Kirkaldy.

Secretary.—

Sir H. Bell, Rt. Hon. C. W. Bowerman,
Professors S. J. Chapman and E. C. K.
Gonner, Mr. H. Gosling, Mr. G. Pickup
Holden, Dr. G. B. Hunter, Sir C. W.
Macara, and Professor W. R. Scott.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To report on certain of the more com-
plex Stress Distributions in Engi-
neering’ Materials.

The Investigation of Gaseous Explo-
sions, with special reference to Tem-
perature.

To consider and report on the Stan-
dardisation of Impact Tests,

To investigate the Physical Characters
of the Ancient Egyptians.

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest.

To conduct Archeological and Ethno-
logical Researches in Crete.

The Teaching of Anthropology.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

Chairman.—Professor J. Perry.

Secretaries.—Professors E. G. Coker and
J. EK. Petavel.

Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree, Mr.
Gilbert Cook, Professor W. E. Dalby,
Sir J. A. Ewing, Professor L. N. G.
Filon, Messrs. A. R. Fulton and J. J.
Guest, Professors J. B. Henderson, F.
C. Lea, and A. E. H. Love, Dr. W.
Mason, Dr.F. Rogers, Mr. W. A. Scoble,
Dr. T. E. Stanton, Mr.C E. Stromeyer,
and Mr. J. S. Wilson.

Chairman.—Sir Dugald Clerk. .

Secretary.— Professor W. E. Dalby.

Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Burstall,
H. L. Callendar, E. G. Coker, and H. B.
Dixon, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. J. A.
Harker, Colonel Sir H. C. L. Holden,
Professors B. Hopkinson and J. E.
Petavel, Captain H. Riall Sankey,
Professor A. Smithells, Professor W.
Watson, Mr. D. L. Chapman, and Mr.
H. E. Wimperis.

Chairman.—Professor W. H. Warren.
Secretary.—Mr. J. Vicars,
Professor Payne and Mr. E. H. Sainter.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Chairman.—Professor G. Elliot Smith.

Secretary.—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Dr. F. Wood-Jones, Professor A. Keith,
and Dr. C. G. Seligman.

Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Dr. Harrison.

Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, Pro-
fessor J. L. Myres,and Dr. H.O. Forbes.

Chairman.—Mr. D. G. Hogarth.

Secretary.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H.
Duckworth, Sir Arthur Evans, Pro-
fessor W. Ridgeway, and Dr. F. C.
Shrubsall.

Chairman.—Sir Richard Temple.

Secretary.—Dr. A. C. Haddon.

Sir E. F.im Thurn, Mr. W. Crooke, Dr.
C. G. Seligman, Professor G. Elliot
Smith, Dr. R. R. Marett, Professor
P. E. Newberry, Dr. G. A. Auden, Pro-
fessors T. H. Bryce, A. Keith, P.
Thompson, R. W. Reid, H. J. Fleure,
and J. L. Myres, Sir B. C. A. Windle,
and Professors R.J. A. Berry, Baldwin
Spencer, Sir T. Anderson Stuart, and
E. C. Stirling.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Xxi

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee

To prepare and publish Miss Byrne’s | Chairman.—Professor Baldwin Speacer.
Gazetteer and Map of the Native | Secretary.—Dr. BR. R. Marett.
Tribes of Australia, Mr. H. Balfour.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia. | Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.

Secretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace. |

Professors R. C. Bosanquet and J. L.
Myres.

To conduct Anthropometric Investiga- | Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres,
tions in the Island of Cyprus. Secretary.—Dr. F. C, Shrubsall.
Dr, A. C. Haddon.

To investigate the Lake Villages in the | Chairman.—Professor Boyd Dawkins.
neighbourhood of Glastonbury in | Seeretary.—Mr. Willoughby Gardner.
connection with a Committee of the | Professor W. Ridgeway, Sir Arthur Evans,
Somerset Archzological and Natural Sir C. H. Read, Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A.
History Society. Bulleid, and Mr. H. Peake. .

To co-operate with Local Committees | Chairman.—Professor W. Ridgeway.
in Excavations on Roman Sites in | Secretary.—Professor R, C. Bosanquet.
Britain. Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. Willoughby Gardner,
and Professor J. L. Myres. |

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Colour Vision and Colour Blindness. Chairman.—Professor E. H. Starling.

Secretary.—Dr. Edridge-Green.
,| Professor A. W. Porter, Dr. A. D. Waller, |
Professor C. 8. Sherrington, and Dr. |

F. W. Mott.
Physiological Standards of Food and | Chairman and Secretary.—Dr. A. D. |
Work. Waller. /
Professors W. D. Halliburton and W. H. |

Thompson.

Section K.—BOTANY. /

To consider and report upon the neces- | Chairman.—Professor M. C. Potter.
sity for further provision for the | Secretary.—
Organisation of Research in Plant | Professor Biffen, Mr. F. T. Brooks, Pro- |
Pathology in the British Empire. fessor T. Johnson, Mr. J. Ramsbottom, |

| Mr. E. 8. Salmon, Dr. E. N. Thomas,

| and Mr. H. W. T. Wager.

To consider the possibilities of investi- | Chairman.—Mr. H. W. T. Wager.
gation of the Ecology of Fungi, and | Secretary.—Mr. J. Ramsbottom.
assist Mr. J. Ramsbottom in his | Mr. W. B. Brierley, Mr. F. ‘I. Brooks, |
initial efforts in this direction. Mr. W. Cheesman, Professor T. John- |
son, Dr. C. E. Moss, Professor M. C. |
Potter, Mr. L. Carlton Rea, Miss A.
| Lorrain Smith, and Mr, E. W. Swanton,

XXli

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

To carry out a Research on the Influ-
ence of varying percentages of Oxy-
gen and of various Atmospheric
Pressures upon Geotropic and Helio-
tropic Irritability and Curvature.

To cut Sections of Australian Fossil
Plants, with especial reference to a
specimen of Zygopteris from Simp-
son’s Station, Barraba, N.S.W.

| The Collection and Investigation of
Material of Australian Cycadacez,
especially Bowenia from Queensland

The Investigation of the Vegetation of
Ditcham Park, Hampshire.

The Structure of Fossil Plants.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic
Station in Jamaica.

State and Education, and the means
of giving effect to proposals for
Educational Reform.

| To examine, inquire into, and report on
the Character, Work, and Mainten-
ance of Museums, with a view to
their Organisation and Development
as Institutions for Education and

into the Requirements of Schools.

and Macrozamia from West Australia,

Research ; and especially to inquire —

Chairman.—Professor ¥. O. Bower.
Secretary.—Professor A. J. Ewart.
Professor F, F. Blackman.

Chairman.—Professor Lang.

Secretary.—Professor T. G. B. Osborn.

Professors T. W. Edgeworth David and
A. C, Seward.

Chairman.—Professor A. A. Lawson.
Secretary.—Professor T, G. B. Osborn.
Professor A. C. Seward.

Chairman.—Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Secretary.—Mr. R. 8. Adamson.
Dr. C. E. Moss and Professor R. H. Yapp.

Chairman.—Professor F. W. Oliver.

| Secretary.—Professor F. E. Weiss.
| Mr. E. Newell Arber, Professor A. C.

Seward, and Dr. D. H. Scott.

Chairman.—Professor F, O. Bower.

Secretary.—Professor R. H. Yapp.

Professors R. Buller, F. W. Oliver, and
F. E. Weiss.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To consider the relations between the | Chairman.—Sir Napier Shaw.

Secretary.—Mr. Douglas Berridge.
(Membership to be determined.)

Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green.

Secretaries.—Mr. H. Bolton and Dr. J. A.
Clubb.

Dr. F, A. Bather, Mr, C. A. Buckmaster,
Mr. M. D. Hill, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Pro-
fessors E. J. Garwood and P. New-
berry, Sir H. Miers, Sir Richard Temple,
Mr. H. Hamshaw Thomas, Professor
F. E. Weiss, Dr. Jessie White, Rev. H.
Browne, Drs. A. C. Haddon and H. S.
Harrison, Mr. Herbert R. Rathbone,
and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. XXlil

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Meeting in London, July 1917.
The Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer
for Grants are prefixed to the respective Committees.

Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science.
*Turner, Professor H. H.—Seismological Investigations ...... 100 0 0

Section B.—Chemistry.
*Donnan, Professor F. G.—Colloid Chemistry and its

BeMARRIAL A BPINOAGIONES 20ece...5..05.00iscrcecsecccecssccseseee 10 0 O
*Chattaway, Dr. F. D.—Non-Aromatic Diazonium Salts.......7 7 8
Section C.—Geology.
*Boulton, Professor W. S.—The Geology of Coal Seams ...... 15 0 O
*Cole, Professor Grenville——Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
NMR, SPRINTED 9 5 gsc 5p na By cepa dete o Weeicbges doe camdec Zones: 5 0 0
Section D.—Zoology.

*Bateson, Professor W.—Inheritance in Silkworms ............ 20 0 0

Section F.—Economic Science and Statistics.

*Scott, Professor W. R.— Women in Industry .......00........ 10 0 0
*Scott, Professor W. R.—Effects of the War on Credit, &.... 10 0 O
Section H.—Anthropology.

*Marett, Dr. R. R.—-Paleolithic Site in Jersey .................. 5 0 0

*Myres, Professor J. L.—Archeological Investigations in
NNN cess frog d) ne pontine pn9s spe xen sed cescenovp neues caricgnyeeey,, 20), QO
*Myres, Professor J. L.—Distribution of Bronze Age Imple-
7 SE RE 'sig'esig a nada dnebbeeeycooasgacaies 0
*Dawkins, Professor Boyd.—Artificial Islands in Highland
I co nln 70a aT CAS ana icchostisSesegtacciconaseienn & aE OO
*Read, Sir C. H.—Age of Stone Circles ...........cceccceceeese eee 15 0 0
Section I,—Physiology.
*Schiifer, Sir E. AA—The Ductless Glands.................. 0000. 9 00
Section K.—Botany.
*Blackman, Dr. F. F.—Heredity ...... RporhGedtewsad lens bea 15 0 O
Oarried forward .......:.....<..,.000-.#234 17 8

* Reappointed,

XX1V CAIRD FUND.

Section L.— Educational Science. sg. de

Brought forward ............... 284.17 8

*Auden, Dr. G. A.—School Books and Eyesight ............... 2 0 0
*Myers, Dr. C. S.—Mental and Physical Factors involved in

LOR MEOMS 2.5 Secon cats sachs nntees cer sat tos a ene aaa eee to 2

*Buckmaster, Mr. C. A..—The ‘ Free-place’ System ............ 10 0 O
*Gregory, Professor R. A.—Science Teaching in Secondary

DONG ON Nay acaes ceiWaas ctwidys shane vueleds anasdaup nese ecn nee ae 10 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.
*Whitaker, Mr. W.—For Preparation of Report.................. 25 0 0

Total ..<seciessdheospespreee Stn te 40

Catrp Funp.

An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council, in its Report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting, made certain recommendations as to the administra-
tion of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the
Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913.

The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the
Council] to September 1917 :—

Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. xix).— 507. (1912-13) ; 1002.
(1913-14) ; 100/. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee’s report.

Seismology Committee (p. xii).—100/. (1913-14); 1002. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report.

Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. xvi).— 5001. (1913-14).

Magnetic Ke-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).—2501.

Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. xvi).—1001.
(1914-15).

Mr. I. Sargent, Bristol University, in connection with his Astro-
nomical Work.—101. (1914).

Organising Committee of Section F (Economics), towards expenses of
an Inquiry into Outlets for Labour after the War.—100/. (1915).

Rev. T. E. R. Phillips, for aid in transplanting his private observa-
tory.—201. (1915).

Oceanographical Laboratory—100I. (1916-17).

Committee on Fuel Economy.—25l. (1915-16).

Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000J.
to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.

* Reappointed.

REPORTS

ON THE =

STATE OF SCIENCH.

yaaa So
eee Sal
ee)

i eae

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Seismological Investigations.—Twenty-second Report of .the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. Turner (Chairman),
Mr. J. J. Saw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E.
Crompiz, Mr. Horacr Darwin, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W.
Dyson, Su R. T. Guazesrook, Professors C. G. Knorr and
H. Lamp, Sir J. Larmor, Professors A. E. H. Love, H. M.
Macponatp, J. Perry, and H. C. Puummer, Mr. W. E.
Puiummer, Professors R. A. Sampson and A. Scuustrer, Sir
Narrer Suaw, Dr. G. T. Waiker, and Dr. G. W. Wanker.

I. General.

Owine to the cancelling of the Bournemouth meeting proposed for
1917, and to other reasons connected with the war, the present Report
is made brief. It has been drawn up by the Chairman, except where
specially mentioned.

The Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 10CI. (including
printing), in addition to 100]. from the Caird Fund already voted. The
grant was formerly 60l., with 70l. for printing—1301. in all ; but during
the war it has been reduced to 1001., partly to meet the need for economy,
partly because the printing has necessarily been less. The Government
Grant Fund administered by the Royal Society has voted a subsidy of
2001. for 1917 asin recent years. With the above modification the budget
remains practically the same as given in the 20th Report.

The Shide staff has remained unchanged, though it is probable that
changes must shortly be made. The general question of organisation of
seismology has not only been discussed at several meetings of the present
Committee, but is also under consideration by the Geodetic Committee,
appointed by Section A of the British Association in 1916. This Com-
mittee contemplates approaching the Government with a proposal for a
Geodetic Institute. It has been suggested that before taking definite
steps in this direction the similar needs of other branches of geophysics
(seismology, magnetism, tides, &c.) should be reviewed ; and the Geodetic
Committee, suitably enlarged for the purpose, is proceeding to this review.

The collation of the records for 1913 was completed and printed as a
separate pamphlet, with a preliminary discussion. Further discussion is
given in a later section of this Report.

4 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

I. Instrumental.

The time signals at Shide have been received regularly, with some
interruptions chiefly due to bad weather, and consequent derangement
of the instrument.

The transit lent by the Royal Astronomical Society has been used in
scpplement ; but it is found difficult to secure the instrument in a per-
manent azimuth. The method used has been to fix the feet to the pier
with plaster-of-Paris; and this holds for a time, and then seems to give
way for some unknown reason. On the first occasion it was naturally
assumed that there had been some accidental blow to the instrument,
but it is difficult to believe that this can have happened on all the occasions
noted.

The following note has been received from the Astronomer Royal
for Scotland :—

An Improved Method of Registration for Milne Seismographs.

An attempt was made to improve the trace of the Milne Seismograph
at Edinburgh by using a very small source of light. Though some improve-
ment was obtained, a limit was soon reached in the diffraction pattern
resulting from the crossed slits. The following arrangement was then
adopted. The boom ends in a plate of blackened alumimium foil, in the
centre of which is a hole rather less than 1mm. diameter. Over this hole
is mounted a small lens, which forms an image on the bromide paper of
a specially small source of light. The lens used is achromatic, of 9 mm.
focal length. The fixed slit-plate was at first left undisturbed; but
subsequently the slit was widened to about 1 mm. To obtain a sufficiently
small source of light, a four-candle-power electric lamp with coiled-up
filament is fixed 30cm. above the end of the boom, and 10cm. below this
is placed a telescope ocular of 1 cm. focus.

The results show a striking improvement on the previous records.
The trace is a line well under =}; mm. thick, and can be magnified ten or
twenty times with advantage. In this way the short-period oscillations
of the boom, which formerly resulted in a blurring of the trace, are clearly
resolved. ‘To obtain the full benefit of the magnification it would be an
improvement to run the paper at a much slower rate than at present (say,
at 10) mm. per hour instead of 240 mm.).

Milne-Shaw Seismographs.

It was submitted in the last Report that the most important work of the
Committee for the present lies in replacing the Milne machines (either by
Galitzin machines or) by Milne-Shaw machines. The difficulties of
obtaining Galitzin machines have not decreased ; but it is gratifying to
report that a number of orders have been received for M.-S. machines,
and that a generous subsidy of 2001. has been made from a private source.
Hence Mr. Shaw has been working early and late to make a number of
machines. It is perhaps better to reserve the list for the end of the war,
but it may be stated that two have been safely delivered to America, and
others are nearing completion. There have been considerable difficulties
in obtaining some of the materials, but Mr. Shaw’s patience and ingenuity

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. a

have overcome them. In the course of construction and testing he has
obtained a number of interesting results of which he has made the following
notes. It may be added that, in spite of the pressure of this work, he
has found time to make regular visits of superintendence to Shide, either
in company with the Chairman or alternating with him. His instru-
mental skill and knowledge have been freely put at the disposal of the
Committee throughout.

Notes on the Comparison of two Milne-Shaw Seismographs.
By J. J.S.

The testing of two Milne-Shaw seismographs, No.8 and No. 9,at West
Bromwich, during May of the present year, showed not only how stan-
dardised machines may be relied upon to give similar seismograms, but
also afforded an opportunity of investigating the questions of daily tilt
oe microseisms, and the degree of sensitivity to which a machine can

e set.

Statements have been published that, due to the mechanical imperfec-
tions of seismographs, there is a difficulty in obtaining long periods of
oscillation ; anything of the order of 60 seconds being an impossibility.
The facilities for making refined adjustment provided in the Milne-Shaw
type prompted the writer to investigate the possibilities.

No difficulty was experienced in obtaining a period of 60 seconds, and,
in order to test its constancy, the machine was left for five days, at the
end of which time the period remained unchanged.

The period was then increased to 90 seconds ; the machine had now
become highly sensitive to the slightest tilt. With a nominal magnifica-
tion 150 times the horizontal ground movement, this period gave such a
sensitivity to tilt that 1 sec. of are produced 1-5 metre displacement
of the light spot ; or conversely 1 mm. displacement corresponded to a
tilt of 1 inch in about 5,000 miles.

A subsequent attempt produced a period of approximately 120 seconds,
which represents a sensitivity of 1mm. amplitude for a tilt of 1 inch in
upwards of 8,000 miles.

With the apparatus in this condition the smallest movement of the
observer affects the position of the light spot ; therefore the observer
took up a seated position 6 feet from the column ; but even so, a swaying
of the body in the chair produced an appreciable effect.

This machine, No. 8, was mounted upon a pier measuring about a
cubic yard, built up from the cellar floor of the writer’s house. The
weight of one person (150 lb.) in a bedroom two floors above, and not
immediately over the instrument, produced a tilt in the cellar floor of
about -04 second of arc, causing the light spot to be deflected more than
100 mm.

A test was made of the machine’s sensitivity to temperature change
at this 120 seconds period. Approaching the column for this purpose
was out of the question, therefore the rays from a small Bijou incandescent
gas mantle, with which the chamber was lighted, were, by means of a
small hand mirror, so projected that they fell upon one side of the column
and not upon the other. The heat from this small increase of illumination
expanded the one side of the column sufficiently to drive the light spot
off the scale. Ne Remand

When timing the period of oscillation in these higher sensitivities it

6 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

was noted that the effect of amplitude upon the period became very
marked—increasing the amplitude of swing rapidly increased the period.

With the pendulum set to oscillate in 10 or 12 seconds this difference
amounts to only about 1); of a second over a wide range of amplitude ;
but at 120 seconds the fluctuation becomes important. With a change
in amplitude from 1,000mm. to 100mm. there was a drop in the period
of 20 to 30 per cent. ‘

Time did not permit of an investigation to determine the rate of change
with differing periods. There was insufficient change in the damping
ratio to account for the phenomenon, therefore it is probable that it is an
extreme case of ‘ circular error.’

This variation of period with amplitude, even when small, suggests
that some standard amplitude should be used when determining the
period. 10 mm. is the prescribed standard with the Milne-Shaw machine.

The Milne-Shaw boom is short, and the magnification includes
mechanical leverage. Though the friction of same is extremely small.
it was expected that it would be sufficient to operate against obtaining
excessively long periods, and would compare unfavourably with a simple
elongated pendulum of the Milne type. The result was quite the reverse,
thus establishing the fact that the air resistance on a long boom forms the
major part of the total friction, and suggests that, though the design is
simple, it is not necessarily the best for obtaining free oscillations.

The second machine, No. 9, was mounted upon a pier in an out-building
60 feet from No. 8. It was oriented in the same azimuth, and connected
in series with the same time circuit. The constants of both machines
were made equal, viz. :-—

Period Supe hl SK Ae seconds:

Sensitivity to tilt . . 26 mm. = I sec. of are.
Magnification . . « 15031.

Dampingwratio.. |. . 20s Ns

The early part of the month was favoured by calm nights, and it was at
once observed that the microseisms were identical on both machines,
in epoch, phase, period, and amplitude, thus demonstrating that micro-
seisms are pure ground movements as distinguished from convection
currents in the observatory or instrument cases, and that the term
‘ air-tremors,’ as used by so many observers, is a misnomer ; for it is not
conceivable that air disturbances should so exactly coincide in separate
buildings 60 feet apart. It was found that when the microseisms were
intermittent they could easily be identified by their amplitude and number
of waves in a group, also by the interval between successive groups (see
A and B, Plate). In the past, microseisms have been investigated by
observing their period and intensity, and the results compared with
similar data from other stations. It is here suggested that a more fruitful
method may be by gradually separating two or more machines, com-
mencing with a few hundred yards or a mile or two, and, if the trains of
waves could be still identified, increasing the distance to form a base
line of sufficient length to determine their speed of propagation and the
direction in which they were travelling. If this much could be achieved
it is possible their cause and origin might be discovered.

A horizontal pendulum has two types of sensitivity, one to tilt, and the
other to horizontal displacement. The former is regulated by the inclina-
tion of its supports ; the latter is a result of its design, and is proportional

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 7

to the ratio of the leverage about the mass acting as a steady-point, and
magnifies and records the horizontal ground movements ; this sensitivity
is termed its ‘ magnification.’ The constants of one of the instruments
were then altered so that, while the magnification remained the same, the
tilt sensitivity was raised very considerably. But alterations in sensi-
tivity to tilt hadno effect upon the recorded amplitude of the microseisms,
suggesting that microseisms are purely compressional waves.

The constants used were :—

Mons. Magel50) 5° vy. °. « Tilt I seo, = 110 mm.
Wo: Ose~,,, 150) .. : z Se is = 26 mm.

On May 4 a small earthquake shock was recorded at a moment when
the constants of the machines were alike, and it was gratifying to find
that two damped machines when properly standardised may be relied
upon to give similar results. The Plate shows comparable sections of this
record from each machine ; also part of the record taken at Shide (126
miles distant), which shows the same characteristics as the other two—
note the isolated movement C. (Up the film at West Bromwich compares
with down the film at Shide, and the paper speed is slower.) The letters
A, B, C, &c., identify corresponding movements. The discrepancy at
G was due to a fault in the driving motor, which has since been remedied,
otherwise the West Bromwich records are identical.

On May 15 the maximum of another small shock was recorded when
the periods were 40 seconds and 12 seconds respectively, and the damping
7:14. 14:1. The longer period gave from three to seven times the
amplitude according to the impressed earth period. As the dampings were
unequal, the result was not strictly comparable ; but it was noted that the
longer period, notwithstanding the advantage of less damping, was much
slower to take up the earth wave. The long period pendulum showed a
lag of from 5 to 9 seconds behind the other, according to the impressed
wave period being short or long respectively.

This points to the desirability of machines conforming to some standard
period if the times from different records are to be strictly comparable.

A further important observation was the fact—previously referred to in
these Reports—that two sites comparatively near together may be quite
different as regards daily wandering of the zero.

In the Plate the difference in the spacing of the lines on the two
machines shows this clearly. The one with the wider spaces was taken
in the out-building, and the displacement corresponded to an elongation
of the sunny side during the day and a contraction at night, and was
greatest on hot days. Time did not permit of sufficient investigation
to discover whether the pier, cast-iron column, or whole house were
affected. If only one or both of the former, then, since the heat rays
are from the infra red end of the spectrum, protection may be afforded
by interposing some athermanous substance, such as glass or water.

In the 1915 Report attention was drawn to two machines in the same
azimuth, at Shide, behaving quite differently as regards wandering. The
Milne-Burgess was not only less affected, but also showed a time lag
behind the Milne-Shaw. The Milne-Burgess machine was fitted with a
large glass cover. 1t seems probable that the athermancy of glass to dark
heat may have been the cause of the observed effect.

If the iron column only is affected, then a great advance might be
secured by making the column of substances with very low co-efficients of
expansion, such as silica or invar steel.

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ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 9

WIII. Tables for P and S.

‘The Large Earthquakes of 1913’ were collated and printed in a
special pamphlet of xii+74 pages. In the Xli pages of introduction a
provisional analysis of the residuals for P and § is given ; but, the deduc-
tions there made not proving workable, a new analysis of all the 1913
and 1914 material has been undertaken, in which the residuals for different
types of machine were kept separate. The help of Dr. G. W. Walker,
F.R.S., in pointing out some errors and unworkable deductions is grate-
fully acknowledged.

The correction of greatest importance refers to the identification of
S at distances exceeding 90°. The provisional analysis of the 1913 results
shows that there are several phenomena which have been confused as 8,
put are really separate. They were denoted First Set, Second Set, &c.
The First Set lay near the adopted tables, but there were few of them ;
the Second Set, arriving about a minute earlier than the First at A=100°,
is favoured by the great majority of records from 4=90° to 105° (115
records against 29), and for this reason was assumed to be the true 8.
This assumption led to the inference that the times of transmission for
S and P became nearly constant beyond 4100", and an explanation was
suggested why they became faint or even disappeared (p. vii). But
Dr. G. W. Walker pointed out some grave objections to this identification,
which must clearly be given up, with its consequent inferences. The
true § is the ‘ First Set,’ not far from the existing tables; the “Second
Set’ is probably the Y phenomenon to which attention was called in the
20th Report, and it follows that most observatories have recorded Y in
mistake for S; only at Pulkovo and in cases where special care is taken
has the true § been identified. The examples given in the 20th Report
will serve to show how readily the mistake may be made. Y comes before
S; and if the first big movement is taken, it is natural to record Y.

The discussion in the introduction to the 1913 earthquakes was made
in terms of S—P, under the assumption that the ratio of S to P was nearly
constant. But this assumption was one of the faulty consequences of the
wrong identification of S, and falls with it. Hence a new discussion of
S and P separately was undertaken, using the whole of the 1913 and 1914
material together. The data were written on cards which could be
arranged in various ways, and it was determined to separate the different
types of machine. It was found that there was enough material to find
the errors of the tables from Galitzin machines alone, and even more for
Wiechert machines alone. Accordingly these two determinations were
made and are given side by side in Table I.

The first column shows the mean A for the group. On the cards A
was entered to 1°, and a long list of residuals was made for every 1°; but
examination showed that little was gained by grouping in less than 5° sets.
Under G are shown the mean residuals for Galitzin machines, followed by
the number of records, and under W the corresponding numbers for
Wiechert machines. In forming these means obvious mistakes were
excluded ; there is no practical difficulty in doing this except near A=90°
for 8, to which we must devote special attention.

_ It will be seen that there is a systematic difference W—G of + 3°3s. for P
and +5:5s. for S. lf these mean values be subtracted from the columns
for W-G, the numerical mean of the residual differences is +2°3s. for P
and +3'5s. for S.

10 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

TABLE I.
Observed Corrections to P and S from Galitzin and Wiechert Machines in
1913-1914.
P 8
A G No W No. W-G G No. WwW No. W-G
ie 8. 8. S| 3. s. s.
8 0:0 7 +44 43 +44 , — 17 3 + 88 25 +10°5
13 + 06 8 +32 22 +26 | —12°9 7 —t11 14 +118
18 — 03 18 +03 34 +06 > —06 16 +41 28 4+ 4:7
23 — 05 20 —0O3 41 +02 — 67 21 — 14 29 + 53
28 — 6:2 26 —42 39 +2°0 —109 23 — 77 34 + 3:2
33 — 5:3 20 —10 26 +4:3 —240 10 —10°'7 14 +13°3
. 38 — 66 22 —33 33 +3°3 —18°8 20 —135 26 + 53
43 — 2:0 13 —02 26 +1°8 —125 12 —144 18 — 19
48 — 3:1 27 +23 25 +59 | —102 24 — 3:8 21 + 6-4
53 — 1:9 24 436 14 +55 | — 21 17 — 30 10 — 0:9
58 + 18 48 +88 17 +70 | +28 37 + 2:2 9 — 06
lseGop ea Lb 34 +54 14 +3°9 | — 40 34 + 68 11] 10°8
68 -|- 2-2 Bi] PS 2t2 EGE? 0-0) == 39 46 + 213 = WOE2
73 — 10 64 +47 38 +57 | — 65 51 4+ 82 36 + 8-7
78 — 17 51 —l1l 56 +06 | — 83 51 —11 53 + 7:2
83 — 16 37 —14 101 +02 —118 36 —T71 99 +4 4:7
88 + 231 36 +1:°0 52 —I1'1 —167 36 —141 55 -)2°6
93 — 57 19 —1'8 34 +323°9 — — — _ —-
98 — 7'3 Il —07 35 +66 — — — — — |
103 —12'7 24 —32 14 +95 echoed Tanta teeeee
De ee oer n= eee Ser hes te. |
| 113 —156 2 —- -—- —- — =
118 — 64 wf —_- —- — — —_— -— _ —
123 — 12 6 - —- — — — — — —

spondingly larger corrections for 8. These large corrections are not
confirmed by the present investigation, which shows quite small corrections
in this neighbourhood. The attempted explanation of the phenomenon
PX on these lines must therefore be given up. There is no doubt about
the reality of the phenomenon, or of that designated Y ; but the explana-
tions of both must be sought on other lines.

Turning to the bottom of the table we see that records of P fail rapidly
after A=110° even for G machines, and entirely for W machines. After
A=105° there are two records only by W machines at all near the tables :

—7s. at A=106°, and +10s. at A=115°. Other records are (in seconds
of time) : --

A
° °
106-110 | —91 —61 +62 +148 +156 +242 +268
111-115 —110 +36 +147 +154 +205 +214 +271
116-120 +204 +269 +328 +359 +611
121-125 +180 +192 +194 +196 +197 +197 +198-+ 208+ 209

+209+2114 218+2744-277+283+331 +340+ 621

At distances 4=121°-125° it is clear that the records of P relate
to what has been called PX, following P by about 200 seconds, but it is
not altogether clear whether the transition is gradual or abrupt. Several
investigators have treated PX as the true P; have remarked on the

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 1]

* discontinuity ’; and have inferred surfaces of discontinuity within the
earth to account for it. The view taken in the last Report is that PX is
not P; that the true P may be recorded alongside PX, but that as P
tends to become faint after \=90°, PX is read as P by mistake. By
A=121°-125° P has become so faint as only to be read very rarely even,
on Galitzin machines (and only twice on W as above). Galitzin machines
mistake PX for Pat times. We have

Other Records of Galitzin Machines.

A A |
° ° s. Ss. | ° ° s. s. 8. s.
96-100 | +75 +220 | 111-115 +68 +114 +195 +257
101-105 +-169 116-120 +61 +200 +274 +-297
106-110 +77 +256 i 121-125 +51 +-60 +199

The discussion of the tables for both P and 8 beyond 90° thus involves
special difficulties and is deferred to the next Report. Meantime the
following table gives the best values for P and 8 that can be got from the
above discussion, as applicable to G machines. In deriving them the W
machines have of course also been used, with the above constant correc-
tions. Further a little ‘smoothing’ has been used, and the values of
S and P compared and slightly modified so that the ratio of 8 to P may
vary continuously ; the change appears indeed to be sensibly linear.
The tenths of seconds are inserted merely to make the tables smooth ;
in deriving the corrections, the means of five consecutive figures in the
adopted tables have been taken.

TaBieE II.
Suggested Corrections to Adopted Tables for G Machines only.

AE
J ee See a erst Ui cie itt 2 New | New | Ratio
eer bris Bk, | Be le SP P 8
° Ss. S. Ss. Ss. Ss.
8 + 24 EG ia! L735 123-4 2153 1:745
| 13 + 03 7/67] — 8:0 1925 | 335°7 1-749
| 18 a 22 — 56 — 7-8 259°0 454:0 1753
be 22 + 0°4 = aie — 83 3166 5563 1757
} 28 hae —13°3 —11'5 366:2 645°3 1:762
= 33 — 53 —18°7 —13:4 4105 | 724:9 1°766
38 — 65 —18°8 —12'3 451°7 799-4 1770
43 — 65 —15°8 — 93 491°7 872°4 1-774
48 — $2 —10°4 iPS 530-4 943-2 1:778
oe 53 Se en eee — 59 567-4 1011°5 1:782
| 58 ++ 4-1 1:3 — 54 602-9 1077°3 1786
+63 + 4:4 — 09 — 5:3 636°2 1139-7 1792
m- 68 + 3:9 = Oe =| 62 668-1 1199-5 1:796
| 73 + 9-2 LDS Sys 698-0 1256:7 1:800
78 — 02 — 89 =e 7268 1311°3 1-804
88 SL —13-0 —10°9 7541 1364-0 1-808
88 — 43 —17°4 —13°1 780°3 1414-6 1-813
fe 98 — 66 —21-1 —14°5 805°6 1464-1 1818
| 98 = 95 23-6 141 830°3 1512-4 1-822
| 103 —10°3 —23°5 —13°2 8545 1560°3 1-826
108 —10-2 —22°8 —12°6 878°0 1607-2 1-831
ee) ae GT 901°6 1654°5 1°835

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12 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

As regards seismographs other than G, the corrections to G appear
to be sensibly constant at any rate to a good first approximation. They
are assigned by the 1913 and 1914 results as follows, omitting some of
which observations are scanty :— ‘

It will be seen that the corrections to the tables for G instruments,
and the differences between one instrument and another, are such as to
involve sensible corrections to the determinations of epicentre; and the
next step is clearly a revision of the epicentres before forming definitive
corrections to tables. This revision, and the analysis of the errors beyond
A=90°, must be reserved for another Report.

Distribution of Epicentres.

The epicentres lor 1913 and 1914 were entered on a map and were
found to lie near two great circles cutting at right angles. The first of
these has its pole just east of Malta, in

longitude 17° E., latitude 35° N.,

which is the centre of a very good ‘land-hemisphere,’ the boundary of
which skirts the KE. coast of Asia; it crosses both the Americas, and leaves
Australia and several of the large islands in the ‘ water-hemisphere.’

The other has its pole in

longitude 236° EB. = 124° W.; lat. 48° N.

A third circle cutting both these at right angles does not seem to be active ;
its pole is at 122°H.; 20° N.

In view of the proposed revision of epicentres (which, however, is
not likely to modify these figures seriously), the reproduction of the
maps is held over for the present,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 13

™~ [The following note was received after the rest of the Report had been
sent to press. ]

Focal Depth and the Time Curve. By Dr. G. W. Water, F.R.S.

Assuming that P, the first impulse on a seismogram, corresponds to a
longitudinal wave from the focus of an earthquake, the slope of the time
curve for P asa function of the epicentral distance Ais connected with the
apparent angle of emergence é by the well-known relation

GE tle { 1—sin é \ 4
INTEL Oe ey ee
V, being the speed of transversal waves at the surface.

é has been directly measured by Galitzin at Pulkovo for A from 2,500
kms. to 13,000 kms., and the results differ markedly from the values of 2
calculated from Zoppritz’s time curve for P. Galitzin finds a clear
minimum of 42° for é at A =4,000 kms., whereas no minimum is indicated
in the calculated values of é@ (cf. ‘ Modern Seismology,’ p. 54).

Further observations are required before we can regard Galitzin’s
results as characteristic of the whole earth, but I think it will be difficult
to explain these results as peculiar to Pulkovo.

It is important to see how far we can reconcile these conflicting results.

By graphical integration of the observed values of @, we get the time
curve,and using Zoppritz’s value of V, I find that the two curves can be
fitted from 6,000 kms. to 12,000 kms. with a time discrepancy of +11
seconds. The discrepancy would, however, reach 100s. at 3,000 kms.

Using a larger value of V, we can fit the curves from 3,500 kms. to 8,000
kms., with a discrepancy of only +5 sec., but the discrepancy mounts up
beyond those limits of distance. It is not yet possible to decide what com-
promise is most reasonable. We may note, however, that considerable
discrepancy may be allowed for distances < 3,000 kms., as soon as we
admit finite depth of focus.

Kovesligethy has shown the connection that exists between a minimum
angle of emergence and focal depth, and the obvious inference from
Galitzin’s results is that the focal depth is about 1,300 kms., or even a little
more.

This a very startling result, being 10 times the greatest estimate of
depth hitherto given. Yet there appears no escape from the conclusion if
we accept Galitzin’s results, and it 1s remarkable that this depth is about
the same as the depth of Wiechert’s layer of discontinuity.

If such a depth of focus is correct, the whole question of reflexions has
to be re-examined. As a qualitative guide to this, I have considered a
uniform earth with focal depth 0-2 of the earth’s radius taking V,/V.=W 38.
Some remarkable results follow, which I can indicate but briefly.

(1) Surface reflexion of waves either entirely longitudinal or entirely
transversal over their whole path cannot occur till A =103°, and beyond
this there are two paths for a once-reflected wave. There are no paths for
a twice- or multiply-reflected wave. I suggest the possible association of
this with the ambiguous character of § at 90°, noted by Professor Turner.

(2) PS and SP waves are no longer coincident in point of time. PS
does not occur until A=149°, and beyond this there are two possible

14 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

paths, but there is no PS, or higher term. On the other hand, SP with an
infinite series SP,, may begin at A =11°, and there is only one path for each
member until 4 =99°, beyond which there are two possible paths for each
member.

In the range A =11° to 99°, the manufacture of Rayleigh waves goes on.

Actual figures for the earth will, no doubt, modify these numbers in the
sense that they will be smaller than those for a uniform earth, and careful
analysis must be made to sce if the phenomena of the seismogram are
consistent with a focus as deep as 1,300 kms.

Meanwhile, it appears desirable to draw attention to this direct
inference from Galitzin’s measurements.

Prelinanary Report on Terrestrial Magnetism.
By Dr. Coartes Curee, F.R.S.

(Prepared at the request of the Organising Committee of Section A.)

$1. THERE are two existing agencies which should be taken into
account by everyone anxious to promote any new or large scheme of
work, especially co-operative work, in terrestrial magnetism, viz., the
International Magnetic Committee and the Department of Terrestrial
Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In most countries,
terrestrial magnetism is officially regarded as a branch of meteorology,
and most professional terrestrial magneticians are attached to the meteoro-
logical services of their respective countries. The International Magnetic
Committee thus comes to be an offshoot of the International Meteorological
Commission. The latter is composed of the directors of the meteorological
services of the principal countries, but the International Magnetic Com-
mittee is a more numerous and heterogeneous body. The list published in
connection with the last meeting of the International Magnetic Committee,
held in 1910, at Berlin, contained the following names: Rykatchefi*
(President) and Dubinsky (Russia); Schmidt* (Secretary) and Messer-
schmitt (Germany); Bauer, Faris, and Mendenhall (United States) ;
Angot* (France) ; Riicker, Schuster, and Chree* (Great Britain); Liznar
and Kesslitz (Austria) ; Palazzo (Italy) ; van Everdingen* (Netherlands) ;
Carlheim Gyllenskéld* (Sweden); Tanakadate (Japan); Stupart
(Canada) ; Bigelow (Argentine). The British representation has suffered
a severe loss in the death of Sir Arthur Riicker.

The International Committee can pass resolutions, but their doing so
carries no compulsion with it. A number of definite opinions have been
expressed, e.g., as to terminology, data to be published, time to be
observed and sensitiveness of magnetographs, some of which have exerted
a considerable influence. Besides debating and passing resolutions, the
International Committee has got certain things done whose utility is
penerally recognised. Probably the most successful of these is the scheme
of international magnetic ‘quiet’ days, the organisation in connection with

* Those to whose names an * is attached compose the working Bureau, which is
more especially intended to interest itself in current topics.

te ee ie pi a ae

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 15

which has been provided at De Bilt by the Meteorological Institute of the
Netherlands, at present under the directorship of Professor van Ever-
dingen. This scheme is so well known that a brief reference to it will
suffice. All co-operating observatories send in a quarterly list in which
each day has assigned to it the ‘ character ’ figures 0, 1, or 2, according as
the magnetograph curves are regarded as quiet, moderately disturbed, or
highly disturbed. Using these returns, the director at De Bilt assigns a
mean ‘character’ figure to each day, and selects for each month the
five days which seem the best representatives of quiet conditions. He
also selects a variable but smaller number of highly disturbed days. It is
hoped that all co-operating observatories will derive and publish diurnal
inequalities for the five monthly ‘ quiet’ days, and also that they will
publish copies of their curves for some at least of the selected disturbed days.
A good many observatories do both these things. Some publish diurnal
inequalities from the ‘ quiet’ days alone, but most which publish ‘ quiet’
day inequalities publish other inequalities as well. An international
“quiet ’ day, it is important to notice, is a twenty-four hour period com-
mencing at Greenwich midnight, and international ‘ quiet ’ day inequalities
thus refer to exact hours (G.M.T.). One of the recommendations of the
International Committee, which has not been universally acted on, has
been that magnetic observatories should employ local mean time (L.M.T.).
Any observatory, however, other than Greenwich, which employs L.M.T.,
or any time which differs from G.M.T. by fractions of an hour, has to take
two different sets of measurements if it adopts the international ‘ quiet’
day system. The amplitude of magnetic disturbance varies immensely at
different stations, and the attachment of ‘ character ’ figures is so arbitrary
an operation, that the standard is apt to vary considerably, even at the
same observatory. Thus a desire to replace the existing method of
discriminating between days by something based on exact numerical

_ measurement has been somewhat widely felt. A scheme based on what its

author, the late Professor Bidlingmaier, of Munich, called ‘ magnetic

{ activity ’ seemed to present possibilities, and the International Bureau

appointed a sub-committee consisting of Professors van Everdingen and
Schmidt, and the writer, to consider it. A discussion of the subject by the
writer, based on a comparison of curves from more than twenty obser-
vatories, appeared in the journal Terrestrial Magnetism for June 1917.
along with a similar article by Mr. D. L. Hazard.

Another scheme set going by the International Committee relates to the
intercomparison of the absolute magnetic instruments of different countries.
The scheme was that each of the principal countries should, in succession,
undertake the duty of observing at foreign observatories, with a view to

finding the difference between its own standard instruments and those of the

countries visited. One or two such sets of comparisons have actually

- been made.

$2. The second agency mentioned above, the Department of Terrestrial

‘Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, is in some ways the
antithesis of the first. It is not international, its policy is largely that
of a single man, the Director, and it has large funds at its disposal. It
is thus an institution which does not primarily exist for ventilating opinions,
but for getting things done. Hitherto, it has chiefly concentrated on a
_ single problem, the execution of a general magnetic survey of the earth, but

there are indications of the development of other lines of activity.

16 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. —1917.

The work of the Carnegie Institution has two aspects which specially
call for attention. Its work at sea by the employment of a vessel,,the
‘ Carnegie,’ practically free from iron, appears to be so superior in accuracy
to that hitherto done by the different Hydrographic Departments as to
rather encourage these bodies to leave to the Carnegie Institution the
business of obtaining the data necessary for the construction of charts.
There is some risk lest the work of the Carnegie Institution be made
an excuse for reducing official provision for necessary magnetic work,
especially survey work. The other aspect, though perhaps less
intrinsically important, seems more pressing. The Carnegie Department
of Terrestrial Magnetism naturally aim at a uniform standard in their
survey work, and they desire to use not merely their own but all available
field observations. To this end they have carried out a large number of
comparisons between numerous instruments of their own, and also between
their instruments and those of many foreign observatories. They have
recently been reducing their results to what they hope may be accepted
as an international standard, and this standard has been already adopted
at several observatories, including those of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey. But it is important to remember that this standard is a purely
American choice, and does not at present embody any formal international
agreement. It seems not improbable that magneticians may presently
find themselves in a somewhat similar position to that occupied twenty
years ago by electricians as regards resistance standards. The increased
refinements of late years may enable electrical measurements to be made
with an accuracy justifying six significant figures, but I hardly think a
5-figure accuracy—which the so-called international standards seem to
postulate—can yet be satisfactorily claimed for absolute magnetic measure-
ments. Until this accuracy can be secured, not occasionally and acci-
dentally, but regularly, no convincing answer can be given to the query
whether the indications from a so-called standard instrument are unchange-
able from year to year.

The construction of absolute magnetic instruments, giving a 5-figure
accuracy, is presumably merely a question of time and expense. In the
meantime, we shall probably have to content ourselves with something
less. Buta good deal might be learned, and a very useful purpose would be
served, if a workable scheme could be arranged for the systematic com-
parison of the instruments in use at the magnetic observatories in the
British Isles. It is clear that any international scheme which may come
into operation after the war would be much facilitated if each country
made itself responsible for the intercomparison of all instruments within
its own bounds. <A satisfactory comparison of instruments, however,
involves considerable time and expense; thus, unless its necessity is gene-
rally felt, it is unlikely to be accomplished.

‘At one time, magnetographs of the Kew pattern were in a considerable
majority, and absolute instruments—magnetometers and dip-circles—
were largely made in England and verified at Kew Observatory. Also, at
one time, a considerable number of foreign, Colonial, and Admiralty
observers came for instruction to Kew. All these things tended to
uniformity of practice. Circumstances have, however, greatly altered.
Large magnets, such as those of the Kew pattern magnetograph—in their
day representing a great reduction from the magnets of the Gaussian era—
have gone out of fashion, partly for substantial reasons, and partly because

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 17

the defects of more recent patterns have had less time to become generally
recognised. The lesser cost of the small magnet Eschenhagen magne-
tograph, and to some extent, doubtless, the greater pushfulness of German
makers and magneticians, have led to the adoption of German magneto-
graphs in the majority of the more recent observatories. Again, the
tendency has been to replace dip-circles in observatory work by dip-
inductors, for which a higher degree of accuracy seems fairly to be claimed,
and the great majority of these instruments have been made in Germany.
The number of new magnetic instruments wanted in a single year by all the
observatories of the world may seem a trifle from the point of view of a
large manufacturer. The construction of these instruments is not an
industry which promises large financial returns. On the other hand, the
country that dominates the market, such as it is, is the one most likely to
exert an influence on magnetic development, 7.e., to be successful in what is
known as ‘ peaceful penetration.’ Thus the position created by the war
calls for consideration.

_ §4. Amongst the questions on which, at one time or another, the
International Magnetic Committee has expressed opinions, mention may be
made of the time scale and the sensitiveness of magnetographs. A
resolution was once passed recommending 15 mm. per hour as the best time
scale. Originally the time scale in the Kew magnetograph was three
quarters of an inch per hour, but this was reduced to 0-6 inch (15-2 mm.),
which is in close agreement with the resolution. All recent Kew-pattern
magnetographs have adopted the more contracted time scale, and the same
is true of the Watson type magnetographs. A more open scale, 20 mm.
per hour, has, however, been generally adopted for the Eschenhagen
instruments.

Again, the sensitiveness of 1mm. = 5y once received international
approval. This may have been suggested by the fact that if 1 mm.
represent 1’ in the declination magnetograph—a convenient round figure—
this represents not far from 5y at an average European station. Another
consideration was probably the risk, when high sensitiveness is adopted, of
loss of trace during disturbances. Of late years, however, many observa-

tories using Eschenhagen instruments have adopted a considerably higher
Sensitiveness. These instruments use a wider photographic sheet than the
ordinary Kew-pattern magnetograph, and the H magnet carries two
mirrors inclined at a small angle. In this way, greater sensitiveness can be

secured without increasing the risk of loss of trace. ;
A common time scale is a great convenience for the comparison of

disturbed curves from different stations, and there are also advantages in

an approach to uniformity in the sensitiveness. Thus both subjects are of
importance for international co-operation.

. A point, however, that should not be lost sight of, is that the advan-
tages of great sensitiveness are thrown away and may become positive

disadvantages at stations in high latitudes which are naturally disturbed,
- or at stations in temperate latitudes which are exposed to artificial sources

of disturbance. In the former case, in the Eschenhagen pattern, confusion
ensues from crossing of the traces ; in the latter case the attention Is
distracted by the artificial movements.

§5. There are two questions of considerable importance relating to
diurnal inequalities, which invite discussion. It may seem that the five

* quiet ’ days provide an absolutely common set of data for all observatories.
1917. c

18 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

The ordinary observatory, however, has only one set of magnetographs, and
accidents will occasionally happen. There may be loss of the whole or
part of the trace of one or more of the five selected days of a month, and
there is no general agreement as to the course to be then adopted. The
omission of one day represents the absence of 20 per cent. of the material.
On the average ‘quiet’ day at Kew, the n.c. (non-cyclic) change in H in the
24 hours is a rise representing some 10 per cent. of the total range, but it
varies much on different ‘ quiet ’ days, and has not even an invariable sign.
Thus the absence of one or two days from the selected five may make an
enormous difference in the n.c. change. Then there is the allied question of
whether or not to apply an n.c. correction. The theoretical aspect is
complicated by the fact that most, if not all, force magnetographs have an
instrumental drift. In some it is comparable with the true n.c. change on
‘ quiet’ days, and sometimes it is even larger, especially in vertical force
instruments. Everyone will allow that what is a purely instrumental
effect should be eliminated, but the difficulty is to say what is instrumental
and what is not. The question of how to deal with n.c. changes has an
importance which has generally been somewhat imperfectly appreciated.

A second question in connection with diurnal inequalities arises at
stations which do not confine themselves to the international ‘ quiet ’ days.
The natural view to take, especially for a theorist, is that all days should be
included in the diurnal inequality. If we take, however, a station like
Sitka or Eskdalemuir, when a really big storm comes along it is largely a
matter of chance whether the trace remains on the sheet. When the limit
of registration is exceeded, the hourly value is quite unknown, Even the
rigid moralist in such a case recognises the necessity of omitting the hour,
and the average physicist will concede the omission of the whole day. But
the omission or inclusion of even one day of very large disturbance may
produce a large effect in the diurnal inequality forthe month. Recognising
this, and also the great uncertainty in measurements made on highly
disturbed curves, those brought into intimate contact with magnetographs
have usually decided to omit highly disturbed days, and others have gone a
great dealtfarther. Disturbance is immensely greater at some stations than
others, and even at a single station, in estimating disturbance, the personal
element counts for a great deal. Thus, without some systematised scheme,
a common choice of days cannot be hoped for. This would not so much
matter if disturbances were absolutely erratic phenomena, exercising no
systematic effect on the diurnal inequality. Disturbance, however,
influences both the type and the amplitude of the diurnal inequality, and
the influence may be much greater in one magnetic element than in
another. At stations in high latitudes, a diurnal inequality, based on
selected disturbed days, may have double the amplitude of one based on
selected ‘ quiet ’ days.

§6. Another question of some practical importance may be mentioned.
The practice of recording declination (D) and H changes was once nearly,
if not absolutely, universal, but there are now at least four observatories
(Batavia, Potsdam, Eskdalemuir, and Greenwich) which have departed
from this practice, the three former recording changes in two rectangular
components. ‘This departure may have a balance of advantages at a very
fully-equipped observatory, though that is a matter of opinion, but at the
average magnetic observatory it has some very ‘obvious practical dis-
advantages. A declination magnetograph requires less attention and less

[PRELIMINARY REPORT ON TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 19

time spent in observations than any force magnetograph. Also no tempera-
ture correction is required, and there is no variability in the scale value.
The expediency of introducing changes which are unlikely to be generally
adopted is not a question on which general agreement is at all likely, but it
is perhaps as well the question should be ventilated.

A similar remark applies to a second practice introduced at Potsdam,
viz., taking mean values, not for 60 minutes centring at an hour, but for 60
minutes commencing at an hour. There are arguments of some weight for
the change, and they would be weightier than they are if there were no such
things as drift in instruments or natural n.c. changes, which stand in the
way of treating the day as an isolated unit. This is a case in which
magneticians might exchange ideas with meteorologists, as the problem
presents itself in meteorology in a variety of connections.

$7. There are two matters, less obviously of international interest,
which call for notice, even in a preliminary report, viz., the relation of
magnetic disturbance to Aurora, and the taking of observations in high
latitudes. The discovery by Professor Stormer, of Christiania, of a prac-
tical method of securing photographs of Aurora and reference stars, and
of thus determining auroral heights and positions, has rendered possible a
comparison of auroral and magnetic phenomena likely to throw fresh light
on magnetic disturbances, and to provide a means of developing and
checking theory. If this country is to participate in this promising field of
discovery, provision must be made for auroral observations.

Eskdalemuir is, of course, much better situated for such a purpose than
any observatory in the South of England or Ireland, but not nearly so well
situated as an observatory in the extreme North of Scotland. Some parts
of Canada would probably be even more suitable for this purpose.

The other subject is the desirability of securing continuous magnetic
records in very high latitudes. The records obtained by Professor Birke-
land in the Arctic, and those obtained by recent Antarctic expeditions,
show conclusively that these are the regions where really momentous things
in terrestrial magnetism have a way of happening. Records from high
latitudes may prove a key to many magnetic problems.

20 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications.—First Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor F. G. Donnan
(Chairman), Professor W. C. McC. Lewis (Secretary),
Dr. E. F. Arnmsrrone, and Mr. A. 8. SHorTER.

INTRODUCTION.

Tur Committee was formed with the object of compiling information
regarding the advances which have been made in capillary and colloid
chemistry with special reference to industrial processes. For this purpose
it is essential to take a broad view of the term ‘colloid.’ The Reports
which it is proposed to issue will refer to the more important scientific in-
vestigations published in recent years as well as to those possessing a more
immediate technical bearing. The Committee has been fortunate in ob-
taining the collaboration of a number of specialists in various branches of
the subject who have undertaken the work of compilation. The advantage
of this mode of procedure lies in the fact that the necessary selection and
presentation of material has been carried out by those particularly qualified
to deal with the various sections concerned. ‘To these gentlemen the Com-
mittee would express its deep sense of obligation.

As regards the classification and division of the whole, two methods
present themselves: first, a classification according to the nature of the
property, principle, or phenomenon concerned, based on the recognised
divisions of the science of colloid chemistry, e.g., Coagulation, Viscosity,
Adsorption, Peptonisation, &c.; secondly, a classification in terms of the
various technical processes themselves, each of which involves in general
more than one scientific principle, e.g., the process of Tanning, which in-
cludes Adsorption, Coagulation, ‘Membrane Equilibria,’ &c. Both of
these modes of classification have been adopted. This naturally involves
a certain amount of overlapping, but it is felt that the disadvantage is not
serious. It is hoped that this treatment of the subject-matter will not only
be comprehensive, but will serve at the same time to illustrate the close
connection which exists between scientific principles and technical practice.
At the present time many of the operations in technical colloid chemistry
are largely empirical, the scientific basis being unknown or only imperfectly
understood. One of the objects which the Committee has had in view is to
emphasise the existence of this state of affairs. It is clear that the present
position demands a vigorous prosecution of scientific research over the
entire range of colloid chemistry.

The marked differences of opinion which exist at the present time in
regard to various colloid problems are themselves evidence of the relatively
undeveloped state of the subject. As an illustration we might instance the
phenomenon of Adsorption. On the one hand, we have the capillary view
first stated quantitatively by Gibbs, a view which at the present time
occupies a very strong position especially as regards liquid surfaces. On
the other hand, we find the capillary idea dropped and the concept of
valency beginning to take its place as an explanation of the phenomenon,

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 21

more particularly in connection with the condensation of gases upon
metallic and other solid surfaces (investigations of Langmuir and others).
This is merely illustrative, but it is sufficient to emphasise the point
referred to.

A further object of the Committee is to render available as far as is
practicable the information on applied colloid chemistry which is believed
to exist among chemical technologists at the present time, but which from
its possibly unco-ordinated nature is not regarded as suitable for publication
through the ordinary channels. It is hoped that those possessing such
‘incidental’ information, as well as those whose information regarding
various special technical colloid problems is of a more systematic nature,
will see their way to communicate with the Secretary (Muspratt Laboratory,
University of Liverpool), so that the Committee may be able to consider
the question of publication of such material as it considers suitable. In the
present state of the subject it is felt that more will be gained by co-operation
of this kind than by isolated investigation ; and further it is believed that
much may be made public without detriment to individual interests.

It will be obvious that under the present exceptional conditions the sub-
joined Report is of a preliminary nature only.

As regards classification according to scientific subject, one subject only,
namely, the Viscosity of Colloid Systems, is dealt with. As regards classi-
fication according to technical processes and applications generally, the
following subjects are treated :—

1. Tanning.

2. Dyeing.

Fermentation Industries.

Rubber.

Starch, Gums, Albumin, Gelatine, and Gluten.
Cements.

. Nitrocellulose Explosives.

. Celluloid.

. Physiological and Bio-chemical Subjects.

It is proposed to deal with other branches of colloid chemistry in next
year’s Report.

OI OVE 09

VISCOSITY OF COLLOIDS.
By Emit Hatscuex, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, London.

General Review.

An excellent general survey of the subject as it stood at that time
is given by the General Discussion by the Faraday Society in 1913. The
most important advance since then is the proof, by v. Smoluchowski,
that the electric charge on suspensoid particles contributes to the viscosity
of systems containing such particles, and the numerical expression deduced
by him for this increase.

The Kinstein formula, according to which the increase in viscosity
is simply proportional to the aggregate volume of suspended spheres,
has again been tested by Humphrey and Hatschek on a suspension of
starch grains (average diameter 3) in a mixture of carbon tetrachloride
and toluene. ‘The increase in viscosity was found to be more than linear
for concentrations between 2 and 6 per cent.; in addition, the viscosity

22 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

was found to be a function of the rate of shear, and not, as has been
tacitly assumed in measurements with the capillary viscometer, inde-
pendent of it. A similar result for emulsoid sols had been obtained
by Hatschek in 1913. The theoretical reasons why Einstein’s formula
fails, and the general difficulties of a universally applicable formula for
systems of two liquid phases, have been fully discussed by v. Smoluchowski.

As regards emulsoid sols, Hatschek’s formula has been applied
to the calculation of the solvation factors of proteins by Miss Chick,
and of rubber in various solvents by Kirchof. The latter’s results are of
interest, as a comparison is possible between the amounts thus calculated
from viscosity measurements and the amounts taken up by the rubber
in the preliminary swelling—remarkable agreement exists between the
two sets of values. Arrhenius has criticised the figures for proteins,
or rather the viscosity formula leading to them, as the hydration factors
are much in excess of those found for hydrates of salts in solution. By
applying his logarithmic formula to Miss Chick’s measurements he obtains
hydration factors of the same order as those of electrolytes. Hatschek
has, however, shown that the application of Arrhenius’s formula to sols
in organic solvents (rubber and nitrocellulose) leads to factors which
sometimes are negative, and thus without any physical meaning, and
sometimes positive, but many times larger than those to which Arrhenius
takes exception. Ci. ;

The great importance of viscosity measurements as the most delicate
means of tracing slight changes in colloidal solutions is fully recognised,
but in the present state of theory all that can be deduced from such
measurements is that some change has taken place, the nature of which
is either a matter for speculation or for empirical interpretation. As the
latter is sufficient in many instances, viscometric methods appear to find
increasing use in fields as widely different as the industries of rubber and
nitrocellulose on one hand, and physiology and pathology on the other.
There is also a fairly general and gratifying tendency towards the use of
correctly designed capillary viscometers, instead of the grossly incorrect
types used for other industrial purposes.

Further decided progress must depend on the development of theory,
which, considering the great inherent difficulties of mathematical treatment
and the incompleteness of our knowledge of even simple liquids and binary
mixtures, cannot be expected to be rapid, and also on the much extended
use of methods of measurements permitting variation of the rate of shear
within wider limits than have so far been attained.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Experimental and Technical.

The Viscostalagmometer: Methods for determining Surface Tension, Viscosity and
Adsorption. J. Trause. ‘ Biochem. Zeitschr.’ 1912, 42, 500.

The Viscosity of India Rubber Sols. P. ScurpRrowiTz and A. H. Go~pssprouan.
‘Le Caoutchouc et la Guttapercha,’ 1912, 9, 6220.

Studies on the Vulcanisation of India Rubber. Gustav Brrnstery. ‘ Koll.
Zeitschr.’ 1912, 11, 185. (Viscosity of sols of vulcanised India Rubber.)

Colloidal Sulphur. Sven Opzn. ‘ Zeitschr. phys. Chem.’ 1912, 80, 709. (Viscosity
of Sulphur Sols of different degrees of dispersity.)

The Mae of Casein Sols. Harrimtts Cuick and C.J. Martin. ‘Koll. Zeitschr.’
1912, 11, 102.

The Relation between the Resin content and the Viscosity of India Rubber Sols.
J. G. Fou. ‘Gummi Zeitg.’ 1912, 7, 247.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 23

The Viscosimetry of Blood in several Morbid Conditions. A, PLesst and D, VANDINI.

; ‘Riv. Crit. Clin. Med.’ 1912, 12, 609.

The Viscosity of Aqueous Solutions of Sodium Palmitate. F. D. Farrow.
‘J. Chem. Soe,’ 1912, 101, 347.

The Viscosity of Blood in Experimental Acute Poisoning by Mercury, Arsenic, Lead,
and Phosphorus. ©. Farmacntpis. ‘ La Clinica Medica Ital.’ 1912, 5, 273.

A Method of determining Absolute Viscosities. Harotp P. Gurnry, ‘ Mat.
Grasses,’ 1912, 5, 2614.

Viscosity of Cellulose Acetates. G,. Noymr. ‘Le Caoutchouc et la Guttapercha,’
1913, 10, 7009.

Method of determining size of Colloidal Particles, A. Dumansxki1, E, ZABOTINSKI
and M. Eusnsnw. ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1913, 12,6. (From viscosity measurements
by means of Hinstein’s first formula.)

Viscosity and its Importance for the Chemistry of Celluloid in Theory and Practice.
H. Scuwarz. ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1913, 12, 32.

The Aqueous Solutions of Ammonia Soaps, F, GoLpscymipt and L. WEISSMANN.
“Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1913, 12, 18. (Effect of the addition of ammonia, ammonium
chloride, and mixtures of both, on the viscosity of solutions of ammonium
palmitate. )

Qn the ‘ Tackiness’ of India Rubber. VY. Rossmm, ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1913, 12, 78.
(Viscosity measurements on rubber sols in benzene after exposure to light,
and on fresh sols inoculated with such exposed sols.)

Viscosity Measurements on India Rubber Sols, J. G. Fon, ‘Koll. Zeitschr.’
1913, 12, 131.

Studies on the Vulcanisation of India Rubber. Gustav Bernstein. ‘ Koll.
Zeitschr.’ 1913, 12, 193. (Viscosity measurements on sols of india rubber
‘depolymerised ’ by heating and by rolling.)

The Determination of the Viscosity of India Rubber Sols. P. ScnmpRowitTz
and A. H. Gotpssprouen. ‘Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1913, 13, 46.

Changes of Viscosity in Suspensions of Methemoglobin by the Action of HCl and
NaOH. E. Borrazzt. ‘ Rend. d. R. Accad. dei Lincei,’ 1913, 22 (5a), 263.
The Influence of Alkaline Salts on the Viscosity of Proteins. ©. GazzmTTr. ‘ Arch.

di Fis.’ 1913, 11, 173.

The Viscosity of Solutions of Cellulose Nitrates. Frank Baker. ‘J. Chem. Soc.’
1913, 103, 1653.

The Viscosity of Collodion. Tu. CHANDELON. ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim. Belg.’ 1914, 28, 24.

The Viscosity of some Protein Sols, HaRrRinTTE CHIcK and HE. LusrzynsKA.
‘ Biochem. J.’ 1914, 8, 59.

The Viscosity of Protein Solutions, II. Pseudoglobulin and Euglobulin (Horse).
HARRIETTE CutcK. ‘ Biochem. J.’ 1914, 8, 261.

The Influence of the Solvent on the Viscosity of India Rubber Sols. F. Kircnor.
‘Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1914, 15, 30. (Agreement between the amounts of solvent
taken up in swelling and the solvatation factors calculated from viscosity measure-
ments. )

Studies on the Viscosity of Nitrocellulose in Alcoholic Camphor Solutions.
H, Nisuipa. ‘ Le Caoutchouc et la Guttapercha,’ 1914, 121, 8103.

The Viscosity of India Rubber Solutions. R. Gaunt. ‘J. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1914,
33, 446.

The Determination of the Viscosity of Milk as a means of detecting the Addition of
Water. W. D. Koorrr. ‘ Milchwirtsch. Zentralblatt,’ 1914, 43, 169 and 201.

On the Influence of Temperature on the Gold Number and Viscosity of Colloidal
Solutions. L. Licntwirz and A. Renner, ‘ Zeitschr. f. physiol. Chem.’ 1915,

92, 113.
Theoretical.

The Existence and probable Thickness of Adsorption Envelopes on Suspensoid
Particles. E. Hatscurk. ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1912, 11, 280.

The Composition of the Disperse Phase of Emulsoid Sols. E. Hatscuex.
‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1912, 11, 284. (Hydratation factor calculated from the formula
for the viscosity of systems of two liquid phases.)

Colloids and their Viscosity. A General Discussion held by the Faraday Society
on March 12, 1913. ‘Trans. Far. Soc.’ 1913, 9. Containing :—

The Importance of Viscosity for the Study of the Colloidal State. Wotraana
Ostwatp. P, 34.

94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

The Viscosity and Electro-chemistry of Protein Solutions. WoLFGANG Pav. P. 54,

The Rate of Coagulation of Al(OH), Sols as measured by the Viscosity Change.
H. Frevonpuicu and C. Isnizakr. P. 66.

The General Theory of Viscosity of Two-Phase Systems. E. Hatscumr. P. 80.

Does Poiseuille’s Law- hold good for Suspensions? M. Rotumann. ‘ Pflueger’s
Arch. d. Physiol.’ 1914, 155, 318.

On the Influence of Viscosity and Surface Tension on Biological Phenomena.
J. Traust. ‘Internat. Zeitschr. f. phys.-chem. Biol.’ 1914, 1, 275.

The Importance of Viscosity Measurements for the Knowledge of Organic Colloids.
J. Scurrera. ‘ Internat. Zeitschr. f. phys.-chem. Biol.’ 1914, 1, 260.

The Viscosity and Hydration of Colloidal Solutions. Svanrr Arrurntus. ‘ Med-
delanden frin K. Vetenskapakad. Nobelinstitut.’ 1916, 8. (Criticism of the
hydration values calculated by H. Chick for various proteins by Hatschek’s
emulsoid formula. By applying his well-known logarithmic formula Arrhenius
finds hydration values of the same order as for hydrated salts.)

The Viscosity and Hydration of Colloidal Solutions. E. Hatscrrx. ‘ Biochem.
J.’ 1916, 10, 325. (Reply to the foregoing. If Arrhenius’s formula is applied
to sols in organic solvents, it leads in a number of cases to negative solvatation
factors, which are physically meaningless.)

The Viscosity of Colloidal Solutions. E.HatscnEexK. ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond.’ 1916,
28, Part rv. 250. (Controversial.)

The Viscosity of Suspensions of Rigid Particles at different Rates of Shear. Eprra
Houmpsrey and E. Hatscnex. ‘ Proc. Phys. Soc. Lond.’ 1916, 28, Part v. 274.
(The viscosity of suspensions containing from 2 to 6 per cent. by volume of
particles averaging 34 diameter is a function of the rate of shear. At no rate
examined does this suspension show the linear increase of viscosity postulated
by the Einstein-Hatschek formula.)

The Viscosity of Colloidal Solutions. A. v. Smonucnowsxt. ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.’ 1916,
18,190. (Review of reasons why the Einstein formula fails to agree with measure-
ments, especially those obtained by the capillary viscometer. Proof that the
electric charge increases the Stokes resistance factor and therefore the viscosity
of suspensoids.)

COLLOID CHEMISTRY OF TANNING.
By Professor H. R. Procter, University of Leeds.

General Review.*

The conversion of skin into leather is an art dating back many thousand
years, and the group of phenomena now classed as capillary or colloid has
also been long known, though the relation of the two is a matter of modern
knowledge. Under these circumstances it is difficult to know where
to begin the discussion, and the question is further complicated by the
wor : of the present writer and his pupils, who have recently shown that
much which has been attributed to the surface-action which is implied
in the name ‘ capillary chemistry ’ is really subject to more general laws,
and can be fully explained by mass action, electro-chemical attraction,
and osmotic pressure. The title must therefore be taken, with a wider
meaning than its etymology would imply, to include much of physical
chemistry, complicated, however, by structure and the special properties
of colloids.

The skin is constituted of collagen (probably a polymerised anhydride

* Among the abbreviations employed in this Section are the following :—Coll.
= Collegium ; J.A.L.C.A.=Journ. of the American Leather Chemists’ Association ;
L, Coll. = London Collegium, Jan. 1915 to June 1917; 7.0.8, —Transactions of Chemical
Soctety (London).

EE eS

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 25

of gelatine) and physically is a network of fibres of colloidal jelly. In
its natural state it has an outer coat of epidermis, with its hair and seba-
ceous and sudoriferous glands, but it is not necessary in this Report to
consider in detail the chemical, mechanical, and bacteriological processes
which are used to free it from these appendages or to separate its fibre-
bundles into their smaller constituent fibres. These gelatinous fibres
in the dried raw hide adhere together to form an almost homogeneous
horny mass, and the problem of the tanner is so to treat them, either by
chemical change or by surface-coating, as to prevent their adhesion, so
that on drying they remain isolated and free to move, and the skin conse-
quently flexible and porous, and at the same time without tendency to
putrefactive change. While the durability of wet raw hide is measured
in days or weeks, Roman boots have been dug up which are hardly in
worse condition than those which the tramp leaves, worn out, at the road-
side. The methods employed by the tanner, though very similar in their
effects, are so various that no single explanation, physical or chemical,
will cover all of them ; and often various actions are combined to produce
the desired result.

The first general problem, then, regards the nature of the jelly state,
which has many peculiarities. Wan Bemmelen? and Biitschli? believed
it to be a network or cellular structure of microscopic dimensions,
and this view long held the field, but is now abandoned for that which
regards it as a solid or semi-solid solution of which the colloid and water
(or some other solvent) are the constituents. The question is still an open
one whether the colloid is in the form of ‘ micelle’ (submicroscopic
particles) or of large conjugated or polymerised molecules, but this is
mainly a matter of terms, and at least it is clear that the mixture is so
intimate that both constituents are within the range of molecular and
electro-chemical forces.

The colloid most fully investigated in this relation is gelatine, which
in its chemical constitution is almost identical with hide fibre, while its
homogeneous character renders exact quantitative study much more
possible. Soaked in water at laboratory temperature, it does not dissolve,
but swells to a definite volume dependent to some extent on the particular
sample and the temperature. When the temperature is raised above 25°,
the jelly melts and becomes miscible in water in all proportions, though
even when diluted considerably beyond its original equilibrium volume,
it still ‘sets’ on cooling to a coherent elastic mass. Gelatine, both as
jelly and solution, always shows a slight Tyndall effect, reflecting a beam
of light sideways; but the ultramicroscope shows no defined particles.
Arisz* has shown that the Tyndall effect increases with concentration
and with lowered temperature, but without any break or sudden change
at the setting point. The viscosity shows a similar increase, with no
actual break, but a rapid rise at the temperature of gelatinisation, below
which it speedily becomes too great to measure by ordinary methods.
Both these effects are reversed on gradual heating, but there is a ‘lag’
in both directions, a cooling solution only acquiring its full viscosity and

1 Z. Anorg. Chem., 1896, 18, 304; 18, 15.

2 Untersuchungen iiber mikroskopische Schaume und das Protoplasma, Leipzig,
1892. Verh. des naturh.~med. Vereins zw Heidelberg, 1892, N.F. 5, 28-41; ibid.,
42-43; ibid., 1893, 89-102; ibid., 1896, 457-472; ibid., 1894, 230-292.

§ Kolloidchem. Bethefte, 1915, 7, 22.

26 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Tyndall effect after the lapse of considerable time, which may even extend
to weeks, but below 60°, given time, the process seems completely re-
versible. Above 60°-70° some permanent change takes place (hydrolysis
or depolymerisation) which results in lowered viscosity, Tyndall effect,
and setting power. These facts are best explained by the hypothesis that
below 60° the gelatine solution is one of molecules or small molecular
aggregates, which, as temperature falls, gradually unite to form larger
ones, and at the setting point unite to a complete molecular network
analogous to a mass of tenuous crystals. Cases are known in which such
crystalline masses closely simulate colloid jellies. Time is of course needed
for this rearrangement, as it is for actual crystallisation, and owing to
the size and comparative immobility of the particles, rearrangement
is very slow. Kundt‘* has shown that under the influence of rapid
flow at 18° (which is below the setting point) even very dilute and quite
liquid solutions of gelatine show the polarisation effects of strain, while
no such effect could be observed with glycerine or sugar solutions of much
higher viscosity. The writer proposes to repeat these experiments at
higher temperatures, but in the meantime it is clear that the viscosity
of such solutions is not due simply to liquid friction, but includes an
element of strain.

Proteids, among which gelatine must be included, are now known to
consist of open or closed chains of amino acids, linked by the carboxyl
group of one to the amino group of the next with elimination of OH». In
closed chains, groups within a single molecule, forming terminal amino and
carboxyl groups are also similarly united ring-structures. In this case the
molecule is electrically neutral, and non-reactive till the ring is broken,
while the open chains are amphoteric—basic by their terminal amino
group and acid by their carboxyl. A very useful practical distinction is
that ring proteids are unattacked by trypsin alone, while pepsin is able
to open the ring.> Gelatine can be digested by trypsin, but collagen
is only attacked by pepsin, hence the view, supported by other facts,
that collagen is the ring or anhydride form of gelatine into which it is
converted by continued boiling or by the action of acids or alkalies.

If gelatine (or hide fibre) be placed in dilute acid, it swells very much
more than in water alone, and at the same time a considerable amount
of free acid disappears (7.e., is no longer capable of reddening methyl
orange). The effect is most readily investigated with a strong mono-
basic acid such as hydrochloric acid. In this case the maximum swelling,
which may reach an absorption of 50 c.c. of liquid for 1 grm. of dry
gelatine, occurs at an acid concentration under 0.005 N, from which it
rapidly falls in a curve of hyperbolic type as the concentration is increased,
the equilibrium being completely reversible up to about 0.25 N, beyond
which some secondary reaction, probably a further breaking up of the
proteid chain, begins to take place. At the same time the total absorption
of acid steadily increases with concentration in a curve which may be

closely represented by the ordinary adsorption formula, a=ka? (where
a is total acid, x the concentration of external solution, and k and p are

4 Wied. Ann., 1881, 18, 110.
5 Plimmer, Chemical Constitution of the Proteids, Part II. p. 11 (Sec. Ed., Long-
mans, Green, & Co.). The statement seems to require confirmation.

‘ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 27

constants) ; but which is really due to a complicated osmotic equilibrium
which must be further explained.®

Gelatine, being amphoteric, acts as a very weak alkali in presence of
hydrochloric acid, and forms a gelatine chloride, which like most salts
is highly ionised (in fact to practically the same extent as hydrochloric
acid itself). The base, however, is very weak, its ionisation being of the
same order as that of water, and consequently the salt is largely hydrolysed,
and can only exist in the presence of free acid. Thus gelatine base,
gelatine chloride, and free hydrochloric acid are necessarily prok in
such a jelly in proportions determined by the concentration of the acid,
and instead of a definite point of neutrality such as is given by a strong
base, we have only a curve approaching, but never reaching, complete
neutralisation. This is the explanation of the apparent indefiniteness
of proteid compounds, which has led many chemists to deny the existence
of definite proteid salts. By determining the hydrolysis curve and
calculating the upper limit to which it tends, it is possible to calculate
quite definite combining equivalents. Procter’ in this way, on the
assumption that gelatine had a second valency negligible at low acid
concentrations, found a combining weight of 839, while Wilson,’ from
the same experiments, but regarding the apparent second valency as due
to incipient decomposition or experimental error, found 768. It is not
to be supposed, however, that these comparatively low weights represent
the real complexity of the probably polymerised molecule in aqueous
solution, but merely the smallest molecular division chemically possible.

It has been stated that the swelling of gelatine in acids is due to a
complicated osmotic equilibrium, and that it reaches a maximum at
a very small acid concentration, and is repressed if the concentration
is increased. A similar repression is caused by the addition of any salt
with the same anion to the outer solution, and as neutral salts have
no decomposing effect on gelatine, the repression can be carried much
further than with acid; thus a chloride jelly treated with sodium or
potassium chloride is reduced to a horny mass. Seeing that the jelly
is almost as permeable as water both to ionised and unionised salts and
acids, it is hard to see how this repressive osmotic pressure is exerted.
The following is the explanation :—

In equilibrium between a jelly and its external solution not only
must all osmotic pressures be equally balanced, but, as has been shown
by Donnan,’ the electro-chemical condition must be fulfilled that
the products of the concentrations of any pair of diffusible anions and
cations common to both phases must be equal. Thus with gelatine
chloride and free acid the chloridions multiplied by the hydrions must
be equal in the jelly and the external acid. On the other hand, the
osmotic pressures depend not on the products but simply on the swm

° It may be well to point out here that the ‘ adsorption formula’ just quoted is
absolutely void of theoretical basis, as regards adsorption, but is a mathematical
expression which will closely represent any chemical or physical phenomenon which
proceeds at a diminishing ratio, It is, for instance, the exact law of distribution of
a solute between two immiscible solvents, in one of which its molecular complexity
is p times that in the other,

77.C.8., 1914, 105, 320.

8 J.A.L.C.A., 1917, 12, 108,

9 Zeits. Elektrochem., 1911, 17, 572; Donnan and Harris, 7'.0.S., 1911, 99, 1575.

28 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

of diffusible particles present. In the external acid the numbers of
hydrions and chloridions are obviously equal, while in the jelly the
chloridion of the gelatine chloride is added to the equal hydrion and
chloridion concentrations of the free acid present, thus making the final
concentrations of these ions in the jelly unequal. Now, as the sum
of two unequal factors is always greater than that of two equals giving
the same produet, or, geometrically the perimeter of a square is always
less than that of any other rectangle of equal area, and as the sides re-
present the osmotic pressure, while the area represents the product,
it is clear that the two equalities cannot at once be completely fulfilled,
but in electro-chemical equilibrium the osmotic pressure must be in
excess and the jelly must tend to swell unlimitedly and finally to dissolve.
That it does not do so is a consequence of its colloid nature, which depends
on cohesive attractions drawing the colloid particles together to poly-
merised masses or to a continuous network, and which consequently
opposes swelling and solution, while the diffusible ions are held to the
colloid ions by electro-chemical attractions, and, as they cannot escape
from the jelly, tend to drag it apart and dilute it by absorption of the
external acid, from which they expel a part of its acid concentration.
The equilibrium is therefore a very complex one, but finally depends
on the excess of internal osmotic pressure being balanced against the
internal attraction or cohesion of the colloid particles, both ions and
molecules. For its mathematical discussion the reader must be referred
to original papers by Procter and his pupils. It will, however, be obvious
that as the external solution becomes more concentrated the proportion
of absorbed acid (or salt) is increased, while that of gelatine chloride
is limited to the quantity of gelatine present. The difference of con-
centration of hydrion and chloridion in the jelly is therefore diminished,
and it contracts under the influence of its own internal attractions.
Precisely similar considerations apply to the action of alkalies on gelatine.
Tonisable salts are formed by combination of the base with the carboxyl
group of the proteid, and the osmotic equilibrium is with the cation
and OH instead of with the anion and H. Neutral gelatine, as an ampho-
teric body, of course ionises to a limited extent with water alone, and
its dissociation constants are of the same order of quantity as those of
the water with which it isin equilibrium. It is, however, slightly stronger
as a base than as an acid, and consequently its neutral point of minimum
swelling is slightly on the alkaline side. This has important bearings
on manufacturing practice, the greatest flaccidity of the raw skin, which
is required for the softest leather, being obtained in weakly alkaline liquids.

It has been pointed out by Donnan '° that in consequence of the
unequal distribution of positive and negative diffusible ions which has
just been described, the surface of an acid or alkaline jelly in equili-
brium has necessarily an electrical charge or potential, greatest at the
maximum swelling, and such charges seem an essential condition of the
colloid state. The surface is positive or negative according to whether
the diffusible anion or cation is retained in the colloid. Thus gelatine
and hide fibre are negative in alkaline and positive in acid solutions, and
it will be shown later that this has an important bearing on the theory
of leather manufacture."*

10 Zeits. Hlektrochem., 1911, 17, 579.
" See below and Papers under 13.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 29

Wilson '? has extended these facts to a general theory of colloids
and adsorption, showing that all surfaces must possess a potential due
to unbalanced chemical forces on the surface, and therefore in a liquid
containing electrolytes must condense ions or particles of the one sign
on its surface, and repel those of the opposite sign; and also showing
that surfaces must therefore be surrounded with a film of liquid of different
concentration to the bulk, to which the same considerations and equations
are applicable as to the absorbed solution of colloid jellies. For fuller
mathematical treatment the reader is referred to original papers.

Some of the views just explained are so recent that their bearing on
actual tanning processes has hardly had time to make itself felt in technical
literature, and for its latest applications Papers by Procter and Wilson
must be consulted,’ but a brief summary may here be given.

As has been explained, the leather-hide, freed from epidermis, consists
of a sort of felt of fibres of gelatigenous tissue, which are themselves
bundles of finer fibrils cemented together by some substance nearly
identical with, but somewhat more soluble than that of the fibrils them-
selves. Treated with dilute alkalies or acids, this cementing substance
is more or less completely dissolved, and the fibrils themselves are swollen.
Accurate chemical investigation of skin is complicated by this fact of
structure, for while the free acid or alkali absorbed in the jelly of the fibre
is subject to the mathematical laws which have been explained, the
interstices between the fibres are also filled with external solution by
capillarity, and no accurate means has been found of measuring the
proportion between the two. Hide swollen in acid or alkali is tense and
firm, and containing its liquid in jelly-form in the fibres only parts with it
under heavy pressure ; but when the fibres are dehydrated by neutralisa-
tion, the skin becomes ‘ fallen’ or flaccid, and apparently much wetter,
since the imbibed water is easily squeezed out. If in this condition the
loose water is removed by soaking in alcohol or other dehydrating agents,
the fibrils no longer adhere to each other, and a soft leather is produced,
which, however, on again soaking in water, rapidly returns to its raw

or ‘pelt ’ condition.’ If, however, a little stearic acid is dissolved

in the alcohol so as to coat and partially waterproof the dehydrated
fibrils, the leather at once becomes tolerably permanent. This led Knapp
to the view that the process of tanning was merely an isolating and coating
of the fibrils, and, though the explanation is incomplete, it unquestionably
is part of the true one.

In order to make a soft leather, it is therefore necessary to have the
skin in a flaccid or unswollen condition, and, assuming that it has been
swollen by lime, this is brought about essentially by neutralisation.
The older processes depend on fermentations of bran, pigeon and dog
dung, and the like, and just as liming serves the several purposes of
swelling the hide, loosening the hair, and partially saponifying the
fat, so these fermentation processes not merely neutralise the lime
by weak acid, or salts of weak bases, but remove cementing substance

2 Jour, Am. Chem. Soc., 1916, 38, 1982. o

13 Procter, Koll. Beihefte, 1911, 2, 270; 7'.C.S., 1914, 105, 313; and W ilson,
7'.C.8., 1916, 109, 307; ‘Swelling of Colloid Jellies,’ J.ALCA., 1916, 11, 399;
and Burton, D., ‘The Swelling of Gelatinous Tissues,’ JSC ., 1916, 35, 404,

14 Knapp, Natur und Wesen der Gerberei, Braunschweig, 1888 ; Meunier and
Seyewetz, Coll., 1912, 11, 54.

——
4

30 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917. « . . 3

from the fibres by the digestive effects of bacterial enzymes, and complete
the emulsification of fats and the solution of residues of the epidermis.
It is obvious that the attainment of all these varied results by an arti-
ficial preparation is no easy matter, but an approach to a complete solution
has been made by J. T. Wood" (followed by Dr. Réhm, who has
improved working details), by a mixture of ammonium chloride and
pancreatic digestive ferments, which for many purposes fulfils its object
better and much more safely than the old materials. The tryptic ferments
dissolve the epidermis residues and cement-substance, but scarcely
affect the collagen fibres (v.s.). They also facilitate emulsification
of fats by reducing the surface tension between jelly matters and the
liquid, while the presence of free ammonia and excess ammonium salts
regulates the hydroxyl concentration to something near the alkalinity
required for minimum swelling (v.s.). Possible improvement lies
in the direction of the discovery of new enzymes, and of suitable weak
bases and ‘ buffer’ substances, to give the precise degree of solution and
of acidity or alkalinity required for the various leathers. For firmer
leathers the use of weak acids regulated by excess of their salts pro-
duces a sufficient degree of neutralisation and flaccidity.

We must now consider the conversion of the still raw and very putre-
scible skin into permanent leather. We have seen that this can be accom-
plished by dehydrating the fibrils without allowing them to adhere (v-s.),
and by coating them with water-resisting substances; but it is known
that similar effects of an even more permanent character can be produced
by reagents (notably formaldehyde and bromine) which act chemically
on the collagen fibre, rendering it insoluble in water, but which in their
nature cannot deposit any exterior coating such as was assumed by
Knapp. We must therefore conceive the process as being in most cases
a combination of both chemical and physical effects, of which sometimes
one, sometimes the other, preponderates, according to the method employed.
We have also to consider reactions which from their colloid character
differ somewhat widely from those of free ions to which the term * chemical ’
is generally applied. It is therefore best to proceed from simple cases
of which definite explanation can be given, to the complex in which
more than one sort of reaction takes place.

Knapp’s alcohol leather, in which a material is produced with all the
physical characteristics of a complete leather by simple dehydration of
the hide fibres under conditions preventing adherence, has been already
mentioned (v.s.). The theory of acid swelling has also been described, and
it has been shown that as the anion concentration of the external solution
is increased the difference of osmotic pressure between it and the jelly
which causes swelling is diminished without limit, and the fibre contracts
by its internal attractions. This fact is applied in the process of ‘ pick-
ling’ which is principally employed in the preservation of sheepskins
betore tanning. The skins, after unwooling, are treated in a bath of
dilute acid, generally sulphuric, to which some salt is added to prevent
excessive swelling, and are then transferred to a saturated solution of
common salt. The dehydration of the fibre is very great—the skin
becomes thin and flat, and can be preserved almost unlimitedly in the
wet condition; and if dried out and loosened by a little mechanical

1° Wood, Puering, Baling and Drenching, Spon, 1912, p. 186.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 31

stretching, forms a very perfect white leather, which, however, softens
and swells at once in water through the removal of the restraining salt.
It is not essential that the acid should be a ‘ strong’ one. Skins pickled
with formic acid and salt by Mr. Seymour-Jones were sent on a voyage
up the Amazon, and returned in perfect condition. It is obvious that
if a skin swollen with some acid other than hydrochloric be subsequently
treated with salt, a quadruple equilibrium results, most of the proteid salt
being converted into chloride by the great excess of sodium chloride, with
the formation of the sodium salt of its acid, each proteid salt being
balanced against its own anion in the external solution. In a direct
experiment with gelatine formate almost the whole of the formic acid
was replaced by hydrochloric. It is probable that the so-called ‘ free’
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice has been liberated in this way, and
really exists as a salt of some weak colloid base.

In the ordinary processes of production of ‘ alumed leathers’ it is
impossible to work without considerable addition of salt, and the process
is largely a pickling one, the hydrolysed acid of the aluminium salt com-
bining with the skin and leaving a basic salt which is also absorbed,
the quantitative relation between the two independent actions depending
on the relative concentrations. If, instead of alum or normal aluminium
sulphate, a basic alumina solution is used, salt can be reduced or dispensed
with, and the tanning action depends less on pickling and more on the
fixation of alumina. What has been said about alumina tannage applies
with little variation to tannage with chrome and iron salts.

As regards the fixation of alumina and chrome, there is little doubt
that in the first instance it takes place in the form of basic insoluble
salts and is largely physical. The more basic a solution of these metals
and the more readily and completely it is precipitated by the withdrawal
of a further portion of acid, the more heavily it tans. If we imagine
a normal salt to diffuse into the skin, and its acid to combine with the
amino group of the proteid, then the remaining insoluble basic salt must
remain precipitated in and on the hide fibre. Whether this is the final
stage may be doubtful—Wilson, in a recent Paper on ‘ Theories of Leather
Chemistry,’'® suggests that ultimate combination takes place with the
carboxyl group, and this view seems well in accordance with known facts.

. L. Lumiére”? has shown that the maximum amounts of chrome
and alumina which can be fixed by gelatine accord well with this view ;
and Wilson points out that if, as he supposes, the uitimate gelatine mole-
cule is monacid and monobasic, a divalent ion such as Ca**, joined to
two gelatine molecules, should exert only the same osmotic pressure
as the monovalent Na’, and hence its swelling effect should be much
less as is known to be the case; while the trivalent Al‘ or Cr
should swell still less and be yet more easily repressed ; and that therefore
chrome or alumina gelatinates, if they exist, should be very stable and
insoluble compounds. It is well known in practice that change in the
direction of stability gradually takes place on storing or ‘ ageing ’ alumed
leather, and probably the same is true of chrome, though not so easily
demonstrated.

Vegetable tannage appears to be of a more colloidal or physical character
than that with alum,or chrome. Tannins, like the proteids, appear

16 J.A.L.C.A., 1917, 12, 108.
17 Brit. Jour. Phot., 1906, 58, 573; Abst., J.S.C.1., 1906, 25, 770.

32 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

to form colloidal, rather than true ionic solutions, and the particles are
negatively charged, going to the anode in electrophoresis. Whether
the change is due to ionisation or to the fixation of an electrolyte ion
is immaterial for our purpose. The gelatinous fibres, as we have seen,
take a positive charge in acid, and a negative one in alkaline solutions
(v.s.). Hence in faintly acid solution, which produces the strongest
positive charge, they attract and precipitate the tannin particles, while
in alkaline solution no tannage takes place, and in those too strongly acid,
the tannins themselves are precipitated.'* In fact, such colloid pre-
cipitations due to electric charges do not seem to differ in principle
from ionic reactions, though owing to the varying size of the particles
and of their charges they are less definite and quantitative. Whether
ultimately any closer combination with the fibre ensues, as is suggested
in the case of mineral tannages, remains for the present uncertain, but
in long-continued tannage there is a further deposition of difficultly
soluble matters on and between the fibres by forces generally called
‘ adsorption.” We may thus divide vegetable tannage into two stages,
in the first of which the tannins combine electrically or chemically
with the fibre and render it msoluble, and in the second matters are
deposited upon it which add to the weight and solidity of the leather ;
but of course the two stages overlap in time, and the different qualities
of leather produced by different tannages are largely due to their relative
proportion, and the amount of precipitable matter which the tanning
materials contain. It does not appear that the same affinities are saturated
in mineral and vegetable tannages—chromed leather will fix as much vege-
table tannage as raw hide, and vice versa; and corresponding differences
occur in their behaviour to dyestuffs.

Besides the mineral and vegetable leathers there is a third class which
demands consideration. If raw skins are fulled with oxidisable oils, their
water is gradually expelled and replaced by the oil, and if the skins are
now allowed to oxidise (which they do with considerable liberation of
heat and of acryl aldehyde and other volatile products), and are then
freed from unfixed oil by pressing and subsequent washing with alkaline
solutions, such leathers as ‘ chamois,’ ‘ wash-leather,’ ‘ buckskin,’ and
‘ puff-leather’ are the result. Oil leathers, like chrome leathers, are
very resistant to hot water, and also to hot soap or alkaline solutions,
and may even be shrunk or ‘ tucked’ to increase their thickness and
solidity by dipping in these liquids at boiling temperature. Their re-
sistance to hot alkaline solutions, in which all oxidised oil products are
soluble, proves that something more has occurred than a mere coating
of the fibres with oils, but a full explanation has not yet been given.
Since aldehydes are known to produce insoluble conjugated products
with hide fibre, the explanation that acryl aldehyde (derived from the
glycerine by dehydration) was the active agent was a plausible one,
but is negatived by the recent knowledge that equally good leathers
can be made with the free fatty acids alone. This, however, does not
altogether disprove the aldehyde theory, since the unsaturated oils
which alone will chamois are apt on oxidation to break at a double
linkage with the production of higher aldehydes. Another possibility
is that these oils, which are more or less colloid, form emulsions of which

18 7',C.8., 1916, 109, 1329.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND 1's INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 33

the particles are electrically charged, and which combine with the fibre
in the same way as the tannin particles may be supposed to do, though
probably with an opposite charge (v.s.).

The oil squeezed out and known as moellon or dégras is a natural
emulsion, and finds wide use in leather-dressing for the ‘ stuffing’ of
light leathers. This stuffing, the primary object of which is to lubricate
the fibres and make the leather supple and water-resisting, may in many
cases be also regarded as a supplementary and partial oil-tannage. The
fats are applied to the moist leather either by hand as a pasty mixture
of oils and harder fats, or in a melted state in a heated rotating drum.
In the first method the main effect of the harder fats is to retain the mixture
on the surface until the oils are absorbed. The water in the leather lowers
the surface tension between oil and leather at the interface, and as the
water dries out the oil replaces it by capillarity, leaving the harder fats
outside. The surface tension of the various fats with regard to water
and their consequent easy emulsification is thus of great practical im-
portance.

A third way of applying fatty matters to leather much used for chrome
and other light leathers, and called ‘ fat liquoring,’ consists in drumming
the skins with a prepared emulsion, which at first was the alkaline liquor
from the washing of oil-leathers, but is now usually an artificial mixture
of oils and soaps, though occasionally acid emulsions are employed. It
has been found that sulphonated oils, especially castor and fish oils, have
extraordinary emulsifying powers even on hydrocarbon oils, and the
writer has examined a commercial product containing 80 per cent. of
mineral oil, which yet was perfectly and spontaneously emulsifiable when
poured into water. The question of surface tension at interfaces and
against solid surfaces is one of much technical importance, and probably
its effect on adsorption is greater than that of the Willard Gibbs law that
“substances which lower surface tension accumulate on that surface.’
The action of protective colloids on metallic sols has been explained

- as due to the fact that the surface tension of the medium at the metallic

surface is greater than the sum of the tensions of the medium and the
metal with regard to the protective colloid, which therefore spreads in
a thin film between them. This coating of the metal by the colloid is
of course an adsorption; and a similar action may account for many
cases of the latter which are called ‘ anomalous,’ that is, to which_the
Willard Gibbs law does not apply.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
General Physical Chemistry of Gelatine, &c.

1912.
TRUNKEL, ‘ Pharmaceut. Centralhalle,’ No. 38, 52 Jahrg. (Abst., ‘ Coll.,’ 1912, 11,
146.)
“Ueber Leim und Tannin.’
Volumetric determination of the proportions of gelatine and tannin giving com-
plete precipitation. Sensitiveness of indicators.

*Pantker, M. A. K., and Strasny, Epmunp, ‘Trans. C.S.,’ 99, 1911, 1819, and

*Coll.,’ 1912, 11, 9. (Abst., «J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1912, 7.) :
“An investigation into the acid character of gallotannic acid.’ Determination
by catalysis of diazo-acetic ester. Acidity very small, but more than can be attri-

buted to hydroxyl. The most carefully purified gallotannin is probably not a single
substance.

1917. D

34 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

BACHMANN, W., ‘ Zeitschr. Anorg. Chem.,’ 1911, 73, 125-172. (Abst., ‘J.8.C.1.,’ 1912,
82.
: Ee tthtieen tiber die ultramikroskopische Struktur von Gallerten.’
Investigation into the ultramicroscopic structure of jellies. Brownian movement
slackens as jellies become concentrated, and 7-10 per cent. jellies are quiescent and
homogeneous. The structure is much finer than that observed by Biitschli, which
may be reproduced by hardening agents. In solutions too dilute to set, ultramicro-
scopic granular flocculation was observed.
Ertner, W., ‘ Gerber,’ 1912, 38, 43. (Abst., ‘J.S.C.L,’ 1912, 31, 241.)
Some reactions of tannins. Colloidal precipitates.
*Patrrson, S., and WaLsum, L. E., ‘Compt. Rend. des tray., Lab. de Carlsberg,’ 9,
1912, 200-286. (Abst. ‘J.S.C.1.,’ 1912, 31, 1140.)
Optimal concentration of hydrogen ions in the first phase of the tryptic decom-
position of gelatine.
Werimarn, P. P. von, ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 10, 1912, 131.
‘ Ultramikroskopische Structure der gallertartige Niederschlige und der Gallerte.’
Mostly polemic with Zsigmondy and Bachmann.
*ZSIGMONDY, R., and BacHMANN, ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1912, 11, 146.
‘ Ueber Gallerten.’
Ultramicroscopic studies on soap solutions and jellies.
Hartscuexr, E., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1912, 11, 158.
‘Die Gele des Kamphorylphenylthiosemicarbamide.’
A jelly which gradually passes into crystals.
Wermakrn, P. P. von, ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1912, 11; 239.
‘Ueber Gallerten.’
Mostly polemic.
Banorort, W. D., ‘J. Phys. Chem.,’ 1912, 16, 395.
‘ Action of water vapour upon gelatine.’

1913.

Woop, J. T., and Law, D. J., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 43.
“Some notes on the enzymes concerned in the puering or bating process.’
Brocuert, ANDRE, ‘ Compt. rend.,’ 1912, 155, 1614. (Abst., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 160.)
‘ Relation entre la conductivité des acides et leur absorption par la peau.’
Relation between the conductivity of acids and their absorption by skin. The
determinations were made in solutions containing 100 grm. of salt per litre, and
the acid absorbed must therefore have been mainly hydrochloric acid, as shown by
Procter.
EnRENBERG, R., ‘ Biochem. Zeitschr.,’ 1913, 53, 356, from Abst., ‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1913,
8, 442.
Swelling of gelatine in aqueous solutions.
Navassart, M., ‘ Koll. Beihefte,’ 1913-14, 5.
‘Kolloid-chemische Studien tiber Tannin.’
A very full study of the physical properties of gallotannin.
Ibid. ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1913, 12, 97.
‘ Zur optischen Aktivitét des Tannins.’
ZsiaMonpy, R., and BACHMANN, W., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1913, 12, 16.
‘Ueber Gallerten.’
Watpotr, G. S., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1913, 12, 241.
‘ Brechungskoefficiente von Solen u. Gelen der Gelatine.’

1914.

Proctrr, H. R., ‘T.C.S.,’ 1914, 105, 313. Rep., ‘Coll.,’ 1914, 138, 194, and
‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 207.
‘Equilibrium of dilute hydrochloric acid and gelatine.’
Fiscurr, M. H., and Syxzs, Annz, ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1914, 14, 215. (Abst., ‘J.C.8.,’
1914, 100, II., 542.) .
‘ Ueber den Einfluss einige Nichtelektrolyte auf die Quellung von Protein.’
Saccharose, levulose, dextrose, methyl- and propyl-alcohols, propyleneglycol and
acetone diminish swelling of gelatine,

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATYONS. 35

Scarpa, O., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1914, 15, 8. (Abst., ‘J.C.S., 1914, 100, IT., 720.)

‘Umkehrbare Ueberfiihrung emulsoider Gummi- und Gelatinelésungen in den
suspensoiden Zustand, und Higenschaften derartige Systeme.’

By addition of alcohol to solutions.

Fiscurr, E., and FreupEensera, K., ‘ Ber.,’ 1913, 46, 1116.

Hepta-(tribenzoyl-galloyl)-p-iodophenol maltosazone of molecular weight 4021
obeys Raoult’s law in freezing-point determination in bromoform.

Hartscuex, E., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1914, 15, 226.

‘Die Gestalt und Orientirung von Gasblasen in Gelen.’

The bubbles formed in jellies are not spherical but lens-shaped, since the jellies
tear, and the acute edge-angle is the weakest point. The question is discussed
whether the jelly has geometric lines of cleavage. The answer is apparently negative.
but in jellies undor pressure the split is usually normal to the direction of pressure.

1915.

OstwaLp, Wo., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 17, 113.
‘ Zar Kinetik der Multirotatién in Gelatinesolen.
See also correction, ibid., 1916, 18, 32.
MECKLENBERG, W., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 16, 97.
“Ueber die Beziehung zwischen Tyndalleffekt und Teilchengrosse kolloidaler
Lésungen.’
Fiscuer, M. H., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 17, 1.
“Ueber Hydratation und Lésung bei Gelatine.’
*Gerix®, K., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 17, 79.
*Dampfdruck von Gelatine-Wasser-Gemischen.’
Upson and Catvny, ‘ J.Am.C.S.,’ 1915, 37, 1295.
“The colloidal swelling of wheat-gluten. The swelling is increased by acids and
repressed by salts, like that of gelatine.
*AriszZ, L., ‘ Koll. Beihefte,’ 1915, 7, 1-90.
‘Sol- und Gelzustand von Gelatinelésungen.’
A lengthy and very important paper.
Powarntn, G., ‘J. Russ. Phys-Chem. Soc.,’ 1915, 47, 2064. (Abst., ‘J.S.C.I.,’
1916, 35, 429.)
“Swelling of hides in presence of hydrogen ions.’

1916.

Nacet, C. F., ‘ Jour. of Phys. Chem.,’ 1915, 19, 331.
“On the peptisation of chromium hydroxide by alkalies.’
Wintcen, R., “Sitzungsberichte der chemischen Abteilung der Niederrheinischen
Gesellschaft fur Natur- und Heilkunde zu Bonn,’ Jahrg. 1915. ‘ Coll.,’ 1916,
15, 301.
“Ueber das Gleichgewicht Gelatine-Salzsiure.’
By catalysis of methylacetate, Wintgen confirms Procter’s molecular weight 839
for gelatine, and finds the hydrolysis K = 0-0004139.
*Proctrr, H. R., and Wison, J. A., ‘T.C.S.,’ 1916, 109, 307, and ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’
1916, 11, 261.
‘The Acid-Gelatin Equilibrium.’
Mathematical discussion of the equilibrium between the acid and ionising colloid
salt.
Ibid., ‘ J.A.L.C A.,’ 1916, 11, 399.
‘ The swelling of colloid jellies.’
Ibid., ‘ T.C.8.,’ 1916, 109, 1328.
‘Theory of vegetable tanning.’
Wuson, J. A., ‘J.Am.C.S.,’ 1916, 38, 1982.
‘Theory of Colloids.’
A general theory of colloidal sols.
Kusetxa, V., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 389.
‘ Adsorption of organic acids by hide powder.’

36 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Papers relating to the Theory of Tanning and its Applications.

1912.

Meunier, L., and SeveweTz, A., ‘ Coll.,’ 1912, 14, 54.
‘Formation du cuir par deshydratation.’
Dehydration by saturated solutions of potassium carbonate.
Sanp, H. J. S., Woop, J. T., and Law, D. J., ‘J.8.C.1.,’ 1912, 31, 210, and ‘ Coll.,’
1912, 11, 158.
‘ Quantitative determination of the falling of skin in the puering and bating
process.
: An apparatus for measuring compression and elasticity.
Hoveu, A. T., ‘ Leather World,’ 1912, 4, 190, 268. (Abst., ‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1912, 7, 385.)
‘Swelling and solubility of hide in acids.’
Meunier, Louis, ‘ Coll.,’ 1912, 11, 420.
‘Le Tannage au Formol:
Necessity of dehydration.
Gare ut, F., ‘ Coll.,’ 1912, 11, 419. (Abst., ‘J.8.C.1.,’ 1912, 31, 830.)
‘Le tannage par les sels de cerium.’
(Cp. ‘ Coll.,’ 1911, 10, and ‘ Gerber,’ No. 887, 1911.)
Procter, H. R., ‘ Coll.,’ 1912, 11, 687.
‘ Note on the pickling process.’
Woop, J. T., ‘Tanners’ Yearbook,’ 1912, 116.
‘Rising or pickling of skins.’
Buocxey, J. R., ‘Tanner’s Yearbook,’ 1912, 98.
‘ The soaking of skins by means of formic acid.’
Srrasny, E., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1912, 7, 301. (Abst., ‘J.S.C.L,’ 1912, 31, 694.)
‘ Applications of the Jaw of mass action to some of the reactions of the tanning
process.’

Woop, J. T., and Law, D. J., ‘J.S.C.1.,’ 1912, 34, 1105, and ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 43.
‘Some notes on the enzymes concerned in the puering and bating process.’
CHEMISCH-TECHNOLOGISCHE STUDIENGESELLSCHAFT, D.R.P., Nr. 253171, 22/3/1910

(1/11/1912), ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1912, 11, 313.
The use of acetone or alcoholic solutions of tannins for quick tanning.

1913.
Tuvan, N. J., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 237.

‘ Développement de l’emploi des huiles émulsionables et des émulsions en tannerie.’

Woop, J. T.,Sanv, H. J.S., and Law, D. J.,‘ J.S.C.1.,’ 1913, 32, 398, also‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’
1913, 8, 247, and ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 355.

‘The quantitative determination of the falling of skin in the puering or bating
process, Part II.’ (Cp. Part I., 1912.) Draws a distinction between capillary and
jelly-water.

SommeERHOFE, E. O., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 381.

‘ Gerbung der Haut durch “‘ unlosliche”’ Metalgallerten, und Schlussfolgerungen
auf die Tanninanalyse.’

Tbid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 416.

‘ Ueber die katalytische Wirkung der Gerbstoffkolloide als Trager des Luftsauer-
stoffs’ (‘ Pseudobacterien ’).

Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 531.

‘ Ueber schwerlésliche Gerkstoffe.’

Tbid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 533. (Abst., ‘J.8.C.1.,’ 1914, 38, 95.)

‘Ueber die Gerbung und Beschwerung von Haut und Seide unter besonderer
Beriicksichtigung des Kolloidwassers.’ (Cp. ibid., 638.)

(Wordy and theoretical papers with little experimental basis.—H. R. P.)
GaRELui, F., and Apostoto, C., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 422. (Eng. abst., zbid., 549.)

‘ Action des sels de bismuth sur la peau.’

GaRELLI, F., and Apostoxo, C., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 425. (Eng. abst., ibid., 611.)

‘ Sur le tannage par les acides gras et résineux.’

Procter, H. B., ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1913, 75.
‘ The acid deliming process.’

Satomon, J. B., ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1913, 143.
‘Notes on the theory of fat liquoring.’

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 37

Nevgevy, J. L., ‘ Allgemeine Gerber-Zeitung,’ 15, Nr. 15. (Abst., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12,
409.)
‘Das Weissgarleder.’
Tannage with partially precipitated alumina salts.
AposToto, C., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 420. (Eng. abst., ibid., 547.)
“Ueber die Gerbung mit frischgefilltem Schwefel.’
Wuutams, O. J., ‘ Coll.,’ 1913, 12, 76; ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1913, 8, 328.
* Enquiry into electrical tannage.’—Preliminary note.
Ripwat and Evans, ‘ J.S8.C.1.,’ 1913, 32, 633.
‘Electric Tannage.’

1914,

Woop, J. T., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 18, 305, and‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 318.
‘ Light leather liming control.’
Ibid., ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1914, 152, and ‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 390.
‘Some remarks on liming,’
Mevnier, L., and SeveweTz, A., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 18, 532. (Abst., ‘ J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, y,
379.)
“Sur les propriétés tannantes comparées des différentes quinones.’
Powarnin, G., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 13, 634, from Abst., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 567.
‘ Active carbonyl, and tannage with organic substances.’
Tbid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 13, 659.
“Formula on swelling of hide with acids.’
Faurion, W., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 13, 707. (From Abst., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 66.)
Reply to Powarnin on theory of leather formation.
Van Tasset, E. D. J., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 236.
“A new emulsifying agent ’ (Stearamid, ‘ Duron’).
Mottrr-Jacoss, A., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 234.
‘A contribution to the history of a new industry ’ (Stearamid),
Lamp, M. C., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 359, and ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1914, 127.
* Colloidal Tannins.’
Tannage by mixtures of ‘ Tragasol’ (Locust-bean mucilage) and quebracho in

Wittiamson, C. G., ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1914, 359.

Sy (2).%

ee between acidity of liquor and yield of leather.
Sommernorr, E. O., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 18, 3. (Abst., ‘J.S.C.1.,’ 1914, 33, 152.)

‘Ueber das Léslichmachen von ‘‘ Gerbmehlen ”’ (phlobaphenen) durch Hydrolyse
* mit Schwefligersiiure, und iiber die Wirkung von Dextrineglucosezusiitzen zu den
Gerbstoffglucosiden.’

Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 18, 81.

*‘ Ueber Gerbmehlen (phlobaphene) und tiber verschiedene Reaktionen der Hydro-
lyse (Phytolyse).’

Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 13, 225.

* Ueber Pikrinsiiure- und Chinongerbung.’

Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1914, 13, 325, 369, 499.

‘Theorie des Farbens, Beizens und Gerbens.’

These papers advance a theory that all tanning depends on the presence of a
* peptisable ’ substance, a ‘ peptisator ’ or solvent, and an ‘ acceptor ’ (the hide) which
again precipitates the sol. The theory may be true of certain cases, but is certainly
not so universally, as the author appears to claim.
Koun-Asrest, E., ‘ Bulletin des Chimistes de Sucrerie et de la Distillerie ’ (through

“Tech. Sup.,’ No. 7, to ‘ La Halle aux Cuirs,’ 5 Apr. 1914.)

Tannin compounds produced by Al-Hg couple, and a suggested method of tannin

analysis. (Trans., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1914, 9, 260.)

1915,
Sommernorr, E. 0., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 26. (From Abst., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10,

331.)
The new dehydration theory of leather formation as opposed to the oxidation

theory.

38 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Mortuer, W., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 49, and ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 16, 69.
‘ Peptisationserscheinungen in Gerbstofflésungen.’
Tbid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 193, 225, 253.
‘ Peptisation und Gerbprozess.’
Kupuacex, E., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 1, 59, 117, 163. Abst., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 387.
“Ueber das Adsorptionsvermégen von Hautblosse gegentiber vegetablische Gerb-
stoffe.’
Much tabular matter of interest.
Kosert, R., ‘ Berichte der Deutschen Pharmaceutischen Gesellschaft,’ 2 Jahrg., 1915,
Heft 9, "and ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 108, 154, 321.
‘Ueber den biologischen Nachweis und die Bewertung von Gerbstofien.’
Determination of “astringency by the shrinking of red blood corpuscles.
Faurion, W., ‘ Coll.,’ 1915, 14, 332.
‘Zur Theorie der Lederbildung.’
Procter, H. R., ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1915, 1, 3, 33, 67, 94, 117, 189, 257.
‘The Combination of Acids and Hide Substance.’
Nisovt, E., ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1915, 1, 141, 174.
‘Tannage au Tonneau.’
RanDaALL, P. M., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 171, and ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1915, 1, 155.
‘Chemical Data from the Pickle Solution.’
Srymovur-JoniS, ARNOLD, ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1915, 1, 289.
‘The Chemistry of the Skin.’
*Scuticutn, A. A., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 526, and ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2, 20, 61.
“A study of the changes of skin during their conversion into leather.”
Hetrricn, J., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 396.
‘ Chemical Control of the Beamhouse.’
Bennett, H. G., ‘J.A.L.C.A.,’ 1915, 10, 569; ‘Shoe and Leather Reporter,’ 1915,
Sept. 28, 31.
‘ What loosens the hair in liming hides ?—an unsettled question.’
LAUFFMANN, R., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1915, 17, 37.
‘Die neuere Gerbetheorien.’
Fatcroa, P., ‘ Annalidi Chimica Applicata,’ 1915, 1, 32-36.
‘Tanning power of triacetin.’

1916.

LavurrMann, R., ‘ Koll. Zeitschr.,’ 1916, 19, 36, 133.
‘Bericht iiber die Fortschritte in der Gerbereichemie in den Jahren 1913-1915.’
*Woop, J. T., ‘ Reports of the Progress of Applied Chemistry, Soc. Chem. Ind.,’ 1916.
‘ Leather and Glue.’
*ProctEeR, H. R., and Burton, D., ‘ J.S.C.1.,’ 1916, 35, 404; ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2, 134.
‘The Swelling of Gelatinous Tissues.’
Sowray, W. A., ‘ Leather Trades Yearbook,’ 1916. (Abst., ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2, 224.)
‘Sulphur as a leathering material.’
MoE uer, W., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 1, 48, 84, 125, 175, 227, 266, 311.
‘Die pflanzliche Gerbstoff-Kolloide. Eine Theorie ihrer Zusammensetzung und
Wirkung auf Kolloidchemischer Grundlagen.’
Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 16, 51, 92, 127, 180, 236, 270, 317, 349.
‘Haut und Leder. Untersuchungen tiber Mikro- und Ultra-Strukturen der Haut-
und Leder-Faser.’
Fanrion, W., Book Vieweg, Braunschweig.
‘Neuere Gerbmethoden und Gerbetheorien.’
Kopert, R., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 164, 213.
‘Ueber den biologischen Nachweis, und die Bewertung von Gerbstoffen.’
Astringent action on blood-corpuscles.
Ibid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 261, 305.
‘Ueber die biologische Bewertung der sogenannten Solvine (Tiirkischrotdle).’
LAUFFMANN, R., ‘Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 247, 291.
‘ Die gerberisch wichtige Figenschaften der pflanzliche Gerbstoffe.’
Ibid., “ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 417.
“Bemerkungen zu Dr. Moeller’s Anschauungen tiber die Natur und die Zusam-
mensetzung der pflanzlichen Gerbstoffe.’

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 39

Mortier, W., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 330, 356, 385, 452.
‘Humussiure und Gerbsiiure.’
Tbid., ‘ Coll.,’ 1916, 15, 179.
‘Die Theorie der Peptisation pflanzliche Kolloide.’
Prooter, H. R., and Witson, J. A., ‘ J.S.C.1.,’ 1916, 35, 156, and ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2.
56.
“The action of salts of hydroxyacids upon chrome leather.’
Tbid., «T.C.8.’ 1916, 109, 1327.
‘The Theory of Vegetable Tanning.’
Nrnovn, E., ‘L. Coll.,” 1916, 2, 178, 190. (Eng. abst., 227.)
“Tannage & lalun.’
Bennett, H. G., ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2, 85.
“ Analysis of limed pelt.’
Ibid., ‘ L. Coll.,’ 1916, 2, 106.
“The acidity of tannery liquors.’
Woop, J. T., and Law, D. J., ‘J.S.C.I.,’ 1916, 35, 585.
‘ Note on the unhairing process.’

GENERAL REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DYEING.
By P. E. Kine, Lecturer in Dyeing, University of Leeds.

The Present State of Development of the Theory of Dyeing, with special
reference to colloidal and electrical hypotheses and phenomena leading
thereto.

In the present stage of the evolution of an adequate theory to explain
the phenomena of the dyeing process, four somewhat conflicting theories
prevail :—

The mechanical or physical theory,

The chemical theory,

The colloid-diffusion and adsorption theory,
The electrical theory.

The two former were long the cause of energetic discussion between
their respective upholders, the two latter have been developed since the
beginning of the present century, and are to be looked upon, less as parallel
theories to the first two, than as more scientific attempts to supplement
and correlate, in the light of later physico-chemical discoveries, the
phenomena observed and partially explained by the older theorists.

The upholders of the mechanical theory? looked upon it merely as
an adsorption phenomenon, of the dyestuff particles in the fibre; the
second group took for granted a chemical combination between fibre and
dye. The holders of the first view based themselves primarily on the
analogy which subsists between dyeing and the absorption of dyes by
animal charcoal, More modern investigations by Justin-Mueller, how-
ever, indicate that pure carbon absorbs only very little dyestuff. The
decolourising effect of charcoal is connected with the presence of organic
nitrogenous compounds, which are produced by the combustion of protein
substances. The upholders of the chemical theory of dyeing, which
may be described as the salt-formation theory, base their views upon
the fact that the fibres, especially wool and silk, which by hydrolysis
give amino-acids, contain salt-forming groups and produce actual salts
with the dyestufis, which, as is well known, contain acid and basic groups.

At present the most prominent upholder of the purely mechanical

1 P, Sisley, ‘ Augenblicklicher Stand unserer Kenntnisse tiber die Theorie der
Farbung,’ Chem. Zeit. 1913, 1357, 1379.

40) REPORTS UN THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

theory is G. von Georgievics.? He has a long line of predecessors, from
the earliest dyeing theorists of the first half of the 18th century, Hellot.®
Dufay,4 Macquer,® and Le Pileur d’Apligny.® down to Walter Crum,’
Persoz, Engel, and Napier. He rejects categorically the theory of chemical
combination between dye and fibre in the case of wool, on the grounds
that such indifferent substances as glass beads, kaolin, and various other
inorganic substances may be dyed in exactly the same way. He objects
in details to O. Witt’s theory of ‘ solid solution’ (of the dyestuff solute
in the fibre solvent) by combating each of Witt’s statements from experi-
ments of his own. His theory ot the dyeing process is that the dye par-
ticles are in a state of adhesion on and in the fibre, and neither of solution
nor chemical combination ; the same he considers to be true of the various
mordants. But this ‘ adhesion ’ is, he says, analogous to capillary attrac-
tion, to the adhesion of solute to solvent, and to that exerted, for example,
by glass on a liquid which * wets ’ it, and such forces as these, he admits,
lie on the borderline between chemical and physical forces. A very
similar conclusion had been drawn before by H. v. Perger,® L. Hwass,°®
and G. Spohn.?°

Georgievics admits that basic dyestuffs when dissolved in water are
dissociated, and that if the base has an attraction for a substance, a coloured
body will be formed when the two are brought together. As evidence
for the physical and against the chemical nature of dyeing, he relies chiefly
on various forms of Henry’s law of distribution.

He states from his experiments that in the majority of cases dyeing
takes place according to the equation

8
= constant
Cw Y

in which C, denotes the colour taken up by the fibre, Cw that left in the
bath and 2 indicates the affinity of the colouring-matter for the fibre.
In some later experiments" with indigo extract and picric acid on wool
and methylene blue on mercerised cotton, he states that dyeing proceeds
according to the equation

VC dyebath _
C fibre

where « may be equal to one or greater than one and its value depends
upon the temperature and additions to the bath. The rule only holds
within certain limits of concentration of the dyebath, comparatively
more colour being taken up from dilute than from concentrated baths.

2 Mitteilungen des K.K. Gewerbemuseums in Wien, pp. 165, 205, 349 (1904), p. 345
(1905). See also Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1895, pp. 79 and 121.

3 1734, L’art de la teinture des laines et des étoffes de laine.

41737, Traité sur la Teinture, observations physiques sur le mélange de quelques
couleurs & la teinture.
1763, L’art. de la teinture de la sote.
6 1776, L’art de la teinture des fils et étoffes de coton.
1843, Journ. Chem. Soc. 16, 1, p. 404. -
‘Einige Farbersuche,’ in Farbenzeitung, 1890-1.
Farbenzeitung, 1890, pp. 221, 243.
Essay, ‘ Zur Erkenntnis des Farbevorganges’ in Dinglers’ Polytech. Jour. 1893.
11 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1904, p. 105.

cS wn

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 41

From his experiments Georgievics considers he has proved beyond doubt
that the dyeing process takes place according to a definite physical law
in the case of acid colours on animal fibres and salt colours on cotton.
He uses Henry’s law very indiscriminately and alters it to fit his figures.

The earliest mechanical theorists had been content with the theory
that the dye particles from the solution wandered by endosmosis into
the ‘ pores’ of the fibres and were there fixed by the formation of an
insoluble ‘lake’ with the mordant. This being done in a hot bath. the
contraction of the pores on cooling, aided by a possible astringent action
of the various mordants, held the dye particles fast. The first investigator
to suggest adhesion of dye particles to the surface of the fibre was Macquer
in 1768, followed by Berthollet,* Thomas Henry, Bancroft,” and finally
Walter Crum,‘ the greatest of von Georgievics’ predecessors, who defined
this (purely physical) adhesion as ‘ catalytic force’ and insisted on the
analogy between the dyeing process and the absorption of gases, salts
dissolved in liquids and colouring matters, in an unchanged torm, by
wood-charcoal and bone-black. Crum also points out the capillary
attractive force of fibres, in common with other porous bodies. So well
reasoned were his theories that the upholders of the then extremely vague
and nebulous chemical theory felt themselves impelled to greater clarity
and more logical statement of their point of view.

The title of ‘ first chemical theorist’ is given to Bergmann,'’ who,
in an essay on indigo, suggests that the wool extracts the whole of the
indigotine disulphonic acid trom the bath because it has a greater ‘ affinity
for it than the latter. This vague ‘ affinity ’ satisfied Berthollet, Henry,
and Chaptal, but it was left to Chevreul,'* the head of the Gobelin Dye-
works in Paris, to speak the first clear words on the nature of this ‘ affinity ’
in his “ Mémoire’ of the year 1834. He divides dyes into chemical com-
on simple mixtures and substances that_partake of the nature of

oth. Then, investigating those dyeing processes which appear to lead
to chemical combinations, he says: ‘Chemical combination is analogous
to salt formation,’ but the combinations between fibre and dyestuff are
looser and evolve less heat than is observed in the case of acid reacting
with base, and the combining proportions are not always constant. In
dyeing, moreover, he recognises a ‘ contact-effect,’ adhesion, which he
places in a position next to affinity in importance, and calls ‘ capillary-
affinity °; his conclusion is that there are molecular forces at work between
bodies in contact, which slowly combine. Dyeing will not take place
unless there is a greater affinity between the fibré and the dye than between
the dye and its solvent, and in judging of the probable result it is necessary
to take into consideration the water, with dissolved acids, bases, or salts ;
dyestuff ; fabric, and one or more mordants of more or less complex
character. That one fibre dyes better than another in the same bath
he explains by the principle of * elective affinity,’ which at that time so
greatly exercised the minds of the students of the infant science of chemistry.

12 Dictionnaire de Chemie, article ‘ Teinture.’
13-1791, 1804, Hléments de l’ Art de la Teinture.
_ 14-1790, Nature of Colouring Matters.
19 1794, 1813, Philosophy of Permanent Colours.
16 loc. cit. :
17 1776, Mémoires des Savants Etrangers, t. 9.
18 Mémoires de l’ Académie des Sciences, 1853, 1861. Cours de Chemie appliquée
a la Teinture, 2° partie, 1838-1864.

42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Chevreul deserves honour not only for the pioneer quality of his statements,
but also for the detailed tabular accounts of his experiments, which gave
a stimulus to other investigators.

He was quickly followed by F. F. Runge ?® who confines his researches
to cotton, discussing first the ‘ combat’ between the water of the bath and
the fibre for possession of the dye, and thus explaining the decrease in
rapidity of deposition as the bath nears exhaustion. Mordants he con-
ceives to be substances which eagerly combine (enter into) the fabric
to form a substance that in its turn combines with the dye.

Persoz?° postulates an attraction between the fibre and dye particles
analogous to inter-molecular forces, but does not suggest true chemical
combination between dyes and fibre. In 1856 F. Kuhlmann drew atten-
tion to the nitrogenous nature (‘ azoted fibres ’) of the fibres which readily
absorb dye, experimenting with pyroxylin and cotton. He suggests that
the part played by capillarity and adhesion in dyeing is subordinate if
important, and also makes the remark that ‘a chemical change which
results in a change of dyeing-capacity may often be a mere re-grouping
of molecules.’ J. B. Schlossberger™ follows with a little more leaning
towards the physical theory. P. A. Bolley 72 reverts, after very careful
research with the microscope into the place and nature of the deposition of
the dye on the fabric, to the physical theory, finding that the deposition is
only on the surface with silk and cotton, though partly within the wool
fibre. His experiments finally lead to the conclusion that the absorption of
the dye, with or without mordant, is a surface phenomenon entirely
analogous to adsorption of charcoal, and that the use of the mordant is
merely to form lakes. But the discovery of aniline colours in 1856 by
Perkin, and the rapid spread of inquiry into their nature and application,
emphasised the trend of opinion in favour of the chemists. Schutz-
berger 23 pointed out that in the dyeing of wool with aniline colours there
was necessarily chemical action, usually between dyestuff and mordant, but
does not suggest that the fibre in any way enters into the reaction ;
he looks on fibres as porous bodies, carriers of the dye. Again the
physicists prevailed, until E. J. Mills ** reported experiments in the dyeing
of silk red from a colourless rosaniline solution, which he took to prove that
the silk actually entered into combination with the dissociated colourless
rosaniline base. The observation that wool is dyed red from a colourless
solution of roganiline base was first pointed out by Jacquemin in 1876.
Mills gives careful tables showing the laws governing the rate of absorption
of colour from a cold bath, also of various acid and basic solutions, and
finally for the result of dyeing from mixed dye-baths.

R. Meyer,”> on the subject of microscopic research into printed cottons,
doubts whether the fibre enters into composition of a compound with the
dye or acts as a containing vessel for the latter; he considers that the
essential factor in true dyeing is that the dye or the materials which
produce it in the bath should penetrate the fibre, and inside it be changed

18 Farben Chemie, Pt. 1, 1834, Pt. 11, 1850.

20 1846, Traité de l’Impression.

21 1857, Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie.

22 1859, Kritische und experimentelle Beitrage zur Theorie der Farbere Journal fiir
praktische Chemie.

23 1868, Traité des Matiéres colorantes.

24 Journ. Chem. Soc. 1883, 144; Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1889, 263.

25 1883, Berichte.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 43

to an insoluble form. He, however, in 1895, admits that with animal
fibres dyeing is a chemical process. The researches of P. Richard °° into
the nature of wool and silk led him to assert the existence of an amido

_ group in these substances which can be diazotised and the resulting diazo

compound coupled with phenols &c. At the same time, by decomposition
of the diazo compound, a hydroxy group is formed which can be coupled
with diazo compounds.

Champion’s discovery of lanuginic acid being published, Knecht ?? now
turned his attention to this in a long series of researches that have finally
confirmed his position as leader of the purely-chemical faction. In 1888 he
showed that, having prepared lanuginic acid either by Champion’s method
or by dissolving wool in barium hydrate solution, precipitating the barium
with carbon dioxide and from the filtrate precipitating the acid with lead
acetate, then removing the lead with sulphuretted hydrogen and evaporat-
ing the filtrate, the resultant substance gave brightly coloured precipitates
with dye solutions of acid and basic dyes and also with solutions of metallic
salts. Comparing this with the facts observed: that wool and silk absorb and
hold with a tenacity which will not yield even on boiling acids and alkalies ;
that they also absorb dye-bases from neutral baths, leaving the whole of the
acid from the dyestufi in the bath as ammonium salt; he deduces that
definite chemical compounds must be formed between the colour-base (or
under given conditions colour-acid) with some break-down products of the
wool or silk of the nature of lanuginic or sericinic acid. With acid colours,
the action of the acid produces in the fibre a substance capable of forming
lakes with the acid colouring-matter. The behaviour of the fibre in
presence of great excess of substantive dye in some experiments even
shows the probability of combinations according to the law of multiple
proportions. Knecht?* undoubtedly proved that in dyeing wool with a
series of acid colours belonging to the same homologous series the amount
of colour taken up was in exact proportion to their molecular weights ;
hence the laws of chemical combination are obeyed.

These convictions of Knecht have been continuously combated by
yon Georgievics and the physicists, but a series of investigators reported
experiments which corroborated Knecht’s observations. L. Vignon *®
tested for the amount of heat evolved in the absorption of acids (sulphuric,
hydrochloric, stannic) and alkalies respectively by silk, wool, and cotton,
and found that the first fibre evolves the greatest heat, even during absorp-
tion of salts. Cotton only evolves heat with strong acids or alkalies, and
then only feebly ; this he explains by the fact that cotton has no nitrogen
(citing empirical formule),

silk = C41 Hoa2N4g056 3 wool = CygHi4oNo753 5 cotton = C,H,00;;

and that cotton previously treated with ammonia will react evolving
heat. He obtains a substance by treating cotton with ammonia, which
contains nitrogen, and this substance possesses greater dyeing powers, but
in the opinion of the writer this compound is far more likely to be a
degradation product of cotton. Wool and silk he knows to be capable of

3 m 1884, Soc. Ind. de Mulhouse, ‘ Aufklirung der chemischen Konstitution de
olle.’

*7 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1888, p. 72; 1889, p. 71.

*8 Tbid., 1904, p. 242.

*° Comptes Rendus, 1890.

44 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

acting either as acid or as base under determining conditions, and postu-
lates a definite acid or basic character both in the fibre and in the dye-
stuff before true dyeing can take place (dyestuff here being taken to
mean the system solvent plus solute dye plus mordant). In 1893,
criticising the new Witt theory, he emphasises the chemical nature of
his own hypotheses as being far more‘ rational and in accord with facts.’
That there is no clearly demonstrable adhesion to the law of multiple
proportions he considers to be no unanswerable argument; the fibre
molecules are ‘complicated and Jarge in comparison with those of many
dyes. Vignon on this and other occasions pointed out the dissociation of
dye-solutions in presence of the fibre ; the constitution of dyes like Congo
N.
red (RC S or=N—N=) that possibly makes them capable of the direct
abs

dyeing of cotton by combination with the cellulose. Finally, he admits the
surface
volume
co-efficient being so large that it acts as a porous body. As did Zacharias
later, he admits of two actions of the fibre : porosity with capillarity, and
(usually) chemical combination. Knecht®° also showed that hydrolytic
dissociation played a part in dyeing and that there was an intimate con-
nection between the dissociation of a colour and its dyeing power.

L. Hwass and G. Spohn*! adduce experiments in favour of the
mechanical deposition theory, the latter insisting on deposition pure and
simple, conditioned by molecular forces, and giving as evidence the micro-
scopically visible crystals of lead chromate and manganese bistre, which at
a distance of 60up one from the other give the illusion of homogeneous
colour to the naked eye, but are separately and sharply deposited, some
within, some upon, the fibre. He, like von Georgievics, refuses to admit of
any chemical combination, since inorganic and unaffected matters like
asbestos can be dyed just like animal and vegetable fibres, but Hwass
admits the possibility of such combination (e.g., silk saturated with iron
hydroxides). He looks on dyeing as dissociation phenomena; dyestufis
readily dissociate, and the fibre acts towards the dissociated solute merely
as would a thread hung in a saturated alum solution: it receives and
encourages the deposition of insoluble bodies (the colour radicle or its
hydrate) and rejects soluble. He is attracted to the solid solution theory
of Witt (vid. sub.) as being the best statement of such phenomena of selec-
tion. The appearance of von Georgievics in the arena now so thoroughly
stated the case for the purely mechanical deposition theorists that no
further citations need be made from the researches of his disciples to bear
out his theories.

Meanwhile, in the hands of C. O. Weber,?2. W. P. Dreaper,?* Rosen-
stiehl, Gnehm and Rotheli,?4 A. W. Hallitt,?> A. Reychler,3* Prudhomme,3?

3° Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1898, p. 59.

31 Joc. cit.

82 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1894, p. 120.

83 Ibid., 1904, p. 111; 1905, pp. 118 and 136.

84 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1898, pp. 190 and 215.
35 Tbid., 1899, p. 30.

86 Bull. Soc. Chim. de Paris, 1897, p. 449.

8? Rev. Gen. de Matt. Col. 1900, p. 184.

great value of the physical structure of the fibre in dyeing, its

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 45

and Knecht himself, the chemical theory developed, and widened its
horizons until it merged into the view that any dyeing process is neces-
sarily dualistic: that some physical cause of deposition, be it (1) purely
mechanical adhesion or (2) intermolecular diffusion analogous to the
interdiffusion of any two solutions, with miscible solvents, until a state of
equilibrium is reached, or (3) attraction of an electrical nature due to
contact-difference of potential in the presence of a solute hydrolysed or
ionised, must accompany any postulated chemical combination of dye and
fibre. The fundamental theories governing the chemical combination of
fibre and dye are twofold: (1) All dyestuffs have either acid or basic
properties or represent salts of acids or bases, (2) these dyestufis combine
with the animal fibres, especially wool, by virtue of the amphoteric nature
of the latter. In the case of cotton, although the process is generally
looked upon as being of a mechanical character, it is quite conceivable that
a chemical action may sometimes occur.®®

If cotton be rendered more acid, 7.e., by the formation of oxy-cellulose or
nitro-cellulose, the fibre shows a marked affinity for basic colours. But
nitrated or acetylated cotton has lost its affinity for direct colouring-
matters. More evidence in favour of the Chemical Theory was advanced by
Fort *® in a series of papers in the “‘ Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col.’ He con-
structed a theory to explain the taking up of acid dyes by materials which
are able to effect combination with acids and supported this theory by a
large number of experiments.

The first steps towards a clear and adequate explanation other than that
of chemical combination of the phenomena of absorption by the fibre or a
dye from its aqueous or alcoholic solution were made by A. Muller Jacobs.*°
He bases his researches upon the known facts of diffusion of gases, of one
liquid through another, and of crystalloid solutions through membranes
that prevent the diffusion of colloids. Researches in the last-mentioned
diffusions had been first published by Thomas Graham *! in 1861-1864.
Muller Jacobs divided the ‘ attraction’ between the phases of a disperse
- system into ‘ hygroscopy,’ ‘ capillarity,’ and ‘ imbibition’ between solids
and liquids, all based on the phenomena of endosmosis. He is aware that
even colloids will diffuse if the membrane be suitable (this confirmed in 1912
with great accuracy by Zsigmondy and Siedentopf) and applies this to
dyeing. Many dyestuffs, whose colloidal nature is known, will diffuse into
and colour a parchment membrane, but will not stain the surrounding
solvent. Some enter into the cell wall, some appear to be fixed upon it.
Now, in dyeing the aim is either to fix this interpermeated colloid by a
mordant which will turn it to an insoluble precipitate, still within the
fibre, or to cause the endosmosis of such large molecules of the colloid
dyestuff that it will not readily diffuse out. Silk and wool have small
interstices in their membranous structure : an‘ animalising ’ process is any
which so closes up the large interstices of the cotton fibre that it will act in
thesame way. There is no need to postulate any entry into chemical com-
bination on the part of the fibres (e.g., with the colourless rosaniline solu-
tion). Heating is of value because it expands the pores of the fibres—here
he reverts a century to the pure mechanicists of the infancy of the science—

88 See Knecht, Manual of Dyeing, vol. 1, p. 19.

89 1913, p. 269; 1914, p. 5; 1915, pp. 80, 96, and 222; 1916, p. 33.
40 Textile Colorist, 1884 and 1885.

41 Philos. Transact. 1861-1864.

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

and also because it favours the combination of the dye plus mordant into
insoluble lakes.

O. N. Witt’s #? theory of selective solution and of solid solution was the
next step. The phenomenon of solid solution was first noticed by Van ’t
Hoff 4? in 1890, as an explanation’of the formation of alloys by the solution
of one solid metal in another. Witt’s application of this to dyeing was, it
must be remembered, put forth as a ‘ working hypothesis,’ which appeared
to its formulator as being capable of explaining many observed facts, and
which might at least serve as starting-point for a more adequate theory.
His initial objection to the terminology ‘ substantive’ and ‘ adjective’
colours is, that the success of the dyeing process depends on the fabric as
well as on the dye : one fibre will not take all dyes nor will one dye colour all
fabrics. This is not, he says, explained by chemical combination, but by
choice of solvent, the fibre is a better solvent for the dyestuff than is the
water of the bath, and absorbs the colour in the same way as ether will take
iodine from its brownish water-solution and form a violet layer, or as ether
absorbs resorcin from its aqueous solution, whereas benzol will not, save
in minute quantities, though resorcin is soluble in benzol. Keratin and
fitroin are very good solvents, cellulose a poor solvent, for colours ; but no
dyestuff can be truly insoluble in the fibre, or it would wash out. He
insists that the colour on the fibre is the colour of the dissolved, not the
solid dye, e.g., magenta dyes red, not metallic green, and fluorescein dyes
fluorescent, though it only fluoresces in solution. So illuminating was the
theory at first glance that it found many upholders: P. Sisley, W. H.
Perkin, Michaelis, Cross and Bevan, and at one time Dreaper ; and it was
only when von Georgievics, Biltz, Freundlich, and Walker and Appleyard
made exhaustive researches into the laws governing colour adsorption
(e.g., that Henry’s law is not obeyed, unless totally unfounded assumptions
are made as to the molecular constitution of the absorbed dye) that the
inadequacy of the theory was demonstrated.

Cross and Bevan in 1910 still insist, from the pure transparency of
the jute-fibre when dyed dark blue with a mixed solution of potassium
ferricyanide and ferric chloride, that this is a case of ‘ solid solution’ “
and Sisley * in 1913 claimed that ‘ Berthelot’s law’ on the distribution
of a dissolved substance between two immixable solvents holds good
in dyeing silk with certain acid dyestuffs, and quoted his experiments
to show the analogy between the extraction of picric acid from its aqueous
solution by silk on the one hand and by organic solvents such as benzene
or amy] alcohol on the other hand, the action in both cases being accelerated
by the presence of a mineral acid, because it is found that fully ionised
dyestuff, z.e., one in very dilute aqueous solution, will not come out of
its water solution on to fibre or into organic solvents, and the addition
of an electrolyte diminishes the ionisation coefficient and the solubility
of the dyestuti in water. C. O. Weber 4 likewise believes that benzidine
colours go into solid solution in the cotton fibre, the fastness of the colour
to washing being inversely proportional to the diffusion-coefiicient of the
dye. The then extant theories of colloidal solution were first applied

42 “Theory of the Dyeing Process,’ in Farbenzeitung, 1890-1.
43 Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie (1890), 5, 322.

44 See also Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind, 1893.

45 Toc. cit.

46 Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1894, p. 120.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 47

by F. Krafft ‘’ to the theory of dyeing. His summary of the facts then
known is this: a colloid solution or system contains the solute in mole-
cular form; the molecules are large in mass and volume, and tend to
form systems rotating round one another. When the gel coagulates
these spheroid forms become rigid—the solid is not ‘amorphous’ but
* globomorphous ’ (this is not true unless the disperse phase occupies no
more than 74 per cent. of the total volume of the sol ; 48 above 74 per
cent. the globules become flattened to dodecahedra, with walls, of in-
creasing tenuity, consisting of the continuous phase—but such fine walls
are rare Save in the soaps). Krafft goes on to state that in dilute solutions
the soaps are hydrolytically dissociated, but the constant interchange
of +ve and —ve ions causes the neutral reaction to persist and the solution
to remain ‘clear.’ His proof of dissociation is that the melting-point
is that of stearic acid, not of sodium stearate. Hence Krafft’s theory
of the dyeing process is that it consists in the deposition of colloids in
or on the fibre in the form of globules or membranes, very plastic, which
(like the soaps) have the power of clinging to solid bodies. Dyes which
have a small molecular weight must be presented to the cotton fibre in
the form of colloidal compounds with a mordant, which is in itself always
a colloid, to form colour lakes. Many dyes are colloids in water and not
in alcohol; the substance is hydrated and forms immense molecules.
Colloid solutions of iron hydroxide, aluminium chloride, 7.e., in water,
will all form colour lakes which ‘ fall out of solution’ (z.e., coagulate)
at 0° C. (see Zsigmondy’s experiments in freezing sols). Their tough,
plastic, clinging nature all makes for good dyeing, e.g., alizarin red in
presence of a fatty acid of low melting-point forms a colloidal membranous
deposit, Turkey red. Direct dyes are mostly colloids of more or less slight
solubility, ¢.g., benzopurpurin. The direct cotton colours were supposed
to exist in the colloidal condition to a much greater extent than the dyes
of the acid and basic groups, and this would explain them being taken
up direct by the cotton fibre. Wool and silk enter into combination with
dyes, forming membranous colloidal salts; leather in tanning forms a
similar surface. Hence his theory is that the dyer ‘imitates Nature’
in ‘forming a protective insoluble colloid membrane on the outside of
the fibre.’ Biltz*® also showed that colloidal solutions of inorganic sub-
stances like selenium, tellurium, gold or molybdenum blue would dye
wool or silk, and that analogously with organic dyestufis an electrolyte
(salt) hastened, while a protective colloid retarded, the process.

Later research has confirmed much of Krafit’s work, if it has also
served to point out his errors, most glaring of which is of course that of
the * protective exterior membrane.’ Certainly the adsorption process
is by its very nature largely confined to the surfaces, but the entire struc-
ture of a sol (or gel) may be permeated by another substance, colloid or
crystalloid, and then, according to McBain and Zsigmondy, the term
‘ sorption ’ is more descriptive of the phenomenon. Sisley takes exception
to the use of the word ‘ adsorption’ which is now largely used in colloid
chemistry to indicate the extraction of a dissolved body by a solid. He
submits that the word is no improvement on absorption and that so-called
adsorption compounds are in no way distinguishable from chemical

47 1896-9, Berichte, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32.
‘® Zsigmondy, p. 67, 157 et seq.
49 Journ, Soc. Dyers and Col, 1904, p, 145; 1905, p. 276,

48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

compounds. It is probable that their formation is incomplete, and this
would explain their not obeying the law of multiple proportions.

Other workers besides Krafft and Biltz are of the opinion that many
dyestuffs form colloidal solutions. Teague,5° Buxton, and Vignon base
their conclusions with Krafft on diffusion experiments, Pelet-Jolivet 5
and Wild on their ultramicroscopic studies. Knecht and Batey and
later Donnan and Harris ** deny the colloidal nature of benzopurpurine,
chrysophenine, and Congo red on grounds that their electrical conduc-
tivities are normal and that they exert osmotic pressure. The work of
Donnan and Harris is important and leads to the view that measurements
of the osmotic pressure are of no value unless account be taken of the
presence of an electrolyte (if present). The electrolyte distributes itself
unequally on the two sides of the dialysing membrane and sets up an
opposing osmotic pressure. Zsigmondy, considering their experiments,
also those of Bayliss,®4 Teague and Buxton,®> Rachlmann v. Vegesack,°®
Biltz and Bredig, places Congo red and all the other azo- dyestuffs of its
class among the colloids, owing to their low diffusibility and optical visi-
bility (in the ultramicroscope). On boiling Congo red dissociates; it
is extremely sensitive to the presence of carbon dioxide in diffusing, but
in the matter of conductivity and osmotic stress it behaves like a crystal-
loid or electrolyte ; the conclusion being that the salt is dissolved as
. molecules, but the presence of extremely minute amounts of electrolytes
causes aggregation into submicrons. Dyestufis with the alizarin group
are highly colloidal, while the dyestuffs containing sulphonic groups not
only form very soluble compounds in water, but their salts are very
dialysable even with molecules of from 76-78 atoms, yet, according to
Biltz,5? molecules of from 70 to 95 atoms should not diffuse.

In the light of these facts, all the recent research into the properties
of colloids has its direct bearing upon the theory of dyeing.

Following upon Krafit, P. D. Zacharias published in 1900 a * Farben-
theorie,’ of which the German translation appeared in 1908. His theory
meanwhile developed in a series of essays in the ‘ Farbenzeitung,’ 1901,
12, 149 and 165, and ‘ Ber. d.d. chem. Ges.’ 1905. His earlier theory is
one of colloid interdiffusion plus adhesion. He discounts the chemical
theory altogether, objects to the solid solution theory pure and simple,
but, recognising the colloidal nature of the dyes and of the fibres, he
suggests an interdiffusion plus precipitation, followed by or resulting in
an adhesion, whose nature he does not particularise. His later theory,
which he insists does not essentially vary from his first statements, follows
upon the researches of Graham, Krafft, Justin-Mueller, Biltz and Zsig-
mondy (Biltz and Zacharias variously quarrelled about the originality
of each other’s theory and experiments; while Zacharias continuously
and pugnaciously defends his theory, it is Biltz who brought forward
the experimental material for such a theory—no such experimental data

5° Zeitschr. fiir Phys. Chem. 1907, 60, p. 419.

51 Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Koll. 1908, 8, 174.

52 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1909, 25, 194.

53 Chem. Soc. Trans. 1911, 99, 1554.

54 Proc. Roy. Soc. 1909, 81B, 269.

55 Toc. cit.

56 Zeitschr. physikal. Chem. 1910, 78, 481.

57 Tbid., 1911, 77, 91; also Gedankboek, van Bemmelen, 1910, 108.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, 49

having been furnished by Zacharias). He now places the dyeing process
in close relation to that of solution, with its phenomena of hydrolysis
and ionisation, on the border-line between chemistry and physics. The
cohesion between fibre and dye he now conceives to be possibly electrical
in character, comparable to the combination of ions. Kssentially,
dyeing is the coagulation of a colloid in or upon another colloid, in such
a form as to be insoluble; the electrolyte present in the bath causes such
coagulation by its electrical effects on the colloid solute and its solvent.
He does not now deny the possibility of subsequent chemical combination
a the cohering fibre and dye, particularly in the case of animal
res.

W. P. Dreaper also did something to bring the observed dyeing pheno-
mena into line with the evolving colloid theory. In his earlier papers
his theory is one of endosmosis, proportional to pressure and to the absolute
temperature, coupled with chemical combination; he also inclines to
the solid solution theory, applying Linder and Picton’s idea of ‘ pseudo-
solution ’ to the phenomena of dyeing. Finally he rejects both the chemi-
eal and the solid solution theories, upholding one of pure adsorption by
the fibre, acting as a more or less dry gel, of the hydrosols of the various
dyes. Dyeing is always carried on in the wet condition, so that the fibre
may be snfficiently hydrated to act as a hydrogel of the gelatine type ; the
state of hydration Dreaper finds to influence the amount of any solution
adsorbed. His text book (1906) ‘Chemistry and Physics of Dyeing’
gives a very broad and somewhat indecisive theory of ‘ the phenomena
which take place in dyeing,’ including: (1) ‘ A solution state of the dye,
within certain limits of aggregation, determined by the laws of size’ ;
(2) ‘a fibre state corresponding to this state of aggregation, and of a
permeable nature ’ ; (3) ‘ effective localisation of the dye within the fibre
area, due to surface concentration phenomena’; (4) ‘localisation of
salts, acids, &c., within the fibre area’; (5) ‘ indirect entrance of dye
aggregate by molecular migration with subsequent re-formation of aggre-
gates within the fibre area, according to the laws of size’ ; (6) ‘ de-solution,
due to secondary attraction between the fibre substance and the dye,
or by reduced surface energy phenomena, or concentration effects’; (7) ‘in
some cases, primary or chemical action may play some part at this stage ;
this may even, in some cases, take the place of de-solution phenomena’ ;
(8) ‘ dissociation effects in the case of basic dyes which may lead to the
production of very basic salts in a high state of aggregation within the
fibre area.’ He is aware of the electro-positive or electro-negative nature
of all colloids, but does not connect this with the coagulating (he calls
it “ degrading ’) influence of crystalloids in the dissolved colloid.

A similar cognition of the diverse and seemingly irreconcilable nature
of the dyeing processes was published by Grehm and Rotheli,®* who, after
an exhaustive criticism of all existing theories and evidence, conclude
that each existent theory can find place in the final and adequate one.
They were the first to show that cotton takes up direct cotton colours in
an unchanged condition. Later Gnehm and Kiufler performed the
following experiment: a skein of cotton dyed with benzopurpurin was
boiled with two undyed skeins in a small beaker. After drying, all three
skeins were alike. This observation is in direct opposition to Krafit’s

58 Zeitschr. f. angewandte Chemie, 1898, pp. 482, 501.
1917. E

50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

theory of colloidal precipitation, for if the colour in the dyed skein is due
to the formation of a colloid precipitate, it cannot be conceived that in
one case solution should ensue and in another precipitation.

Wilhelm Ostwald,5? M. van Bemmelen,®° H. Freundlich,® G. Losev,®
L. Pelet-Jolivet,® and W. Biltz “ investigated the laws governing adsorp-
tions by solids such as charcoal, of crystalloids and colloids, and the
dyeing of mineral substances by dyestuffs. The associated phenomena
of contact-electrification were also studied by Perrin,® who formulated
laws,®* and by Pelet-Jolivet and Grand,®? Miolati,®* Gee and Harrison,®®
and Knecht.?° Further work in the same fields—by Svante Arrhenius 7
(diffusion of hydrosols and adsorption isotherms), O. Biitschli ” (structure
of gels, and influence of hydration on a dried gel), Wolfgang Ostwald
(classification of disperse systems, conductivity of metal hydrosols, electrical
coagulation of suspensions, &c.), A. Lottermoser “ (metallic hydrosols,
solid sols, freezing of metallic hydrosols, mutual precipitation), W. Pauli *
(electric charge and coagulation of albumen, precipitation by electrolytes,
internal friction of albuminous sols, structure of jellies, turgescence of the
same and conditions governing its rapidity), P. P. von Weimarn’®
(emulsoids and suspensoids, the formation of jellies from crystalloid
solutions and the crystallisation of colloids, laws governing surface tension
in two-phase systems), Emil Hatschek*? and Zsigmondy,’* working with
Siedentopf, Ambronn, Heyer, Kirchner, Schultz and Wilke Dorfurt—has
resulted in a comprehensive theory of colloidal systems, which many
of the investigators have themselves applied to the dyeing process.

The idea of ‘ solution’ is to be widened to embrace all possible com-
binations of a solid, liquid or gaseous disperse phase with a solid, liquid
or gaseous continuous phase.*® The most common solutions still are
those having a liquid continuous phase, and the most common solvent
is water—tfew, if any, substances refusing to go into colloid, if not crystal-
Joidal, solution in water. Now, the obvious method of differentiating
between crystalloids and colloids is by means of dialysis, whether it be
carried out by the Graham dialyser or the far more complicated and efficient
ones of Kiihne, Jordis, or Zsigmondy and Heyer. But a substance may
be colloid in some solvents and crystalloid in others ; nor is it only crystal-

59 Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie, 1890, 6, 71-82; Lehrbuch der allgem. Chemie, 1 Aufl,
1, 778-791 (1885), 2 Aufl. 2, 3, 217 et seq. (1906).

6 Zeitschr. f. anorg. Chemie, 1903, 28, 238, 18, 114-7, 18, 350.

61 * Kapillar Chemie,’ 1909, Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie, 1909, 44, 129.

62 Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie, 1907, 59, 284-312, &e.

63 ‘Theorie des Farbeprozesses’ (1910), Kolloidzeitschr. 1909, 5, 238-243.

64 Berichte, 1904, 37, 1095-1116; van Bemmelen, Gedankboek, 1910, 108-20.

65 Annales de Chim. 1909, 18, 5-114; Comptes Rendus, 1903, 136, 1388-1391,
187, 513, 564.

66 Journal de Chim. Physique, 1904, p. 619, and 1905, p. 100.

6? Rev. Gen. 1907, p. 225; Koll. Zeitschr. 1907, 2, 41.

68 Berichte, 1893, 26, 1788.

69 ‘The electrical theory of dyeing,’1910, Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1911, p. 279.

79 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1909, 25, No. 7.

71 Immuno Chemie, 1907, p. 17.

7275 See Zsigmondy, Kolloid Chemie.

76 ‘Zur Lehre von den Zustanden der Materie’ in Koll. Zeitschr. 1907-9, 2-5.
‘Grundzuge der Dispersoid Chemie’ (1911), Chemikerzcitung, p. 725.

77 Introduction to the Physics and Chemistry of Colloids, 1916.

78 Kolloid Chemie, 1912.

79 Zsigmondy, ibid. p. 25.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 51

loids that form geometric erystals colloid gold, silver, albumen, globulin
and heemoglobin will all give crystals, while it is possible to obtain * globo-
morphous * sodium chloride, and many crystalloid solutions pass through
a jelly-like stage immediately before solidifying into crystals. It is more
correct to speak of a ‘colloidal state of matter’ than of ‘ colloids’ as a
sharply defined class. Colloidal solutions are either ‘ suspensoid ’ (7.e.,
having a solid disperse phase) or ‘emulsoid’ (having a finely divided
liquid disperse phase); the particles or ‘ micelli’ varying in size from
‘1 pp (crystalloid) to 1 wy (hydrosols) to 100 »p (turbidities) and from
100 »p to 1 mm. (suspensions fine or coarse). Below 1000 pp the so-
called Brownian movement is visible, both in true colloid-solutions and
fine suspensions ; the motion is the more rapid the smaller the particles
are; it does not vary on admitting or excluding the dark heat-rays ;
it is independent of the direction of admitted light-rays, or the length
and intensity of its subjection to these ; it will continue for months and
even years; it does not depend on the charge upon the particles; it is
affected by dilution, and the particles appear to influence one another.
Various theories have been put forward to explain it. Quincke®® considered
it due to the spreading of liquid layers over the surfaces of the particles ;
Wiener,* Cantori, Renard, Boussinesq, and Gourg based it upon collisions
between the particles and the molecules of the solvent ; Einstein,®? von
Smoluchowski,** Zsigmondy,*! The. Svedberg,®* and Perrin ®® ascribe it
to kinetic energy.

The particles migrate, under the influence of the electric current
(‘ cataphoresis ’), in a direction determined by their charge. The same
colloidal solution may be positive: or negative—it depends on the
nature of the continuous phase (‘ intermicellary liquid’) and the
electrolytes it may contain. The direction can be measured by Coehn’s 87
apparatus, or that of A. Cotton and H. Mouton,’* or of The. Svedberg 89 ;
colloidal iron oxide, cadmium hydroxide, titanic acid, &c., and all basic
dyestuffs, colloid or crystalloid, are positive and wander to the cathode ;
colloidal gold, silver, platinum, sulphides, mastic, starch, gums, stannic
acid, molybdenum blue, &c., and all acid dyestuffs, colloid or crystalloid,
are negative and wander to the anode.®® A trace of added alkali causes a
neutral colloid (e.g., suspended white of egg in pure water) to become
negative, added acid causes a cathodic convection.®% The electrical

8° Verh. d. Ges. d. Naturf. u. Arate, 1898; Beibl. zu d. Annalen d. Phys. 1899,
23, 934-7.

81 Poggendorff's Annalen d. Phys. u. Chemie, 1863, 118, 79-94.

82 Drude’s Annalen d. Phys. (4) 1905, 17, 549-560 ; 1906, 19, 371-381 ; Zeitschr.
}. Elektrochemie, 1908, 14, 235-239.

89 Drude’s Annalen d. Phys. (4) 1906, 21, 756-780; 1908, 25, 205-226.

84 Zeitschr. f. Elektrochemie, 1902, 8, 684-687; Koll. Chemie, p. 38-9; Zur
Erkenntnis der Kolloide, 1905, S. 106-111, with tables.

85 ‘Studien zur Lehre von den kolloiden Lésungen,’ 1907, 125-160; Zeitschr. f.
phys. Chem. 1910, 78, 547-556.

8° Annales de Chimie et de Phys. 1909, (8) 18, 5-114.

87 Zeitschr. f. Electrochemie, 1909, 15, 653.

88 Les Ultramicroscopes, &e., 1906, p. 144.

89 Loc. cit.

90 Zsigmondy, Kolloid Chemie, p. 44.

1 Hardy, Journal of Physiology, 1899, 24, 288-304; Hardy, Zeitschr. f. p.
Chemie, 1900, 88, 385-400; Perrin, Comptes Rendus, 1903, 186, 1388-1391; 1903,
137, 513-514, 564-6.

52 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

property of electrolytes is well known to be due to their dissociation into
negative anions and positive cations ; the charge on the colloid particles is
not so easy to explain, as they are not generally supposed to be ionised.
Yet Zsigmondy gives three various explanations, and Bredig % and
Billitzer %* assume the same, 7.e., difference of dielectric constant between
particle and intermicellary fluid ; capture (e.g., colloid gold with H ions) or
deposition of ions. Hardy ® has the distinction of pointing out that it is
the electrification of the particles of any irreversible colloid that causes it
to remain in solution ; if an electrolyte of opposite charge be added till the
isoelectric point be reached, the colloid will coagulate into a gel ; the ions of
the electrolyte bearing the opposite charge to the colloid particles also take
part in the precipitation.°® Schulze %7 has pointed out, and this has been
many times corroborated, that the valency of the ion is of great influence in
this coagulating process: a trivalent ion is worth 1,000 monovalent or 30
divalent ions. The curve is the same as the adsorptions curve, as Freund-
lich %8 has pointed out, and Pelet-Jolivet’s °® table of comparisons between
the laws of contact electrification, colloid coagulation, dyeing and capillary
attraction bears out in a remarkable way. Not only do crystalloids
precipitate colloids, but two colloids of opposite charge will precipitate each
other, unless one is in overwhelming excess of the other ; there is a more or
less wide zone within which mutual coagulation will take place, though
there is only one point at which the charges actually neutralise each other.
For dyeing, this rule is of the widest importance .1°°

If the dry gel of a reversible colloid like gelatine or agar be put into
water to be dissolved, it behaves in a manner quite distinct from a crystal-
loid. The latter gives off particles from its surface till all is dissolved, in a
manner analogous to the evaporation or sublimation in a gaseous medium,
and the solution obeys Boyle-Gay-Lussac’s laws of gases, within certain
limits. The gelatine swells up and absorbs the water into its own sub-
stance, but does not dissolve until the temperature rises to above 25° C.

Van Bemmelen and Batschli believed that jellies possessed a porous
structure of microscopic dimensions, but this theory is now abandoned ;
such pores can be produced by irregular contraction under the action of
alcohol or chromic acid, and the structure of natural jellies is molecular, and
they are of the nature of solid solutions. Capillarity may cause imbibition
but cannot produce swelling in itself, though it may liberate the elasticity of
the imbibing substance, as water does that of a dried sponge.

Similar phenomena will explain the adsorption of liquids by charcoal,
unglazed pottery, &c., though, as von Georgievics points out, not the
decolorisation of liquids: this is, according to Knecht and Suida,? due to
the activity of the nitrogen compounds of the charcoal, and to the acid
nature of the silicates.

82 Kolloid Chemie, p. 48.

83 Anorganische Fermente, 1901, p. 16.

" Zeitschr. f. Hlecktrochemie, 1902, 8, 638-642; Zeitschr. f. phys. Chemie, 1903,

45, 307-330.

"9 Loc. cit.

96 See also Dreaper, Chemistry and Physics of Dyeing, p. 123.

97 Journ. f. praktische Chemie, 1882 (2), 25, 431-452; 1883, 27, 320-332.
93 Zeitschr. fiir phys. Chemie, 1910, 73, pp. 385-423.

” Theorie des Farbeprozesses, 1910.
100 See Zsigmondy, Koll. Chem., Ch. 98, ‘ Kolloidfallung der Farbstoffe,’

0! Sitzungsber. d. Akal, d. Wiss., Wien, 1904, 113, 1lb, 725-761,

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 59d

Pieces of such colourless and transparent silicic-acid-gel thrown into
colloidal dye solutions Zsigmondy found to behave as ‘ ultra-filters,’ the
dispersion-medium being absorbed as by a sponge, and the dye-particles
held on the surface of the gel-particles in a semiliquid state. Silk, cotton,
and wool fibres show a similar hygroscopy and were described by Dreaper.
as ‘ colloidal substances dry to the touch,’ like solid gelatine. Like it, they
swell up in water and other solvents but do not dissolve; they may be
looked on as irreversible gels, like silicic acid. Their ‘ pores,’ however, are
not of the extreme minuteness of those of the latter substance : they do not
show anything like the same optical homogeneity ; and therefore they are
not ‘ ultra-filters ’ to the same degree. Moreover, the fact that they show no
readiness to enter into solution, in spite of their ‘ swelling,’ causes Justin-
Mueller 1% to suggest the name ‘ turgoids,’ not ‘ colloids,’ for them, and to
call the process turgescence and not colloidal solution. He considers this
turgescence of the fibre to be a necessary part of the process of adsorption of
the dye ; colours that rub off do so because adhesion, not adsorption, has
taken place, and the dye has been ‘salted out’ or coagulated on the
fibre. Both the deposition and the adsorption are reversible according
as the adsorption-coeflicient and solubility-coefticient approach each
other.

Some such laws appear to be followed as were noticed by Pelet-Jolivet
and his assistants in recording the capillary attraction of filter-paper on
various kinds of solutions; the height to which the coloured layer, or the
layer that gives a direct reaction acid or basic, appeared to rise, was found
to agree in a remarkable way with the observed electrical and colloid-
precipitating effects of the same solutions. Schoenbein, W. Ostbald,
Goppelsroder, and Fichter and Sahlbom have recorded the foilowing
results: Alkali and acid solutions give reaction up to seven-tenths of the
wetted paper; calcium carbonate only about one-tenth, and barium
hydrate about three-tenths. Positively-charged colloids are found to be
deposited on the paper at the surtace of the liquid, while negative colloids
mount with the water. (Thus Fichter and Sahlbom refer to the currents
set up in the capillaries of the paper: even in glass capillaries water rises
much higher than basic dyestutf solutions or positive colloids in general.)
Thus any influence which causes colloidal coagulation, or decreases solu-
bility, limits the capillary rise and favours dyeing ;_ the influences which
keep the particles small and disperse act in the other direction and are
against rapidity of colouring. From this the actual value of ‘ assistants ’
in the dye-bath may be deduced, without postulating a liberation of the
free dye-acid, which has been diversely shown to be little, if any, more
effective pure than combined to form a dye salt.

The work of Alexander? is of interest as showing the influence of
protective colloids on dye solutions. He has previously pointed out
that, after the addition of protective colloids (gelatine &c.) to solutions
of benzopurpurin, dilute acids produce colour changes analogous to
those adsorbed in the dyed animal fibres. In the case of a dilute solution
of benzopurpurin, addition of dilute mineral acid quickly changes the
bright red colour to dark blue, and stronger acid coagulates the dye
which settles out of solution. If gelatine is added to the benzopurpurin
solution, dilute mineral acids give. a claret-red solution, and stronger

102 Chemikerzeitung, p. 845, 1914.
103 Journ, Soc. Chem. Ind. 1911, p. 517.

54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

acid changes the shade to chocolate-brown, without, however, causing
any precipitate. *Alexander has examined these colour-changes at the
ordinary temperature in the ultra-microscope, and reports—dilute benzo-
purpurin solution shows a field full of ultra-microns which from their
brilliancy and motion appear to be 50-60yp in size. When a little
acid is added, the ultra-microns gradually gather together into clumps,
or groups, whose motion decreases as their size increases, until the whole
of the dye is deposited in coagulated masses of bright ultra-microns.
Stronger acid causes instant coagulation in large masses when acid is
added to the gelatine dye solution; no change is produced unless the
acid is strong enough to cause a more or less extensive agglutination
of ultra-microns into small groups of 2 or 3, which, however, have still
sufficient motion to keep afloat. The cause of the variation in the colour-
changes produced by immersion in dilute acid on the different fibres dyed
with benzopurpurin is due (according to author) to their difference in
protecting action on the adsorbed dye. A practical application for
the use of protective colloids is found in Feilmann’s English patent,
10,693, 1906, where the employment of casein is made to produce colloidal
solutions of various unsulphonated dyestuffs, particularly azo- dyes.
But this application has not found much use up to the present.
Similariy Mohlau and Zimmermann? produce colloidal indigo by
means of protalbumic and lysalbumic acids—also Fabrik v. Heyden
produce the same substance by the use of various protein substances.1®
The phenomenon of ‘ contact electrification’ and its value in dyeing
remains. Whenever two substances solid, liquid, or gaseous are in contact,
having a common surface, all kinds of forces come into play, which
are difficult indeed to study when acting between solid and solid or solid
and liquid or solid and gas, but between liquid and gas have been formulated.
Surface tension and surface electrification are the problems which parti-
cularly concern colloidalists, the surfaces between the disperse and the
continuous phase being so immense in comparison with the mass.
Gibbs?°* enunciated the theorem ‘Those substances which lower
the surface tension of a solution with respect to another phase must
concentrate themselves upon the latter.’ This can be experimentally
proved, with gas-liquid and liquid-liquid systems, for it is possible to
measure their surface tensions; but Freundlich has lately shown that
those substances which lower the surface tension between two liquids
are strongly adsorbed, not only by these but also by solid Lodies ; hence
the rule would seem to have general application. Moreover, the adsorp-
tion-isotherm (showing quantitative adsorption by solid bodies) will
hold also for the gas-liquid and liquid-liquid boundary. Freundlich,
Schmidt 1°? and Svante Arrhenius 1° have given formulae for this adsorp-
tion, which within certain limits holds for the adsorption of crystalloids
by charcoal and by hydrogels.4°® Ultra-microns of one colloid likewise
adsorb ultra-microns of another colloid, and even when they both bear
the same charge; this can be seen in the ultra-microscope and goes

104 Zeitschr. f. Farben und Teatil Chemie, 1903, 25.

105 German Patent Application, 112,051, 1903.

106 Thermo-Dynamische Studien, p. 321.

107 Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem. 1911, 77, 641-660; 1912, 78, 667-681.
108 Meddelanden fran K. Vetenskapsakad. Nobelinstitut, \9J1, 2 N. 7.
109 Van Bemmelen.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 5D

to show that the electrolyte-coagulation theory is not quite adequate
to explain all dyeing phenomena. When one colloid so unites with the
other it forms a ‘ protective colloid’ and shows the utmost reluctance
to coagulate. This is connected with P. P. von Weimarn’s ‘ Grundgesetz
der Dispersoidologie’ : ‘When a substance suffers physical or chemical
division it strives with all possible means for a diminution of its
free surface energy.’ This diminution of surface energy may take
place by coagulation, which, however, is impossible so long as all
the particles have the same charge, and only takes place in presence of
an electrolyte or under influence of a current or by deposition upon a
surface whose charge is opposite to their own, giving adsorption according
to Freundlich’s rules. Perrin’s"® and Pelet-Jolivet’s researches into
the contact charges which appear on various solid substances, including
textile fibres, when brought into contact with liquids show, not only
a definite ‘latent heat of adsorption,’ but also a charge (measured by
the electrosmosis of the liquid through the diaphragm) in the case of
ionising solvents, but not of non-ionising solvents like chloroform, petro-
leum, and benzol. All solid substances take on a positive charge in an
acid liquid, a negative charge in an alkaline liquid; the difference of
potential is greater when the number of H ions is greater, and smaller
in presence of a greater number of OH ions. These phenomena show
a remarkable parallelism to the results observed in the coagulation of
colloids and point to some deep-seated analogy. Wool, cotton, silk,
&e., follow the general charge-law in acids and alkalies, but they all
take a negative charge already in pure distilled water; this charge is
increased in contact with alkaline solutions and decreased in acid
solutions—with silk and wool it is possible to show an actual change
in sign of charge.

The work of Linder and Picton '! may be mentioned here. They stated
that dyeing is connected with the electrical charges which substances carry
- when existing in colloidal solution. They experimented on colloidal ferric
hydroxide and basic dyes which carry positive charges and arsenious
sulphide and acid dyes which are negatively charged. Hence—as two
oppositely-charged colloidal solutions precipitate one another—soluble
blue (acid) precipitates ferric hydroxide, but methyl violet does not.
Exactly the reverse process occurs with arsenious sulphide. Ammonium
sulphate also precipitates colloidal ferric hydroxide, but they found a
distinction between its action and that of the dye. A definite quantity only
of the salt is required to precipitate the colloid, and more added remains in
solution. However, with the dye, after the colloid had been precipitated the
dye continued to be adsorbed by the ferric hydroxide as a whole. They
explained this by assuming that the precipitated colloid still retained a
portion of its original charge, and that by virtue of this it still continued to
take up more dye. The same kind of action was supposed to take place in
dyeing—the fibre taking the place of ferric hydroxide or arsenious sulphide.

These facts will account for the phenomena of dyeing wool with a basic
dyestufi of the methylene-blue type: it is an evident case of mutual
discharge and consequent precipitation by two oppositely-charged colloids,

etl Loc. cit.

4 Journ. Chem. Soc. 1905, pp. 1931-1935. See also Journ. Chem. Soc. 1892,
61, 114, 137, 148; ibid., 1895, 67, 63; ibid., 1897, 71, 568.

56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917. 6

and the effect of adding either acid, base, or salt to the bath can also bé
demonstrated. But the colloid-precipitation theory can by no means be
directly applied to dyeing with acid dyes upon animal fibres in the neutral
bath: the fibre charges itself negatively, the dye also has a negative charge,
and no two colloids of the same sign will precipitate each other. This leads
Pelet-Jolivet"* to revert to the adsorption theory, assuming that the
dyestuffs act as unhydrolysed electrolytes in their solutions, and are
adsorbed according to the valency of their combining ion, e.g.—the sodium
salt of the colour acid should dye less strongly than the calcium or
magnesium salt, and this less strongly than the alumiziium salt or than the
free acid with its hydrogen ion; similarly the hydrochloride of a basic
dyestuff should give weaker colours than the sulphate or than the phosphate,
or finally than the hydrate with its OHion. This theory Pelet was able to
demonstrate clearly by experiments both with acid and basic dyes upon
wool ; he concludes that the dyes, as von Georgievics, Walker Appleyard,
and Vignon had already stated, act as dissociable electrolytes in the bath
and dye according to valency—the H and OH ions always having dis-
proportionate action to their valency.

These results also accord with his experiments (following Goppels-
roder™) in capillary-ascent of various dyes (in water-solution) in strips of
linen, cotton, flannel, and silk cloth, as well as filter-paper. Positive
dyestuffs (colloid) cease to ascend at the actual surface of the liquid ;
added acids cause them to ascend, and decrease the ascent of acid dyes ;
alkalies will not cause acid dyes to ascend further, and actually decrease the
ascent of basic dyes.

The dyeing process by adsorption plus dissociation Pelet ingeniously
explains by assuming an accompanying dissociation of the water ; the fibre
becomes covered in the case of basic dyes by a ‘ double layer ’ of H and OH
1ons, which, like those of the sodium, &c., base in acid dyes and the SQ,,
&c., ion in basic dyes, are very small and mobile in contrast with the large
organic ion, and therelore reach the fibre first and deposit themselves as a
film upon it, giving it thus their charge. The organic ion of the dyestuff has
an opposite charge to these, and fixes itself, by a process analogous to
coagulation, upon them. The actual existence of this ‘ double layer,’ which
by selection results in a fixation of the dye accompanied by a quantitative
survival of the acid in the bath, has been demonstrated by Pelet, von
Helmholtz, G. Quincke, and A. Pellot to exist on the surface of solid bodies
immersed in water. Similar cases of chemical action subsequent to
adsorption have been noticed by H. Freundlich and W. Neumann.4

It would appear that in this theory—which takes account of the
electrical properties of solutions colloidal and crystalloidal, of the
phenomena of contact-electrification and surface-tension expressed in
terms of capillary attraction, of the effect of temperature upon all these,
without denying the possibility of chemical reaction between the fibre and
the dye presented to 1t—lines are laid down upon which an adequate theory
of the dyeing process may develop.

2 Theorie des Farbeprozesses, p. 105, Pelet-Jolivet and N. Anderson, Koll.
Zeitschr. 1908, 8, 206.

43“ Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Basel,’ Koll. Zeitschr.
1909-10, 4, 5, 6.

ila Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem. 67, 538.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 57

Wm. Harrison and Haldane Gee™* proceeded now to carry out their
experiments testing this electrical theory and found it to explain phenomena
observed better than the adsorption theory, which Lewis" had discredited
on the grounds that it demands a decrease in amount of dye adsorbed under
increase of temperature. These authors claim that it is always an
electrical phenomenon: if the dye be colloid, then coagulation results
from neutralisation of charge ; if not colloidal, then it is ionised in solution
and deposited by contact-electrification charges acting on the ions.

They discovered a most important phenomenon, ?.e., that the maximum
negative charge attained by wool, silk, and cotton was at 40°. This is
undoubtedly strong evidence in favour of an electrical phenomenon, as
Brown" found that wool absorbed most basic colour at about 40°.

Harrison refers to the physical constitution of the fibres, as the surface
(on which the charge rests and to which the dye-particles wander to fix
themselves) is greatly increased by the porosity and irregularity of the
fibre. He suggests that the dye-particles, if very large, will not fix on silk
so well as on wool or as on cotton (this being the order of increasing size of
their pores) ; by this theory Harrison also explains the adsorption and
fixation of the direct cotton-colouzs.

In his dyeing experiments various salts, &c., are added, none of which
tend to retard coagulation or to decrease the size of the particles, but rather
the reverse. The dye should, therefore, be fastest dyed without salts, and
this Harrison finds to be the case. Also, as an increase in temperature
decreases the size of the particles, it should increase the fastness of the
resulting dyeings. This also he finds to be true.

Feilmann expressed his ideas of dyeing similarly to those of Gee and
Harrison, 2.¢., that the dye was attracted electrically by the oppositely-
charged fibre. He also asserted that the ion of the dyestuff penetrated the
fibre more or less deeply, and was retained either because the fibre acted
as a protective colloid or because chemical action took place between the
ion and the fibre.

COLLOID CHEMISTRY IN THE FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES.
By Prof. Appian J. Brown, University of Birmingham.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

“Studies on the Coagulation of Starch.’ A, FurnBacu and J. Woiry. (‘J. Inst...
Brewing,’ 1904, 10, 216.)
On the coagulation of soluble starch by amylocoagulase, an enzyme existing in

the germinated seeds of barley and other cereals.

“The Diastatic Coagulation of Starch.’ A. Fernpacu and J. Wourr. (‘Comp.
Rend.’ 1904, 139, 217. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1905, 11, 190.)

* Anti-amylocoagulase.’” A, FrrnBacu and J.Woxrr. (‘Ann. Brass. et. Dist.’ 1906,
9, 513. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1907, 18, 184.)

“Colloidal Properties and Spontaneous Coagulation of Starch.’ E.Fouarp. (‘ Comp.
Rend.’ 1908, 147, 931. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1909, 15, 330.)

46 Trans. Faraday Society, 1910, April (Journ. Munic. Sch. Lechn. Manchester,
vol. iv., 1911, pp, 131-154), Paper (Harrison) Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col., 1911, p. 279.
They append to their paper a translation of Pelet’s tables of affinity between
colloid-coagulation, contact-electrification, capillary ascent and dyeing, as does also
Zsigmondy (Kolluid Chemie, p. 229).

46 Phil. Mag. 1908 (6) 15, p. 499.

47 Journ. Soc. Dyers and Col. 1901, p. 92.

58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

‘ Colloidal Properties of Starch in Relation to its Chemical Constitution.’ E. Fouarp.
(‘Comp. Rend.’ 1909, 148, 502. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1909, 15, 411.)

‘ Researches on the Physico-Chemical Constitution of Starch.’ E. Fouarp. (‘ Inter-
nat. Congress of Applied Chemistry,’ 1909. Abst. ‘ J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1909, 15,
632.)

‘Catalytic Changes in Starch Paste.’ A. Frrnpacn and J. Wotrr. (‘ Internat.
Congress of Applied Chemistry,’ 1909. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1909, 15, 632.)

‘The Selective Permeability of the Coverings of the Seeds of Hordeum vulgare.’
AprRIAn J. Brown. (‘ Proc. Royal Soc. B. Vol. 81, 1909,

The seeds are furnished with a covering permeable by water and certain classes
of solutes when in aqueous solution; with the majority of solutes, however, the
covering behaves as a true semipermeable membrane.

‘Colloidal State of Brewing Materials, and its Importance for the Brewery.’ C. J.
Lintyer. (‘Zeitschr. ges. Brauw.’ 1909, 32, 633. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’
1910, 16, 211.)

Discusses the colloidal properties of starch and of the protein constituents of
barley.

‘ Spring's Optically Transparent Liquids and Diastatic Properties.’ H. Van Lamp.
(‘ Internat. Brew. Congress, Brussels,’ 1910. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1910,
16, 670.)

‘ Colloidal Chemical Processes which occur in Brewing.’ F. Emstanper. (‘ Zeitschr.
Chem, und Ind. Kolloide,’ 1910, 6, 156. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1910, 16,
518.)

Discusses surface influences—colloid-forming—and stabilising influencesin brewing.
‘Metal-protein Turbidity of Pale Beers.’ F. ScHénrELD and W. Hirt. (‘ Wochen-

schr. Brau.’ 1910, 27, 633. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1911, 17, 288.)

‘ Adsorption of various Substances by Starches,’ H. Luoyp. (‘J. Amer. Chem.
Soc.’ 1911, 33, 1213. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1911, 17, 693.)

‘Cause of Precipitation in Finished Pasteurised Bottled Beer.’ F. EMSLANDER.
(‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 484.)

The ‘head-retaining power’ and ‘ palatefulness’ of beer are due to ultramicro-
scopic particles of albumen existing in the form of an emulsion-colloid. Turbidity
is occasioned by coagulation of the particles induced by physical or chemical influences.
The stabilising influence of acids (7.e., H ions) is discussed.

L. Watuerstetn. New York. (Eng. Patent 12,350, May 22, 1911.)

Object of process is the rendering of beer chill-proof by treatment previous to
bottling with proteolytic enzymes (e.g., pepsin or papain), to hydrolyse albumins
causing turbidity. (See ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 491.)

‘Colloidal Chemistry and Brewing.’ Emm Harscurx (‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912,
18, 494.)

A general survey of colloidal chemistry, with special reference to questions such
as ‘head’ formation, haze, &c., which are of particular importance in brewing.

‘ Plant Colloids: Gelatinisation of Starch in Presence of Crystalloids.’ M. Samuc.
(‘ Kolloidchem. Beiheft,’ 1911, 3, 123. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 694.)

Discusses the influence of crystalloids on temperature of gelatinisation.

‘ Reactions of Tannin and their Importance in Brewing.’ A. RuicHarp. (‘ Zeitschr.
Chem. und Ind. Kolloide,’ 1912, 209. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 695.)

‘The Tannin in the Testa of the Barleycorn.’ A. Ruicnarp. (‘Zeitschr. Chem.
u. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1912, 214. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 696.)

Author suggests that the selective permeability of the inner covering of barley-
corn may be occasioned by the tannin present. (See A. J. Brown, p. 1.)

‘Beer Haze.’ F.Scuiénretp. (‘ Wochenschr. Brau.’ 1912, 29,557. Abst. ‘J, Inst.
Brewing,’ 1912, 18, 696.)

The paper contains illustrations of different types of beer haze.

‘ The Influence of Temperature on the Absorption of Water by the Seeds of Hordeum
vulgare in relation to the Temperature Coefficient of Chemical Change.” ADRIAN
J. Brown and F. P. Worry. (‘ Proc. of Royal Soc.’ B. 1912, 85, 546.)

The velocity with which water is adsorbed by the seeds is an exponential function
of the temperature, and is comparable with the vapour pressure of water, which is
also approximately an exponential function of the temperature. The velocity of
adsorption of water from a solution of ethyl acetate is also an exponential function
of the temperature, but the actual velocity is higher in the presence of ethylacetate
than in the presence of pure water. Probably the partial pressure of water vapour
is increased by the presence of ethyl acetate.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 59

‘Use of Gelatinous Silica for the Clarification of Beer.’ P.Drprax. (‘ Ann. Brass.
et. Dist.’ 1912, 15, 410. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1913, 19, 52.)

* On the Flocculation or “‘ Break ”’ of Worts and Beers and its Significance in Brewing
Practice.’ Horacz T. Brown. (‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1913, 19, 84.)

The persistent turbidity produced on cooling a hopped malt wort is occasioned
by a suspension of particles of a tannin-protein compound soluble in hot wort, in-
soluble in cold. Most of the particles are formed during cooling between the limits
of 49° C. and 27° C. I£ the wort is strongly agitated when cooling between these
limits, flocculation takes place, otherwise flocculation is rendered difficult owing to
the protective influence of the dextrins of the wort. A suspension of the tannin-
protein compound is injurious to the propagation and fermentative power of yeast,
and adversely affects the flavour of the resulting beer owing to adsorption of hop
resin on the surface of the suspended particles. A technical means of inducing
flocculation during cooling of the wort is indicated.

* Practical Observations and Studies of Albumin Turbidities in Beer caused by Tin
and Iron.’ G. L. Goos. (‘ Highth Internat. Cong. Appl. Chemistry,’ 1912.
Abst. ‘J. Inst. Browing,’ 1913, 19, 147.)

‘Head on Beer.’ A. Fernpacu. (‘ Ann. Brass. et Dist.’ 1918, 16, 145. Abst. ‘J.
Inst. Brewing,’ 1913, 19, 400.)

The relation of the colloids of beer to the formation, nature, and retention of
‘head ’ is discussed.

* Electrical Dialysis of Enzymes: Application of the Principle to the Purification of
Malt Diastase.’ M. Lissonnz and M. Vuxquin. (‘ Journ, de Physiol. et Pathol.’
1913, 15, 24. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 64.)

‘Removal of Oil from Condenser Water by Electrolysis.’ H. WINKELMANN.
(‘Zeitschr. ges. Brauw. 1913, 36, 664. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 78.)

‘ Colloids as Vehicles of Undesirable Flavour in Beer.’ F:Emsntanprr. (‘ Wochenschr.
Brau.’ 1913, 30, 387. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 80.)

‘Plant Colloids, II].—Processes of Solution and Removal of the Ash of Starch.’
M. Samec and F. von Honrrr. (‘ Koll. Chem. Beihefte,’ 1913, 5, 141. Abst.
‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 124.)

“Concentration of Hydrogen Ions in Beer, and its Relation to the Brewing Process.’
F. Emsntanper. (‘ Zeitschr. Ges. Brauw.’ 1914, 37,2. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’
1914, 20, 136.)

The colloids of beer migrate towards the cathode. The difference between the
concentration of hydrogen ions and the acidity of beer as found by titration is dis-

. cussed. A form of apparatus is suggested for the measurement of ion concentration
for technical use.

‘An Account of Some Investigations on the White Winesof South Africa : an Gino-
logical Study.” Horace T. Brown. (‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 345.)

The white wines of the Cape are peculiarly liable to turbidity or ‘ casse,’ accom-
panied by an increase in colour and a bitter flavour. ‘Casse’ is not due to micro-
organisms, but is conditioned by purely chemical changes, and only arises in contact
with air or with oxygen derived from some such source as hydrogen peroxide. The
oxidising agent inducing ‘ casse’ does not belong to the class of vegetable oxidases,
but consistsof a small amount of iron in the ferrous state present in the wine, which
behaves as a carrier of oxygen (Fenton’s reaction). The ‘casse’ itself consists of
colloidal particles of a combination of iron with products derived from the limited
oxidation of tannins and certain proteins present in the wine. The grape contains
a peroxidase in the inner cells of the epidermis and in the vascular bundles of the
fruit, but freshly expressed grape-juice contains no peroxidase unless the juice of
the fruit has remained in contact with the skin for some time. If the amount of
oxidase in the juice is considerable it has a tendency to brown on exposure to the
air, but there appears to be no connection between the occurrence of oxidase and the

_¢easse ferrique referred to above.

‘Estimation of Colloidsin Beers.’ R.Marc. (‘ Kolloid-Zeitschr.’ 1914, 14. Abst.
‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 431.)

__ Measurements made by means of refractometer readings before and after adsorp-

_tion of colloids by barium sulphate.

“Green Sickness (Verdissement) of Ciders.’ WarcoLzier. (‘Comptes Rendus,’
1914, 158, 973. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 457.)

J
bal 2

»|

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

* Variations in the Phosphorus-content of Starch accompanying its Changes of
State.’ M. Samec (‘ Kolloidchemische Beihefte,’ 1914, 6, 23. Abst. ‘J. Inst.
Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 716.)

‘Influence of some Colloids on Alcoholic Fermentation.’ N. L. SéuneEen. (‘ Folia
Microbiologica,’ 1913, 2,94. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 720.)

* Retention of Head on Beer.’ O. FurRNRouR. (‘ Zeitschr. Ges. Brauw.’ 1913, 36, 473.
Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1914, 20, 596.)

* Melanoidines in Roasted Malt.’ W.Rucxpiscury. (‘ American Brewers’ Journal,’
1915, 39, 107. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1915, 21, 123.)

The melanoidines are colloidal condensation products formed during the heating
of amino-acids and dextrose present in malted grain.

* The Rate of Adsorption of Various Phenolic Solutions by Seeds of Hordeum vulgare,
and the Factors Governing the Rate of Diffusion of Aqueous Solutions across
Semipermeable Membranes.’ Aprian J. Brown and F. Tryxer. (‘ Proc.
Royal Soc.’ B. Vol. 89, 1915.)

When the osmotic pressures, vapour pressures, and viscosities of aseries of solutions
of permeable solutes such as the phenols are equal, their rates of diffusion across
the barley membrane are inversely proportional to their surface tensions.
‘Gluten Turbidity.’ E. Mourane. (‘ Allgem. Zeitschr. fir Bierbrau. und Malz-

fabr.’ 1915, 43, 275. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1916, 22, 468.)

‘Brewers’ Filter Pulp.” W. A. J. Foster. (‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1916, 22, 413.)

‘Sensitiveness of Beer towards Cold and the Wallerstein Process.’ P. Pri.
(‘ Brasserie et Malterie,’ 1916, 6, 61. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’ 1916, 22, 468.)

*Pre-mashing and Protein Haze: Concentration of Hydrogen Ions in Beer.’ F.
EmstanvDEr (‘ Wochenschr. Brauw.’ 1916, 38, 169. Abst. ‘J. Inst. Brewing,’
1916, 22, 509.)

‘Selective Permeability : The Absorption of Phenol and other Solutions by the Seeds
of Hordewm vulgare.’ Aprian J. Brown and F. Tryxer. (‘ Proc, Royal Soe.’
B. vol. 89, 1916.

The various solutes enter the barley seeds in an amount which is indicated by
the extent to which they are adsorbed by the barley membrane and by the colloidal
contents of the seeds. The solutes which are most strongly adsorbed are those
which give solutions having low surface tensions and vice versd.

RUBBER.
By Dr. Henry P. Srevens.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
(1) Composition and Properties of Latex and Ruw Rubber.

‘Some Analyses of Hevea Latex,’ C. BeapLE and H. P. Stxnvens (‘The
Analyst,’ 1911, 36, 8). Gives the results of analyses of latex from the cortex of the
trunks of trees of different ages and also from leaf petioles.

‘An Investigation into the Nature and Properties of Hevea Latex,’ C. BEADLE
and H. P. Stevens (‘8th Inter. Congress of Applied Chem.’ Vol. 9, pp. 40-43).
Part 1 contains a study of the phenomena accompanying coagulation; distinctions
are drawn between the microscopic and macroscopic forms in which coagulation takes
place and the effect of formaline on latex. The quantities of acid required for coagula-
tion under different conditions are given. Part 2 contains the results of the chemical
analyses of three samples of Hevea latex.

“The Carbohydrate Constituents of Pari Rubber,’ Picktes and WHITFIELD
(‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.’ 1911, p. 54). It is shown that sheet rubber from Hevea latex
contains appreciable quantities of 1-methyl inositol.

(2) Production of Raw Rubber.

Tun RupBer GROWERS’ Association, ‘ Revised Tables of Recommendations for
the Treatment of Latex and Curing of Rubber,’ 1917. The original table has been
revised and split up into two tables, one dealing with sheet and the other with crépe
rubber. These tables give concise instructions for the preparation of rubber from the
latex, giving proportion of coagulant, preservatives, &c., to be used, types, construc-
tion and handling of plant and machinery, instructions for straining, bulking, standard-

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 61

ising, coagulating, washing, rolling, drying and sorting, grading, curing, packing, and
a list of defects commonly met with and the preventives which can be adopted.

* A Comparison of the Brazilian and Plantation Methods of Preparing Para Rubber,’
G. S. Watrey (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, p. 493). Gives the results of com-
parative tests on rubber prepared in the East by the Brazilian method, smoking and
coagulation in thin films, and the typical plantation method of coagulation and rolling
to sheets, followed by smoke-drying. Two series of samples were prepared, one from
the latex from young trees (five years old) and old trees (fifteen years old). The con-
clusions arrived at were that the rubber prepared by the Brazilian method was a little
inferior to that produced by the plantation method. It was, however, suggested in the
discussion following the paper that the Brazilian method of smoking had not been
exactly imitated. There was little difference between the rubber from young and old
trees. The following conclusions were also arrived at :—Phenols absorbed from the
smoke reduce the rate of cure, and, generally speaking, rubber is not improved by
smoking, and latex crépe may be very seriously deteriorated by this means ; ‘ oxida-
tion’ has no ill effect on the quality, and, contrary to the generally accepted view,
there is practically no difference in quality between the outer ‘ oxidised * portion and
inner portion of a ball of fine hard Para.

Comparative tests on rubber from groups of trees in different areas showed marked
variation. Also latex allowed to stand before coagulation gave rather better results
than that coagulated straight away.

‘On the Coagulation of Hevea Latex and a New Method of Coagulation,’ B. J. Eaton
and J. GrantwAm (‘ Agric. Bull. Federated Malay States,’ vol. 4, No. 2 (1915), p. 26).
When latex is coagulated spontaneously by exposure to the air there is formed an
alkaline scum on the surface where coagulation does not take place, while underneath
the serum reacts acid and coagulation is more or less complete (G. S. WHITBY,
‘Congress of Applied Chem.’ 1912; ‘ Koll. Zeit.,’12, 153). At the same time, strong
putrefactive odours develop. The authors find that the putrefactive changes are
inhibited while the development of the coagulating agencies have free play if a small
quantity of sugar, e.g., 0°2 per cent. dextrine, be added to the latex.

Eng. Pat. 104,323 of 1916, G, M. Taomas and M. D. Maupz, claims the process for
allowing latex to coagulate spontaneously out of contact with the air, by which the
formation of the surface scum is prevented. Eaton and GRANTHAM, however, state in
the above communication that the coagulation is frequently incomplete when this is
effected merely by exclusion of air, whereas in the presence of sugar coagulation is
complete either under aérobic or anaérobic conditions. 8. Mor@an, however, finds that
even in the presence of sugar coagulation is often incomplete (private communication).

Other patents deal mostly with methods of evaporating latex in thin layers, as in
» native Brazilian Para.

* Bull. Agric. Intell.’ 1915-16, 1703-4. M. Kerroscu states that rubber obtained
by evaporation of latex is less readily oxidised under the influence of sunlight than that
produced by coagulation in the ordinary manner.

(3) The Non-Caoutchoue Constituents of Raw Rubber.

Nitrogenous constituent.—D. SrENcE was the first to show that the insoluble con-
stituent of rubber (7.e., insoluble in organic solvents such as chloroform, benzene, &c.)
was highly nitrogenous, and in fact consisted of protein matter coagulated with the
eaoutchouc in the latex (‘ Journ. Liverpool Univ. Inst. of Commercial Research in the
Tropics,’ No. 13,1907). Distribution of the protein in Para rubber.

C. Brapte and H. P. Stevens subsequently showed that the nitrogenous or
insoluble constituent was necessary for satisfactory vulcanisation, as its removal
reduced the proportion of combined sulphur, and such rubber, vulcanised under normal
conditions, had poor physical properties. It was also found that the nitrogenous con-
stituent could be satisfactorily replaced by nitrogenous matter of foreign origin, such as
peptone, and less satisfactorily by casein. The choice of nitrogenous substances was
limited by the difficulty of incorporating them with the rubber. (‘ Koll. Zeit.’ 1912,
11, p. 61, 1913, 12, p. 46; ‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1912, 31, p. 1099; H. P. Stevens,
* Koll. Zeit.’ 1914, 14, p. 91.)

D. Spence and G. D. Kratz (‘ Koll. Zeit.’) employ a *3—"5 per cent. solution of tri-
chloracetic acid in benzene for separating the nitrogenous constituent. When the rubber
is swollen in this solvent it rapidly breaks down, giving a solution of low viscosity from
which the insoluble nitrogenous constituent is easily separated. Spence examined the

62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

product thus obtained, which contains about 10 per cent. of nitrogen, and regards it as
a glycoprotein.

Eaton and Grantuam found that if freshly coagulated latex be allowed to remain
for a few days before washing or rolling therubber eventually obtained is rapidly-curing
and possesses considerably superior physical properties after vulcanisation (‘ Agric.
Bull. F.M.S8.’ 1915, 8, p. 442, and 4, p. 58, also ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 35, p.
715). This increase in rate of cure they attributed to some accelerating substance
formed in the rubber by the action of micro-organisms, as they found that freezing the
rubber inhibited the development of the rapid-curing properties, but these were
restored on allowing the temperature to rise again. Further, formalin and other
antiseptic treatment, ¢e.g., smoking, had also an inhibiting effect. They also observed
that once the rapid-curing effect was produced, this was not destroyed by heating to
relatively high temperatures, as in the treatment of the rubber in a hot-air drier or by
washing on crépeing rolls.

J. Grantuam (‘ Agric. Bull. F.M.S.’ 4, pp. 1-4) published a number of nitrogen
determinations of plantation rubber and concludes that smoking appears to fix the
nitrogen. Generally speaking, matured ‘slab’ gave low figures, especially after
crépeing, in spite of the rapid-curing properties of this rubber.

H. P. Srevens confirmed Eaton and Grantham’s results and succeeded in
separating the accelerating substance, which wasfound to be an organic base or mixture
of bases formed during putrefaction. The rapid-curing properties were found to be
partly, but not completely, removed by washing on crépeing rollers, (‘ Journ. Soc.
Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 36, p. 365.) Larger quantities of base could be extracted from
rapidly-curing rubber than from slow-curing rubber. The bases can also be obtained
from the latex serum and produce acceleration of vulcanisation when added to ordinary
crépe.

Synthetic organic accelerators.—A general description of organic accelerators for
vulcanisation and their characteristics have appeared at various times (Ditmar,
‘ Gummi Zeitung,’ 1915, 29, p. 425 ; Gottlob, ‘ Gummi Zeitung,’ 1916, 30, p. 303; A. H.
King, ‘India Rubber Journ.’ 1916, 52, p. 440; 8. J. Peachey, ‘I.R.J.’ 1916, 52,
p. 603; S. J. Peachey, ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 36, p. 424). The first patent of
importanceis givenas that of Bayer & Co., Elberfeld Farbenfabrik, Ger. Pat. 265,221 of
Noy. 16, 1912. This was for the use of piperidene. Subsequently it was recognised
that all organic bases act as accelerators, but that only those having a high dissociation
constant are sufficiently powerful for technical work. Thisled to the patent taken out
by Bayer & Co., claiming all organic bases having a dissociation constant greater
than 1 x 10° (Ger. Pat. 280,198 of 1914). 8. J. Peachey has patented the nitroso-
derivatives of certain bases (Eng. Pat. 4,263 of 1914), particularly p-nitroso-dimethyl
aniline, which differ from compounds previously referred to in that they are not strong
bases and are yet very effective accelerators. Peachey has also patented condensa-
tion compounds formed by the interaction of aldehydes and amines (Eng. Pat. 7,370 of
1914), but these substances are not so powerfulas thenitroso- derivatives.

D. Spence (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 36, p. 118) claims to dispose of the
novelty of all these inventions, and states that, six months previous to the date of
application of the Bayer patent of 1912 (covering the use of piperidene), he described
experiments in which piperidene was used in the ‘ Kolloid Zeitschrift,’ 1912, 10,
pp. 303-305.

Duntor Russer Co. and Twiss (Eng. Pat. 1916, 17,756) have patented the use
of caustic soda or potash in solution in glycerol as a vulcanising accelerator. The
accelerating effect of mineral bases is wellknown, particularly lime and magnesia. The
glycerol is used as an agent for incorporating the alkali in the rubber (see also paper by
D. F. Twiss (‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 86, 782).

Resinous constituent.—L. E. Weber, ‘The Action of Resins in the Vulcanising of
Rubber’ (‘ Inter. Congress of Applied Chem.’ 1912, 9,95). The author prepared three
compounds from the same mixing, containing rubber, litharge, sulphur, and whiting, as
follows :—Compound A was prepared with plantation-smoked sheet, which had been cut
up and extracted for fifteen hours with acetone. Compound B exactly resembled the
foregoing except that the rubber was used without previous extraction. Compound
C was identical with compound B except that it contained in addition the resins
(acetone extract) obtained from the rubber used for compound A. On vuleanising (in
water) it was found that compound A ‘ could not be vulcanised,’ that is to say, cured for
one hour at 140°C. ; ‘if showed a strength of less than 201b.,’ while compounds B and
C variously cured gave figures up to 800 lb. with irregular differences. The author

a: i at ie

—ae ae eee

ac vel yh

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 63

concludes that ‘ the resins play an active part in the vulcanisation and not merely the
part of catalyser. Their presence is absolutely essential.’

C. Brapte and H. P. Strvens, ‘ The Nature of the Resinous Constituent and its
Influence on the Quality of Rubber’ (‘ Inter. Congress of Applied Chem.’ 1912, 25,
581). The authors made comparative vulcanising tests with Hevea and Rambonrg
(Ficus elastica) rubbers, one compound prepared from acetone (or alcoho!) extracted
rubber and the other from the untreated rubber. The compound employed consisted
of the rubber (treated or untreated) and sulphur without other ingredients. They
noted that the compound prepared from the extracted rubber appeared undercured
when compared with a control specimen of untreated rubber, but the main difference
between the vulcanised samples was shown on keeping the vulcanised specimens, when

_ those prepared from the extracted rubber rapidly hardened and deteriorated (perished).

H. P. Stevens, ‘The Function of Litharge in the Vulcanisation of Rubber,’
Part II., ‘The Influence of the Resinous Constituents’ (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’
1916, 85, p. 874). The author describes further comparative tests with resin-
extracted rubber, using compounds with and without litharge and determining the
coefficient of vulcanisation.

(4) Vulcanisation.

Spence and his collaborators (‘ Koll. Zeit.’ 1911, 8, 304, 9, 83, 300; 1912, 10, 299;
11, 28, 274; 1913, 13, 265).—The process of vulcanisation is studied in a systematic
series of experiments, and the conclusions arrived at point to vulcanisation as essen-
tially a chemical reaction between sulphur and the caoutchouc, the amount of combined
sulphur being proportional to the time of heating with a temperature coefficient of
approximately 2°7 for a rise of 10° C. Moreover, when the amount of sulphur is
limited (e.g., 10 per cent. on the caoutchouc), the whole becomes combined on prolonged
heating, and with an excess of sulphur the maximum combined sulphur corresponds
approximately to the formula C,,H,,S, (compare also C. O. Weber, ‘ The Chemistry of
India Rubber,’ pp. 87-91; also Hinrichsen and Kindscher, ‘ Gummi Zeit.’ 1903, 18,
251; ‘ Koll. Zeit.’ 1912, 11,191; ‘ Ber.’ 1913, 46, 1291).

SKELLON, in more recent work, gives a great amount of data which confirms the
above (‘ Koll. Zeit.’ 1914, 66, p. 96; ‘The Rubber Industry papers read at tho
Exhibition held in London in 1914,’ p. 172).

F. W. Hoyricusen and K. Mrrtzmnsure (‘ Ch. Zeit.’ 1909, 33, p.756). Quantitative
experiments on cold vulcanisation.

E. Stern (‘ Ch. Zeit.’ 1909, 38, p. 256), ‘ Study of the Reaction between Rubber and
Sulphur in Solution in Naphthalene.’

Harrinrs and Fonrosrert (‘ Ber.’ 1916, 49, 1196 and 1390). Rubber was
vulcanised in sheets 6 mm, thick by heating a mix containing 10 per cent. of sulphur for
thirty minutes at 145°C. After sixty days’ extraction with hot acetone, only 0°25 per
cent.sulphur remained, and it is concluded that this would have been removed if the ex-
traction had procecded long enough. Itis therefore concluded that vulcanisation is a,
physicalchange. A distinction, however, is drawn between vulcanisation as carried out
above, which the authors term ‘ primary vulcanisation,’ and the more fu lly vulcanised
product obtained by longer heating or by ‘after-vulcanisation’ of the primary
vulcanised body.

D. F. Twiss (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 36, 782). This paper contains a
review of the subject and a very full reference list. The original work contained in it
deals particularly with the relative reactivities of Su and SA as vulcanising agents.
Tt is concluded that the modification in which the sulphur is employed is practically
without influence on the course of vuleanisation. Compare also Dubosc (‘ Le Caout-
chouce et la Gutta Percha,’ Jan. 1917).

I. I. Ostromystensxt (‘ Journ. Russ. Physico-Chem. Soc.’ 1915, 47, 1453 et seq.,
1885 et seg.; also

Vuleanisation of caoutchouc by means of ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 35, 370
halogen compounds, and mechanism of
the vulcanisation process.

Hot vulcanisation of caoutchouc by means 93 + 9 » 59
of nitro-compounds in absence of
sulphur.

Hot vulcanisation of caoutchoue by means 35 55 3 sxe 50

of eae or per-acids, in absence of
sulphur.

64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Cold vulcanisation of caoutchouc by means ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 85, 369
of sulphur, trinitrobenzene, or benzoyl
peroxide.

Mechanism of vulcanisation of caoutchouc.

3 > ” > 59
Mechanism of action of amines and metallic ‘i st Ms » 3/0
oxides on the vulcanisation of
caoutchouc.
Vulcanisation of caoutchoue by molecular 5 55 - yi)
oxygen, ozone, or organic ozonides.
Vulcanisation of synthetic caoutchouc. ‘A 5 33 S5 58
Preparation of vulcanised caoutchouc A 3 & cll
coloured by organic colouring matters.
Process for obtaining a substance identical ne oo i sric WoL

with or analogous to natural vulcanised
rubber.

J. I. OstRoMYSLENSEI and I. M. KeLBastnsKaJa (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 35, 58,
* New Constants of Caoutchouc, Elasticity Point and Fatal Temperature ’).

The first three papers describe methods for producing a vulcanised rubber without
the use of sulphur by heating the rubber (a) with nitro-aromatic derivatives, e.g.,
trinitrobenzene, or (b) with organic peroxides, e.g., benzoyl peroxides.

H. P. Stnvens (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1917, 36, 107) has shown that reaction (a)
‘only proceeds in the presence of a base such as PbO or MgO, and that the products are
inferior technically to rubber vulcanised with sulphur. Compare also Twiss(p. 63).

TH. HEm~Bronwer and J. BERNSTEIN (‘ Rubber Industry,’ 1914, 156 ; ‘ Caoutchouc
‘et Gutta Percha,’ 1915, 12, 8720) describe a method of vulcanisation in which rubber
-and sulphur m solution are exposed to the action of ultra-violet light from a quartz

amercury vapour-lamp. Once the solvent has evaporated from this solution the rubber
‘hecomes.insoluble.

(5) Physical Testing of Vulcanised Rubber.

P. L. WormeExey (‘ Rubber Industry,’ 1914, 246-256). This paper brings out the
great influence exerted by temperature on the results of physical tests.

P. ScutpRowiTz (‘ Rubber Industry,’ 1914, 230-245), ‘ Outline of a Method of
Physical Tests.’

H. P. Srzvens (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 85). Criticises current methods of
testing, particularly with regard to state of cure of the specimens tested and the ageing
factor.

A. van Rossen (‘ Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het vulcanisatieproces,’ Amsterdam,
1916) contains the results of tests on a very large number of yulcanised rubber samples,
with mathematical treatment of same.

See also publications of the International Association for Rubber Cultivation in the
Netherlands Indies, Delft, Part I., published in 1917; ‘ Bulletin of Imperial Institute,’
1916, 14, 495.

(6) Synthetic Rubber.

I. I. OstRomystensxt (‘ Journ. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc.’ 1915, 47, 1441 et seg., 1928
el seq. ; 1916, 48, 1071 et seq.

Condensation of alcohols and aldehydes in ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 35, 69
presence of dehydrating agents.

New syntheses of caoutchoue and_ its » » ” » 368
homologues.

Mechanism of transformation of isoprene ne % ” » 369
and 8 myrcene into caoutchouc,

Production of caoutchouc. ” . ” » 130

Jonstitution of caoutchoucs. ¥ a A » 369

Definition, classification and evaluation of 4 ” ” » 57
caoutchoucs.

New methods of preparation of divinyl, ~ ,, * ” » 380
isoprene, piperylene, and dimethyl-
erythrene.

Formation of erythrene “5 9 » 69

New methods of preparation of erythrenc. ” ” » » 69

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 65

Transformation of cyclobutane derivatives ‘Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916,35, 381
into erythrene.

Synthesis of the symmetrical bromide of oe x + a 368
erythrene-caoutchouc, of caoutchouc
itself and of caouprene.

Preparation of esters of unsaturated alcohols 5 PP P = 382
from aldols.
Polymerisation of ethylenic compounds and oe 33 5 369

mechanism of transformation of vinyl
bromide into bromide of erythrene-
caoutchouc. e
Analysis, purification, and reactions of ie sf re
isoprene.
Polymerisation of isoprene. divinyl and ‘Journ. Chem. Soc.’ 1917, 112, i. 399
dimethylerythrene to caoutchoue or
its homologues.
Preparation of substances equivalent to 5 ‘¢ ” 3 i. 403
ebonite, celluloid or gutta percha.
Synthesis of vulcanised caoutchouc.
_ Synthesis of the symmetrical chloride se si oe Pe i, 404
and of the higher chloride of erythrene
caoutchouc. New chlorides of natural
isoprene and erythrene caoutchoucs.
(‘J. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc.’ 1916,
46, 1132-1151.)
B. D. W. Lurr (‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1916, 35, 983). ‘Some Aspects of the
Synthesis of Caoutchouce.’
Konpakow (‘ Caoutchouc et Gutta Percha,’ 1917, July15). Deals historically with
his own researches.
Note.—‘ Rubber,’ by Dr. H. P. Strvens, forms one of the sections in the ‘ Annual
Reports on Industrial Chemistry,’ vol. i., issued by the Society of Chemical
Industry.

———

COLLOID CHEMISTRY OF STARCH, GUMS, HEMICELLULOSES,
ALBUMIN, CASEIN, GLUTEN, AND GELATINHE.

By H. B. Srocxs, F.I.C.

Starch.

,
The application of starch in the sizing and finishing industries, for which
it is used in very large quantities, depends entirely upon its colloidal
properties. That is, on heating with water, it forms a plastic mass, or
adhesive sol, according to the concentration and the temperature. It can
therefore be readily applied to textile fibres or fabrics. In the sizing
_ industry it is applied to the yarn—the warp—to strengthen it, render it
: smoother (i.e., lay the individual fibres), and thus facilitates weaving, while
in heavy sizing it acts as a binder to hold the weighting material, usually
_ china clay, which is employed. For these purposes, although very useful,
_ it is not altogether perfect, since, on drying, it does not form a continuous

~
«

film. In calico-printing it is one of the mediums employed for carrying
or thickening the colours, thus preventing them spreading into the
Surrounding tissues. For these purposes potato starch or farina, wheat-
_ starch and wheat-flour, sago, tapioca, maize, cassava, and rice-starch are
ot
t is well known that the granules of the various starches vary in
appearance under the microscope, they also vary somewhat in their
properties ; for instance, sago, tapioca, and cassava starches yield more
1917. F

i
q

66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENOE.—1917.

tenacious or glutinous sols than the others, and for particular purposes
certain starches may be found more suitable than others.

Starch absorbs a certain amount of water from the atmosphere ; this
varies with the conditions, but is usually from 13 to 15 per cent. ; it also
contains a small proportion of mineral matter, which is, in all cases,
alkaline ; this amounts in potato-starch to about 0-22 per cent., sago 0-4,
cassava 0-12, maize 0-11, and wheat 0-23, therefore in dealing with natural
starch we have to take into account the influence the electrolytes in this
mineral matter will have upon the starch molecules.

On heating with water no action whatever is apparent until a tempera-
ture of about 55° C. is reached, when it is noticed that a few granules have
swollen enormously ; from this point onwards there is a progressive increase
in the number of swollen granules, till at a certain temperature all the
granules have become fully hydrated and most, if not all, have burst,
although the granules can still be observed more or less distorted. The
temperature at which this occurs is the maximum thickening-point of the
mixture, this occurring with wheat-starch at 65° C., maize 70°, sago 72°,
rice 74°, and potato-starch 63°.

The viscosity of solutions made from different starches varies ; thus,
G. M. MacNider (‘ Journ. Ind. and Eng. Chem.’ 1912, 4, 417-422) found the
viscosity of potato-starch to be 14-31, maize 2-49-2-86, cassava 3-88-3-97,
wheat 1-24-1-26, and rice 1-00 for solutions containing 12 grams in 30 «.c.
of water. These figures need verification, as the differences appear to be
very much greater than one would suppose possible, although, no doubt,
a certain amount of variation does really exist. It was noted also by
the above observer that very small quantities of borax (7.e., 08 gram) and
of caustic soda (06 gram) lowered the viscosity, while larger quantities
(7.e., 1-0 gram) increased it, the viscosity being also lowered by boric acid.

Since writing the above, the author has found that the time factor is
most important. For instance, freshly prepared and quickly cooled
potato-starch solution of 2 per cent. concentration gave the following
figures (water = 1) :—

Fresh. 5 min. later. 40 min. later. 18 hours later.

106°7 96:3 19:3

At the last period quite a considerable quantity of the starch granules
had deposited, leaving a clear liquid on the surface, which could be filtered.

The viscosity of starch solution does not therefore increase, as with
other colloids, with the time.

It was at one time believed that starch granules consisted of two distinct
substances, an inner material or granulose (amylose), and an outer material
named starch cellulose or amylopectin ; but according to Harrison (‘ Journ.
Soc. Dyers and Colourists,’ 1916, 32, 40-44) the outer portion of the starch
granules does not differ in composition from the inner material although it
is more resistant to hydrolytic agents. By physical means alone they are
capable of being changed one into the other. Z. Gatin-Gruzewska and L.
Macquenne (" Compt. Rend.’ 1908, 146, 540-545) also conclude that there is
a structural relationship between amylose and amylopectin, and that
probably each is composed of a series of closely related substances.

The addition of certain substances to starch and water lowers the surface
tension of the granules so that the thickening-point is more or less
depressed ; this is especially the case with caustic soda, zine chloride, and

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 67

hydrochloric acid, which in concentrated solutions form a tenacious white
translucent gel with starch even at the ordinary temperature ; other
metallic chlorides behave similarly to zinc chloride, although less marked in
their action, but the chlorides of the alkalies appeared to be without effect.
Gels made on these lines, containing 9 to 34 per cent. of starch, 4 to 20 per
cent. of zinc chloride, and 0 to 19 per cent. of magnesium chloride, are
sometimes sold for sizing purposes (H. B. Stocks and H.G. White, ‘J.8.C.1.,’
1903, 22, and ‘ Jour. Soc. Dyers and Colourists,’ March 1894).

E. Fouard (“ Comp. Rend.’ 1907, 144, 501-503 and 1366-1368) found
the amount of phosphoric acid in a starch containing 0-331 per cent. of ash
to be 0-1915 per cent. By treatment with acid these were reduced to
0-123 and 0-1117 per cent. respectively, and he is of opinion that the acid is
absorbed by the insoluble starch granule. Acids have a coagulating effect
upon starch in proportion to their hydrogen-ion concentration, very weak
acids having no appreciable effect. Alkalies, on the other hand, have an
exactly opposite effect, either dissolving the starch or decreasing its
tendency to coagulation, the retardation being strictly in proportion to their
hydroxyl-ion concentration. Salts which hydrolyse in solution act upon
starch in one or other of these directions according to the predominance of
the hydrogen or hydroxyl-ions respectively. This coagulating effect of the
hydrogen-ions and the swelling effect of the hydroxyl-ions is general
throughout the whole of the organic and some of the inorganic colloids, and
is a capillary phenomenon of the greatest importance.

The mineral matter of starch can be to a certain extent removed by
precipitating a dilute sol with alcohol, or, better, by addition of ammonium
carbonate. Sols of starch purified by these means are very unstable, the
starch reverting to the insoluble form in very minute granules on standing.
W. Harrison (‘ Jour. Soc. Dyers and Colourists,’ 1916, 32, 40-44), also
L. Macquenne (‘ Compt. Rend.’ 1908, 146, 317-318), G. Malfitano and A.
Moschkoff (‘Compt. Rend.’ 1910, 150, 710-711), by successive freezing and
thawing of solutions of starch, have obtained it almost free from mineral
matter which remained in solution in the water. The starch thus prepared
formed a heterogeneous mixture with water even after heating, and on
standing the starch settled out again. These authors believe that starch is
entirely insoluble in water but that in association with electrolytes it
forms colloidal solutions.

The Arabol Man. Co. (Fr. Pat. 394,167, 1908) use KCNS for preparing
starch soluble in cold water, while, according to W. Lenz (‘7th Int. Cong.
Appl. Chem. Lond.’ 1909), sodium salicylate causes some starch granules,
though not all, to swell.

Starch adsorbs alkalies and alkaline earths; the adsorption com-
pounds, although unstable in water, appear to be more stable in contact
with alcohol ; thus starch precipitated from a solution in caustic potash by
alcohol contains potassium in proportion to the strength of the caustic
potash solution (Hi. Fouard, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ 1909, 5, 828-834). Precipi-
tation of starch in presence of barium hydroxide by means of alcohol has
also been proposed by Asboth (‘ Analyst,’ July 1887; also ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem.
Ind.’ 1888, 77) as a method of estimating this substance by volumetric
means, the compound containing 19-1 per cent. of BaO, corresponding with
the formula C,,H,,.0.,BaO. In order to get concordant results it is
necessary that certain conditions as to strength of reagents, &c. should
always be complied with, According to W. Harrison (° Jour. Soc. Dyers

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

and Colourists,’ 1916, 32, 40-44), the composition of the precipitate varies
with the concentration of the barium hydrate according to the laws of
adsorption. According to Tollens, starch combines with Na or K in the
proportion of 1 atom to 4 (C;H,,0;) ; on addition of alcohol amorphous
precipitates with alkaline reaction are formed; these are represented as
potassium starch C,,H3,0.)K and sodium starch C,,H3,0.,Na.

On heating starch with caustic alkalies a change takes place with the
scission of acetic acid, the amount of alkali neutralised when N strength of
solution is employed being equal to 8-33 per cent. of KHO. A similar
change takes place with all carbohydrates, but the amount of acid liberated
varies very considerably, pointing to differences in structural arrangement.

The stiffening power of starch appears to depend upon the amount of
swelling to which individual starches are liable on heating with water ; in
other words, to the extent of the dispersion; thus, by heating to a few
degrees above the temperature of swelling and centrifuging the sol, W.
Harrison (‘ Jour. Soc. Dyers and Colourists,’ 1911, 27, 84-88) found the
volume of the swollen granules to be directly proportional to the stiffening
power, the experiments agreeing closely with the formula

Vol. of granules
Viscosity = 1 (4:75 x total vol. of solution) ; alkalies if present cause
high results, as might be expected.

Starch gel on standing separates into two phases, a more solid gel and a
liquid phase, the latter containing very little starch ; several other colloids
behave in a similar way, notably cellulose xanthate or viscose; some
colloids, such as gelatine, do not behave in thismanner. The phenomenon
is probably due to the aggregation of the molecular complexes, the colloid
becoming less dispersed. Starch shows practically no osmotic pressure
(/.e., only 2 m.m. at 13° for a 1 per cent. solution) in a parchment paper
diaphragm (Moore and Roaf, ‘ Biochem. Jour.’ II. 39), neither does it show
any appreciable depression by the freezing-point method of Raoult, pointing
to a very high molecular weight (E. Fouard, ‘Compt. Rend.’ 1908,
146, 978-981). On the other hand, pure soluble starch, according to
L. Macquenne (‘ Compt. Rend.’ 1908, 146, 317-318), passes through filtering
material, even the Chamberland filter, and E. Fouard (‘Compt. Rend.’ 1908,
146, 285-287) found that a solution containing 2°74 per cent. of pure
starch could be filtered through a collodion membrane. The molecular
solution volume is lower than that calculated by Taube’s method (‘ Ber.’
1895, 28, 410), 7.¢., 92-6-93-3 instead of 102-6 (Cross and Bevan, ‘ Ber.’
1909, 42, 2,198-2,204), which the authors regard as evidence of ring-
formation. Other colloids show a similar result.

With regard to the action of reagents, other than those mentioned, upon
starch, it is capable of forming a xanthic derivative in the same way as
cellulose by action of caustic soda and carbon bisulphide (C. F. Cross, J. F.
Briggs, and Société Francaise de la Viscose, Fr. Pat. 370,505, 1906),
while a nitro-derivative of starch has been suggested as a substitute for
celluloid (G. E. Arnold, A. 8. Fox, A. C. Scott, and H. E. V. Roberts, Eng.
Pat. 3,450, 1906).

Oxidising agents have a marked effect upon starch (see soluble starch).
F. G. Perkins (U.S. Pat. 1,020, 656, 1912) proposes to prepare a glue from
cassava starch by acting upon it with sodium peroxide and caustic soda.

Starch and tannic acid mutually precipitate each other, this being also

6N COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 69

the case with soluble starch and dextrin, but in lessening degree. This
fact should be borne in mind in testing a colloid for gelatine by means of
tannic acid.

Ordinary wheat-flour is used very largely for sizing purposes, both in its
fresh state and after long-continued fermentation. It differs from the
starches in containing the nitrogenous colloid gluten, a coagulable albumen,
sugar, dextrin, &c. It is doubtful if in the fresh state the gluten exerts any
marked influence, but during fermentation the gluten, which suffers
little in the process, becomes dispersed and forms a colloidal solution in the
acids, which are generated, thus becoming available as a binding agent ;
other marked changes also take place (H. B. Stocks, ‘ Jour. Soc. Dyers and
Colourists,’ 1912, 28, 148-151, also H. B. Stocks and H. G. White, * Jour.
Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1903, 22).

Soluble Starch.

The so-calied ‘ soluble’ starch may be formed from ordinary starch
in a variety of ways, the processes which have been proposed falling
naturally into certain classes.

1. By heating starch at a regulated temperature but lower than that
which will convert it into dextrin.
=e Heating starch with water under pressure (H. Hale, Eng. Pat. 3,311,

3. Treating starch with acids, J. Sellars (Eng. Pat. 2,810, 1865) pro-
posed to heat the starch with a mineral or vegetable acid, then neutralise
withsoda. Rellmas steeps starch in a 1 to 3 per cent. solution of a mineral
acid at 50° to 55°. Fols carries out the same process at 80° C. A. Schuh-
mann (Eng. Pat. 5,460, 1887) treats starch with acid in the cold, washes
out the acid, and heats with SO, under pressure. W. P. Thompson (A. H. J.
Berge, Eng. Pat. 7,272, 1891) employs SO, under pressure, while W.
Thompson and J. Morris (Eng. Pat. 21,973, 1906) claim to employ SO, at
200°-220° F. H. H. Lake (W. Angelo, Eng. Pat. 5,617, 1893) treats starch
with strong HCl and dries at a low temperature. G. Rivat (Fr. Pat. 433,726,
1910) claims the application at 100° C. of dilute solutions of H;PO,,HF,
potassium bitartrate, acid potassium oxalate, or aromatic sulphonic acids.
Reumer (Eng. Pat. 10,873, 1902) proposed the application of organic acids
at 115°, while Cross and Traquair (Eng. Pat. 9,868, 1902) claimed the applica-
tion of carboxylic acids, such as acetic or formic, but specially the former,
together with dehydrating agents, e.g., alcohol or concentrated solutions
of salts. The amount of glacial acetic acid employed is from one-third to
one-half the weight of the starch, and they claim that under these con-
ditions an acetyl derivative of starch is formed. The product has been
* ‘feculose* (see also Traquair, ‘Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1909,

4. Oxidising agents —Starch is treated with chlorine or calcium hypo-
chlorite (C. H. Meyer, Eng. Pat. 1,146, 1893), with hypochlorite or
chlorate of potassium or sodium (C. Brender, Eng. Pat. 17,650, 1898).
A. Ashworth (Eng. Pat. 19,720, 1901) treats starch with acid and a chlorate,
with or without the addition of a catalytic agent, e.g., vanadium chloride,
CuSO,, or CuCl,. Siemens and Halske (U.S. Pat. 798,509, 1905) propose
the use of chlorine gas; the use of acids, such as HCl, H,50,, and organic
acids, is also mentioned in the specification. Chlorine is claimed by H.
Kindscher (Ger. Pat. 168,980, 1902). In W. von Siemens and C. Witt’s

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

patent (Eng. Pat. 24,455, 1895) it is proposed to treat first with K.MnO,,
then by HCl, and finally to remove excess of Cl, by means of SQ,, or
a dilute solution of a bisulphite. The soluble starch is stated to form
a clear filterable solution with dilute potash solution.

¥. Fritsche (Eng. Pat. 1,351, 1908) claims the application of perborates
for the preparation of soluble starch ; perborate of soda is also used for
rendering starch, gums, algz, lichens, &c., soluble by heating (Stolbe
and Kopke, Fr. Pat. 384,704, 1907, and addition Jan. 23, 1905); F. G.
Perkins (U.S. Pat.—1,020, 656—1912) uses sodium peroxide for rendering
starch soluble.

5. Alkalies—J. Kantorowitz (Eng. Pat. 5,844, 1896) claims the pre-
paration of soluble starch by treating ordinary starch with NaHO, neutra-
lising with HCl, and precipitating the product with MgSO, or by keeping
at a temperature of 20° C. for several hours. In a later patent (Eng.
Pat. 10,216, 1910) Kantorowitz claims the application of caustic soda,
but to prevent the former swelling the reaction is carried on in presence
of concentrated solutions of salts, e.g., Na sSO,.

6. Treatment with neutral salts—Soluble starch can be formed by
heating starch with a strong solution of KCNS and alcohol, the latter
probably added to prevent swelling, as in the last example. (The Arabol
Man. Co., Fr. Pat. 394,167, 1908.)

C. F. Cross and J. 8. Remington (Eng. Pat. 1,035, 1899) propose to
use the fruit of the horse-chestnut as a source of starch or soluble starch.

Soluble starch does not differ in appearance from ordinary starch,
except that in some cases the hilum of the granules appears to be fractured.
On heating with water, however, it behaves quite differently; thus
1 part of ordinary starch heated with 9 parts of water yields a stiff white
paste, which on cooling becomes a white opaque gel from which after
a time water separates. On the other hand, soluble starch in the same
proportion forms a thin opalescent but nearly clear sol which remains
fluid on cooling, for which reason it is known as thin-boiling starch. The
change which has taken place is probably largely one of de-polymerisation.

M. Sauree and 8. Jencic (‘ Koll. chem. Beihefte,’ 1915, 7, 137-171)
state that the formation of soluble starch is accompanied by a reduction
in the size of the molecule, but this is not always the case. Dextrin is
almost always present, although it is claimed that in certain products
it is absent. The soluble starches usually, although not invariably, con-
tain a higher mineral content than ordinary starch, amounting to about
1-5 per cent., and this being alkaline will have a decided effect upon their
properties ; the amount of water is also higher, 7.e., 17 to 21 per cent.
Soluble starch on heating with caustic alkali yields a higher percentage
of acetic acid, 7.e., about 13 per cent. of KHO is neutralised, pointing to
a molecular change. It is precipitated by tannic acid, but to a lesser extent
than ordinary starch. Soluble starch reverts to the insoluble form when
a solution is allowed to stand (E. Fouard, ‘Compt. Rend.’ 1908, 147,
931-933). Soluble starch is used in sizing and finishing, but more parti-
cularly for the latter purpose; it yields a continuous film and imparts
a ‘fuller’ feel to fabrics than does ordinary starch.

Dextrin.
The products sold under the name of dextrin or ‘ British gum’ vary
very widely in their properties, being complexes of true dextrin, soluble

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 71

starch, poasibly unaltered starch and glucose. There appear to be several
modifications of dextrin, known as erythrodextrin, amylodextrin, achro-
dextrin, &¢., which differ from each other in their molecular weights.

Pure dextrin can be prepared by dissolving starch in moderately con-
centrated sulphuric acid, quickly neutralising with alkali and precipitating
with alcohol.

The commercial dextrins are prepared by heating dry starch either
alone or after sprinkling with nitric acid to temperatures between 100°
and 280° CG. Nitric acid or a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acid are
used (W. S. Hayward, Eng. Pat. 2,612, 1858). It is also produced by
the restrained action of malt extract upon starch (B. J. B. Mills (T. Sim
and E. S. Hutchinson), Eng. Pat. 933, 1869). The products vary according
to the method of treatment, white dextrin containing soluble starch and
possibly unaltered starch,while brown dextrin contains more or less glucose.

Dextrin contains about 12 per cent. of water and about 0-2 per cent.
of mineral matter. On heating with normal alkali solution the acetic
acid liberated neutralises 15 to 24 per cent. of KHO. According to G.
Malfitano and A. Moschkoff (‘ Compt. Rend.’ 1912, 154, 443-446), starch
is converted into dextrins by drying over P,O;. When the desiccation
is prolonged so that the water of constitution is removed the solubility
isdiminished. They regard the molecule of starch as consisting of C;H,,0;
aggregates linked together by OH.H molecules and that by the loss of
the latter the molecule becomes disintegrated.

Dextrin is only slightly precipitated by tannic acid; it is precipitated
readily by alcohol, but is not readily salted out by electrolytes, only con-
centrated solutions of sulphates and not those of other salts causing it
to separate (S. Levites, ‘ Zeit. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1908, 3, 145-153).

Dextrin is used to a considerable extent in finishing and calico-printing,
imparting a very hard ‘ boardy ’ feel to cloth, which for certain purposes
is much desired. It is also employed as an adhesive under the name
of British gum, in place of gum arabic, but the solutions have much less
- viscosity, and therefore stronger sols have to be employed. It has, how-
ever, two advantages, that is, it can be spread in a thinner layer and is
more readily softened when moistened; for these reasons it has largely
replaced the natural gum. It is remarkable that, although a profound
modification must have been made by treating starch at high temperatures,
the structure of the granules is in no way affected until water is added, when
they entirely dissolve. It is used to some extent in painting (Church,
* Chemistry of Paints and Painting,’ p. 72), but it is rarely used for emul-
sifying purposes.

Pfeffer, using a membrane of copper ferrocyanide, found the osmotic
pressure of dextrin to be 16-6 c.m. of mercury (Ostwald, ‘ Solutions,’
p- 94); Musculus and A. Meyer (Bull. Soc. Chim., 30, 270) found the rate
of diffusion of dextrin through membranes to be for Y dextrin (achroo-
dextrin) 7, and amylodextrin, 1; dextrose hydrate being taken as 100.

Barium oxide is adsorbed by commercial dextrins, but it has been found
that the amount varies with the percentage of starch present, the following
results having been obtained :

Starch. BaO adsorbed
Dextrin 1 2 2 » 1:99 1°75
” 2 E ‘ A 13°13 3°53
3 i ; . 24°72 5°64

Mardi Sst ese 100-0 23°61

f2 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1917.

Gum Arabie.

The commercial gum arabic is often a mixture of gums from several
species of trees, and is therefore a variable product. The best gum arabic
is that obtained from Acacia Senegal, known as Hashab gum, which comes
from Kordofan and the Blue Nile District. Gums are also obtained from
several other species of acacia, and, although these resemble gum arabic
in appearance, they differ from it more or less in constitution and also
notably in yielding solutions which are less viscous and much less adhesive.
They therefore rarely appear in commerce except in admixture as above
stated.

Gum arabic contains normally about 15 per cent. of water and 33 per
cent. of mineral matter, which consists largely of the carbonates of potash
and lime. It has long been regarded as an acid—arabic acid—in com-
bination with bases. The same acid is supposed to be present in beet-
root juice. More recently the researches of O'Sullivan and others have,
according to H. H. Robinson (‘ Report on the Chemistry of Gums,’ British
Association, 1906), appeared to prove that the gums are composed of
complex acids built up of a nucleus acid associated with the sugars
galactose, arabinose, and xylose. Arabic acid is the nucleus acid in gum
arabic and geddic acid in gedda-gum. Without subscribing to this
decision, it may be stated that gum arabic functions as an acid, and
either combines with or adsorbs metallic bases; it is a complex of the
two carbohydrates galactan and araban.

Gum arabic is employed more for its adhesiveness than for any other
property, but closely allied to adhesiveness is viscosity, the gums which
yield the most viscous solutions being the most valuable. It is employed in
painting (Church, ‘ Chemistry of Paints and Painting ’) asa glaze or varnish,
in the manufacture of sweets, and for emulsifying oils, for which purposes
it is eminently fitted.

Gum arabic is usually entirely soluble in water. The gum from the
earliest exudation is, however, not entirely soluble, yielding a glairy mucus-
like fluid, from which a perfect solution separates after a time. After
storage for two to three months a change has taken place in the product,
probably due to enzymes, so that it dissolves entirely (I. Reinitzer,
‘ Zeitschr. f. Physiolog. Chem.’ 1909, 352-392, also ‘ 3rd Report of the
Wellcome Research Laboratories, Khartoum *). Dr. Beam (‘ 2nd Report
of the Wellcome Research Laboratories ’) notes the fact, which, however,
was previously well known, that the viscosity of a solution prepared in the
cold is greater than when heat is employed. 1t may be mentioned that
gum arabic contains at least three enzymes, an oxidase, a peroxidase, and a
diastase (I". Reinitzer, ‘ J. Physiol. Chem.’ 1909, 61, 352-392), the functions
of which have not yet been determined, but these render the gum incom-
patible for use with several medicinal preparations; incidentally they also
serve for detecting gum arabic in admixture with other gums, e.g., traga-
canth, which are free trom these enzymes.

Hashab gum was found to be composed of two gums, a hard and a
soft one. On exposure to the sun the hard gum remains glassy, but the
soft kind becomes white and opaque, owing to the development of
innumerable tiny fissures. By this treatment it appears to be bleached,
although this is really not the case. There is a marked difference in the

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND iTs INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 73

viscosities of the two varieties in the torsion viscosimeter, a 20 per cent.
solution of the hard gum indicating a retardation of 60 to 70 deg., whereas
the soft gum showed a retardation of only 28 to 33 deg. The difference in
these two varieties has not yet been determined, the amount of mineral
matter and the acidity being practically the same. It was found, how-
ever, that gum from tapped trees had a higher viscosity than that which
exuded naturally (‘4th Report Wellcome Research Laboratories, Khar-
toum’). ~ A solution of gum arabic yields an opaque white gel with basic
lead acetate—no doubt, due to the adsorption of PbH,0,. It becomes
more glutinous on addition of borax and is not precipitated by tannic acid.
am insoluble in liquid phenol and in pyridine, in which gelatine is readily
soluble.

On adding alcohol to a solution of the gum, it is precipitated, but more
readily in presence of hydrochloric acid. The precipitate has been regarded
as ‘arabic acid,’ but this cannot be the case, since the mineral matter
adheres very strongly to the carbohydrates, and, unless the solution is
dilute, the gum is precipitated almost unaltered.

Thus a solution precipitated once by alcohol in presence of dilute

hydrochloric acid yielded a product containing 2-73 per cent. of mineral
matter, while after three precipitations it still contained 2-24 per cent.
In presence of sulphuric acid the precipitate contained 2-30 per cent. of
mineral matter, while, in presence of ammonium oxalate, the precipitate
contained 1-29 per cent. The proportion of galactan and araban did not
appear to differ markedly from the original gum. After precipitating in
this way, however, the gum does not dissolve to a clear sol, but is more or
less turbid, and after about three precipitations with alcohol it ceases to be
precipitated, but remains as a turbid sol, from which it deposits on addition
of acids or electrolytes. On the other hand, Rideal and Youle (‘ Jour. Soc.
Chem. Ind.’ 1891, 60) tound a difference in the optical rotation between the
gum precipitated (amounting to about half the original) and that which
remained in solution, from which they concluded that at least two sub-
stances were present. O'Sullivan obtained a similar result with ‘ pure
arabin.’
_ Attempts have been made to utilise this reaction for estimating the gum
In syrups (as also the amount of precipitate obtained with lead acetate in
alcoholic solution), gum arabic yielding 85 per cent. of ‘ pure gum’ caleu-
lated free from ash (A. C. Chauvin, ‘ Ann. Falsif.’ 1912, 5, 27-30, also
De. Roques and G. Sellier, ‘ Ann. Chim. Analyt.’ 1911, 16, 218-220).

An interesting case of the mutual precipitation of two colloids is afforded:
by the interaction of gum arabic and gelatin, under certain conditions,
which have been closely studied by F. W. Tiebackx (‘ Z. Chem. Ind.
Kolloide,’ 1911, 8, 198-201, and 1911, 9, 61-65). The precipitation takes:
place in acid solution only within certain limits depending upon the:
strength of the solutions. Thus, with 2 c.c. of a 0-5 per cent. gelatin
solution and 2 ¢.c. ot a 2 per cent. solution of gum, coagulation takes place:
with 2 c.c. of N/40 HCl, whereas with 2 c.c. of N/25 or N/125 acid, the:
solution, after becoming turbid, clears again. With a solution containing.
Q-5 per cent. of gelatin and 0-5 per cent. of gum arabic, a turbidity is.
produced when the acidity = -002 N.HCI; on further addition of acid a.
precipitate occurs which passes again to a turbidity and at a concentration:
of 0-01 N the liquid becomes clear again. Increasing the percentage of
gelatin and gum, or raising the temperature, restricts the action, until at a.

74 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

concentration of 2 per cent. each of gelatin and gum, at a temperature of
80° C., there is no sign of flocculation. If, however, the proportion of gum
is increased, a turbidity appears which again disappears on increasing the
proportion of gelatin and gum. Strong solutions of gelatin and gum, e.g.,
50 c.c. of 50 per cent. solutions of each, yielded no precipitate with N/10
HCl, or stronger solutions of the acid. When sulphuric acid is added to a
solution containing 0-5 per cent. of gelatin and 0-7 per cent. of gum, a
turbidity occurs when the acidity of the solution is =0-003N. <A solution of
400 c.c. of a 0-4 per cent. solution of gelatin and 100 c.c. of a 2 per cent.
solution of gum is coagulated by the addition of 500 c.c. of 6 per cent. acetic
acid. The coagulum consists of an adsorption compound containing
gelatin, gum, and acid, the gelatin being enclosed by the gum, which latter
adsorbs the acid. On washing or drying at 100° C. the acid is removed.
Two layers are formed, the lower one behaving in a similar way to globulin
or casein in presence of electrolytes, the view being expressed that casein
and other proteids may also be adsorption compounds, the constituents
resembling one another both in properties and in composition. In the
above reaction the acid may be replaced by salts, the most active being
tartrates, citrates, phosphates, and acetates, followed by sulphates,
chlorides, Lromides, and iodides, the activity of the cations being in the
following order, Na)K)NH,)Mg)Zn). Salts cause the coagulum produced
by acids to swell, the activity of the anions in this respect being in the
order I)Br)Cl)S0,)CO,) and the cations K)Na) alkalies) alkaline earths).
When, however, concentrated solutions of salts or those of 3 gram molecule
strength or less are employed, the already swollen transparent gel becomes
again opaque. The tendency of a saline solution is to remove the acid,
while in presence of salts greater concentration of acid is required to
produce a given effect.

Gum arabic solutions show a very high osmotic pressure, which remains
constant over a long period. Thus Pfeffer, using a copper ferrocyanide
membrane, records a pressure of 7-2 ¢.m. of mercury with a 1 per cent.
solution and 120-4 ¢.m. with an 18 per cent. solution (Ostwald, ‘ Solutions,’
p. 94), while Moore and Roaf (‘ Biochem. Jour.’ 2, 39) and Edie (‘ 4th
Report Wellcome Research Laboratories, Khartoum’), using a parchment
paper diaphragm, found for 6 per cent. solutions pressures of 114-170 m.m.,
and for a 10 per cent. solution 276 mm. The reason for these high
pressures, which remain almost constant after reaching a maximum, has
not yet been explained ; it may be due to the slow diffusion of the elec-
trolytes associated with the carbohydrates, or it may be a swelling or
imbibition pressure (pseudo-osmotic).

In testing gum arabic for commercial purposes the viscosity is the most
important property (R. Hefelmann, ‘ Zeitschr. Offentl. Chem.’ 7, 195-198).
C. Fromm (° Zeitschr. Annal. Chem.’ 1901, 40, 143-168) soaks strips of paper
in solutions of the gunis to be tested and notes the increase in weight and
tensile strength of the paper which serves as a measure of the value of the
gums for adhesive purposes. The latter author also states that on keeping
gums a gradual change takes place in them which in the trade is known
as ‘ripening’; this change leads to a decrease in strength, viscosity, and
acidity, at the same time there is an increase in the proportion of gelatinised
insoluble gum,

The problem of the effect of colloids upon the precipitation of mineral
matter is a very interesting one, which would well repay further study, not

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 75

only because of the remarkable results which have been obtained, but also
in view of the difficulties which are encountered in many industries because
of their presence. Generally speaking, colloids are more or less protective
in their effect; that is to say, in the case of two solutions which in the ordin-
ary way react to form aninsoluble precipitate which settles easily, in presence
of a colloid either no precipitate is formed or the precipitate is much more
finely divided, and refuses to settle, or it settles much more slowly.
Problems of this kind often occur in chemical works, sewage works, and
in water filtration, &c., the remedies being either application of heat or
addition of some chemical which in itself is colloidal, or which forms a
colloidal precipitate of opposite sign, as, for instance, alum, ferrous sulphate,
potassium permanganate, &c.; in the case of sewage also the colloidal
matter may be destroyed or flocculated by bacterial action. On the other
hand, it may be advantageous to form a highly flocculent precipitate
instead of a crystalline one, as, for instance, in steam boilers, the deposit
then being easier to deal with—a result which is brought about by the
addition of colloids, e.y., tannin and soda, infusion of straw, &c. The
precipitation of mineral matter by slow diffusion of salts through colloidal
jellies leads to the production either of spheroidal or nodular aggregates
(Rainey, ‘On the Mode of Formation of Shells of Animals, Bone, &e.,”
published in 1858 ; also H. B. Stocks, ‘ Precipitation of Carbonate of Lime
under Varying Conditions,’ ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1912, 21, 527) or to
banded structure, which appears to explain the formation of mineral lodes
(Hatschek, ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1911, 256; F. 8. Shannon, ‘ Jour. Ind.
and Eng. Chem.’ 1912, 526-528, and HE. Marriage, ‘ Z. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’
1912, 11, 1-5).

Other Soluble Gums.

There are two other types of soluble gums differing from gum arabic in
their properties which are worth considering: the one the ghatti-gums,
because of their high viscosity, the other the wattle-gums, because of their
abundance.

Ghatti-gum is the product of Anogeissus latifolia, but the commercial
varieties are mixed products containing the gums from several species, and
therefore are very variable. The solutions of ghatti-gums are very much
more viscous than those of gum arabic, and also contain more or less of a
~ product which swells to a gel in water, but does not pass into the state of
solution (metarabin). (‘ Colonial Reports,’ No. 63, Imperial Institute,
‘Report, Gums and Resins,’ p. 160.)

The moisture in these gums ranges from 4 to 7 per cent., mineral matter
2 to 3 per cent., and potash neutralised on heating 0-22 to 3-99 per cent.
(Rideal and Youle, ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1891, 160). Ghatti-gum
contains more araban and less galactan than arabic gums.

The wattle-gums of Australia and South Africa are of two types—
although there are many gradations—the one entirely soluble in water, the
other leaving more or less swollen but insoluble gum. To the former group
belong the gums of Acacia farnesiana, A. ferruginea, A. leucophlea, &c.,
and to the latter gums from A. decurrens, A. mollissima, A. vestita, &c.
For a full account of the wattle-gums see J. H. Maiden (* Pharm. Jour.
20, 869-980). Several of the wattle-gums contain a low mineral content,
t.e., 1 per cent. or less, and they are all very low in viscosity. The wattle-
gums are distinguished by containing a much greater proportion of galactan

76 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOTENCE.—1917.

and less araban than gum arabics. If the viscosity of these gums could be
improved there would be a great demand for them ; they are very plentiful,
and exude freely in large tears or masses, often very fine.

A very large number of trees of other species and genera yield soluble
gums, but none of these have ever come into extended use.

Tragacanth.

Tragacanth is employed in calico-printing, for painting on linen (A. H.
Church, ‘ Chemistry of Paints and Paintings,’ p. 70), in the preparation
ot lozenges, for cosmetic purposes, and in the manufacture of oil emulsions.
This gum is the product of various species of Astragalus (Imperial Insti-
tute, “ Report on Gums and Resins,’ p. 161), and it differs from gum arabic
in that it is almost always the product of incisions. It shows distinct evi-
dence of metamorphosed or swollen vegetable tissue, the cells containing
a few granules which have the character of starch, which, however, appear
to resist hot water to a considerable extent. The content of water varies
according to the state of the atmosphere ; normally this is about 17 per
cent., but in moist air it may be as much as 26 per cent. (H. B. Stocks and
H. G. White, ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1903, 4); it contains 3 to 5 per
cent. of mineral matter, which is largely composed of carbonates (Rideal
and Youle, ‘Jour Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1891, 610), that produced by incision
containing the larger quantity (Hilger and Dreyfus, * Ber.’ 1891, 33, 610).
The amount of acetic acid formed on heating with potash is much higher
than gum arabic, corresponding to 15 to 26-61 per cent. of alkali neutra-
lised (Rideal and Youle, Stocks), showing a different constitution. The
carbon and hydrogen in this gum approximate to the formula 0,;H,,0;,
but both galactan and araban are present, even more of the iatter than
in gum arabic; there is also a methylpentosan present, as fucose is found
in the products of hydrolysis (A. Widtsoe and B. Tollens, ‘ Ber.’ 1900,
133, 132-143).

On heating tragacanth with water it swells very considerably, forming
a stiff paste, even at 5 per cent. concentration, which by straining can
be separated into a white translucent sol and an opaque insoluble gel,
known as tragacanthine or bassorin. O’Sullivan (‘ Proc. Chem. Soc.’
1901, 17, 156-157) states that the gum contains a series of gum acids
similar to geddic acid, which he termed polyarabin-galactan geddic acids,
and bassorin, which yields tragacanthan-xylan-bassoric acid by action
of alkalies and xylan-bassoric acids on partial hydrolysis with acids.
Xylan-bassoric acid is nearly insoluble in water, and bassoric acid insoluble,
but the alkali salts are soluble.

According to Hilger and Dreyfus, on treating bassorin with 35 per cent.
caustic potash and acidifying with acetic acid, oxybassorin (C, ;Hs901o).0
is formed. If the alkaline solution is neutralised with acetic acid
and precipitated by alcohol, the potassium derivative of oxybassorin is
produced ; this is soluble in water and yields insoluble calcium and silver
derivatives by double decomposition. These salts do not respond to
the usual tests for the metals, and therefore do not appear to be true
salts. These are probably adsorption compounds of the bases. Traga-
canth is not precipitated by ferric chloride, it is precipitated by alcohol
and also by basic lead acetate. Dilute solutions of bassoric acid are
precipitated by alcohol and also by electrolytes ; it can be titrated, using

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 77

phenol-phthalein as indicator (T. von Fellenberg, ‘ Mitt. Lebensmittel,
unters. Hyg.’ 1914, 5, 56-259).

Tragacanth gives with borax a siightly more viscous mass, a reaction
which is sometimes made use of in detecting adulteration (W. L. Scoville,
‘ Drugg. Cir.’ 1909, 53, 116-117; also H. C. Fuller, ‘ Amer. Jour. Pharm.’
1912, 84, 155-158). It can be distinguished by not containing oxydates.

Tragacanth yields a much more viscous solution than gum arabic,
but does not form a continuous film on drying, breaking up into large
curved flakes. The viscosity is lowered by heating under pressure. Traga-
canth more nearly resembles starch than gum arabic in its properties.
It shows only a slight osmotic pressure, 7.e., a 0-72 per cent. solution gave
a pressure of 5 m.m. at 17° C. with a parchment paper membrane (Moore
and Roaf, ‘ Biochem. Jour.’ 2, 39).

The commoner qualities of gum tragacanth, known in the market as
‘gum trag’ or ‘ hog gum,’ is in larger and thicker pieces, white or yellow
in colour, and often quite opaque. It yields a solution which is more
pasty than real tragacanth and also contains more insoluble matter. The
moisture in this gum is about 11 to 12 per cent., mineral matter 3-16,
and potash neutralised after heating 8-14 per cent.

For certain purposes mixtures of two or more colloids are sometimes
preferable to a ghd one (F. Beckmann, Ger. Pats. 219,651 and 223,709,
1908.)

In a general paper on thickenings for calico-printing from a colloid
point of view, E. Austin-Miiller (‘ Chem. Zeit.’ 1910, 34, 598-599) divides

them into three classes:

(1) Homogeneous, 7.e., those which dissolve to a clear sol which can
be filtered through paper—examples, gum arabic and better qualities
of gum senegal.

(2) Heterogeneous. Those which form two phases, a sol and a gel,
the latter retained by a filter, ¢.g., tragacanth.

(3) Heterogeneous. Those forming micella-sols, which are entirely
retained by a filter, ¢.g., starch paste. The latter can be rendered more
homogeneous by acetic acid. The products obtained from starch by roast-
ing, 2.e., soluble starches and dextrins, fall between classes 2 and 3 or
1 and 2, according to their properties. By addition of NaHO they form
homogeneous sols. :

“ese

Insoluble Gums.

The gums which are insoluble in water exude naturally from cherry
and peach trees, &c. ; there are also certain gums found in India, known
as Indian gum or Bombay gum, the products of species of Sterculia, and
the gum of Cochlospermum gossypium, which have the remarkable property
of spontaneously evolving acetic acid. H. H. Robinson (‘ Jour. Chem.
Soc.’ 1906, 89, 1496) regards the latter as an acetyl derivative, and found
that on distillation it yielded 14 per cent. of acetic acid.

Bombay gum and the gum of Cochlospermum gossypium are very similar
im composition. They lose 19 to 214 per cent. on heating at 100° C. (water
and acetic acid), and contain 7 to 9 per cent. of mineral matter. On
heating with alkali, the amount of KHO neutralised equals 13 to 16
per cent. They contain galactan and araban, but less of the former
than in gum arabic; there is probably a third carbohydrate present.

On treatment with water they swell up very quickly to form nearly

78 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

transparent gels, which, however, are so brittle that they can be pulverised
between the fingers into innumerable minute angular particles which do
not coalesce.

These insoluble gums are not at present of any value, the chief interest
in them commercially centring round the possibility of converting them
into soluble products. Several patents have been taken out with the
view of converting such gums into colloid sols, other colloidal products
being also mentioned. Thus L. Kern (Eng. Pat. 21,370, 1891) purposes
to render cherry, peach, and other gums soluble by heating with water
under pressure; F. Fritsche (Eng. Pat. 1,353, 1908) prepares soluble gums
by acting upon the products obtained from alge and lichens—carrageen
moss, agar, Iceland moss, &c.—Hast India gum, bassorine, &c., with
sodium perborate after boiling with water under pressure; A. Bcidin
(Eng. Pat. 16,589, 1905) proposes to render starch, inulin, glycogen,
gelose from agar-agar, gums and mucilages more readily soluble, by con-
verting the phosphates which they contain into insoluble phosphates
by addition of metallic salts or into monobasic acid salts by acidifying.

Vegetable Mucilages.

A variety of vegetable mucilages can be prepared by treating seeds,
roots, &¢., of various plants with water. These products, which were
investigated many years ago by Fremy, Mulder, Chodnew, &c., were
known as pectins or pectinous substances. Our knowledge of these
materials needs revision. They are more nearly related to gum arabic
than to the hemicelluloses. Pectose was the soluble colloidal material
contained in beetroot ; this was converted by means of an enzyme or
ferment called pectase into pectin and subsequently into pectic acid,
coagulation not occurring except in presence of CaO or a salt of Ca, Ba, or
Sr. The coagulated mass is not pectic acid but a pectate of one of the
alkaline earths (A. Mallevre, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chem.’ 1895, 18, 77-82). This
looks like adsorption compounds.

The gelatinous material pectose is present in the pulp of ripe fruits,
such as apples or pears, and in roots, e.g., carrots and beetroot, in association
with cellulose. It is insoluble in water (Fremy). By the action of the
ferment pectase, or acids, alkalies, or milk of lime, pectose is converted
into pectin or pectic acid; in’ other words, it is converted into a sol.
Pectin is contained in the juice of ripe fruits, from which it is pre-
cipitated by alcohol in presence of HCl. It is soluble in water and is
precipitated from the solution by basic lead acetate, also by Ba(OH),
and Ca(OH), in excess, but not by NH,HO, NaHO, HCl, H,BO, or
borax. On boiling an aqueous solution of pectin it becomes insoluble,
being converted into parapectin (Fremy, Sidersky), parapectic acid
( Watts’ Dict.,’ vol. 4, p. 365), metapectic acid (J. Weisberg, ‘ Chem.
Zeit.’ 18, 2). Parapectin is converted by dilute acids and bases into
metapectin, and with concentrated solutions of the same into’ para-
pectic acid. Metapectic acid has an acid reaction; it is completely
precipitated by lime and basic lead acetate. On prolonged heating it
is converted into metapectic acid (J. Weisberg, ‘Chem. Zeit.’ 18, 2).
Pectous or pectosic acid is obtained by the action of pectase upon a solution
of pectin, also produced by the action of cold solutions of the alkalies
upon the same substances. It is a gelatinous substance, slightly soluble

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 79

in cold water, but quite soluble in dilute acids. On boiling with water
it dissolves, but reverts to a gel on cooling. It is very quickly converted
into pectic acid by boiling with water, by pectase, and by alkalies in
excess. The pectosates form amorphous gels (Pelouze et Fremy). Pectic
acid is formed by the action of alkalies upon pectin, also by the action
of HCl upon beetroot pulp; it dissolves in boiling water, but reverts
to a gel on cooling (Pelouze et Fremy). By long-continued boiling with
water or by acids it is converted into parapectic acid ; alkalies convert
it into metapectic acid. Parapectic acid dissolves in cold water, and
the solution on evaporation leaves a residue which resembles gum or
gelatin. The solution reddens litmus and is precipitated on addition of
a mineral acid, acetic acid, or Ba(OH),. It yields a gelatinous precipitate
with alcohol. Metapectic acid is stated to be identical with arabic acid.
It is soluble in water, forming turbid or heterogeneous sols, yields a barium
salt and is precipitated by alcohol, but not completely by basic lead
acetate in excess (J. Weisberg, ‘Chem. Zeit.’ 18, 2).
We have therefore the following series of products :

Pectose Metapectin Parapectic acid
Pectin Pectosic acid Metapectie acid
Parapectin Pectic acid

The ultimate analyses of these products by various observers do not
agree among themselves, therefore we do not know how many individual
members really exist; one fact, however, is clear, that is, that they contain
more oxygen and less hydrogen than the true carbohydrates and that
they have for the most part acid functions which become more marked
by partial hydrolysis, showing that they contain one or more COOH
groupings. According to later investigations (E. Bourquelot, ‘ Comptes
Rend.’ 128, 1241-1244, and Bourquelot and Herissy, ‘Jour. Pharm.
Chem.’ 1899, 9, 281-286), the pectens so far examined yield galactose
and arabinose on hydrolysis, so that they probably contain galactan
and araban. Cross and Bevan (‘ Cellulose,’ p. 217) state that ‘the pectic
group of compounds may be regarded as compounds of carbohydrates
of varied constitution with acid groups of undetermined constitution
associated to form molecular complexes, more or less homogeneous, but
entirely resolved by the continued action of simple hydrolytic agency.’
According to 8. B. Schryver and D. Haynes (‘ Biochem. Jour.’ 1906,
10, 539-547), ‘ pectinogen ’ is obtained by treating turnips with a solution
of ammonium oxalate and precipitating with alcohol. It has acid func-
tions, and when kept in alkaline solutions it readily reverts to pectin,
which also has acid characters. It is soluble in alkalies and is precipi-
tated as a gel on addition of acids. Analysis shows it to have the com-
position C,,H.,0,5. It yields furfural equivalent to one atom of carbon
in each complex of C,;. Pectin would therefore appear to be an acid
and not a carbohydrate.

Pectins are more particularly interesting since they form the basis
of fruit-jellies, such fruits as currants, gooseberries, and apples being
especially rich in these constituents. The mucilages of linseed, marsh-
mallows, orchids, and other plants are also worth attention.

Several colloidal products from plants have been proposed for use
from time to time, but very few have been found sufficiently valuable to

80 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

be retained in industry. A list of the more interesting patents in this
connection is given below :

Preparation of a sizing material from the juice of linseed, hemp-seed,
plantain-seed, &c. (F. C. Calvert, Eng. Pat. 164, 1857).

Obtaining fecula from bulbs of the lily type (R. I. C. Dubus, Eng.
Pat. 2,801, 1857).

Preparation of a mucilage from quince-seeds (G. Norris, Eng. Pat.
2,240, 1861).

Preparation of a substance named ‘ parapectin’ from the juice of
the fruit of the arbutus tree by precipitating with alcohol. This substance
resembles pectin but has greater consistency and strength (P. Mingaud,
Eng. Pat. 1,649, 1865).

Obtaining a mucilaginous substance from flax, China grass, sorghum,
Phormium tenax, and other fibre-yielding material by boiling with alkali
(T. Gray, Eng. Pat. 1,058, 1866).

Preparing size from the fruit of the augustus palm (S. C. Dhondy,
Eng. Pat. 7,458, 1891).

Preparation of a gum from plants of the Mesembryanthaceae family
(R. Haddon (R. My Glyvares), Eng. Pat. 23,555, 1898).

Preparation of vegetable glue or sizing material from the palmetto
palm and similar plants (F. Hepburn, Eng. Pat. 10,814, 1898).

Obtaining a glutinous substance from beetroot by treatment with
SO, and neutralising with chalk. The acid calcium salt which is obtained
is evaporated in vacuo. The product is rendered gelatinous by an alkali
or ammonia, but this property is obviated by previous treatment with
H,O, (G. B. Ellis (F. Hornung), Eng. Pat. 22,788, 1898).

Using mucilage from linseed for sizing yarn (J. Pate, Eng. Pat. 2,645,
1901).

Obtaining ‘ viscine’ from plants of the Ilex class (W. Loebell, Eng.
Pat. 26,383, 1904).

Obtaining gum for sizing purposes from flax, hemp, and other textile
fibres (H. Sefton Jones, Eng. Pat. 18,537, 1907).

Bacterial Gums.

The bacterial gums are of interest in connection with the mode of
genesis of exudation gums and also as to their influence in certain in-
dustries such as sugar manufacture and brewing. A. Greig Smith appears
to have been the first to connect the formation of gum, or gum flux, with
bacterial action. In researches into the mode of formation of the gum
from Acacia perennis (wattle-gum) he isolated from the twigs of the tree
two kinds of bacteria, one of which, the most prevalent, named by him
Bacterium acacie, when grown upon suitable media produced a slime
of the araban-galactan class (‘Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.’ 1902, Pt. TI.
Sept. 24). The view that a specific organism is responsible for the forma-
tion of gum is also held by Bean and Edie (‘4th Report Wellcome Tropical
Research Laboratories, Khartoum’) as a result of their researches.
Attempts to inoculate gum-bearing trees with this organism, however, led
only to a decreased product of gum. Ruhland (° Ber. Deutsch. botan. Ges.,’
1906, XXIV. 393) holds the contrary opinion, although he was able to isolate
a bacterium—Bacillus spongiosus—from diseased cherry-trees which
formed a gum yielding only arabinose on hydrolysis. R. Greig Smith

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 81

( Centr. Bakt.’ Par. II. 698-703) also discovered a bacterium—Bacterium
acacie—in the gum of plum, cedar, peach, almond, and date trees. B.
persice, found on peach and almond trees and Cedrela Australis, also pro-
bably influences the formation of gum. Ina medium containing sucrose
it forms a mucus or gummy matter which yields galactose and arabinose
on hydrolysis. The gum of the fruit of Sterculia diversiola contains arabin
and par-arabin (insoluble gum); these are stated to be produced by
two organisms, B. acacie and B. par-arabiniwn respectively. Several
varieties of the latter have been isolated and they produce par-arabin
(v.e., insoluble mucus) when grown under suitable conditions.

In the manufacture of sugar the juice sometimes becomes extremely
viscous and very difficult to filter. This has been found to be due to an
organism, Bacillus levaniformis, which forms a viscous or gummy product
known as levan ; this yields only levulose on hydrolysis (Greig Smith and
Thomas Steel,‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1902, 1381, 1904, 105). The product
differs from that formed during the ‘ gummosis’ disease or ‘gumming’
which takes place within the sugar-cane, the fibro-vascular bundles becom-
ing filled with a viscous gum to which the name ‘ vasculin’ has been
applied by Cobb (‘ Agric. Gaz. N.S.W.’ 1893, 777). Levan dissolves
in cold water, but on dilution the sol becomes turbid and opaque, although
no separation takes place either on standing or on centrifuging. It is
not precipitated by basic lead acetate, but it forms an adsorption product
with BaO containing 19-85 per cent. of the latter, similarly to starch.

Gum appears, however, to be present normally in unripe cane-juice,
as this after evaporation thickens with acetic acid and on cooling sets
to a solid mass. The amount of gum in the molasses was found to be
8 per cent. (Hazewinkel, ‘ Archiv Suikerind. Nederl. Ind.’ 1910, 18, 4445).

Beet-juice sometimes becomes mucilaginous owing to a peculiar fer-
mentation which is induced by an organism, Leucostoccus mesenteroides,
resulting in the conversion of the sugar into a carbohydrate known as
dextran or fermentation gum. Two varieties of this carbohydrate appear
to be formed, one of which is soluble, the other insoluble in water. Bacillus
gummosis also develops in sugar solution, forming a gum having the com-
position represented by the formula C,;H;,0; (Happ). It is remarkable
that in both these cases at a certain period in the growth of the organism
it swells up enormously, diffusing itself through the liquid, thus forming
a mucilaginous fluid.

Ropiness also occurs in beer, milk, wine, infusions of Tpecacuanha,
Radix Althea, Senegw, Folia Farfare, Folia Digitalis, &c., from time
to time ; in all cases the cause has been traced to the action of micro-
organisms. (For further information on this subject see Lafar, ‘ Micro-
organisms and Fermentation,’ pp. 270-278.)

Hemicelluloses.

The hemicelluloses constitute a group of closely related substances
contained in the seeds, roots, &c., of various plants, the cellular tissues of
certain plants consisting largely of these products intimately associated
with cellulose, to which they are also allied.

On heating with water, some of the hemicelluloses swell up enormously
and pass into the state of colloidal sols, which are extremely viscous and
which revert to non-rigid gels after keeping for a few days.

1917. G

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Hemicelluloses from seeds are employed in the manufacture of sizing
materials (P. C. D. Castle, Eng. Pat. 10,822, 1905, C. V. Greenwood,
Eng. Pat. 564, 1912). The hemicelluloses, no doubt, vary in composition,
but that from the locust-bean (Ceretonia siliqua) consists of a complex
of mannan and galactan in the proportion of about 2: 1, mannose and
galactose in these proportions being the products of hydrolysis (Bourquelot
and Herissy, ‘ Compt. Rend.’ 1889, 129, 228, 231, also 1889, 129, 391-398).
Solutions of hemicelluloses of this type yield, on evaporation, clear trans-
parent continuous films which have considerable tensile strength and
are much tougher than films of nitrocellulose. In composition they
approximate to the formula C,H,,0; (H. B. Stocks and H. G. White,
‘Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1903, 4, also C.F. Cross, ‘ Lectures on Cellulose,
Inst. of Chem.’ 1912). They contain but little mineral matter and are
not acidic in character. Sols of the hemicelluloses show a very high
viscosity, increasing enormously with the concentration, but heat has
only a slight effect in decreasing it. Dilute acids lower the viscosity
very considerably, especially the mineral acids; alkalies increase the
viscosity, especially of strong sols, which become glutinous or tenacious.
Salts generally have very little effect except in strong solutions, in which
case the complex is in many cases precipitated. Iron and copper salts,
hydrogen peroxide, sodium peroxide, and potassium persulphate all
lower the viscosity of the product. Heating under pressure and with
organic acids renders the material quite fluid (C. V. Greenwood, Eng.
Pat. 569, 1908), but partial reversion takes place after a time.

Hemicelluloses form adsorption. compounds with bases such as Ba(OH),
and Ca(OH), becoming more or less solidified and in diluted sol precipitated.
Basic lead acetate forms a heavy solid white opaque gel, KMnO, and
Fehling’s solution also forms solid gels. Boric acid renders the gel more
viscous, while the action is still more marked with borax, a solution of
the complex being solidified to a brittle gel, while even in very dilute
solution the material becomes so viscous that it ceases to flow and also
does not wet the containing vessel. The mixing of viscous gels of this
type with water is an interesting proposition ; the surface tension is so high
that water will not penetrate. On stirring, the gel breaks up into small
particles, which by long-continued stirring gradually absorb the water
and coalesce, the mixture becoming homogeneous again. Friction is
a considerable factor in the mixing, but, as dilution proceeds, the surface
tension being progressively lowered, mixing becomes more and more
easy. If the material is added to a large volume of water it is practi-
cally impossible to obtain a homogeneous solution. Mixtures of hemi-
celluloses with starch paste, some soluble starches, dextrin, if not too
concentrated, Irish moss mucilage, and agar mucilage are easy to prepare,
and homogeneous probably because the surface tensions are equal or nearly
so; but with hemicelluloses and gum arabic, gelatin, and strong solutions
of dextrin the interfacial pressure must be considerable as there is no
interpenetration, and although vigorously agitated they form granular
or frothy heterogeneous mixtures which sooner or later separate into
two layers of the different materials. The reason for this difference is
not very apparent.

The hemicelluloses, consisting of mannan and galactan, react with
tannic acid to form complexes, which in presence of excess of tannic
acid appear as an opaque turbid sol with considerable reduction in

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 8&3

viscosity, immediately after mixing ; upon standing, however, the viscosity
progressively increases until after a few hours the product forms a soft
gel which takes the form of the containing vessel; after a still further
period the material separates into a stiffer gel and a clear supernatant
liquid, about equal parts. On removing from the liquid, the gel pro-
gressively dehydrates until it forms a tough material like leather, and
on fully drying it forms a hard solid. This product is an adsorption
compound containing C,,H,)O, and C,H,,0, molecules in the proportion

1:2. Owing to the special properties of this material, it is employed for

the purpose of tanning, the colloidal carbohydrate having a restraining

influence on the tannic acid, so that concentrated tanning liquors can
be employed at the commencement and tanning completed in a few days

(C. V. Greenwood, Eng. Pat. 5,018, 1910, and 7,635, 1915; also C. F.

Cross, “ Lectures on Cellulose,’ p. 38). On treating the material with

water, tannic acid first dissoives, but on further dilution the complex

becomes dispersed. Alcohol dissolves the whole of the tannic acid, pre-
_ ¢cipitating.the carbohydrate in the form of a flocculent gel. Some salts

such as alum, Fe,Cl,, FeSO,,and ZnCl,, which yield precipitates with tannic
— acid, do not coagulate the hexosan-tannin complex, while others such
as lead acetate, tartar emetic, SnCl,, Na,WO,, and ammoniacal copper
solution coagulate it.

The turbid complex becomes clear and much more viscous, é.e., more
dispersed at a temperature of about 42° C., reverting to the original con-
dition on cooling ; this change is strictly reversible. Alkalies and certain
salts, e.g., sodium benzoate and KCNS, also strong formaldehyde, sugar,
_ glucose, and glycerine, cause a similar dispersion, the effect of hydroxyl,

ions and groups, being most marked in this respect. Acids appear to have

very little action.
’ The nuts of vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocar‘pa) and also probably
_ of the dum dum palm (‘ Bull. Imp. Inst.’ 1911, 105-109), coffee, date
_ Stones, &c., contain the carbohydrate mannan, which on hydrolysis with
; acid yields mannose. Vegetable ivory consists of almost pure mannan,

which has been carefully studied by 8. W. Johnson (‘ J. Amer. Soc.’ 1896,
F 214-222). The nuts at present used in turnery work in place of real ivory
__are very large, extremely hard and tough white seeds. On treatment with
water it is not dissolved, but it is readily soluble in 70 per cent. sulphuric
acid, from which it is precipitated unchanged by addition of alcohol and
_ ether. The mannan thus formed swells in water and partially dissolves 3 1b
_ is more readily soluble in alkalies. This would be a very useful product if a
_ colloidal solution in water could be prepared.

There is also contained in woods generally a gummy prod uct known as

_ Xylan, which yields xylose on hydrolysis. This dissolves in solutions of the

_ alkalies, but is insoluble in water. It is contained in large quantity in the

_ alkaline liquors of paper-pulp manufactories, but has not yet been utilised
for technical purposes.

Seaweed Jellies.

Several algie yield colloidal products when boiled with water, but only a
few have been utilised for technical purposes. They differ in composition
and properties from the colloids previously described, containing less
carbon and more oxygen, and in addition 0-15 to 1-0 per cent. of nitrogen,
but in what state of combination is not known. They contain galactan and

84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

a sete pentosan—fucosan—which hydrolyses to form the methyl pentose
—fucose.

Trish moss grows extensively on the coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and
was at one time largely used for sizing linen; it is still used to a limited
extent. On soaking in water the plant breaks down to form a gelatinous
mass, and on boiling with water it forms a colloidal sol which is quite fluid
while hot, but sets to a gel on cooling. This material contains a con-
siderable amount of finely divided cellular tissue and usually has a high
mineral content, z.e., about 18 per cent. (H. B. Stocks and H. G. White,
‘Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1903, 4). Irish moss gel becomes less viscous
with caustic soda; Ba(OH), and Fe,Cl, both yield precipitates and
alcohol partly precipitates it.

Agar-agar is a Japanese product derived from a seaweed ; it occurs in
thin crinkled ribbons, and is extremely bulky, On heating with water it
does not swell very appreciably or easily dissolve, but when solution is com-
plete the liquid is very thin while hot, but on cooling it very quickly sets at
about 50° C. to a solid brittle gel, which does not readily melt below the
temperature of boiling water. These properties render it extremely useful
for bacteriological investigations and other purposes. A solution con-
taining only 1 per cent. of agar is quite solid at the ordinary temperature.

Agar contains about 20 per cent. of moisture and only about 1 per cent.
of mineral matter. It has no acid characters. I1t is only slightly acted
upon when heated with caustic soda solution. Alcohol yields a white
curdy precipitate, and it is also precipitated by basic lead acetate, and
tannic acid, which latter does not affect Irish moss jelly. It mixes
readily with gum arabic and hemicellulose solutions.

Japanese isinglass is very similar to agar, sometimes being sold in the
ribbon form and sometimes in rods about 1 in. square, which, however,
consist merely of membranes filled with air bubbles, so that in this form itis
equally bulky.

It contains about 23 per cent. of moisture and 2-9 per cent. ot mineral
matter, but likewise has a similar composition to agar (see also C. F. Cross,
‘ Lectures on Cellulose’). It dissolves more easily and more completely in
water than does agar, and on cooling forms even a stiffer gel. The gel is
clear at first, but after a time it becomes opaque. It yields a white cloudy
precipitate with alcohol and is precipitated by basic lead acetate. It mixes
readily with gum arabic solution.

Evaporated seaweed products in the form of scales are sold for sizing and
finishing purposes under the names cf ‘ Algin,’ ‘ Blandola,’ “ Norgine,’ &c.
Norgine is stated by E. Schmidt (‘ Chem. Zeit.’ 1910, 1,149-1,150) to be
the sodium salt of laminaria acid. It is probably an adsorption com-
pound, as are several of the products mentioned in the patents below.

E. C. C. Stanford (Eng. Pat. 142, 1881, also 8,075, 1899; see also
‘ Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1886, 218) prepared a product (which he named
‘ algin ’) by heating marine alge with caustic soda or sodium carbonate.
The material was regarded by him as an acid, which he named “alginic
acid’; this combined with alkalies to form soluble compounds—algenoids—
which could be used for a variety of purposes, notably for sizing. By
adding metallic salts such as those of iron, mercury, silver, &c., to the
alkaline solutions, precipitates were obtained which he regarded as
insoluble alginates, proposed to be used for medicinal and other purposes.
Most of these were soluble in ammonia. The British Algin Co., T. Ingham

"
: ’

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 85

and H. Bunzyl, took out patents for the preparation and application of such
double alginates for waterproofing purposes (Eng. Pats. 25,187 and
25,537, 1905).

Preparation of a size for raw silk consisting of Japanese isinglass,
elatin, alum, spermaceti, and glycerine (J. F. Girard, Eng. Pat.

8,402, 1885).

Preparation of Irish moss for sizing paper (C. Morfitt, Eng. Pat.
8,148, 1886).

Preparation of mucilage or size (G. Laurean, Eng. Pat. 6,988, 1894),
removing the saline ingredients preliminary to treatment with alkali; also
§. Pitt (Laurean, Son & Co.), Eng. Pat. 28,356, 1898.

A solution of kelp is fixed with an alumina or other metallic salt for
waterproofing purposes (Laurance & Co., Eng. Pat., 20,356, 1898).

Mixtures of starch and seaweed are used (M. Cerf, Fr. Pat. 317,942,

1902). A. Krefting (Eng. Pat. 7,913, 1903) precipitates the jelly as ‘ tan-

gate ° of lime and mixes the product with carbonate of soda. P. Jensen
(Eng. Pat. 11,625, 1903) claims the use of agar, after treating with citric
acid and filtration, for films for photographic purposes. W. F. Cooper (Eng.
Pat. 2,156, 1907) also claims the use of agar for the same purpose. W. F.
Cooper and W. H. Nuttall (‘ Phot. Jour.’ 1908, 48, 11-25) state that agar
has certain advantages over gelatine for photographic purposes, it sets at a
higher temperature, the viscosity is eight times greater; 1 per ‘cent.
solutions can be employed which enables thinner films to be obtained.

Preparation of mucilages (J. H. Laurean, Eng. Pat. 5,169, 1906, and
F. F. Figgis, Eng. Pat. 22,247, 1906).

H. Bruhn and C. Timpke (Fr. Pat. 381,323, 1907) propose seaweed
jelly as a size for use in paints.

Chem. Fabrik, Griiman, Landshoff und Meyer, A. G. and R. May (Ger.
Pat. 240,832, 1911) claim the preparation of ‘ Norgine’ insoluble in water
and alkalies, formed by action of formaldehyde, also use of ‘ Norgine’ as a
protective colloid (Ger. Pat. 248,526,1911). M. P. Gloess (Fr. Pat. 445,771,
1912) proposes to use sodium peroxide in preparing gums from seaweeds.

T. Ingham (Eng. Pat. 13,777, 1913) employs double alginates of
alkali and heavy metal as sizing and dressing materials.

H. Hastaden (‘ Farber Zeitung,’ 1909, 20, 107-109) describes the use of
carrageen moss in finishing.

Albuminous Substances.

The group of albuminous compounds have a similar percentage com-
position, containing a high percentage of nitrogen, but differ very con-
siderably in their properties. They are all typical colloids, and several are
exceedingly useful for technical purposes.

Albumin. a
Albumin is not only valuable as a food product, but it is employed in

calico-printing, leather-dressing, bookbinding, for clarifying liquids, &e.
_ Itis derived either from white of egg or from blood serum after purification

with animal charcoal. Both forms are met with in commerce in the form of
seales. Egg albumin is pale yellow and is used for fine purposes; blood

albumin is red or brown and has an odour of meat. The latter can be

distinguished aiso by containing an oxidase.

86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917. °*

White of egg contains 10 to 12 per cent. of albumin, about 88 per cent.
of water, rather less than 1 per cent. of mineral matter, and also about
1 per cent. of a carbohydrate. In dealing with white of egg, usually
the hen’s egg is implied. There are differences in the properties of the
whites of eggs from different birds. For instance, the white of the duck
egg has a bluish-cast and on heating coagulates to a stiffer gel.

Egg white consists of a glairy liquid portion and a glutinous portion ;
the latter, equal to about one-fifth of the whole, does not mix with the
former but can be separated by means of a sieve. In what respect these
two portions differ from one another we do not know, but there is certainly
a difference in their alkalinity, the alkalinity of the glutinous portion
being = to 0-473 per cent. of NaHO, and the more fluid portion, alkalinity
= 0-585 per cent. NaHO. White of egg when fresh shows a distinct
alkalinity to phenol-phthalein, showing the presence of HO ions, this being
= to 0-026 to 0-159 per cent. NaHO ; after keeping for a time, which may
vary according to the quality of the egg, this reaction is not observed.
The white is, however, always alkaline to methyl orange = to about 0-5
per cent. of NaHO. Addition of alkali to albumin results in a considerable
increase in viscosity; with 20 c.c. white of egg and 3 c.c. N.NaHO the
mixture sets to a solid gel after standing for a few hours; on further
addition of alkali the albumin again becomes liquid, forming a thin fluid
(alkali-albumin). Acids reduce the viscosity and finally coagulate the
albumin, or, in solution, cause a flocculent precipitate. (For the effect
of electrolytes on the viscosity, coagulation, and osmotic pressure of albumin
see ‘ Colloids and their Viscosity,’ Faraday Soc., March 12, 1913.) Acids,
especially mineral acids, readily coagulate albumin; potassium ferro-
cyanide in acid solution is a powerful coagulant, being used as a test for
traces of albumin. It is also coagulated by phenol, cresol, tannic acid,
and by formaldehyde. It gradually yields a precipitate when shaken
with ether or turpentine.

Egg white is purified for use in painting by adding dilute acetic acid
till neutral and straining ; this removes the glutinous portion and renders
the material much more fluid. The painting can be rendered insoluble
either by heat or by tannic acid (A. H. Church, ‘ Chemistry of Paints and
Painting,’ p. 65).

Dialysed albumin yields a clear gel with acetic acid; on heating, the
mixture forms a clear fluid which gelatinises again on cooling. The
viscosity of sols of albumin and acetic acid increases by keeping up to
18 to 20 days; the viscosity of albumen is also increased by addition of
acetic acid up to 7-01 per cent. ; further addition decreases the viscosity
up to 11-22 per cent., when there is again a rise, Salts cause a rise in the
rapidity of the reaction but not in the intensity (L. Zoja, ‘ Zeitschr. Chem.
Ind. Kolloide,’ 1908, 3, 249, 269).

Albumin is readily salted out, salts of alkaline earths acting in this
respect more powerfully than the alkalies, salts of zinc aluminium, and the
heavy metals powerfully coagulate albumin.

Slaked lime and white of egg set to a solid; this mixture has been used
as a cement for a very long time (D. C. Séuef (J. Schuberth), Eng. Pat.
1,225, 1862). A mixture of blood and-slaked lime is a variant. White
of egg in contact with iron or iron rust adsorbs Fe,(HO),, becoming blood-
red in colour (iron albuminate), at the same time losing its viscosity.

Albumin in solution is coagulated at temperatures above 54°; at that

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, &7

temperature it commences to coagulate and at 70° it is converted into a
solid white gel. If, however, it is evaporated at temperatures below 40°
it dries to form a paie yellow, transparent, brilliant film which is easily
broken up into scales, in which form it is sold. "

Salts, e.g. (NH,).SO,, lower the coagulation point of albumin. The
effect is not so marked with egg albumin as with serum albumin, while
milk albumin is much more sensitive (K. Micho, ‘ Zeitschr. Unters. Nahr.
Genussm.’ 1911, 646-654).

Dried albumin contains about 12 per cent. of moisture and 5 to 6 per
cent. of mineral matter ; the alkalinity equals about 2-4 per cent. of NaHO,
but on boiling with water the alkalinity is increased to 4-13 per cent. ;
it would appear, therefore, that on coagulating a chemical change takes
place. The alkalinity is probably due to phosphates.

‘Albumin forms homogeneous systems with gum arabic and with agar.
The specific gravity of ege-white is 1:045. Harriette Chick and C. J.
Martin ( Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1913, 12, 69-71) found that
the densities of ege albumin, crystalline serum albumin, serum globulin, &e.,
compared with the densities of the same products in the solid state, show
that on dissolution there is a contraction amounting to from 5 to § per cent.
It was also found that with serum albumin and serum globulin the solution
volume was independent of the concentration, but that with casein the
contraction which takes place diminishes with increasing concentration.

Albumin adsorbs Ag,O from a solution of the nitrate, forming silver
albuminate ; and it was found that in photography the whole of the silver
was not removed from this compound after fixing with sodium thiosulphate
(Luppo Cramer, ‘ Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1907, 2, 171-172). A
compound of albumin and copper is also formed by adding CuSO, to a
solution of albumen, with or without the addition of KHO. In the absence
of alkali the product had an almost constant composition, the Cu and SO,
being present in equivalent amounts, the product containing albumin
86°67, Cu 5-26, and SO, 8-07. In presence of alkali the proportion of
SO, in the compound decreased as the alkali was increased, until the
product had the composition albumin 68-75, Cu 31-25 (G. Bonamartin and
M. Lombardi, ‘ Zeitschr. Physiol. Chem.’ 1908, 58, 165-174).

When aqueous sols of albumin, tannic acid, and a metallic salt, &c., are
mixed, a precipitate is obtained which contains albumin, tannic acid, and
the metal. Using 20 per cent. sols in all cases the precipitates had the
following molecular composition calculating tannic acid as a dibasic acid

Metal. Albumin. Tannin,
Ag salt 4 18 32 50
1h a , es (| 4) 46
ET : 15 50 35
JAC ae 10 48 42
Ons 9 50 41
Ph, 16 45 39
ie, 5; 5 60 35
Bro es ‘ j 15 21 64
I phe 23 21 56

G. Grasser, ‘ Colles’ 1911, 185-192 and 199-200.

A compound or combination of chloroform with an albumin has.
according to C. 8. Schleich (‘ Therapie der Gegenwart,’ 1909, 138), been
prepared. This preparation, which has been named ‘ desalgin,’ containg
25 per cent. of chloroform in a solid colloidal form,

88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Both egg albumin and blood albumin are used for clarifying or ‘ fining ’
liquids. They owe their special functions to the fact that on heating,
or by action of acids or tannin, the coagulum forms upon and around
finely divided suspended matter; at the same time impurities may be
adsorbed so that the liquids after settlement or filtration remain quite
clear and bright.

Albumin or white of egg is used in baking for the preparation of light
pastry, in which its film-producing properties are of great service.

Albumin is also very useful for glazing purposes and in the manu-
facture of leather finishes. (For the composition of leather finishes and
the materials used in their manufacture see ‘ Leather Dressing,’ by M. C.
Lamb, pp. 263-282, also M. C. Lamb and A. Harvey, ‘ Jour. Soc. Dyers and
Colourists,’ 1917, 19.)

Egg-yolk, although it contains 33 per cent. of fatty matter, is also
an albuminous product, seeing that it contains more albumin than egg-
white, e.g., about 15 per cent. It also contains about 1 per cent. of a
carbohydrate and 1 per cent. of mineral matter. It is probably one of the
most perfect emulsions known, since, however long it is kept, it shows
no sign of separation or even on centrifuging or after considerable dilution.
The albumin in egg-yolk, however, is not the same as that in the white, but
consists, according to Gobley, of vitellin, nuclein, and cerebrin.

Egg-yolk is always slightly acid to phenol-phthalein, although alkaline
to methyl orange, the alkalinity equalling about 0-87 per cent. of NaHO.

Egg-yolk is a very efficient emulsifying agent, being often used for this
purpose. This property is, no doubt, due, partially at any rate, to the
presence of lecithin in the fatty material; the amount of lecithin in the
yolk equals about 10 per cent. Egg-yolk is employed in the preparation
of ‘fat liquors’ for treating leather (‘Leather Dressing,’ by M. C. Lamb,
pp. 214-228, also H. R. Procter, “ Leather Industries Laboratory Book,’
1908, p. 353), also in the manufacture of embrocations, being capable of
emulsifying such incompatibles as acetic acid and olive oil or turpentine.

Certain salts, e.g., NaCl, KCl, and KNOs, cause a dispersion of the albu-
min in egg-yolk, the material becoming almost transparent. The same
effect is produced with HCl, only that after a time the material sets to a
gel and subsequently becomes opaque. ‘Salted yolks,’ that is, yolks
containing about 10 per cent. of common salt, are an article of commerce.

Yolk of egg was one of the earliest mediums used in painting, being
employed in ancient times as a medium for laying on the pigments in
tempera painting. A. H. Church (‘Chemistry of Paints and Painting,’
18Y2, p. 65) states that after a time the yolk becomes insoluble, the change
being hastened by exposing the painting to sunlight, a practice which
was quite common. Desiccated egg and yolk dried at a temperature of
100° F. also become gradually insoluble on keeping, this change being
accelerated by heating at 100° F. or over, light not being necessary.

Casein.

Casein is the albuminoid of milk, which contains about 4 per cent.,
and in which it plays the part of an emulsifier, although in this respect
it is not a perfect agent, seeing that milk separates on standing into two
phases, the cream and skimmed milk. Cream separated by the centrifugal
machine, however, is a perfect emulsion in which both the fat and casein

Rt A i Mts

ee ee eer

oe fe a oe re

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, 89

are more concentrated than in milk; in ordinary cream the two phases
oil-casein and casein-water tend to progressive separation up to a limit.
Milk also contains about 0:8 per cent. of a coagulable albumen which is
stated to be identical with serum albumen.

Milk has an amphoteric reaction, 7.e., when fresh, it reacts feebly
both acid and alkaline according to the indicator used; on keeping, it

develops lactic acid by bacterial action, and at a certain acidity the whole

solidifies to a gel, which after a time or with pressure separates into a
solid ‘ curd ’ (casein or cheese) and a liquid ‘ whey.’

With hydrochloric acid the amount required to produce clotting was
20 c.c. of N/10 HCl for 20 c.c. of milk.

An investigation has been made into the influence of the hydrogen
ion in milk clotting by C. Allemann (* Biochem. Zeitschr.’ 1912, 45, 346-

858), who found that when different acids were added to milk together

with rennet the time of clotting depended, not upon the acidity, but
upon the hydrogen ion concentration. The clotting time diminishing
up to a concentration of H ions of 1:3 x 10-> the point at which acid
alone caused coagulation. The effect of salts, e.g., mixtures of phosphates
and of sodium acetate and acetic acid, was also studied. It was found
that the clotting points of whole milk, skimmed milk, and caseinogenate
solutions showed certain differences.

When the precipitation of casein is brought about by acid in presence
of a protective colloid, e.g., gelatin or isinglass, the coagulum is much
more diffuse, not separating in curds; hence these additions are useful
for milk foods. The coagulum is also more finely divided when produced
by kephir, koumiss, or youghout (.e., ferments producing lactic acid),
the proteids being probably to some extent peptonised. ;

When albumin is added to milk and the mixture heated, the albumin
and casein separate together as a complex in the form of a gel.

Commercial casein is prepared from skimmed milk by addition of
rennet or acids (acetic, hydrochloric), in the case of rennet a certain amount
of peptone may be formed by the digestive ferment. There is a difference
in the behaviour of caseins according to the method of preparation. They
contain about 11 per cent. of water and 7 per cent. of mineral matter,
mostly calcium phosphate ; usually also a small quantity of fat is present
which has an influence on its properties.

On treatment with water, casein swells to a certain extent but does
not dissolve ; with NH,HO there is a considerable increase in the swelling,
but the mixture is heterogeneous ; with caustic alkalies, alkaline carbonates,
alkaline earths, and alkaline salts, e.g., borax, sodium phosphate, &c.,
it forms various states of solution, those with alkalies showing the least
viscosity. On heating with alkali there is a slight decomposition, ammonia

_ being evolved and the liquid becoming extremely thin. Casein is also

soluble in hydrochloric acid.

_ The amount of hydrochloric acid required for solution of 1 gram of
casein at 1°25 per cent. concentration was found to be 32 x 10> equiva-
lent gram mols of HCl, and the amount of caustic soda at 2 per cent.
concentration 11-4 x 10~* equivalent gram mols of NaHO (J. B. Robertson,
* Jour. Phys. Chem.’ 1909, 18, 469-489) ; casein is dissolved much Tess
readily by solutions of alkaline earths (J. B. Robertson, ‘Jour. Phys.
Chem.’ 1910, 14, 377-392). On boiling casein with acids the rate of
solution is directly in proportion to the strength and concentration of

90 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

the acid (i.e, the H ion conc.). Acids are adsorbed by casein; thus
from 100 c.c. of N/100 HCl nearly 50 per cent. was adsorbed in 3 hours ;
the amount varies almost directly with the concentration of the acid.
With 1 gram of casein the equilibrium ratios at 0° C. with N/500 solutions
were H,SO, 675, HCl 147, lactic acid 80, acetic 30. The affinity of casein
for acids is, however, less than that for bases ; 1 gram of casein combines
with 9 c.c. of N/10 solutions of the hydroxides of Na,K,Li and NH,
(F. Tangl, ‘ Pfliiger’s Archiv d. Physiol.’ 1908, 121, 534-549, ‘ Chem.
Zeit.’ 1908, 1, 1288).

Casein forms, with certain electrolytes, e.g., KI, NaCNS, Na,HPO,,
and KNOs, fairly stable opalescent sols, which can be filtered ; these are
precipitated on addition of acids. It is insoluble in pyridine, but in a solu-
tion of pyridine it dissolves up to a maximum with increase of pyridine
to C;H,N.H,O. It is almost insoluble in formamide (S. Levites, ‘ Zeitschr.
Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1910, 8, 4-8). Casein is rendered insoluble by
formaldehyde. Tannic acid is absorbed by casein and can be quantita-
tively estimated, although the results are 1 to 1-5 per cent. too high (M.
Nierenstein, ‘ Chem. Zeit.’ 191], 35, 31).

Casein is utilised in many different ways in industry. It is employed
along with lime, with or without pigments, as a washable distemper ;
as the lime carbonates it becomes insoluble. It is also used as a sizing
material for textiles and paper (E. Sutermeister, ‘ Paper Making,’ 1914,
33, 140-143), being dissolved by ammonia (T. J. Denne and A. Hentschel,
Eng. Pat. 2,429, 1872) or borax (H. V. Dunham, USS. Pat. 897,885, 1908 ;
see also F, W. Richardson, ‘ Jour..Soc. Dyers and Colourists,’ 1909, 25,
4-3). Casein may be used as a cement along with sodium phosphate
(W. A. Hall, Eng. Pat. 2,949, 1903), water glass (C. Wittkowsky, Eng.
Pat. 9,070, 1905), slaked lime (C. W. Luther, Eng. Pat. 6,104, 1892),
casein, rosin, and an alkali (C. and A. Bernstein, Ger. Pat. 270,200, 1913),
sodium silicate and a strong solution of a salt of Ca, Ba, or Mg (A. Bernstein,
Fr. Pat. 370,940, 1906).

Casein is a useful material for the manufacture of plastic masses,
which can be readily moulded and set hard after a time. ‘ Galalith,’
a combination of casein and formaldehyde, is a material of this kind which
closely resembles bone or ivory and can be turned or carved (G. Bonitt,
‘ Zeitschr. angew. Chem.’ 1914, 27, 2).

Plastic masses can be formed by precipitating alkali-albuminate with
acids and mixing the coagulum with a carbohydrate formed by the action
of alkali solution on cellulose hydrate or starch, The mixture first liquefies
and then progressively hardens (J. G. Jurgens and H. Timpke, Fr. Pat.
420,164, 1890). Combinations of casein and amines, amides or their
derivatives (e.g., aniline, acetanilide) are also employed (Soc. anon.
L’Oyonnaxienne, Fr. Pat. 472,192, 1914). A substitute for horn or ivory
is made from albumin or casein or alkali-albuminates by treating with
the neutral esters of higher alcohols or amino-fatty acids which harden
and coagulate them (W. Plinatus, Fr. Pat. 465,048, 1913). A mixture
of casein and gelatin is treated with Na,SiO, and then hardened with alum
(F. von Kagenek, Ger. Pat. 281,541, 1913). Hydrochloric acid forms
a gel with casein which is plastic (Eborit. Ges.m.b.H., Ger. Pat. 191,125,
1902). Casein is heated with water under pressure and the mass hardened
with formaldehyde (Soc. anon. frang. de Chim. Ind., Fr. Pat. 425,204,
1910). A combination of casein, gum, glue, and rosin oil is also similazly

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS, 91

hardened with formaldehyde (Soc. anon. frang. de Chim. Ind., Fr. Pat.
425,204, 1910).

Casein is also used for waterproofing fabrics and for calico-printing,
being rendered insoluble by vapours of formaldehyde (J. E. Bousfield
(F. Cautin, G. Miglioretti, and G. Maffei), Eng. Pat. 1,160, 1901) or alu-
minium acetate.

Albuminous substances, particularly casein, are converted into sols
by alkali sulphocarbonates, the same being coagulated by (NH,),SO,
and the product drawn into threads, films, &c. (Fr. Pat. 395,402, 1907,
and addition of July 31, 1909).

For the preparation, properties, and applications of casein see also
‘Casein and its Technical Utilisation,’ by Robert Scherer, 1906 (Scott,
Greenwood & Son).

Gluten.

Gluten is one of the proteids of flour, wheat-flour containing a coagu-
lable albumin, gluten, and gliadin, the total being about 10 per cent. in
the soft wheats and about 15 per cent. in the hard. When flour is first
mixed with water it forms a very sticky tenacious mass, but after kneading
for a little while it becomes quite plastic and may be freely handled.
The baking properties of flour, 7.e., its capacity for imbibing water
and retaining the gases generated during the fermentation, are very
largely dependent upon the quantity and quality of the gluten present.
Flour which has become deteriorated by storage or damaged by water
has a weak gluten (7.e., bacterial activity has lowered its viscosity) ; in
such cases it forms very heavy and dark-coloured bread,

The baking properties of the flours from different cereals vary con-
siderably ; this is due not so much to the quantity of gluten present
as to its quality, and also to the physical characters of the flour. Everyone
is familiar, for instance, with the differences between wheat and oat bread.

Gluten is obtained from wheat-flour by washing it in a muslin bag
in a stream of water, and kneading it till all the starch has passed through
the cloth ; this is the basis of the manufacture of macaroni and vermicelli
and also of some of the American chewing gums. The gluten prepared
in this way is crude, since it contains the cellular tissue of the flour. This
method i¢ employed in testing flour for sizing purposes. If the flour
is fresh, the glaten is cream-coloured, stiff, and tenacious, but with deterio-
rated Hour it is grey, soft, and pulpy, even sometimes passing along with
the starch through the muslin. Gluten absorbs water to form a plastic
mass, but after fully drying it does not again swell to the original extent.
It is readily swollen by alkalies and by dilute acids, eventually passing
into the state of a colloidal solution. The gluten of wheat-flour is rendered
soluble by acetic and lactic acids formed during fermentation for sizing
purposes, but it appears in other respects to be but slightly affected (H. B.
Stocks and H. G. White, ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1903, 4). This is also
the reason for the deterioration of baking-flour, and at one time it was
corrected for by addition of alum, or copper sulphate, which rendered
the gluten insoluble again and the bread whiter; the addition of these
substances to flour is now illegal.
ve Fermented gluten dissolved in ammonia was proposed to be used
in place of albumin for calico-printing, also for clarifying liquids and for
photographic purposes (R. A. Brooman (C. Kestner), Eng. Pat. 2,428,
1864).

92 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

According to J. B. Wood (‘ Jour. Agric. Science,’ 1907, 2, 267-277),
the properties of gluten are influenced by acids, by alkalies, and by salts.
For instance, with HCl of N/100 strength it loses its coherence and
commences to disintegrate, this effect increases with the concentration
up to N/30, above which the opposite effect is noted, until with N/12
acid it becomes permanently coherent, less sticky, harder, and more
elastic. Similar effects are noted with H,SO,, H,;PO, and H,C,0O,,
but acetic, lactic, citric, and tartaric acids, irrespective of concentration,
produce only loss of coherence with no subsequent recovery of strength.
Soluble salts induce greater coherence with weak solutions of HCl, sodium
sulphate acting more strongly than NaCl and Mg and Al sulphates still
more so. Alkalies cause the gluten to become negatively charged, while
acids have the opposite effect. Long-continued washing with water
causes the dispersion of the gluten, owing to the CO, which it contains
(J. B. Wood and W. B. Hardy, ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 1909, B. 81,
38-43).

When moist gluten is placed in a solution of a salt, the salt is adsorbed
by the gluten and at the same time water passes into the solution, the
result being partial dehydration. The most active in this respect are
the sulphates; chlorides and nitrates being apparently equal. Salts
of the alkalies are more active than those of the alkaline earths. The
‘ partition constants’ of MgSO, and (NH,),SO,, both of which are used
as protein precipitants, are stated to be considerable (A. J. J. Vandervelde
and L. Bosmans, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim. Belg.’ 1912, 26, 249-254).

When gluten is bleached by SO, its elasticity is destroyed (M. G.
Carteret, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ 1909, 5, 270-272). SO, gas has been proposed
as a solvent for gluten in the preparation of an adhesive(E. Donath, Ger. Pat.
172,610, 1905). Gluten is also brought into solution by means of a per- salt
of an alkali (Erste Triester Reisschal-Fabriks Aktien-Ges. Trieste, Eng. Pat.
8,203, 1910).

A patent has been granted to G. von Riegler (Fr. Pat. 461,131, 1913) for
the preparation of artificial milk by dissolving gluten in KHO, salts, &c.

Soya beans (Soya hispida) contain about 38 per cent. of a proteid which
resembles casein or gluten in its properties. In Japan and China it is the
basis of several kinds of food, and it is also interesting, because it has been
used more or less successfully in the manufacture of artificial milk, being
converted into a colloidal solution by means of the phosphates of potash or
soda and water and then emulsified with oil and lactose (F. Gassel, Fr. Pat.
451,447, 1912, Eng. Pat. 27,860, 1912, also J. Monahan and C. J. Pope,
U.S. Pat. 1,104, 376, 1914) ; it has also been proposed as a plastic material,
for the manufacture of artificial horn, bone, &c., for which purpose it is
boiled with water and then coagulated with Al,(SO,);, or formaldehyde
(R. Dodd and H. B. P. Humphries, Eng. Pat. 15,316, 1913).

Gelatin or Glutin.

Gelatin is the most typical of the reversible colloids, a solution con-
taining it being very fluid when hot, but setting to a clear stiff gel on
cooling, which again becomes fluid at a temperature of about 25°C. Dry
gelatin imbibes a certain amount of water in the cold,the quantity depending
upon, and is used a test for, the quality of the material, but it retains its
shape and does not dissolve unless it is very impure. In the case of glue

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITs iNDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 93

which is moderately impure, a portion may diffuse from the swollen gel
into the water.

Gelatin is used for food purposes, as an adhesive, in sizing paper and
cloth, in the manufacture of photographic plates, printers’ rollers and
similar compositions, and as a size for painters’ use.

In addition to having considerable viscosity, gelatin or glue solutions
show in the most marked manner the properties of adhesiveness or
~ stickiness,’ which renders it so useful in many different trades. It also
forms continuous films on drying, these being perfectly transparent when
the material is pure, and having considerable toughness, except when the
natural moisture is dried out, when it becomes brittle.

On long-continued heating, gelatin solutions lose viscosity ; heating
with acids and alkalies has a more pronounced effect, in some cases the
product remaining fluid even at the ordinary temperature (basis of liquid
glues) ; these products, however, have less viscosity and adhesiveness than
the original material. Impurities, both organic and inorganic, tend to
produce a similar effect, thus fish glue is often quite fluid and does not set
to a gel, even when concentrated.

Moore and Roaf (‘ Biochem. Jour.’ vol. 2, 39) found the osmotic
pressure of a 10 per cent. gelatin, using a parchment paper membrane, to be
90 mm. at 40°, and 158 mm. at 91°. When injected into the blood,
gelatin has the remarkable property of increasing its coagulability (H.
Grau, ‘ Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift,’ 1910, 27, also Schultz, as
quoted by Umber, ‘ Zeitschr. fiir arztliche Fortbildung,’ 1912, No. 20).
Gelatin swells in glacial acetic acid and on heating forms a fluid sol, used as a
liquid glue ; it is readily dissolved by crude carbolic and cresylic acids.
It dissolves to the extent of 40 per cent. in a saturated solution of urea, the
sol reverting to a gel on dialysing.

Gelatin is powerfully affected by even weak solutions of NaHO, KHO,
and LiHO, which cause solution even in the cold ; in presence of ammonia it
swells considerably but does not pass beyond this stage. Alkaline car-
bonates and tribasic phosphates have the opposite effect, retarding solution,
and with concentrated solutions entirely preventing solution even at 100°
(A. L. Lumiére and A. Seyewetz, ‘ Bull. Soc. Frang. Photo.’ 1912, 3,
159-163).

The effect of dilute acids, alkalies and salts upon gelatin has been closely
studied by H. R. Procter (‘ Kolloidchem. Beihefte,’ 1911, 2, 243-284), who
found that the swelling of gelatin in highly ionised acids is considerably
greater than in water, but weak acids, e.g., H,BO;, CO; and SH», have not
the same effect. Some of the acid is fixed either as a salt or by adsorption,
the whole reacting to phenolphthalein but not to methyl orange. The

' swelling is partly due to the hydrogen-ion concentration. Swelling is
retarded by salts, especially when concentrated. Alkalies also cause the
swelling of gelatin, but in this case the swelling is not inhibited by neutral
salts, and therefore appears to be due to the H-O ions and not to the
cation. See also M. H. Fischer and A. Sykes (* Les Matiéres Grasses,’ 1914,
4202-4204). The last-named authors state that with non-electrolytes the
maximum dehydrating effect is observed only with high concentration,
whereas, with electrolytes it is attained at a lower concentration, there being
only slight increase in action for each successive increase in concentration.

According to J. L, de Bancels (‘ Compt. Rend.’ 1908, 146, 290-291),
gelatin dissolves“in water in presence of certain salts at the ordinary

94 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

temperature, the bivalent metals acting more strongly than univalent
metals in equal concentrations.

The nitrates of the metals have a greater influence than the chlorides.
The addition of electrolytes also causes the gelatin to dissolve in mixtures
of non-electrolytes and water, e.g., alcohol or acetone. On removing the
salt by dialysis or by precipitation the gelatin separates.

The effect on gelatin of a large number of reagents, including acids,
salts, phenols, &c., is described by A. L. Lumiére and A. Seyewetz (* Bull.
Soc. Chim.’ 1908, 3, 743-750).

Certain salts, e.g., those of Va, Ni, Co, and Cr, render gelatin insoluble
(Liippo-Cramer, * Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1909, 4, 21-23). Salts of
Al and especially FeCl, have a similar effect (C. E. Millar, ‘ Jour. Soc.
Chem. Ind.’ 1900, 326).

With regard to the effect of chromium salts on gelatin, the action
depends upon the constitution of the chromium compound employed.
Thus when a small quantity of bichromate of potash is added to gelatin it
has no sensible effect except after exposure to light, when the organic
colloid becomes insoluble in hot water. The action of the bichromate is
not well understood, although it is regarded as an oxidation process. The
reaction, however, 1s made use of to a very large extent in photography,
especially in the photomechanical processes. Dealing with gelatin from
this point of view, C. W. Gamble (‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1910, 65) states
that it is a complex, the parent substance being ‘ collagen.’ After heating
for some time, gelatin passes into ‘gelatose ’ which does not gel, this change
being also brought about by bacterial action and by proteolytic enzymes,
especially trypsin. Bone gelatin and fish glue are classed as gelatoses.
Gelatin and gelatose are precipitated by bromine in acid solution (A. H.
Allen, ‘ Analyst,’ 1897, 258) and also by chromic acid. Gelatin peptone is
not precipitated by chromic acid, nor is it rendered insoluble after addition
of bichromate and exposure to light; it also passes freely through a
membrane. Gelatin peptone has a marked effect upon gelatin causing a
greater tendency to dispersion. Glucose has a similar effect. Both these
substances counteract the effect of bichromates after action of light, the
film tending to dissolve on washing.

Gelatin has now almost entirely replaced albumin and collodion in the
manufacture of photographic plates and papers. It is more reliable and
more easily penetrated by the solutions employed ; the introduction of this
colloid for these purposes entirely revolutionised the photographic trade,
and is largely responsible for the enormous developments which have taken
place.

The preparation of photographic emulsions is based on the knowledge
gained after years of practical work, and may be regarded as an industry
founded upon the application of capillary phenomena.

There are many interesting points in connection with photography ; for
instance, Liippo-Cramer (* Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Kolloide,’ 1907, 2, 171-172)
found that silver oxide formed in a gelatin film by the action of NaHO
caused the gelatin to become opalescent and insoluble in boiling water.

It is proposed to purify gelatin for photographic purposes by means
of electro-osmosis, the fat and electrolytes passing through the membrane
while the albuminoid substances are precipitated (Ges. fiir Elektro-
Osmose, Eng. Pat. 21,448, and 21,484, 1914).

Electro-osmosis is likely to play an important part in industry in the

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 95

future, and several patents have been taken out in this connection for
separating ions from colloids, for removal of water from peat, for removal
of impurities from clay, &c.

Reverting again to the action of chromium compounds on gelatin, the
effect of chromic compounds is also important since it has developed into an
industry, that of ‘chrome tannage.’ According to Lumiére and Seyewetz
( Bull. Soc. Chim.’ 1903, 1077), 100 grams of gelatin fix from 3-2 to 3-5
grams Cr,Q, irrespective of the chromium salt employed. On the other
hand, J. T. Wood (* Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1908, 384) found that the amount
of chromic oxide taken up varied with the concentration of the salt; in
dilute solution it amounted to 5 per cent. and in a strong solution 18-6 per
cent., showing that it is an adsorption phenomenon.

Formaldehyde added to a gelatin sol raises the viscosity and finally
solidifies it to an irreversible gel. This reaction is made use of in water-
proofing, preparation of artificial silk, &.

The maximum amount of formalin absorbed by gelatin is between
4-0 and 48 grams per 100 grams of dry gelatin (A. L. Lumiére and A.
Seyewetz, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim.’ 1906, 35, 872-879).

Compositions containing gelatin and glucose, invert sugar (treacle),
or glycerine are employed in the manufacture of printers’ rollers, ‘ jelly-
graphs,’ and for moulding purposes.

The permanent softening effect which these products have upon
gelatin is probably due to their OH groups.

The gelatinising temperature or setting-point of gelatin is raised by
partial purification by washing out some of the salts with water (K.
Wenkiblech, ‘ Zeitschr. angew. Chem.’ 1906, 19, 1260-1262).

Alum and aluminium salts also raise the setting-point or ‘ harden’
gelatin ; in this respect the alkali aluminates have no action. In the
case of alum or aluminium sulphate, the salt is first adsorbed, then by
washing with water the SO, is removed, finally leaving Al,O,. The
amount of Al,O, adsorbed increases with increase in concentration up

toa maximum of 3-6 per cent. Al,O, (A. L. Lumiére, ‘ Brit. Jour. Phot.’

1906, 53, 573-4).

The most important reaction of gelatin especially in connection with
tanning is that with tannic acid, the two being mutually precipitated
in neutral or acid solutions, the gelatin then having a positive charge and
the tannic acid a negative one. In a paper by J. T. Wood (‘ Jour. Soe.
Chem. Ind.’ 1908, 384) it is mentioned that Humphry Davy (‘ Proc. Roy.
Soc.’ Feb. 4, 1803) found the amount of precipitate to increase with the
concentration, 100 parts of the coagulum containing 54 of gelatin and
46 of tannin. Lipovitz (‘ Jahres. Forts. Chemie,’ 1861, p. 624) states that
100 parts of dry isinglass precipitates 65 of tannin. Rideal (* Glue and
Glue Testing,’ 1900, p. 111) found 42-7 gelatin and 57-3 tannin, Mulder
(Allen, “Com. Org. An.’ iv. 463) says that 100 parts of dry gelatin precipi-
tates 135 of gallotannic acid. R. Williams (Allen, p. 484), using 1 per cent.
solutions of glue and tannic acid, and estimating the excess of tannic acid
in the filtrate, arrived at the figures 77:5, 77-9, and 78-6 parts of tannin for
100 of gelatin. Boéttinger, quoted by Procter (‘ Principles,’ p. 63) found
66 per cent. of gelatin in the precipitate, which equals 50 parts of tannin
to 100 parts of gelatin. These figures vary to such a degree as to oe
that the reaction is not truly a chemical one. J. T. Wood (ibid.) found
the amount of tannin precipitated by 1 part of gelatin to vary from 0-91

96 - REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

to 3-25 according to the concentration of the solutions and the time,
and gives the following figures showing the composition of the precipitate :

Unwashed. Washed.
yelatin . F a 725 32
Tannin . é seats . 68

According to Trunkel (‘ Biochem. Zeitschr.’ 1910, 26, 458-492), the
reaction between tannin and gelatin is an adsorption phenomenon. Under
certain conditions the whole of the gelatin and tannic gcid can be pre-
cipitated quantitatively, the product then being insoluble and resistant
to water. With excess of tannin the amount of tannin may be three
times that of the gelatin, but the precipitate is then unstable and affected
by water. By continued treatment with alcohol, 97 per cent. of the tannin
can be removed, the remainder being retained. From the residue only
about 6 per cent. of gelatin could be obtained in an unaltered condition.
Trunkel also states that, with a freshly prepared solution of tannin, 1 part
of gelatin required 0-7 part of tannin for complete precipitation, whereas
with a solution 24 hours old only 0-4 part was required.

H. R. Procter \‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’ 1910, 329) also states that the
precipitate is a colloidal combination, not a truly chemical (ionic) re-
action, the precipitate is not definitely quantitative, and that the tannin
can be removed to an almost unlimited extent by washing with water.

Gelatin in dilute solution, mixed with Japanese isinglass and also
with agar, gives a somewhat similar reaction to that with gum arabic,
a turbidity appearing which is increased on acidifying with HCl.

Chondrin from cartilage, although similar in its properties to gelatin,
does not form such a stiff gel on cooling, it is also precipitated by alum and
other salts which do not precipitate gelatin (Church, ‘ The Chemistry of
Paints and Painting,’ 1892, p. 65). Isinglass is somewhat similar to
gelatin in its properties although it is not so easily soluble; it is used in
* fining’ wine in which case it 1s coagulated, and carries down with it the
finely divided suspended matter which rendered the liquid turbid.

The properties of gelatin are very considerably affected by impurities
(decomposition products = gelatin peptone, &c.) and according to C.
Dhéré and M. Gorgolewski (‘Compt. Rend.’ 1910, 150, 934-936) the
latter can be almost entirely removed by dialysis over a long period, 7.e.,
14 to 3 months, or by freezing a weak solution, when flocks of demineralised
gelatin separate. Commercial gelatin carries a positive charge while
demineralised gelatin is negative, therefore pure gelatin will be electrically
neutral. Gelatin purified by these methods yields opalescent sols within
certain limits of concentration. At 2 per cent. the sol is turbid, at 8 per
cent. nearly clear, and at 10 per cent. quite so. Addition of alkali either
partially or entirely removes the turbidity, but acids have not such a
strong effect. A solution of such purified gelatin does not form such a
strong gel as the original, a flocculent product ‘settling out. Traces of
electrolytes, t.e., acids, alkalies, and salts, cause gelatinisation to take
place; this is the case with salts like KI which have an opposite effect
upon ordinary gelatin‘

According to J. T. Wood (‘ Collegium,’ 1908, 12, 494-5), the removal
of the salts or the precipitation of lime by ammonium oxalate affects the
tannin precipitate, rendering it less in amount. “He is therefore of opinion
that the predominant ions are those of calcium. Meunier states that a

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 97.

small quantity of borax entirely inhibits the precipitation of gelatin by
tannin, but boric acid does not influence it. Gelatin which has been
precipitated by alcohol contains the whole of the mineral matter, and is,
in fact, practically unaltered by the treatment.

In addition to the patents in connection with gelatin mentioned in the
text the following are of interest :—

J. A. Swan (Eng. Pat. 3,305, 1866) claimed the use of chrome alum
and other salts of chromium for rendering gelatin insoluble.
E. M. Knight and A. H. Hobson (Eng. Pat. 13,168, 1887) prepare a
cement or gum by heating glue or gelatin with soda.
A. Zimmermann (Chem. Fabrik auf Actien vorm. E. Schering, Eng. Pat,
2,036, 1894) patented the application of formaldehyde for rendering gelatin
_ and isinglass insoluble. The same firm claimed that the addition of a very
small quantity of formaldehyde to glue materially increased its strength
_ without rendering it insoluble (Eng. Pat. 4,696, 1894). J. Hofert (Eng.
Pat. 4,697, 1894) uses gelatin as a waterproofing agent, rendering it
insoluble with formaldehyde. An artificial silk (Vandaura silk) is manu-
factured from gelatin threads rendered insoluble by formaldehyde (A.
_ Millar, Eng. Pat. 6,700, 1898; see also A. Millar, ‘ Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind.’
1899, 17, and C. E. Millar, zbid., 1900, 326).

E. J. Mills (Eng. Pat. 8,847, 1895) proposed to use alkali and microbes,
such as Bacillus liquefaciens, and liquid glue. Plastic substances are
obtained by digesting ‘ ossein’ in NaHO solution (A. Heilbronner and
H. A. Vallee, Eng. Pat. 20,548, 1906).

A mixture of gelatin, glycerine, formaldehyde (trioxymethylene),
and an oxidising material, is employed for moulding purposes (B. Sauton,
Eng. Pat. 27,616, 1906).

W. H. Perkin and Whipp Bros. & Tod (Eng. Pat. 23,030, 1907) claim
the use of coal-tar creosote for dissolving gelatin.

The coagulation of colloids, e.g., gelatin, glue, agar, casein, starch
(commercial dextrin), is prevented by treatment with a salt of an organic
sulphonic acid or derivative (The Arabol Man. Co., Fr. Pat. 394,173, 1908).

Use of levulose for softening gelatin and glue (F. Evers, Eng. Pat.
25,145, 1909). See also A. H. Church, ‘ Chemistry of Paints and Painting,’
p. 72.

COLLOIDS IN THE SETTING AND HARDENING OF CEMENTS.
By Dr. C. H. Descu, Metallurgical Laboratory, University of Glasgow.

The most important chemical investigation of the setting and hardening
of calcareous cements is that which was submitted by Henry Le Chatelier
‘in 1887 as a thesis for the Doctorate in the University of Paris. The
setting of plaster of Paris was there shown to be due to the formation of
an unstable solution of the hemihydrate in water, soon followed by the
crystallisation of the less soluble dihydrate in spherulitic forms, the
strength of the plaster after setting being due to the interlacing of crystals
from neighbouring centres. Later investigations have only confirmed
the truth of this explanation. In the case of Portland cement, it was

hown that the basic silicates and aluminates of calcium contained. in the
cement clinker were hydrolysed by water, forming less basic salts and
free calcium hydroxide. The most stable of these salts were determined

1917. H

98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

to be CaO, SiO,, 2:5H,O and 4(a0, Al,0;, 12H,O, and microscopical
examination showed that all the products formed more or less spherulitic
groups of crystals when the hydration took place in presence of an excess
of water. Le Chatelier’s explanation was generally accepted. The
alternative hypothesis, that ‘the calcareous hydraulic cements owe
their hardening mainly to the formation of colloidal calcium hydrosilicate,’
was proposed by W. Michaélis in 1893,? but attracted little attention until
much later, when it was expanded into a detailed memoir,® at a time
when the interest in colloidal substances had become much more general.

According to the hypothesis proposed by Michaélis, the first effect
of the action of water on the ground cement is the hydrolysis of aluminates.
An unstable solution is rapidly formed, from which calcium sulpho-
aluminate, 3CaO, Al,O3, 3CaSO,, H,O (due to the action of the calcium
sulphate which is present in all commercial cements), and calcium aluminate
separate as stable phases. The former compound is soluble, and crystal-
lises readily in needles. The aluminate is less soluble, but is also crystalline
under normal conditions, forming hexagonal plates. At this stage the
silicates of the clinker are scarcely attacked. When the hydrolysis
of the di- and tri-calcium silicates sets in, the only stable products are
the hydrated metasilicate and calcium hydroxide, of which the latter
crystallises in large plates, as observed by Le Chatelier. The case of
the very insoluble metasilicate is different. The investigations of von
Weimarn‘* have shown that a solid phase separating slowly from a
moderately supersaturated solution forms well-defined crystals, that
separation from a highly supersaturated solution favours the formation
of crystal skeletons or spherulitic groups of needles, and that the
formation of a highly insoluble product in a_ strongly supersaturated
solution gives rise to the formation of gels. Michaélis found that the
hydrated, calcium metasilicate almost invariably took the form of a gel,
and that even the aluminate assumed that form if the solution were
sufficiently supersaturated. The coating of the particles of ground clinker
with a gelatinous sheath is readily observed under the microscope. The
particles increase in size by the swelling of the gel—a fact which is very
obvious in photographs taken at different intervals after the addition
of water.®

This hypothesis has been challenged on the ground that if swelling
actually took place, as in the absorption of water by starch grains or
gelatin, the volume of the cement during setting must increase, and
that no such increase does in fact occur.6 This objection is based
on a misunderstanding.’ The individual particles increase in size, but

1 Thése de Doctorat, 1887, ‘ Recherches expérimentales sur la Constitution des
Mortiers Hydrauliques,’ Paris, 1904.

2 Chem. Zeit., 1893, 17, 982.

3 ¢ Der Erhartungsprozess der kalkhaltigen hydraulischen Bindemittel,’ Dresden,
1909. Partly in Kolloid Zeitschr. 1909, 5, 9. An account of the hypothesis is given
by C. H. Desch, The Chemistry and Testing of Cement, London, Arnold, 1911.

4 The papers of P. P. von Weimarn in the Kolloid Zeitschr. for 1908-9 were collected
in book form, Zur Lehre von den Zustinden der Materie, 2 vols., Dresden, 1914.

5 H. Ambronn, Jonind. Zeit. 1909, 338, 270.

6 ©. Schumann, Yonind. Zeit., 1909, 38, 465. See also A. Martens, Witt. k.
Material-Priif. Amt., 1897, 15, 109.

7 A. G. Larsson, Z'onind. Zeit., 1909, 38, 785; W. Michaélis, cbid., 615. See also
H, Kiihl, ibid., 556, +H

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 99

the total volume of cement and water diminishes during setting, a similar
statement being true of the swelling of starch grains in water.®

A gelatinous coating having once been tied around the particles
of clinker, which are thus protected from direct contact with the solution,
a further series of changes sets in. Water is withdrawn from the gel
by the unchanged core of clinker, which thus becomes progressively
more hydrated, although even after many years the proportion of cement
which has escaped hydration is always considerable. At the same time,
according to Michaélis, lime is adsorbed from the solution by the outer
layers of the gel, which thus become harder and less permeable. On
this view, the ‘initial set’ of cement corresponds with the hydration
of the aluminates, forming crystalline masses comparable with plaster
of Paris. The‘ final set’ is due to the formation of a silicate gel, traversed
by crystals of calcium hydroxide, whilst the subsequent processes of
desiccation and adsorption account for the progressive hardening of
cement, which continues over a period of years.

A modification of this hypothesis was proposed by G. Becker, according
to whom the gelatinous membranes become stretched by the osmotic
pressure, and then, through adsorption, undergo a change similar to that
involved in the lignification of plant fibres. Becker also assigns a some-
what greater share in the process to the crystalline products of hydration.

Further evidence in favour of the colloidal hypothesis was adduced
by Michaélis. If the calcium compounds in Portland cement be replaced
by barium, a similar series of changes takes place, but the product is
not hydraulic, owing to the much greater solubility of the barium meta-
silicate, and the resulting compounds are entirely crystalline, so that the
process of setting resembles that of plaster rather than of Portland cement.
The presence of gelatinous material in briquettes of Portland cement
alter setting and hardening was observed by E. Stern,!° opaque sections
being examined by reflected light. Stern considered the gelatinous
constituents to be alumina and calcium metasilicate, fine fibro-crystalline
calcium aluminate also playing a part in the binding together of the mass,
whilst the presence of calcium metasilicate in a crystalline form was
doubtful.

The interest shown in the chemistry of hydraulic cements shortly
after the appearance of Michaélis’s paper was such as to justify the publica-
tion of a special periodical devoted to the subject, which however only
survived for eighteen months.

Ah attempt was made to distinguish the various products of hydration
by the application of organic dyes, which stain colloidal and zeolitic
mineral substances selectively. By examining the behaviour of different
substances, such as silica, alumina, calcium silicate, and calcium aluminate,
when immersed in acid, neutral and alkaline solutions of such dyes
as patent blue, anthrapurpurin, and methylene blue, and then testing
hydrated cements with the same reagents, conclusions may be drawn
as to the nature of the products contained in the cement. The result

8 H. Rodewald, Zeitschr. physikal. Chem., 1897, 24, 193.
® Tonind. Zeit., 1909, 38, 1493.
10 Ber., 1908, 41, 1472; Zeitschr. anorg. Chem., 1909, 63, 160; Mitt. k. Material-
Priif. Amt., 1910, 28, 173.
1 Zentralblatt fiir Chemie und Analyse der Hydraulischen Zemente, ed. F. R. v.
Arlt, Halle a. S., 1910-11.
12'S. Keisermann, Kolloidchemische Beihefte, 1910, 1, 423. .
H

100 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917. viy ee y
of these observations is to show that calcium metasilicate is’ present
both in the crystalline and the gelatinous forms, but that the tricalcium
aluminate is entirely crystalline. The effect of stains varies considerably
with the conditions of the experiment, and the present writer has been
in many instances unable to confirm the observations of Keisermann.
It should be added that so experienced an observer as Le Chatelier still
considers that the process of setting of hydraulic cements is entirely one
of crystallisation, and denies the influence of colloidal substances.1*
In repeating experiments on this point, it is important to remember
that the process is not necessarily the same when a small quantity of
cement is mixed with a relatively large proportion of water on a microscope
slide and when, as in the practical use of cement or the making of test
briquettes, the cement and water are mixed to a stiff paste; and neglect
of this fact, no doubt, accounts for some of the divergences between the
conclusions of different investigators. The influence of the size of grain
was pointed out by Wetzel in a criticism of the work of Keisermann.'4
An explanation of the hardening of cement in air, based on the assumption
of the presence of colloids, which then absorb water vapour from the
air, was given by L. Jesser.!®

Experiments in which stains were used led F. Blumenthal +® to the
conclusion that crystalline monocalcium silicate was among the first
products of hydration, together with the aluminate, and that the formation
of the gelatinous silicate took place subsequently. The setting of the
cement was then due to crystallisation alone, the later hardening being
due to the binding together of the crystals by means of a gel, and the
filling of the pores in the same manner.

The chemistry of Portland cement was set on an entirely new basis
by the splendid investigations of the lime-silica-alumina system in
the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, Washington.
As the result of these investigations, the constitution of cement clinker
became known in detail, and it was then possible to consider the process
of hydration as one of a definite series of chemical reactions. The study
of the setting and hardening processes was taken up by the staff of the
U.S. Bureau of Standards, whose results have been published in the
form of monographs.1? The general conclusions may be summarised
as follows.

Tricalcium aluminate sets so rapidly that it is practically impossible
to form it into test pieces, but it develops little strength. The hydrated
product is mostly crystalline. The aluminate 5Ca0,Al;0; also hydrates
rapidly, forming an amorphous mass, which partly crystallises, the product
being apparently the hydrate of tricalcium aluminate. Dicalcium silicate
hydrates exceedingly slowly, and the product is entirely amorphous,
except for the crystals of calcium hydroxide which make their appearance
after a time. It is not believed that this amorphous or colloidal mass
corresponds with any definite calcium silicate, but rather that it is an

13 Private communication.

14 Zentr. hydraul. Zemente, 1911, 2, 34.

16 [bid., 51. ;

16 Dissertation, Jena, 1912; Silikat Zeitschr., 1914, 2, 43.

17 A, A. Klein and A. J. Phillips, U.S. Bureau of Standards, Technological Paper 43
(1914); P. H. Bates and A. A. Klein, Technol. Paper 78 (1916). Seealso G. A. Rankin,
J, Franklin Inst. 1916, 747.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 101

indefinite colloid, which undergoes further hydrolysis in contact with
an excess of water, progressively losing lime, until a residue of gelatinous
silica remains. Dicalcium silicate is rendered more soluble by the presence
of the soluble aluminate. Tricalcium silicate hydrolyses fairly rapidly,
the product being of the same general character as in the last-mentioned
case. A strong mass is obtained, and there is little doubt that pure
tricalcium silicate would form a satisfactory Portland cement, as was
in fact observed in the early experiments of Newberry.

According to the experiments of the Bureau of Standards, then, theinitial
set of Portland cement is due to the hydration of tricalcium aluminate,
the product being amorphous. At the same time any sulpho-aluminate
which may be present crystallises, and any excess of free lime becomes
hydrated. Within twenty-four hours, the hydration of tricalcium silicate
begins, usually becoming complete within seven days. Between seven
and twenty-eight days, the hydration of the dicalcium silicate, which
is present in considerable proportion in most cements, and the passage
of the aluminate to the crystalline condition, are the chief stages in the
process. Of these, the increase in strength is attributed to the formation
of colloidal material, whilst the change from the colloidal to the crystalline
state is regarded as involving an actual diminution of strength, the net
effect being a gain. These results stand in conflict with many previous
observations, but they have not yet been directly challenged.

Lastly, reference should be made to the influence of salts and other
soluble substances on the rate of setting of cements. The addition of
calcium sulphate to Portland cement for the purpose of retarding the
setting has long been practised on the large scale, and the action of
a number of ‘ catalysts,’ both positive and negative, was studied by
Rohland.1® Michaélis regarded the action as dependent on the change
of solubility of the aluminates and silicates due to the presence of
foreign salts, but Rohland,in more recent papers, has attributed it rather
to their influence on the rate of coagulation of colloids.1® The action ot
colloidal additions, such as tannin, straw infusion, &c., is very irregular,
and no connection between the accelerating or retarding influence
and the chemical composition has been found.2® The changes in setting
time which many cements undergo on storage, even out of contact
with moisture, are probably of the same character, and the subject calls
for much closer investigation than it has yet received.

NITRO-CELLULOSE EXPLOSIVES FROM THE STANDPOINT OF
COLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY.

By E. R. Curystaxz, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C.

General Review.

The work which has been done on this subject from a scientific point
of view is meagre in the extreme. The text-books on colloids barely
mention the fact that nitro-cellulose forms colloidal solutions with organic
solvents. The papers published for the most part deal with isolated
cases investigated for the purpose of elucidating troubles in manufacture.

'* P. Rohland, Der Portland-Zement vom physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkte,
Loipaig, 1903.

* Kolloid Zritschr. 1911, 8, 251; 9, 21.

* Hi, K, Bonson, C. A. Newhall, and B. Tremper, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1914, 6, 795.

102 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

The reason for the neglect of this branch of work is undoubtedly due
in large measure to the nature of the raw material cellulose. This sub-
stance, not occurring naturally in a pure state, has to undergo drastic
treatment in the way of bleaching, cleaning, and so forth before it is
suitable for the manufacture of nitro-cellulose, and all treatment of the
cellulose has a large influence on the character of the finished product.
Furthermore the material largely employed in the explosive nitro-cellulose
industry, namely cotton waste, is in itself waste product from the spinning
mills. As most of the investigations are carried out by the chemists
of the manufacturing firms, much of the work, probably the most valuable
part, is never published.

The colloidal solutions which have been investigated fail roughly
into two classes, those made with volatile solvents such as ether-alcohol,
acetone, ethyl acetate, &c., and those made with comparatively non-
volatile solvents, of which nitro-glycerin and camphor are the chief.

The principal work in the former class is that of Baker, who has investi-
gated the viscosity of three important manufactured varieties of nitro-
cellulose in various solvents, namely, acetone, ethyl formate, methyl,
ethyl, propyl and amyl acetates, ethyl butyrate, aceto-ethyl-toluidide,
ethyl tolyl ethyl carbamate, ethyl phthalate, ether-alcohol, ether-methyl
alcohol, &c. He finds that the viscosity follows the law N=N, (1+AC)*,
where N and Nj are the viscosities of solution and solvent respectively,
C is the concentration, and A and R are constants depending both on
solvent and solute.

In general the viscosities of nitro-cellulose solutions are diminished
by all treatment which the substance or its raw material undergoes,
such as bleaching and cleaning the cellulose, stabilising the nitro-cellulose
by boiling, heating the nitrating mixture or the finished product, and
heating or exposing to light the solutions under investigation. The
presence of traces of impurities in all stages of the work also adversely
affects the viscosity. These causes, as well &s fundamental differences
in the cellulose itself, account for the varying and discordant results
obtained by different workers.

In the system nitro-cellulose-nitro-glycerin, 7.e., blasting gelatine,
the problem is to obtain a stiff gelatinous colloid which will not exude
nitro-glycerin and will transmit the explosive wave with certainty. The
preparation of a suitable nitro-cellulose, which in practice forms about
7-8 per cent. of the mixture, is a matter of great delicacy both in
selection of raw material and method of procedure, and practically no
information is available on the subject.

Hargreaves explains the behaviour of blasting gelatine by assuming
a webbed structure of nitro-glycerin and nitro-cellulose, through the
meshes of which free nitro-glycerin passes. As the colloid ages, more
and more of the free liquid is absorbed into the gel, thus producing the
state of insensitiveness to detonation which is one of the great troubles of
the manufacturer, Comey (‘ Seventh Int. Cong. App. Ch.’) has, however,
shown that liquid nitro-glycerin when confined in narrow tubes is but
a poor transmitter of the detonating wave. Experiments by G. W.
MacDonald and the writer have shown that the problem is still more
complicated, and that, although the colloidal condition of the system
has a large influence on the detonation of the explosive, its behaviour
can be totally altered in a few hours merely by exhausting the air which

‘

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 103

is mechanically entangled in it during the process of incorporation. Aubert
and Nauckoff have patented the addition of cork dust for the purpose
of retaining air in the explosive. Colloids can be made with nitro-cellulose
and liquid aromatic nitro-hydrocarbons. These are used both with
and without nitro-glycerin. When used with the latter the purpose
is to prevent the freezing of the explosive, since on thawing dangerous
exudation of nitro-glycerin is apt to occur by the liquid not being completely
re-absorbed into the colloid. Modern propellant explosives all consist
of a colloided nitro-cellulose with or without admixture of nitro-glycerin.
Investigations into their micro-structure and other properties have
been carried out, but have not been published.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Prmst, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Zeit. f, ges. Schiess u. Sprengstoffwesen,’ 1910
(5), 409-413.

Mosentuat, Nitro-cellulose, ‘J.S8.C.I.’ 1911 (80), 782-786.

Prust, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Zeit. f. Ang. Ch.’ 1911 (24), 968-972.

Mann, Gases from Blasting Explosives, Perth, W.A. 1911, ‘J.S.C.1.’ 1911 (30), 447,
1281

Fric, Action of Heat on Nitro-cellulose, ‘Compt. Rend.’ 1912 (154), 31-32.

Baker, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose Solutions, ‘J. Chem. Soe.’ 1912 (101), 1409-
1416; 1913 (103), 1653-1675.

Biyenam, Viscosity, ‘J. Chem. Soc.’ 1913 (103), 964.

Scuwarz, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Zeit. Ch. Ind. Koll.’ 1913 (12), 32-42.

AmBronn, Polarisation of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Koll. Zeit.’ 1913 (13), 200-207.

Prmst, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Zeit. Ang. Chem.’ 1913 (26), 24-30.

Scuwaprz, Viscosity of Celluloid, ‘ Zeit. Ch, Ind. Koll.’ 1913 (12), 32-42.

CHANDELON, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘ Bull. Soc. Chim. Belg.’ 1914 (28), 24-32.

Marreoscnat, Solubility of Nitro-cellulose in Ether-Alcohol, ‘ Zeit. Schiess u, Spreng-
stoffwesen,’ 1914 (9), 105-106.

Scuwarz, Solubility of Nitro-cellulose in Alcohol, ‘Caoutchouc et Gutta,’ 1914
(11), 7964-7967, 8199-8200, 8359-8360.

Nisuipa, Viscosity of Nitro-cellulose, ‘Caoutchouc et Gutta,’ 1914 (11), 8103-
8115, 8200-8207.

Scuwarz, Celluloid: The necessity of colloid chemical views in this industry, ‘ Koll.
Beihefte,’ 1914 (6), 90-126.

Hareruaves, Blasting Gelatine, ‘J.S.C.L.,’ 1914 (33), 337-340.

CHIARAVIGLIO and CorBIno, The system nitro-cellulose-nitro-glycerine, ‘ Rend. d. R.
Acad. Lincei,’ 1915 (24), 247, 361; ‘ Annali Chim. Appl.’ 1915 (8), 270-271.

Avsert and Navuckorr, Cork Powder in Nitro-glycerin Explosives, Brit. Pat. 1,283,
Jan. 26, 1915.

CELLULOID FROM THE STANDPOINT OF COLLOIDAL
CHEMISTRY,
By EK. R. Carysraty, B.Se. (Lond.), F.I.C.
1. Celluloid: Viscosity and its importance for the Chemistry of Celluloid in theory
and practice. H. Scuwarz, ‘ Zeitschr. Chem. Ind. Koll.’ 1913 (412), 32-42.
2 aed The Absorption of Gases, by V. Lurnsure, ‘ J, Chem. Soc.’ 1914 (105),
-337.

3. Celluloid Chemistry: Problems of, and the necessity of colloid chemical views
in this industry, H. Scuwanz, ‘ Kolloidchem. Beihefte,’ 1914 (6), 90-126.

General Review.

The literature on the celluloid branch of the nitro-cellulose industry,
as far as colloidal chemistry is concerned, is as meagre as that on the
explosive branch. Three papers have been found bearing on this subject :

(1) The author deals with the viscosity ot alcohol celluloid solutions

104 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917 2

in connection with ageing, percentage of camphor, temperature, and
brittleness of the finished product.

(2) The absorption, diffusion, and equilibrium curves of carbon-
di-oxide are determined and discussed. -

(3) The stability of the colloid against latent acidity is considered,
together with the so-called antacid treatment. The efficiency of the
latter the author considers to be dependent on the size of the molecular
aggregates suspended in the colloid.

COLLOIDAL AND CAPILLARY PHENOMENA IN THEIR
BEARINGS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND BIO-CHEMISTRY.

By Prof. W. RamspEn, Bio-Chemical Laboratory, University of Liverpool.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
General.

Bayuiss, W. M. (1915), ‘ Principles of General Physiology,’ pp. 816 (Longmans & Co.).

Matuews, A. P. (1916), ‘ Physiological Chemistry ’ (Bailliére & Co.). See pp. 190-
265 on ‘The Physical Chemistry of Protoplasm.’

In the two books cited will be found full references to literature and an
admirable treatment of the following subjects :—

Adsorption. The Ultramicroscope. Dialysis. Ultra-filtration. Gels. Im-
bibition. Salting-out. Permeability-changes in cell-membranes during excitation
or narcosis; Hzmolysis; Secretion; the Nerve Synapse. Osmotic pressure in
its relations to—volume-changes of cells ; effects of drugs; root-pressure; lymph-
production. Enzyme action as a surface-phenomenon.

BarGER, G., and Fretp, EH. (1912 and 1915), Blue Adsorption compounds of Iodine.
‘Trans. Chem. Soc.’ 101, pp. 1394-1408; and with Starxina, W. W., ‘ Trans.
Chem. Soc.,’ 107, pp. 411-424.

DreYeER, G., and Dovatas, J. 8. C. (1910), The Absorption of Aglutinin by Bacteria
and the application of physico-chemical laws thereto. ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ B.
82, pp. 185-205.

Minzs, G. R., Die Einfluss gewisser Ionen auf die elektrische Ladung von Ober-
flichen und ihre Beziehungen zu einigen Problemen der Kolloidchemie und
Biologie. ‘ Kolloidchem. Beihefte,’ Bd. III., pp. 191-236.

SasBpatinI, L., Adsorptive effect of Colloid Carbon as Antidote to Strychnine, ‘ Arch.
di Farmacol.’ 16, pp. 518-524.

Corians, M. (1913), The Action of Asbestos and allied materials on bacterial pro-
ducts and other substances. ‘ Brif. Med. Jour.’ 1913, vol. ii. p. 1360.

Enzymes.
Baytiss, W. M. (1914), ‘The Nature of Enzyme Action,’ pp. 180, 3rd edit. (Long-
mans & Co.)

Dony-HEnavtt, Octave (1908), ‘Contribution 4 1’étude méthodique des oxidases.’
‘ Bull. Acad. Roy. Belgique,’ pp. 105-163.

Coagulation of Proteins.
Cutox, H., and Marrm, C. J. (1910 and 1912), ‘ Heat-coagulation of Proteins,’ ‘ Jour.
of Physiology,’ 40, pp. 404-4380; 45, 261-295.
RamsvEn, W., ‘ Mechanical Coagulation of Protein’ (1894), ‘ Archiv f. Anat. u.

Physiol.’ pp. 517-534; ‘Separation of Solids in Surface-layers of Solutions ’
(1903), ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ 72, pp. 156-164.

Bancrort, W. D. (1915), ‘Coagulation of Albumin by Electrolytes,’ ‘ Jour. of Physical
Chem.’ 19, p. 349.
Permeability of the Surfaces of Cells.

Lititz, R. §. (1912), ‘ Antagonism between Salts and Anesthetics,’ ‘Amer. Jour,
«4 of Physiology,’ 29, pp. 372.

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 105

Lozs, J. (1915), ‘ Influence of Salt-solution upon the Osmotic Pressure of body-liquids
of Fundulus,’ ‘ Jour. Biol. Chemistry,’ 21, p. 213.

Daz, H. H. (1913), ‘The Anaphylactic Reaction of Plain Muscle in the Guinea-
pig,’ ‘ Jour. of Pharmacology and Exp. Therapeutics,’ vol. 4, pp. 167-221.

OstrrHovt, W. I. V. (1912), ‘ Reversible Changes in Permeability produced by Electro-
lytes,’ ‘Science,’ 36, pp. 350-352.

Imbibition by Gels.

Pautt, W. (1910), ‘Alterations in the Colloid States of Albumin and their physiological
significance,’ ‘ Pfliiger’s Archiv der Physiol.’ 136, pp. 483-501.

Fiscuer, M. H. (1915), ‘idema and Nephritis’ (J. Wiley & Son).

Metas, E. B. (1910), ‘ Effects of Water upon the Weight and Length of Striated
Muscle,’ ‘ Amer. Jour. of Physiol.’ 26, p. 191.

Samxc, Max (1912), ‘Die Lésungsquellung der Stirke,’ ‘ Kolloidchemische Beihefte.’
B. III.

BRAIsForD-RoseERtson, T. (1909), ‘The Theory of Protoplasmic Movement and
Excitation,’ ‘ Quart. Journal of Exp. Physiol.’ 2, pp. 303-316.

Prisram, E., ‘Die Bedeutung der Quellung und Entquellung fiir physiologische
und pathologische Erscheinungen,’ ‘ Kolloidchem. Beihefte,’ Bd. II., pp. 1-78.

Pathology.

ArruHentus, S. (1907), ‘Immuno-Chemistry,’ pp. 309 (Macmillan & Co.).

Borpet, J. (1899), ‘ Le méchanismo de l’agglutination,’ ‘ Annales de |’Inst. Pasteur,’
13, pp. 225-272.

Tuttocn, W. J. (1914), ‘Mechanism of Agglutination of Bacteria by Specific Sera,’
‘Biochem. Jour.’ 8, pp. 294-319.

Miscellaneous.

ZstemonpDy, R., and Bacnumann, W. (1914), ‘Handhabung des Immersions-ultra-
microscopie,’ ‘ Kolloid Zeitschr.,’ XIV., pp. 281-294.

Zstemonvy, R. (1909), ‘ Colloids and the Ultramicroscope,’ pp. 245, J. Wiley & Sons.

GatpuKow (1910), ‘ Dunkelfeld beleuchtung und Ultramikroscopie in der Biologie
und in der Medizin’ (Jena).

Fotty, G., and Brtx, R. D. (1917), ‘A new Reagent for the Separation of Ammonia
from Urine,’ ‘ Jour. of Biol. Chem.’ 29, p. 329.

Cameron, F. K. (1915), ‘ Soil Colloids and Soil Solution,’ ‘ Journal of Physical Chem.
19, p. 1.

RuavumsieR, L. (1914), ‘ Protoplasm as a Physical System,’ ‘ Ergebnisse der Physiol.’
14, pp. 475-617.

Fiscuer, M. H.,and Hooxer, M. O. (1916), ‘ Analogy in the behaviour of Emulsions
and of the Fats in Protoplasm,’ ‘ Kolloid Zeitschr.’ 18, pp. 242-262.

Harrison, W. (1916), ‘Some properties of Starch considered from a Colloid-Chemical
point of view,’ ‘Jour. Soc. Dyers,’ 32, pp. 40-43.

Ross, G. (1906), ‘ Sulla viscosita degli idrosoli e sulla funzione di essa negh esseri
viventi,’ ‘ Archiv. di Fisiol.’ 3, p. 507.

Pavutt, W., and others (1913), ‘ Colloids and their Viscosity,’ ‘Trans. Faraday Soc.’

pp. 75.

Hexma, E. (1914), ‘On Fibrin and its relation to some problems of Biology and
Colloid Chemistry,’ ‘ Biochem. Zeitschr.’ 62, p. 161, and 63, p. 184.

WaLpotr, G. S. (1915), ‘ Collodion Membranes for Ultrafiltration and Pressure Dia-
lysis,’ ‘ Biochem. Jour.’ 9, pp. 284-297.

Brown, W.(1915), ‘Preparation of Collodion Membranesof Differential Permeability,’
‘Biochem. Jour.,’ 9, pp. 591-617.

106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENOE.—1917.

Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous, and
Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere.—Report of the
Committee consisting of Professor T. W. EpDGEWorRTH
Daviv (Chairman), Professor E. W. Sxeats (Secretary),
Mr. W. 8. Dun, Professors J. W. Grecory and Sir T. H.
Houuanp, Mr. W. Howcutn, Mr. A. EK. Kitson, Mr. G.
W. LAmpyuGH, Dr. A. W. Rocsrs, Professor A. C. SEWARD,
Mr. D. M. §. Watson, and Professor W. G. WoonnoucH,
appointed to consider the above.

Arter the publication of the First Report the Secretary of the Com-
mittee sent requests for further communications on the subject under
consideration to members of the enlarged Committee and to other geolo-
gists and paleontologists likely to contribute usefully to the discussion.

In spite of the continuance of untoward conditions due to the war,
several replies have been received as mentioned in the Interim Report
of last year, and are printed below. Five of these relate more particu-
larly to the Australasian deposits and the other two to the equivalent
formations in South Africa. The series of questions sent out by the
Secretary and answered in the communications were printed in the
First Report,’ to which reference should be made in reading the
replies.

It is still desirable to secure the opinion of geologists who have
worked in India on the classification of the rocks of the same age in
that region. The Committee therefore asks for reappointment without
erant.

Notes on Report of Committee on Carboniferous and Permo-Carboni-
ferous and Permian Rocks of Southern Hemisphere.
By F. Carman, A.L.S., Pale@ontologist to National Museum,
Melbourne.

In points for discussion raised by Prof. Skeats:

1. It is advisable to retain the local terms, since they may represent
slightly different horizons in different areas; but they should be included
under a general systematic term.

2. A general name is to be preferred for the system, since no local
terms may exactly agree with terrains elsewhere. For example, Jan-
jukian in Cainozoic strata cannot be restricted to strata as developed
in the Torquay cliffs.

3. I would favour Carbopermian, (a) because the sequence of the
beds is a gradual one, and it is therefore impossible to define its limits
above or below, (b) because this order of the word-particles is correct
according to the time-sequence, unless it is held to be a Carboniferous
deposit qualified by a Permian admixture, which is hardly the case.
The term Carbopermian was strongly favoured by the late Prof.
Rupert Jones.

4. The evidence re glaciation points to a recurrence of the pheno-
menon in some places but not in others. The plants (e.g. Gangamo-
pteris) and Foraminifera (in N.S. Wales and W. Australia) should be
studied for notions of general horizons (as, for example, Nubecularia

» Rep. British Assoc. for 1915, pp. 263-266.

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 107

stephensi occurs at Pokolbin in the Lower foraminiferal band, and is
also found at the Irwin River in W.A-, where Foord regarded the beds
as Carboniferous).

5. Vredenburg correlates the Middle Gondwana with the New Red
Sandstone. This would make our Glossopteris flora much younger
than generally believed.

6. They are often so conformable as to be indefinable as separate
systems at their junction. We

Notes on Prof. Skeats’ Table of Correlation.

In the Indian column should not the ‘ Panchet’ series read ‘ Rani-
ganj’? The Panchet series equals New Red Sandstone. Between the
Damuda and the Talchir comes the sub-stage of ihe Karharbari beds.

In the Victorian column the upper plant-bearing sandstones of
Bacchus Marsh are probably Triassic.

’ In the Queensland column I would place the Star series low down
in the Carboniferous, since Lépidodendron is so abundant, and there
also occurs Receptaculites australis (at Mt. Wyatt), which in Victoria
and N.S. Wales is found in the Middle Devonian.

The Permo-Carboniferous System in Tasmania.
By W. H. Twenverrers, F.G.S., Government Geologist of Tasmania,

The stratigraphical development of this system in Tasmania is, in
descending order, as follows:

5. Coal measures at Mt. Cygnet and on Bruny Island, which are
perhaps the uppermost beds of the system.

4. Upper marine series of mudstones, sandstones, and limestones.

3. Coal measures and Tasmanite beds in the Mersey basin. Coal
measures at Preolenna. —

2. Lower marine series of mudstones, limestones, and mudstone
conglomerates, frequently carrying glacial erratics. —

1. Basal beds of glacial conglomerate and till.

The beds nowhere rest on Carboniferous strata, but on Devonian
granite or on Silurian or older rocks.

The coal measures of the system are characterised by a Gangamo-
pteris and Glossopteris flora.

The only correlation with other countries suggesting itself as practi-
cable and reasonable (and that a partial one) is with the Gondwana and
Salt Range deposits in India, the Karroo in South Africa, the Orleans
conglomerate in Brazil, and the San Luis conglomerate in Argentina.

The glacial conglomerates and tills at the base of the system in Tas-
mania are with great probability homotaxial with the basal conglomerates
in New South Wales, the Bacchus Marsh conglomerates in Victoria,
the Dwyka conglomerate in South Africa, the Indian Talchir conglome-
rate, and the Boulder bed of the Salt Range in the Punjab. In all
these continents the overlying beds contain the remains of a common
flora (Gangamopteris and Glossopteris) and pass upwards into strata
with plants of a Triasso-Rhatic type.

_ The peculiar types of marine fossils met with in the basal beds of
Tasmania, such as Conularia, Martinopsis darwini, Aviculopecten

108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENOE.—1917.

(Deltopecten) limeformis, &c., are repeated in the Salt Range Boulder
bed, which lies there also at the base of the system. Moreover the
same fossils, as well as Productus brachytherus, Spirifera vespertilio,
Lurydesma globosum, EH. cordatum, &c., contained in the Speckled
Sandstone and Lower Limestones which succeed the Boulder bed in
the Salt Range, are also common forms in the Tasmanian Lower Marine
beds.

The Indian Gondwana beds of the Talchir division which succeed the
Talchir Boulder bed, and the succeeding Karharbari beds, contain a
flora identical with that of the Mersey Coal measures in Tasmania;
and the same may be said of the Ecca series which succeeds the Dwyka
basal conglomerate of the Karroo system in South Africa.

In Tasmania the Lower Marine strata are overlain by the Mersey
Coal measures with the Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora, and
these are succeeded by the Upper Marine beds containing organic
remains for the most part similar to those of the Lower Marine, but
less abundant, and some familiar species of the lower division appear
to be absent.

The thickness of the maximum development of the beds belonging
to this system is estimated at nearly 3,000 feet. The strata are hori-
zontal or gently inclined. They have not been deformed by crustal
folding, but have been greatly depressed or raised by block-faulting.

The whole assemblage of the Permo-Carboniferous and Trias-Jura
sediments in Tasmania may in a broad sense be conceived as belonging
to a Gondwana Land system if we extend the meaning of the latter
term so as to include both continental formations and the marine de-
posits fringing the shores of the ancient continent. It would seem
desirable to devise some name which would express this relationship
and at the same time put an end to the controversies which rage round
the use of the terms Permian and Permo-Carboniferous, besides avoid-
ing the unnatural and confused employment of European nomenclature.

Provisionally, however, the term Permo-Carboniferous is in common
use, gives expression to the facts, and ought not to be exchanged for
any other which implies homotaxial correspondence or contemporaneity
with European systems. ;

There seems to be no stratigraphical reason why the Permo-Carboni-
ferous of this island should not share any common name which may be
decided on for the same system as a whole as developed in Australia.

Permo-Carboniferous Rocks in New Zealand.
By Professor P. Marswauu, M.A., D.Sc., The University, Dunedin,
S. Island, New Zealand.

The fossils originally recorded by McKay from the Wairoa Gorge,
Nelson, viz. Productus brachytherus, Spirifera bisulcata, S. glabra,
Cyathocrinus and Cyathophyllum, have recently been unpacked at the
Dominion Museum, Wellington, and are now available for study.
They are quite different from any fossils that have been found else-
where in New Zealand. Additional specimens have lately been found
in the same place by Mr. C. T. Trechmann. These fossils quite
possibly indicate a Permo-Carboniferous age, but accurate identifi-

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.’ ;° 109

cation and description are still required. In the same formation and
also in quite a different horizon a series of imperfect remains of a
bivalve always referred to Inoceramus have been long known. It
appears that these may be the remains of a species of Pinna or allied
genus. ‘The limestone in which the fossils named occur is in contact
with strata that contain Triassic fossils (the so-called Mytilus proble-
maticus, Zittel). If the fossils in the limestone are truly Permo-
Carboniferous a disconformity of some sort must be present. A
thrust plane has been described by McKay at this point. Elsewhere
no Permo-Carboniferous fossils have been found anywhere in New
Zealand. Park’s Aorangi series is based upon no exact information
of any kind. The Mount Potts beds often referred to the Carboni-
ferous or to the Permian are now known to be of Rhetic age, for the
plant remains have been identified by Arber. Halobia is common
amongst the marine shells at Mount Potts.

Fossils have been collected from the Kaihiku formation both in
the Kaihiku Gorge and in the Hokanni Hills by C. T. Trechmann
and P. Marshall. They will shortly be described by the former. It
may be stated provisionally that they appear to indicate a middle
Triassic age. The Kaihiku formation has often been classed as
Permian. The Mount St. Mary fossils at one time referred by Park
to the Permo-Carboniferous are also known to be of Triassic age.
It thus appears that at the Wairoa Gorge alone definite Permo-Car-
boniferous fossils have been found. The occurrence of red shales
with the series in which these fossils occur suggests that much of the
Maitai series which contains such shales in many parts of the moun-
tain ranges of New Zealand should also be classed in the Permo-
Carboniferous. This problem, which is difficult because of the absence
of fossiliferous beds, remains to be solved by future study.

To sum up, it can be definitely stated that Permo-Carboniferous
beds are known to occur at the Wairoa Gorge only and this opinion
is based on the expectation that the fossils are of the nature described.
Fossils of Middle and Upper Triassic age occur at several places in
the rocks of the mountain ranges of New Zealand. The strata at
the ‘Wairoa Gorge show no indications of glacial erosion or of glacial
deposition in any of the horizons.

The Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Perimo-Carboniferous, and
Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere.
By A. E. Kitson, F.G.S., Principal of the Mineral Survey
of the Gold Coast.

Questions 1, 2, and 3.—I prefer a single name for all the Australian
late-Paleozoic glacial deposits, but think that the local names, such
as Hunter, Lochinvar, Wynyard, Inman series should be retained.
Inman is, I think, preferable to Raminyere. For the Bacchus Marsh
area I think the name might be changed with advantage, since the
typical deposits are some miles away from that place, on the Werribee
River and Korkuperrimul Creek. Moreover, the double name is a
drawback. I would suggest the name Werribee (or Werribi, the
geographical spelling of the sound). It is an aboriginal name, and is as

110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIRNOE,~1917,

intimately connected with the literature of the deposits as is Bacchus
Marsh, and it is certainly more appropriate, since the Werribee River
has cut the famous gorge through these glacial deposits, and thus
enabled the series to be so well exposed. ;

Though the term Permo-Carboniferous has priority and was made
by such an eminent paleontologist as Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun.,
I prefer the term Carbo-Permian, for—

(1). it would be uniform with the other Australian linked system
names, such as Siluro-Devonian and Trias-Jura instituted by
the same author;

(2) it is a simpler term; and

(3) it is I think equally expressive.

I do not favour a single Australian name such as Hunterian for
the whole of the deposits with glacial beds, having the same objection
to that as Professor Skeats has. Neither Victoria nor South Australia
has any known equivalents of the marine portion of the Hunter series.
I may add that I think the Victorian glacials are lacustrine, as well
as fluvio-glacial and land-ice deposits.

Question 4.—I regard all the lower main glacial beds as contem-
poraneous, and the differences in their upper portions as due to local
glaciations of varying character, intensity, and extent.

Question 5.—It appears desirable at present to accept the classi-
fication suggested by Professor Skeats with the additions and modi-
fications made by Professor David and Professor Woolnough, except-
ing—

(a) the Lower Maitai of New Zealand, and the Schizoneura Sand-
stone of Victoria, about which I hold the same opinion as
Professor Skeats ;

(b) the separation anywhere by a definite line of the division between
Permo-Carboniferous and Permian.

In the light of our present knowledge it seems to me impossible
to divide them. If the upper limit of Glossopteris marks the upper
limit of the Permo-Carboniferous—and this seems doubtful—the
deposits in New South Wales, Queensland, Western Australia, South —
Africa, South America, Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and India
can scarcely be called Permian, and consequently the lines of division
between the Permo-Carboniferous and Permian should be excised
therefrom. The Beaufort and Ecca series are conformable according
to Hatch and Corstorphine.?

Question 6.—The Devonian and Carboniferous are conformable in
Victoria. I offer no opinion regarding the other countries.

Question 7.—The Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous appear
to be conformable in parts of New South Wales, and certainly uncon-
formable in other parts of that State, as proved by Professor David.

There is no known contact of these in Victoria. The uppermost
beds of the Grampians sandstones, however, when carefully examined
may yield some useful information on the point.

Question 8.—It seems to me that there is no definite evidence to
separate the Permo-Carboniferous from the Permian in the Southern

* Geology of South Africa, p. 244.

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. IL11

Hemisphere if Glossopteris is to be taken as the upper limit of the
Permo-Carboniferous. Further, since Glossopteris has such an extended
range upward it appears unsafe to regard it as a strictly zonal fossil.

Nomenclature of the Permo-Carboniferous Rocks in South Africa.
By A. W. Roasrs, D.Sc., F.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey of the Union of South Africa.

In South Africa there is an apparently conformable succession from
the base of the Cape system, which includes beds with marine fossils
of Devonian affinities, up to beds at the top of the Karroo system for
which a Jurassic age has been claimed on account of a crocodile found
in them.

This great thickness of rocks has been divided mainly on litho-
logical grounds, and at the present time it is impossible to point out
horizons definitely corresponding to the bases of the Carboniferous,
Permian, and Trias. An attempt to fix such horizons for the purpose
of applying these widely used terms to South African maps, &c., instead
of local names would be a mistake.

The Karroo system is generally understood to include all the strata
above the Witteberg series up to and including the volcanic beds of the
Drakensberg. The base of the Karroo system in the south, where there
is an apparently conformable passage from the Witteberg series, is
arbitrarily chosen as lying at the top of the highest band of quartzites,
above which are shales passing into tillite. Further north the base is
defined by an unconformity which increases in importance northwards.

The main sub-divisions of the system are as follows:

Stormberg series.
Beaufort series.
Keca series.
Dwyka series.

One South African geologist® separates a ‘ Stormberg formation ’
from the Karroo, drawing the line at the base of the Molteno beds.
This suggestion has not been adopted generally because there is not a
sufficiently marked break at the horizon in question, and certain plant
species occur both above and below it. There seems to be no need
to make a separate ‘formation’ of what are conveniently regarded as
the uppermost strata of the Karroo system. Whether this horizon is
one which marks an extensive overlap northwards from the Stormberg
region across thea Orange Free State and the Transvaal remains to be
proved by mapping; at present the known facts do not favour.that view,
but important overlaps exist at some horizon within the Ecca or Beau-
fort series and at another horizon above the Molteno beds.

The Dwyka Series.

There is no difficulty in defining this group in the Cape Province
and Natal and the South-West Protectorate, but in the Transvaal the
term has not been used in official publications because of the uncertainty
whether the ‘ glacial conglomerate’ there is really the correlative of
the Dwyka or whether it was formed at a slightly later time when the

* Schwarz, S.A. Geology, 1912.

112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENCE.—1917.

southern Ecca beds were being laid down. At present the north-
eastern limit of the Upper Dwyka shales is not known, but some beds
characteristic of those shales in the Cape and 8.W. Protectorate are
missing in the areas yet mapped in the Transvaal and Natal.

It is likely that the term ‘ Dwyka’ will be found suitable for the
‘glacial conglomerate’ in the Transvaal also, and it is already used
there by several geologists.

There are different opinions held as to whether the Dwyka series
is of Upper Carboniferous or of Lower Permian age, but the few
fossils found in it are not in conflict with the former view.

The Ecca Series.

The Ecca series is best known in the Cape and Natal, and the in-
formation as to its distribution in the Orange Free State and Transvaal
is not sufficient to decide disputed points such as whether the Ver-
eeniging coal-beds belong to the Ecca or Beaufort.

The fossils from undoubted Hcca beds, i.e., beds above the Upper
Dwyka shales and below those in which there are many genera of Dinoce-
phalians and Therocephalians, are but few in number. The thickness
of the series at its maximum is 6,000 feet, and the fossils are
chiefly fragments of Gangamopteris, Glossopteris, Phyllotheca and
wood, all of which, except perhaps the first named, occur in the Beaufort
beds also. The reptiles are very little known, Archazosuchus and Ecca-
saurus are fragmentary specimens. Whether the so-called Ecca beds
of Worcester with Gangamopteris really belong to this group is un-
certain, for superficial deposits conceal the passage down into the
Dwyka, outcrops of which lie four miles away.

It thus happens that in the absence of reptilian-bearing Beaufort
beds the determination of the Ecca is practically impossible in an
area which has not been connected by mapping with a better-known
district.

The Beaufort Beds.

The Beaufort beds contain many reptilian fossils in certain areas,
but there appears to be a lack of them elsewhere, and the few plants
found in the lower portion of the series are not known to be characteris-
tic. The Beaufort beds have been divided into three sub-groups which
are again sub-divided :—

Cynognathus zone.

Upper or Burghersdorp beds. Procolophon zone.

Middle Beaufort beds. Lystrosaurus zone.
Cistecephalus zone.
Lower Beaufort beds. Endothiodon zone.

Tapinocephaloid zone.*

Owing to the comparative rarity of the fossil reptiles and the diffi-
culty of determinations of individual bones other than parts of the
skull, these fossils are not well suited for the purpose of the field

4 This term is substituted for Pareiasaurus zone on account of the revisicn
of the genus Pareiasaurus by Mr. Watson, according to which no species of it are
left in the beds concerned. ?

ENGINEERING PROBLEMS. 113

geologist. The recurrence of similar types of sandstone, mudstone,
and shale makes lithological distinction between the two lower zones
impossible, but their demarcation is being carried out; at present their
distribution is only known in a general way in the Cape and a part of
the O.F.S. and Natal. The coal-bearing Karroo beds of the Transvaal
of Ecca or Beaufort age cannot yet be correlated more closely with any
horizons in the Cape.

The plants of the Upper Beaufort beds include genera which are not
yet known above or below, as well as species which occur in the over-
lying Molteno beds, and the genera Schizoneura and Glossopteris, which
have great vertical distribution. These plants have been collected in
a few localities only.

The Stormberg Series.

The Stormberg series is generally considered to begin at a certain
horizon which is convenient for mapping, and above which the reptilian
genera found in the Upper Beaufort beds do not occur. The character-
istic plants of the lowest group (Molteno beds) of this series are known
from the Cape, Orange Free State, and Natal only, and in Natal they
are accompanied, according to recent observations of Dr. Du Toit, by
the long-lived genus Glossopteris. The sub-divisions of the Stormberg
series into Molteno beds, Red beds, Cave Sandstone, and the Drakens-
berg or Volcanic beds depend on lithological characters which are
remarkably persistent, but the Dinosaurian genera found in the Red
beds and Cave Sandstone of the Cape have representatives further north
in areas where the Molteno beds have not vet been identified.

The following table gives a possible correlation with systems adopted
in Europe. The position of the Rhetic horizon has been shifted up-
wards in consequence of a recent examination of the question by
Dr. Du Toit and Mr. S. H. Haughton:

Cave Sandstone. . . . Rhetic.

Red beds ARE AT ac eacar oy Syste

Molteno beds (Garth dem) oc: Up pee In —
Upper Beaufort beds... ea ane
Media Beaufort beds "| Lower

Lower Beaufort beds. . . ) Upper } :
Ecca beds b Bek Oe ee ; Permian.

Dwyka (Upper shales and Tillite) Upper Carboniferous (Uralian).

Notes on the Nomenclature of the Carboniferous, Permo-Carboniferous,
and Permian Rocks of the Southern Hemisphere. By D. M. S.
Watson, M.Sc., Lecturer on Vertebrate Paleontology, University
College, London.

These notes are written mainly from the standpoint of South African
stratigraphy, and deal with points raised by the views of the Australian
members of the Committee.

(A.) Question 4.—Judging from the evidence which exists to show
that the Northern and Southern Pleistocene glaciations are approxi-
oe . at any rate, contemporaneous, it seems certain that the Dwyka

1917, 1

114 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

beds of South Africa are contemporaneous (in a geological sense) with
those of Bacchus Marsh. The fact that there is a glacial horizon in
the Upper Marine series in New South Wales some distance above the
main Lochinvar glacials shows that it is not possible to use the occur-
rence of boulder beds for a very close correlation. From personal
observation I fancy that there is a more considerable faunal difference
between the Lower and Upper Marine series in the Hunter Valley than
is usually recognised.

(B.) Questions 1 and 2.—Mr. Etheridge’s first use of the term
Permo-Carboniferous was for the Gympie of Queensland (=Lower
Marine) with an admixture of Star (Carboniferous) forms. According
to Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, Mr. Etheridge now extends this term
to include all Australian formations from the bottom of the glacial series
to the uppermost beds which contain Glossopteris.

The term Permo-Carboniferous has, however, been incorrectly used
by many authors to imply a restricted series of beds of either lowest
Permian or Upper Carboniferous age, such as the reptile-bearing
Wichita and Clear Fork of Texas, the Artinsk stuffe of Russia, and
certain parts of the Salt Range succession. In most of these cases it
has been made use of to escape the difficulty of deciding on a definite
Permo-Carboniferous boundary in a consecutive series of rocks, a diffi-
culty which is really exactly doubled by such action.

In South Africa the series of rocks to which the term could be
applied are all of land origin, partly lacustrine, partly zolian, and partly
river deposits, and hence very considerable discontinuities of deposition
may occur in an apparently conformable series. Bearing this caution
in mind, the following represents the apparent conditions :

The Witteberg beds are directly and apparently conformably suc-
ceeded along the whole southern margin of the Karroo by the Dwyka
shales, in which are included the glacial beds. Further north the
Dwyka conglomerates rest on older beds, partly, no doubt, as a result
of overlap of land deposits from the area of deposition of the Witteberg,
but apparently also partly owing to real unconformity. The Upper
Dwyka shales pass into the Ecca, which is directly continued by the
Beaufort series, which is again conformable to the overlying Stormberg
beds.

This statement is founded on the conditions in the area south of
the Orange River. In the Orange Free State there seem to be very
large gaps in the series, the Stormberg series resting on the Beaufort
series some distance below its top, and this in turn directly on the
Dwyka, or at most separated from it by a very thin Ecca.

The Beaufort series is divided into the following zones:

Stormberg series. . Upper Trias—Rhetic.

Cynognathus beds . : . Middle (? Lower in part) Trias.

Procolophon beds . : . No direct evidence of age.

Lystrosaurus beds . J . is % aA

Cisticephalus beds . : - Upper Zechstein (=Dwina beds).

Endothicdon beds . ; . No direct evidence of age.

Tapinocephalus beds. . . ? Lower Zechstein. Evidence from
(olim Pareiasaurus zone) comparison with copper-bearing

beds of Orenburg.

SARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 115

According to Du Toit, Glossopleris occurs in the Cynognathus beds
of Aliwal North. Permo-Carboniferous in Mr. Etheridge’s latest sense
would therefore include nearly all the Trias and Permian.

The age of the Witteberg is uncertain; the few fossil plants found
in it suge' gest an Upper Devonian or at latest Lower Carboniferous age,
which on the evidence for its conformity would suggest a Carboni-
ferous age for the Dwyka. The occurrence of Bothrodendron, which
is not known above the Carboniferous, and is exceedingly rare in the
Upper Coal Measures, if indeed it occurs in them, above the Dwyka
at Vereeniging, supports this view. The lower end of the Permo-
Carboniferous would therefore be in the Carboniferous, and it would
have no stratigraphical break either above or below.

I am therefore inclined to abandon the term Permo-Carboniferous
and use Prof. David’s suggested term Paleeo-Permian for the Dwyka
and Ececa.

(C.) Question 8.—In connection with the conformable passage of
the Glossopleris beds into the Mesozoic in New South Wales and in
South Africa, itis perhaps interesting to note that the large labyrintho-
dont collected by Mr. Dunston from the Wianamatta beds at St. Peter’s
is, so far as can be seen from a short inspection, a typical Cyclotosaurus
which marks a definite evolutionary stage of the Stereospondyli, always
of Upper Triassic age in Hurope.

The Australian Permian and Carboniferous.
By Professor J. W. Gruaory, D.Sc., F.R.S., The University of
Glasgow.

1. In time the term Permo-Carboniferous may, it is hoped, be
rendered unnecessary by more precise correlation of the Australian
deposits. Correlation of distant formations rests ultimately on their
fossils, and mainly on their marine fossils; and with increased know-
ledge of the Australian Upper Paleozoic faunas and floras the term
Permo-Carboniferous, which was introduced provisionally owing to
imperfect stratigraphical evidence, may suffer the fate that has already
overtaken such compounds as Devono-Silurian, Cambro-Silurian,
Cretaceo-Tertiary, &c., which have been of temporary service else-
where. Mr. Etheridge’s introduction of the term was the soundest
course then available, but its permanent retention may be unnecessary.

The Permian and Carboniferous systems are divided into five or
six series. The Carboniferous system includes three series :

Upper Carboniferous . . Uralian (or Stephanian, &c.).
Middle “ i . Moscovian (or Westphalian, &c.).
Lower = : . Dinantian (or Culm, &c.).

The Permian system is divided into two or three series. Many
authorities adopt three series, for which well-accepted names are as
follows :

Upper Permian . 2 . 7 . Thuringian.
Middle __,, : : : : . Punjaubian.
Lower ___,, 2 : . Artinskian.

The Artinskian fauna is "taille similar to the Uralian. The
12

116 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

geography of the Artinskian was also very similar to ‘that of the
Uralian. Lithologically the predominance in the Artinskian of gray
sandstones and bituminous beds over red beds (which occur occasionally,
as at Brives in 8.W. France) indicates formation under Carboniferous
rather than Permian climatic conditions. The Artinskian Brachiopods
include P. cora, P. punctatus, P. semireticulatus, &e., which are
Carboniferous species. De Lapparent has stated the general affinity
of the Artinskian ammonites in his remark that they have intimate
relations with those of the Uralian. The Artinskian does not seem
entitled to rank as a distinct geological series. It may be merged in
the Uralian. If so, the Permian consists of two series, which is
consistent with its old name of Dyas.

Taking, then, the Permian and Carboniferous systems of Hurope as
divisible into five series, the question is, Can the Australian deposits be
correlated with them ?

The Australian Carboniferous-Permian sequence begins with the
Lepidodendron beds, which are admittedly Lower Carboniferous.
Above them is a great unconformity, above which in New South Wales
occurs the following succession :

Upper Coal Measures,

Dempsey series.

Middle or Tomago Coal Measures.

Upper Marine series.

Lower Coal Measures.

Lower Marine series.
The fauna of the two Marine series seems essentially Uralian. ‘Thus
Cephalopoda usually give very reliable evidence as to correlation.
Unfortunately the New South Wales Marine series are very poor in
Cephalopods, but they have yielded two. The Actinoceras has been
identified as A. striatum, a British Lower Carboniferous species; the
specific identification is, however, doubtful, but Foord and Crick accept
it as an Actinoceras, a genus which has a wide Paleozoic range but
does not occur in the Permian. ‘This fossil is in favour of an age not
later than Carboniferous. The other Cephalopod, Agathiceras micro-
phyllum, comes from the Upper Marine series ; it is recognised as closely
related to Agathiceras uralicwm, which, according to Tschernichef, is a
Uralian but not a Permian species. Mr. Crick has kindly looked up _
A. microphyllum again and regards it as of Uralian affinities.

The Brachiopods of the two Marine series are abundant. They
also appear of Carboniferous affinities. Two of the most characteristic
of the Productus, P. cora and P. brachytherus, are both typical
Uralian species. Many of the Brachiopods have been identified as
Carboniferous, and some of them as Lower Carboniferous species.
Amongst them are P. longispinus, P. punctatus, P. pustulosus,
P. scabriculus, P. semireticulatus, P. undatus, Rhynchonella pleurodon,
R. pugnus, Spirifera striata, S. rotundata, S. trigonalis, &c. It is, no
doubt, probable that the Australian species may ultimately be separated
from the European, but any such change will not set aside the fact
that a whole series of fossils from the Upper and Lower Marine series
of New South Wales are so similar to European Carboniferous species

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 117

that they have been long regarded as identical. In spite of the many
Lower Ba cxiitocosis species, the Brachiopods, owing to the absenée
of the P. giganleus group and the presence of Martini (Stropholasia)
indicate that the fauna is later than Lower Carboniferous.

The evidence of the Bryozoa agrees with that of the Brachiopods.
The fauna is distinctively Carboniferous and nos Permian. The
Trilobites, Griffithides, Brachymetopus, and Phillipsia indicate the
same.

_ Prof. Frech, however, although admitting the Carboniferous
affinities of many of the fossils, is in favour of assigning the whole
fauna to the Permian, mainly on the ground that some of the Spirifers
and the genus Martinia (which includes S. Darwini and S. horrescens
from Tasmania) are of Permian affinities.

The bulk of the paleontological evidence seems, however, to favour
the Carboniferous age of the Marine series, and it appears that, in spite
of the survival of some species which in Europe are Lower Carboni-
ferous, the fauna may be regarded as Uralian and that any later age
is improbable.

The stratigraphical evidence appears consistent with this conclusion.
According to Prof. David, there is a great stratigraphical break just
above the Upper Marine series, for the two next members 0f the
sequence, viz. the Middle Coal Measures and Dempsey beds, are often
absent. Proceeding from the central part of the Carboniferous area,
these two members disappear southward towards Illawarra, westward
at Lithgow, and northward along the Macleay River, where the Upper
Coal Measures also are absent.

There is accordingly both stratigraphical and paleontological
evidence that the line between the Upper Marine series and the Middle
Coal Measures is an important stratigraphical horizon. Of the beds
above it the most widespread is the Upper Coal Measures; and both its
flora and fauna mark an important advance upon that of the Lower Coal
Measures, which are interstratified with the two Marine series. In
the Upper Coal Measures one of the most significant fossils is the
Labyrinthodont, Bothriceps, which can hardly be pre-Permian, and
Huxley indeed assigned it to the Trias. The fossil plants of the Upper
Coal Measures, Baiera, Schizoneura, Alethopteris, mark the incoming
of the newer flora, for these genera are absent from the Lower Coal
Measures of New South Wales. They are Permian and Triassic types.
Hence I am disposed to regard the upper limit of the Carboniferous in
New South Wales as at the top of the Upper Marine series, and to
assign the Middle and Upper Coal Measures to the Permian.

As regards the other Australian States the question is simpler. In
Queensland the Bowen River beds, with their Productus brachytherus,
Glossopteris and Gangamopteris, may be correlated with the Marine
series of New South Wales, and therefore as Uralian. Above the
Bowen Coal Measures are the Burrum Coal Measures, and from their
flora, with Teniopteris Daintreei, they are probably not earlier than
Rheetic.

In Victoria some difficulty has been introduced by M‘Coy’s deserip-
tion of a fossil plant from Bacchus Marsh as T@niopleris Sweeti, as
on this ground the upper part of the Bacchus Marsh Sandstones have

118 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

been regarded as much later than the lower part. But, according to
Arber, the specimen on which T. Sweeti was founded is so imperfect
that the genus is indeterminable. The Bacchus Marsh Sandstones
with Gangamopteris are generally correlated with the Lower Coal
Measures of New South Wales, through Kitson’s proof that the glacial
beds on the northern coast of Tasmania are of that age.

The correlation suggested for the beds of Eastern Australia may be
tabulated as on next page.

If this correlation be correct, the use of the term Permo-Carbont-
ferous is one of definition and there are four available courses:

(1) To retain Permo-Carboniferous for some undefined parts of both
the Carboniferous and Permian.

(2) To retain it for the combined Uralian-Artinskian as a passage
series.

(3) To abandon it by referring all the beds above the unconformity
at the top of the Lepidodendron beds to the Permian—the course
followed by Frech.

(4) To abandon it by referring the beds above that unconformity
and the top of the Upper Marine series (with the exception perhaps ol
the Aneimites beds) to the Upper Carboniferous (Uralian), and by
assigning all the beds above the Upper Marine series to the Permian
(Punjaubian).

Of these four courses the last seems to me the best, for the first
doubles the difficulty of definition and retains a provisional term after
it has served its purpose; according to the second, the term is unneces-
sary; and the paleontological evidence is against the third.

The correlation suggested is open to one objection, based on
geo-tectonic grounds. According to it, the Middle Carboniferous in
Australia was a great period of earth movement and non-deposition.
In N.W. Europe the corresponding disturbances were in the Upper
Carboniferous. If the earth movements in Europe and Australia were
necessarily synchronous, then the Australian beds here assigned to the
Uralian must be referred to the Moscovian. The paleontological
evidence appears entitled to more weight than the geo-tectonic.

While there is so much difference of opinion as to the system to
which these beds belong, it may seem premature to attempt to determine
their series. But the system can only be settled by agreeing which
of the beds are Upper Carboniferous and which are Lower Permian.
The problem appears easier in Australia than in South Africa, where
there is continuous sequence from the Carboniferous to the Jurassic
and there are no Marine beds to help the correlation.

The main argument against attempting a definite correlation with
the European horizons is based on the doctrine of homotaxis. That
principle seemed so reasonable that it required careful consideration.
According to the present trend of opinion, the importance once attached
to homotaxis was exaggerated. Huxley raised the question whether the
Carboniferous fauna in Kurope might have been contemporaneous with
the Devonian fauna in Australia. That question has now been generally
answered in the negative, since the geological time was so vast that
the length required for the spread of a marine fauna from one sea

119

CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE.

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selag

120 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

through all the suitable seas open to it is relatively insignificant.
Zonal paleontology has answered Huxley’s question and shown that
homotaxis concerns only the smaller divisions of geological time.

It follows from the foregoing that I reply as follows:

la. No; and that covers also 2, 3.

ls. No. Retain them for sub-divisions.

4. No: the Glacial beds may be on somewhat different horizons.

5. The basis for correlation is reliable.

7. Generally conformable.

8. The view suggested in this paragraph is not yet established.

Engineering Problems affecting the Future Prosperity of the
Country.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. 5.
HELE-SHAW (Chairman), Professor G. W. Howe (Secretary),
Professor HE. G. Coker, Sir Ropert HapFIELD, Sir W.
MarHer, Mr. W. Maw, and Mr. C. EK. STROMEYER.

Tuis Committee was formed as a result of suggestions of the Chairman
in his presidential address at Manchester.

The chief object in view was to prepare a report dealing with various
problems which would affect the future of engineering of our country.
At that time, two years ago, the war was comparatively young, and it
seemed to many that we were as a nation not alive to the importance
of certain far-reaching questions which confronted us at the time, and
ef others which would require all our energy to prepare for the con-
ditions which would arise after the war was over.

The Committee held a number of meetings in London, and con-
sidered carefully what problems should be dealt with as being of im-
mediate importance. It was decided at once to form sub-committees
to draw up reports on the four following subjects :—

1. Scientific research in relation to engineering.

2. Patent laws.

3. Scientific and practical revision of our catalogues, especially
in relation to the metric and decimal system.

4, Froblems relating to labour.

Reports on the first and last subjects were duly prepared and cireu-
lated for consideration, and in others the work of collecting informa-
tion and preparing reports was taken in hand.

It happened that the members of the Committee engaged in pre-
paring various reports became more and more occupied with war work,
and it was found impossible through this and other causes to secure
meetings of the Committee. Meanwhile, by degrees the great import-
ance of the problems in view, which would have been dealt with by
the Committee, became more clearly recognised by the British public
generally, and these problems were not only taken up by various bodies,
such as engineering societies and kindred institutions, but new bodies
were formed for the purpose of dealing with particular subjects. The
Government also has appointed committees and departments to deal
with certain of these questions, notably on research and problems
relating to labour.

ENGINEERING PROBLEMS. i2]

The object of the Committee being largely in the nature of moving
public opinion and getting action taken by the Government, it is not
considered desirable, in view of the above facts, to ask for its reappoint-
ment at the present time. At a future date it is probable that there
will be important work for an independent public body in reviewing
the operation of various agencies and making recommendations, and a
committee may be then appointed for this purpose.

The question arises as to whether the Council shall be recommended
to print in the Annual Report of the Association the reports already
prepared. The Council has recently circularised Organising Committees
requesting them to limit printing ‘as rigidly as possible.’ For this
reason, and in view of the fact that other arrangements are being made
to publish some of the matter, the Committee have reluctantly decided
that they are unable to recommend the printing in the Annual Report of
the draft reports already prepared, but suggest that these draft reports
and various documents containing information and suggestions shall be
deposited in the offices of the British Association, where they can be
inspected or copied.

Exploration of the Paleolithic Site known as La Cotte de
St. Brelade, Jersey.— Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. R. R. Maretr (Chairman), Mr. G. F. B. DE GRuUCcHY
(Secretary), Dr. A. Kerra, Dr. C. Anprews, Colonel R.
GARDNER WARTON, and Mr. H. BALFouR.

Report on Work done in April 1917.

Durine the last fortnight of April 1917 operations were resumed,
being exclusively confined to the north side. Their object was to deepen
the trench affording access to the cave from this its rearward end.
Here a natural gully of unknown depth exists, filled with a very com-
pact clay intermixed with heavy rock-rubbish. An area of some 300
square feet was excavated to an average depth of 10 feet, so as to
bring the floor down to about 20 feet above the lowest floor-level of the
cave. Flint and bone occurred sparsely over a space of 10 feet, viz.,
50-60 feet from the cave entrance, and at a height of 20-25 feet above
lowest floor-level, but otherwise the filling of the gully was completely
sterile. A well-developed rodent-bed was discovered at the point
nearest the old workings, viz., 50 feet from the entrance. The flint
included only a few good implements. The bone consists mostly of
microtine remains, and is being determined at the British Museum.
One bone appears to be that of the red-legged partridge, still known
to sportsmen as the ‘ Jerseyman,’ though now locally extinct.

In view of war conditions, professional labour was not employed,
but, thanks to Mr. A. J. Robinson, M.Sce., B.A?, a Master at Victoria
College, digging-squads were organised in which the following College
boys served:—J. W. Buck, F. R. Dorey, T. D. C. Faed, B. C. Le
Cras, C. Le Marquand, W. P. Le Scelleur, D. Poingdestre, J. Pollock-
Gore, R. R. Proud, and C. F. Watkin. Mr. G. Le Bas, B.Sce., also

122 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

helped. The Chairman and the Secretary were in charge of operations
throughout.

Supplementary Report, on Work done July-October 1917.

From July 16 to October 6 excavation proceeded continuously,
professional labour being available only during the last five weeks. The
gully on the north side was deepened a further 10 feet, while on the
interior side the cave-floor was cleared back to about 60 feet from the
entrance. ‘The rubbish-dump near the entrance was also partially
removed, so as to render possible the exploration of the lower depths
next year. It turns out that the cave narrows considerably at about
50 feet in, and that the base of the human deposit, never more than
10 feet thick, is at this point as much as 10-15 feet above the con-
ventional floor-level. It looks as if the cave at the time of occupation
had a sharply sloping back. The rodent-bed here, as elsewhere,
immediately overlays the human deposit. The microtine remains in-
clude about 200 fairly perfect jaws, which ought greatly to assist the
work of determination. Otherwise the yield of the summer’s labours is
rather poor, amounting to no more than 189 pieces of flint (5 imple-
ments of the first class, 51 of the second, the rest unshaped flakes,
mostly used) and 108 hammer-stones of granite or greenstone, of which
84 show obyious marks of use. In fact, it would appear that in pre-
vious years the cream had already been skimmed off by partial clearance
from all rearmost portion of the cave. As it is, very little more remains
to be done in order to complete the excavation of the main cave down to
the lowest level of Mousterian occupation.

The Chairman and Secretary personally directed the work through-
out. Mrs. Jenkinson, Miss Moss, Miss de Brisay, and Mr. Fleming-
Struthers came over from Oxford to render most valuable assistance.
Mr. Robinson and his College boys lent a frequent hand, as also did
other local helpers. The labour was supplied by Mr. W. J. Boniface,
whose quarrymen, even if they were long past military age, performed
their heavy task with zeal and success.

The Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor C. 8. SHERRINGTON
(Chairman), Professor STANLEY Kent (Secretary), and Dr.
FLORENCE BUCHANAN, appointed to make further Researches
thereon. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Ow1ne to existing circumstances it has been impossible to devote as

much time as usual to the work. This has been mainly in the diree-

tion of preparation of material for use at a future date.

Some progress has been made in connection with the working out
in various animals of details of structure of the new connections between
auricle and ventricle already described. The points established are of
interest, since they illustrate the manner in which necessary physio-
logical function is secured by the development of special histological
structure.

The Committee does not seek reappointment.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 122

Science in Secondary Schools.—Report of the Committee, con-

ala

sisting of Professor R. A. Grecory (Chairman), Dr. E. H.
Tripp (Secretary), Mr. W. ALDRIDGE, Professor H. EH. ARM-
stRonG, Mr. D. Berrince, Mr. C. A. BuckMaAsteR, Dr.
Linian J. Ciarke, Mr. G. F, Danretn, Miss I. M. Droum-
monp, Mr. G. D. Dunkurury, Miss A. E. Escorr, Mr. RB.
Cary Giuson, Miss C. L. Lauriz, Professor T. P. Nunn,
Mr. F. W. Sanperson, Mr. A. Vassatu, and Professor
A. M. WorRTHINGTON, dppointed to consider and report upon
the Method and Substance of Science Teaching in Secondary
Schools, with particular reference to the essential place of
Science in General Education.

CONTENTS. PAGH

Introduction UP ng ye Sa once Sere ion meget eee mp ee a 2e!
Position of Science Teaching in Schools of Different T'ypes :—

(a) State-aided Secondary Schcols ‘i } 40? Poasing 2128
(b) Boys’ Secondary Schools of the Public School Ty, pearl ie tie wee
(ec) Publie Secondary Schools for Girls Piaf ec sraldioee!) ‘Gaile
Pime Required for the Teaching of Science . . . . « «© «~~ 182
MaEbhedsen Bovence Deaching “2 OL eo eel eh | 88
Eaperimental and Descriptive Teaching. . Pedi ts Volhy Gaby; | soar ous
Supply of Science Teachers in State-aided Schools te On ekg ete pte as Smee
Academic Qualifications of Headmasters AY Sei ek ea eee ee) ae eS
inspecion and Examination 2. . «os aw! we ee MS ae
:. Science Courses :—

- ‘Setence for All’ in a Public School. By Archer Vassall. . . i49
ii. Science in a Public School. By F. W. Sanderson. 155

ili. Scheme of Science Work for an Urban Secondary Schoo for Boos.
By T. Percy Nunn F 160

iv. Science Scheme of a Rural pee aden. By W Rian Aldridge 173
v. Science Course for a Public Secondary School for Girls, By

Isabella M. Drummond and Rose Stern. . ‘ 177
vi. Scheme of Science Work in a Public Secondary School for Girls.
By Lilian J. Clarke . : 182

vil. Suggestions for a Course of Rancid Food Studion -s iin BE.
FAGISUONG spit TANT arstee SUM eene Oy PE LS Meee, SUT Pe ee

Appendices :—

i. Salaries of Teachers. . : Gis gr OE OE, SS
li. Science Subjects in Typical Girls’ Schools iS ice ARMA Se
iii, Laboratory Accommodation and Staffing in Girls’ Schoola . « «206
iv. Academie Qualifications of Headmasters and Headmistresses . + 206

124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF scieNCE.—1917.

I. InvRopuctIon.

Tue British Association has on several occasions exerted a formative
influence upon the teaching of science in secondary schools. At the
Nottingham meeting in 1866 a Committee, consisting of Dean Farrar,
Professor Huxley, Professor Tyndall, and Canon Wilson, with Mr.
G. Griffith, the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, as Secre-
tary, was appointed ‘ To consider the best means of promoting Scientific
Education in Schools.’ The report presented in the following year
related the experience gained at Rugby and Harrow, and described the
position of science teaching at Oxford, Cambridge, and London, and
in French and German Schools. Four years previously, in 1860, the
report of the Royal Commission on the nine Public Schools—Eton,
Harrow, Winchester, Shrewsbury, St. Paul’s, Westminster, Merchant
Taylors’, Charterhouse, and Rugby—had been published. In this
report the Commissioners recommended that all boys should receive
instruction in some branch of natural science during at least a part
of their school life; and that there should be two principal branches,
one consisting of chemistry and physics, and the other of physiology
and natural history.

The science teaching contemplated in both these reports was that
which should form part of the educational course of every boy in a
secondary school; its intention was not to train physicists or chemists
or to prepare for any other professional occupation, but to make science
an essential subject in the curriculum and an effective instrument of
mental development. Fifty years ago the advocates of scientific
instruction in schools saw clearly that merely to provide information
about natural objects and phenomena is of little use, and that a know-
ledge of the true spirit of science can be obtained only by personal
observation and experiment in the field or the laboratory. The follow-
ing words from the report presented to the Council in 1867 might
have been written to-day :—

‘There is an important distinction between scientific information and
scientific training ; in other words, between general literary acquaintance with
scientific facts and the knowledge of methods that may be gained by studying
the facts at first hand under the guidance of a competent teacher. Both of
these are valuable; it is very desirable, for example, that boys should have
some general information about the ordinary phenomena of Nature, such as
the simple facts of Astronomy, of Geology, of Physical Geography, and of
Elementary Physiology. On the other hand, the scientific habit of mind,
which is the principal benefit resulting from scientific training, and which is
of incalculable value whatever be the pursuits of after-life, can better be
attained by a thorough knowledge of the facts and principles of one science
than by a general acquaintance with what has been said or written about
many. Both of these should co-exist, we think, at any school which professes
to offer the highest liberal education: and at every school it will be easy to
provide at least for giving some scientific information. :

‘1. The subjects that we recommend for scientific information, as distin-
guished from training, should comprehend a general description of the solar
system; of the form and physical geography of the earth, and of such natural
phenomena as tides, currents, winds, and the causes that influence
climate; of the broad facts of geology; of elementary natural history,
with especial reference to the useful plants and animals; and of the rudiments
of physiology. This is a kind of information which requires less preparation

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 125

on the part of the teacher; and its effectiveness will depend on his knowledge,
clearness, method, and sympathy with his pupils. Nothing will be gained by
circumscribing these subjects by any general syllabus; they may safely be
left to the discretion of the masters who teach them.

“2. And for scientific training we are decidedly of opinion that the subjects
which have paramount claims are Experimental Physics, Elementary Chemistry,
and Botany.’

Canon Wilson, the only surviving member of the British Asso-
ciation Committee, in his paper on ‘Teaching Natural Science in
Schools,’ published in 1867 in a volume entitled ‘ Essays on a Liberal
Education,’ gave a full account of the methods adopted in introducing

‘science teaching in Rugby School. Botany was then selected as the

best subject for beginning to train boys in scientific methods, and it
was followed by experimental physics, the two being claimed as standard
subjects for the scientific teaching in schools. As to other subjects,
Chemistry was not considered suitable for lecture instruction, and few
laboratories then existed in which the necessary practical knowledge
for its intelligent study could be obtained; Geology ‘lies outside the
subjects which best illustrate scientific method,’ and ‘ Physiology
cannot be taught to classes at school. Nor ought it to be learnt before
Physics and Chemistry.’

Though most of the instruction was given by means of experimental
lectures, the main aim of the best science teachers was the same in
those days as now—namely, to train in independent observation and
reasoning. Canon Wilson, in the essay to which reference has been
made already, states this principle in words which possess the per-
sistence of truth, and are, therefore, worthy of repetition in our own
time—fifty years after they were written :—

‘Theory and experience alike convince me that the master who is teaching
a class quite unfamiliar with scientific method ought to make his class teach
themselves, by thinking out the subject of the Jecture with them, taking up
their suggestions and illustrations, criticising them, hunting them down, and
proving a suggestion barren or an illustration inapt; starting them on a fresh
scent when they are at fault, reminding them of some familiar fact they had
overlooked, and so eliciting out of the chaos of vague notions that are afloat
on the matter in hand, be it the laws of motion, the evaporation of water, or
the origin of the Drift, something of order, and concatenation, and interest,
before the key to the mystery is given, even if after all it has to be given.
Training to think, not to be a mechanic or surveyor, must be first and foremost
as his object. So valuable are the subjects intrinsically, and such excellent
models do they provide, that the most stupid and didactic teaching will not
be useless; but it will not be the same source of power that ‘‘the method of
investigation ” will be in. the hands of a good master. Some few will work out
a logic of proof and a logic of discovery, when the facts and laws fhat are
discovered and proved have had time to lie and crystallise in their minds.
But imbued with scientific method they scarcely will be, unless it springs up
spontaneously in them.

‘For all classes, except those which are beginning, the union of the two
methods is best. If they have once thoroughly learnt that the truths of
science are to be got from what they see, and not from the assertions of a
master or a text-book, they can never quite forget it, and allow their science
to exist in a cloud-world apart from the earth. And undoubtedly the rigid
and exact teaching from a book, insuring a complete and formularised and
producible knowledge, is very valuable, especially with older classes.’

When these words were written it seems to have been supposed

126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

that a training in scientific method could be obtained by attention to
experimental lectures, and independent practical work in school labora-
tories was scarcely contemplated. The apparatus used for lectures in
physics was designed for demonstration purposes, and was not suitable
for use by individual pupils even if its price did not render the purchase
of sufficient sets for laboratory use prohibitive. It was Professor
Worthington, whose death while a member of the present Committee is
deeply deplored, who was chiefly responsible for the introduction of
courses of practical work with simple apparatus in school physical labora-
tories. His ‘ Physical Laboratory Practice,’ published in 1886, embodies
the experimental course followed successfully at Clifton College, and
afterwards introduced into many other secondary schools. Experience
showed that quantitative results sufficiently accurate to suggest or
confirm fundamental principles could be secured by the use of very
simple apparatus, and that the work thus done by pupils individually
created a far deeper impression than lectures alone could give. Re-
ferring to the work at Clifton, Professor Worthington said >

‘Tt is undertaken there, like all the scientific teaching, not with a view
of training physicists, but with the object of evoking in the boys a genuine
and generous interest in natural phenomena, and of training them to habits of
patient and conscientious study; and those of us who have devoted themselves
more particularly to the physical sciences are confident that the serious interest
thus early aroused in a large number is the best guarantee of future excellence
in the few who may afterwards become specialists.’

The teaching of practical chemistry at that time consisted chiefly of
more ‘or less mechanical drill in the operations of qualitative analysis.
The result was unsatisfactory, and the general adoption of science work
in schools could not be justified by it. In 1884, at an International
Conference on Education held in London, Professor H. E. Armstrong
gave the outline of a more intelligent method of teaching chemistry in
which the pupil is faced with problems to be solved experimentally by
him. Three years later a Committee was appointed by the British
Association for the purpose of inquiring into and reporting upon the
methods of teaching chemistry in schools. This Committee presented
a report at the Bath meeting in 1888, and suggested that ‘teachers
stand very much in need of advice and assistance in preparing a
modified scheme of teaching suitable for general adoption in schools.’
In response to this suggestion Professor Armstrong gave, in reports
presented at the meetings of 1889 and 1890, details of practical courses
of instruction deliberately intended to develop the faculties of indepen-
dent inquiry, accurate observation, and intelligent reasoning. The
‘heuristic’ methods which he advocated were ‘methods which in-
volve our placing students so far as possible in the attitude of the dis-
coverer—methods which involve their finding out instead of being
merely told about things.’

The British Association schemes revolutionised the teaching of
chemistry, and physics also to a large extert, in schools. The pre-
scribed preparation of gases and the drill in qualitative analysis, which
had constituted the practical work in school chemical laboratories, were
superseded by inquiries into the composition of such common sub-
stances as air and water, and no experiment was undertaken without

a aS

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 197

a scientific motive. The Headmasters’ Association afterwards approved
a course of work based upon the principles laid down by Professor
Armstrong; and the Joint Scholarships Board instituted by the Asso-
ciation adopted this scheme, which is published under the title ‘ Syllabus
of an Blementary Course in Physics and Chemistry’ (Educational
Supply Association, price 3d.; postage 4d.).

The history of the change in methods of teaching science initiated by
Professor Armstrong will be found in his work ‘ The Teaching of
Scientific Method’ (Macmillan, price 5s. net). There are differences
of opinion as to whether strictly heuristic methods are practicable with
large classes, but objections raised to them are often based upon mis-
apprehension, and there can be no question that the introduction of the
methods have been the means of effecting substantial improvements
in the teaching of science in schools. Unfortunately, in concentrating
attention upon training in experimental method, the complementary
teaching of science as a body of inspiring principles and a truly human-
ising influence has been neglected ; and it is to this aspect of the subject
that particular importance is attached in the present report.

What Professor Armstrong did for the study of physics and
chemistry has been done by Professor L. C. Miall for experimental
natural history. Beginning with such a simple natural object as a bean,
pupils are led to examine the seed; to record its form, size, and general
structure; to notice the early stages of the bean-plant by sprouting
seeds in wet sawdust; to find what difference it makes to the seedlings
whether they are kept in the dark, exposed to faint light, or to full
sunlight; to determine the nutritive salts required for the continued
growth of the plants; to demonstrate that green plants draw carbon
dioxide from the air, forming starch from it, and using up the starch
in the manufacture of their permanent tissues, as well as in other ways;
and soon. The study of plant or animal life based upon such methods
of observation and inquiry has been a valuable means of scientific
education in many schools.

The Committee has not considered it necessary to make an ex-
haustive inquiry into the position of science teaching in secondary
schools. This will no doubt be done by the Government Committee
appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir J. J. Thomson to inquire
into the position occupied by natural science in the educational systems
of Great Britain. That Committee, however, has industrial and pro-
fessional interests to consider, as wel! as the claims of science in
education, and it includes only three or four members familiar with the
science work carried on in secondary schools. It is believed, therefore,
that a Committee consisting almost entirely of teachers with experience
in such schools should be able to perform a useful function by pre-
senting a report concerned chiefly with existing methods and scope of
science teaching, and giving schemes of work in which humanistic
aspects of science occupy a prominent place.

128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

TI. Posrrion oF ScrENCE TEACHING IN ScHOOLS OF DIFFERENT 'l'yPES.

In considering the amount of time devoted to science teaching 3t
is necessary to distinguish different types of secondary schools both
for boys and girls. Schools in receipt of State aid are inspected by
the Board of Education, and they include old-established Grammar
Schools as well as Municipal and County Schools under Local Educa-
tion Authorities. State-aided schools for boys number about 620, and
the great majority of these are represented by the Incorporated Asso-
ciation of Headmasters. In addition to these State-aided schools there
are a number of public schools which are independent of the Board of
Education or other public body. All these public schools are repre-
sented upon the Headmasters’ Conference, together with about forty-
five schools which are in receipt of State aid, and therefore come
under the regulations of the Board of Education. One hundred and
twenty schools are represented on the Conference, and the general
condition of admission of a school to representation is that the school
has at least 100 boys and about 10 per cent. of its pupils are resident
undergraduates at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge direct
from the school. The Association of Headmistresses represents in
much the same way about 415 public secondary schools for girls, of
which 330 are State-aided.

On account of these distinctions the particulars as to science subjects
studied in secondary schools are arranged under three heads—namely,
(1) State-aided secondary schools for boys, (2) secondary schools with-
out Government grant or control for bovs, (8) public secondary schools
for girls. In the case of the first two types particulars presented by a
Committee in 1908 have been brought up to date, but for the girls’ public
schools a special inquiry has been instituted, the results of which are
here described, and the details are given in Appendices IT. and IIT. :—

(a) State-aided Secondary Schools.

The Board of Education’s Regulations for Secondary Schools require
that the curriculum of every such school in receipt of annual grants
must make provision for instruction in science, and that this instruction
“must include practical work by the pupils.’

In secondary schools for girls housecraft subjects may be substi-
tuted partially or wholly for science and for mathematics other than
arithmetic.

About 1,000 secondary schools in England and Wales come under
these Regulations, and the number of pupils in them is about 180,000.
The leaving age is nominally sixteen or eighteen, but most of the
pupils leave before they reach the lower age. In the majority of the
schools earning the full grant of the Board of Education science occu-
pies a prominent place in the curriculum, and the provision and equip-
ment of laboratories are usually sufficient.

Owing to the close agreement of the curriculum, the accompanying
Table, from a report presented at the Dublin meeting of the Associa-
tion in 1908, represents the range and sequence of subjects in the
majority of boys’ schools.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 129

TaBLeE I.

Usual science subjects in schools where the leaving age is sixteen.

Average Ages.

Baleets 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Nature Study

Elementary Physical Mea- } ——
surements aa ab

Elementary Heat pet

Mechanics . . . . =...

Heat and Light . 0 net

Electricity —_

Elementary Chemistry _——|

Systematic Chemistry . —

Subject taught in a few schools

majority of schools,

” 2? 39

nearly all schools

”? ” 29

There is a tendency to begin electricity earlier than the last year,
but otherwise the subjects remain in much the same position as they
were in 1908. Biology does not appear in the Table except as nature
study, and it is studied only by a few boys specialising after matricula-
tion. Physics and chemistry practically monopolise the field ; geology,
natural history, archeology, and astronomy depending upon the boys’
voluntary efforts, encouraged by school scientific or natural history
societies.

As regards subjects of instruction, there is a wide difference between
boys’ and girls’ schools. In many girls’ schools botany is the main
science subject; physics, or more often chemistry, is taken in others
as an alternative or in addition to botany. In some girls’ schools
physics and chemistry are taught on the same lines as in boys’;
in others, these subjects are used as introductions to a course of
domestic science and hygiene or of botany. A course of experimental
science which embodies rudiments of both physics and chemistry
sométimes precedes formal teaching of these separate branches of
science both in boys’ and girls’ schools, and may be carried through
the curricula.

(b) Boys’ Secondary Schools of the Public School Type.

Rather more than eighty of the schools represented on the Head-
masters’ Conference receive no grants from the Board of Educstion,

1917, K

130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

and, although a few of these are inspected by the Board, the majority
are inspected by the Universities, and have therefore no connection
with the Board. In most of these there is a strong classical tradition.
The actual number of boys (about 36,000) taught in these schools is
small compared with those who receive their education in State-aided
schools, but the fact that the public schools educate the majority of
the future statesmen gives them special importance. The Headmasters
are with few exceptions classical specialists. The leaving age before
the war was nominally nineteen, but a considerable number of boys
leave when they are eighteen.

The schools are generally, but not always, divided into classical,
modern, and Army sides, science being taught universally on the two
latter sides, but to only a certain number of the boys on the classical
side. On the Army side the science subjects are determined by the
requirements of the Civil Service Commissioners, and are consequently
entirely confined to chemistry and physics; on the modern side the
tendency is also to limit the science teaching to these two subjects,
although in some schools the younger pupils are given courses of
geology and elementary biology. Of course, the senior boys who
specialise in science have a considerably wider range, but these do
not form a part of the Modern side proper. On the classical side
progress has been made during the past twenty years. Formerly few
schools made any provision for science teaching; now it is the excep-
tion to find a school in which science does not appear in the time-
table of the great majority of boys at some period of their school career.
Since these boys have, as a rule, no science examination in view,
educational experiments are more frequently made upon them than
on others; hence there is far less uniformity in the teaching in this
part of the school than on the modern side; in some the work is
of the same nature as upon the modern side; but, since the time
devoted to science is as a rule less, the standard attained is naturally
lower, whilst in others the ‘ object’ rather than the ‘ subject ’ method
is pursued—e.g., water is investigated in its biological, geological,
sociological, chemical, and physical aspects in one course.

In addition to the fact that some attention is now given to the
teaching of science on the classical side, the more important changes
which have taken place since a Sub-Committee presented a report to
Section L. at the Dublin meeting in 1908 seem to be that (1) less
attention is now paid to elementary practical measurements; this is
partly due to the difficulty which has been experienced in many schools
in persuading the mathematical staff, without whose co-operation pro-
gress is impossible, to undertake laboratory work. There can be but
little doubt that many science-masters have found that such work does
not interest their pupils, and is apt to give them a disinclination to
science. (2) Mechanics is less frequently made a part of the science
curriculum, and there is a growing tendency to leave it to the mathe-
matical staff, with the unfortunate result that the experimental side is
neglected. (3) Biology is certainly receiving more attention than it
did; this may be due to the action of certain Universities in making it
a compulsory subject for their first M.B. examination; but it is

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY. SCHOOLS. 131

probable that the importance of the-subject is better realised now than
*t was a few years ago.

The following table, which is based upon the one presented to the
Dublin meeting, shows what is believed to be the present position : —

Usual science subjects in schools where the leaving age is eighteen and
over.

Average Ages:

Subject 101
aay dig 1 A itd Vee is

Nature Study

Elementary Physical Mea- |
surements

Elementary Heat .

General Physics

Systematic Chemistry .

Biology

===
a
————————————
Elementary Chemistry. —
—

Sound

(A Memoraridum based on replies sent in by 171 typical schools to
a questionnaire issued by the Association of Science Mistresses.
November 1916.)

Some science forms part of the curriculum throughout the whole
of the pre-specialisation period in almost every public secondary school
for girls. In one or two-exceptional cases the continuous course. is
broken at a certain stage for one year.

In nearly every school nature study forms the basis of the work
with children below eleven or twelve years of age. For the following
two or three years there is, most often, a continuous course of elemen-
tary physics and chemistry treated experimentally. Though the total
time given to science at this stage does not, as a rule, exceed two hours
per week this experimental course frequently runs concurrently with
a course of lessons in some other subject, as hygiene. Botany is
most commonly taught above this stage, but in a considerable number
of the larger schools there are alternative courses of botany and
chemistry, and a few schools make chemistry their main subject.
Physics is rarely taught above a very elementary standard.

_ In very few cases does the science course appear to be determined
by correlation with courses of lessons in the domestic arts.
mi Bt Bh-or bes Py bogbuy rae

132 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1917.

“The following table indicates the subjects most commonly taught
at different stages :—

Average Ages

Subjects
: 8-10 11 2- 13 1 #1 #16: 17

Nature Study = I (E_=

Elementary Physics

Elementary Chemistry
Systematic Chemistry .
Mechanics . ,
Heat and Light
Biology . .
Hygiene .

Domestic Science .

Botany . .

Note.— means taught in some schools.

means taught in the majority of schools,

means taught in nearly all schools,

The time spent on science in the majority of schools is from
1.to 14 hours per week below twelve years of age, and from 2 to 24
between the ages of twelve and sixteen or seventeen, above which
specialisation begins. In a considerable number of cases (see Appen-
dix III.) the laboratory accommodation is insufficient to allow of the
whole even of this time being spent in experimental work, and a part
is therefore frequently given to some subject as, for example, hygiene
or descriptive botany, which can be taught in the classroom,

III. Time ReEQuirED FOR THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE.

There is a tendency at the present time, especially in some of the
more conservative schools, to introduce science teaching for two hours
per week, and to regard this as sufficient to meet the claims of science
to an adequate place in the curriculum. In the opinion of the Com-
mittee it is impossible for any real training in scientific method, or for
knowledge of any practical value, to be secured with so short an allow-
ance of time. Also pupils are apt to consider that the importance of
a subject may be judged by the time allotted to it in school, or to

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 133

imagine they have acquired a grasp of a subject of which they know
only the introduction.

Whilst the actual number of school hours is fairly uniform in
boys’ schools, there is considerable difference in the number of periods
into which these are divided ; and in girls’ schools the number of hours
per week is, as a rule, much less than in boys’ schools. The Com-
mittee hesitates, therefore, to specify how many hours per week
should be devoted to science teaching; it is, however, of the opinion
that for pupils who are not specialising—i.e., for those who are between
the ages of twelve and about sixteen and a half—an average of at least
one-sixth for boys and one-seventh for girls of the total number of
teaching periods in each week should be used for science work inde-
pendent of work in geography and mathematics.

IV. Meruop 1n Science TEACHING.

In recent years more attention has been given to method in science
teaching than to substance. One result of this has been to promote
the view that all subjects, in different ways and to different degrees,
can be made to give a training in scientific method; and that, therefore,
instruction in science has no specific educational advantage over that
of any other subject in the curriculum taught by methods of deduction
and induction. It will be shown later in this respect how science—
by which is here meant all departments of natural knowledge which
depend for their development upon observation and experiment—
differs from other subjects of instruction, but a general statement as
to the meaning and application of scientific method in science teaching
seems to be necessary.

Ambiguity of ‘ scientific method.’—It has often been remarked that
the adjective ‘ scientific’ has a double significance. Sometimes it is
used to distinguish one kind of knowledge, such as physics, from
another kind, such as history. At other times the distinction it con-
notes is not between objects of knowledge but between modes of inves-
tigation—between the ‘conduct of the understanding’ which alone
leads to certain truth and ways of thought that inevitably end in error.
The second sense of the word is evidently much wider than the first;
for, while the realm of ‘ scientific knowledge,’ though vast, is limited,
the dominion of ‘ scientific method’ is universal, extending wherever
there are facts to be determined or general truths to be ascertained.

If, however, it is admitted (1) that the chief business of the science
teacher is to train in scientific method, and (2) that scientific method is
the characteristic not of science only but of every properly conducted
intellectual inquiry, the science teacher is perilously near to the sur-
render of his special claim to existence. For does scientific method
imply the habits of observing facts with care, of classifying them
clearly and exhaustively, of forming hypotheses without bias, of testing
them with rigour? Then a good classical teacher may make the study
of Latin grammar as ‘scientific’ as the study of chemistry, while,
under a bad teacher, work in the laboratory may be as little ‘ scientific ’
as anything ever done in a Latin lesson. Again, does scientific method

134 REPORTS: ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

imply ‘ respect for fact.’ and the pursuit of truth in defiance of
prejudice? Then it may be maintained that the study of recent history
offers a field for its exercise at least as favourable as (say) an inquiry
into the composition of water.

Matter and Method not separable.-—This paradoxical conclusion
depends upon the assumption that the method of scientific investi-
gation can be regarded as separable from the matter, which is not
correct. In other words, it is not strictly true that scientific method
is one and the same wherever it is employed. The physical method
and-the historical method, for example, have common fundamental
features, but cannot be simply identified the one with the other. In
short, scientific method is an abstraction which does not exist apart
from its concrete embodiments; and the person who desires adequate
knowledge of it must study it in all its ric manifestations. No
one ought to expect a training in scientific method acquired in one field
of inquiry to be transferable to—that is, to guarantee competence in—
e field substantially different from the former. © This conclusion is
illustrated and supported by many recent experimental investigations.
For instance, Dr. W. G. Sleight* has shown conclusively that practice
in one form of memorising (e.g., the reproduction of the substance of
a passage of prose) produces no general improvement of the memory,
but may even cause deterioration in the power to memorise material
of a different kind. Ability acquired in memory-exercises of one type
is, in fact, transferable to exercises of another type only if the second
contains special elements that are also characteristic of the former,
and then only if the learner perceives and deliberately takes advantage
of the partial identity. Thus a boy trained in memorising series of
numbers shows an improved power to memorise ‘ nonsense-syllables ’
if, and only if, he has recognised that the use of rhythm is an aid to
the mastery of the material in-both cases. 3 |

It appears, then, that the training received in a specific course of
study is an ability acquired in dealing with situations of a certain
kind, and is of service without the boundaries of the study only in
situations that can be regarded as substantially identical with those
within it. Scientific knowledge and scientific method must not, there-
fore, be thought of as distinct and separable things, but as things
whose relation is comparable with the relation between a living body
and its life. Just as the life of a body consists in its growth and activi-~
ties, and in nothing else, so the methods of a science are nothing other
than the ways in which it grows, reaching ever wider and deeper views
of some aspect or department of nature. The science teacher has not,
therefore, to adjust or to choose between the claims of knowledge and
of training, for the two are inseparable. Let him give his pupils
the knowledge that (in Spencer’s classic phrase) is ‘ of most worth '—
that is, the knowledge which best expresses the special genius of his
science—and he may be confident that he is at the same time giving
them the best training the subject can supply. It need only be added

_. Dr. Sleight’s book, Zducational Values (Clarendon Press), » gives a
critical account of all the more important researches on the transference of
acquired abilities.

‘ SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 185

(for fear of misunderstanding) that this giving of knowledge is not to
be confounded with the mere imparting of ‘ facts,’ It implies in the
pupil a genuine pursuit of knowledge—an activity, guided by the
teacher but motived from within, which represents, so far as the neces-
sarily artificial conditions of teaching permit, the historic activities
of scientific minds working at their best.

Principles and Motives in Teaching.—In selecting what is to be
taught the teacher must take account not only of the intrinsic worth
of the knowledge but also of the varying powers and interests of
immature minds at different ages. Are there any general principles
to guide him in ordering his curriculum to meet their needs? The
obvious maxim that the easy things should come first and the more
difficult things later is not in itself sufficient, for it gives no principle
for determining what is easy and what is difficult from the point of
view of the pupil. Some of the simplest ideas in science may prove
to be quite out of the natural range of activity of young minds because
they appeal effectively only to a riper experience or to a developed
scientific interest, It is, indeed, for these reasons that such ideas
have often emerged late rather than early in the history of a science.
Can we, then, find criteria which will discriminate between things
suitable and things unsuitable for pupils at different stages of pro-
gress? In other words, is there a normal course of development of
the scientific interest in the young?

In considering this question we must, in view of the infinite variety
of human minds, be on our guard against sweeping and dogmatic
generalisations. At best we can hope to discover laws that hold good,
as Aristotle said, émi ro wodv : rules that give general guidance but
do not free the teacher from the obligation to treat individual pupils
in accordance with their special natures and needs. Attacking the
problem in this modest spirit, we may usefully note that, among the
motives which have prompted men to make those persistent attempts
to understand nature which we call science, three have always been
especially conspicuous. First, and in a sense foremost, is delight in
the intrinsic beauty and charm of natural phenomena—delight in the
forms and ways of plants and animals, in the splendour of the heavens,
in the surprising behaviour and transformations of matter under
certain assignable conditions. To use a familiar phrase, the foundation
of science is the love of nature. Next, we may distinguish the motive
that springs from the perception that man can exploit the forces of
nature for his own purposes only if he is prepared to take the trouble
to understand them—that man must become the interpreter of nature
if nature is to become the handmaid of man. This is the motive that
has created the vast fabric of ‘ applied science.’ Lastly, there is the
craving for theoretical completeness and unity—the motive that
prompts men on one hand to seek ‘ fundamental principles ’ in nature,
and on the other to organise their ideas about the different aspects or
departments of nature into closely knitted logical systems. These
three—which may be called the ‘ wonder motive ’ (in the absence of a
better term), the ‘ utility motive,’ and the ‘ systematising motive ’—
are not, of course, to be thought of as working in isolation. In differing

136 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.,—1917,

degrees all are, no doubt, present in all scientific activity. Never-
theless, they are evidently distinct sources of such activity, whose
relative predominance at different stages in the history of a science,
and in minds of differing cast, may vary to a very great extent.

Our question resolves itself, therefore, into the following: Can
we count upon the presence and activity of these motives in the minds
of boys and girls, and is there any normal order of predominance
among them? To the first part of the question, thus expressed, we
can give a confident reply. There are few children, if any, who do
not feel the charm of natural phenomena and cannot be led by it to
pursue inquiries which, however rudimentary they may be, are yet in
the direct line of the development of science. The ‘ utility motive,’
represented by the desire to find out ‘ how it works’ or ‘ how it is
made,’ is notoriously conspicuous. The systematising motive, while
apparently much more variable in strength, cannot be said to be
inoperative in any normal child. With regard to the second and more
important part of the question, it may be said (subject to the reserva-
tion mentioned above) that, although young minds feel the pressure of
all the motives, yet each of the three enjoys its special period of empire.
Children before an age which is not far above or below eleven years
seem to respond most surely and actively to the direct appeal of striking
and beautiful phenomena. From eleven or twelve to (say) fifteen or
sixteen the ‘ utility motive’ assumes the mastery, and may, at least
in boys, reach the force and volume of a passion. With the full advent
of adolescence the ‘ systematising motive’ has for the first time its
opportunity of predominance, but there seem to be many minds in
which its full power is never developed.

Practical Conclusions —The practical bearing of these observations
is clear. It is important, in the first place, that the teacher should
not fail to give due scope to the ‘ wonder motive.’ A science lesson
should not degenerate into a display of fireworks or into sentimental
vapourings about the ‘ marvels of nature,’ but it is easy to fall into the
opposite error. Science-teachers have by no means always avoided
it. It must be remembered that teaching which is not founded upon
the pupil’s direct interest in natural phenomena for their own sake
cannot stimulate genuine scientific activity, and that no ‘scientific
training ’ can be effective which kills instead of fostering the root from
which all scientific activity has grown. In addition to this general
consideration, applicable to all ages of the pupil, we draw the particular
conclusion that the first stage in science teaching should be a stage
of ‘ nature study,’ of which the distinctive aim should be not to estab-
lish the logical foundations of any science, but to awaken the pupil’s
interest in the more attractive and obvious happenings in garden and
wood, in pond and field, in sea and sky, and to begin the work of
disciplining this interest into scientific inquiry.

Next, it is suggested that to fail to make full use of the ‘ utility
motive ’ is to allow one of the richest sources of intellectual activity to
run to waste. Many teachers of science are discovering that for pupils
between the ages of twelve and sixteen (or later) the most effective
method of instruction takes the form of an analysis directed to the

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SOHOOLS. 137

discovery of the principles involved in the typical triumphs of applied
science. In this method Archimedes’ Principle is regarded not as a
‘ property of fluids’ nor as means of determining specific gravities, but
as the principle that explains the flotation of ships; the study of the
processes by which metals are won from their ores displaces chemical
inquiries of academic interest; to study electricity is to analyse the
working of the electric bell, the dynamo, the installation for wireless
telegraphy. In other words, such topics as these, instead of being
regarded as ‘ applications’ of scientific principles, to be taught if time
and the demands of a public examination allow, are treated as the foci
of interest from whose study the pupil’s knowledge of the scientific
principles is to emerge.

Lastly, we must recognise that the ‘ systematising motive ’ is one
that has long been worked in our schools beyond its natural strength.
Not infrequently teachers of some experience express the doubt
whether boys and girls are capable of studying science before the age
of fifteen or sixteen. Still more often university professors of science
express the wish that their students might come to them with minds
unperverted by the teaching of the schools. Whatever truth these
pessimistic suggestions contain is probably accounted for by the failure
of teachers to mould their instruction in conformity with the natural
development of children’s minds. The young man (or woman) who
teaches science in schools from the point of view of the university often
achieves with the best intentions a disastrous amount of harm. The
mischief will not be prevented until it is universally recognised that
the logical theory of a science should be not the terminus a quo of
instruction, but the terminus ad quem.

VY. EXPERIMENTAL AND DESCRIPTIVE TEACHING.

Methods of Instruction.—School instruction in science has, in
England, taken the form of individual practical work, laboratory
demonstrations, and lectures. In some cases laboratory work is carried
on independently of the lectures as regards subjects, while in others it
is arranged to run parallel with the theoretical course. Frequently
all lessons are given in the laboratory by means of demonstrations
and discussions in conjunction with practical work, and there is little
lecturing in the usual sense of the term. ‘The basis of the instruction
in science in schools where this plan is adopted is the laboratory work,
and points are explained or elaborated as they are reached in the
practical course.

Another plan is to make the laboratory work ancillary to the lectures,
and to regard it as a necessary means of making the pupil understand
clearly some points dealt with in them or met with in his reading.

The Unique Value of Laboratory Work.—The primary value of
laboratory work in schools is that it brings the pupil into direct contact
with reality through his own senses and his own manipulation. In
this way only can he learn to see things in their right proportions, to
distinguish the essentials of an experiment from the non-essentials,
and obtain a firm grasp of a scientific subject. Reading about an

138 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

experiment, or even seeing an experiment performed, cannot give that
security of knowledge which practical contact affords.

Experience shows that when scientific knowledge has been secured
by practical werk it becomes part of the permanent mental equipment
of the pupil. The laboratory is, further, the one place where the pupil
learns to acquire first-hand evidence, and to distinguish between that
and information obtained verbally or by reading; for this reason also
it alone fulfils an essential function in an educational course.

It is possible to use scientific method in the study of history, lan-
guages, and other literary subjects, but applied in this way the method
can never be accepted as providing the same means of training as
laboratory experiment.

Distinction between Manual Training and Hxperiment.—Although
the principle of ‘learning by doing’ is followed also in courses of
manual instruction in which each pupil is impressed with the necessity
of relying upon himself, of arranging and carrying out his work in an
orderly manner, and of interpreting instructions accurately, and though
other advantages may be justly claimed for such work, yet there is
always a decided difference between the best scheme of workshop
exercises and the experimental work of a rightly arranged experimental
course. In the laboratory the development of dexterity and skill is
only a secondary consideration, and the attention is fastened on the
answer given by Nature to the question put to it: on the method to
be adopted for eliciting the answer, on its significance when obtained,
and on the degree of accuracy with which it can be credited.

Preliminary Work to Systematic Instruction im Science.—It is
because of the demand thus made on the reasoning powers that in 1910
a Joint Committee of the Mathematical Association and the Association
of Public School Science Masters expressed the decided opinion that
systematic work in science should not be taken at too early a stage;
laying down that ‘It is undesirable that either formal physics or
chemistry be taught in Preparatory Schools,’ and that ‘ Questions
should not be set in formal physics or chemistry at the entrance or
entrance scholarship examinations to the Public Schools.’ The same
Committee, however, recommended that instruction which could. be
taken at an early stage, in elementary practical measurements of length,
area, volume, mass, and density, should be given by the mathematical
staff and not by the science staff. Such work can be done in an ordinary
class-room with the simplest apparatus, and is thus more easily co-
ordinated with the mathematical lessons than when carried on in a
room specially deyoted to it. The course of measurements, including
the use of simple balances, need very seldom exceed twenty hours of
practical work; and there can be no doubt that it is of the highest
value in giving actuality to the mathematical teaching. Unfortunately,
mathematical teachers have often been found to have little sympathy
with these practical methods of illustration.

Introductory work in science, whether in preparatory schools or
in the lower forms of State-aided secondary schools, should consist
of such elementary practical measurements as are referred to above,
and of a course intended to interest pupils in natural knowledge and

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 139

to encourage observations of animal and plant life, earth and sky, and
of everyday phenomena manifested in them. Such observations pro-
vide material for cultivating the art of expression, and with suitable
reading or descriptive lessons will create and foster attention to many
aspects of Nature.

Laboratory Methods and Scope.—In laboratory courses two methods
of instruction may be distinguished—the subject-method and the
problem-method—one or both of which may be followed, or, more often,
a combination of the two. The subject-method may be described as a
system of impressing fundamental properties and principles upon the
minds of pupils by means of a graduated course of experimental exer-
cises. The pupils usually work independently or in pairs, but in some
schools the same exercises are performed by a whole class simulta-
neously as a form of drill, in which case they tend to become of the type
of cockery-book recipes rather than that of scientific experiment.

The problem-method aims at suggesting a motive and purpose for
every experiment, and thus of creating the spirit of experimental
scientific inquiry. It consists in facing a problem, and by means of
experiment endeavouring to solve it and related questions which arise
during the work. The intention is not, as is sometimes supposed, to
make pupils discover for themselves laws and principles previously un-
known to them, though to some extent this can be done, but rather to
provide a continuous thread of reasoning for the practical work and a
definite purpose for whatever is undertaken. It is obvious that this
method demands much more intensive work on the part of the teacher
than is required when a prescribed course of exercises is followed; and
on this account varying opinions are held as to its practicability and
value. What is wanted for the teacher is a laboratory which he has
freedom to use exactly when and for whom the teaching requires it,
and independently of syllabuses prescribed by external authorities,
whether the subject-method with a definite laboratory course is being
followed, or the ancillary method in which the experiment to be under-
taken by any pupil may arise from his own demand, or be assigned to
him to clear up some observed misapprehension, or as a challenge to
test his knowledge of what he has been taught, and his resourcefulness,
or simply to give the final security of personal practical experience, as
already mentioned.

The field which can be surveyed practically in any school course of
laboratory work which forms part of a general education is necessarily
limited in scope even when the subject-method is followed, and is more
so when the object of the work is to encourage the natural spirit of
inquiry, and thus to create a perception of the means by which new
scientific knowledge is gained. Increased attention to laboratory exer-
cises has, indeed, in recent years often been associated with a very
restricted acquaintance with the world of science. The tendency has
been to make all the teaching a matter of measurement, to the neglect
of the human aspects of the pursuit of natural knowledge. The teach-
ing is, in fact, inclined to be narrow and special rather than broad and
catholic. Experimental work should bring appreciation of the preci-
sion and methods of scientific inquiry, but, in addition to this instruction,

140 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

an attempt should be made to cultivate interest in achievements of
research outside the school walls.

While, therefore, prime importance must be attached to adequate
provision for laboratory work undertaken with the view of imparting
a knowledge of experimental methods of inquiry, it is essential that there
should also be instruction in the broad principles and results of scientific
work which cannot be brought within the limits of a laboratory course.
Every pupil should not only receive training in observational and
experimental work but should also be given a view of natural knowledge
asa Whole. The object should be to evoke interest rather than to impart
facts or data of science prescribed by an examination syllabus, or even to
systematise their rediscovery. There should be no specialisation before
the stage of Matriculation has been reached, and whatever instruction
is given should be from the point of view of general education.

Human Aspects of Science.—Assuming that laboratory work is
commenced at a suitable stage, the question arises as to the best means
of presenting the broad view of scientific facts and principles desirable
in a modern liberal education. It should not be possible for any pupil
to complete a course at any secondary school without a knowledge not
only of experimental methods but also of the meaning of common
natural phenomena. Much of this knowledge can be given, and is
being given, to an increasing extent, in connection with the teaching of
geography; but in any case descriptive lessons are required in which
the aim should be to impart broad ideas, and promote interest in Nature,
rather than to train in practical methods applied to a limited field.

It is desirable also, by means of general lectures, discussions, or
reading, to introduce into the teaching some account of the main
achievements of science and of the methods by which they have been
attained. Science must not be considered merely as a burden of material
fact and precise principle which needs a special type of mind to bear it.
There should be more of the spirit, and less of the valley of dry bones,
if science is to be of living interest, either during school life or afterwards.
Everyone should be given the opportunity of knowing something of the
lives and work of such men as Galileo and Newton, Faraday. and Kelvin,
Pasteur and Lister, Darwin and Mendel, and many other pioneers of
science. One way of doing this is by lessons on the history of science,
biographies of discoverers, with studies of their successes and failures,
and outlines of the main road along which natural knowledge has
advanced. It would be far better, from the point of view of general
education, to introduce courses of this kind, intended to direct attention
and stimulate interest in scientific greatness and its relation to modern
life, than to limit the teaching to dehumanised material of physics and
chemistry which leaves but little impression upon the minds of boys
if seen only ‘in disconnection, dull and spiritless.’

Under existing conditions, which are largely controlled by prescribed
syllabuses and external examinations, there is little opportunity for
teachers to direct attention to the useful applications of science on one
hand, or on the other to awaken interest in the solution of the mysteries
which surround us, though this could be done incidentally in connection
with lectures or practical work if the present pressure were removed.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 14]

History and biography enable a comprehensive view of science to
be constructed which cannot be obtained by laboratory work. They
supply a solvent of that artificial barrier between literary studies and
science which a school time-table usually sets up. In the study of
hydrostatics, heat, current electricity, optics, and inorganic chemistry,
the attention which has been given to laboratory work has succeeded
in developing the powers of doing and describing. The weak points
have been insufficient attention to the broader aspects and to scientific
discovery and invention as human achievements, and failure to con-
nect school work with the big applications of science by which mankind
is benefiting. The study of optics is seldom pursued to a useful
point, and in the teaching of mechanics there are more failures than
in other science subjects. The time-table is particularly overcrowded
during the last two years in the State-aided secondary schools; the
work is over-compressed, and the philosophical aspects cannot, there-
fore, be presented effectively. The extension of the normal leaving
age to seventeen years would have a valuable effect in raising the
potential standard of scientific knowledge, and in spreading intelligent
appreciation of science throughout the country.

At present, as instruction in science proceeds in the school, there is a
tendency for it to become detached from the facts and affairs of life, by
which alone stimulus and interest can be secured. It is important that
every opportunity should be taken to counteract this tendency by descrip-
tive lessons in which everyday phenomena are explained and the utility
of discovery and invention is illustrated.

Domestic science and hygiene are frequently introduced into girls’
schools with the object of effecting a link between science and the
experience of everyday life. It must be pointed out, however, that
such courses are incoherent and of little value unless science or
domesticity is the definite objective. If the scientific aim predominates,
the course can be made to give a good training in elementary experi-
mental science and should afford a useful background to later practical
study of domestic arts. If domesticity is dominant, the work cannot
be accepted as an effective substitute for a proper science course.

Summary.

The observational work by which the study of science should begin
opens the eyes of the pupils and may be used to train them in the correct
expression of thought and of accurate description. The practical
measurements in the class-room have for their object the fixing of ideas
met with in the mathematical teaching. Every pupil should undergo a
course of training in experimental scientific inquiry as a part of his
general education up to a certain stage, after which the laboratory work
may become specialised and be used to supply facts which may be a
basis for more advanced work or to prepare pupils for scientific or
industrial careers.

At suitable stages, when pupils are capable of taking intelligent
interest in the knowledge presented, there should be courses of descrip-
tive lessons and reading broad enough to appeal to all minds and to
give a general view of natural facts and principles not limited to the

1492 REPORTS ON. THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

range of. any laboratory course or detailed lecture instruction, and
differing from them by being extensive instead of intensive. TT
Finally, the aims of the teaching of. science may be stated to be:
(1) To train the powers of accurate observation of natural facts and
phenomena and of clear description of what is observed; (2) To impart
a knowledge of the method of experimental inquiry which distinguishes
modern: science from the philosophy of earlier times, and by which
advance is secured; (3) To provide a broad basis of fact as to man’s
environment and his relation to it; (4) To give an acquaintance with
scientific words and ideas now common in progressive life and thought.

VI. Suppny or Scrmycr Tracers In STATE-AIDED SCHOOLS. —

. Salaries.—It is upon the efforts of those actually engaged in: the
work of education that the degree of success of any scheme for educa
tional reform depends; the standard of education rises or falls with the
teachers, and is largely influenced by the conditions under which their
services are rendered. A careful review of the present conditions of
service compels the conclusion that nothing approaching adequate com-
pensation is afforded for the outlay of time, money, ability, and energy
entailed on the properly equipped science master or mistress in a State-
aided secondary school. The average salary paid to the assistant
masters in these schools in England and Wales is only 1751. 10s.,
and to mistresses 150I., after eleven or twelve years’ service. If an
adequate supply of properly qualified science teachers is to be secured
the question of. salaries should receive immediate attention; the best
type of man will not be obtained unless the nation is prepared to pay
more than 31. 7s, 6d. per week for his services after long experience.

Many men accept posts as teachers in secondary schools, when
leaving the University because the teaching profession offers them .an
immediate means of maintenance. A man leaves the University at an
average age of twenty-two years, or later if he has thought it necessary
to take a course at a Training College. He then can command a salary
of from 1201. to 1501. per annum—rarely more—according to his quali-
fications; and this compares favourably on the average with what can
be offered him to begin with in other professional spheres. But he
soon finds that tenure is insecure, that superannuation is still ‘ under
consideration,’ and that he may in the course of some twenty years
secure on the average a competence of not more than 1901. per annum.
Under these conditions teaching cannot be a profession which will
attract into it the best intellects from all classes and spheres of life,
but will be regarded by many merely as a temporary occupation until
the opportunity arises of entering a more remunerative and encouraging
calling.

It is becoming increasingly difficult to meet the demand for efficient
science teachers, and a considerable improvement in the salaries and
conditions of service will be required before this problem can be settled
satisfactorily. In secondary schools for boys teaching is not an attrac-
tive profession ; parents have a poor opinion of it, schoolmasters rarely
recommend it, and the best students in recent years have avoided it

o, SCIENCE IN- SECONDARY. SCHOOLS. 143

because its obvious disadvantages overshadow the few advantages it
offers.

The supply of masters is being maintained at its present level only
by the large influx of clever pupils who pass from the elementary
schools to the secondary schools and are maintained out of public
funds almost entirely throughout their scholastic career. The time
seems fast approaching when the scholarship will be recognised as the
normal means of entry into the profession. ;

The scarcity of well-qualified science masters and mistresses will
become accentuated in the near future by the fast-growing demand for
scientific experts from the various branches of manufacture and
industry, and by the attractions offered by medicine as a. profession for
women. Unless far better salaries and conditions of service are offered,
it is hopeless to expect that sufficient numbers of well-trained scientific
men and women will take up teaching in preference to much more
remunerative and less exacting appointments in other spheres of life.

Promotion.—Headmasterships and administrative posts connected
with education should be filled from the ranks of the teaching profession.

Classes.—The large size of classes is one of the greatest obstacles
to successful science teaching. Modern methods demand classes not
exceeding sixteen to eighteen if efficient supervision is to be given in
the laboratory. SAIS 2 ‘

Hours of Teaching.—A science teacher should be afforded oppor-
tunities for study and research in order that his instruction may repre-
sent increasing scientific knowledge. On this account it may reasonably
be urged that his teaching hours should be less than those of masters
concerned with literary or mathematical subjects. In the case of the
senior science master, who is responsible for the organisation of the
science department as a whole, including the supervision and upkeep
of the laboratories, much more non-teaching time is necessary.

Tabulated statements on salaries and other details will be found
in Appendix I.

VII. AcapEMIc QUALIFICATIONS OF HEADMASTERS.

Closely related to the questions of the prospects of science teachers
and the position of science teaching are the academic qualifications of
headmasters. Inquiry has shown that schools of the Public School
type are to a very large extent in the charge of classical specialists.
Only a numerically insignificant minority have been recruited from
the ranks of graduates in science, and not one of the largest or best-
known Public Schools has a science graduate as headmaster. Without
in any way wishing to maintain or imply that academic qualifications
are, or should be, regarded as the sole, or even the chief, criterion of
eligibility for such posts, it is difficult not to recognise that many of
the defects and deficiencies in the organisation of the schools (from
the science point of view) are related to the apathy or antipathy
‘of their headmasters towards science. Among such defects are: The
bias given to classics and literary subjects in the Entrance Examina-

144 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

tion to the Public Schools; the preponderance of scholarships, prizes,
and other tokens of success given to boys who are specially proficient
in classics; the existence of an exclusively classical ‘ atmosphere ’;
the absence of efficient organisation to ensure the timely and regular
promotion of boys who do well in science ; under-staffing of the science
instruction and insufficient time-allowance for science subjects.

The position in the State-aided schools is more satisfactory, but
even here it may be reasonably contended that a more even distribution
of headmasterships among teachers of different academic qualifications
would not only help to improve the position and facilitate the progress
of school science, but would also tend to remedy the ignorance and
neglect of science which have prevailed so long in the nation at large.

VIII. Inspection anD EXAMINATION.

Certain broad distinctions may be distinguished between the func-
tions of inspection and examination. Inspection tests school and
class. It should guarantee that the curricula and syllabuses are suitable
and that the teaching is efficient. Examinations test individuals.
Inspection does not aim at testing individual pupils. During a visit an
inspector may question pupils, inspect note-books, essays, &c. So
far as the information thus obtained is used for sampling the class, the
process is part of inspection; when judging the individual pupil, the
inspector acts ag examiner. Conversely, the summarised results of
examinations may be used to supplement inspection. Judgment of the
teacher’s efficiency solely—or even mainly—from the results of a central
examination is to be deprecated, since the influence of parentage,
environment, and the conditions of work in and out of school are
necessarily ignored. (In this report a central examination means one
in which the same questions are set to a group of schools without regard
to the varying syllabuses of instruction.)

We have to apply the above general principles to the consideration
of science teaching as part of the education of non-specialists. Inspec-
tion should guarantee that the school provides, and that every pupil
at the appropriate age pursues, a suitable course of instruction in science.
While the examiner’s criticism should aim at improving the method
and content of the teaching, the more personal aspects of efficiency are
the concern of the headmaster and the inspector. It is obvious that
genuine guarantees of efficiency can be given only by qualified inspectors
and examiners, who should have had experience in teaching.

With certain important exceptions, to which reference will be made
later, the principal examining bodies have adopted in the past the
method of central examinations. Whatever arguments may be urged
in favour of this method for students aged eighteen or older who are
entering upon a specialist training, the testimony as to its injurious
influence on earlier teaching has been remarkable for a practical unani-
mity sustained for several years. Evidence has been quoted to this
effect in reports by investigating committees, notably by the Committee
which reported at Dublin on the sequence of Science Studies in Secon- °

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 145

dary Schools. Accordingly the present Committee passed the following
resolution and issued it for publication in November 1916:—

‘ That in order to secure freedom of action for teachers of science
in schools, and to prevent the instruction from becoming
stereotyped, it is undesirable for any examining authority
to prescribe a detailed syllabus in science for use in schools,
whether intended as the basis of examinations or otherwise.’

It is of special importance to general science teaching that schools
examination by an external authority should be based upon the work of
the individual school. We recommend also that all schools should be
inspected, that examiners should consult teachers before setting
question-papers, and that teachers should exercise great care in pre-
paring syllabuses of instruction accompanied by illustrative detail suffi-
cient to show clearly the aim, method, and limits of the courses.
Co-operation between inspectors and examiners should be encouraged.
Inspectors and examiners, as well as teachers, should be trained for
their work, seeing that testing by the inexpert is an expensive farce.

An effective science course being guaranteed for every inspected
school, it will be natural and desirable that science should form an
important subject in such school examinations as those proposed for
the ‘ First Examination ’ by the Board of Education in Circular 849.
It should not be grouped with mathematics in the sense that a pass in
science may excuse mathematics, or vice versa. In order to obtain a
certificate a candidate should reach a satisfactory standard in a sub-
stantial portion of the school curriculum, considerable option being
allowed as to subjects in which the pass is demanded. The pupils
should be required to pursue a wider curriculum than would suffice for
the passing of the test, and the headmaster should guarantee this, and
that the course has been followed for a sufficient period to ensure a
training of real value. It would be unwise to make passing in science
compulsory ; the aim should rather be to remove compulsion in other
subjects. The teaching of science, as of other subjects, has suffered
from academic tradition ; rigidity of examination requirements is adverse
to progress by educational experiments. Af the same time it is impor-
tant that science should not be placed in a position inferior to classics,
modern ‘humanistic’ studies, or mathematics, in the examinations
which form the gate to university or professional courses, to the Army,
and to junior appointments of the Civil Service.

The examinations for the 1st Division of the Civil Service do not
directly come within the reference of this Committee; but we have to
report evidence that boys have been discouraged from the study of
science in the great Public Schools through the mistaken view that
scientific knowledge and training in experimental method were of little
use to administrators, and that the allotment of marks in this and other
competitions has tended to the neglect of science. The Consultative
Committee, in its reports to the Board of Education on Scholarships
for Higher Education, states: ‘It is desirable in the national interest
that after the war the Public Schools should devote more energy to
scientific and practical training.’ We endorse this statement and regret

1917, L

146 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

to observe that the recommendations which follow must inevitably,
unless modified, tend in the opposite direction, By limiting the
Government scholarships to pupils from grant-earning schools, the
Consultative Committee’s proposals would seriously reduce the field of
competition, lower in quantity and quality the supply of well-trained
students, and increase the difficulty of following a scientific career which
now faces the sons and daughters of the poorer professional men. It
would be wiser to leave these scholarships open to pupils from all
inspected schools, and to utilise the Second School examination of
Circular 849 as one avenue to a Government scholarship. The Board’s
preposals for the Second Examination accord well with the principle
of giving considerable latitude to school and candidate ; if the school is
inspected, there should be no hesitation on the part of Universities in
approving the free play to the individuality of the teacher which is
implied.

The Application of the Principle of Decentralisation to the First School
Examination.

Objections have been urged against the adoption of decentralisa-
tion—i.e. of examining each school on its own curriculum and sylla-
buses. The main are (1) inequality of syllabuses, (2) inequality of
question-papers, (3) increased expense.

With reference to (1) and (2), it should be observed that the certifi-
cate will not be merely a record of a certain performance in the
examination-room; it will guarantee a course of training in an inspected
school. Moreover, it should be possible to obtain standards which can
be equated by utilising the judgment of experienced, trained examiners.
If the ground covered according to the syllabus is restricted, the
examiners should reduce or omit the opportunity of selecting questions.
They should also be empowered to determine (within reasonable limits)
the minima for a ‘ Pass’ and a ‘ Pass with Credit.’

As regards expense, it is to be observed that the University of
London has successfully conducted school examinations on the decen-
tralised plan for several years. Science has formed an important part
of these examinations in all three grades, Higher, Senior, and Junior.
Even when the policy has been pushed to the extreme limit of a separate
question-paper for each school, fhe cost has not proved prohibitive.
The present Committee is, however, of opinion that it will be found in
practice that school syllabuses fall into certain groups, and that
question-papers can be readily framed for all schools in a group. Thus
a paper of twelve questions might ask for eight to be attempted, and
include eight questions directly on the syllabus of each school in the
group. While considering the difference in cost between such a plan
and that of a central question-paper for all schools, it is necessary also
to reflect upon the great influence which the questions have upon all
the teaching in the schools, as well as upon the success of the candi-
dates. Central examinations should not be adopted for administrative
convenience, nor to coerce instruction into grooves favoured by members
of examining hodies,

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 147

Oral and Laboratory Tests.

Tt will usually be desirable to associate oral with laboratory tests.
Such oral tests might include (1) discussion arising from inspection
of the note-books of the candidates; (2) discussion of the effect of
varying conditions of experiment or of the actual placing and dis-
placing of apparatus, such as lamp, lenses and screen, prisms, &c. (in
such cases the candidate may be asked to predict effects and to verify) ;
(3) examination of electrical connections, of a lock, &c., affording useful
supplementary exercises serving to initiate oral discussion of principles.

Laboratory tests are unsatisfactory unless the examiner is present.
Examiners should rehearse each exercise under examination conditions
as to limits of time, method, and apparatus (including drying facilities).
The available supplies of water, heat, electrical power need to be known.
The best tests are, as a rule, those which require scientific examination
of common things other than laboratory specimens. One of the tests
(which we will call type A) may usefully involve the carrying out of
printed instructions; marks depending much on accuracy of result.
The other (type B) may be a trial of resourcefulness in experiment;
originality of idea and its general correctness being rewarded, while it is
recognised that accuracy of result would be somewhat providential in
the circumstances.

The Committee is of opinion that teachers should take part in the
setting of laboratory tests. It is not desirable to prescribe any plan
for universal adoption, but the following is a possible method. Let four
questions be set, numbers 1 (type A) and 3 (type B) by the external
examiners, numbers 2 (A) and 4 (B) by the teacher, candidates being at
liberty to select either 1 and 4 or 2 and 3. If time and laboratory
arrangements permit, it will be useful to add a drawing test—e.g., of a
biological specimen seen in the field of a microscope—or of apparatus
arranged for a physical or chemical experiment.

The use of squared paper should be restricted to purposes for which
ordinary writing-paper is insufficient. The use of logarithms should be
encouraged. In the more advanced examinations the use of books of
reference (not notes) may be permitted; this is scarcely to be recom-
mended for examinations below the level of the Second (Higher) School
certificate. When the examination will determine the award of a
scholarship, or of a certificate affecting the career of a candidate, the
examiner should inspect the candidate’s note-books and take into con-
sideration the order of merit in which the teacher of the subject has
placed the candidates.

It is hoped that, with precautions such as are suggested above,
laboratory tests may afford trustworthy evidence which may be used in
conjunction with the written examination to determine the abilities and
training of the candidates. At the same time such tests will afford
valuable opportunities for associating examiner and teacher, and prevent
neglect of laboratory work, or its relegation to an inferior position, as
has often occurred in the past in cases where written examinations only

have been employed,
L2

148 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

IX. Typrcau Scrence Coursss.

Experience has shown that the most useful function a committee
on science teaching can perform is to present schemes of work which
can be carried out practically. Examples of the influence of such
schemes are afforded by the Reports on Teaching Chemistry presented by
Committees at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1889 and Leeds 1890, and the
Report on the Teaching of Elementary Mathematics presented at the
Belfast meeting in 1902. The effects of these Reports have been so
beneficial and far-reaching that the present Committee is hopeful that
the specimen courses here submitted will have a like influence upon
science teaching. It is not suggested that the schemes should be
prescribed for any particular schools, but rather that they should be
considered as examples of courses which have been proved successful.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 149

I. SCIENCE FOR ALL IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL.

By Anrcuer Vassatt, Harrow School.

I. A scheme of work in science at a Public School must allow for the special
features which obtain normally there as compared with the conditions at many
other secondary schools. The peculiar features which affect the science scheme
are that (1) practically all the boys come from a particular class of preparatory
school ; (2) their age at entrance is just under fourteen; (3) they may join the
school over a wide range of Forms; (4) they may remain till they are eighteen
and a-half years old.

The terminology of Forms varies so much at different schools that it is
convenient to regard the school as divided into four blocks, A B GC D—A con-
taining the Upper School, B and C the Middle School, and D the lowest Forms.
The abler boys are expected to join the school in B and Upper O, the less able
in Lower C, and the worst (intellectually) in D.

Roughly, the majority of Block A corresponds to a post-matriculation stage
and the rest to a pre-matriculation stage. The latter are entirely concerned
with their general education, but the former in the lower Forms of Block A
are beginning a semi-specialisation in groups of subjects which will culminate
at the top in completely specialised or even vocationalised work.

“Science for All’ constitutes an essential part of general education; therefore
it must be compulsory where it will embrace the greatest number of boys for a
sufficient portion of their general time-table. This is best achieved by making
it compulsory in Block B and Upper C, equally for Classical and Modern sides
if such exist in this part of the school. There is no difficulty about this or the
other suggestions which are put forward when the ultimate school authority is
sympathetic; they are possible at any Public School, but they may not be
desired by those in power.

Compulsory science in B and Upper C, however, may not secure the ablest
boys for a sufficient length of time, as they may pass into A very quickly. This
can be corrected by making science compulsory for a minimum number of terms—
i.e., a boy passing quickly into A must continue science in A until he has com-
pleted the science comprised in the general education.

A. Science should be alternative with other subjects in A for such boys as
have completed the compulsory ‘Science for All.’ The boys taking science
then will have completed the general courses and will begin the systematic
study of science with a view to their after-life profession, reading further
science on leaving school, &c. They should give not less than eight hee) per
week to the subject. Classical and Modern side boys should come together and
be re-graded in divisions according to their progress and ability in the subject.

The alternative subjects for those boys in A who do not take science must
be decided by each school for itself. There is obviously one main consideration
for a boy of scientific aptitude in deciding whether he will take science or the
alternative subjects in A. The other subjects can be studied by securing a
competent teacher, whether in the holidays or in ‘out-of-school’ hours in term
time. But for science a laboratory is essential, and term time at school will be
for many boys their one and only opportunity of doing experimental work in a
laboratory. At one school where this scheme is in force the alternative subjects
for the Classical side in A are French and Classical Verse Composition, whilst
for the Modern side they are Latin and Extra History.

The boys in A who do not join the science divisions proper can profitably
devote some two hours per week to certain scientific principles as an extension of
the ‘Science for All’ which they have done—e.g., history of science progress,
agriculture, geology, &c.

Thus the science in A comprises four sets of boys: (1) Science specialists,
(2) those giving eight hours per week to science, (3) those giving two hours per
week, (4) those completing ‘ Science for All.’

B and Upper C.—Science is compulsory for a minimum of five hours in
school and one hour’s preparation per week for six terms—or its equivalent,
The boys should be re-graded for science as in A,

150 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIeNCE.—1917.

Lower C.—The work consists of object courses of a heuristic nature. These
boys need not be re-graded.

D. Natural knowledge and practical work in connexion with mathematics
co-ordinated with similar work begun at the preparatory school.

II. Aims of the Compulsory Science.

1. Training in scientific method by experimental investigation.

2. Conveying useful information and fixing it by practical exercises.

8. Arousing interest and discovering special aptitude for science.

4. Emphasising the human aspect of the work as much as possible by using
daily-life phenomena, practical applications, machines, agricultural processes,
&c., as the material wherever possible.

III. Freedom of the Teacher.

Within the above principles complete freedom should be left to the teacher
in accordance with his interests and opportunities. He should arrange his own
courses, syllabuses, &c., decide what material he employs for any of the above
objects, and whether he achieves them by ‘ object,’ ‘ subject,’ ‘ problem,’ or any
other method.

IV. The ‘Science for All’ should be carefully co-ordinated with the other
work of the school—more especially the mathematics and geography. Where
essential work is not adequately dealt with under these subjects, it must be
meluded in the science course—e.g., elementary mechanics with sufficient prac-
tical work, and elementary physiography.

V. Every school should be free to create its own syllabuses and treatment
of them, provided the two vital essentials of conducting experimental investiga-
tions and emphasising the human aspects of the subject are attained.

Some examples are here given—they are not prescribed or even recom-
mended but simply selected as illustrating the above points.

A. A course taken by boys in Lower C as an introduction to the experimental
method.

Experimental Investigation of Chalk.

Experiments to be done by the boys themselves in the laboratory, with
occasional lecture demonstrations and discussions to connect up the results
arrived at and for those experiments which are unsuitable for the boys to
perform at this stage, such as the electrolysis of fused calcium chloride.

Examine chalk, notice its physical properties, and find out if it is soluble
in water. Is it an element or a compound? Effect of heat on it. Does it
change in weight when heated?

Collect the gas given off on heating chalk in a silica tube. Study the pro-
perties of this gas. The same gas is given off when chalk is treated with acids,
and this is a more convenient way of making it.

The gas will not support the combustion of most substances. Try if burning
phosphorus and magnesium will continue to burn the gas. The latter con-
tinues to burn with a spluttering noise. The residue left is composed of a
white substance, similar to the ash left when magnesium burns in air or oxygen
and black specks.

This white ash is a compound of magnesium and oxygen, therefore the gas
contains oxygen. Separate the black specks from the white ash by treating the
whole ash with hydrochloric acid; wash with water—collect and dry. The
black stuff looks like charcoal. It burns in air or oxygen and forms a gas
which turns lime-water milky. But carbon burns in air and forms the same gas.
Therefore the black specks are carbon, and the gas from the chalk is composed
of carbon and oxygen. We call it carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas.

Return to the residue left when all the gas has been driven off by heating
chalk. It is a white substance. Try the action of water on it. Is it soluble in
water? Shake it up with water filter, and blow air from the lungs into the
clear filtrate. It turns milky. It is lime-water, Excursions here into the
slaking of quicklime, and the uses of slaked lime. Demonstration of the pre-
paration of calcium by the electrolysis of fused calcium chloride,

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 151

Burn some of the calcium obtained in oxygen and prove that the white
substance obtained is identical with quicklime. Therefore quicklime is a
compound of calcium and oxygen. ,

Gas . : F { Carbon

Chalk , ilk Oxygen
Quicklime . ' ; p estate,

Oxygen

Many objects are suitable for such courses—e.g., the candle, commor. salt,
hematite, &c.

B. Some teachers prefer to take the work as a problem rather than as
subjects. Much of the conventional ‘subject’ matter naturally arises when this
treatment is adopted, and each suitable occasion for experimental inquiries
germane to the general inquiry is taken. Moreover, the manipulation and
laboratory practice arise as a necessity in the course of the investigation and
the various subjects are correlated. Of course, both these ends should be
attained whatever the method employed. But in ‘subjects’ there is a strong
temptation to take elementary practice as an end in itself; something to be ‘ got
through.’ There are few things more unattractive and dehumanised than such
courses, which seem absolutely pointless to the boy. For example, he does not
feel the need of accurate weighing, determination of density, specific gravity,
&c., and he has no mental picture of any problem on which such matters bear.
When they are not done as ‘ends in themselves,’ but taken as they occur as
necessary machinery in the course of an investigation, their apparent pointlessness
disappears, and the boy is at least reconciled to them as necessary evils.

In ‘subject’ courses also so much time is often taken over the laws and
their establishment that the applications and mavhines are never reached; of
twelve elementary text-books on ‘ Heat’ taken at random from a shelf, not one
mentions the existence of such a machine as the steam-engine.

This result is avoided if the course starts from a machine and is then left to
create itself under the direction of the teacher. Suggestion and discussion at
the end of a period as to the next thing to ‘go for’ result in some questions
being simply answered, some discarded by consent for various reasons, whilst
ae are dealt with experimentally by the boys themselves or by demonstration
ectures.

Thus the properties of water can be investigated as so many geological,
biological, chemical, and physical ‘subjects.’ Or they can be correlated into
one problem course beginning, for instance, with the hydraulic press and then
developed as above. Starting from the press, there immediately arise trans-
mission of pressure, fluids and solids, principles of machines, work and force.
Various pumps follow, leading directly to air pressure and experimental
investigation into it by the boys themselves. Barometers, pressure on divers,
dams, lock-gates, together with deep-sea sounding, chalk, sand, clay, and
Artesian wells provide the humanising element. Flotation follows with Archi-
medes’ Principle, buoyancy, &c.; where there is a school bathing-place it is
best worked out there practically with a raft, a raft of casks, and a weighing
machine.

Sea-water’s buoyancy leads on to its properties, solution of solids, crystallisa-
tion and solution—all arising out of the problem, instead of as pointless and
seemingly useless preliminaries necessary for some future unknown work of
which the boy is ignorant. Solution of air and its influence on fish, &c., lead to
Harrogate water, soda-water, sparkling wines, bread or sugar in a lemon squash.

Carbon dioxide suggests its preparation and properties, respiration, breath-
ing, burning, and decay, and so nitrates and manures on the one hand, and
limestone, with limestone caverns, stalactites, hard and soft water, water supply,
good and bad water on the other. Organic matter in water and its purification
can extend as far into typhoid, diphtheria, bacteria, infection, inoculation,
vaccination, milk, &c., as the teacher desires. a5

The compounds and mixtures reached as above lead to inquiries as to the
naturé of water and suitable chemical investigations, which are followed
naturally by more physical considerations—its change of volume on becoming

152 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCH.—1917.

steam, pressure in boilers, and the steam-engine with B.H.P., ending in the
boys determining their own B.H.P. The source of the energy being heat, the
rate at which the gas-burners supply heat can be determined, and so the
unit of heat is reached, together with the mechanical equivalent (Callender’s
Apparatus) and the thermal efficiency of the engine. The effect of pressure
on the boiling-point introduces evaporation and boiling, together with rain,
dew, and hydrometers.

hey are now ready for another change of state, so formation of ice, bursting
water-pipes, disintegration of soil, icebergs, deep sea and life in the abyss,
provide one line, whilst latent-heat cooling by evaporation, freezing machines,
and liquefaction of gases afford another.

C. The majority of schools, however, find the ‘subject’ method more
convenient. Except perhaps in the matter of correlation, the disadvantages
mentioned above can be avoided if it is realised that the introduction of the
human element and experimental investigations should be the main features.
Since this is the only science work many of these boys will get, the object is
not to clear the way for a future study of science, but to provide self-
contained work complete in itself. This means a broad landscape as the general
picture, with detailed work in particular fields to provide the experimental
inquiries. The geographical work of the school may provide it; but, if not,
an introductory course should present a broad view of the Universe, the position
of the earth in it, the changes which the earth undergoes by volcanic and other
action, as well as some of the usual physical and chemical properties of the
atmosphere.

Forms of life on the earth can be begun here, but not taken very far, as
much of this biological work is helped by some physical and chemical under-
standing. It is a disadvantage where the ‘subject’ method is employed to
get the biological work ahead of this ancillary knowledge. The most satis-
factory results are attained by retaining a portion of the time each week for
biological work throughout the six terms. Different stages in it are then
reached pari passu with the progress in physics and chemistry. The final
stages are attacked with the more adult and trained grip, following four or
five terms’ work at science. At the least the biological work should comprise
the life of a plant, simple agriculture, crops, fixation of nitrogen, manures;
an excellent experimental investigation into the overthrow of the humus theory
by Ingenhauss can be carried out, together with other practical work. In the
botanical section there should come an introduction to the work of Darwin,
Mendel, Pasteur, and others. In fact, this acquaintance with the foremost
men in the history of scientific knowledge should be included in each subject.
Material full of human interest is provided by coal, fungi, yeast and its uses.
bacteria, ferments and fermentation, with many examples, pasteurisation, tinned
and bottled goods, ptomaines, infection, refrigeration, and so on. University
framers of a syllabus for the average boy and external examiners revel in the
action of sulphuric acid on copper and similar phenomena as an educational
medium ; the vast majority of candidates pass through life without ever meeting
such an action outside the academic atmosphere of the class-room, any more
than they meet the Greek particles. Bread, cheese, and beer are apparently
beneath the consideration of academic science specialists. None the less,
fermentation, moulds, bacteria in hay infusions, &c., are unequalled as a material
for experimental investigation and instilling a true scientific habit.

In the same way in zoology, the work of Jenner, Lister, Metchnikoff, and
other great discoverers should be brought out in connexion with simple hygiene.
This course should also include reference to microscopic animal life and its
effect on the earth’s surface (e.g., chalk and flint), respiration, blood circulation,
malaria, sleeping sickness, or to useful natural products within the Empire, and
some simple agriculture.

The other subject courses are more familiar. It is only necessary to direct
attention to the special human features of the work and to give one or two
examples of experimental investigations. Thus, the hydrostatics can be based
on a machine and involve consideration of other familiar applications in addi-
tion to those already mentioned in A, such as pulleys, jacks, balloons, siphons,
and turbines. If the mathematical work of the school does not comprise them,
then falling bodies, Newton, &c., Galileo’s disproof of Aristotle should he

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 153

taken here. It is important that typical instances of the overthrow of a
generally accepted theory, as well as the work of some of the great pioneers,
should be familiar. The elementary chemistry affords excellent material for
this, as well as for experimental investigation. For example, in the considera-
tion of combustion and the phlogistic theory, let the boys perform the six
following experiments :

1. Does magnesium really lose weight when burnt? Gain in weight may
be due to crucible, therefore

2. Does crucible gain in weight? Perhaps the air is concerned in the
increase, therefore

3. Burn phosphorus in bell-jar over water. One-fifth of air active; rest,
inactive. What has become of the phosphorus and the active constituent ?

4. Test water with litmus. Dissolve some phosphorus pentoxide in water
and add litmus.

5. Burn phosphorus in a weighed round-bottomed flask with stopper and
valve. (a) Heat has no weight, (b) conservation of mass, (c) gain in weight
on opening valve shows that air has been used.

6. Burn candle and catch products; determine gain in weight.

7. Demonstration with oxygen and nitrogen to show properties of active and
inactive constituents.

8. Lecture on history and overthrow of phlogistic theory.

The study of the atmosphere and the chemistry of daily life should form
the basis of the whole chemical course in this general science. In connexion
with flame, the simpler hydrocarbons and their combustion should be dealt
with, and the artificial distinction of ‘organic’ chemistry should not preclude
the average boy from dealing with the petroleum industry, coal-tar products,
benzene, phenol, toluene, aniline dyes and mordants, sugar, alcohol and its
uses, oils, fats, soaps and glycerine, nitroglycerine, and other explosives.

The subject of heat probably provides the ideal experimental investigation
in heat quantity—e.g. :

1. Heat 500 grammes and 1,000 grammes of water over a steady flame; plot
graph of time and temperature for each.

Mix 500 grammes of hot water with 500 grammes of cold water.

Mix 500 grammes of hot water with 1,000 grammes of cold water.

Mix 1,000 grammes of various cold metals with 500 grammes of hot water.
. Mix 100 grammes of hot water with 200 grammes of cold mercury.
Make a cooling curve for, say, phenol.

Heat ice steadily until the water formed boils—make a temperature-
time curve.

8. More accurate determination of specific heat and latent heat.

The rest of the work should be associated with practical applications as much
as possible. Out of the small total time available for science, it is an unjustifi-
able waste to devote part to filling and sealing thermometers, coefficients of
expansion, &c., beloved of the text-book and the examiner. All of this type
of work is very necessary for those who are going to continue the study of
science, but perfectly useless for that majority which will not do so. Men of
science are prepared to use a watch without having made one. Why should
not the ‘general science’ pupil use a thermometer without first making! it?
With the saving of time thus effected, there is plenty available for work which
really interests them, such as heat values of fuels, heat and work, work and
power, horse-power, B.H.P. of an engine, steam-engine, energy losses, I.H.P.
efliciency, and so on.

In the Light course the simplest treatment of rectilinear propagations, candle-
power, intensity, photometers, plane mirrors, laws of reflection and refraction,
images, internal reflection, and dispersions will allow the pupil to deal with
what he ‘wants to know about ’—viz., searchlights, prisms, lenses, the eye,
spectaclés, magnifying glasses, telescopes, microscopes, rainbows, the spectrum,
and fluorescence.

In the subject of sound, waves and frequency are practically all the average
boy requires in addition to the ear, Doppler effect, siren, gramophones, and
Claxon horn. In all these he is interested.

Nop WN

154 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

After magnetism, electro-magnets, and telegraphs, the boy redches his
electrical paradise. The effects of a current and its measurements by any of
these effects, B.O.T. unit of current, ammeters, voltmeters, microphone, tele-
phone, dynamo, magnets, motor, X-rays, wireless telegraphy, electrical energy
and power, Watt lamps, wiring of houses—these abolish all need of punishment
for lack of industry in trying to understand physical laws; indeed, they help
that understanding.

In this scheme emphasis has been laid especially on those aspects of the
work which make the subject alive and personal; this treatment does not
exclude a grasp of those elementary laws with which an educated man should
be familiar. It only insists on associating such laws with their practical
applications. This generalised science scheme for those boys who are not
pursuing the subject any further has been evolved during ten years at a school.
Iu arriving at its present stage, which is far from perfect, some golden rules
have been applied :

1. Make sure of the landscape; do not start the boy on a niggling bit of
formal science,

2. Exclude rigorously any work, practical or otherwise, which is not worth
doing for itself.

3. Some work is worth doing because it is valuable educationally—e.g.,
experimental investigations. Other work is worth doing not only because it
has educational value; it also concerns itself with matters which occur in the
average life of an educated citizen who is not actively concerned with a
scientific career.

4. Some work is only contributory to the further study of science beyond
what is necessary for a general education. This work is an unjustifiable waste
of time for those boys who will never study science further.

5. Be suspicious of anything which occurs in any existing examination
syllabus. It is usually there for the convenience of the examiner, or because
it is contributory to the formal study of science.

6. Consider the conditions of the school and the personal equation of the
teachers rather than examinations in drawing up a syllabus for the average boy.

His need is to understand (1) the multifarious ways in which the results
of scientific investigation affect his daily life, (2) the experimental methods
by which the natural phenomena of daily life are being investigated, (3) whilst
knowing the value of an expert, none the less to be confident and resourceful
within his own limitations.

i in

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 155

II, SCIENCE IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL.
By F. W. Sanperson, Headmaster, Oundle School.

The course here outlined indicates the kind of work which may be done in
schools by boys below the age at which specialising begins. This age depends
upon the type of school and the leaving age, and varies with the tastes and
capacities of individual boys. In a Public School where the leaving age is
nineteen the specialising age is about seventeen years. The course presented
applies to boys below the age of seventeen—t.e., to boys of the Preparatory
School age, and to the lower and middle forms of the Public School. The
methods proposed are based on the belief that the early stages of science
teaching may be taken through applied science. Science, like history, may
with advantage be read backwards. Pure science and pure mathematics may
be taught in parallel with applied science, as the grammar of the science,
but it will be found for the most part that the amount of pure science
that the average boy can understand will be included in the applied work.

A claim is therefore made for the inclusion of applied science within the
general science curriculum of a school. There is some reason for this now,
when so many of the applications of science come within the daily life of
the people. It is a well-known saying that a motor-bicycle has taught a
boy more of true dynamics than he has ever learnt from the Laws of Motion.
However this may be, it is obviously a wise educational principle to base
teaching on all that is now common knowledge.

It must be confessed that much of the pure science which comes within
an elementary course is better left to a later age. Experiments on Boyle’s
law, and the other law of gases; the discussion of the laws of motion; complex
questions on specific heats, should be reserved for the specialising age. This
is following in the wake of the reforms in the teaching of geometry. Applied
science actually simplifies the problems. The steam-engine is a good example,
as is shown in many parts of Perry’s ‘Steam Engine.’ Here is material for
an elementary course on heat, and a source for easy direct calculations of
practical importance. Moreover, the method is informative, and gives a
working knowledge of the engine which will stand in good stead.

A further claim is made. This form of science teaching is stimulating and
arresting, and gives the boy plenty to do and much to think about. It arouses
interest, develops intelligence, and promotes catholicity of taste. Teachers will
find that the application of science, and all that may be called the romance
of science, are alive with possibilities for the education of the young in every-
thing connoted under the words Culture, the Humanities, and Art. Much
depends upon the faith of the teacher, but no one can study the life and
works of a great discoverer without finding himself within a realm of art.
There is abundance of evidence for this in the works of those masters of science
who to their creative faculties have added the literary art. But the science
art remains even without its literary expression, and men and women may
learn to appreciate the art as they appreciate music and painting, though they
have no skill as musicians or painters.

Science in a General School Course.

There are many considerations why the science in a general course,
especially for those boys who will not specialise in science, should not be
restricted to the elementary syllabuses. Many of the.syllabuses and elementary
text-books dwell upon principles which now form the grammar of science,
whilst the larger developments of modern days are not touched upon. ‘ Science
for all’ does not mean this kind of science—grammar without the books.
Except in the hands of a good teacher such work may have little of inspira-
tion, and in a general course inspiration is everything. A claim is therefore
made for a kind of science teaching which at first sight may be thought
peoonng and technical. In sympathetic hands specialising need not be
eared,

156 REPORTS ON THE STATE oF scrENCcE.—1917.

The branches of science which may be included in a general course for
schools are indicated below. These can be organised according to the ages
of the boys. The methods of teaching which they imply will be especially
valuable for young boys of the Preparatory School age. In his early years
the small boy can wander through these fields of knowledge. He can learn
to handle tools in an engineering shop; he can work with motors and other
machines; he can open his eyes in the romance of physics, chemistry, and
biology; and he can practise weighing and measuring in his class-room. The
older boys, from fourteen to seventeen, will go over the same ground, but
on a higher plane, and will in the later stages acquire a working knowledge
of applied science. A

The following are the subjects :—(1) Workshops ; (2) ‘ Romance of Science,’
including Astronomy ; (3) Experiments on the Use of Machines; (4) Biology ;
(5) Chemistry ; (6) Physical Measurements, and, at a later stage, (7) Applied
and Pure Science.

1. Workshop Practice.—Belief in the value of a continuous workshop train-
ing must be the excuse for the space here given to the organisation of shops.
In the first place, the shops must be on a scale which will employ a class of
twenty-five boys effectively. They must form a small manufactory, and have
an engineering machine shop, a carpenter’s or patternmaker’s shop, a smithy
and foundry of some size. These conditions are essential for true work.
Smaller shops tend to be of an amateur character, and only a few boys can
get the best out of them. Workshops to be effective must be on a large scale.
It is seriously necessary that such shops should be established, not for Public
Schools only, but for Secondary and Elementary Schools, nor should expense
stand in the way. Such shops could be made self-supporting. Schools should
be able to turn out good craftsmen as leaders or workers in the industrial
life of the country, and the training can be given in schools better than in
works. In works, unfortunately, much of what is good is spoilt by the spirit
which competition and the conflict of capital and labour engender. Boys
sent out from the schools can not only be made good craftsmen, but they can
also be inspired with ambition to rise to high standards of skill, and to have
a deep insight into the significance of their work. Enthusiasts believe that
vocational teaching is capable of giving the highest training for life.

There are two methods of working shops. Under one system boys make
things for themselves, and may follow some hobby. This is the individualistic
principle, and is the only one possible in small shops. The other system
is to organise the shops on manufacturing or co-operative lines. The war
has given the opportunity of doing this more effectively than before, and the
possibility for true education of this kind of working has been discovered.
Co-operative work involves repetition work, and there are many excellences
in this repetition. In shops of fair size a variety of work can be contracted
for, and this work will fill several types of machines, such as the lathe,
drilling, planing, milling, slotting, grinding machines. A contract of the
kind now being given for munition work provides work both rough and fine,
so that all boys can be occupied; and no boy need be kept too long at the
same class of work. This work gives opportunities for boys who do not dis-
tinguish themselves in other parts of the school; and they can therefore take a
higher place among their fellows, as well as gaim self-respect and reliance.

The following are some influences of workshop training :—

(a) One chief characteristic is the attitude of mind which is fostered
by the shops. This is all towards attention and creativeness. Workshops
are places where things are made, and the objective is to make something.
A boy goes there to do, and not to learn. His attention is fixed on his work.
Determination to do the work in front of him and to acquire skill and
practice is the chief aim. This spirit towards work is transferred to the
class-room and changes the boy’s view-point there. The influence is infectious,
and keeps alive the spirit of creativeness.

() Another effect of the workshops is to develop craftsmanship. A boy
acquires the virtues of a first-class workman. He becomes deft with his tools,

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 157

learns to be patient, careful, accurate, inventive. He acquires the power of
construction and of initiative.

(c) In a workshop a boy lives in the atmosphere of mechanics and physics,
and is continually either making or reading engineering drawings. He has
the chance to acquire a mechanical sense, and to learn by intuition the signifi-
cance of force, speed, acceleration, rotation. He has many opportunities of
using measuring instruments, and of making physical measurements. He
learns machine drawing, and mechanical drawing is becoming daily of more
interest and importance—even to the non-specialist. A drawing-office can be
made the very heart of mathematical teaching, as it is the centre of engineering
works. Very young boys can be effectively employed in a drawing-office, and
they learn in a practical way many of the principles of geometry.

(d) Incidentally, boys are given a vocational teaching. There are many
professions where a knowledge of technical work is essential. A craftsman’s
knowledge is of value to barristers, solicitors, clergymen, social workers, land-
owners, and all whose aim in life is ‘ to do.’

2. Romance of Science.—It is about fifty years ago since science was intro-
duced into the Public Schools. This was done largely by the influence of
Huxley and Tyndall, and the form it first took was that of demonstration
lectures. The object in view was to interest the sons of the governing classes
in the astonishing discoveries that were being made, and to inspire them with
the love of science. Many a boy must have found inspiration in these lectures,
but for the great mass of boys the results on the whole were not successful,
and the chief reason for this is that boys like to do things for themselves
rather than watch other people doing them. They want a share in the doing,
and to investigate for themselves. Some years later a change came, and the
lecture theatre gave place to the laboratory. Boys were set to work for them-
selves. The heuristic method was emphasised, and courses were arranged in
physical measurements, chemical experiments, and nature study. This method
is now well established in schools, and forms the basis of most schemes of
study and syllabuses for examinations. It would seem, however, that this
necessary laboratory work has driven the more inspiring experiments into the
background. At the moment it is important to return to the lecture theatre,
to come into contact again with striking experiments, the history and develop-
ment of discoveries, the lives of the great; in fact, to the romance of science.
It is the romance of science which contains within itself the great inspiration,
and the first duty of the teacher is to inspire boys with an awakening love of the
natural world and bring them to the verge of knowledge where lies the mystery.

There are difficulties in the way: of holding the balance between the two
methods. Romance of science opens out ideals, whilst physical measurement
trains for exact work in investigation. Both aims are necessary. The regular
laboratory work should therefore go on pari passu with any system of demonstra-
tion experiments.

A suggestion may be made for the ‘Romance of Science’ experiments.
Groups of Forms, Senior, Junior, or Preparatory, may be organised to prepare
an exhibition of experiments and demonstrations. The masters apportion the
work to groups of boys, and these groups prepare the exhibits and experiments.
They make the diagrams and sketches required, write up explanatory and
historical matter, work the experiments, and explain the exhibits. Such
exhibitions can be left in working order for the instruction of the science
classes. Mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology, provide a host of such exhibits.
Junior Forms may set up a series of well-known historical experiments ; Senior
boys may be encouraged to illustrate modern advances. There are many books
amongst the classics in science which will form the basis of such an exhibition.
The ‘ Heat and Sound’ of Tyndall; Ball’s ‘ Experimental Mechanics,’ or Perry’s
“Steam Engine’; Thompson’s ‘Light: Visible and Invisible’: Wright on
‘Projection,’ Boys’s ‘Soap Bubbles’ or Perry’s ‘Tops’; Worthington’s
‘Splash of a Drop’; Lodge’s ‘ Pioneers of Science.’ There are fascinating
experiments on the discharge through rarefied gases, with radium and X-rays,
vibrating springs, liquid air, rotating bodies; many chemical experiments and
biological exhibits. Lectures or exhibits can be prepared to illustrate the life
and works of a great investigator—men lke Faraday, Dalton, Darwin, Pasteur.

158 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Original papers can in this way be brought before the school. If the school
possesses plenty of space, many exhibits can be on view permanently.

A valuable addition to a school, or combination of schools, is a museum of
history, where developments in art and ecience may be illustrated. In the
museum there should be a gallery of the world’s workers and pioneers, that
something may be learnt of their lives and what they looked like. Here may be
shown such things as the genealogical tree of the aeroplane, the uprising of
biology, the influence of science in the social life, and so on.

3. Lxperiments Based on the Use of Machinery.—The teacher of science has
now at his command a large number of machines, tools, and measuring instru-
ments. The use of these for their normal purpose, or the testing of them,
affords a striking method of introducing young boys to the principles of
science, and gives good exercise in mathematics. Experiments can be arranged
for young boys of the Preparatory or Elementary School age with engines,
dynamos, measuring instruments, testing machines, &c., to infuse the spirit of
science and lay a foundation of information upon which to build at a later
stage. A few of the experiments can be given as examples: (1) To find the
horse-power and efficiency of a motor; (2) to run a test of a gas-engine—B.H.P.,
consumption of gas, I1.H.P., working out of cards, efficiency; (3) steam-engine
with varying loads and cut-offs; (4) experiments with voltmeters and ammeters ;
(5) testing strength of material. Very young boys can with advantage be
brought to this kind of work, but the teacher must be content to sow in
faith. He must sow the seed and wait for the fruit.

The calculations required in experiments of this kind will suggest their
extension into the mathematical class-room. The mathematical class-room may
be used as an office, for it is a useful thing in all parts of the school, especially
the lower half, to give practice in working out a series of continuous calcula-
tions. Data may be given drawn from an engine test, from the working of a
crank shaft, from agricultural operations, trench fire, artillery maps, food
rations, measuring velocity of wind; and the class may be set to work out the
calculations required. It is useful for the master to talk round the problem
for a few minutes before starting work. If many calculations are required,
the work can be divided up amongst the boys. The results can be stated not
as an answer, but in the form of a written report. This form of teaching
considerably extends the range of mathematics which may be covered in the
early years, and boys of fourteen or fifteen may be introduced through it to the
study of the calculus and co-ordinate geometry.

4. Biology.—The importance of biology in a scheme of general education
cannot be overstated. It is the science which very closely touches the life of
the nation, and its economic value is found in all directions. Every branch of
knowledge in the years to come will be influenced by the study of biology, and
the humane studies in history, economics, sociology will be re-written under
the same.

Biology should be an integral part of school studies, and take its place by
the side of languages and mathematics. In the early years it should be taught
to all, and later to a group of specialists.

The following brief notes on equipment may be useful :—

The neighbourhood can provide material for observation and study, but in
addition to this there are needed for experiment and observation some or all of
the following: (a) Biological or botanical garden; if possible, a small experi-
mental farm. The gardens may contain natural-order beds, herbaceous border,
Alpine garden, pond, marsh, seashore, climbing plants, &c. (6) Experimental
plots. (c) Laboratory and museum; in these, aquaria, breeding cages for life-
history of insects, terraria, vivaria, insect incubators, &c.; microscopes and
lenses, &c.

5. Chemistry.—Here again the work should be almost entirely experimental,
enlarged by demonstration. Much help can be given by the boys who are
specialising in chemistry. Much of the work should be of a quantitative
character, and this aspect should develop side by side with the qualitative
nature of the same. Many points of contact with the order of Nature in
everyday life will occur, and the utmost should be made of these in correlation
with biology and physics. None but exact scientific types of apparatus should

eS —eeeeEEEEOEeEe—EEEE————EE—————_ =

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. ‘159

be used where there exists no valid reason to the contrary. As an example, a
boy should, after his discovery, of the composition of the atmosphere, make an
exact determination of the properties of oxygen by Hempel’s or some similar
apparatus. A muffle furnace should be in the laboratory for use in metallurgical
work.

6. Applied Science.—It is strongly recommended as an alternative course in
the later years of the general school teaching—i.e., from the ages of 154 to
17 years—that the ordinary mechanics and physics should be replaced by a
careful experimental study of applied mechanics, heat, and electricity. In
the reorganisation of examinations it is to be hoped that an examination on
these subjects will be included in the leaving certificate, and wherever possible
a practical examination be held on the experiments which belong to a well-
equipped engineering laboratory. A syllabus based on these lines is now adopted
by the Admiralty for two of the papers of the Direct Entry examination.

160 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

III. SCHEME OF SCIENCE WORK FOR AN URBAN
SECONDARY SCHOOL FOR BOYS.

By T. Percy Nunwn.?

[Professor of Education in the University of London; formerly Chief Science
and Mathematics Master in the William Ellis School.]

The following scheme is drawn up for a four years’ course (ages twelve to
sixteen) in an urban Secondary School for boys. The work of each year is
divided into two sections— biological’ and ‘ physical.’ The proportion of time
assigned to biology decreases from more than a half in the first year to a
fifth or less in the last year, with a corresponding increase in the relative
importance of the physical section. It is assumed that about five hours a week
are assigned to science teaching in each year, and the great bulk of the matter
here set down is to be dealt with in this time. It may, however, be taken for
granted that in a well-organised school there will be close co-ordination between
the teaching of science and the teaching of mathematics and geography. It
has seemed advisable, therefore, to include in the science syllabus the cor-
responding programme of work in mechanics and geology, though much of the
former, and possibly the whole of the latter, may and should be taught in
lessons assigned to the teachers of mathematics and geography as integral parts
of their work.

In a condensed outline it is not possible to give a full programme of the
practical work to be done by the boys, or to distinguish those topics that are
more suitable for demonstration. It is to be understood that the course is
intended to throw into clear relief the fundamental ideas and results of science,
and to give the pupil a real, if rudimentary, acquaintance with the true
character of scientific inquiry. To attain these ends the work will often be
‘heuristic’ in character and as often take the form of lecture-discussions
between teacher and class, preceded, accompanied, and followed by experimental
work. Occasional practical exercises of the ‘ drill’ type will be necessary to
give the pupil a sound grasp of a principle or a method, but one of the pre-
suppositions underlying the scheme is that technical exercises of this kind
divorced from the development of a definite scientific argument have compara-
tively little value and have received too much emphasis in the past.

First YEAR.

[In Section I. the work is arranged in accordance with the seasonal sequence.
In Section II. the work in astronomy should also run throughout the year side
by side with the other subjects-]

I. Biological Section.
A. Autumn Term.

1. Life-history and habits of wasp and humble-bee.

2. Study of a few typical flowers; plan of a flower.

3. Change of flower to fruit. Collection and examination of fruits; classi-
fication ; methods of seed dispersal.

4. Winter sleep of seeds and other plant forms. The planting of sleeping
bulbs. Winter sleep of animals.

B. Spring Term.

1. Trees in winter: recognition by (i) branching; (ii) bark, (iii) buds.
Examination of buds.

2. Seed-sowing. The forms of familiar seeds. How the farmer and the
gardener sow.

3. Seeds grown for study in lamp chimneys, gas jars or test tubes;
diagrams of growth. Discovery (i) that water is needed for germination,
(ii) that light is needed for healthy growth, and (iii) that seedlings grown
apart from soil die when the cotyledons are exhausted.

+ With the assistance (for the Biological Sections) of Miss C, von Wyss.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 161

4. Subjects to be taken while seed-growing is in progress :—

(a) Study of structure of seed and bulb. Were the shoots originally packed
within?

(6) Comparison of seed with egg; study of hen’s ege. Parental care of
birds.

C. Summer Term.

Studies of plants and animals to be pursued concurrently.

1. Plant Life. Typical spring and summer flowers; need for classification ;
natural orders; how to use a ‘ Flora.’

Insect visitors to flowers. Transference of pollen; significance of pollina-
tion; fertilisation and cross-fertilisation.

2. Animal life in the pond.

(a) Record of growth and metamorphosis of tadpoles.

(0) Life-history and habits of : Water-beetle, water-boatman, water-scorpion,
eaddis-fly, dragon-fly, gnat, water-spider, water-snail.

(d) Study of green water-plants in aquaria. Evolution of gas noted for
future investigation.

Norr.—It is desirable that the formal work should be supplemented by
(4) rambles and excursions to study plants and animals in their natural
setting; () holiday work, including collection of specimens, records of life-
phases of some animal or plant, drawings and paintings; (c) gardening.
Common plots may be worked in school hours for demonstrations and experi-
ments ; individual plots in leisure hours.

lI. Physical Section.
A. Astronomy.

Simple observations and graphic records (i) to establish the (apparent)
diurnal rotation of sun and stars about an axis directed (nearly) to the Pole
Star, and (ii) to explain the principle of civil time-measurement. The observa-
tions are to be made, as opportunity offers, partly in and partly out of
school hours. The graphic records will be drawn and discussed from time to
time in class. The data for the several records may be accumulated con-
currently.

1. Direct observation that the sun appears to move. Closer study by
means of the shadow of an upright rod gives data for graphic records showing
(a) the direction of the shadow at a series of fixed times of the day in different
months, (4) the lengths of the shadow at these times. The latter brings out
the facts (i) that the shortest shadow has a fixed direction (south to north),
and (ii) that the shadow is shortest (i.c., the sun highest) at varying times
shortly before or after 12 o’clock (or 1 p.m. ‘summer time ’).

Discussion of results (supplemented by the table of ‘equation of time’
in ‘ Whitaker’s Almanack’) leads to the notions of ‘mean noon’ and the ‘ mean
solar time’ kept by an ordinary clock. The difference between ‘local mean
time’ and ‘ Greenwich mean time.’ lJLongitude lines as lines of identical
local mean time. The international system of standard time-zones, and time-
signals by wireless telegraphy. Determination of longitude at sea, &c.

2. Graphic records of the sun’s track across the sky on typical days at
or near midwinter, the equinoxes, and midsummer. Discussion of these eluci-
dates the varying length of day and night and the correlative phenomena at
the antipodes.*

* The following method works well. A number of thin rods (e.g., long
knitting-needles) are mounted perpendicularly at equal intervals along the
circumference of a circle marked out on a drawing-board. Each rod carries
a small paper or cardboard slider. The board is fixed horizontally in sun-
shine. As, from time to time during the day, the shadow of one of the rods
falls across the centre of the circle the slider is so adjusted that its shadow
covers the centre. The heights thus registered are entered upon a_ sheet

1917, uM

162 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

3. Some conspicuous stars and constellations. A circular chart to be drawn
showing the Plough, Cassiopeia, Vega, and Capella, with the Pole Star
occupying (nearly) the centre. This, pinned to rotate on a cardboard base,
serves to record roughly the positions of the stars at different hours of the
night and early morning.

Discussion of the records indicates a uniform diurnal rotation of the starry
sky about an axis drawn (nearly) to the Pole Star. Specially enterprising
pupils determine the approximate inclination of the axis to the horizon.

4. Does the sun appear to move around the same point in the sky as the
stars? An affirmative answer obtained by observing the uniform rotation of
the shadow of a thin rod, directed towards the alte pole, upon a cardboard
disc fixed at right angles to its length. Use of this (or equivalent) apparatus
as a sun-dial.

At the earth’s poles the rod (or ‘style’ of the sun-dial) would be vertical ;
on the equator it would be horizontal. Parallels of latitude are lines of
identical inclination of the style. Elucidation by means of a globe.

5. The following may be commenced in preparation for discussion in
Second Year :

(a) Record of the noonday (or ‘meridian’) altitude of the sun measured
in degrees by a simple instrument ;

(6) Record (by means of the rotating star-chart in § 3) of the position of the
circumpolar stars at the same hour (e.g., 9 p.m.) on different dates.

B. General Physics.

Under this title are grouped simple exercises preparatory to the formal
study of hydrostatics, mechanics, and the ‘ properties of matter.’ Much of the
work should be taken in close association with the course in mathematics.

1. Density and specific gravity. Determination of weights by the balance
and of volume by calculation or displacement.

2. The mechanism of the balance and the conditions for true weighing.
The laws of the lever. The grocer’s scales. Weighing-machines.

The pressure on the fulcrum of a loaded lever. The centre of gravity of
a body as a fulcrum, and as the ‘centre’ of the weights of its parts.
Experiments, toys, &c., illustrating stable and unstable equilibrium.

Simple calculations and laboratory experiments on centre of gravity, &c.

3. Time-measurement. (To be taken in connection with A. 4.) Essentials
of the mechanism of a simple clock driven by a weight or a spring and
controlled by a pendulum. (A single-handed clock, like that of Westminster
Abbey, is most suitable.)

Isochronism of the pendulum. Effects of loading or changing length
of pendulum. The ‘simple’ pendulum; connection between swing-period and
length. Experimental determination of simple pendulum equivalent to a
given pendulum. The balance-wheel in watches and clocks.

Ancient time-measures : the water-clock, the hourglass, &c.

4. Examination of common pieces of mechanism, such as a door-lock, the
‘three-speed’ gear of a bicycle. (There is scope here for individual work,
involving written descriptions aided by diagrams, &c.)

5. The mariner’s compass; simple investigation of properties of magnets
to elucidate its use. Measurement of deviation of magnet from the south-
north line established in A. 1.

C. Heat.

1. The varying warmth and coldness of weather as dependent on the
season, direction of wind, &c. The thermometer: how it works; expansion
of mercury. Necessity of a standard scale of graduation (compare weights and

of graph-paper whose length is equal to the circumference of the circle, and a
smooth curve is drawn through the recording points. A well-drawn specimen
is pasted on a wooden or cardboard cylinder to be used in the discussion and
to serve as a permanent record. The method of ‘cylindrical projection’ thus
taught may usefully be applied in subsequent geography lessons.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 163

measures). Experimental graduation of a thermometer by placing it in hot
and cold water together with a thermometer already graduated.

2. Expansion as a phenomenon generally accompanying heating. Rough
estimates of expansion of water and of metal rods. Expansion and pressure-
increase of heated air. Geographical applications.

3. Examination of the steady heating and cooling of water; discovery of
constancy of temperature during boiling and freezing.

Definite melting and boiling points of substances. Freezing of sea-water.
Melting-points of alloys, &c. Change of volume on solidification : ice, type-
metal, dentist’s filling, &c.

4, Maximum and minimum thermometers; construction of temperature-
charts. (Records of wind-directions and rainfall should also be kept throughout
the year.)

Second YEAR.

[Section I. must be taken, as before, in seasonal order. Section II., E., is
closely related to it and should be begun in the autumn term.]

I. Biological Section.
A. Autumn Term.

1. Animal life in the garden. Individual observations, guided by question
papers, directions for practical work, reference books, &c., supplemented by
class-work. The following are suitable subjects: snail and slug, earthworm,
uae and millipede, earwig, green-fly, lady-bird, hover-fly, lace-wing fly,
crane-fly.

2. Soil: general characters of clay, sand, chalk, peat, &c.; closer study of
local soil; subsoil. Simple experiments to ascertain proportions of water, clay,
sand, silt, grit, and organic matter in a sample of soil.

3. The ingredients of soil. Clay : why called ‘ heavy’; impervious to water
and air; comparison of growth of seeds in pure clay and garden soil; experiments
on effects of ‘liming.’ Experiments to test properties of sand and chalk. Leaf-
mould and humus: origin and distribution.

4, Biology of soil. Adaptations of animals that inhabit soil. Why the
farmer thinks soil itself ‘ alive ’; demonstration of activity by respiration within
the soil. Soil bacteria and protozoa needing air, water, and food.

B, Spring Term.

Relation of plant life to soil.

1. Soil-water ; comparison of retentive power of different soils. Rise of water
in soils; capillarity (see II., C., 3). Importance of hoeing and mulching.

2. Local differences in water-supply of soil; effects on plant forms studied
in. situ.

3. Differences in form of leaves of plants from dry and wet localities.
Experimental investigation of differences directed to (i) absorption of water by
roots, (ii) loss of water by leaves. Hale’s experiments. Construction of
potometer. Microscopic examination of leaf-epidermis; stomata, water-pores.

Ascent of water in stem; osmosis (see ITI., C., 4).

4. Mineral substances in soil as food for plants.

(a) Soil-water shown by evaporation (II., E., 1) to contain dissolved mineral
matter; comparison with transpired water suggests that the matter is retained
by the plant. Suggestion confirmed by examination of ash of burnt plant.
The more important constituents. Practical preparation of water and sand
cultures. Selective absorption by roots.

(b) Rotation of crops. The nodules on roots of leguminous plants; fixation
of nitrogen by bacteria. Bottomley’s researches. ‘Symbiotic’ relations
between green plants and fungi.

C. Summer Term.

Studies in plant physiology. f : y

1. Respiration. | Germinating seeds found, like human beings, to emit

carbon dioxide. Probability (in spite of negative experimental tests) that the
M2

164 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

developed plant continues to respire. Reference to behaviour of water-plants
(First Year, I., C., 2 (d)) leads to discovery that they emit oxygen. Distinction
between respiration and assimilation of carbon dioxide. Experimental dis-
covery (i) that both processes occur in plants growing in air, (ii) that oxygen is
necessary to plant life, (iii) that breathing proceeds in light and darkness, in
cold and warmth.

2. Assimilation of carbon dioxide by plants; importance in general life-
economy. Plant substances built up mainly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen. The leaf the organ of assimilation of carbon; microscopic differences
between leaves according as carbon dioxide is supplied or withheld; starch
grains, the iodine test. Starch shown to contain carbon. Manufacture of
starch. Relation of starch to other substances in plants. Experiments on rela-
tion of light and darkness, cold and warmth, to assimilation; also of seedling
leaves, green leaves, and variegated leaves.

3. Assimilation of carbon dioxide as feeding. Comparison of food-processes
in plants and animals. Dependence of animal life on activity of the green plant.

II. Physical Section.
A. Astronomy.

Observations and discussions to lead up to the explanation of the (apparent)
annual motion of the sun. The work to be conducted as in the First Year.

1. Revision of, and exercises upon, First Year’s work—including the problem
of graduating a horizontal sun-dial. (Dials for permanent use may be made in
the handwork class, also simple altitude-meters for home observations.)

2. The moon. The class to make a collection of drawings of the phases
preparatory to explanation by means of a simple model. The moon observed to
move among the stars. Rough measurement of interval between southings.
Conception of ‘mean lunar day.’ (Compare with First Year, II., A., 1. A
clock may be regulated to keep ‘mean lunar time.’) Lunar and calendar
months. Note that at the same ‘lunar time’ on different dates the constellations
cccupy a series of different positions, repeated each month.

3. Completion of the record begun in First Year, II., A., 5 (b). At the
same ‘ solar time’ the constellations occupy a series of positions repeated each
year. Comparison with results in § 2 brings out that the sun moves among the
stars.

4. Continuation of First Year record, II., A., 5 (a). Graph of a year’s
observations to be drawn and compared with similar graphs of former years.

A horizontal line across graph represents the sun’s mean altitude at noon and
divides the curve into two balancing segments. The sun spends half the year
above and half below this line (the ‘celestial equator’). The equator cor-
responds to the plane of the sun-dial used in First Year, II., A., 4. Compila-
tion of a table of the sun’s ‘declination’ from the graph. Use of this table
in determining latitude at sea.

Representation of the curve ona cylindrical projection (see footnote to First
Year, II., A., 2), the equator being taken as datum-line. The paper above the
curve is cut away and the residue bent into a cylinder. The (apparent) annual
path of the sun among the stars is then seen to be a plane (the ‘ ecliptic’)
inclined at 234° to the plane of the equator. Explanation of the seasons.

5. Revision and summary of the two years’ work. Distinction between the
‘solar,’ ‘ lunar,’ and ‘ sidereal’ days. Explanation in terms of (i) a diurnal
rotation of the earth about its axis, (ii) an annual revolution of the earth about
me oe (iii) a monthly revolution of the moon about the earth. The Gregorian
calendar.

B. Geology.

Field-work arranged as part of the course in biology or geography should
include observations of the stratigraphical disposition of different types of
earth and rock (e.g. of the sand and clay on Hampstead Heath in London),
and of the relations thereto of the surface features (including the outflow
of streams). The nature and effects of river action should also be studied unless
taken in a previous year.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 165

C. General Physics.

1. How ships float. Measurement of extra displacement produced by adding
‘cargo’ to a box floating in water suggests Archimedes’ Principle. Confirma-
tion in case of other liquids. Extension of principle to bodies that sink. Use
of camels and pontoons. Submarine boats. Balloons and airships; contrast with
aeroplane.

Exercises on use of Archimedes’ Principle in determining volumes and specific
gravities.

2. The barometer as a meteorological instrument. Construction of siphon
barometer. Pascal’s theory of action illustrated by demonstrating increasing
pressure at lower depths in a jar of water. The experiment of the Puy de
Dome. Reduction of barometer readings to sea-level for construction of
barometric charts. Relation between isobars and winds.

Boyle’s experiments in confirmation of Pascal; leading to notion of the
‘spring’ of the air and to Boyle’s Law.

Experiments and apparatus illustrating air-pressure : pumps, vacuum-brake,
parcel-transmitter, siphon, &c. The aneroid barometer: its use in determining
heights in mountaineering, aeroplaning, &c.

Archimedes’ Principle explained by theory of liquid-pressure. The theory
applied to explain water-supply systems, hydraulic lifts and engines.

3. Capillarity. Experiments to supplement those of I., C., 1. Measurement
of surface tension (in grams-weight per cm.) by rise of water in tube. Simple
study of bubbles, drops, and jets; also of common phenomena such as writing
with ink.

4. Osmosis. Simple experiments to supplement I., C., 1. Passage of dis-
solved salts through a porous partition until equality of concentration is set up.
Use in purifying beet-molasses. Semi-permeable membranes; law of osmotic
pressure; comparison with Boyle’s Law for gases. Application to plant-cell.

5. Revision of work of First Year, II., B., 2. Use of spring balance to
measure a ‘force’ (i.e. a push or a pull) in terms of weight. Hooke’s Law in
the stretching of strings, the bending of beams, &c. Use of a single (rough)
fixed pulley; measurement of its ‘etticiency.’ Use of movable pulleys. The
Principle of Work introduced for the determination of their efficiency.

Loss of work by friction; simple laws of friction.

Application of Principle of Work to lever, to haulage on an incline (without
and with friction), &c.

6. Conditions of equivalence of a single force (e.g. a pull in a cord) to two
others. The vector law. Applications: the suspension bridge, cantilever
frames, &c.

D. Heat.

1, Revision of First Year work. Mean temperatures in meteorology ; regu-
larity of mean seasonal changes over long periods. Geographical isotherms,

Temperatures at high altitudes and at great depths in sea.

Dependence of boiling and freezing points on pressure; regelation, skating,
snowballs.

2. Hot-water circulation; convection. Function of radiators. Loss of tem-
perature through conduction. Experiments on and illustrations of convection,
radiation, and conduction: clothing, bark of trees, radiation from gravel and
vegetation, &c.; thermostats, the thermos flask, temperature of ‘Tube’ rail-
ways, &c.

Curves of cooling of equal amounts of different substances (e.g. water and
sand) ; geographical importance of slow rate of cooling and heating of water.

Lagging of temperature at different depths below surface of soil. (To be
taken in connection with I., B.)

3. Extension of First Year, II., C., 3; separation of liquids by distillation.
Applications : petroleum industry, turpentine and resin.

Simple treatment of vapour pressure.

Evaporation and condensation. Precipitation of rain and dew. Simple
hygrometry ; determination of dew-point; relative humidity. Wet and dry
bulb thermometer.

Cold produced by evaporation. Ice-making, cold storage.

166 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

E. Chemistry.

Nore.—§§ 1-4 should be taken during Autumn Term.

1. Washing soda a crystalline substance which degenerates (especially in
warm weather) into a shapeless powder. Distillation shows changes to be due
to loss of ‘water of crystallisation.’ Water derivable from other crystals (but
not all) and from vegetable and animal substances (e.g. a potato) where its
presence is not apparent. First notions of chemical combination between
substances.

Crystallisation from solution in water. Manufacture of common salt, cane
and beet sugar; plaster of Paris; ‘ sympathetic inks.’ Variations in solubility.
Crystalloids and colloids. Other solvents (e.g. petrol, solvent naphtha in water-
proofing, turpentine, &c.) and their uses.

Soluble and insoluble substances in soil. Residue from evaporation of tap-
water; formation of sea-water.

2. Use of soda in cookery leads to discovery that it turns the juice of
pickling cabbage green. (The juice is extracted by pounding in a mortar.)
Vinegar (preferably ‘ white’ vinegar) turns the juice red. Soda and vinegar
can ‘ overcome’ one another’s effects. Caustic soda, mild and caustic potash,
ammonia and lime, being found to turn the juice green, are classed with washing
soda as alkalis; acids are found to turn it red. Other vegetable extracts found
to show colour changes with acids and alkalis, e.g. litmus. Other ‘indicators’ :
phepolphthalein, methyl orange.

Neutralisation; careful study by means of burette, different boys working
with different acids and alkalis. Evaporation of neutral solutions reveals
presence of common salt when mild or caustic soda is neutralised by hydrochloric
acid, and other ‘ salts’ in the other cases. Salts named from acid and alkali
(e.g. sulphate of ammonia). Manufacture of sulphate of ammonia for manure,
and of sal-ammoniac.

3. How does caustic differ from washing soda? On addition of acid the
latter yields a heavy gas which extinguishes flames, turns lime-water cloudy
and ultimately clears it again. The cloudy matter, when collected, returns the
gas if acid is added. Chalk is known to yield the same gas when ‘ burnt’
to make lime. Finally, caustic soda is made by boiling washing soda with
lime, the latter becoming converted into chalk. (Similar statements apply to
mild and caustic potash.) Thus, washing soda, mild potash, and chalk are to
be classed together, and also caustic soda, caustic potash and lime. But there
are two ‘limes ’—quicklime and slaked lime. Dry ‘ heavy gas’ liberates water
from caustic soda, caustic potash and slaked lime, but not from quicklime;
hence the analogy is with slaked lime.

4. The ‘heavy gas’ is produced in breathing, and also in the burning of
coal-gas, candles, &c. Burning of these substances in a jar demonstrates its
production together with water, and shows, further, that one-fifth of the air
is consumed. The burning of metals (e.g. magnesium), and of phosphorus,
sulphur, &c., the rusting of iron, the ‘drying’ of boiled oil, &c., also remove
the ‘active’ one-fifth of the air and leave four-fifths ‘inactive.’ Consideration
of the mode of manufacture of red lead suggests that if heated it may restore
the absorbed active constituent. Oxygen and nitrogen; argon. Manufacture of
oxygen from liquid air. Properties and uses of oxygen. Oxides.

The ‘heavy gas’ is produced without water when pure carbon is burnt in
oxygen. It is, therefore, an oxide of carbon. Confirmation by burning mag-
nesium in gas. Oxygen passed over red-hot carbon (as in a domestic fire and
in the smelting furnace) produces a gas which burns to form the heavy gas.
The latter must, therefore, contain more oxygen (compare litharge and red
lead) ; hence the names carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.

5. Oxides and oxidation in nature and industry. Oxides of iron, copper,
magnesium, aluminium, &c.; ochres and other painter’s colours; ‘ drying’ of
oils; linoleum. :

6. Is water also an oxide? Affirmative answer obtained by passing steam
over hot magnesium. Discovery of hydrogen. Production in bulk by passing
steam over hot iron; properties. Known to be produced also when the plumber
‘kills spirits of salt’ with zinc. Composition of water confirmed by burning a

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 167

jet of hydrogen obtained by this method, and by using the gas to ‘reduce’
oxides; also by electrolysis. Reducing action of coal-gas.

Carbon and hydrogen constituents of living matter; also nitrogen, sulphur,
and phosphorus.

Solutions of the oxides of carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus are acids.
Carbonates, sulphites, sulphates, phosphates.

7. Action of sodium, potassium, calcium (all obtained by electrolysis) on
water. Deductions: quicklime is an oxide; slaked lime, caustic potash and
caustic soda are hydroxides; chalk, mild potash, and soda are carbonates.
Action of heat on carbonates: iron carbonate (spathic ore), zinc carbonate
ante) magnesium carbonate (magnesian limestone); manufacture of white
ead.

8. Examination of action of dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids on
zinc, ircn, magnesium. Salts of these metals. Salts also produced (without
hydrogen) by action of acids on oxides. Theory of action confirmed by passing
dry hydrochloric acid over heated oxides. Salts named from acid and metal
(e.g. sodium chloride). The special case of ‘ammonium’ salts.

9. Manufacture of sulphuric acid by ‘contact process.’ Manufacture of
hydrochloric, nitric, and phosphorie acids from salt, saltpetre, and calcium
phosphate. Sources of these salts. Salts in the soil (see I., B., 4).

10. Summary of results in (verbal) chemical equations. The quantitative
constancy of chemical reactions and combinations (discovered in numerous
simple gravimetric and volumetric exercises during the course) is also to be
brought out and emphasised.

THIRD YEAR.

{Section I. is assigned to the second and third terms. The divisions of
Section II. may be taken in any convenient order.]

I. Biological Section.
A. Spring Term. A study of micro-organisms.

1. Action of yeast in bread-making as an example of fermentation. Culti-
vation of yeast in Pasteur’s solution. Fermentation in manufacture of beer
and wine; acetic-acid fermentation. Pasteur’s proof that different effects are
due to activity of definite plant-growths. Association of fungi with other
changes in food materials: moulds on bread, jam, &c.; fungi in milk; colonies
of bacteria in putrefying broth, meat-jelly, &c. Germ-cultures; practice and
theory of staining.

2. The source of fermentation-fungi. The ‘spontaneous generation’ con-
troversy; Appert’s invention (c. 1800) for fruit preservation; experiments of
Schultze and Swan, sterilised air; germs and dust, the Pasteur flask.

Presence of germs in tapwater, dust, and surface soil demonstrated by
cultivation in Lister’s tubes.

Sterilisation by heat; resisting germs (e.g. in dirty milk).

Sterilisation of food by preservatives—harmless and harmful.

3. Micro-organisms in disease. Pasteur and silk-worm disease; Lister and
the antiseptic treatment of wounds; Manson and Ross and malaria. Phagocytes
and bacteria; recent developments of antiseptic practice. Vaccines and anti-
toxins : Jenner and vaccination; Koch and Pasteur and anthrax, rabies; Wright
and typhoid fever. Anti-toxins in diphtheria, tetanus, &c.

The extermination of infectious diseases: rabies in England, malaria in
Panama, &c. Preventable diseases still to be exterminated; need of scientific
investigation, educational enlightenment, and administrative action. :

4, Micro-organisms as useful agents: cheese-making, tanning, &c.; micro-
organisms as scavengers; the fixation of nitrogen.

B. Summer Term.

1. The structure and life-history of select animal types: Euglena,
Paramecium, Vorticella, Hydra, sea-anemone, earthworm, crayfish, frog, rat,
or rabbit. ;

2. Structure and life-history of Spirogyra, a moss, a fern.

168 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

II. Physical Section,
A. Astronomy.

The following subjects should be taken in class. Further yoluntary work
may be directed and encouraged by the School Science Club.

1. Revision of previous work. The fundamental importance of sidereal
time. The astronomical clock. Fixing positions of stars by right ascension
and declination. Construction of star-charts. (In connection with these the
use of the polar and meridional gnomonic projections may be either taught or
applied from the geography course.)

2. Plotting of monthly course of the moon upon a cylindrical projection
(compare Second Year, II., A., 4), right ascensions and declinations being taken
from ‘ Whitaker’s Almanack.’ The path of the moon thus shown to be approxi-
mately a plane inclined to the ecliptic.

Plotting on enlarged scale of paths of moon and sun about the times of
new and full moon. (It is best to use the gnomonic projection, since the paths
are then straight lines.) Conditions for eclipses.

3. The variation in distances of sun and moon deduced from varying
observed diameter. (Data from ‘Whitaker's Almanack.’) Perihelion and
aphelion; perigee and apogee. The orbits of earth and moon elliptical. Calcu-
lation of eccentricities.

Regression of moon’s node; influence on dates of eclipses. The precession
of the equinoxes,

Simple theory of tides.

4. The planets. The Ptolemaic and Copernican theories.

The relative distances of the planets from the sun and of the moon from
the earth. Measurements of absolute distances by parallax, transit of Venus,
&c. Kepler’s laws.

B. Geology.

The following subjects may be expected to be taken during this year in
geography lessons :—

1. The stratigraphy of the home region. One or two lessons based on
evidence acquired on field-excursions or reported by individual pupils, museum
collections, &c. Thus, in London a clear idea should be given of the geology
of the Thames basin from the northern to the southern chalk heights, the
evidence of borings for artesian wells, &c., being examined. The probable
geological history of the region.

2. Extension to neighbouring regions : for example, in London to the Weald,
Surrey, Hants, and the Isle of Wight.

3. Outline of the geological structure of typical regions, such as Wales and
the northern coal-fields of England.

C. Mechanics.

The following subjects are to be regarded as territory common to the
courses in science and mathematics. Much (or all) of the work may be taken
in mathematics lessons.

1. Uniform and variable velocity (linear and angular), average velocity,
velocity at a given moment; distance-time and speed-time graphs.

Two cases of special importance: (i) Falling bodies and projectiles. The
vertical distance fallen found to vary with the square of the time; hence the
average, and therefore the final, vertical velocity must be proportional to the
time. Value of ‘g.’ (ii) Pendulum motion. Here, since the time of swing is
constant for small arcs, the average velocity is proportional to the amplitude.
It follows that the velocities at all corresponding moments, including the
moment of mean position, are proportional to the amplitude.

2. Velocity as a vector. Relative velocity. Vectorial representation of
changes of velocity. Utilisation of the property given in 1 (ii) to measure
eyanees " velocity produced by collision of swinging balls (Goodwill’s ‘ Vector

alance ’).

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 169

Discussion of results leads to distinction between weight and mass, to the
idea of change of momentum as the measure of the dynamical action of bodies
upon one another, and to the principle of conservation of momentum.
Alternative measure of force (hitherto measured in terms of weight) as rate
of change of momentum. The poundal and dyne.

Weight as rate of change of momentum. Newton’s Law of Gravitation.
His verification by calculation of rate of fall of moon.

3. A suspended ball is made to swing through a constant vertical distance
along various curves, and to collide directly with a stationary suspended ball.
Measurements show that the velocity immediately before impact depends entirely
on vertical distance fallen. Connection of result with Principle of Work
(Second Year, II., C., 5). Kinetic energy. Apparent loss of energy in collisions
(considered in connection with D., 4).

D. Physics.

1. Revision and extension of Second Year work on radiation and conduction.
Graphic study of temperatures at points on a bar heated (i) steadily (Forbes),
(ii) rhythmically (Angstrom), to illustrate measurement of conductivity and
seasonal temperature-changes of soil.

2. Solar radiation : its fundamental importance. Separation by prism into
light and dark radiation. Intensity of radiation: law of inverse squares;
photometry; the cosine-law; Newton’s law of cooling. Influence of character
of radiating and absorbing material; the incandescent gas-mantle, &c. Absorp-
tion and reflection of light and dark radiation. Laws of reflection: plane and
curved mirrors. Applications: periscope, searchlights, lighthouses, &c. The
sine-law of refraction; indices of refraction.

3. Heat as a measurable quantity. Study of the temperature-changes of
variable weights of water heated for the same period by a constant flame leads
to the formula H=W+t, where W is the weight of water, ¢ the rise of tempera-
ture, and H the number of ‘calories’ represented by the heating. Repetition
with other liquids (e.g. linseed oil, glycerine) leads to the more general formula
H=sW¢, where s is a constant for each substance (the ‘specific heat’). Con-
firmation by ‘ the method of mixtures.’ Measurements of specific heat.

Latent heat. Rough determination of latent heat of steam by Black’s
method, of water by method of mixtures.

4, Temperature-changes of gases under the conditions (i) of constant pres-
sure and (ii) of constant volume. Absolute temperature.

Cooling and heating of gases by adiabatic expansion and compression.
Applications of results in meteorology. Equivalence of the heat-change to work
done. Joule’s experiments, &c. Internal-combustion engines. Liquefaction of
gases; cold storage, &c.

5. Vapour pressure. Variations of boiling-point with pressure. Steam-
engines (cylinder and turbine). Uses of superheated steam (in engines, in
chemical industries, &c.), and of subheated steam (concentration of beet sugar).

6. Electric:ty : a preliminary course of work, almost entirely qualitative in
character ; the quantitative aspect of the subject being reserved for study in the
Fourth Year. Examination of an electric-bel! circuit as a type of electro-
magnetic mechanism. Analysis of magnetic effects of the current : Oersted’s
experiment, Maxwell’s screw rule. Industrial and other uses of electro-magnets.
The electric telegraph. Magnetic effect as an index of current strength; the
galvanometer. Preliminary notions of voltage and resistance.

Tlie electric bell as a motor; elaboration of the same principles in the motors
used for locomotion and power.

Faraday’s experiments on electro-magnetic induction. The induction coil.
The dynamo; the ‘magneto’; reciprocal relation between the principles of the
motor and dynamo; conversion of mechanical into electrical energy, and of
electrical into mechanical. The telephone.

Conversion of electrical energy into heat; the incandescent and are lamps ;
the electric furnace. : rf

Electrolysis ; industrial applications. Secondary batteries : relation with

170 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

primary batteries with reference to conversion of chemical into electrical energy
and electrical into chemical.

EH. Chemistry.

1. Revision and extension of Second Year work.

(a) The aim of chemistry to regard all substances as elements or compounds
of elements. Quantitative definiteness the mark of chemical union. Distinction
between compounds, mixtures, and solutions.

Alloys and glass as ‘solid solutions’: conversion of iron into steel;
manganese steel; manufacture of glass. Amalgams of mercury; the extraction
of gold.

(6) Law of multiple proportions, based on analysis of sodium bicarbonate,
lead peroxide, &c. Provisional use of the terms ‘ molecule’ and ‘atom’ .to
describe results. Molecular composition of water. The basicity of acids. Use of
chemical formule and equations. Valency of the common metals.

(c) Combustion. Nature of flames. The incandescent gas-mantle. Use of
high-temperature flames in welding, cutting steel, &c. Flameless combustion.

(ad) Sulphides, sulphuretted hydrogen : their analogy with oxides and water.
Action when sulphides are roasted; applications in metallurgy.

(¢) Acidic and basic oxides, peroxides. Action of sulphuric acid on
peroxides; hydrogen peroxide. Dry hydrochloric acid passed over a heated
peroxide (e.g. red lead) yields chlorine. Its properties. Molecular constitution
of hydrochloric acid. Bromine and iodine. Oxidation and reduction as general
chemical processes.

(f) Ammonia: its composition. Ammonium salts.

2. The law of chemical equivalence. Determination of weights of metals
that (i) displace equal volumes of hydrogen, (ii) unite with equal weights of
oxygen, (iii) replace one another in salts. Confirmation of results by deter-
mining the volume of hydrogen and the weight of oxygen involved in the
decomposition of steam by hot iron. Equivalent weights. Smallest combining
(or ‘atomic’) weights, that of hydrogen being taken as unity.

3. Revision and further applications of previous work in simple explanation
of some important chemical industries and processes. (a) The winning of the
more important metals. (b) Coal-distillation; the main products and their
uses. (c) Soda; bleaching powder. Bleaching. (d) Tanning. (e) Dyeing.
(f) Phosphorus: matches. (g) Photography. (4) Glass and pottery.

FourtH YEAR.

[In schools where the arrangement is possible the subjects marked with an
asterisk should be reserved for .a course of lectures and discussions to be given
(to non-specialists in science together with specialists) in the fifth year. This
course should include some treatment of the philosophy of science illustrated
from the history of scientific discovery. Classical works in biology or physical
science may be recommended for private reading and discussion. ]

I. Biological Section.

1. Civilisation based on the domestication of plants and animals. The
history of food-plants, &c. Modern methods of improving breeds of plants
and animals. Vegetable and animal products in industries and manufactures :
cotton, timber, paper manufacture, wool, silk, &c. Importance of forestry.

*2. The theory of organic evolution. The evidences and main phases of
the evolutionary process: the beginnings of life; divergence of animals and
plants from one another; main morphological developments along each line;
origin of sex; general character of progress—‘ progressive differentiation and
integration’; adaptation to environment, degeneration.

Problems of heredity and variation: Darwin, Mendel, de Vries. Selection.
Function and environment.

II. Physical Section.
A. Geology.

Lessons should be given (in, or in close connection with, the geography
course) on (i) the forms of life characteristic of the chief geological horizons,

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 171

including the earliest appearances of man (ef. I., 2); (ii) special subjects
of geographical importance, e.g. the coal age and the ice age, ‘block’ and
‘fold’ mountains, rifts and faults; (iii) questions of economic geology selected
on the ground of either local or national importance. In connection with
(i) visits should be made to a geological museum, and holiday collections of
fossils encouraged by the School Science Club.

B. Mechanics.

1. Revision of work of Second and Third Years; straightforward problems
on motion and equilibrium to give a firm grasp of principles.

Rate of doing work; horse-power; dynamometers. Work of engines in road,
rail, and water traffic. Economy of power.

Simple theory of the aeroplane.

2. Circular motion. Harmonic motion of pendulum, vibrating spring, &c.
Connection with Hooke’s Law (Second Year, II., C., 5).

The formule y=a sin Zs (w+vt) as descriptive of progressive harmonic

waves. Stationary waves. Wave-motion as a mode of transmission of energy.
3. The principle of energy in the case of a thin cylinder rotating about its
axis while the latter is moving parallel to itself. Determination of ‘g’ by
measuring time taken by such a cylinder to roll down a sloping plane.
Derivation of the principle of Conservation of Moment of Momentum, and
of the formula torqgue=rate of change of moment of momentum. Applications
to phenomena of bicycling, spinning tops, gyroscopes, &c. Moment of inertia
and radius of gyration in simple cases. Motion of a rod struck at a given
point. Harmonic vibration of a compound pendulum and of a horizontally
suspended magnet. Inversion of compound pendulum; ‘ centre of percussion.’

C. Physics.
1. Electro-magnetic measurements :

(a) Distribution of magnetism along a bar-magnet. Magnetic fields; lines
of force; use of small compass-needle to map field near magnet or current
circuit.

Deflection of small compass-needle by magnet; the tangent law; application
in the tangent galvanometer. The moment of a magnet.

(6) Chemical equivalence of substances liberated by a current passing
through electrolytic cells in series. Definition of the ampére in terms of silver
deposited per second. Congruence with measurement in terms of deflection in
tangent galvanometer.

(c) A long platinoid wire is ‘tapped’ by the terminals of a high-resistance
galvanometer. The results lead to the notions of a regular ‘fall of potential ’
and of the connection of potential difference with current-strength and
resistance. Definition of the ohm and the volt. Ohm’s law.

(d) Quantitative statement of Faraday’s law of induction. The earth-
inductor; the transformer. Magnetic force and magnetic induction in iron;
permeability ; hysteresis.

2. Optical measurements and calculations.

(a) Spherical mirrors; theoretical derivation of the formula 1/v+1/u=1/f;
experimental verification.

(6) Lenses : experimental discovery of the formula UV=/?; deduction from
this of the formula 1/v—1/u=1/f. Magnification; telescopes, microscopes ;
the prismatic field-glass. Achromatic lenses. The lens of the eye and its
optical defects; spectacles.

3. Wave-motion in sound, light, and electricity.

(az) General properties of harmonic wave-motion, longitudinal and _ trans-
verse (to be taken in connection with B., 2). Application to elucidate the
behaviour of sounding forks, strings, and pipes. Free and forced vibrations;
resonance.

(6) The undulatory theory of light. Colours of thin films, interference;
diffraction ; polarisation. Deduction of behaviour of mirrors, prisms, and lenses

172 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

ae wave-theory. Spectrum analysis: applications in chemistry, astronomy,
c.
gouclee leghenenagnetic waves. Wireless telegraphy. Electro-magnetic theory
of light.

*4, The main results of modern investigations on the discharge of elec-
tricity through gases; Réntgen rays; radioactivity. The ultimate constitution
of matter: the kinetic theory of gases, the radiometer; experiments of Perrin
and Bragg; theories of solution, osmosis, and electrolysis.

*5. A general review of physical (including chemical) phenomena from the
standpoint of the principle of the Conservation of Energy. Availability and
degradation of energy. The world’s present and possible future sources of
energy. Economy of energy.

D. Chemistry.

1. The atomic theory; Avogadro’s hypothesis. The density of a gas and
its volumetric reactions as an index of its molecular constitution. Relations
between oxygen and ozone, acetylene and benzene.

2. Composition of ordinary alcohol. It behaves like a weak hydroxide,
yielding ‘ethereal salts’ and a substance, ether, which is analogous to an
oxide. Ethane and its relations to alcohol. Comparison of ethane with
methane (‘natural gas’), alcohol with wood-spirit. The paraffins, their
alcohols, ethers, &c., as homologous series. Theory of the carbon atom.
Formic and acetic acid: their relations to and reactions with alcohols.
Chloroform and iodoform.

3. The manufacture of soap, candles, and glycerine. Fats and vegetable
oils are ethereal salts, glycerine an alcohol; hydrolysis. Nitro-glycerine and
dynamite.

Cellulose, collodion, gun-cotton, blasting, gelatine, cordite.

4. Benzene and toluene as ‘closed chain’ compounds. Isomerism. Carbolic
acid; salicyclic acid, ‘ aspirin’; tannin, nitro-benzene, aniline and the aniline
dyes. ‘T.N.T.’ explosive. Picric acid.

5. The proximate constituents of food: proteins, carbo-hydrates, fats.
Separation of the protein (gluten) and the carbo-hydrate (starch) in flour; of
the protein (curd), carbo-hydrate (whey), and the fat (cream) in milk. Tests.
The conversion of starch into soluble sugar, solution of meat-stufis; enzymes,
their role in plant life and animal digestion. Food values. Ultimate con-
stituents of foods and of living matter. Anabolism and katabolism.

* 6. General review.

(a) Chemical industries from the standpoint of the nation and the world.
By-products, economy. Interrelations of theory and practice; synthetic
chemistry, the microscope in metallurgy, &c.

(6) Inorganic and organic chemistry. Families of elements and compounds.
The periodic table of the elements. The new elements.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 173

IV. SCIENCE SCHEME OF A RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOL.

By Witr1am Axpripcr, Headmaster, Shepton Mallet Grammar School.

The school in which the work here described is carried on is an old
endowed Grammar School, founded in 1627, which was reconstituted and trans-
ferred to new buildings nearly twenty years ago. The commencement of the
experiment in rural education in this school was coeval with this change, and
the work has been continued ever since. For the first few years aid was
given by the County Council alone, but grants were afterwards obtained from
the Science and Art Department, and ultimately the school came under the
Board of Education, which, however, refused to give a special grant under
Article 39 of the Regulations for Secondary Schools, on the ground that the
work was no longer an educational experiment but was a proved success.

The scheme has undergone modifications since its inception, but the position
reached is roughly outlined below, and there is no doubt as to its efficiency
as @ means of general education.

7 ae underlying motive of the scheme is to vivify the class-room teaching
by bringing it into intimate contact with the out-of-school life of the district
in which the pupils move, thereby making the pupil an interested learner
developing into an accurate, observant, reasoning, and adaptable man with
bodily, mental, and spiritual faculties developed to the fullest possible extent.

The school is situated in a small market-town of 5,000 inhabitants, served
by two lines of railway. The number of pupils has varied from fourteen at
the start to eight-five, and now averages about seventy to seventy-five boys, aged
eight to eighteen, of whom all, except at most half-a-dozen, are day boys. About
two-thirds of the total come from surrounding towns and villages. The chief
industries of the locality comprise farming (milk, cheese, butter, and cider
making, with little arable land), brewing, quarrying, coal-mining, a little
lime-burning, brick-making, and the manufacture of lace-making machinery.
The school staff consists of the headmaster and four assistants, who receive
occasional help in the more technical portions of the science course from the
county experts in agriculture and horticulture.

The buildings comprise a main block, including headmaster’s house and
three class-rooms, cloak-room, &c., and a detached block containing workshop,
physical and chemical laboratories, lecture-room, balance-room, and _ store-
rooms. The physical Jaboratory is also used for practical botany, but experi-
ments in this connection are also set up in the lecture-rooms and chemical
laboratory.

Out-of-doors about two-fifths of an acre are devoted to experimental and
demonstration plots, and there is a meteorological station. Formerly the plots
included gardens cultivated by individual boys, but they proved to be unsatis-
factory and of little real educational value, and were ultimately abandoned.
A model fruit plantation has been substituted. The boys are not called upon
to do much manual labour in connection with these plots, but they use them
largely for experimental and observational work.

For science work the school may be divided into three main divisions—
Preparatory, Middle, and Upper—and a boy spends an average of three years
in the Middle Division after reaching the age of twelve years. The following
is the division of time in ‘class which has been found to give satisfactory
results :—

Preparatory Division, 8-12 years old.—Religious knowledge, 15 hour per
week; English subjects, including reading, writing, spelling, grammar, composi-
tion, history, geography, 15 hours; arithmetic, 7 hours; physical exercises
(excluding organised games), 3 hour; art and music (singing), 2 hours;
science, 15 hour.

Middle Division, 12-15 years.—Literary subjects, including religious know-
ledge, English, geography, history, 74 hours; mathematics, 6 hours; language
(French), 3 hours; manual avd physical training (apart from organised
games), 3 hours; science, 6 hours; art and music 24 hours.

174 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Upper Division, 15-18 years.—Literary subjects, 9 hours; mathematics,
6 ee language, 54 hours; science, 6 hours; physical training, 3 hour; art,
15 hour.

In the Preparatory Division the science taken is of an informal character,
such as that usually included under the term ‘Nature Study.’ The object
of the course is to stir up interest in Nature at large, and to develop the
observational and descriptive powers. Plants, animals, insects, natural
phenomena, simple experiments in mechanics, chemistry, physics, &c., are all
drawn upon to furnish subject-matter. Scientific terms are, as a rule, avoided,
but accuracy of observation and of description are demanded. The lessons
usually take the form of a conversation between the teacher and the class on
the specimens to be described, or the experiment to be observed. It is a general
rule all through the school that every observation made or answer given shall
be a complete sentence grammatically constructed, and ‘No’ or ‘ Yes’ without
amplification is never accepted as a satisfactory reply. Sketches are frequently
made in the course of the lesson, and the information gained is often utilised
in the next lesson on English composition or a question upon it is set to be
answered as home-work. The boys frequently suggest subjects for future
lessons, and the indoor lessons sometimes develop into country rambles and
scientific excursions with a definite object in view on half-holidays. Outdoor
lessons in class hours are not usual. They have been found unsatisfactory, as
there are too many distractions and much valuable time is lost.

In the Middle Division science becomes more systematic; the system is
not, however, that of the text-book, but is determined by the underlying
principle that the elements of botany, physics, chemistry, &c., shall be made
to throw as much light on country life as possible. The various subjects are
therefore blended more or less into a whole and not kept in watertight com-
partments. For convenience, chemistry, physics, and botany are treated
separately in different lessons, but one period per week is devoted to what
is called ‘Rural Economy ’—an application of scientific knowledge to the
elucidation of the mysteries of rural life.

The outlines of the chemistry: course at this stage are published and need
not be repeated here. (See ‘A First Course in Practical Chemistry for Rural
Secondary Schools,’ published by G. Bell & Sons, 1s. 6d.)

The physics course begins with a general lesson or two on matter and
its properties, and proceeds with heat—expansion, liquefaction, vaporisation,
conduction, radiation, absorption—temperature and its measurement; heat as a
form of energy—its production by chemical and physical means—its measure-
ment—specific heat—latent heat; anomalous behaviour of water with respect
to heat and its importance in the economy of nature—vapour pressure—boiling ;
atmospheric moisture—its measurement—effect on barometric height—the con-
nection of the barometer with weather phenomena, &c.

General Physics and Mechanics.—Methods of measurement—mass—density—
flotation—osmosis—surface tension—capillarity—fluid pressures—siphon—pumps
—hydraulic press—barometer—Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws—levers—pulleys—
work—time and its measurements—friction (how minimised in machinery)—
inclined plane—parallelogram and triangle of forces—motion—velocity—
acceleration—momentum, &c.

Botany.—The structure of a plant so far as observable with a pocket lens.
Seeds and seedlings—roots, their structure and work—stems, branching, buds,
effects of pruning—the green leaf and its work—flowers, essential and non-
essential parts, their use and importance—fruits, how formed, uses, dispersal,
life-histories of common plants and weeds. How plants feed—comparison of
plants, leading to a system of natural classification—contents of plant cells—
enzymes and their work—the nutrition of plants and animals compared—repro-
duction processes, &c.

Rural Economy.—Soil, its origin, composition—agents of denudation—work
of lowly animal and plant life in formation of soil—characteristics of sand,
clay, silt, lime, humus—heavy and light soils—soil and subsoil—why differ-
ences—food materials of plants, how and whence obtained—fertility, how

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 175

maintained—tillage—reasons for operations—effects on soil moisture, soil air,
soil temperature, plant food, &c.—chemical knowledge applied to manuring
and its principles—farmyard dung—chemical fertilisers, their composition,
production, and mode of action—application of scientific principles to farm
operations, e.g. haymaking, grazing, ensilage—bacteria, yeasts, moulds and their
work—nitrification and densification—souring of milk—putrefaction—decay—
ripening of cheese—souring of cider—sterilisation—pasteurisation—preserva-
tives—plant diseases and pests—remedies and preventives, &c.

The above is not an exhaustive syllabus, but it gives an idea of subjects
treated, though not of the order in which they are taken up. The lessons con-
sist of conversations and discussions carried on in connection with specimens,
experiments, demonstrations, diagrams, and so forth. The whole is treated in
an experimental and descriptive manner, and the connection with local indus-
tries and phenomena is constantly kept in view. Laboratory work goes cn in con-
nection with the course, but, except in chemistry and botany, no attempt is
made to keep lecture discussions and practical work together. In the physical
laboratory the course commences with practical mathematical measurements
and verification of mensuration formule, and then proceeds to determinations of
volumes, densities, &c., flotation, hydrometers and their uses—mechanics and
simple machines—capillarity, surface tension, friction, gravitational and other
forces, and so on, always keeping the fundamental object of the course in view
and choosing objects and illustrations in accordance therewith. The object of
each experiment is stated, results obtained, and finally a full description of
the method followed is written out in pencil at the bench, deductions and
inferences are drawn, sources of error are sought for, and their effects esti-
mated. As a rule each boy, or pair of boys, has a separate problem from his
fellows.

As a sample outline of a lesson in ‘ Rural Economy ’—suppose the subject
is Rolling, which the boys have seen proceeding in the meadows early in March
as they came to school. The investigation probably brings out the following
points :—Smooth surface—hoof-marks of animals—presses in stones (how came
they to surface? lifted by frost—laid bare by washing of rain, &c.), hence
minimises risk to mowing machine later on—makes surface firm—loosened by
winter frost; effect on capillarity—capillary tubes made finer, therefore water
rises to top; effect on evaporation—air usually moist at this season, therefore
slight; effect on soil temperature—evaporation causes cooling tendency—tight
soil a better conductor than loose soil—sun beginning to have more power—
tends to make soil warmer—total of effects, warming; effect on plants—warmth
causes more rapid growth—roots in loosened soil would tend to be short of
food and to be dried up and withered—seedling grasses pressed into soil and
enabled to grow—shoots broken—causes dormant buds to grow out—result, a
thicker and more abundant crop of grass. Effect on conservation of soluble
plant food formed during winter—capillarity keeps it near roots. Why do we
now start rolling the cricket pitch?

The whole of the information can be elicited from the class by serial
questions. :

Up to this point few text-books have been used, but note-books contain
summaries of all lessons and home-work exercises on them. In the course of
the lessons interesting facts about the history of science and its pioneers are
given as occasion arises. ,

In the higher division text-books are used more freely and the different
branches of science are followed out still more systematically ; but the under-
lying principle of the course is never forgotten, and applications of the facts
are constantly demanded. Heat, light, and sound, studied as forms of energy,
and magnetism and electricity are taken in alternate years. Chemistry is
further developed, and botany is revised and extended to include plant
ecology and the study of some of the commoner orders. Soil physics and soil
biology are further developed, and the chemistry is applied to crops, animals
and animal products, feeding stuffs, manures, &c. Enough animal physiology
is given to enable boys to understand the digestive and feeding processes in
animals, and to compare these processes with those in plants, bringing out the
fundamental difference that plants in total store up energy, and animals in the

176 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

total liberate and use that energy in various ways. An outline of the
chemistry of foods and the principles upon which animals are fed is dealt with
(the boy’s own body being the specimen usually under immediate consideration).
The reproductive process is traced through plants, and the principles of
breeding can thus be dealt with in systematic order, while many valuable
lessons can be impressed without difficulty.

The laboratory work takes on a character more closely resembling research
work, and sometimes deals with problems connected with soils, plants, feeding
materials, manures, milk and milk-products, &c., requiring the application of
knowledge and methods previously studied in some other connection. The lines
along which such studies are to be conducted are usually suggested by the
master, but may be modified by the pupil at his discretion.

In the physical laboratory the exercises are connected with the branch of
science under study, and the compound microscope is now used in the study
of botany.

Meteorological instruments, soil temperatures, &c., are read and recorded
daily, with occasional discussion of the meaning and explanation of the records.

The schoo] has a Natural History Club. Excursions are frequent. Regular
meetings are held at which boys read papers which usually embody their own
observations and are illustrated in their own ways. ‘These meetings and
excursions take place out of school hours.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Alvar

V. SCIENCE COURSE FOR A PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL
FOR GIRLS.

By I. M. Drummonp, Headmistress, Camden School, formerly Science Mistress,
North London Collegiate School; and R. Srern, Science Mistress, North
London Collegiate School.

(Average time given about three hours per week from twelve years of age.)

I. Ages up to 11 or 12.—The power of clear, logical reasoning makes rapid
strides about the age of twelve, and this, therefore, would seem the most
suitable age at which to begin a definite course of experimental science. This
by no means precludes the study of natural phenomena before this stage.
Indeed, such study must begin as soon as a child wakens to interest in the
world around her. Science for these younger children will take the form of
observations on, and very simple experiments with, growing plants, caring
for animals, and watching them; recording observations on sun, sky, and
weather; investigating the structure of simple machines in daily use, and
finding out how they work. The material should be as varied as possible, and
should follow, as far as this can be done, the interest of the children at the
moment, the continuity of work throughout a course of lessons being, as a
rule, a minor consideration.

II. Ages 12 and 13.—When regular work in the laboratory first begins at
about the age of twelve the lessons must necessarily become more systematic.
The main objects of the teacher at this stage will be :—

(2) To encourage the natural inventiveness of the child and to help her to
direct it towards definite ends.

(6) To encourage her to give practical expression to her ideas by her own
manipulative skill.

(c) To help her to distinguish between observed facts and the inferences to
be drawn from them, and to express herself accurately in written records.

The problems must be closely connected with the everyday life of the child,
and at first should be so simple that an experiment, complete in itself as far as
it goes, can be carried out in a single lesson. The power to follow a line of
argument, and to draw inferences by collating the results of several experi-
ments, comes at a later stage. Easy problems relating to simple mechanical
appliances, flotation, pressure of liquids and gases, effect of heat on sub-
stances, its method of transmission and its measurement, all form excellent
material. The method of attack and the actual choice of problems may vary
widely. Some teachers may kegin with the investigation of an actual instru-
ment; others prefer to begin with a discussion of the phenomenon of weight,
leading the children to realise at the outset how little they know as to what
weight really is, but that they have some knowledge to start with in their
experience that one body is harder to lift than another, and that one presses
more heavily on the hand than another. The idea of a downward force is thus
obtained, and methods of measuring it may be discussed. The impossibility
of making accurate comparisons by means of feeling the weights leads to the
devising of a simple instrument. The pull on a bit of elastic may be measured,
and a realisation of the imperfections of this instrument, owing to incomplete
elasticity, will lead up to the spring balance. Other methods of comparing
weights lead up to the see-saw, and so on to the structure of the kitchen scales
and the laboratory balance. The value of a piece of fine and delicate machinery
is thus appreciated and it is treated with respect. A comparison of the
weights of different objects leads rapidly to the need for a standard or unt
of weight.

it eriments with the see-saw show the result of altering the position of the
fulcrum, and this leads on to levers and experiments on mechanical advantage.
Pulleys and inclined planes will now naturally be experimented with. Obser-
vations will be made on the working of pickaxes, cranes, wheel and axle, and
so forth. Models may be made by the children, and many problems may be
answered by their own experiments, as, for example, if a loaded wheelbarrow

1917. =

178 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

has to be raised to a certain height, is it better to have a short steep slope or
a longer and more gradual one?

A study of flotation may very naturally develop from such a course as
this. Why do some bodies float on water and others sink? Why do some
bodies float higher in the water than others? Why do bodies float higher in
salt than in fresh water? Is any of the weight of a body that sinks supported
by the water? These will be among the questions asked and answered by
experiments. They will lead up to an understanding of relative density, and
of the Principle of Archimedes. When the principle has been grasped, prac-
tical applications should be worked out, calculations being made and the
results tested by experience. The weight of cargo which it is safe for a boat
to carry, or the size of a cork life-belt necessary to support a person, are
problems which, even if toy boats and tin soldiers are used, help the children
both to grasp the practical value of the knowledge gained and also to appre-
ciate the need for accuracy.

The fact that ice floats on water may well lead on here to investigations
into (1) changes of density and volume produced in substances by change of
temperature, (2) change of state, together with the influence of pressure upon
it, (3) some methods of transmission of heat, and (4) means of measuring
temperature and heat. Plotting curves of temperature for the heating of
water over a flame till it boils, and for the cooling of melted paraffin wax, will
give the idea of latent heat. The heating of a definite weight of water by the
immersion in it of given weights of different substances at the same tempera-
ture will give the idea of specific heat, and these conceptions may now be
developed in their geographical and practical bearings. Discussions as to the
methods of heating buildings and obtaining hot-water supply, the working of
a cooking-box, &c., will naturally arise during this course.

Flotation in the air will lead on to an estimate of the weight of air by
the method of driving it from a flask by boiling water, and this to the idea
of pressure of the air. The experiments of Torricelli and the work of Boyle
on the ‘Spring of the Air’ may here be considered in historical order, and
different forms of barometer, pumps, siphons, and so forth may be studied.
A consideration of winds and of weather charts will here, again, form a link
with geography.

At this stage a continuous piece of investigation necessitating the framing
of tentative inferences or hypotheses, and the testing of these by further experi-
ment, becomes increasingly possible, and helps greatly to deepen the under-
standing of the method of development of scientific knowledge. Many
chemical problems form excellent material. Amongst others, the problem as
to what we understand by burning arises very naturally out of work already
done.

Preliminary questioning as to what burning is will usually lead to the sug-
gestion that it consists in a partial or complete disappearance or ‘ consuming’
of the object burned. Experiments with match, candle, &c., seem to confirm
this; the weighing of magnesium before and after burning discredits it, and
demands, therefore, further investigation. The fact that some member of the
class has probably observed the magnesium glow more brightly on the lid of
the crucible being removed, suggests that air influences burning and may cause
the increase of weight. The question then arises, does the air then diminish?
Burning magnesium in a crucible floating on water under a bell-glass shows
that it does. Therefore the magnesium calx must represent magnesium and
air. Why has the whole air not disappeared? Suggestions that this may
bo due to insufficient magnesium being burned must be put to the test, and the
properties of the gas left compared with the properties of the air to begin with.
Details of Priestley’s and Lavoisier’s experiments with the red calx of mercury
may now be given for comparison, and the red calx heated by the pupils. Other
substances may then be dealt with, e.g., carbon. Carbon disappears. Is a new
gas formed? Collection of the air above the heated carbon and testing of this,
together with ordinary air, by a match, by litmus, and by lime-water, reveal
the fact that a new gas has appeared. Probably someone, in the effort to
collect the gas, has failed to get the carbon to disappear, owing to heating
ié in too limited a supply of air; this will lead to the suggestion that the

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 179

carbon also unites with oxygen. Heating small quantities in oxygen and
nitrogen will reveal the fact that no new gas is formed in the latter case, while
it is formed abundantly in the former. A further confirmatory experiment may
be made by the burning of magnesium in carbon dioxide.

The candle can now be more thoroughly investigated, the decrease in volume
of air demonstrated by burning it over water under a bell-jar, and the products
of combustion found. This will naturally lead to the question—Is water an
oxide? and its composition may be proved by the burning of magnesium
powder in steam, with the formation of magnesium oxide and a new gas,
hydrogen.

A’ closely knit piece of work of this kind, in which fresh materials and
facts are arbitrarily introduced by the teacher as little as possible, is of the
utmost value. The girls may be lett very free to suggest and carry out their
own experiments, the class being pulled together from time to time by dis-
cussion, summarising of results, and formulation of fresh problems. Variety
of method will enable different members of the class to make their own
individual contributions to the discussion, and excellent practice in clear
exposition may be given by allowing one member who has performed a par-
ticularly useful experiment to demonstrate to the whole class and be questioned
by the others.

III. Ages 14 and 15.—As adolescence progresses the mind rapidly expands,
and more or less consciously craves wide horizons and broad and generous
views. Very simple astronomy, giving some idea of our present knowledge of
the Universe and how it has been attained, may be made a most fruitful and
stimulating study at this stage. While it must be in large part didactic, it can
be taught in such a way that the pupils’ own observations, supplemented by
diagrams and lantern slides, are used as the groundwork, and the gradual
accumulation of observed fact and consequent modification of opinion can be
appreciated. An historical treatment is at the same time both helpful to a
clear understanding and very rich in human interest.

The following practical work can easily be done by girls of this age, in
a school situated in a district not too liable to fogs, if the work is begun
in the autumn term. The observations must of necessity be made out of school
and must constantly be discussed and checked in class.

1. Identification of the chief constellations; observation of the fact that the
fixed stars and constellations keep the same relative position but trace out a
circle round the Pole Star complete in twenty-four hours; and that the whole
scenery of the sky shifts its position as the seasons progress.

2. Identification of such planets as may be visible; the keeping of careful
charts to show the apparent movement of one which moves in a larger, and
one which moves in a smaller, orbit than the earth.

3. Observations on time of rising and setting, position of rising and setting,
and path across sky of sun and moon.

4. Phases of the moon.

With a small telescope or even very good field-glasses the work can be
greatly extended, the nebula in Orion which can just be detected by the naked
eye can be found with certainty; the surface of the moon can be studied; the
moons of Jupiter can be found, their movements observed; and the fact dis-
covered that whereas the planets can be magnified to appear as discs, the fixed
stars cannot.

It is important that the observational work should get well ahead of the
lessons which deal with its interpretation, and there is no difficulty in this
as at first a good deal of help will have to be given in suggesting points for
observation, in criticism of charts, and so forth. Early ideas with regard to
the earth, sun, and stars may be described, and possible interpretations of the
girls’ own observations of the apparent movements of the fixed stars and
of the sun discussed. It is important that, at the outset, they should fealise
the possibility of the movement being regarded as either real or only apparent,
and what the acceptance of either theory would involve. They are then pre-
pared to follow with zest the interpretations given by Ptolemy, Kepler and
Copernicus, to sympathise with those who still doubted the real movement of

180 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

the earth, and to be thrilled at the discovery of the parallax of some of the
fixed stars. The scope of the course must vary greatly with the ability of the
class and with its mathematical knowledge, but it must not only deal with the
solar system, but give an idea of the magnitude of the Universe as a whole.
Theories of the origin of the solar system, the history of the earth and its
movements, may lead naturally to a discussion of the seasons, of early modifi-
cations of the earth’s crust, and of the great wind belts.

Such a course as this may run concurrently with a course of experimental
work on light, the two sets of lessons being constantly linked together.
Very simple experiments showing propagation of light in straight lines,
formation of shadows, reflection and refraction will lead on to the study of
the eye, and of optical instruments and their use in the observatory. Colour,
the wave theory of light, and means of measuring the velocity of light can
also be simply dealt with.

IV. Ages 15 and 16.—During the last two years of the general school course
the pupils should be introduced to some of the theories which dominate
scientific thought at the present day. They should realise how great theories
grow—the industrious collection of data, the leap forward of some master-
mind to grasp the deeper truth which underlies and unifies the apparently
disconnected facts, the laborious process of verification. (a) The object of the
first term’s work is to bring forward the wide conception that all forms of
energy are convertible one into another, and that the great mechanical devices
which have been invented are methods of converting the forms of energy into
the most useful kind for any special piece of work. It may also form an intro-
duction to the study of magnetism and electricity and show how the electric
power used in every-day life is generated. For example, it is quite easy to
measure the mechanical equivalent of heat, to show how chemical energy can
be used to generate electric energy, and to show how electric energy can cause
chemical change. In the study of the dynamo, magnetic and electric energy
can be shown to help each other’ and to produce heat, light, and mechanical
work. This will lead to a discussion of the working of electric trams, the
production of electric light, and of much else. (b) The cbject of this part of
the course is to obtain experimental results which lead on to an understanding
of the general theories with regard to the constitution of matter,

The experiments can be made to develop in a logical sequence starting from
the study of air and the oxides. They can be carried out both qualitatively
and quantitatively, leading to the knowledge of the quantitative nature of
chemical action and also to the properties of many substances—e.g., acids,
alkalies, and salts. Equivalent weights of some of the elements may be found
by simple but accurate work.

A possible arrangement of this experimental work is as follows :—

1. Chemical changes caused by heating substances in air.
2. Chemical changes due to heating substances out of contact with air.
3. Chemical changes due to the action of substances on each other.

When new substances are discovered their properties can be investigated and
the history of the discovery in many cases given.

An important bit of work which should not be omitted in a course of this
kind is the application of chemical properties of substances used in every-
day life—e.g., the softening of water, the preparation of explosives and fertilis-
ing agents, the comparison of baking-soda and washing-soda, the manufacture
of matches. &c. But these will be side issues.

The collection of experimental results and a discussion of the explanation of
these will give rise to an historical treatment of the molecular and atomic
theory, Dalton’s work being dealt with. The newer theories of the constitution
of matter and their bearing on the older theories may then be discussed. The
theoretical explanation of many results obtained in the early part of the course
now becomes evident, and facts which had hitherto appeared disconnected and
comparatively meaningless are suddenly seen to be intimately connected and
interdependent; a new mental outlook is reached which both transforms the
view of knowledge already obtained and suggests fresh problems to attack.

V. Ages 17 and 18.—No gir] should leave school without some acquaintance

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 181

with the laws of health based upon a knowledge of the working of a living
body. It is preferable that this should be given at a late stage in the school
course, both on account of the greater maturity of mind and body which
has been attained, and also because sound elementary knowledge of physics
and chemistry is a necessary antecedent. It is best to put such a course
between the years of 17 and 18, and it might well be given to all at this
age, even if specialisation has begun; where, however, the majority of girls
leave when they are about 16, some part of it at least should be allowed to
run concurrently with Science lower down the school. It should, if possible,
be prefaced by a course of general elementary biology, and in any case as much
experimental and cbservational work should be introduced as will give the girls
an understanding of the metabolism of a green plant, a fungoid plant, and an
animal, transformation of energy being dealt with as well as transtormation of
matter, and the interdependence of the three types being clearly brought out.
The actual processes in the human body may be dealt with more in detail, the
work being given a definitely human trend and used, not only to instruct the
girls in personal hygiene, but still more to give some knowledge of the social
problems of the present day. Thus the nutrition of the body leads directly to a
consideration of dietaries and to the effect of an insufficient or badly balanced
diet, and this especially in the case of growing children. The function of
yespiration will lead to a consideration of methods of ventilation and to the
harm inevitably resulting from lack of ventilation and from overcrowding.
This will be followed by some consideration of present housing conditions in
town and country, the powers of local authorities in the matter and steps
already taken for improvement. The functions of nerve and brain lead to the
influence of narcotics and stimulants and also to the study of fatigue. An
account of the growth of legislation with regard to work in factories and to
child labour naturally follows.

This last course goes considerably beyond the work usually undertaken by
the Science Mistress, but it is very valuable that such questions should be
studied in a scientific manner and with a sound scientific background. It is
of the utmost importance that the general mass of citizens shall learn to think
more biologically on such questions, and this link between live human interests
and their scientific studies is invaluable for the girls.

In every school course much is necessarily omitted, but it is understood that
voluntary work done in connection with school societies will supplement the
laboratory teaching to some extent. Thus through a Field Club may be given
familiarity with common plants and their habitats, or, again, a knowledge of
the geological structure of the neighbourhood with its effect on scenery and on
history.

182 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

VI. SCHEME OF SCIENCE WORK IN A PUBLIC SECONDARY
SCHOOL FOR GIRLS.

By Livan J. Crarxe, Senior Science Mistress, James Allen’s Girls’ School,
Dulwich.

The following scheme of science work has been thought out and adopted in
a large secondary school for girls, but it is not put forward as one to be
followed by all. Each teacher must herself decide what is best suited to the
special conditions of the school in which she works. The school in which this
scheme is followed is an endowed day school containing nearly 400 girls, who
are allowed to enter at the age of seven, and may stay until they are nineteen.
Special permission is needed for girls to remain after they reach the age of
nineteen.

Post-matriculation work in botany and chemistry is taken by some girls,
but details of the general or pre-matriculation science course only are here given.
For many reasons great value is attached to the study of botany; and botany
is the science to which most time is given; it was felt, however, to be so
essential that all girls should have some knowledge of physics and chemistry
that half the time given to science in the three forms of the Middle School
(two hours per week) is allotted to elementary physics and chemistry, and
half to botany. Every girl who passes through the school studies elementary
physics and chemistry for three years.

In the classes above the Middle School, all the time allotted to science is
given to botany, but lately a voluntary class has been arranged, so that girls
wishing to continue the study of elementary physics and chemistry may do so
on one afternoon a week.

The aim throughout is for the work in both botany and chemistry to he
thoroughly practical; the girls have, therefore, to make their own experiments.
After experiments have been carried out the results obtained by each girl are
received and tabulated and conclusions are then drawn from these results by the
whole class. If some results are in opposition to the greater number they are
carefully examined, and the girls themselves often suggest possible explanations
of the discrepancies.

: No text-books are used, but each girl in the Upper Forms possesses a small
Flora.

In the botany classes the plants are studied mainly as living things by
means of observations and experiments. Drawings are made from actual
specimens and experiments, and not from drawings on the blackboard.

Microscopes are not used by girls taking the pre-specialisation science course,
except in the highest classes, where the structure of a green cell, a stomate, and
a leaf are studied,

Great help has been derived in the study of botany from the botany
gardens which have been gradually made in response to the needs of the
botany teaching in the laboratory. As a rule two girls are responsible for a
garden; and every year the girls change their gardens. The work in the
botany gardens each year is determined by the nature of the work in the
laboratory, and the indoor and out-of-door work are closely connected. So far
as possible the girls choose the gardens for which they will be responsible.

No time is allowed in the actual school hours for gardening (except in the
case of a few girls responsible for vegetable gardens) : the girls look after their
gardens in the mid-morning and mid-day recesses. The work is voluntary, but
so many applications are received for botany gardens that the difficulty has
been to provide gardens for all who wished to have them.

The science work of the pre-specialisation period may be divided roughly into
three stages, namely :— -

Division I—The work in the younger forms, before a course of systematic
science is begun.

Division II.—The work in the Middle School, where definite courses of
botany, and elementary physics and chemistry, are taken.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 183

_ Division 11I.—The work in the Upper Forms, where botany is the only
science studied as a regular class subject.

Division I.

ens of girls, seven to eleven approximately. Average time per week,
our.

The work varies in different years: an account of what is done in a
particular year is given below :—

Land plants and animals in school gardens. Water plants and animals in
school gardens. Trees in winter, spring, summer. Study of common weeds,
with special reference to the reasons for their success in competition with other
plants. Simple descriptions of flowers. Stages in life-histories of various
plants grown by the girls in their own plots. Study of fruits in the lane and
wood of botany gardens, and various methods of dispersal of seeds observed in
the botany gardens and elsewhere.

Division II.

Science in the Middle School—a three years’ course. Age of girls eleven to
fourteen approximately.

A. Elementary physics and chemistry. B. Botany. Total amount of time
given, two hours per week in each of the three Forms. (One and a-half hour a
week has lately been given to elementary physics and chemistry,and no time
allowed for homework; one hour a week, as in former years, being given to
botany.)

A. General Elementary Course in Physics and Chemistry.

So far as possible all girls, working in pairs, carry out separate experiments
along the lines indicated, enter during the lesson all measurements taken, make
sketches of apparatus, and learn to express themselves accurately and concisely
in written records. Some experiments are, of necessity, demonstrations.

The course need not follow the prescribed lines, and is open to modification
- by the girls themselves; the ground can generally be covered, though the
details may vary. The spirit of experimental inquiry is always encouraged,
and the girls are led to depend upon the results they themselves obtain.

I, First Y3Ear.
Elementary Physics and Mensuration.
(The mensuration is partly taken in arithmetic lessons.)

(a) Measurement of Length.—The measurement of the straight edges of a
variety of objects in English and metric units. The measurement of the curved
lines of a variety of objects. The discovery of the ratio 7.

~ (6) Measurement of Area (English and metric units).—Areas of rectangles,
triangles, parallelograms, and circles; first from drawings on squared paper.
Simple examples of the division of irregular areas into known figures. The
making of plans to scale (maps). Measurement of the surface area of some
common solids.

(c) Measurement of Volume. The units of volume (from actual models).—
The volumes of rectangular blocks, prisms and cylinders. The volumes of
irregular solids (floating and non-floating) by the method of displacement. _

(d) The unit of weight being given, the simple lever (see-saw) is examined
and the Law of Moments arrived at. The application of this principle and the
use and corstruction of the Beam Balance follows. The densities of some
solids (the volumes have been previously measured) is found; also the densities
of some common liquids. Archimedes’ Principle is then discovered, and some
of its applications are discussed (the principle of ship-loading _and Plimsoll’s
mark is introduced). The specific gravity of some solids and liquids is found
by varying methods, and seen to be useful as a means of identification and of
determining purity. ; )

(e) Atmospheric Pressure.—Simple experiments on the pressure of the air.
Measurement of air pressure. Barometers. A barometer chart is kept and
observations are made of wind and weather.

184 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Simple experiments follow on the vapour pressure of water and of methylated
spirit at different temperatures. Conditions determining evaporation of water
are discussed, and the application of this to everyday life (drying of clothes, &c.).

(f) Other Physical Properties of the Air.—Air is seen to possess weight.
Air is seen to expand when heated and contract when cooled. Its density is
roughly determined.

II. Srconp YER.
Elementary Chemistry.

The ection of air on a variety of common substances, suggested by the
class, is examined, the balance being used. Iron—having shown an increase
in weight—is left to rust in an enclosed space. The air is thus seen to consist
of at least two gases—active and inactive, so far as burning and rusting are
concerned—called oxygen and nitrogen.

A candle, phosphorus, and other combustible substances are burned in an
enclosed space and observations recorded. Increase in weight of phosphorus is
discovered on burning it in a tube plugged with asbestos.

Phosphorus burned in a closed vessel shows no change in weight until the
vessel is opened. Zhe Law of the Conservation of Matter is thus illustrated.

Various metals are heated in the air, and observations recorded. The pro-
cesses of rusting and burning are compared, and a definite statement of the
composition of air is arrived at; also a first insight into the differences between
mixtures and compounds.

Two oxides easily decomposed by heat (red lead and mercury oxide) are
examined; and oxyyen tested for. Potassium chlorate is also found to yield
oxygen on heating, and, with manganese dioxide, is used in the preparation of
the gas.

Various metals and non-metals are burned in the oxygen prepared, and,
when possible, the oxides are dissolved and their solutions tested with litmus.

Thus a chemical distinction between metals and non-metals is arrived at.
The terms Element, Compound, Mixture are discussed.

The work of Priestley and Lavoisier is briefly described, together with an
outline of the development of theories relating to combustion.

The properties of Acids are next examined, especially their corrosive action
on metals (suggested by the known effect of vinegar on a steel knife). A
new explosive gas (Hydrogen) is discovered; and green vitriol and white
vitriol are prepared and examined. A chemical change is seen to have taken
place when the metal dissolved in acid. Heat was evolved. Hydrogen is
prepared and its properties examined. The formation of a mist after
exploding or burning the gas suggests that its oxide is a liquid, and an
apparatus is set up for collecting hydrogen oxide. Some of the physical and
chemical properties of the liquid so made are examined and compared with
those of the only other known liquid which is colourless, tasteless, odourless,
Pan ens The oxide of hydrogen is thus proved to be water (synthetical
method).

By using sodium, potassium, magnesium, and other metals with water or
steam, the chemical composition of water is further confirmed, and the alkaline
hydroxides are met with again.

Water is also analysed by the use of an electric current, and the volume
relationship of the gases composing it is established.

III. Turrp Year.

Elementary Physics and Chemistry.

The various physical changes undergone by water under the influence of
heat are observed, and some of the laws of heat thus taught incidentally.

Other substances (liquids, gases, metals, and glass) are found to expand
with heat. :

Methylated spirit is found to expand more than water for the same amount
of heat. The construction of a 7'hermometer is explained, and scales of tem-
eee are compared. Convection is found to take place in air as well as in
water. 4

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 185

Ventilation and the heating of buildings by hot-water pipes are studied in
the light of this knowledge. Figs

Conduction of heat is seen in metals, and the conductivity of copper and
iron is compared. Wire gauze is seen to cool a flame below the ignition point
of the gas. The historical application of this in the Davy lamp is explained.
Air and water are found to be bad conductors. Radiation is discussed very
briefly, together with the general heating of the school building by radiators
and fires.

The effect of cooling water is observed, and attention is directed to the
importance of the anomalous behaviour. of water on freezing, Reference is
made to the bursting of pipes in winter, weathering of rocks, movement of
glaciers, &c. X 7: ;

Yap water is now examined, its solid and gaseous impurities being separately
obtained and investigated. Carbon dioxide is discovered in the atmosphere,
and also in the gas given off when tap water is boiled. ;

The percentage volume of air dissolved in the laboratory water is measured
and its composition determined. Reference is made to animals and plants
living in water.

Chalk—over which the London water has certainly, passed—is examined ;
also marble, and the ‘furring’ from a kettle.

Carbon dioxide is prepared, and a connection is discovered between the
presence of this gas dissolved in tap water and the presence of chalk in the
water.

Lime is obtained from chalk, and the chemical constitution of chalk
established. :

The action of air on lime is found; hence the hardening of mortar.

The sources of carbon dioxide and the means of renewing it from the air
are discussed, and again the weathering of rocks is explained.

The hardness of tap water, boiled tap water, and rain water is compared,
and methods of softening are suggested and tried; among others, the effect
of Washing soda is ascertained. The cleansing properties of this and other
alkalies is examined.

Acids and Alkalies are found to neutralise one another; salts are formed.
(Common salt and potassium nitrate are prepared, and others as time allows.)

At the close of this course voluntary classes are held for girls wishing to
continue the study of chemistry, and during the next year they become
acquainted with the preparation and properties of the three chief mineral acids
and of scme of the elements and compounds derived from them. They also
make a series of simple quantitative experiments, which lead to an elementary
introduction to the rudiments of chemical theory.

B. Botany in the Middle School. One hour per week.

1, Study of Plants in Lane in Botany Gardens.—The girls of the youngest
class in this section are responsible for the care and development of the lane
in the botany gardens, and the work in the laboratory for the year is in close
connection with the out-of-door work.

The plants are examined in spring, summer, autumn, and winter. As often
as possible the whole plant is taken. Drawings of the plant are made by the
girls, and detailed descriptions are given of various parts. In this way roots,
underground stems, above-ground stems, foliage leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds,
and seedlings are studied in a simple way, and practice is obtained in making
ae drawings. Records are kept of the plants in the lane in successive
months.

Study of Plants in Wood in Botany Gardens.—In some years the girls in a
class, parallel to that in which the ‘girls are responsible for the lane, have
charge of a small wood and study, woodland plants. In other years the girls
of the class above this one may undertake the work.

2. Study of Trees.—There has been planted in the gardens an example of
every tree common in England; also in the oak wood recently made there are
numbers of oak trees and ash trees. With the help of these and twigs giyen
by various people the girls are able to study- trees. The following are some
of the points taken : Branching (monopodial and sympodial) ; structure of buds;
development of buds; structure of wood as seen with the naked eye ; sections

186 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,—1917.

of dicotyledon stems and monocotyledon stems, as seen with a hand lens;
lenticels; experiments to show passage of gases through lenticels. d

3. Pollination Experiments.—The girls have charge of many plots in which
they grow plants which they use in pollination experiments. When the plants
are bearing flower-buds, many botany lesson-times are spent in the garden.

Experiments are first made to see if pollen is necessary for the formation of
fruit, and the girls themselves usually suggest that another set of experiments
should be made in order to see if the non-formation of fruit is due to shock
caused by cutting out the stamens of the flower. Experiments are then made
to see if self-pollination can take place in various plants. Many different genera
are taken, and as many experiments made in each case as time will allow.

In the year 1916, after the girls had made experiments to see if pollen is
‘necessary for the formation of fruit in a certain plant, and were comparing
the results they had obtained with results obtained in previous years, they had
the records of 500 experiments to consider before they drew any conclusions.

The experiments in pollination afford good training in manipulation, in
noting results of experiments, in comparing these results with other results, and
in drawing conclusions from a large number of facts.

After the results of a number of experiments have been noted and tabulated,
references are made to Darwin’s and Miiller’s experiments in pollination ; and if
the girls happen to have chosen any of the plants used in the experiments
described in ‘ Cross- and Self-Fertilisation ’’ or ‘ The Fertilisation of Flowers,’
they often hear the results obtained by Darwin and others and compare them
with the results of their own experiments.

4. Study of Fruits.—There are many opportunities for the girls to study
and draw the fruits in the lane, the wood, the Order beds, and the pollination
beds. The observations enable the fruits to be classified. Many opportunities
for the study of dispersal of seeds are also found in the botany gardens. The
girls find growing in their gardens plants which had not been planted by
them; and after the long holidays thousands of groundsel plants have been
found in the wood. Dispersal of winged and plumed seeds and fruits by wind,
and of hooked fruits by animals, are soon noted. Reference is made to Darwin’s
observations and experiments on the dispersal of seed, and many of the girls
read the chapter on dispersal of seeds in ‘ Origin of Species.’

Division IIT.
Age of Girls, 14-17. Average time per week, 24 hours.

1. Detailed study of seeds and seedlings, leading to many experiments, are
carried out by the girls themselves in laboratory and garden. Various
dicotyledon and monocotyledon seeds are examined and drawn. Experiments
are made to see in what gases seeds germinate, and if seeds germinate at all
temperatures. After the germination of various seeds has been watched, and
successive stages in the seedlings drawn to scale, simple experiments are made
to see in what parts of the root and stem growth is most rapid, to find if
roots can absorb solids, to trace the path of the water in the plant, to deter-
mine the influence of light, gravity, and moisture on the direction of growth
2 roots, and the influence of light and gravity on the direction of growth of
stems.

Experiments are made by the girls to find what gas is given off by
germinating seeds, and to determine if there is a rise of temperature when
respiration takes place.

Other experiments show what gas is given off by a green plant in the presence
of light and carbon dioxide; the formation of starch in a green plant in the
presence of light and carbon dioxide; the influence of light, warmth, and the
presence of carbon dioxide and chlorophyll on the production of starch.

Experiments are made to find whether a plant gives off water, to prove the
presence of pores in leaves, to see from which side of a leaf more water is
given off, and to measure the weight and volume of water given off by a plant
in a certain time.

The percentage of water and ash is found in plants, and then the composition
of the ash is taken. Sometimes a girl in the Upper VI., specialising in science,
may be able to analyse the ash; but, failing this, an analysis of the ash by

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 187

an, expert is given to the girls. A list of elements constantly present in plants
is thus obtained, and the girls can then find out by means of growing plants
in food solutions which of those elements is necessary to the life of plants.
Many perennials are grown in normal food solutions, and generations of plants
that have never been in the soil have been reared.

2. Climbing Plants.—The girls compare the rates of revolution of various
twining plants, see if twining is influenced by the nature of the support, and
make many other experiments.

3. Classification.—Before the girls study classification they become familiar
with many of the British plants growing in the lane, wood, heath, and pond
of the botany gardens. When they are studying the Natural Orders they, have
charge of the Order beds in the garden.

4. Soil Experiments——Experiments are made on soils from different parts
of the botany gardens. Some of the experiments are : Comparison of the rates
at which water passes down through various soils; comparison of the rates at
which water passes up through various soils; comparison of the rates at which
air passes through various soils; determination of percentage of humus in
various soils; determination of some of the effects of the presence of humus.

5. Heology.

(1) Water plants.

(2) Fresh-water marsh plants.
Pebble beach,

(3) Sea-shore plants { Sand dune,
Salt marsh.

(4) Heath and moorland plants.

(5) Plants of oak wood.

The botany gardens include a pond, fresh-water marshes, a pebble beach, a
sand-dune, a salt marsh, a heath, and an oak wood, and in these the above
plants are studied. In addition to the study of the structure of characteristic
plants in these ecological gardens, many interesting problems are taken, and
original investigations can be made. For example, experiments are being made
in the oak wood to investigate the gradual changes in the character of the soil,
in the total evaporating power of the atmosphere, and in the light intensity
as the trees develop more leaves; and observations will be made of the effects of
these changes on the ground vegetation.

“188 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

VII. SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF PRACTICAL FOOD
STUDIES.

By Henry E. Armstrone.

(The following suggestions for a series of practical food studies are very
similar in form and purpose to those given in the schemes accepted by the
Association in 1889 and 1890. This scheme was offered to the Association, pre-
cisely in the form in which it is now printed, at the Norwich meeting in 1907;
the Committee of Section L suggested that it should be published in full but
this recommendation was not adopted by the Committee of Recommendations.
My object was to aid teachers, especially in girls’ schools, who desired to
develop a logical, comprehensive laboratory course of instruction based upon
food materials. At the time I stated that the scheme was not half complete : it
needs elaboration, especially on the physical, botanical and biological sides; and
had the slightest encouragement been given, I should have developed it. Its
present belated appearance may perhaps serve to stimulate a few teachers to take
up a line of work which is certainly of promise, if only it be pursued in a
proper scientific spirit. My desire has been to see a scheme of instruction
gradually. introduced into girls’ education which will make them. scientific
observers and thinkers in relation to all home matters: if this position were
gained, they would stand on an intellectual plane far higher than that they now
occupy.) ;

Stupy oF Foon.

Ar the outset, children might be asked what they know about food—what people
take as food—to draw up a list of foods, arranging the different kinds together
according as they are vegetable, animal, etc.—to think what infants live on
(milk and air); what is the simplest food we can live on when we have teeth
(bread and water and air); that if butter or dripping (fat) be added to bread, it
becomes improved both to taste and as food; and that bread and butter together
with milk and water and air are a thoroughly satisfying food.

After much talking about such matters, they should be led to write simple
accounts of what they know or can find out by observation and inquiry about
foods under heads similar to the above. It would be well to let them find out
what animals generally live on, so that they may understand the distinction
between carnivorous and herbivorous animals. :

As it is possible to live on bread, air and water, bread may be studied
thoroughly as a typical solid food. The answer to the question ‘ What is it made
from?’ ‘Flour or wheat ’—would lead to the further question ‘ What is flour?’
Flour should then be made by each child—practically, as it is still made by
savage races and as it was made before flour mills were invented—by pounding
wheat in a mortar or crushing it with a rolling pin. The exercise should be
carried out seriously and with scrupulous care, each child being made to weigh
out a certain quantity of wheat, then to powder or crush it and to separate the
flour from the bran by sieving through book muslin; the flour and bran should
then be weighed separately and the percentage of each calculated and the loss.
A record in writing of this work should be kept by each child. .

In the course of the lessons, the production of wheat should be discussed—
where and how it is grown. This would give an opportunity for geography
teaching and for economic teaching, which might well be utilised: diagrams
might be made to illustrate the consumption, yield per acre, price, imports and
exports, etc. ,

The children should be set to examine and describe wheat—the average size
and weight of the grains, their appearance, density, etc. They should also be
set to grow it—to plant it in different ways, in dry and wet sawdust, in sand

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 189

and in soil and also just dipping into water on muslin tied over the mouth of a
sie Wherever possible, wheat should be grown as a crop in the school
garden.

A regular account of all that went on should be kept.

To return to bread—having made flour (or before this, if desirable) they
should assist in actually making a batch of bread in the kitchen and be led to
observe (not be told merely, by the teacher) and record everything that happened
and was done. :

Wheat having been thus dealt with, barley and oats and even maize and rice
should be studied in a similar way—and cakes should be made by the children
(and afterwards eaten) from barley-meal, oatmeal, maize-meal and rice-meal, in
order that the value of cereal grains generally as foods might be impressed upon
them. A valuable lesson would be given if cakes were made, at this stage, from
various kinds of meal.

Stupy or Fiovr.

It would be learnt in the kitchen that flour forms a paste which is scarcely
sticky when mixed with not too much water, but that more water makes it
sticky; the question arises—What does water do to flour? Some things—salt
and sugar, for instance—dissolve in water: does flour? Each child should work
a pellet of flour paste between its thumb and two fingers under water (in a
common tumbler) : it would then be discovered that something is washed away
from the sticky mass and that at last a peculiar stringy rather than sticky mass
remains from which nothing more can be washed away even by running water.
From the turbid water in the tumbler, a white solid gradually settles down
which is not in the least sticky. The experiment should be repeated on a
larger scale by each child with say 30 grams of flour. This should be put
into a basin and mixed, by means of a short stout glass rod or stick, with about
half its weight of water. he paste should then be kneaded between the
fingers under a tap from which water trickles, the washings being collected in
a basin over which a square of muslin is spread, so as to catch any sticky
particles which may be broken away. When the washings are no longer milky,
the stringy mass should be dried by rolling it on the palm of the hand, con-
stantly drying the hand with a towel, just up to the point at which it shows
signs of sticking—but no longer; then it should be placed on a 2 or 3 inch
square of grease-proof paper and dried in a water oven. When dry it should be
weighed.

The washings should be poured into a large pickle-jar or cylinder and
allowed to settle. After an interval, as much as possible of the clear liquid
should be syphoned off and the residue collected on a filter, dried and weighed.

In this way, the flour would be separated into gluten and starch and a fair
estimate would be made of the amounts of each. ‘

On treating barley-meal, oatmeal, maize-meal and rice-meal in the same way, —
it would be found that they did not yield the sticky substance (gluten) when
kneaded with water. One reason why wheaten meal is more suitable for kitchen
purposes than other kinds of cereal meals would then be made clear.

Stupy or STarcH.

Starch is in common use—for what purpose? For stiffening articles of
clothing—collars, cuffs, shirt fronts, etc. What is it like and how is it used?
Examine samples and describe it. Prepare a quantity for starching by mixing
... grams with. . . cubic centimetres of cold water, using your forefinger to
stir them together, then pour the paste in a thin stream into . . . cubic centi-
metres of boiling hot water contained in a dish or saucepan of suitable size, stir-
ring constantly, as you pour in the paste, with a wooden spoon or rod. Set the
liquid aside to cool but cool a portion rapidly in a test tube under the tap.
Taste it and solid starch. Describe the appearance of the liquid and everything
that happens to it as it cools. Dilute a small portion considerably, to a
known extent; then add a drop or two of a solution of iodine to a litre of the
diluted liquid. You will thus become acquainted with the characteristic test
for starch,

190 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Carry out a like series of operations with the starch you have prepared from
flour.

Examine starches from different sources under the microscope—note the effect
of iodine.

Test arrowroot, sago, tapioca, macaroni, vermicelli, for starch ; also try
if you can extract gluten from these materials.

The presence of starch, in considerable quantity, in important feod materials,
having been thus established and something learnt of its properties, the part
it plays in cereal grains may be considered.

What happens to the seed when it germinates and a plant grows out of it?
Some information will have been gained already on this point. The gradual
disappearance of the starch will have been noted. By tasting grains which
have been soaked in water and then kept for various periods, the development
of a sweet taste will be noticed. Malt may then be introduced and an account
given of the way in which it is made and what it is used for. Malt should be

made by steeping barley in water during... . hours, then keeping it and
allowing it to germinate until the young plantlet is about .. .. inches long,
after which it is dried at a temperature not exceeding....C. The appearance

of the starch grains of the malted and unmalted barley should be noticed under
the microscope. Then equal quantities of barley and of malt which have been
ground in a coffee mill should each be mixed with about... . times their
weight of ordinary water and the mixture allowed to stand .... hours. It
would then be discovered that in one case the starch disappears. The liquids
should be examined and the weights of equal volumes (the relative densities)
contrasted with that of water. Known quantities should be evaporated in
weighed dishes on the water bath, in order that the weights of matter in solu-
tion might be determined. It would thus be discovered that the starch is
changed into a soluble sugar-like material and the disappearance of the starch
from the seed during germination would be explained.

Foster’s ‘Primer of Physiology’ (Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1s.) might be
studied at this stage with advantage and the nature of the stomach and
intestines made clear. At some time also the stomach and the intestines of a
freshly killed rabbit should be laid bare before the class and their character and
arrangement fully explained.

The children might then be asked—What happens to the starch in our food ?
What is done with it?—It is first chewed in the mouth and becomes mixed
with spittle or saliva, is it not? Does this latter produce any effect on it?
Try! Spit freely into a test tube half full of solidified starch paste prepared
as directed; mix the starch and saliva well together with the aid of a light
wooden rod which you have made for the purpose. Plunge the tube into a
‘water bath kept at about . .. C.; examine it at intervals. Repeat the experi-
ment but first spit into the test tube and then plunge it into boiling water;
after about five minutes’ heating add the starch and digest the mixture: at the
same time digest a mixture of starch with similar unheated saliva. Also make
comparative experiments in a similar way with unboiled and boiled malt-extract.

It would then be discovered that starch is rendered soluble by something
which is present both in malt-extract and in saliva—something, moreover, which
is rendered inactive by heating to near the boiling point of water. This sub-
stance has been named Diastase.

The importance of the change thus undergone by starch when ‘digested ’
with the aid of the diastase either in malt-extract or in saliva would be more
obvious when it is realised that starch diffuses with extreme slowness into
water and that it does not pass through wet bladder or vegetable parchment,
whereas the sugar which is formed from it on digestion, like ordinary sugar
and salt, diffuses readily. :

Our starchy food is cooked either by baking or by boiling it—what is the
effect on the starch of baking and boiling ?

When heated in the oven, as in baking bread or pastry, flour is browned
and may easily be burnt; but flour is more than starch—what happens to

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 191

starch when it is heated alone ? Study the effect of heat on starch very care-
fully, at gradually increasing temperatures.

At an early stage, vapour is given off—what does this look like ? Steam—
that is to say, water vapour. Perhaps the starch was not dry—dry it carefully
at a temperature at which wet things are easily dried and repeat the experiment.
Vapour is still given off when the dried starch is heated—is it water vapour ?
How can you find out ? What happens when water vapour meets a cold
surface ? Try! The vapour becomes liquid—it condenses. See if the
vapour from starch can be condensed. You find it can and that the liquid is
like water—is it water? Would not the discovery that it is water be of in-
terest and importance as an indication that water is in some way contained
in starch? Try therefore to prove that the liquid is water. Heat... grams
of starch in a vessel from which the vapour can only escape through a cooled
tube (a condenser), and when you have sufficient of the liquid, contrast it
carefully with water.

But water is not the only product on heating starch: as the heating is
continued, the starch becomes more and more burnt or charred; at last, it is
converted into a mass of very light charcoal, which easily takes fire and burns
away to nothing! Are not these strange changes—who would suppose that in
white starch there are hidden away in some mysterious manner both black
charcoal or carbon (to give it its Latin name) and water?

How comes it that starch is useful to us as food—has the presence of carbon
and water in it anything to do with its value as a foodstuff? We certainly
cannot eat charcoal as such but what can we do with it? What is it used
for? In England, we no longer use it as fuel, as it is too expensive; in France
and Japan, however, it is still much used in cooking and also for warming
rooms. And have you not heard through the newspapers of people being killed
by the fumes of burning charcoal? Does not this show that it must not be
assumed, because nothing is seen to escape, that charcoal gives nothing when
burnt ?

What does food do for us? It makes us grow, you will say! But does it
not also keep us warm—may not perhaps the warmth be produced at least in
part by the burning of the carbon which is in the starch we eat? Is not the
suggestion one which it is well worth following up—will it not be well to
study burning? What are the things we burn or which we know will burn?
Make out a list.

CoMBUSTIBLEs.

From the domestic point of view, our most important fuel or combustible is
coal—what do you know of the way in which coal burns—does it just burn when
set fire to? You know it does not. To keep a fire burning, air must be sup-
plied to it; if a fire be low, it is often restored by holding a newspaper in front
of the stove or grate in such a way that a draught of air is forced through
the feebly glowing embers—very soon these begin to burn brightly; and at
any time a fire may be caused to burn brightly by increasing the draught
through it : by using bellows, we often make a fire burn up quickly.

Must we not conclude, therefore, that air has something to do with the
burning of coal? Is this true of other combustibles? Consider what you know
and if you cannot produce evidence one way or the other—but such questions
should be settled by trial or by experiment, not by guessing.

Under ordinary conditions, we cannot see what happens to the air during
burning—suppose you shut up a burning candle with air so that you can watch
the air as well as the candle flame. You will probably think of several ways
of making such an experiment; the easiest perhaps is to place a small piece
of candle on a block of wood floating on water in a basin and cautiously to
invert over the flame a bell jar provided with a stopper which you insert the
moment the bell jar is in position; or you may use a small statuette cover.
Noting everything that happens, you see that almost at once the sides of the
jar become bedewed; the flame grows dim and after a time goes out; at the
same time the water rises in the jar, showing that some of the air is used up.
It is desirable to paint a line a short way up the jar with Brunswick black,
such as is used in blacking stoves, to mark the position of the water at the

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

start. When the jar is again cool, the point to which the water rises should
be marked in some suitable way and the capacity of the jar ascertained above
this mark and also between it and the lower mark: the amount of air which
disappears is then ascertained.

Similar experiments should then be made with other combustibles—spirit,
different oils and gas. In every case, the flame soon gives out and some air
disappears: less than a fifth. Clearly the air is concerned in the burning—but
very partially : does it not seem that it contains something which is active rather
than that it is active as a whole?

Solid combustibles are not so easily dealt with: if an electric current be
available, you may fire such substances in air, in a bell jar standing over water,
by means‘ of a spiral of platinum heated to redness by the current—in every
case air disappears; but never quite a fifth.

But why does some of the air disappear—is it because it is in some way
changed into water vapour which condenses on the jar and on contact with the
water used in shutting up the air in the bell jar? Do all combustible substances
give water when burnt? Can water be condensed from the candle flame and
other flames? Try the effect of exposing a cold surface (a flask full of cold
water) to each. At once it is bedewed but except in the case of the spirit
flame it is soon smoked or coated with soot, which looks like charcoal or carbon
in a fine state of division—so there seems to be carbon in combustibles, as there
is in starch. Although the liquid which bedews the flask looks like water,
you have no proof that it is water: as nothing is to be taken for granted, you
must burn the several combustibles in such a way that you can collect enough
of the liquid from each to contrast it with water.

Having done this, you feel sure that water comes from each of the liquid
combustibles when they are burnt in air. But what of solid combustibles such
as wood, charcoal, coal, coke? It should not be difficult to make observations
over fires made with these and to convince yourself that charcoal and coke give
practically no water although indications are obtained that it is formed on
burning wood and coal.

What becomes of carbon when it is burnt, therefore, remains a mystery to
be solved only by further inquiry.

Although there is yet much to jearn as to what happens when things burn,
it is now at least clear that starch may be burnt with the aid of air and that
much heat is given out : knowing as we all do that we must have air to liye,
may it not be that the air we inhale serves to burn part, at least, of our food,
quietly and in such a way that we are kept warm by the process? If so, the
fact that it is an indispensable article of food meets with an explanation.

Before taking up fresh subjects, it is worth while to take stock of the
knowledge gained by studying flour and starch experimentally : Flour has been
resolved into starch and gluten; the latter, however, has been set aside tem-
porarily while starch was being examined It has been ascertained that although
wheaten flour has certain advantages, owing to the peculiar properties of its
gluten, other cereal grains give flours which are also mixtures of starch and
gluten-like substances; potatoes, however, have been found to consist almost
wholly of starch. Starch, it has been discovered, contains both carbon and
water, associated apparently in some strange way which altogether masks their
ordinary properties. Itself insoluble but convertible into a peculiar jelly-like
material (starch paste) by heating with water, starch is changed by diastase
(a constituent of barley and of human saliva) into a soluble diffusible sugar.
A little reflection will show that these properties give starch its peculiar value.
It occurs in the seed of cereals and in the potato tuber—the resting parts of
the plants : if it were soluble, it could not well be stored up; and unless it
could be rendered soluble by digestion, it could not pass into circulation and
serve as food—in fact it has just the attributes which are required of a sub-
stance occupying the position it holds in the plant world. Starch is a substance
which is easily burnt: in studying it from this point of view, it has been
discovered that burning is a process in which air is concerned—not air as 2
whole but an active portion in it.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 193

Tue Kitcuen,

Books are usually divided into chapters: when the story is carried to a
certain point it is broken off and a new chapter is begun, in which some other
set of characters is considered. It will be well to leave the study of food for
a time and pass to the kitchen, where the stove and fender and fire irons are
to be found. All these are made of iron and, like steel knives, must be care-
fully looked after and kept bright. Why? Why too is so much care taken
to paint ironwork out of doors? We use many other metals and leave them
unpainted—at most they are tarnished, but iron rusts and spoils. What happens
to it—what makes it rust? Water, you say—if water be dropped on the fender
and be allowed to remain there or if knives are left wet, rust soon appears.
You must not be hasty in your conclusions—you will soon find out if you are
that your conclusions are often wrong. If water be the cause of rust, should
not iron rust if corked up with water, say, in an ordinary medicine bottle?
Get some bright iron nails (wire or French nails) and try the experiment; at
the same time expose some nails in a saucer along with a little water—not
enough to cover them. Scarcely any rusting takes place in the bottle, while
outside the bottle the nails rust considerably. Why is this—what was the
difference between the two experiments? If air were present in the one case
and not in the other and in some way play a part, it may be possible by watching
the air to find out if it be concerned. Shut some air up over water along with
some wetted iron. Some of the air disappears—how much—is the amount
definite ’—make sure by repeating the experiment several times. What is the
remaining air like—is it unchanged air—how will you try! Think of a test.
Have you not made a great discovery about air when you take into account
what you had previously learnt in your experiments on burning? What will
you call this active part of air—may it not, for the time, be called Fire air—the
air which, in some way, gives rise to fire; or rust air, if you will? In the latter
case, however, the name has reference to a less striking property of the air
or gas; it is less significant though appropriate in its way. What becomes of
the ‘ Fire air’ as the iron rusts—it changes the iron into rust, is it in the rust?
If this be so, what must happen as the iron rusts—iron rust, when you handle
it, seems to be a much lighter substance than iron (find its exact density as
as that of iron), but is the rusted iron lighter or heavier than the unrusted ?

ry!

The result of this experiment should leave no doubt in your mind that iron
rust is formed by the association or combination of the active gas in air with
the iron—-that it is a compound of iron with the active gas. It is clear also,
is it not? that in some way the water plays a part—as the rusting only takes
place when the air and water act together—what that part is cannot be deter-
mined at present, however.

Probably you never suspected that the kitchen range, the fender and the
fire irons were in any way to be associated with your food except that they
were of use in preparing it—that they could be brought into relation with it
through air and water cannot well have entered into your thoughts. Is not
the lesson a very valuable one—is it not one that teaches you that no opportunity
is to be neglected—that eyes must always be open and willing to see, willing
also to send messages to the brain?

Is not the formation of a substance such as iron rust from the metal iron
very remarkable? Compare them carefully in every way you can and consider
the nature or properties of the two substances. The one, like metals generally,
is bright or lustrous when polished and is relatively heavy; it can be bent
and beaten and drawn out without breaking—its strength being one reason
why it is so useful. Rust, however, is quite unlike a metal—it has no strength
and is easily powdered. What does it most resemble, especially when powdered ?
Red earth, does it not? It may be best described as an earthy substance—in
fact, in some parts of our country, in Devonshire particularly, the soil looks
just like iron rust and red soils are frequently met with. You may have noticed
too that burnt clay is not unlike iron rust. Burn some clay, if you have not.

What is iron itself—is it found anywhere; if not, how is it made? It is

1917. (a)

194 REPORTS ON THE SATE oF screNCE.—1917.

well worth while to inquire what is known of the early use of iron and to
consider how, probably, the way to make it was first found out. It is made
from ironstone—from iron ores as they are called, some of which are very
like iron rust and others like hardened clay. It is made from an earth, in
fact—by smelting or heating the earth together with charcoal or coke. You
know that carbon burns in air—in the active part of it (Fire air) that is to
say : does it perhaps associate with the Fire air as the iron does in rusting and
does it release the iron in the ore when it is smelted with it by depriving it
of Fire air? Questions such as these are not to be answered without further
study.

Stupy or Burning.

As food and fire seem to be closely connected, it may be well now to study
fire a little more fully and carefully. How do we produce fire—in the morning
when lighting the fire; or- at any other time? You say at once—by striking
a match. What is a match ?—nothing is more commonly used and yet few know
anything about it.

The easily inflammable substance—that which is fired by the heat developed
by friction in drawing the match over the rough surface of the box—is
phosphorus. What does the word mean—what language is it derived from?
Phosphorus is made largely from animal bones. From bones, you say: can’t
we get away from ourselves and our food even in studying the matches used
in lighting the fire with the aid of which our food is cooked? Do all things
move in a circle?

Phosphorus, you will see, when it is put before you, is a yellow wax-like
solid; it is always kept under water and must be handled with extreme care
and only kept in the fingers during a short time, as it takes fire very easily
and the burns it produces heal with difficulty. Why should it inflame sooner
or later when taken out of water and not in water? Does this behaviour
suggest anything to you? If so, make an experiment to verify your idea.
What has this experiment taught you—does it not serve also to bring the match
more closely into relationship with the iron stove than you before thought to
be likely ?

Very little phosphorus is used in matches—how does it burn alone? Care-
fully dry a small piece, first on a duster and then on porous paper, place it on
a brick or tile and touch it with a warm wire: at once it takes fire and burns
brightly; as it burns, dense white smoke is given off. Try to stop the smoke
from escaping by covering the burning phosphorus with a glass shade. Note
what happens—describe the product.

In burning other substances, you have found that the air is concerned—
that, in part, it is ‘burnt’ as well as the inflammable substance: is the air
concerned in the burning of phosphorus? Try.

But as phosphorus takes fire so very easily, will it not be well to try to
burn it alone to make sure that the air is concerned? It is possible to remove
the air from a vessel by means of an air pump. Let us put a piece of carefully
dried phosphorus into a strong globular flask, provided with a tightly fitting
rubber stopper to which a glass tap is fitted : having exhausted the air by means
of the pump and closed the tap, let us now cautiously heat the flask, where the
phosphorus lies, over a small flame, sufficiently to melt the phosphorus : nothing
happens. Now let us repeat the experiment with a strong flask full of air closed
by a simple rubber stopper: the phosphorus takes fire but soon ceases to burn
and apparently some remains unburnt. There was not much air in the flask—
was any or all of it burnt along with the phosphorus? Think what happened
when the phosphorus was exposed in air over water. What then will happen
if the stopper be withdrawn from the flask while the neck of the flask is under
water? See!

It is clear therefore that whether it be merely exposed in air or burnt in
air, the phosphorus kills, as it were, very nearly one-fifth of the air—its
behaviour is much like that of all other burning substances, except that, to be
precise, it is more like that of iron—which also gives a solid product, unlike the
other substances which were burnt. But the air behaves alike to iron and
phosphorus, seeing that one-fifth disappears under the influence of each, This

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, 195

fact would seem to indicate that the same constituent of the air is concerned
in both cases—try to place this beyond doubt by experiment.

How does the phosphorus act—does it associate with the active gas in air—
is the white snow-like product a rust? How will you ascertain? You must
prevent the smoke from escaping, must you not, if you wish to contrast its
weight with that of the phosphorus—how will you do this—how is smoke to
be held back or screened off—what is a respirator used for? Very well, then;
fit up a suitable respirator to prevent the smoke from escaping from a tube in
which phosphorus is burnt,

From the result, it is clear, you see, that the phosphorus and iron behave
alike towards air, withdrawing and combining with the same proportion—very
nearly one-fifth; and it seems probable, does it not, that this one-fifth about
(the Fire air, as we have called it) is a special constituent present to this extent
in air? You have thus discovered what of air—that air is a mixture of at
least two kinds of air, have you not?

Where does the fire come from? It seems to have its origin in the act of
association, does it not? What becomes of the fire or heat produced on
associating phosphorus with Fire air? It escapes, does it not? The flask in
which the phosphorus is burnt becomes unbearably hot in places but soon cools—
the heat is soon lost : does it, the heat that is lost, weigh anything? Try!

You have thus made the discovery—the wonderful discovery—that fire is
weightless—something unsubstantial, unmaterial—but consider what strange
changes attend its production: the metal iron and Fire gas give rise to the
earth-like rust ; the phosphorus and the Fire air to phosphorus snow; the various
ordinary combustibles, whether gaseous, liquid or solid, seem to afford water
and something which has escaped our notice hitherto and which probably there-
fore is an air-like or gaseous substance : but if so, it must be quite soluble in
water, must it not, as nearly one-fifth of the air disappears when the various
substances are burnt in it? But stay, do you know that all substances burn at the
expense of one and the same constituent of air? Will it not be well to try
whether, in all cases, the inactive four-fifths left after exposing iron or
phosphorus in air be inactive also towards all ordinary combustibles? In this
work, nothing must be taken for granted. And do you know that when iron and
phosphorus ‘rust’ in air heat is produced as when phosphorus actually burns
in air? Is heat given out when the phosphorus is merely exposed in air?
Make the experiment in a really warm room, using a thin rod of phosphorus
lashed to a wooden rod.

You thus obtain evidence that even when the Fire air is absorbed slowly,
heat is produced; and you can believe that whether the phosphorus burn
visibly or not is merely a question of the rate at which the change takes place—
whether the heat have time to get away or not.

You may ask : Is the rusting of iron a case of slow burning? ‘The reply is—
Can iron burn? How were fires lighted before matches were known—how
were guns fired before percussion caps were invented? With the aid of a
flint and steel. Try the effect of striking pieces of flint and of iron together.
If you can find a smithy, watch the blacksmith at work at his forge; or still
better, go to a steelworks where iron is rolled into bars and plates. Examine
a new horseshoe and contrast its surface with that of one which has been in
use. Examine the ground near the smith’s anvil. Heat a piece of bright
iron to redness for some time and notice the effect; or prepare some coarse
iron filings and heat them in a muffle furnace on a clay support, weighing them
before and after heating.

Having thus ascertained that iron can be burnt, you will be prepared to
regard rusting also as a case of slow burning—whether it rust slowly or burn
rapidly, it equally combines with Fire air and becomes converted into a
pulverulent, earthy substance: a red earth in the one case, a black earth
in the other.

You will perhaps ask—do other metals burn? Do other metals give earths
when burnt? Metals are so commonly used in household practice that it will
be well to know something about them. Copper vessels are commonly used—
does copper combine with Fire air and burn? Try! Does lead, does zinc, does

196 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

tin? You can easily try. Magnesium, in the form of ribbon, burns very
easily—study the change carefully. And try if silver can be burnt.

Having previously contrasted iron with iron rust by determining their
densities, it will be well in the case of other metals to contrast each of the
products with the metal from which it is formed and to draw up a tabular
statement of the results arrived at. It will be well, instead of making all the
substances, to inquire if you cannot obtain the various burnt metals and at
the same time to collect information as to the use that is made of them and
of their market value in comparison with that of the metals, At the same
time, it will be well to inquire how the metals are made.

Such a comparison affords most instructive results—in every case, the metal
affords an earthy product: some of the earths are relatively light, others
heavy—some are coloured, others colourless; how do they behave towards
water—have they any taste?

All this time, the snow formed on burning phosphorus—which is certainly
not at all like a metal—has been left out of consideration : it should therefore
be compared with the earths formed from the metals. You have already learnt
that its behaviour is somewhat peculiar—what became of it when the phosphorus
was burnt over water? If you did not notice, repeat the experiment. What
happened to the snow which fell on the tile when the phosphorus was burnt
under the glass shade? Can the snow be kept in a closed bottle? Has it any
taste?

It seems then that earths are produced when Fire air is combined with
metals—what other combustible substances yield when combined with it is not
yet clear: only in one case, that of phosphorus, have you learnt that a sour
or acid-forming substance is produced.

To understand what becomes of food when it is burnt, it is clearly de-
sirable to extend the inquiry—carbon is certainly not a metal and there is no
evidence yet that any earthy substance is formed when it is burnt, apart from
the small quantity of ashes which remains,

Has it not struck you as remarkable, when you were hearing of the ways
in which the various metals were made, that in most cases carbon in the form
of anthracite, coal or coke, was used to separate the metal? The metallic
ores are mostly earthy substances and most of the metals are converted into
earths by roasting them in air—what then is perhaps the nature of the action
which the carbon exercises in separating the metal? Will it not be well to
try experiments with the earths prepared from the metals or with those
which afford metals and to heat them with charcoal? In some cases, you obtain
the metal easily—what else? Nothing solid or liquid—perhaps an air or gas
is produced. Try; and if one be obtained collect it and examine it in com-
parison with air by determining its density, &c. Then see what happens on
burning starch in a similar way. After these experiments, there can be no
doubt that the carbon in starch is of value as a combustible.

PLANTS AND SoILs.

Although our food is partly of animal and partly of vegetable origin, ex-
cepting fish, poultry and game, the animals we use as food are entirely vegetable
feeders : directly or indirectly, therefore, we are dependent on plants for our
food—we could not live on air and water and the soil as they do. The knowledge
gained from the experiments you have made enables you already to ask of
what use is air to plants—do they breathe as we do? ‘They are not warm, as
we are—nevertheless, it may help them to burn some of their food slowly.
What is their food—where do they obtain the carbon which is contained in
starch and which we must suppose is a chief constituent of plants, of wood
and of all vegetable materials, as they all give more or less charcoal when
heated sufficiently strongly? The use to them of water we can understand to
some extent, as they are full of watery juices, like ourselves. Of what use
to them are roots—do they suck all their food out of the soil with their aid?
As roots are peculiar to plants, it does not seem unlikely that this is the

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 197

cage. Considerations such as these make it desirable to know something of the
soil.

To grow plants properly, they must be cultivated; all soils are not equally
good. What is soil? The surface crust of the earth. Even in those regions
which consist of hard rock, the surface is usually soft soil formed by the
gradual decay of the rock under the influence of the weather. What kinds of
soft rock or soil do you know—what kinds of hard rock?

The soft soil everywhere is either sand or clay or a mixture of these (loam).
You probably know both kinds and are well aware that they are very different,
but it is better that you should examine them carefully. Take grams of
each, examine them—if possible with a magnifying lens; describe them, con-
trast their behaviour, also their behaviour with water, both when wetted with
it and when stirred up with a considerable quantity. Afterwards examine some
garden and field soil and see what you can separate by stirring up the soil
with water and decanting off the water before the lighter particles have
settled.

The separation of sand from clay is always going on in rivers and in many
places along the sea-coast: and it is on this account that sand-banks are
formed in rivers and that the sea-shore more often than not consists of sand.

Sandstone.—Sand is found in many places mixed up with pebbles of various
sizes—how are such rounded pebbles produced, do you suppose? If you have
been on the sea-coast where there is a shingle beach, you will probably be able
to account for the rounding of the pebbles. What are gravel pebbles like
inside—do they in any way resemble sand?

Hard rocks are of frequent occurrence which are obviously formed of sand
particles stuck firmly together—these are commonly known as sandstones; they
are usually coloured more or less—yellow, brown, or even bright red. Flint,
chert and quartz are solid, somewhat glass-like vocks, which when broken into
small pebbles give a material like sand.

Clay.—In many places, soft rocks are found which are more or less easily
split up into slabs or sheets; these are known as shales or slate rock. If the
fine powder formed by grinding them be mixed with water, it forms a more or
less sticky, clay-like mass.

Timestones.—Rocks which yield lime when burnt are very generally met
with together with sand and clay; they vary much in character according to
the district, some being soft like chalk, others hard and crystalline like mountain
limestone. The limestones are always full of fossils; chalk under the microscope
appears to consist almost entirely of shell-like remains.

Igneous rocks.—Sandstone, clay and limestone are known as sedimentary
rocks—there being complete proof that they have been deposited as sediments
from water.

A fourth class of rock includes all rocks which have cooled down from the
fused state. Granite is one of the most characteristic of these rocks and is
well known, as it is much used as an ornamental stone for building.

Iiveryone should be familiar with the common rocks and take some interest
in their history : and the wonderful story they tell when properly interpreted :
but this should be made almost entirely an outdoor occupation.

Nature or LIMESTONE.

In studying starch, we have taken into account things which were known
about it and have based experiments on these: the results have enabled us to
arrive at certain conclusions; our discovery that starch contains carbon and
perhaps water was based on the study of the changes which it undergoes when
heated and when burnt in air. We were led on to study the changes which
metals undergo when burnt and to discover that the earthy substances into
which they are converted are compounds of the metals with Fire air. We were
able to take away the Fire air from the metal in some of the earths by means
of carbon. In every case a change was effected—we arrived at our knowledge
of the nature of the subiect by studying a change in which it was concerned.
Can this method be applied to the study of soil materials—in appearance they
resemble closely the earths obtained by burning metals—are any of them known

198 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIPNCE.—1917,

to undergo change in any characteristic way? What is done with sand? It is
used along with lime in making mortar and when fused with soda forms glass.

Clay in admixture with sand is used in making bricks and when burnt with
chalk yields cement.

Limestone when burnt is changed into lime; in the form of soft chalk
or preferably of lime, it is applied to the soil as manure.

Apparently, all undergo change; limestone, however, is changed when heated
alone and therefore seems to offer the simplest case for study.

A series of experiments might follow, on lines like those indicated on
pp. 355-359 and 444-448 of my ‘ Teaching of Scientific Method’ (Macmillan &
Co., Ltd.), leading up to the discovery of the compound nature of limestone.
Limestone has thus been resolved into two substances—solid lime and a gas:
although not itself an earth like any of those formed on burning metals, the
lime obtained from it is very similar in appearance at least to the earths
which are formed from some of them; as to the gas, being colourless, it is not
easily compared with other gases. What are the properties of the gases you
have dealt with thus far? Of the two gases in air, one, you know, promotes
combustion, the other does not; the gas you obtained by burning carbon by
means of red lead and copper scale was heavier than air and more soluble in
water than air and a taper would not burn in it. On testing the gas from lime-
stone, you find that it resembles the latter gas rather than air. But you have
discovered that the gas from limestone can be reconverted into limestone stuff.
Does the gas prepared from carbon at all resemble it in this respect? On making
the experiment you find it does; indeed you cannot distinguish between the
two—they are the same material. Think what a momentous discovery you
have made! That carbon is an important constituent not only of vegetable
and animal matter but also of the earth limestone—it seems to be every-
where, in some cases in an unburnt, in others in a burnt state. You may ask,
how comes it to be in limestone—in a burnt state? What is limestone com-
posed of? Chalk, the form which you have examined, consists of the remains
of minute shells—shells are of animal origin—are all shells alike in composition?
Such reflections should lead you to study a variety of shells, salt-water, fresh-
water and land shells, the shells of birds’ eggs.

In the course of the experiments with limestone, it has been discovered
that the gas which is a constituent of limestone stuff is present in minute pro-
portion in the air. How does it get there? You know that it is formed by
the combusion of coal, wood, &c. But as we are kept warm by our food and
it is probable that it is more or less burnt up in our bodies and that the air
we breathe in is used for the purpose, may it not be that the gas is also given
out by us? Try to find out by contrasting ordinary air with expired air. fee
also if the gas be given off by animals, such as mice, by caterpillars feeding on
green leaves, by snails, &c., by keeping these under a bell jar through which
air is passed after scrubbing it free from the gas by means of lime. Also en-
deavour to find out if air be concerned in the germination of seeds by ascertain-
ing if they germinate in air over water and whether the air be affected, and
also whether as germination takes place the gas be given off.

Stupy or Acrps.

Are you not surprised that you have been able to find out so much—and
especially that whatever you do you are always led, sooner or later, to dis-
cover something of interest in relation to yourselves? No doubt you are anxious
to continue your inquiries now that you begin to understand what wonderful
changes are going on everywhere.

The gas obtained by burning carbon resembles the product from phosphorus
and differs from the earths derived from the metals inasmuch as they are
bath formed from substances which are clearly not metals—but one being a gas
and the other a solid they are not directly comparable as are the products from
the metals. Have they any property in common? What property is character-
istic or the phosphorus snow? Its taste, is it not? Has the gas an acid
taste? Try! Acids stain coloured clothes, do they not? The colours of flowers
are very sensitive—make coloured solutions from a variety of flowers and see
whether they are affected by solutions of the two substances which you are

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 199

studying and by the common acids. You find that the product from carbon
has only a weak action but it seems to act in the same direction as the acids.
Things which are similar may sometimes be substituted for one another, may
they not? You know that limestone contains the gas which is derived from
carbon and that the common acids in some way turn the gas out—will the
acid product from phosphorus have a similar effect? Try! You thus discover
that the two substances have similar properties, although not alike in strength
—both are acidic substances. Are there any other non-metallic combustibles
which you can study to ascertain if they yield acidic products? Although
sulphur matches are not much used nowadays and almost the only occasion when
sulphur is used in the house is when it is put into the dog’s water, you perhaps
know the smell of burning sulphur. Burn some sulphur, pass the fumes into
distilled water; taste the solution, test it with colours and add some chalk to
it. You thus become acquainted with a third acidic product of combustion
derived from a non-metal: the probability that non-metals form acid com-
pounds and metals earths when associated with Fire air is therefore increased.
Years ago, when it became desirable to give significant names to substances,
the great French chemist Lavoisier introduced the name oxygen for the gas
we have spoken of hitherto as Fire air; it retains this name to the present
day, except among the Germans, who call it Sauerstoff, or sour-stuff—the stuff
of which acids are made; but this is the meaning of the word oxygen, which
is derived from two Greek words, oxus—acid and gennao—I produce. The
compounds of oxygen are termed oxides and it may be mentioned here that the
terminal ide is always restricted to substances which like those in question
consist of only two others.

Thus far you have been led to conclude that there are two kinds or classes
of oxides—metallic and non-metallic: oxides of metals and oxides of non-
metals. The latter it is found are acidic—they form acids when dissolved
in water; except that the former are more or less earth-like in appearance,
nothing has been observed which seems to be characteristic of these oxides as
a class. Have you not noticed, however, that lime resembles the metallic
oxides—is it perhaps a metallic oxide—what is characteristic of it: is it not
its power of combining with carbonic gas and other acidic oxides—if then it be
a metallic oxide, the metallic oxides generally may be expected to resemble it in
combining with acidic oxides, may they not? You have found that not only is
limestone acted upon by the common acids (muriatic acid, aquafortis and
vitriolic acid) but lime also: in what way are they acted upon—comparing the
effect of heat on limestone with that produced by acids, does it not seem that
the lime in it is acted upon by the acid and the carbonic gas just let go? Does
it not therefore seem desirable to study the action of the common acids on the
metallic oxides generally in comparison with lime?

But you will ask : what are these acids: how are they obtained? Surely,
if we are to use them, we should know something about them.

[Sketch history. of the discovery of oil of vitriol—pyrites used by palzolithic
man—decay of and conversion into green vitriol and rust—distillation of green
vitriol, production of oil of vitriol—strong sulphur smell, pyrites combustible,
burning like sulphur but giving rust-like earth as well—preparation of vitriolic
acid by burning sulphur, later with the aid of aquafortis.]

Knowing what happens to sulphur when burnt, you will at once reason
that vitriolic acid is in some way connected with the oxide you have prepared
from sulphur—but you are told that it is formed from this oxide with the
aid of air, water and aquafortis; or nowadays by passing the gas formed by
burning sulphur together with air over heated finely divided platinum. Suppose
you try this experiment.

You will now realise that vitriolic acid consists of sulphur, oxygen and water,
and that it is derived from an oxide which contains more oxygen than is con-
tained in that formed on merely burning sulphur in air; this latter is a colourless
gas, whilst the former is solid and forms a dense white smoke. To distinguish
the two oxides, one is called sulphurous oxide, the other sulphuric oxide;
whilst the acid formed from the one is called sulphurous acid and that formed
from the other sulphuric acid, You know that von can associate sulphurous

200 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

oxide with lime and that you can displace carbonic gas from limestone by
eulphurous oxide and also by phosphoric oxide; and as you know that sulphuric
acid acts on limestone, you will be prepared to argue that sulphuric oxide can
also combine with lime. Phosphoric oxide has proved to be stronger than
sulphurous oxide—try whether sulphuric or sulphurous oxide be the stronger,
in a similar sense,

Contrast sulphurous with sulphuric acids. The fact that sulphuric oxide
proves to be the stronger is clearly of interest in justification of the name
sour-stuff, or oxygen ; the stronger and more pronounced acid being that which
contains the major proportion of oxygen.

Aquafortis,—There is no doubt that, in early times, as soon as the alchemists
found a new substance, they tried its effect on all the substances with which
they were acquainted. In this way, when they discovered oil of vitriol, besides
finding out more or less by accident if not by carelessness that it was very
corrosive and destructive of their skin and clothes, they probably very soon
tried what action it would have on substances such as nitre or saltpetre and
sea salt. The former often appears in the form of crystals on the soil in the
neighbourhood of manure heaps; saltpetre occurs in large quantities in Chili in
certain districts where there is no rain to wash it away. Both kinds of salt-
petre are very valuable as manures. When vitriolic acid is added to saltpetre
and the mixture is gently warmed in a retort, a very volatile and acid liquid
distils over, the retort becoming full of brownish vapour. ‘his liquid is very
corrosive, staining the skin a deep yellow. Of course, the alchemists tried
the action of this acid on everything at hand, metals such as gold, silver,
copper, lead, tin, zinc and iron, and found that it dissolved all but gold : as it
was much stronger than the other acids they knew, they called it aquafortis.

To the present day, the jeweller uses aquafortis to distinguish spurious from

real gold. 5

Aquafortis—or nitric acid as it is called on account of its formation from
nitre—you have learnt, is used in converting sulphurous into sulphuric acid;
it must therefore be capable of giving off oxygen and must contain an oxide.
Nitre, or villainous saltpetre, as Hotspur calls it in Shakespeare’s ‘ Henry IV.,’
has been used for centuries past in making gunpowder—a mixture of charcoal,
sulphur and nitre; also in fireworks. The modern explosives—gun-cotton and
nitroglycerin—are also made with the aid of nitric acid. What happens when
gunpowder is fired—in what way do charcoal or sulphur and nitre interact?
Try to find out. 3

Muriatic acid.i-We get back to the kitchen and our own food once more
when we come to salt. Oil of vitriol acts upon it at once—fizzing takes place
and an acid fume escapes—spirit of salt, the old alchemists called it. They
were clever enough to find out that this fume is very soluble in water and
the solution is known to the present day by the oil-and-colour man, the plumber,
and in kitchen regions, as spirit of salt. It is used in cleaning and removing
scale from baths, closet pans, etc. You will find that it is very acid and that
it stains tne clothes but is not corrosive like oil of vitriol and aquafortis. The
plumber uses it in soldering, after ‘killing it’ with zinc—everyone should
learn to solder, and it may be worth your while to take the hint given by the
plumber and see if you cannot follow up the clue. What is the action of the
oil of vitriol on the nitre and salt? You know that it displaces the carbonic
gas from limestone stuff—is its action on the salt and nitre a similar one—are
they comparable with limestone stuff?

The zinc, you find, is readily acted upon by the muriatic acid—examine the
product and compare it with similar substances which you have prepared pre-
viously ; it will be well to fit up apparatus which will enable you to prepare it
at will, at any desired rate. Contrast it with coal gas and determine very
carefully what is formed from it when it is burnt.

When this inquiry is complete, you should recognise that you have made
a discovery of the greatest importance with reference to your previous work
and to the nature of foodstuffs such as starch. Again, you have an illustration
of the fact that information is to be gained from the most unexpected quarters
—who would suppose that the plumber could help you to determine the com-
position of starch?

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 201

NATURE or WATER.

You believe that you have obtained this clue to the composition of water—
that it consists of the gas which is called water-stuff, or hydrogen (because it
affords water when burnt) and oxygen: as you know that all other things
which you have burnt combined with the oxygen. But nothing must be taken
for granted in our work: it is possible that the oxygen in air is not alone
concerned ; cannot you devise some method of using oxygen in a form in which
there can be no doubt that if water is obtained it is formed from oxygen and
hydrogen alone? How did you burn carbon with oxygen alone?

You are now satisfied that you have established the fact that water con-
sists of hydrogen and oxygen. Is it not worth while to submit the oxides
generally to the action of hydrogen? Will you not be able to test lime if
you find that they all give up their oxygen to hydrogen? The results enable
you to classify the metallic oxides in two groups; although you have not yet
solved the problem regarding lime, have you not narrowed it—is it not clear
that if it be a metallic oxide it is the oxide of a metal of a particular kind?

Perhaps by studying the action of spirit of salt, which dissolves oxides, it
may be possible to obtain further information of assistance in solving the
problem as to the nature of lime. Where does the hydrogen come from which is
obtained when zine is dissolved in muriatic acid? As this is a solution of
spirit of salt in water, obviously it might come from the water in the solution,
since this is known to contain hydrogen; it might come, however, from the
dissolved gas. How shall we decide whether or no this be the case? We
must eliminate the water, must we not? Try the experiment without water.

There are still two ways possible in which the gas may be formed—it may
be present either in the metal or in the gas. Can any argument be adduced
in favour of the one view or the other? Zinc oxide is produced on a large
scale for making white paint (zinc white paint) and it should be possible
to ascertain if water be formed on burning the zinc; if not, the experiment
must be tried.

As there is reason to suppose that the hydrogen is contained in the spirit
of salt, it is probable that the zinc displaces it, combining with whatever is
associated with the hydrogen. How does the oxide behave towards the acid—
like lime? It dissolves quietly. What then becomes of the hydrogen, sup-
posing this to be in the spirit of salt—is not its disappearance to be accounted
for, if it combine with the oxygen in the oxide? The product in solution will
be the same, will it not, according to this view, whether zinc or zinc oxide
be dissolved : in what will the difference consist? Is water formed when zinc
oxide is acted upon by the spirit of salt? Experiment shows that a liquid
is formed—can this be water? As the water will be in presence of the gas,
it will be saturated with it—the gas must be got rid of from the liquid to
obtain proof that water is formed.

Having ascertained that water is formed when zinc oxide is acted upon
by spirit of salt, the production of water becomes a proof of the presence of
oxygen—you are able now to test lime—again water is obtained. It is therefore
established that lime is an oxide—probably the oxide of a metal like magnesium
or zinc. Limestone stuff is therefore a distinct type of earthy substance,
different from the earthy metallic oxides, formed by the association of a
metallic oxide with a non-metallic oxide. You have yet to extend your ex-
periments to the other metallic oxides to ascertain whether they all form
compounds similar to limestone stuff.

If a course of experiments with the metals and metallic oxides (iron, copper,
zinc, lead, magnesium, etc.) and acids (muriatic, nitric, sulphuric) were introduced
here, there would be considerable opportunity of cultivating preparative skill.

LireraRny Work.
In carrying out such a course attention must ever be paid to the literary
side of the work. Rough but clear notes, of the arguments used, of the things
done and of the observations made, must be jotted down, from time to time,

202 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

as each experiment proceeds: on uo account must this be done at any other
time. A reasoned account of the work should then be written out at leisure,
in flowing language, with due regard to style, never in the inexcusable form of
a statement in advance of the conclusion to be arrived at ultimately, nor in
the graceless hackneyed form of Experiment, Observation, Inference. It should
never be forgotten that the prime object in view is to develop ‘habits of
logical thought and logical statement, together with the habit of inquiry.
The clearest possible distinction must be drawn, therefore, between an experi-
mental, reasoned inquiry into an undetermined issue and the practical demonstra-
tion or verification of a stated fact. It must be made clear that an experiment
is an act performed with the definite object either of finding out something
novel in the experience of the worker or of testing an assumption—that the mere
demonstration or verification of the truth of a statement is not an experiment.
The accounts should be fully illustrated by drawings and photographs.

In order to teach the use of books and develop the habit of purposed, serious
reading, as wide a course as possible of reading should be associated with the
experimental work. The books used should be mainly of general interest, and
informative—books of reference, books of travel, &c.—though technical books
may be consulted occasionally with advantage.

—

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 203

APPENDIX I.

A. TABULATED STATEMENTS ON SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN THE AIDED AND
MAINTAINED SECONDARY ScHOOLS or ENGLAND, AND OTHER DeETAtLs.

‘Aventis Renihen of Weata
—s . 7 ars |
| Average Salary Oe tere |

£
England and Wales ; 175°52 12
England alone. . . | 177-27 12°34

Wales alone. : : 158°42 ll

B. Sauary ScaLes REacniInag A MAXIMUM OF:

County Other Scales |

Count. i
Pre | ( nai patra | (Published) Wales
¥ aglis
| Over £250 i! | 1 9 a :
£250 : 4 4 3 1
£211-£250 2 | 4 1 3
£210 Es | 4 1 1
£200 3 7 12 ll )
£181-£199 3 6 2 1
£180 = | 11 7 3
= 3 19 7

_ Under £180 |

There is only one authority which publishes a scale in which the ordinary
maximum salary (after 15 years’ service) is £300.

In County and County Borough areas a salary of £200 is regarded as a fitting
reward for a successful life’s work. In one case Honours Graduates can look forward
to £190 after 16 years’ service. In another the maximum is £160 after 10 years. There
are ten schools with a maximum of £150—one of which announces an initial salary
of £140 rising by annual] increments of £5 to a maximum of £150—while 5 go below
even that figure.

C. Percentace or Masters RECEIVING :

a | Less than | £900 to £250 | £251 to £350 | £351 and over |

£200 p.a. :
England. . . .| 712 24-2 a2 | 04 |
Wales Wee Sor ae 88° 11:16 0-84 _
England and Wales 72°8 22°99 3°82 | 0-39

D. PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOLS IN WHICH THE HIGHEST SALARY IS:

| ats Hess than | £200 to £250 | £251 to £350 e901 and over

£200 p.a.
Le a 51°8 | 36-8 10:1 13
Wales MP hse 8 68°7 28-9 2°4 | =
England and Wales. 54 |) Senta or a a a |

The smallest salary is £30 and the largest £500. A Headmaster may receive
£2,000, whilst his Senior Assistant has a salary of £230.

Number of cases are included of Graduates and even Honours Graduates with
long service, having salaries of about £200, and in Wales as little as £70 is paid for
an Honours Graduate.

204 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

E. SALARIES AND PROSPECTS IN CAREERS CONSIDERED BY MANY Boys FROM
THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

Probable _| |

—— Spey: Salary | Salaryat | Prospects Conditions |

| | 2-23 Years |

| vice cure,
|B. Second Di- 17-20 | £70, rising | £130 . . | Possible trans- Ditto.
vision Civil | | to £300 | fer to other | |
Service class | {

ship

F. Moper Scatr Succestep py THE AssisTANT MASTERS’ ASSOCIATION
BEFORE THE WAR.
Initial Salary, £150 per annum.
Increments of £10 per annum to £300, and then £15 per annum to
a maximum of £450.
Additional allowances in centres where the cost of living is higher.
More complete details will be found in :—

1. The Conditions of Service of Teachers in English and Foreign Secondary
Schools. Published by Messrs. Bell and Sons for the “Tncorporated Association of
Assistant Masters.

2. Statistics of Salaries of Assistant Masters. Published by the Incorporated
Association of Assistant Masters.

APPENDIX If.
ScrENCE SuBJECTS IN TYPICAL GIRLS’ SCHOOLS.

(The figures indicate the number of schools teaching a specified subject at a
given age.)

Leaving Age, 16. Grant Aided. 36 Typical Schools.

Aeu:.| 8-10-+--{40- | 124 |-18-F | 144: | 15h ete eg ee
| ee Study . A 25 18 6 3 ee eee a |
| General Elementary |

Physics 5 ; oo 11 26 | 18 9 4 2
Elementary Chem. | | |

istry . | SSeS] PL 9 16 ya 4
Systematic Chem- | |

isttyt . A. - Se es 7 9 9
| Mechanics a — | ee 1 1 iI
| Eleath tet = ee ae Sig ee —
| Lighe... + Se een meee 2 2
Botany — 5 4 oe SIE Ae A eg A De DR SS
Ebyoiene’ .) eae — “le, I eam ae Se 23 2

[Fea aS Paes See ie Bee |

*Domestic Science .| —

* Tn some cases this means actual cookery, &c.

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 205

| Leaving Age, 18. Grant Aided. 103 Typmal Sehiools:

Ace: | 8-10+ 14/1 12+ 13-4 14+ 15+ He 17, |18-4

Nature Study. ea 90 70 | 21 |
General Elementary Phy sics | 3 31 | 78 |
Elementary Chemistry .— 2
Systematic vine et —
Mechanics =
LQG: ” se ae —
crenata ee 8, ue | —-
: ap 3

bo
I
oy |

COwwwowoceon-l
e
o
I
—_

Botany .

Biology

Hygiene

*Domestic Science

iBoysiology. . . <.
Physiography . . . =
Zoology sie tarsS ok aS
Mag.and Elec. . .. = | | |
Bande ht Ue | Seal Gevpet
JEcliniis = Siem eee =|

—
bo
re
bo
w
=

oo »
WowtwadII3HS¢

os]

|
|

8
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206 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—I19I7.

APPENDIX Il.
LABORATORY ACCOMMODATION AND STAFFING IN GIRLS’ SCHOOLS.
LABORATORY ACCOMMODATION.
89 Typical Girls’ Schools.

| No. of Girls in School | apace | 1Lab. | 2Labs. 3 Labs. | 4 Labs.
100-200 Seti cli 3p ieee 1
200-300 28 Ohi Aa qs al 1 ft)
300-400 13 16 =| 1 | | 0
400-500 10 EEN, 4 5 | 1
STAFFING.
146 Typical Girls’ Schools.
No. of Girls No. of | No. of Science Staff oN
in School Schools | 1 14 | 9 Q4 3 | ane | 4 5
109200... Bo | ae ey Pg 8 a = ee ee
200-300 a ORE 9 8 2 4 | my he
300-400 30 3 2 16 4 ate ya as ee
400-500 ——— == — 3 6 | 2 | = | 2 2

1+ means that there is one full-time and one part-time science mistress, and so on.

APPENDIX IV.
ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS OF HEADMASTERS AND HEADMISTRESSES.
A. ScHoots REPRESENTED ON THE HEADMASTERS’ CONFERENCE.
Number, 118. Boys, 36,393.

—— ; oo Percent.. Boys Per cent. |

Classical . 6 82 |
Theological ‘99 + Literary | 95'°33* | 80°38 | 30,245 83
P ; 13°33 | e |
ass Degrees | !
Mathematics | 15'83 | 13°4 4,103 | 11°3
Science | 6'83
|

58 | 2,045 | 56

* The fractions originate from the fact that a few headmasters possess more than
one qualification. Three headmasters (two mathematical and one classical) also

possess an additional scientific qualification.

B. Non-Sratse-Aripep Scnoots IN EncLanp REPRESENTED ON THE
HEADMASTERS’ CONFERENCE.

Number, 73. Boys, 23,269.

== Poe. Ber cent.,| Boys Per cent.
e |
Classical . ; 50
Theological woo + Literary 61°33 84 20,300 87°2
= 11°33 -
Pass Degrees }
Mathematics 9°33 12°8 2,189 9°4
Science 2°33 3°2 780 3°4

"4 eo

SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. a BOs

C. QuALIFICATIONS oF 200 HErApMIsTRESSES or PuBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS

FOR GIRLS.
—— Number | Per cent.

Classics... 3 - - : 34
[ISHOTY§ be ww om te he et 20
Medieval and Modern Languages. 34} Literary. 131 65°5
English Language and Literature . 18
Mental and Moral Science . : 5

Mathematics 48 24

Science E 21 10°5

In the case of the B.A. and B.Sc. London, only the Honours Degree is included
as the subjects of the ordinary degree are not specified in the calendars.

The schools have been taken from the ‘Girls’ School Year Book,’ and the
majority are represented on the Headmistresses’ Association.

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Corresponding Societies Conmuttee.—Report of the Committce,
consisting of Mr. W. WHITAKER (Chairman), Mr. WILFRED
Marx Wess (Secretary), the Rev. J. O. Brvan, Sir EpwarpD
BraBroox, Sir H. G. ForpHam, Dr. J. G. Garson,
Principal E. H. Grirrirus, Dr. A. C. Happon, Sir THomas
Houuanp, Mr. T. V. Houmes, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr.
A. L. Lewis, Mr. THomas SHEPPARD, the Rev. T. R. R.
STEBBING, and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Ine Committee regrets that the Institution of Mining Engineers has
withdrawn from affiliation.

The Conference will be held in the apartments of the Geological
Society, Burlington House, London (by kind permission of the
Council), on Thursday, July 5, and Friday, July 6.

The President, Mr. John Hopkinson, will take as his subject
‘The Work and Aims of our Corresponding Societies.” Dr. F. A.
Bather has consented to act as Vice-President of the Conference.

The following subjects will be discussed: ‘ Regional Surveys ’
(suggested by the Letchworth and District Naturalists’ Society), to
be introduced by Mr. C. C. Fagg; ‘ Weights and Measures,’ to
be introduced by Mr. Thomas Sheppard; ‘The part to be played
by Local Societies after the War in the application of Science to
the Needs of the Country’ (suggested by the Selborne Society), to be
introduced by Mr. Wilfred Mark Webb.

The Corresponding Societies Committee has accepted, on behalf
of the delegates, an invitation from the Selborne Society to a meeting
on July. 6, when Professor R. A. Gregory will speak on ‘The
Popularisation of Science,’ and Professor H. E. Armstrong will give
a lecture on ‘ Fuel Economy.’

The Committee asks to be reappointed and for a grant of £25.

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held
in London on Thursday, July 5, and Friday, July 6, 1917.

President . John Hopkinson, F.L.S., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.
Vice-President Dr. F. A. Bather, F.B.S.
Secretary . Wilfred Mark Webb, F.L.S., F.R.M.S.

By the courtesy of the Council of the Geological Society the three
meetings of the Conference were held in its rooms at Burlington
House, and at the first meeting the President took the chair and
delivered the following Address :—

—_— se

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 209

The Work and Aims of Our Corresponding Societies.

Ir is nearly forty years since I suggested that the Delegates from provincial
societies should hold a Conference at each meeting of the British Association,
subsequently arranging for the first Conference to be held at Swansea in 1880.
Although sanctioned by the Council of the Association it was not an official
Conference, being the first of five managed and supported financially by the
Delegates only. Having then been in the Chair I accept with the greater satis-
faction after so many years the honour conferred upon me to preside at the
present Conference.

It was not at first, nor was it for several years, the custom for thc Chairman
to give an address. A few remarks were made by Dr. J. G. Garson on opening
the Conference at Nottingham in 1893, but the first formal address from the
Chair was delivered at Ipswich in 1895 by the late Mr. G. J. Symons, who took
for his subject certain systematic meteorological work which might be done by
members of provincial societies.

At the Conference held at Swansea in 1880 the following resolution was
passed: ‘That this Conference recommends that at future meetings of the
British Association the delegates from the various scientific societies should meet
with the view of promoting the best interests of the Association and of the
several societies represented.’ With this end in view it seems to me that
Mr. Symons’ address was particularly appropriate, for it is surely in the best
interests of the Association as well as of its Corresponding Societies that con-
certed systematic work should be done.

The main object of our Societies is, or should be, to undertake local
scientific investigation, and we are here assembled chiefly to discuss the best
means of doing so and of obtaining the most valuable results. While all should
work to the same end, that end, whatever it may be, can best be achieved by all
working in the same manner, or at least on some definite plan, so that the results
may be comparable.

It is not, however, to stimulate and direct scientific investigation only that
this Conference should aim; there is also for it the wider field of influencing
public opinion on the importance of far greater attention than at present being
given to scientific education and to many problems concerned with the future
welfare of our nation in which science may lend a fostering hand. There is no
other country in the world which has nearly so many scientific societies as we
have. There are on our list 120 Corresponding Societies (ninety Affiliated
and thirty Associated) with an aggregate membership exceeding 46,000, subject
to a slight reduction, as some of these societies are represented individually as
well as by the Union to which they belong, and some have members who are
also members of other societies on our list; but we may, I think, estimate the
number of individual members represented as not less than 45,000, while
Principal Griffiths, in his address at our Cambridge Conference in 1904,
estimated the total number of scientific societies in the kingdom as about 500
with a membership approaching 100,000. If we could all agree upon some
beneficial project what an immense influence we might have!

The ‘ Circular referring to subjects recommended for investigation by Local
Scientific Societies,’ issued by our original Committee in 1882, had good results,
enlisting observers and investigators in the study of the various subjects on
which information was desired, and an extended list with instructions published
in 1891 in the ‘Transactions of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society ’
(vol. vi., pt. 2, pp. 40-44) may still be consulted with advantage.

In the Report of the Council of the Association for the year 1881-82 it is
stated that in respect of a resolution referred by the General Committee the
Council recommended (inter alia) ‘The appointment of a Committee in order to
draw up suggestions upon methods of more systematic observation and plans of
operation for local societies, together with a more uniform mode of publishing
the results of their work. It is recommended that this Committee should draw
up a list of societies which publish their proceedings.” The Committee was
appointed, and its first report was printed in the Report of the Association for
1883 (pp. 318-345). The list, drawn up by Mr. (now Sir) H. George Fordham,

1917. P

210 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

gives in tabular form the most important particulars of 175 publishing societies,
while appendices give less full information on eleven societies of which the
Cumberland Association for the Advancement of Literature and Science then
consisted, of twenty-one which formed the Midland Union of Natural History
Societies, and of thirty-eight also included in the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
with the exception of twenty in the two Unions, appearing in the main
list. This was the origin of the official Corresponding Societies Committee,
which presented its first report in 1885, giving in it a list of thirty-eight Corre-
sponding Societies and appending to it an ‘Index of Papers referring to Local
Scientific Investigations published during the past year’ by those societies.
Such an index has since then been annually appended to the report of the
Committee. The first official Conference of Delegates was held in the same
year at Aberdeen, reports of that and of every subsequent Conference appear-
ing in the annual Reports of the British Association. The last unofficial Con-
ference having been held at Montreal in 1884, the official Conferences followed
without a break.

In the report of the Corresponding Societies Committee printed in the
Report of the British Association for 1902, there is (pp. 852-853) a list of
Committees of the Association which desire the co-operation of the Corre-
sponding Societies, and one of subjects selected by the Delegates for investiga-
tion which are not included in that list. The two lists embrace all the
Sections of the Association except A, Mathematical and Physical Science;
F, Economic Science and Statistics; I, Physiology; L, Educational Science; and
necessarily M, Agriculture, that being a Section formed since that date. In the
following remarks I dwell most fully on some subjects which are within the
scope of the omitted Sections, except that of Physiology, a science which does
not appeal for concerted action by our Corresponding Societies.

Section A, MATHEMATICAL AND PuysicaL Science, ought to be divided as it
is in the French Association, which has a Section dealing with the Meteorology
and Physics of the Globe. Meteorology in our Association is almost ignored,
and yet there is no other science to which assistance can be so easily rendered
by the members of our Corresponding Societies, nor one in which uniformity of
observation is so important. Observations need only be taken once a day, at
9 a.M., and are mostly only taken at that hour, but may also be taken at 9 P.M. ;
if three times a day, the other hour is 3 p.m., in ‘summer time’ necessarily
an hour later by the clock.

The chief object for which meteorological observations are taken, apart
from that of forecasting the weather, is to arrive at a knowledge of the
climate of a place, and we can only compare the climate of one place with that
of another from the results of observations taken at the same local time at
each place—that is, at the same interval of time after sunrise. This does
not vary so greatly within the area of the British Isles but that Greenwich
time gives satisfactory results, and with rainfall only the difference is of no
moment. Suggestions for certain meteorological observations were given by
Mr. Symons in the address referred to, but with evident intent he does not
specially treat of the subject to which he gave his greatest attention — rainfall.
Although since that address was delivered observers of rainfall have increased
in number in the British Isles from about 3,000 to 5,500, the variations in
rainfall from place to place are so great that many more observers are still
required, especially in Ireland, in the western counties of Wales, in Shropshire
and Staffordshire, and along the east coast of England. Each delegate should
see to it that his own neighbourhood is adequately represented. A knowledge
of the mean and extreme rainfall in any district is most important in relation
to water-supply and agriculture, and it can only be gained from the records
of a great number of rain-gauges taken for many years. Dr. H. R. Mill,
Director of the British Rainfall Organisation, has twice brought this subject
before the Conference of Delegates, and has added to records of rainfall more
records of bright sunshine as urgently required. Observations with a Campbell-
Stokes sunshine-recorder give little more trouble than those of rainfall with
a Snowdon rain-gauge, but it is not so easy to measure the records, and the
instrument is expensive.

At the Conference held at Leeds in 1890 I suggested the formation of a

| Seas CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 211

Committee on meteorological photography; the idea was approved, members of
the Committee were chosen, and I was requested to endeavour to secure the
appointment of the Committee through Section A. This was done by reading
a paper on the subject before the Section, the Committee appointed presenting
ten reports. Its work was eventually restricted to experiments by the Secre-
tary, Mr. A. W. Clayden, with the object of devising the best meang of
ascertaining the height of clouds, his method being the taking of photographs
by two cameras in electric connection at a great distance apart. A collection
of meteorological photographs of various kinds was also made and presented
to the Royal Meteorological Society, forming the nucleus of a very fine collection
of lantern-slides available for lectures. Additions will be welcome.

Closely related with meteorology, or a branch of it, is phenology — the study
of the relation between the weather and the dates of flowering of plants,
arrival and departure of migratory birds, and appearance of insects, and also
its effect upon our field- and garden-crops. Here again more observers are
urgently required, for it is only with a very large number of observers that
we can feel confident that first appearances, whether of flowers, birds, or
insects, have not been overlooked. Forms for recording may be obtained from
the Royal Meteorological Society.'

For Section C, Grotocy, much good work has been done by the Corre-
sponding Societies, especially for the Committee on Geological Photographs,
which was formed by the joint action of the Section and the Conference of
Delegates at the Bath meeting in 1888. The photographs (a very large number)
are deposited in the Geological Museum in Jermyn Street, where they may be
seen ; also numerous lantern-slides which are lent for lectures. The Committee
is still in existence and photographs are acceptable.

Other important geological subjects which have been brought before our
Conference are earth-tremors, underground water, and coast-erosion, in the
investigation of one or other of which all our Corresponding Societies can help.

The shjects embraced in Section D, Zootocy, are by far the most
attract’: “ members of our natural history societies, to whom we owe nearly
all our knowledge of the distribution of animal life in the British Isles, far
more perhaps of that of the Invertebrata than that of the Vertebrata, about
which much was known in very early days. It should be the aim of all such
societies to compile aud publish lists of the animals inhabiting their areas,
recording their localities, carefully noting their habitats, and studying their
habits and life-histories. Increasing attention is being paid to our Invertebrate
fauna, but there is still very much to be done, especially in the collection and
study of the microscopic forms of life in our rivers, lakes, ponds, and ditches,
on our stately trees and humble mosses, and even in our soils. Almost every
tuft of moist moss teems with animal life which will well repay microscopic
examination.

There is another aspect of the subject which has frequently been brought
before us, that is the preservation of our native fauna. In endeavouring to
prevent the destruction of rare animals or of those approaching extinction all
may help. We cannot well make sure of the presence of a rare moth or
butterfly without capturing it, but there is never need to take a large series,
as is the practice of some entomologists ; with birds and mammals it is different ;
they can mostly be identified by the practised naturalist without shooting
them. There are birds, such as the rook and the wood-pigeon, which should
be reduced in number, as they are so destructive to our field- and garden-crops,
but such birds as hawks and owls, which are persecuted by gamekeepers, are
our farmers’ best friends, and their extermination ought not to be allowed. The
same may be said of all insectivorous birds. Hawks may occasionally kill a
partridge or even a pheasant, the beautiful kingfisher may take a few fish, but
the food of the owls, with the exception of a few rare species such as the eagle
owl and the snowy owl, consists almost entirely of small rodents.* With regard

* Copies of a list with instructions, printed for the Hertfordshire Natural
History Society, were distributed.

? "Taken out of a barn-owl’s tree at Keswick in Norfolk in April, 1911, were
114 ‘pellets’ ccntaining the skulls of 10 very small rats, 126 long- and short-

tailed field-mice, 69 shrews, and 3 small birds (perhaps greenfinches), but no game.
P2

212 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

to the species which should be protected, the ornithologists in a natural history
society can render County Councils valuable help. An order for the protection
of certain birds was issued by the Hertfordshire County Counci] in 1895 on
the representation of the Hertfordshire Natural History Society, the schedule
being drawn up by ornithological members of the Society and accepted by the
County Council.

The next Section is Geography, but it will be better to take here Section K,
Borany, especially as most of the remarks on zoology apply also to botany.
Such is the duty of compiling a flora, as well as a fauna, of each Society’s area;
of recording the habitats of plants, with special reference to the study of
ecology or plant-associations ; of studying their life-histories, and protecting the
rarer species from extermination. As with animals, so with plants, it is the
distribution of the microscopic forms, such as the desmids and diatoms, about
which we know least, and although they cannot lay claim to such beauty of form
and coloration as the freshwater rhizopods and heliozoans, they will well repay
far more attention than they have hitherto received. The study of fungi has
several times been brought before our Conference, and I will only add that we
know least and ought to know most about our leaf-fungi as being of great
economic importance. More frequently still have we discussed the question of
the preservation of our native plants.

The action of some societies in providing reservations for plants and animals,
as the Selborne Society has done in its Brent Valley Bird Sanctuary, or in
urging other bodies to acquire sites for such purposes, is much to be commended.
So also is that of endeavouring to retain wild spots in their primitive state.
The Hertfordshire Natural History Society has done something towards this
end. In 1892 an attempt was made to carry out a scheme for the ‘ regulation’
of Bricket Wood Common, between Watford and St. Albans, by the sale of
certain outlying parts of the common and the building of houses thereon in
order to provide funds for making gravel-paths over it, draining it, and
providing a park-keeper to look after it. The Society devoted part of two of
its meetings to a discussion of the scheme, the Lord of the Mano® and some
of the copyholders being present at the second meeting, when the opposition
to curtailing the common by selling outlying portions as building-land was so
strong that a resolution protesting against it was carried by a large majority,
and the scheme was dropped, a vigilance committee being appointed to report
any attempt to revive it, for if such an attempt were carried out we should
lose the greater part of the interesting flora and fauna of the common and its
scrubs and woodland. More recently, when part of Cassiobury Park was sold
for building and it was proposed that, Watford should purchase from the buyers
a portion of the part acquired, they building houses round it and leaving the
enclosed space as a public park, our Society, in conjunction with its offshoot,
the Watford Field-Path Association, called a public meeting which made a
recommendation that no houses should be built between the proposed public
park and the remaining private park, which, being acceded to, was so grate-
fully and courteously accepted by the original owner, the Earl of Essex, that he
consented to his park being divided only from the public park by an open
iron fence. Thus the public secured a sight of the whole of the old park, which
Lord Essex secured from being overlooked by houses. These instances are
given as examples of the good which can be done by scientific societies in
their corporate capacity, outside the scope of their usual activities, and which
could not be done by any of their members individually.

Taking now Section E. Grocraruy, it is not a science which can be much
advanced by the concerted action of our societies, except by urging its efficient
teaching in schools. With the branch of it called Topography we have more
concern. It should be our first aim to define the area of our operations
precisely and in accord with neighbouring societies, so that there may be no
overlapping in our investigations, and to work that area thoroughly. For this
purpose our 6-in. to the mile Ordnance Map is essential. The methods of our
Ordnance Survey have been severely criticised at our Conferences, especially
with regard to the inch-to-the-mile maps, now much improved but too dear for
a ready sale.

Section F, Economic Science anp Statistics, might well have occupied the

See) x

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 213

whole of this address, being of such very great importanca at tie present
time. It is difficult, however, to treat of it in relation to the well-being of
our Nation, in furtherance of which the members of our Corresponding
Societies could exert by their concerted action a most valuable pressure,
without trenching upon the forbidden sphere of party politics. The question of
tariffs against so-called ‘free trade,’ surely a false term for allowing other
nations to put a prohibitive duty on the import of our manufactures while
we let them dump their surplus products into our country free, ought to have
no connection with politics. Had it been considered in the past a purely
economic question we should not have been in our present unfortunate position
of dependence upon other countries for nearly all the necessities of life.
Britain, once a great producing country, then became a manufacturing one,
importing raw material and exporting the finished products, but latterly has
been degenerating into a mere commercial country, importing finished articles
to the detriment of the products of our soil and of the output of our fac-
tories. This has brought us to our present critical state. Not only have
we encouraged the importation of goods we can well make ourselves, and of
food we can now in part produce, and shall in future have to produce to a
much greater extent, and so keep our workers, whether out-door or in-door,
busy, but we have freely exported our very life-blood, that which (with iron)
made England a manufacturing country, our coal, the exhaustion of which would
reduce us to abject dependence upon the resources and good-will of countries
beyond our seas. Germany has been fighting us with coal from South Wales for
the motive power of her ships and with toluol from our gasworks for her
most explosive munitions, having imported from us vast quantities of both
during many years. Should there be no other result of the present war than
to bring about a radical change in our fiscal system, the loss of men and
money which it has occasioned would be greatly compensated. I repeat that
this ought not to be a question for politicians, and there are signs that soon it
will not be considered one. It ought to be vigorously taken up as a scientific and
economic question by all the members of our Corresponding Societies, for all
must have the future welfare of our country at heart.

In Section H, ANrHRopotocy, the work of the ‘ Ethnographical Survey
of the United Kingdom,’ a Committee of the British Association, has frequently
been brought before the Conference, and I believe that great assistance has
been given to it by our Corresponding Societies. The Committee is no longer
in existence, but of lasting importance for continued vigilance is that branch
of it entrusted with the recording of monuments and other remains of ancient
culture. It is rather the preservation than the recording of such remains
that is now of greatest importance, and in this most of our societies could
help by appointing vigilance committees to report any attempts at vandalism.
Much good has resulted from the ‘ Ancient Monuments Act,’ but it does not
go far enough, being permissive only, not compulsory. At present the most
pressing need of protection seems to be that of Kent’s Cavern, near Torquay,
in the exploration of which Mr. William Pengelly spent the best years of his
life, and an endeavour should be made to get it placed under the protection
of this Act, if a prehistoric cave can be considered a monument, or under
the National Trust.* I visited it last autumn and found that the custodian had
relics for sale.

To treat adequately of Section L, Epucarionan Science, would require
several addresses. It embraces the teaching of the various subjects already
discussed and many others. As to the vexed question of a classical against
a scientific education, I would give almost equal weight to each, but let the
balance preponderate towards science. I doubt if there is a single naturalist
amongst. us who would consider a little knowledge of Latin and Greek
unnecessary. We ought to know sufficient of Greek to devise from it, for
instance, a name for a new genus, and when we see a name derived from the
Greek to be able to ascertain its meaning; we must know sufficient of Latin
to give a suitable name to a new species and to be sure that we give it a correct

* Resolutions to this effect should be passed by all our Corresponding
Societies, and made widely known.

214 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

termination, to know why a certain name has been bestowed and to give in
Latin a brief diagnosis of a genus or a species. A certain knowledge of Latin
is also important for the profitable study of our own and several other lan-
guages, so many words being derived from it; but I consider it almost a
criminal waste of time to spend the best days of our school or college life in
so mastering any dead language that we could give an oration in it, except for
those who aim at a classical professorship. It is more necessary that we
should have a better acquaintance with one or other of such modern languages
as French, Italian, or Spanish, for any of which some knowledge of Latin is
most helpful, or of German, so replete is it with biological information, but
still more so that we should have a thorough knowledge of that most neglected
language in the teaching curriculum of our own country, English, at least in
higher education.

With reference to Latin, I will just touch upon one point in my own
education. Of course I was first put to Cesar’s ‘ De Bello Gallico.’ I utterly
failed with it, owing probably to complete lack of interest. In a higher class
I was given Virgil’s ‘Georgics’ to translate and soon took an interest in it—
in its four books treating of the cultivation of the soil and the management
of fruit trees, of cattle, and of bees. The moral seems to be that the teacher
should first learn the bent of mind of his pupils and should modify his teaching
accordingly,

I presume that most of you have, or may some time have, children to send
to school, and may have some influence over their education. You are more
likely to know their capabilities than are the teachers to whom you send them,
and you should make use of this knowledge for their benefit,

With regard to the teaching of science, all books should at first be eschewed
and the child should be taught to make some simple experiments. Every child,
out of curiosity almost from its babyhood, wants to experiment, even if it may
only be to take its doll to pieces to see what is inside it, and this desire of
experimenting, though not of destroying, should be fostered. The natural
desire to know all about the things around one is preliminary to the desire to
know why certain things are as we see them; that is, to a knowledge of causes
and their effects, which is science. The scientific teaching of the present day in
our elementary schools is generally the mere imparting of a knowledge of the
names and properties of things, and does not develop the intellectual powers.
It is only when properly taught that the reason lately given by Professor D.
Fraser Harris why a knowledge of science is useful to the general community
truly applies. He said, in an address to the Nova Scotian Institute of Science
(printed in ‘ Nature’ of May 17): ‘Apart altogether from the way in which
science makes for technical efficiency, it is a means second to none in the training
of the intellectual powers. It trains us in accuracy of observation, in the power
of drawing trustworthy conclusions, in habits of precise thinking generally; anJ
these are not small things. Science, the true, is the patient, loving interpretz-
tion of the world we live in; it is a striving to attain not merely to an undev-
standing of the laws whereby the world is governed, but to the enjoyment of the
beauty and order which are everywhere revealed.’

The Rev. Hilderic Friend, in reviewing the last report of the Rugby School
Natural History Society (in the same number of ‘ Nature’), says, with special
reference to the Society’s work in ornithology : ‘Such studies are of inestimable
value to young people. They develop the powers of observation, teach patience,
sympathy, endurante, and kindness, divert the mind from base pursuits, and
open out a fairy realm of beauty and delight, which cannot fail to ennoble, as
well as entertain, those who pursue them.’ This Society is doing excellent work,
so also is the Marlborough College Natural History Society; the latter on our
list of Affiliated Societies. The formation of such scholastic societies should be
greatly encouraged.

The subject of museums comes, I think, most appropriately under this
Section, for they are of very great educational value. One of the most
important committees of the Association was that appointed in 1886, by the
co-operation of Sections C and D and the Conference of Delegates, for the
purpose of preparing a report on the provincial museums of the United King-
dom. The Committee was very expeditious, thanks to the energy of its

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 215

Secretary, Mr. F. T. Mott, presenting in the following year a valuable report
which appeared in the Report of the Association for 1887 (pp. 97-130) and a further
report the next year (Report for 1888, pp. 124-132). In the first report there
are tables (I) giving particnlars of 211 provincial museums under headings
extending across two pages, (II) an approximate estimate of the number of
specimens contained in these museums, and (III) a list of collections of special
interest indicating the museums in which they are preserved. A large portion
of this report is occupied with ‘ Discussion of Details’ under thirty-six heads.
The second report considers ‘the ideal to which provincial museums should
endeavour to attain,’ and suggests ‘practical methods for approaching that
ideal.’ It is not too much to say that these reports are invaluable, not only to
those who have the management of museums, but also to all scientific workers
who wish to know where, apart from our national museums, the materials for
study in their own branch of science are to be found.

The Hertfordshire County Museum at St. Albans—the only one with which
I am connected—was not then founded, but I may mention that it is visited
largely by children from the Board Schools in the neighbourhood, who take
an intelligent interest in the exhibits, quickly find out accessions, and collect
and bring to the Curator objects they wish to know the names of, presenting
to the Museum any worthy of acceptance. To young children there is one
drawback in a museum, which has been felt at St. Albans: they wish to handle
the specimens, rightly judging that by so doing they can learn more about
them than by merely looking at them. Every museum should, if possible, have
duplicates of the commoner objects, accurately named, to lend to schools.

The last Section, M, AcricuLruRE, is at the present day the most important
of all, at least economically. It ought, I think, to be extended to include
Forestry. But what, it may be asked, have the members of our Corresponding
Societies in general to do with agriculture or forestry? Perhaps not much
collectively, but they will have a great deal to do individually when more
labour is available on the conclusion of the present war. We must no longer
look down upon our farmers. One consequence of our present fiscal system is
that the social status of our workers is now generally in an ascending scale
from producers, through manufacturers, to merchants, being in relation to
the amount of money each class makes; but we must reverse this, even to the
extent of placing our tenant-farmers on a social level with professional men,
such as doctors. The medical profession, rightly, stands high; doctors look
after our health, but we are dependent upon farmers for our life. We cannot
exist without food; we cannot get food except by the tillage of land, and it
is going to be, as it once was, chiefly by the tillage of our own land. Many
of our soldiers, after living much in the open air, improved greatly in physique,
will not go back to office work. We must welcome them to the land; give
them a real hearty welcome, and not an empty one, for their comfort will
have to be looked after and their companionship will have to be sought, not
avoided. Of course the necessary raising of the social status of our farmers
cannot come altogether from without; it implies a higher education, and that
implies a longer school-life, followed, if possible, by special training in an
agricultural college ;* and this again implies a sufficiency of income. There
are not many of our landowners who can afford materially to reduce the rent
of their farms; their tenants will have to pay higher wages to their labourers,
and they must earn an increased income. Thus we are led to the conclusion
that there must be a better husbandry, implying an education in which
chemistry and biology wi!l play an important part; a more economic distribu-
tion of the products of the farm, which might be achieved by co-operation ;
and that we must be content to pay more for our food by import duties keeping
up the cost of supplies from abroad to that of production and distribution at
home. The extent of arable land has greatly decreased. From the address of
the President of this Section at the Manchester meeting of the Association in
1915, Mr. H. R. Rew, we learn that the acreage under wheat in England and
Wales has been reduced nearly half since 1808, while the population has nearly

“ There should be a Chair of Agriculture and Forestry at each of our
Universities supported by the State; or of Rural Economy, as at Oxford.

216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

quadrupled; but we are now getting four quarters of wheat per acre, whereas
then we only got three quarters, the result working out at eight and a half
bushels per annum per head of the population in 1808, and one and a half in
1914, between one-fifth and one-sixth of our needs.

Here is much lost ground to be regained, and all of you can help to regain
it, especially those who live in or near agricultural districts, by helping the
farmers with your sympathy and with your support in all legislative measures
for their benefit. Then in time, as a powerful writer has recently said : ‘ Sturdy
sons of hill and dale shall till the soil which in years gone by gave us the
stout yeomen and the bowmen of old England; agriculture, the purest of all
industries, shall resume its rightful sway over the labours of mankind, and,
come what may, our granaries and barns shall be stored with the rich harvests
of God’s generous earth.’

In the heart of the New Forest there is, or was last summer, a small Por-
tuguese colony, its home a hut in a valley, its handiwork a large gap in the
adjoining woodlands. In five weeks 26 men cut down and prepared for use
in the trenches in France 26,000 pine trees. Not far off, Irishmen, and soldiers
called up but found unfit for foreign service, had then cleared some 300 out of
450 acres of Scotch fir. These are only two of several lumber camps in various
parts of the forest where saw-mills have been set up worked by Canadian and
English sawyers. This depletion of forests is going on in various parts
of the United Kingdom ; I have seen whole mountain-sides in Wales so depleted,
while little is being done to replenish them. Afforestation on a very large scale
will be necessary on the conclusion of the war unless we are content to
let our country become an arid waste. There is plenty of land available,
unfit, or nearly so, for agriculture, but few will go to the expense of planting
trees which may yield no return during their lifetime. No return can be
expected for 30 years or so, and it may be 60 or 70 years before the profit over-
takes the original cost with (say) five per cent. per annum compound interest.
Moreover the planting must be done on too large a scale for private individuals,
however wealthy and patriotic, to do more than a small fraction of it; it will
have to be done by the State. It will not interfere with agriculture, for most
work is required in the winter when least is required on the farm, and no valu-
able agricultural land need be taken. As with agriculture, there will be men
for the work, soldiers returned from abroad who will not go back to sedentary
occupations.

In walking over the Welsh hills I have repeatedly come across roofs and
stumps of trees in the peat-mosses which frequently cover them; they are
evidences of former forests. The land is worthless except for the value of
the peat, the removal of which would, for its valuable by-products, not only as
a fuel, well repay the expense, and the ground would be rendered suitable for
planting coniferous trees. It is true that most of our peat-covered mountain-
land is above the elevation af which it is generally considered that trees will
flourish (1,500 ft.), but if they did so in the past there seems no reason why
they should not do so in the future, for it is far more likely that our climate
has become warmer since trees grew on that land than it is that it has become
colder. We have also large areas of waste land at lower elevations, extensive
slopes which are too steep for ordinary cultivation between, and on sheep-
farms much very poor grazing land which would be more profitably used in
growing timber. As to the best trees to be planted at different elevations and
on different soils, at least by private landowners, no doubt there are many
botanists in our societies who could greatly help with their advice. In the
last half-century we have doubled our imports of timber and now do not produce
more than a tenth part of our requirements, although our climate is admirably
suited to the production of nearly the whole.

We are far behind most European countries in the relative area of our tim-
bered land. For instance, nearly half the area of Russia and of the Scandi-
navian countries is wooded, about 26 per cent. of the area of Germany, about
17 per cent. of that of France, and the same of Belgium, the most densely
populated country in Europe until its devastation and depopulation by the
Germans, but only about four per cent. of the area of the United Kingdom,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 217

which will probably be reduced, owing to the requirements of the war, to not
more than two or three per cent.

Next to fostering agriculture let it be your dim, individually as well as
collectively in your capacity as members of societies working in harmonious
co-operation, to promote to the best of your ability the re-afforestation of our
country. By encouraging these two industries you will help to secure its future
safety and prosperity.

I have said nothing about three Sections of the British Association: B,
Chemistry; G, Engineering; and I, Physiology. In them concerted action is
not so much required as in those which I have brought before you, but I hope
that I have given, for a single address, a sufficient number of examples of good
work done by our Corresponding Societies in the past and a sufficiency of hints
of what their aims should be in the future. I will only add that it should
be the chief aim of each of us

“To make the world within his reach
Somewhat the better for his being,
And gladder for his human speech.’

A vote of thanks was passed to the President on the proposition of Mr.
William Whitaker, Chairman of the Corresponding Societies Committee,
seconded by Sir Edward Brabrook, and afterwards the following discussion
took place.

Mr. Witt1am Wuitaker (Croydon Natural History and Scientific Society)
said: I heartily agree with the President in pretty nearly the whole of his
address. That he was the President of the first unofficial Congress of the
ager Association interests me especially, as I happen’ to have been that of
the last.

It is a great thing that all societies should know of the slides mentioned by
the President, and that they can be borrowed. I should like to emphasise
what the President says of Topography. It is very important that this par-
ticular branch of Geography should be studied, not only by observation in
the field, but by the consideration of its literature, which is an exceedingly
large and important one. I am not going to defend the Ordnance Survey; it is
their business, not mine; but there is a good deal to be said for them in regard
to prices. If any societies want a large number of maps for their use as a
society—not for sale—they can get them at a ridiculously low price. We in
Croydon have done it. We not merely got a map at a low price, but got the
copy printed as we wanted it—that is, with Croydon as a centre; five hundred
copies, and J think the cost was about a penny a copy. Of course they cannot
be sold to members, but they can be given to them for use in marking scientific
areas and sites. In Croydon every subject of importance we put on a map.

The President says that Economic Science should be separated from
Politics. But you cannot, the two sciences go together. Economics is a very
important part of political science ; in fact, political science cannot get on without
it. There is one economic law you cannot get rid of, and that is simply to
buy in the cheapest market. In the end it comes to this, that the law will
conquer. I need not go into the reasons Of course the war is making us
think of these things, rightly in many cases, wrongly in others.

I am not inclined to go so far as the President in favour of classical
languages, but I heartily agree with him in what he said about English. We
have in this country one of the finest languages, if not the finest, that ever
Was invented, and we ought, instead of neglecting it, to make it one of our
chief studies. It is one of those things in which we English, as we generally
do, depreciate our own things, and make out that the English people are doing
wrong and other people doing right. One of the changes wanted in English
education is the proper study of the English language.

‘The President has rightly put to the front the Hertfordshire County
Museum. One of the societies I represent is the Essex Field Club, and we have
two museums to look after. I do not know whether any other society can go as
far as that. One museum is managed in concert with what I venture to call
the enlightened Borough of West Ham, with a Council which does not mind

218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SOIENCE.—1917.

spending a little on scientific purposes. If anything is going at a fair reasonable
price it will get it. Another point which our societies will have to study is
working in concert with municipal and county authorities, with which they
should be more connected.

There is one thing our President has not noticed: the need of some altera-
tions in our land laws. You will not advance very much without this. The
farmers do not want our sympathy: they want the power of doing what is
right. In Essex there are, or were, square miles of uncultivated land.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club) spoke as follows :
I joined the Association in the year 1879. The first meeting I attended was at
Swansea in 1880, and I did not understand at that time that such a mountain
was in labour. One is delighted to find that, although the mountain was in
labour, it has not brought forth a ridiculous mouse; it has brought forth the
Conference we have the pleasure of attending to-day.

One cannot fail to notice that we have, and have had, some very eminent
meteorologists at our meetings. I especially remember Mr. Symons, whose
personal qualities were as high as his scientific attainments in the department
which he had made his own. Another that occurs to me is Dr. H. R. Mill.

Not only in our own country, but throughout the entire Empire, afforestation
is of interest. When, as one of the members of the Association, I visited
Canada in 1884 and 1897 I was saddened by the consideration of the great
destruction that is going on in the forests in that wonderful portion of our
Empire. I was told that the timber was cut day by day to make paper-pulp
for a New York paper. What one complains of is that a simultaneous effort
was not made to supply the waste. In the United States there is Arbor
Day, and on that day every person who is able is required to plant a tree.
Our societies would be very well advised to suggest that a day of that sort
should be inaugurated throughout the British Islands. Those a have really
wanted to study forestry have had to go to Germany. This is not only
unfortunate; it is disastrous. It is in line with the policy which the President
has touched upon with regard to our dependence upon Germany and foreign
countries for things for which we ought to depend upon ourselves.

It is a kind of irony of fate, when Kent’s Cavern has been so handsomely
and wonderfully worked for so many years by Mr. Pengelly and others, that it
should have been allowed to pass out of the hands of scientific people and
scientific associations. A certain measure of blame, I dare say, is to be attached
to local associations, and perhaps to our great Association. But the thing is
done, and ought to be amended as soon as possible. It is a feature of our
Association and our Conference, that much of our effort is spent in simple talk ;
the matter ends with talk. I hope that something may be done at this Con-
ference of Delegates to set matters in train whereby the working out of the
cavern shall be carried on by scientific people in a scientific way. There is very
little doubt that considerable elements in the past history of our globe are now
enthroned in that cavern which in existing circumstances will not be brought up.

Sir Epwarp Brasroox (Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural His-
tory Society) stated that the matter of Kent’s Cavern was brought before the
Council, and they expressed their entire sympathy with the object, but the
Ancient Monuments Act, unfortunately, does not apply to okjects of natural
formation, such as Kent’s Cavern. Therefore he was afraid, after having
inquired of the best authority on that subject—that is, the Chief Inspector of
Ancient Monuments—that nothing could be done for it.

The Szcretary reported that the Council had officially informed him of the
facts which Sir Edward had put before the Conference, and he alluded to what
Mr. Mark Sykes said at Newcastle that he was prepared to do. It is now up to
the Conference, as Mr. Bevan has said, to try to carry the matter further.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan said that he would be very glad to formulate a
proposal.

Mrs. Forses Junian (Torquay Natural History Society) was very grateful -
for the remarks that had been made about her father (Mr. Pengelly). The
working of Kent’s Cavern was a great work in any man’s life. When the cavern
was offered for sale her husband knew nothing about it. She would be very
glad if anything could be done, because it was a very great loss to science, as

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 219

not only could one not make further investigations there, but it was difficult to
trace even those of the past.

The Rev. T. R. R. Sressine (South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies)
was bound to say that his nephew, E. P. Stebbing, a lecturer on forestry in
the University of Edinburgh, would be happy to give instruction to anyone
particularly interested in that industry.

Miss Layarp (the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia) pointed out that there
were few English caves or caverns available for research, and that they were
extremely valuable, especially with regard to surface flints and the discussions
which arise with regard to whether these are of neolithic or late paleolithic
origin. There is also a danger of the site of the Anglo-Saxon cemetery which
was discovered at Ipswich several years ago being lost sight of, as it would pro-
bably be soon built over. She asked whether a suggestion could not be made by
the British Association that some kind of small monument should be placed there.

Mr. A. W. Oxn (the Brighton and Hove Natural History Society) then
made further suggestions, and asked whether a committee, consisting of Sir
Edward Brabrook, Mr. Whitaker, and others, could not be formed to deal with
the question.

Dr. F. A. Baruer (Museums Association, and Wimbledon Natural History
Society) pointed out that everything that was made by man went to the British
Museum as historic; the animals with which man was associated went to the
Natural History Museum. It was obvious, therefore, that the main interest
in Kent’s Cavern was historic; certainly it should come under the National
Trust for Places of Historic Interest. In further remarks, Dr. Bather said
that as they met in London it might be of interest, at all events to those in
London, to know that the John Evelyn Club for Wimbledon, the parent of the
society that he represented, was instrumental in saving to the public a very
large tract of land that had recently been added to Wimbledon Common.
The great advantage of saving this land was that having it built over would
have spoilt the view from Wimbledon Common. Also the smoke would have
added to the damage. It was the hope of the Natural History Society to
try to form out of a portion of this something like a sanctuary. The other
body which he had the honour to represent was the Museums Association. The
President had alluded to a very valuable report on museums drawn up in 1887
by the British Association. Of course that was long ago, but years afterwards
the Museums Association produced a Directory to the Museums in this country
which would be found more up to date, and rather more complete, than the
old report. Also there was at the present moment sitting a British Association
committee which was discussing the educational aspect of museums. The
work had been held up because a good many of its members were otherwise
engaged. He hoped a valuable report might be issued, but education does not,
or should not, cease when we leave school. Education by museums was not
confined to school children, but they had the opportunity of educating the whole
of the public, and during this time of war some of our museums had recognised
their duty as educational media. There were so many ways in which museums
could educate the public, if only people would utilise the museums, which would
be only too ready to help.

He was very strongly in favour of Latin and Greek, but would remind them
that ‘a little knowledge is a dangerous thing.’ He studied Latin and Greek
for a number of years, and though he thought he knew enough to construct
names correctly and make new specific names he found he was mistaken. The
ability to look up a lexicon and a dictionary and some knowledge of inflections
and so forth was not enough, and it was generally advisable to take counsel
with a real classical scholar.

He did not wish to discuss the question of Free Trade, but he did wish to
say he agreed with Mr. Whitaker. As to saying that economics should be
divorced from politics, he would rather go to the other extreme, and say that
not anything that interests us as human beings and citizens of the British Empire
should be divorced from politics. The trouble was, we had allowed politics to
be divorced from us. We ought to keep a hold on politics; to keep up our
interest; to take part in all affairs, and to take care that we did not draw
distinctions between certain subjects and politics, and then blame politicians

220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

because they did not understand us. They could not go very far, even in the
pursuit of science, before they found it necessary to begin to talk to the
politicians,

The Srcrerary, speaking as Secretary of the Selborne Society, added his
testimony to that of the others as to the pleasure he had received from hearing
Mr. Hopkinson’s address.

With regard to Arbor Day, the Society for the Protection of Birds had
for some years had an Arbor Day. It was also a matter not entirely lost
sight of in this country by individuals, such as Mr. Till, of Eynsford, but
it should be instituted by the State or as it was in America. The ordinary
landowner was supposed to be in difficulties when he cut down the trees, but
this was not always the case. One of Lord Yarborough’s ancestors looked at
the bare hills round his house, and thought it would be a very good idea to
plant trees, and he planted hundreds and hundreds of acres. The present Lord
Yarborough came to the conclusion that it would be a rather good idea to treat
the trees as if they were corn, and cut down a number of acres every year; but
he planted several times as many trees as he cut down. Speaking of a visit
paid to Lord Yarborough’s estate, Mr. Webb said the forester told him that
instead of having a difficulty to part with timber he had a regular market
every year for the best; the poorer wood they kept and creosoted for their own
use. This was a sort of thing that might be done all over the country.

The President had said that one of the difficulties was that children could
not handle things in museums. He (Mr. Webb) had the pleasure a year or two
ago of devising a museum which might be made for the use of children, and
he had shown one at the Children’s Welfare Exhibition. The exhibits which
were not living were changed according to the season and time of the year, and
there were specimens that anybody could pick up and examine, specimens
chosen because they could not be easily damaged.

If Mr. Bevan would give them a resolution with regard to Kent’s Cavern,
asking them to go forward, he would, as the Secretary of the Corresponding

- Societies Committee, see what he could do in the matter. He did not think
they could appoint, as Mr. Oke suggested, a definite committee, because it was
not within the power of the Conference, but they might nominate representa-
tives to serve on any outside committee that could be brought into existence.

Mr. Henry Barnes (Worcester Naturalists’ Club), speaking on the subject
of museums and their educational value, said this was very much weakened
by reason of there being no guide, either in the person of the curator or some
assistant, who could point out to the many persons visiting them the various
objects and their classification and relation. People wander in the vaguest way
through a museum, not knowing what they are looking at. If the curator
observed an interested visitor who did not appear to know much about the
object he was looking at, and could just put in a word and give some informa-
tion which would arouse interest and curiosity, the educational value of museums
would be very much enhanced. If there were anyone present belonging to
the Museums Association, a suggestion in that direction would not do any
harm.

The Presrpent, replying on the debate, said: I was very pleased to hear
what Mr. Whitaker said about Ordnance maps. I was not at all aware that
maps could be had at less than the published price, and I hope that that fact
will be made widely known, so that local societies can get them at a very
greatly reduced rate.

A society’s journal is an encouragement to members to contribute papers
to the society. I have been editor of one since 1875; members have given
us good papers who had never written anything before, and probably never
would have written anything had it not been for the society. I have found
that members who had never had any previous scientific training and had
not had a college education have written better English than some highly
educated scientific men. :

As to meteorology being almost ignored in the Association, I have a
personal experience of the difficulty of bringing forward meteorological papers,
finding that they are nearly always relegated to the very last place, when there
are only two or three minutes left.

™ ae

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 221

It would be an excellent thing if we could settle upon an Arbor Day and
induce all our societies to get all their members to plant a tree on that day. It
could be initiated perhaps better from this Conference than in any other way.

Perhaps, instead of politics, I ought to have said party politics, for I used
the word in its usual restricted sense as the art of forwarding the interests
of a political party.

Mr. Face then read the following paper upon

Regional Surveys,

At the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies held at New-
castle-upon-Tyne last year, your President, Professor Lebour, chose for the
title of his address ‘Co-operation.’ I might very appropriately preface my
remarks on Regional Surveys by some quotations from that address, but I
will reserve these until the end, when you will be better able to see that
the regional survey provides the means for carrying into effect, systematically
and in detail, Professor Lebour’s suggestions. The regional survey is in fact
the materialisation of the spirit which animated his address, which itself gave
voice to the spirit of the times in matters of local research, and indeed in
matters of far wider interest.

The same is equally true of your present President’s stimulating address.

The subject of regional surveys is a very large one, and we must concentrate
our attention on one or two aspects of it. I cannot do better than tell
you of the regional survey activities of three societies with which I am
connected, namely, the. Croydon Natural History and _ Scientific
Society, the South-Kastern Union of Scientific Societies, and the Regional
Survey Association. The two former are Corresponding Societies of this
Association, and the third, which is a newer society, will probably shortly apply
to be admitted as such.

I will commence by describing the methods we have adopted in conducting
the survey at Croydon; next I will give an account of the scheme for co-ordinat-
ing all surveys in the South-Eastern Counties, which is being developed by the
Regional Survey Committee of the South-Eastern Union; and finally say some
thing of the activities of the Regional Survey Association, which exists for the
purpose of promoting regional surveys throughout the British Isles. In so
doing, I shall of necessity repeat to some extent what I have said in former
papers, but I will avoid this evil as far as possible, and for the sake of
brevity refer you especially to two of these papers, namely, ‘ Regional Surveys
and Local Societies’* and ‘ Regional Surveys and Public Libraries,’* in which
I have briefly traced the history of the movement and dealt with some points
at greater length than is here possible.

A regional survey may be described as the organised study of a region and
its inhabitants, plant, animal, and human, from every aspect, and the correla-
tion of all aspects so as to give a complete picture of the region, both in its
past history and its present features, and from these to indicate its probable
future development. Such a survey is a very comprehensive task, providing
activity for every class of research student, and opening up problems of
methodology and technique such as Committees of the British Association
delight in solving. If Regional Survey is proper to one section of this Asso-
ciation more than another it is the Geographical Section, but the equipment of
the Regional Surveyor, or collectively of the Regional Survey Society, must
include some knowledge of the subjects dealt with by every section. The
Croydon Survey was the outcome of some suggestions made by myself in
April 1912, in which the following reasons for undertaking it were advanced :
‘The survey will give the society a concrete scheme of work which will last
for many years and provide activities for every section. It will revive the life

? Trans. §.E. Union of Scientific Societies, 1915, p. 21. | Pm
? Read before the Library Association and Library Assistants’ Association,
March 15, 1916; abstract in ‘The Library Assistant,’ May 1916.

222 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

of some of the sections which are now slumbering and give greatly increased
interest to others. By relating the work of all the sections to a common
scheme these will be brought into more vital contact with one another and
become mutually dependent in a variety of ways. All this means that new life
will be brought into the society, and the results in a few years’ time should be
of great scientific interest and educational value.’ *

The work of making a survey may be conveniently divided into three
branches ; observation and record, interpretation, and exhibition. In record-
ing regional observations the aims should be conciseness, ease of reference,
anl suggestiveness in arrangement, and the most concise, convenient, and
suggestive means of making records is on a map. The basis of our records,
therefore, will be a large series of maps. But we must not overlook
the limitations of the map nor forsake other methods of recording data,
and in most cases our maps will be freely supplemented by written descriptions
and photographs, statistical tables and diagrams. But maps will form the
foundation of the survey, and it will be necessary for this reason to set
geographical limits to the area to be surveyed. I shall return to this question
of defining the limits of the region when speaking of the South-Eastern Union.
For the present suffice it to say that at Croydon we have chosen a rectilinear
area sixteen miles long and twelve miles wide. I need not enter into our reasons
for this choice, much less describe the area itself, my sole object being to
demonstrate the methods we adopt. Having defined the area, we must procure
a number of maps upon which to make the records. The 1-inch scale will
be large enough for most general records, but not for use in the field nor for
some special records. For field work the 6-inch maps are indispensable. The
best way to obtain the l-inch maps is from the Ordnance Survey Depart-
ment, which issues for educational purposes lightly printed maps, with any
heading we may choose, at very greatly reduced prices. This privileged issue
of maps is in abeyance during the war, but I am informed that it wiN
be resumed when the present pressure on the department due to war work is
over.

(A specimen of the Croydon map, of which 500 copies were procured, and a
number showing different features of the district in manuscript, e.g., geology,
rainfall, population, &c., and a selection of photographs, were exhibited to
illustrate the paper from this point onward.)

There are many maps which can be prepared without leaving the study, from
material already available. The mere transference of written records to maps
is often very enlightening. At the least it helps us greatly in visualising
them. The Ordnance maps themselves contain data for several maps (e.g.,
contours, parish-boundaries, rivers), and it is only necessary to accentuate
each set of data by coloured inks or washes upon a separate map. In most
cases, however, the work of compilation will need supplementing to a greater
or less extent by field observations. Concurrently with the field-work and map-
making a systematic hunting up of all existing records of the region under
survey will be carried out. A classified bibliography capable of indefinite
expansion will be prepared, and a collection made of books, pamphlets, old
maps, and manuscripts dealing with the district. In this search we shall
rediscover many useful items which have been buried away in back numbers of
our societies’ publications.

Let us next pass briefly in review from the regional standpoint the various
sections of the survey, and in so doing endeavour to arrange them so as to
bring out their relations to and dependence upon one another. The diagram
will help us in this. From our point of view it would be difficult
to over-emphasise the importance of the geology of the region. It is the
foundation upon which all else is built. Paleontology is a subject not to be
ignored, but except in the Pleistocene beds or as an aid to zoning it has little
regional significance. The same is true of past geological history. It is the
present disposition of the strata and their physical and mineralogical characters
that determine the topography of the district and profoundly influence all life

* Proc. Croydon Nat. Hist. and Sci. Soc. 1912, p. cxxxvii.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 223

9. InctrreNt Evonurion.

—_—_—

7. Historic Recorp. 8. Socran Evonurion.
(Descriptive). (Interpretative).
= Oe mat =

6. Preutstoric Man.
5. Animau Lirr.

4. VEGETATION.

——

(Edaphiec Factors). (Climatic Factors).
eee atts a |

ane eS

3. HyproGrRAPHY AND OROGRAPHY.

ee Dh, eae eee

1. GroLoay. — - - 2. MrTEoROLOGY.

upon the surface, from the types of vegetation to the occupations and habits
and even the ideals of the human inhabitants.

In geology a century of survey-work has been accomplished, and we have
the Geological Survey maps and memoirs and much valuable amateur work to
start with We may commence by copying on two of the maps the Drift and
solid geology from the official maps. Where only the old inch maps are
available it will be found impossible satisfactorily to transfer the geology to
the new editions of Ordnance maps without some field observations. Many
districts are more fortunate in having the new series of inch geological maps,
while some parts have been surveyed on the 6-inch scale, and the manuscript
maps are available for reference at Jermyn Street.

The geological map is one of those which, like the contour and other leading
maps, should be prepared in outline as a transparency for the purpose of
placing over other maps for comparison. In this way many interesting points
will be brought out. A geological model and vertical sections should also be
prepared.

Although so much has been done in geology, there is still plenty of scope
for the local worker. Several lines of investigation open to him were mentioned
by Professor Lebour in his address last year.

Next in importance to geology is meteorology or climate—that is, the rain-
fall, temperature, sunshine, wind, &c. The charting of meteorological records
will add greatly to their value, and other branches of the survey will make
good use of them. The Croydon Society has for many years made and published
daily rainfall observations for about 100 stations under the direction of Mr. F.
Campbell-Bayard, and in transferring some of these to maps we were fortunate
in obtaining the help of Dr. Hugh Robert Mill, who very kindly had three of
our maps prepared for us from his British Rainfall Organisation charts—namely,
the average annual rainfall, and a very wet and a very dry year (1903 and
1898). One of our members is engaged in working out a further series of
rainfall maps.

Meteorology competes with geology as an influence upon life, and the two
sets of phenomena act and react upon one another. The rainfall playing upon
the geological strata determines the hydrography of the region—that is, the
surface and underground drainage, which, with the other atmospheric agents
of erosion, gives us the orography or contour. z

These three branches together form the physical environment, and directly
dependent upon them all is the vegetation or plant-ecology. The geology and
the hydrography on the one hand give us the edaphic ecological factors, while

224 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

the meteorology and orography together constitute the climatic factors. In the
local study of vegetation in this country there is little left to do in making
floras. We have our local floras complete, except for occasional new records.
The distribution of some important or interesting species may be shown on
our maps, but it is to the study of the plant formations and associations and to
the preparation of vegetation maps that the botanists of the regional survey
will devote most attention. Vegetation maps have been published for a few
districts. Those of the Peak District by Dr. Moss are excellent examples.
Other vegetation surveys have been made by members of the British Ecological
Society, but their publication is in many cases held up on account of expense.

Dependent again upon the vegetation and physical environment, and react-
ing upon them in a variety of ways, is the animal life of the region, which is
capable, of treatment similar to that given to the vegetation.

Finally, we have mankind dependent upon his whole environment, physical
and organic, and to an ever-increasing extent master of it. It is in mankind
and his contemporaries that we find regional links with recent paleontology,
and we have to follow his career from his advent in our regions through the
realms of archeology and history to that of modern sociology.

Prehistoric man is worthy of a place to himself. We shall have to deal with
his implements, weapons, earthworks, and other remains, paying special heed to
locality, and to reconstruct as far as may be the picture of his life in our
regions.

From the dawn of history the human survey may well be divided into two
parallel brar.ches, which in the preceding diagram I have provisionally called
‘Historic Record* and ‘Social Evolution.’ The former will be an analysis
and record to any degree of minuteness of all human institutions and activities
in each historic period; the latter a synthesis and interpretation of the records,
its aim being to show what each successive period has stood for in the region,
and in particular what heritage it has handed down to the complex of our
present civilisation.

The object of all research is to establish relations of cause and effect, and to
enable us to foresee events and, if necessary, to deal with them in advance.
The most valuable result of our surveys, therefore, apart from their great
educational value to the surveyors themselves, will be to enable us to detect
and understand the tendencies of our times, and put us in a position, as citizens,
intelligently to encourage good and discourage evil ones. For this reason, in
the above outline scheme, 1 have given a special heading to what I have called
‘Incipient Evolution.’ By so doing we are not so likely to overlook this all-
important aspect of the survey. We shall find, indeed, when the survey is in
progress, that this branch will often give temporary direction to our efforts.

The above primary classification is, by accident, ninefold, and therefore well
adapted to a decimal system of notation for indexing, the cipher being left
free for methodology.

When we commenced to get to work at Croydon we found there were many
questions of technique to be settled, and that the whole scheme of work needed
carefully thinking out, and it appeared to us that many things could be better
settled by a larger body representing a number of societies which might in the
future be undertaking surveys. Such an organisation, for instance, as the
South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies would, it appeared, be able to
encourage, co-ordinate, and secure some measure of uniformity in survey work
by its constituent societies. Accordingly I introduced the subject to the South-
Eastern Union at its Brighton Congress in 1915, and as a result a Regional
Survey Committee of members of the Union, with Professor G. 8S. Boulger as
its Chairman, was formed. After some preliminary work this committee has
settled for the present upon four lines of action. I will deal with each of these
separately.

1. The partition of the south-eastern counties into areas suitable for local
surveys.—This involves the question, ‘What is a region?’ Strictly speaking,
the term used in this connection is a centre of civilisation (a city, town, or even
a village) and its natural environs. It is not always easy to define the limits
of such a region, and the task of the committee, which aims at covering the
whole of the Union’s area by a mosaic of small regions, is not a light one.

, a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 225

We have decided that for many reasons the civil parish will form the most
generally suitable unit of area, and that a local survey should deal with at
least one parish, or more often with a group of parishes around a civic centre.
The grouping of parishes into survey areas, and of these again into larger
natural regions, is a piece of work that will take some time, and will depend
for its success largely upon the help of local societies,

2. The preparation of an outline scheme or ‘ conspectus’ for local surveys.—
This will be a general and detailed analysis of the whole field of survey, with
suggestions for the maps to be made and work to be done in each section.
Appended to the committee’s report in the forthcoming volume of Trans-
actions of the South-Eastern Union will be some notes on a method of surveying
rural parishes which will be useful to anyone engaging in survey work in
country districts.

3. A regional survey bibliography.—This will contain references to books,
pamphlets, maps, manuscripts, &c., dealing with any part of the Union’s area
and with any subject, and its arrangement will follow that of the conspectus.

4. The preparation of a series of maps of the Union’s area showing different
features of interest.—This will be on a small scale (4 inch) series to serve as av
index series to the larger scale maps prepared by the local societies.

‘Since the formation by the South-Eastern Union of a Regional Survey Com-
mittee some of its affiliated societies have taken up survey work. After the
war we expect several others will do the same, and possibly in some unrepre-
sented districts new societies for carrying out surveys will be formed.

I may now appropriately repeat what Professor Lebour said in his Presi-
dential Address to this Conference last year, and I may claim that the regional
survey offers to local societies a means both practical and thorough of carrying
out the spirit of his suggestions.

‘The above are some only of very many directions in which the clubs and
societies, working on pre-arranged lines with each other, may, in the field of
our branch of science alone (geology), induce their members to take part in
Wide-reaching research with the certainty that no bit of work, however small,
will, so long as it is honestly and carefully done, be lost, but will find its place
as a stone in some worthy edifice erected by the joint efforts of many others.
Co-operation of the kind I have in mind should be so planned that the
maximum value in useful results will be obtained from the maximum number
of co-workers. . . . The machinery to carry out such schemes must be left to
those in whose hands lies the management of the different societies.’

In conclusion, let us take a brief glance at the Regional Association. This
Association has wider contacts than either the Croydon Society or the South-
Eastern Union, inasmuch as it covers the whole of the British Isles and takes
an active interest in the application of regional survey to education, to town-
planning, and to civic development generally. It was formed as the Provisional
Committee for the development of Regional Survey at a conference held at
the Outlook Tower at Edinburgh in 1914, and having done much good work
under that title is now preparing its constitution as the Regional Survey
Association. Professor Geddes, to whom, perhaps, more than anyone else the
Regional Survey movement in its wider sense owes its inspiration, is the
President of the Association. It is an itinerant Association, holding one or
two meetings annually at different centres and an annual meeting in London.
In the three and a half years of its existence it has held meetings of a week
or more duration at Edinburgh, Dublin, Aberystwith, Ludlow, and Newbury.

The Association has, among its several committees, a Publication Com-
mittee, which, in addition to obtaining reprints of regional survey contributions
to other societies’ publications for distribution, has issued three leaflets with
suggestions for starting regional surveys written respectively from the physio-
graphical, natural history, and humanistic standpoints.‘ Others are in the
course of preparation.

Finally, what shall we do with our accumulating survey material? It is not
in the spirit of the movement that we should hide it away in cupboards at our

* Obtainable from Geo. Morris, B.Sc., 18 West Road, Saffron Walden,
Essex.

1917. Q

226 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917, :

societies’ headquarters. At Croydon we deposit the maps, photographs, and
other material at the public library, where they are available for public refer-
ence and are of great use to local teachers. The ideal to aim at, however, is
the formation at each centre of a regional museum. Such museums, and there
are some in existence, with regional surveys behind them, become very living
institutions in the districts, and help both visitors and inhabitants to under-
stand what the places have been in the past, what they now stand for, and
what are their possibilities for the future.

Mr. Grorce Morris (of the Regional Survey Association, a visitor) said :
I should like to point out the rather wider aspect of the Regional Survey as
we consider it in the Regional Survey Committee. During the last twenty
years a great deal of change has taken place in the teaching of geography and
in the teaching of history. As regards archeology, the practical end of the
teacher’s work is gradually to reach out to taking the child from the confines
cf the schoolroom, and putting him in his education in contact with actualities.
That is one of the things we of the Regional Survey are out for, and it is
almost impossible for the average school-teacher, who comes from a hundred
miles away and knows very little about the surroundings, to effect this. We
should like to see every secondary school in England, both teachers and pupils,
undertaking a regional survey on the lines Mr. Fagg has put before us. The
history, the geography, and the archeology would be indicated on maps. The
zone where the school is would be the regional zone, and the map would show
the local applications, where the Iccal remains or the local specimens and so on
are. To do this we have an Educational Sub-Committee which is trying to
institute such surveys. Then we have a sub-committee which is endeavour-
ing to register at any rate and obtain the interest of the scientific societies in
local work of the kind; and also we have a Museums and Local Societies
Sub-Committee. We hold meetings to which we invite teachers from the
different schools. We invite scientific men who have special knowledge to
join us, and we ask the local people who are interested in archeology or
geology, and so on, to give us help. Then we devote a week to study and the
reading of papers. This has been done with success. We have invited the
co-operation of various bodies, specialist association bodies, and an inter-
committee has been formed. JI should point out that this Regional
Committee is endeavouring to synthesise in different directions the various
branches of inquiry, and make them available for general reference. The under-
lying idea of the whole of the Regional Survey is that you have a community
which is an organic entity, and, like every organic being, is dependent on its
surroundings for its being and for its present condition. In other words, I
define it as the study of the Ecology of the Human Community.

Mr. J. Oscar Parker (Chairman of the Council of the Selborne Society.
a visitor) said : I do not know how I can convey a better impression of the scheme
which has developed than by suggesting that if a second William the Con-
queror took up his residence in England at some shortly future day, he would,
if this work has been completed according to the lines which Mr. Fagg has
presented to us, find a Domesday Book ready to his hand. He would he able to
gather into his autocratic hand all the estates, all the woods, all the lands that,
exist to-day, without appointing a commission to go about the country. Why,
then, should it not be of tremendous interest to ourselves? If this work is
carried out throughout the country we shall have a remarkable survey of the
whole of our beloved country right at hand.

Miss Layarp said that some years ago, when she was making excavations on
the site of conventual buildings in Ipswich, she made use of the Ordnance
Survey map, and distinguished in colours the buildings of the convents,
priories, and so on.

The Rev. J. O. Brvan said they wanted specialists for carrying on a survey
of this kind: persons specially trained in other matters (ethnological, for
instance) that are involved in a survey of this sort, sc as to secure that one
series of facts will not interfere with another. It is oftentimes a danger when
you get persons partially educated involved in such work.

Mr. Harry Sowersutrts (Manchester Geographical Society) referred to
regional surveys that were being carried on for the improvement and replanning

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 227

of towns. This work was sanctioned by Government, and was being carried
out by local architects and surveyors. A diagram of the road traffic would
be imposed on the Ordnance Survey maps, depicting very clearly the widen-
ing of the roads, and by different colours the detailed volume, and different
classes of traffic passing over main roads at a fixed hour of the day. The
great value of a plan of this sort was that it showed fairly accurately to a
local authority from which direction the greatest volume of trade entered
its town, and in the case of the through tratlic how it could easily be diverted
in order to lessen the congestion in the centre. Mr. Sowerbutts mentioned maps
showing by different colours the growth of Manchester from 1650 to 1885. All
the different periods were shown by different colours, and the different stages
were clearly seen. It was intended to let the plans give details of the growth
as affected directly by manufactures and by position as a distributing centre.
Then there was a plan dealing with the accessibility of the area by trams
and by trains, and how better communication could be obtained. (A third
plan showed the two systems superimposed. Two maps showing the rainfall
might be very instructive when associated with rain statistics; the first one
to give the average rainfall for a period, the second the number of days in
which more than ‘01 inch fell. It was almost impossible to describe adequately
the value of this work: surveyors, medical officers, and other officials had
testified to its usefulness; in fact, some had gone so far as to suggest that a
permanent department on the lines of the Ordnance Survey should be established.
Mr. Sowerbutts advocated regional surveying in connection with those matters
so vital to trade after the war. The point that struck him was, How was it
going to be carried on? At present the Government was paying for it,
supplying architects with work during the war.

Dr. Baraer was very much puzzled about the architects, and wanted to
know what Department was paying them.

Mr. Face: The Local Government Board is paying. them.

The Presipent spoke of the duty of societies to the best of their ability
making a survey of their own locality or their own town and district. As an
example, he handed round a pamphlet which was brought out by the Hertford-
shire Natural History Society for the South-Eastern Union at its St. Albans
Congress in 1911. Members of the society took particular divisions of the
subject, and the area was restricted to a radius of five miles. Topography,
geology, ‘hydrology, climate, flora, fauna, and archeology were given divisions.
They also added an account of the County Museum. [If societies would do this
in their own districts, and hand the result to the Regional Survey, he thought it
would help considerably in a much larger scheme. With regard to the survey
of the footpaths, they thought it would be better to have a separate association,
and one was formed with a small subscription of 2s. 6d. a year—now no longer
required. They were now in the fourth thousand of their may, and something
like a thousand must have been bought by soldiers.

Mr. Face said, with regard to Mr. Bevan’s remark about specialists, that
quite a number of maps have been prepared for them by specialists, and in all
the survey societies they made use of all the specialists they could get together.
On the other hand, he still maintained that a vast amount of work in these
surveys can be done by people who are not specialists. With regard to the civic
surveys, those who were instrumental in getting them carried on did not intend
them to stop after the war. He had not the slightest doubt that all this work
would sooner or later get Government recognition. He had brought together a
number of pamphlets dealing with the Regional Survey. Some of them they
had in the transactions of the societies; those they had not got he thought
might be of interest for their library.

The PresipentT said that the great advantage of their library was that every
paper published by their corresponding societies and indexed in their report
could be seen in it at the offices of the British Association.

228 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

Seconp MEETING.

At the meeting held in the afternoon of Thursday, July 5, it was decided to
ask the Council to add the name of Dr. Bather, the Vice-President of the
Conference, to the Corresponding Societies Committee.

The Conference appointed Mr. Whitaker, Mr. Webb, and Mr. Mark Sykes
to confer with others who might be interested in Kent’s Cavern.

Mr. THomas Suepparp then read the following paper upon

Money-Scales and Weights.

Terrible as the present war is, there is no doubt that it has had, and will
have, many good results. It has demonstrated that the British nation is more
united than was ever dreamed of, and that the people, rich and poor alike, are
prepared to give everything, to make the greatest sacrifice, for the common
good. We do not hear much to-day of the ‘idle rich,’ nor of the Piccadilly
‘nut.’ They have done, are doing, and will do their share for their country.
The working classes are not pushed by the rich into the battle line, they are led
by them. Men and women of all grades have come to understand each other in
a way which would have been very difficult, it not impossible, without a war.
The formation, training, equipment, and upkeep of one of the greatest armies
on record is a feat of organisation and management which would have been
unbelievable a few years ago. The manner in which those at home, both women
and men, have helped the war by working, or by grappling with the food
problem, is nothing short of miraculous. Many expensive luxuries which had
almost become necessities with the wealthy are now cheerfully discarded. To
the members of the British Association it must be more than gratifying to find
that at last the value of science is recognised, albeit that armies of educated
people are devoting their scientific work to inventing, perfecting, and manu-
facturing various machines and materials for the destruction of humanity, or
perhaps I should say for the destruction of ‘inhumanity.’ The co-operation and
friendship of the Allies, now so thoroughly cemented, will be rigidly maintained
after the war, and it is certain that many schemes which have been under dis-
cussion for years will be shortly carried out. The war brought home to us the
great economical advantages of the Daylight Saving Bill, against which the
disadvantages have been proved to be practically nil. The necessity for a
Channel Tunnel has been more than demonstrated, though we believe the scheme
would have been carried out years ago had it not been for the opposition of a
military expert. The present war would certainly have been considerably
shortened, and thousands of precious lives and, what may appeal to many,
enormous sums of money, would have been saved, had the Channel Tunnel been
carried out when the idea was first mooted.

In many minor ways the war will result in numerous needed reforms; among
these (though possibly the word ‘minor’ is hardly accurate) is the general
adoption of the metric system for weights and measures. The advantages of
such a system are so obvious that it is hardly complimentary to an audience such
as this to attempt to point them out. In our stubborn, what-was-good-enough-
for-our-grandfathers-is-good-enough-for-us sort of way, we have adhered to a
series of complicated systems of weights and measures, such as no other civilised
country in the world would tolerate. We estimate aluminium by avoidupois
weight, silver by troy, peas by the peck, potatoes by the pound, fowl and
pheasant by the couple or brace, fish and flesh by the pound, oranges and
whisky by the dozen, stockings by the pair, pears by the pound, and beer by
the gallon. But these absurdities are as naught when compared with other
measures and weights. A draper sells most of his things at 113d. or 2s. 113d.
or 4s. 118d. Books are sold at two shillings or three shillings or seven shillings
and sixpence. A car or a house realises so many pounds, but a picture or a
horse realises guineas or half-guineas. Cotton is sold by the yard, wool by the
pound, land by chain, rod, or perch, cloth by the ell, timber by the standard.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 229

The question of the origin and evolution of the various systems of weights
and measures is of engrossing interest, but is hardly the subject of these notes.
I propose therefore to refer to one small branch of the subject, a branch that
has been considerably neglected—I mean to money-scales and weights. The
subjects brought before the delegates from the Corresponding Societies have
varied considerably, but as a rule an effort is made to suggest lines in which
work might be accomplished by them. In the first place, I would like to urge
upon the delegates the necessity of every care being taken, preferably in the
local museum, of objects which are going out of date or out of fashion; objects
which come under the heading of ‘bygones.’ It is amazing how soon a once
common thing becomes scarce as the inevitable result of evolution and improve-
ment. Should anyone doubt this, let him try to obtain a tinder-box, a flail, or a
‘bone-shaker’ bicycle; yet all of you have probably seen them used. Other
objects once common, which can yet be picked up, are the various forms of
boxes of scales and weights for dealing with money. No one seems to have
made a particular study of these. In most museums perhaps two or three can
be seen; but even the National Museums in London contain very few examples.
The following notes are based upon a collection of over 200 specimens, each of
which has some particular characteristic, now in the museum at Hull. These,
with the help of Mr. J. F. Musham, I have been able to get together during the
past few years. The majority of them date from the seventeenth to the nine-
teenth centuries, though a few are much earlier and others later. In addition
to showing ways in which local societies can do good by preserving relics of the
past, the necessity for the first manufacture of these scales and the extra-
ordinary variety of the weights, which varied from time to time, demonstrate
the desirability of still more simplifying the complicated though relatively
simple system now in vogue.

The necessity for money-scales and weights arose long ago, but was accen-
tuated in this country and on the Continent, in the Middle Ages, in conse-
quence of the interchange in the process of trade of an enormous number of
varieties of coins; so much so that in some sets of English examples as many as
twenty or more weights were required, even greater numbers being found in
foreign boxes of scales and weights—these foreign sets being frequently used
by English merchants to assist them in their financial transactions.

Judging from Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and even Chinese antiquities, it
is clear that from the earliest times there have been scales and weights, and as
the earlier coins were valued by their weight it is obvious there were coin
scales to test them.

Though the Romans used boxes of money-scales and weights, it is hardly to
be expected that many such things would be preserved in anything like a
complete state. In Egypt, however, where the conditions are so eminently
favourable, such objects have been found, and Professor Flinders Petrie has
kindly permitted me to examine some very interesting examples in his remark-
able collection at University College, Gower Street. One of these sets is ina
wooden box, about a foot in length, and is provided with a tray. In the box
are round, square, and other receptacles for the weights, scales, balance-beam,
&c., with lidded lockers for the smaller weights. Though ‘this set is dated
about a.p. 340, it is almost similar in construction and appearance to the
boxes of scales and weights so much in vogue in England from the sixteenth to
the eighteenth centuries; the construction of the weights (of brass, square
and circular) and that of the balance-beam with circular brass pans, &c., are
almost alike, though separated in date by something like twelve or thirteen
centuries. Frescoes in the hcuses at Pompeii have also provided illustrations
of the money-scales in use in those early times. ;

In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, is a set, dating from the
Coptic period, which even better matches English early Georgian boxes, in the
shape of the box, the brass hinges, and the impressed concentric rings decorating
the lid.*

In Anglo-Saxon times money-scales were in use. In Saxon graves in Kent

5 Egyptian Weights and Balances. Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of
Art, vol. 12, No. 4, April 1917, pp. 85-90.

230 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF sciENCE.—1917.

have been found sets of these scales and weights, the weights being sometimes
made from Roman coins rubbed down to the required size.°

All the early forms of money-scales are of the well-known type, with a balance-
beam and two suspended brass pans, somewhat similar to the familiar copper
scales in use in grocers’ shops to-day, excepting that the coin scales have shallow
pans. With very slight variations this type has been in vogue for two thousand
years, being in use in this country up to half a century ago. In recent times
the difficulty of making counterfeit coins without detection has been so great
that testing coins for weight and size is almost unknown. The withdrawal of
various kinds of foreign coins in England has also assisted in scales being
dispensed with. Formerly, however, coiners and coin-clippers were so much in
evidence that the Beggars’ Litany ‘from Hull, Hell, and Halifax, Good Lord
deliver us’ is said to have originated from the fact that at Hull and Halifax,
at any rate, coiners were punished with unusual severity.

The earliest iliustration of a pair of English coin-scales that I have been able
to trace is dated 1496, and occurs in Vetusta Monuwmenta, vol. i. 1747. It is on
a plate described as ‘The Standard of Antient Weights and Measures, from a
table in the Exchequer. From the original Table formerly in the Treasury of
the Kings (sic) Exchequer at Westminster, and now preserved in the MS.
Library of the late Earl of Oxford, anno 12 Henrici Septimi [1496], N.B.
The original Parchment is fix’t on an oak table.’ On this there are illustra-
tions of various kinds of weights and measures, a view of the Exchequer, a man
in the pillory for giving short weight, &c.

From the centre of this document we learn that ‘By the discrecion &
Ordinaunce of or-soueraigne lorde ye kinge & of his lordes spuall & tepall
wth ye commons of ye same his realme of England of all manr of weight and
measure yt was made by ye grayne of wheate. This is to understande yt xxxjj
graynes of wheat taken out of ye middell of ye yeare weieth a starlinge other-
wise called a penny & xx starlinge maketh an ounce,’ &c.

In the top left-hand corner of this remarkable document are illustrations of
‘The Whete eare,’ with the information that ‘ Two graynes maketh ye xvj pte
of a penny. The conage of ye mynte ffower graynes maketh the viij pt of a
penny. The iiij] pte of a penny is a farthinge, xvj graynes an halpeny, the
halpeny wth ye peny and halpeny and the farthinge is all poore mens, upon
all manner of vitelers of the realme.... ‘The cuynars to be sworne in
speciallie yt ye thirde pte of ye Bullion be made in halpence & farthings,
yt is to saie that one half of the saide third in halpens & ye other in
farthings.’

Accompanying this quaint information is a sketch of a pair of coin-scales
with a penny (on edge) in one tray, the other being full of grains, presumably
thirty-two. It is to be hoped that the eccentric fork to the scales is merely
an error in the drawing !

It occasionally happens that representations of antique money-scales occur
on old pictures. Perhaps one of the most interesting examples cf these is
‘The Banker and his Wife’ by Corneille de Lyon, which was at Antwerp
before the war. In this case a gold piece is about to be weighed in a pair of
scales with triangular pans, the weights being square; on the table is the box
for the scales, with twenty-four oblong pans for the weights. Similar old sets
of scales are shown on the picture by Quentin Matsys in the Louvre, in
‘The Misers’ at Windsor Castle, and other paintings in the National Gallery
and elsewhere.”

In the middle of the seventeenth century a ‘steelyard’ type of scale was
in use in Ireland for weighing coins, an illustraticn cf which appears with the
following ‘ Extracts from the Journal of Thomas Dineley, Esqr., giving some
account of his visit to Ireland in the reign of Charles IJ.’ ® :—

‘I'he most usual money and that which passeth in the greatest quantity of

° For illustrations see Znventorium Sepulchrale, 1856, pp. 22-23, and Archeo-
logia Cantiana, vol. vi. 1866, pp. 157-185.

7 See Burlington Magazine, vol. xx. No. 107, February 1912.

§ Journ. Kilkenny Arch, Soc., vol. ii. N.S. 1858-9.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 231

silver in Ireland is Spanish Coyne known here by the name of a cob, or half
a cob or a quarter cob.’

“A sort of pieces of eight at 4-6d each, which they call plate pieces,
Mexicos, and Perues.’ ;

‘The cobs that are weight, as well as the french crown, pass at 4s 9d,
ee want a grain, or turn not the scale cr stilyard, they pass but at
8. 6d.

‘None here, either in market or publick-house, but with small scales weigh
their silver, as well as their gold, before they take it.’

‘Here are also pieces of Portugall coyne wh go at 7s 6d, these only, and
now and then a piece of English money pass unweighed.’

The early English types of scales were usually in elaborate wooden boxes,
with recesses, pans, or lockers, cut out of the solid, for the scales and weights,
the latter often being very numerous. Usually the balance-beam was of steel,
the suspension-cords of twisted silk, and the pans and weights of brass.
Occasionally tin, iron, copper, and even silver were used for pans, beams, and
weights. Afterwards the boxes were covered with shagreen, leather, and
other materials; still later they were usually of polished rosewood or mahogany ;
then the boxes were of brass, steel, iron, or tin; the latest of all being made
withcut boxes, on turned wood pillars or standards, and usually in brass.

Early types of scales in boxes, though suitable for the office or counting-
house, were rather cumbersome for the purpose of carrying about, and con-
sequently neat scales in boxes with fewer weights, cr weights made one to fit
within another, were brought into use. These at first were of the ordinary
hanging-pan type, but the inconvenience of using separate weights, and the
fact that they were liable to get lost, were apparently felt, and less awkward
varieties were made. At first these appear to have been in the form of a
fixed steelyard with a sliding weight, but later were supplanted by the
familiar compact folding scales, with all the pieces fixed, the weights of
the different coins being ascertained by an ingenious arrangement of
hinged weights made to turn cver according to the nature of the coin to be
dealt with. With some an additional slide indicates slight variations in the
weights of the coins; so much so that, according to the directions on some of
the boxes and the figures marked on the balance-beams, the loss of even a
farthing’s worth of gold could be ascertained.

Towards the end of the eighteenth century. and early in the nineteenth,
when the Yorkshire coiners were in vogue, scales for testing the weight and
thickness of the gold coins, and even of the silver coins, were common,
especially in Yorkshire and Lancashire. Names of scale-makers in Ormskirk,
Kirkby, Warrington, and Liverpool are frequent. Usually the scales were
made by watch- and clcck-makers, a fact plainly obvious on an examination
of the details of the scales. The boxes were made of a suitable size for
carrying in the waistcoat pocket, and averaged five inches in length by
one inch in width and three-quarters of an inch in depth. Sometimes they were
even less, one in our possession being less than two and a quarter inches in
length, three-quarters cf an inch in width, and slightly over a quarter of an
‘inch in depth. ‘This is the smallest I have seen. These boxes were made in
considerable numbers, so great indeed that the early directories contain entries
cf ‘watch makers and scale makers,’ &c. ay

In Queen Elizabeth’s reign a proclamation was issued * (1587-8) giving
details of the money-scales and weights issued in her time. The proclamation
contains ‘a declaration of an order for the making of certain small cases
for balances and weights, to weigh all manner of gold coin current within
the realm, provided to be sold to all persons that should have cause to use
the same, and which had been viewed by the wardens and assistants of the
company of goldsmiths in Londcn, by whom it was signed, limiting the
sundry prices thereof according to their several quantities; which cases, with
the balances and weights, had been made by order of the master of her
Majesty’s mint in the Tower of London, and viewed, allowed, and set at

° See L. A, Lawrence, ‘Coin Weights,’ Brit, Numismatic Journ, yol. Vi.
1909.

232 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

reasonable prices by the said wardens of the goldsmiths in London, and
thereupon according to her Majesty’s proclamation heretofore made for the
purpose, now put into print, by order of the Lord Burghley, Lord Treasurer
of England, whereof the original forms (so rated and prized) remained in the
receipt of the master of the mint, according to their several forms and prices.

The First and Greatest Case.

First, a case of wood with several partitions for xiiij printed
weights, ilij other partitions for other weights, and

one partition with cover for grains,esteemedat . . viijd.
The balance of the same case at 4 ; a as o exXvid-.
The xilij printed weights for coins . . . . . xviijd. > iiijs. vid.
The suit of ldwt. from ob. weight to Sdwt. . . . ixd. |
The suit of grains from di. grainto v grains . . . _ iijd.

The Second Case.
Item, a lesser or second case of wood, having a partition
for a balance, partitions for xiiij several weights for
coins, and one partition forsmallgrains,esteemedat vijd.

The balance of the same case at Oe ei Mbt sexe lijs. lijd.
The xilij printed weights at SL eieae: Meee ee SMS
Ae rains ater toe Me eee Mee ee es, ke gee men:

The Third Case.
Item, a lesser or third case of wood having a partition for
the balance, partitions for xiiij several weights for
coins and one partition for small grains, esteemed at iiijd.

The balance of the same case at ote. vee e's arenes a RSITS iijs. jd.
The xiiij printed weights at... + witee cee Giteeexviljd:
The grains Shey; J ee, ae lijd.

The Fourth Case, being Leather.

Item, a leather case printed and gilded with gold, having
in it a partition for the balance, two partitions for

weights and grains, esteemed at. . . . . xijd.
The balance of the same case at SORE Te he TS? S08 aeexirde
The xilij printed weightsat. =. . . . . . xviijd. jiijs. vjd.
Lhewuitiol jidwisate Hates | ernie thio ike rs, oid |
Phereuitiofiprains"atyeren ey eer meee OP ale ena de

The Fifth Case, being Latten.
Item, acase of latten for a pair of folding balance, also of

Tatton, Avinodweh feral ow hk oe Ebest aed hie eevanIES
The balance of the same caseat. . . . . . ~ xijd. itis <a
The xiiij printed weights at. . . . . . . xviijd. ar ;
DHE. erains atc. ee nog beta Drakes eee. Sach ec ik Seki , peli }

This proclamation appears to have been but little attended to, for on
February 18, 1588-9,1° Richard Martin complained to the Lord Treasurer that,
notwithstanding her Majesty’s proclamation respecting the weighing of gold
and silver coins, they still continue to pass without being weighed, and that
he had expended above six hundred pounds in providing scales and weights
marked with an E crowned, the far greater part of which still remained upon
his hands. He proposed, therefore, that the warden of the mint, &c., should
have authority to see that the said proclamation be observed, and that all
other weights and grains used against the meaning of the same should be
forfeited. ;

1° The date given, loc. cit. p. 291, is 1558-9; apparently an error for
1588-9.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, | 233

So far I have not been able to trace a single example of these particular
boxes.

An examination of early scale-boxes indicates to what an enormous extent
foreign money was in circulation in this country, necessitating the issue of
special weights, albeit they bore the effigy of the English monarch. For
instance, in the reign of Charles II. weights were known for :!!

Gold.
Weight. Value.
dwt. grs Dae Sig
The golden rider OER 6 12 Via G
mhavitvoldemmiders 6. 9. 6 ke CS 6 11 3
», Spanish or French quadruple pistole . . 17 £ 310 3
us ae x5 double pistole . ee 14 115 0
se ie 5 single pistole pee: 7 Lis @
a 3 a half pistole 4 : < ae 33 8 9
;, double ducat 2 5 ‘ ; 3 Leet: 12 18 0
:, Single ducat . 2 6 9™0
5, Spanish suffrance 7 2 17 on G
" A half-suffrance 3 13 14 3
Silver.
The ducatoon . . Me Juste. $20 16 6 0

Half and quarter in proportion.
The Mexico, Sevil or pillar piece of eight, the rix

dollar, cross dollar and French Lewis . . 17 0 4 9
Half, quarter, and half-quarter in proportion.

The Portugal royal . ode .oMlirite 14 0 3 8

Half and quarter in proportion.

Royal proclamations referring to coin-weights, and occasionally to scales,
were issued in various reigns; the earliest by King John (1205) stated that for
discovering lack of weight ‘there was issued from the mint office a penny-
poise, wanting one-eighth of a penny, to be delivered to anyone who would
have it.’

Various other references occur in proclamations issued by Edward I.,
Henry V., Henry VI., Henry VII., Elizabeth, James I., Charles L.,
Charles II., and William III.

Returning to the coin-scales, it may be as well to state that the largest
collection in the country has been classified in the following series :—(1) Tooled
and plain wood boxes; (2) shagreen-covered boxes; (3) japanned iron boxes,
usually oval; (4) narrow boxes with automatic balances; (5) brass sovereign-
balances ; (6) miscellaneous.

From the preceding I think it is demonstrated that there have been and still
are difficulties in our system of coinage, difficulties which would be immeasur-
ably simplified by the use of the metric system. Similar or greater difficulties
exist in all our other weights and measures, and these could be similarly
surmounted with equal ease.

(Typical forms of boxes of coin-scales were exhibited in illustration of the
paper.)

Mr. G. C. Harr Gorpon opened the discussion as follows: I compliment
the author on his very interesting paper. As an ardent advocate of the metric
system I would have wished for a little more about it; but I feel that Mr.
Sheppard has conveyed some very interesting information in showing that in
this country great changes have taken place. One thing I would nctice is this :
he made no reference to an interesting coin, the Novus denarius, which was
introduced into Europe by Pepin the Short. It was a silver penny which
obtained currency throughout Europe. I think it is the only case after the

11 See L. A. Lawrence, ‘Coin Weights,’ Brit. Numismatic Journ. vol. vi.
1909, p. 294.

234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Roman Empire. It is the extraordinary instance of an international coin, which
drove all the Roman coins out of the market, and practically took charge ot
Kuropean trade until Pepin’s Government, 1 suppose, became organised and
started making coins that were of different weights. Another thing that is ct
great interest to us—particularly when we think of decimal coinage and of Mr.
Gladstone’s celebrated attack on decimai coinage because of the working man’s
interest in the penny, and what he called the dishonest proposal of decreasing
the penny, which would take place, of course, if the sovereign were divided into
one thousand parts—I understand that there were no copper coins in use in
England (no copper coins made) until the time of the Georges. All the coinage
used throughout the country was silver or gold; and the scales business throws a
great deal of light upon it. As a matter of fact, coins in those days were in no
sense tokens. '1'o-day the coin is a promissory note, to be redeemed by the King
in gold. The reason why Pepin’s denarius continued was that it was exactly
the value in silver that it was represented to be; its purchasing power was
according to the silver it contained. Apparently, it was a great thing for a
Government to introduce a copper coin; it needed a very powerful Government,
and one which had a reputation for redeeming its promissory notes, to issue
bronze coins. It would be rather interesting to hear from Mr. Sheppard what
were the controlling factors which led to the issuing of bronze coinage, which
apparently was unknown in the earlier stages of our civilisation. Another thing
that was mentioned by Mr. Sheppard was very interesting from a coinage-
reform point of view, and that is the use of the Black Art in trade by the
assistance or connivance of difficult systems of weights and coinage. The
curious custom of the draper of pricing goods at 1s. 11$d. is one which is
admirably justified by the result. He can produce an effect by 1s. 113d. which
is not produced by Zs. I have been interested in the fact that at a Congress
here in London in 1911 agriculturists decided practically unanimously in favour
of decimal coinage, a remarkable thing for tarmers. The reason given was
that a farmer has to study so many things that he cannot be an expert in
weights and measures. At Cardiff an enthusiastic flour-miller produced a book
in which there were 800 pages devoted to nothing but weights and measures
used in the corn trade in various markets in England and Wales. When a farmer
has not time to study this 600 or 800 page book, another man gets ahead of him,
This is one of the reasons from the commercial point of view why it is all-
important we should adapt the decimal system to coinage.

I have come from Australia, and I have preached the metric system over
there; but when I came to this country I got rather a shock. Since then I have
been trying to use metric measures everywhere that I can, to see what is the
effect. Now after three months I go back to inches, which I had used all my life,
with difficulty. A gentleman, our chairman at a meeting in Bath recently,
is a jeweller, and he told us a most extraordinary thing. Some three years ago
a bolt out of the blue came to the jewellers in the shape of a ukase from the
Board of Trade, or something similar, saying that they must no longer use
the old carat divided into halves and fourths and eighths and sixteenths;
they should use the metric carat, and it should be decimally divided. An
indignation meeting was held. Sitting up one night, at the end of fifteen
minutes dhe jeweller had mastered the new system, and at the end of the week
he would not have used anything else. His assistants were of the same
opinion, and they sometimes look back on the old system as a joke. This
shows that once you introduce decimal methods they will drive out the
farrago of old weights that has been growing through the centuries in all
the different countries. In a little country part of Germany, in Hanover,
which at that time was under the Kings of England, they had some coins
called groschen. One of the Kings of England tried an improvement,
and introduced what was called the new groschen. For something like one
hundred and fifty years the new and old groschen existed side by side,
and when something else was introduced in 1870 the new and old groschen
were gone in two years. I think that is the hope for this country—that the
new system will drive out the old. It has not succeeded in driving everything
out of France. One of the reasons of that is that we took into France
machinery and other things on the old measures, and we purchased from

be art

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 235

France on the old measures. The consequence is we preserved it in France.
You can preserve anything if you make it profitable for it to be preserved
The man who gains by Black Art will fight for that by which he profits,
ee an to make the people believe that if they abandon it they will

Mr. Harry Atcock said: I agree with Mr. Sheppard that it is superfluous
to dwell upon the beauties of the metric system before a body of scientific
people. We shall have to make up our minds on what lines reform shall be
approached. ‘here are two schools. One says you retain our present measures
inch and pound and gallon, and divide them into decimal portions. In that way
you will get the advantage of the decimal; but the most superficial examination
will satisfy us that this is indefensible. The manufacturer must have his inch
the surveyor and civil engineer his foot, and the navigator his fathom. In
addition to that, one has to bear in mind that after you had succeeded in
adapting the system of British weights and measures to these alterations you
would still have a bad system, because there would be no correlation between
the units in the same simple delightful way we have in the metric system. So
we find we could not very much improve our system by simply re-arranging
existing units on the decimal system. It comes back to this: we must have
one universal unit of quantity by which manufacturers and consumers can
communicate without any possibility of doubt.

On the question of the metric system becoming uniform throughout the
world, the speaker referred specifically to America and Russia as follows :

America’s trade is largely a domestic trade. The market for her manu:
facturers has been until quite recently a domestic market. | What happens
as soon as a nation aspires to become an exporting nation? People tell you
that if you are to cater for the foreign markets you must adopt a new system.
Comparing Great Britain and America, we depend on the volume of our export
trade, and it is therefore very much more to our interest that we should change
to the metric system than even America; and once we have taken the plunge
here we shall be followed by America.

Russia is quoted as a non-metric country; but it is an interesting fact that,
in so far as she is a manufacturing State, work has been for some years
conducted on the metric basis. The Russian measures relate to the land
measurements, railway measures, and so on; but in trade and manufacture these
are already converted to the metric system.

We could not have a suitable discussion of the metric system without paying
tribute to the very excellent work done in the interest of the system by Lord
Kelvin. He was a stalwart advocate of it; he was in advance of his time; but
when the turmoil of the war opens our eyes to the weakness of our national
system we shall achieve the reform which Lord Kelvin so strenuously adyocated
for many years.

At the end of the war we shall be burdened with a huge national debt.
The only way to remove the pressure of that burden will be to export produce
in enormously increased quantity, and export it throughout the world. We
shall be awfully lacking if we continue to use our British weights and measures
and absurd arrangemerts when we attempt to trade with nations abroad who
have adopted what we are now advocating.

- The Prusipenr said: I am sure we are indebted to Mr. Hart Gordon
and Mr. Alcock for their remarks, and also to Mr. Sheppard for his paper.
One point that has not been touched upon is the immense amount of saving
the metric system would be in education. It would take years of school life,
or, rather, the children would be able to do so much more in other ways which
they cannot possibly now do, because they have to learn our intricate system
of weights and measures. I have a good deal of calculation to do myself,
and I very frequently put the figures into decimals, and work out my cal-
culations and re-convert them into our system. That would not have to be
done if we had the metric system established. Not only in such calculation,
but in all commercial transactions, in all book-keeping, an increased amount of
work could be done in the same time. I believe there are some here who are not so
fully alive to the advantages of the metric system as I am. They will have a

good opportunity to-morrow morning of stating their views.

236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Tuirp Merrrina.

At the third meeting, held on Friday, July 6, the discussion on Mr. Sheppard’s
paper ‘ Money-Scales and Weights’ was continued.

Mr. WHITAKER said: Our decimal friends go a little too far. They think
cedmues a cure for everything. It depends on decimal notation, which is a

ad one.

Dr. Barner said: If you have read much foreign literature as well as
English, you will find there is an extraordinary variety in expression of
notation, and it is extremely difficult to say what is meant. For instance,
we in this country are accustomed to write 33.25m. for metres or any other
decimal measure or weight. Jf you go to the people who invented the system
—the French—they put 33m.25; that is how they do it. There is a worse
difficulty almost than that. Of course it would be perfectly intelligible to put
m.33.25; that can’t mean anything but 334 metres. But here is a diversity
which creates considerable difficulty. Where we wish to put a decimal point we
often put a full stop. That is not the French way of doing it. For our 33.251
the French write 33,251. To an Englishman that means 33 thousand and 251.
I have found authors using both these forms on the same page. If we are going
to use the metric system all over the world, let us see that we all write it in
the same way. In this case the least ambiguous form undoubtedly is 33.251
In simple numeration similar questions arise. For a number in the thousands
a Frenchman writes 33251. If he wants to make it longer: 125103717. That
is not nearly so clear as to put in the comma. When the ordinary person writes,
it is a very difficult thing for the printer to tell whether he is to put the hair
spaces in or not. It is also necessary to indicate the unit in each case. To say
that a fish is 2.34 long is meaningless, yet there are British authors who do this
with, presumably, the permission of their British editors.

Mr. A. L. Lewis said : With regard to measures, I have found in some of
our stone circles which go back to Neolithic times the Mediterranean measures.
At Stonehenge there is an old Mediterranean foot, which is somewhat less than
our own foot. At Stanton Drew, Somerset, there is the same. In addition to
that, at Stanton Drew you have a series of measurements working out with
that of the Mediterranean foot. In other stone circles, in other parts of the
country, I have found measurements not working out to that foot, but to other
old Mediterranean measures. This was in prehistoric times. No doubt it was
so from influences from the Mediterranean which I take to have been rather
personal than tribal. That is, the measurements were brought over here by
individuals coming casually—it might be as traders or explorers; it might be
as fugitives from justice, or injustice, or even missioners. There was no doubt
a great deal of travelling about in Neolithic times—much more than we think.

The Presrpent said: There is one point with regard to the expressing of
decimals to which I should like to refer: that of adopting a uniform method.
There is only one way of doing it—that of using the full stop and putting it
above the line. Everyone would know that this indicates decimals.

Mr. SHEPPARD, in reply, said: With regard to Mr. Gordon’s suggestion that
he would have liked to have heard a little more about the metric system, may I
say that the entire object of the paper has been to demonstrate the necessity
for the metric system? I felt that it was unnecessary to point out the advan-
tages of such a system to this audience, and the recitation of the difficulties
that have existed in the past, owing to the absence of the metric system, is
surely the best evidence in favour of a change. One speaker asked when
copper coins were introduced. Well, of course, there was the Harrington
farthing in the reign of Charles II., but the great circulation of copper coins
was in the reigns of the Georges. In the early days we only had the silver
penny, which had to be kept up. The introduction of milled edges prevented a
good deal of the coin clipping, and as soon_as we got the milled edge, which
could not be interfered with, the necessity for weighing coin was largely done
away with. In Elizabeth’s time nearly everybody who could get hold of any
money cut a nice respectable portion from the edge.

The PresrpEnt said : We could scarcely have a subject more important for

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 237

the advancement of science than a discussion of the metric system, and I think
it is well within the scope of the Conference. At the meeting of the French
Association for the Advancement of Science one Conference was devoted almost
entirely to it. Our Secretary was asked to make inquiries of the British
Association as to its opinion on an alteration that was to be made in French
units. I am very glad that we have followed it in our Conference.

Mr. Witrrep Marx Wess then read his paper entitled

The part to be played by Local Societies after the War in the Application
of Science to the Needs of the Country.

One of the penalties of making a suggestion nowadays is that one is
often forthwith asked to carry it out, and if I had had the pleasure of hearing
Mr. Hopkinson’s Address when the Corresponding Societies Committee asked
me to introduce my present subject, I could perhaps have excused myself
by claiming that my remarks would be unnecessary.

The key-note, in fact, of what I had in mind to say was that a force must
be generated in this country which will enable us to raise ourselves above
party politics. There are many matters much less debatable than free trade,
which our President mentioned, that could be settled much more satisfactorily
on a business, common-sense, or scientific basis.

Before going farther, however, in this direction, it may be well to con-
sider the position of science. It has certainly played a big part in the war,
and several times during this Conference the general feeling has been expressed
that it will make itself felt in our everyday life in the near future to a much
greater extent than it did in the recent past. That it ought to do so is
certain. The seed no doubt is sown, but, as is the case with many a choice
lant, fruit will not again be ripened to perfection unless conditions are
favourable, time and care lavished upon the seedling, when it struggles forth
from the soil, unless difficulties are surmounted and enemies warded off.

In order fully to realise that even now an effort must be made, that old
methods of advancing science must be improved and new ones devised, let
us hark back for a moment to the state of affairs which prevailed before the
war began, at the time, I may remind you, when the members of this Conference
were the guests of France at Le Havre.

What was the position of a scientific person? That is to say one who
had some claim to be acquainted with things and facts, with causes, and effects ;
not an individual trained to gauge his success by how easily he could for the
moment put a complexion upon circumstances which would convince twelve
men good and true and unpaid, or prevail upon the mobile-minded members
of a constituency, who carry the elections, that he was the right person to go
to Parliament and help to swell the majority that would bring emoluments,
and ultimately honours, to his party without their being sought.

The person we have in mind, if he had been asked five or six years ago
what he thought would happen, and the pressing things that ought to be done,
would have said, as many have done, that within the next ten years there
would be a big war in Europe, and that England and Germany would be
involved, and, apart from naval and military matters, it was the duty of those
in authority to accumulate stores of food in this country, and to see that we
produced as much as possible and bought as little as may be. He might also
have added that our educational outlook should be altered, and if he had
been tempted to touch on business he would have pointed out the folly of
allowing Germans to undersell cur own people as clerks, and to learn all
our customers’ names. .

Mr. Whitaker said yesterday that we should always buy in the cheapest
market. Doing this has been our curse. It is possible, I believe, sometimes
even to get rid of a curse. te: ;

What could such an individual as we have been considering do to bring
about the improvements which he knew were wanted? Practically nothing
directly. His vote was one amongst thousands. He had very little time to
spare if he had to get his living from science, and perhaps even still less if

238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917,

he devoted himself to some other pursuit to earn his bread and devoted his
leisure to research.

It was only indirectly, by trying gradually to educate educationists,
Gererume departments, and the public, that he could see any hope for the
uture.

Twelve or fourteen years ago some of us thought that the nature-study
movement would do a greal deal, but it is not everyone who would take the
trouble to understand what was meant. Mr. Fagg said of nature-study yesterday
that it was responsible for much. To it is due to a great extent the new teaching
of geography upon which he commented. Regional Surveys are but one branch
of the nature-study which we advocated. A great object was to get plastic minds
away from books until these are really useful, and the burden of any bad
results which may have accrued lies on those who looked upon nature-study
as a new subject or a poor kind of elementary didactic science.

The greatest triumph achieved by the nature-study movement was the decision
of the Eton College authorities to accept nature-study in the entrance examination
as an alternative to Latin verse.

Another habit of human nature akin to buying in the cheapest market, or
possibly the same one in another guise, is the wish to get as much as you can
for your money, and I never heard that any boys from the regular preparatory
schools offered nature-study instead of Latin verses, their schoolmasters knowing
that the latter would count for more in the long run if not immediately.

This brings me to consider some of the reasons why science has not
advanced as quickly as it might in the past. What we may perhaps still
call the ruling classes are brought up as ignorant of science as they often are
of business. They cannot help looking down upon it, or ignoring it, because
they do not understand ,it. They also have been accustomed to see all the
most successful boys in their schools put to learn Latin and Greek, leaving
the others who counted for little to turn to scientific pursuits.

There is one class of schools which has been an outstanding exception,
though unfortunately they do not rank with Eton, Harrow, and Winchester.
I mean the Friends’ Schools, where natural-history pursuits enter into the cur-
riculum and take the place to some extent of games. Bootham School had
a natural-history magazine eighty or more years ago, when the British
Association for the Advancement of Science came into existence. It was
this school] which produced men like Silvanus Thompson, a scientific man of
the first calibre as a physicist, a clever artist, a polished writer,
and an ardent lover of Nature. It was he who gave the finest Presidential
address that I remember to the South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies
at Woolwich. He took for his text two proverbial sayings, one of
which, usually misquoted, Dr. Bather mentioned yesterday, ‘a little learning
is a dangerous thing’ and ‘a cobbler should stick to his last.” These Professor
Silvanus Thompson, in his fascinating way, proceeded to show were fallacies,
finishing his argument with an instance of a cobbler who lived in Woolwich,
where he was speaking, who invented the electro-magnet, which is used in
millions of instruments all the world over.

Another reason why scientific people have been looked down upon is because
many of those who have been successful in science, like their classical brethren,
are, to use the late Lord Avebury’s words, applied to the latter, only half-
educated. They have often picked up their knowledge in evening classes
after the business of the day was done, and they have not had time to acquire
what we may term literary culture. They do not as a rule write with the
style that they might, and their social position originally is not of the highest.
Still, as the President said yesterday, a knowledge of English is lacked by very
many of all classes, and one of the column-editors of The Field once teld
me that the writing of many of our country gentlemen was appalling. He
had had very many years’ experience of it.

Then, again, if the classical scholar looks down on the scientific one, the
same is true of the business-man. Scientific people, in the past at any rate,
have worked for nothing. In the commercial eye a man who does this is a
fool, and what you can get for nothing is not worth having.

It is rather a pity that any labour for love should cease, but the man who
has a scientific education should get something on his investment, and I feel

& CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 235

sure that no scientific man who really works will ever be repaid from a
monetary point of view.

The war has done more than give a greater appreciation of science : it has
given a chance to men who would not otherwise have made themselves felt in
the work of shaping our destiny, and it will have removed some of those
prejudices which I mentioned. There is a chance that our ruling classes, ag
I call them, will not be quite the same in the future.

The Government set up a department of scientific and industrial research
in 1915. Two of its publications are in front of me. One deals with
Industrial Research in the United States of America. This bears out Mr.
Whitaker’s contention that we always go to other people to see what they
are doing, and to hold up their methods as a model. Occasionally it is
justified. The second publication is a report on the resources and production
of iron-ores, and so on, used in the iron and steel industry in the United
Kingdom, so that we are beginning to get along.

I have also before me the report of a conference held last year in the Linnean
Society’s Rooms at the instance of the Committee on the Neglect of Science,
which is well worth reading; and, again, I have the Presidential address of
Dr. W. Martin to the South-Eastern Union, given in the same rooms last month,
on ‘Science and the Industries.’

There is a conjoint board of scientific societies at work. The British Science
Guild is extending its sphere of influence, and yet I think that the local societies
could play a very important part in the directions mentioned by our President
yesterday, and in others. The bodies mentioned above reflect the opinion of
scientific men who are already convinced of the importance of science; the
principal work is to make others see it. The local scientific societies should
consist of all scientific men in the neighbourhood to which they belong. They
would belong to all political sections if political parties still remain. The
Sections should be constituted to deal with general questions which will occur
in every neighbourhood, and special questions which apply to their own.
As a biologist, I naturally think of the same illustrations as Mr. Hopkinson,
such as useful birds. If our crops are to be increased one-hundredfold, so
should the insect-eating birds, and care should be taken that the species which
live at our expense should not increase. There should be a body of scientific
opinion, backed by evidence, which should be able to prevent the cherry orchards
of a district from being rendered worthless by the number of starlings, provided
that other and more important crops should not instead be ravaged by caterpillars
because the starlings have been eliminated.

It should be the part of the local society to point out the places where trees
should be planted, and further than this they could deal with manufactures
in urban districts, individually they could bring pressure to bear on municipal
bodies and members of Parliament, while by concerted action they might
influence the Government on questions of importance which affected the country
as a whole. It will fall on a few people in each place, in the beginning, to
carry out the work, but if such a scheme could be put into practice the results
of their labours would be very far-reaching. : ,

Mr. Wuitaxker said : Mr. Webb falls a little foul of certain economic notions.
England has been able in the most wonderful manner to help the Allies in various
ways, largely in matters of money; nearly all our Allies, except America, which
has just come in. Why? “Because England has followed economic laws far more
than any other countries have, and has bought in the cheapest market for many
years. The result is that she has had a great reserve, and thereby has helped
her Allies. How could that be effected if we had not followed economic laws?
We should not have been the wealthy country we are. We may have been worse
off in some ways. Mr. Webb finds fault with our ruling classes for not under-
standing science, but I do not know how he can make them. You cannot force
them. Education should be so arranged that those children who prefer scientific
studies should not be handicapped. I do not ask for favouritism for science ;
give us equality, give us justice. If English people cannot make things as well
as the people of some other nations, whose fault is it? If, on the other hand,
they cannot make them so cheaply, whose fault is it? Let these faults be
remedied. There is no nation in the world, be it ever so humble, that cannot

240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

do something better than other nations. It is a good thing that all nations,
Germany included, if you like, should have some point in which they are
superior to others. We should look at the world as a whole, and not simply at
ourselves as a particular part of it. We do that too little.

Local societies form one point in which England excels. In local societies
she certainly has a very proud position, and anything that tends to improve
our local societies, and to give them a larger occupation that may bear on the
public good and the public interest, is distinctly for the good of the nation as
@ whole, as well as for that of the local societies. Do not let us think that
there is nothing but science in the world. We must recognise that there are
other things that are equally important and equally valued by other people.
We have a right and a duty to stand up for science, to push science forward,
but let us do it in the way that was advocated by the President yesterday as to
agriculture and forestry; let us do it side by side, and not antagonistically.
Let us work our science with literature, with art.

I am sorry to agree that a great many scientific people are not able to write
English ; but they are no worse than other people. You may say just the same
of some politicians and artists, and even professional writers. Many profes-
sional writers write most unmitigated nonsense occasionally. Our scientific
men must not follow the precedent of other English classes in letting themselves
down. I do not say that we are better than other people, but I certainly will
not allow that we are worse. Scientific people are just an average of a
more or less educated people. Certainly there is a distinct want in all classes
of a full English education. That is one point that should be considered indis-
pensable, and in the matter of science what we want to see and hope to see is
all science, all knowledge, leading up to the perfection of what is really the
highest science of all: that is, political science.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan made the following remarks : There is one point in
Mr. Webb’s paper to which I want to refer, and that is the interest of bird-life.
Periodically I talk to our young people about the preservation of bird-life.
Some few weeks ago a copy of a leaflet was sent to me just published by the
Society for the Protection of Birds. I am rather sorry to see that this pamphlet
is written on lines of special pleading, and it takes up those birds which are
insect-destroyers. It does not mention the fact that a great many hirds are
also grain-destroyers. It is rather an unfortunate leaflet to put into the
hands of farmers. They say : ‘ We know a great many that are insect-destroyers,
but we have to deal with a great many that are grain-destroyers. We want to
know what is the difference between the two classes of birds; between the two
classes of sparrows, for instance.’ I think it is very unfortunate that the society
should put forth a pamphlet which in its effect is misleading and creates a certain
amount of disfavour amongst the class to whom it would be addressed, that is,
the farmers.

Miss Crosrietp (Holmesdale Natural History Club) said: Local societies
should make themselves an influence, by approaching local bodies, occasionally
sending resolutions on any subjects on which the local societies feel strongly.
The matter of the introduction of the metric system is one on which they might
act. Not that they would immediately do very much good, but it would
introduce a certain amount of discussion at Town Councils, and so ultimately
advance something which would benefit the world.

Miss Layarp asked whether it would be any good approaching the editors
of local papers and asking that they should make room for popular scientific
subjects; also when a paper is read, such as one at the Anthropological
Institute. it would be good to send the pamphlet to be reviewed by the local
paper. That might be brought forward before our local people.

Dr. Batuer said : My experience recently, when I have an axe to grind, has
been that local papers are only too glad to get an article on a scientific subject
written by somebody who knows what he is talking about. I write about a
great many subjects I do not know anything about, but I have the advantage
of a great many friends who know more than I do, and I endeavour to make
sure of my facts by making use of my friends. The thing is to write English
which can be understood by the people. I find not the slightest difficulty in
interesting people, simply speaking in an intelligible way. A good deal might

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 241

be done by people interesting the public in this way. What seems to m

the difficulty is that we have sity time. I have bee time capaci in eel
circumstances to write popular articles and not be paid for them. I am doing
it now as a piece of war-work.

The Presipenr : I should like before we part to mention one point and answer
one question, about buying in the cheapest market. I will just give you a very
simple illustration, which should satisfy Mr. Whitaker. Supposing we could
get twenty-one nails for a penny of a certain kind of which we cannot in this
country make more than twenty for a penny. We buy them from Germany
whilst our workers are starving. Why can we get twenty-one nails from Germany
_ for a penny? The Germans get their profit out of their home-business, and
they keep their works going by dumping their surplus stock on the world. We
cannot compete with them because of their heavy duty. We should have to
make thirty for a penny to export to them. There is another point. If they
want to extend the sale of their goods the German Government subsidise
steamers. I know positively a certain thing that will perhaps astonish you. You
can get a pianoforte from Germany sent by Southampton to any of our colonies,
and the freight will be much less than from this country to our colonies.
There is no way to get out of that difficulty other than by retaliating, by
putting a duty on their goods. Of course I allude to pre-war transactions.

With regard to the point mentioned by Mr. Bevan, it is correct that the
advice of the Society for the Protection of Birds is not always good. As to
sparrows, we know that the sparrow feeds its young with insects such as
caterpillars, not with grain. That is the time when the sparrows do the
farmer good. They catch the caterpillars and give them to their young. Do
not prevent them from doing their work in eating the insects which do us
harm.

Another point which has been raised is the inquiry for copies of my address.
The proper thing is for every delegate to write a report and get that report printed
in the proceedings of his society. That is the only way in which we can get a
knowledge of our proceedings spread amongst all the members’ of the societies.
The delegate should have a copy of our printed report and make an abstract of
ue for his society. That has been done from the very first by the Hertfordshire

ociety.

I am sure we have had a very interesting conference, and I do hope it will
bear good results. I am very much indebted to those who have brought forward
papers and to those who have contributed to the discussions.

The Secretary : I think Mr. Whitaker is right as to buying raw material
in the cheapest market abroad, but I do not see why he should buy in the
cheapest market at home. I think English people can make almost anything
better than anybody else. If the foreigner wants to get anything from this
country very little trouble is taken, whereas the German is at great pains to do
business. Mr. Whitaker did not notice that I said that anybody might be
half-educated, scientific people and classical people alike. Unless the scientific
know something of the classics and the classical something of science, they are
both half-educated. Miss Crosfield said that local societies might be able to
influence municipal bodies. I urged that we should bring pressure to bear
upon them. The idea of going to local editors would be very good, but hardly
now, when they have little room and paper is very dear. With regard to
Dr. Bather’s remarks, I am a person who has had a classical and a scientific
education. I have come to the conclusion that you must write what people
want, not what you think they ought to have. I might claim some little
success in this matter, and I should say the person who writes the best
article from the paying point of view and the popular point of view is one who,
like Dr. Bather, does not know anything about the subject, but is steeped
in all the things that are round that subject; that is to say, knows enough
of the science with which he is dealing not to make any mistakes, and is just in
the position to pick out those points which are suited to the public. He is
able to treat those things which are interesting and may be fresh to the reader,
while the specialist is apt to drag in all sorts of petty points which the public
does not care anything about.

1917. R

249 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENGR.—1917.

The following Delegates attended the Conference and signed the attendance book :

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.
Brighton and Hove Natural Tee and Philo-

sophical Society . Alfred W. Oke, F.G.S.
British Mycological Society . : F : . Miss A. Lorrain Smith.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society . . Dr. W. Evans Hoyle.
Croydon Natural History and Scientific ‘Society . W. Whitaker, F.R.S.
East Anglian Prehistoric Society . . Miss Nina F, Layard.
Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ and Microscopical

Society . : ‘ : . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Edinburgh Geological Society : 5 : . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Hssex Field Club F . W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

Hampshire Field Club and Archeological Society . W. Dale, F.S.A.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club John Hopkinson, F.L.S.

Holmesdale Natural History Club = - Miss M. C. Crosfield.
Hull Geological Society : ’ . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club 5 . 'T. Sheppard, F.G.S8.
Manchester Geographical Society . ‘ : . Harry Sowerbutts.
Museums Agsociation . Dr, F. A. Bather, F.R.S.
Northumberland, Durham, and Neweastle- on- Tyne

Natural History Society . ‘ : : . Prof. A. Meek, F.L.8.
Selborne Society, London . P P ‘ . W.M. Webb, F.L.S.
Sheffield Naturalists’ Club . : ‘ ‘ . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.
Torquay Natural History Society . - 3 . Mrs. H. Forbes Julian.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club : ‘ . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Yorkshire Geological Society “ F : . T. Sheppard, F.G.S.

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union i ¥ 3 . ‘T. Sheppard, F.G.S.

ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural

History Society 3 : . Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.
Ealing Scientific and Microscopical Society : . J. Stark Browne, F.R.A.S.
Lewisham Antiquarian Society . 4 : . Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B.

Wimbledon Natural History Society . : . Dr. F, A. Bather, F.R.S.

243

SOCIETIES,

’

CORRESPONDING

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1917,

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

244

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248 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to
Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 31, 1917.

*.* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or
parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2,

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PaysicaL SCIENCE,

Ausop, J. C. Summary of Meteorological Observations, 1916. ‘Report Marlb.
Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 65, 59-80. 1917.

Barnarp, E. E. Some Dark Markings on the Sky and What They Suggest. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 241-249. 1916.

Bassett, Rev. H. H. Tinney. Returns of Rainfall in Dorset in 1915. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F.C.’ xxxvi. 198-209. 1916.
Berarrig, Prof. J.C. Further Magnetic Observations in South Africa during the

years 1913-1915. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 669-670. 1917.

True Isogonics and Isoclinals for South Africa for the Epoch July 1, 1913.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 671-684. 1917.

Bouter, H. The Heating Coefficients of Rheostats and the Calculation of Resistances
for Currents of Short and Moderate Durations. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South
Africa,’ v. 685-694. 1917,

Brown, ALEXANDER. The Equivalent Mass of a Spring Vibrating Longitudinally.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 565-570. 1916.

The Arrangement of Successive Convergents in Order of Accuracy. ‘ Trans.

Royal Soc. of South Africa, v. 653-657. 1916.

The Use of a Standard Parabola for drawing Diagrams of Bending Moment and
of Shear in a Beam Uniformly Loaded. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v.
659-667. 1916.

CAMPBELL-BAYARD, FRANCIS. Report of the Meteorological Committee, 1915. ‘ Trans.
Croydon N. H. Sci. Soc.’ vi. 97-112, and Appendices, 60 pp. 1916.

Cannon, J. B. Orbit of Spectroscopic Binary 125 Tauri. ‘Journal Royal Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ x. 377-381. 1916.

CHAMBERLIN, T. C. The Planetesimal Hypothesis. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Scc.
of Canada,’ x. 473-497. 1916.

Cuant, C. A., and W. E. W. Jackson. The Great Aurora of August 26, 1916,
‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x1. 5-22. 1917.

Cuark, G. Napier. Sketch of the Life and Works of Rev. Jeremiah Horrox,
‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 523-536. 1916.

Coates, Henry. Meteorological Observations, Perth, 1915. ‘Proc. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vi. exxxiii-cxxxvi. 1916.

Floods and Droughts of the Tay Valley. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’
vi. 103-126. 1916.

—— Notes on an Old Weather Record found amongst the MSS. of the Antiquarian
Museum. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vr. 126-133. 1916.

Craw, JAmMes Hewat. Account of Rainfall in Berwickshire—Year 1915. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxm. 403. 1916.

Account of Rainfall in Berwickshire during 1916. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ xxim. 240. 1917.

Creswett, AtFrep. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at the Obser-
vatory, Edgbaston, 1915. 27 pp. Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soc. 1916.

DeLoury, Rates E. Some Measurements of Blended Spectra. ‘ Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 201-219. 1916.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 249

DeLury, Rater FE. The Effect of Haze on Spectroscopic Measures of the Solar

[aS Se ee pe in Values, and Differences depending on
e Intensities of Spectrum Lines. ‘ Journal : P ,

6 35T- “are P' al Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x.

— The Question of the Presence of Haze Spectrum in the Mount Wils ‘ -
— of the Solar Rotation. ‘ Journal Raval Astr. Soc. of See tee yk

Dennine, W. F. The Great Meteoric Stream of February 9t eS
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 294-296. 1916. eae intr i =

A Meteoric Shower in June. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. ‘anada,’ x

eee y' of Canada,’ x. 446-

Fox, Witson Luoyp. Report of the Observatory Committee for 7 5
“Report Roya! Cornwall Poly. Soc,’ 3, 14 pp. ‘916. oP ee

Harper, W. E. The Swarthmore Meeting of the American Astronomical Society
“Jcurnal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 421-429. 1916. a

The Orbits of the Spectroscopic Components of Boss 2484. ‘ Journal Roya
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 442-445. 1916.

Hassarp, A. R. Amateur Work in Astronomy. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ x1. 99-102. 1917. ?

Haventon, J. L., and D. Hanson. Observations on the Transit of Mercury of
November 7th, 1914. ‘ Proc. Birmingham Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 36-41. 1916.

Hawse, E. L. Meteorological Report for 1915. ‘Report Hampstead Sci. Soc.’
1915-1916, 33-36. 1917.

Hopkins, Mary Murray. The Parallax of 61 Cygni. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ x. 498-504. 1916.

Hopkinson, Jouyn. The Weather of the year 1915 in Hertfordshire. ‘Trans.
Herts N. H. S. F. C.’ xvr. 125-140. 1917.

Honter, A. F., and H. B. Cortrer. A Prismatic Arc. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ x. 235-240. 1916.

Innes, R. T. A. On the Development of the Perturbative Function in the Theory
of Planetary Motion. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v1. 19-23. 1917. ~

Kuorz, Orro. Location of Epicentres for 1914 and 1915. ‘Journal Royal Astr.
Soc. of Canada,’ x. 302-313. 1916. :

Magnetic Results, 1913. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 314-320.
1916.
—- The Scientific Work of the Government: The Observatory. ‘ Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 449-453. 1916. 4
Constant of Gravitation. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ xr. 135-137.
1917.

Lawson, GRAHAM C. Meteorological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ 1. 140-148.
1916.

Lowest, Percivau. The Genesis of Planets. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
x. 281-293. 1916.

McDrarmip, F. A. Gravity. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 537-552.
1916.

McDiarmip, R. J. A Study of the Light Variation of the Star B.D. 61°493. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 430-441. 1916.

Marxkxam, Curistoruer A., and R. H. Primavesr. Meteorological Report. ‘ Journal
Northants N. H. Soc.’ xvur. 191-194, 219-222, 243-246. 1916, 1917.

Mor, Sir Tuomas. Note on the so-called Vahlen Relations between the Minors
of a Matrix. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 695-701. 1917.
—— Note on Pfaffians Connected with the Difference-product. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of South Africa,’ vr. 29-36. 1917. x
Parrerson, ArtHur H. The January Flood of 1916 at Great Yarmouth. ‘Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 162-167. 1916.

Puaskett, H. H. The Psychology of Differential Measurements. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 220-234. 1916.

Puaskett, J. S. The 72-inch Reflecting Telescope. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
of Canada,’ x. 275-280. 1916.

Preston, ArtsuR W. Meteorological Notes, 1915. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soc.’ x. 155-161. 1916.

Rampavut, Dr. Arrnuur A. Meteorological Reports for 1915 and 1916. ‘ Report
Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc.’ 1916, 16-18, 1917.

250 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Ripyarp, G. J. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Note upon a Flash in the Workings
of a Mine at Tyldesley, probably caused by a Lightning Discharge conducted
from the Surface. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 135-136. 1917.

RuTHERFORD, JoHN. Weather and other Notes taken at Jardington during 1915,
‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ rv. (Third Series), 58-68. 1916.

Sr. Joun, C. E., and W.S. Apams. The Question of Diffused Light in Mount Wilson
Solar Observations. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 553-555. 1916.

Sreppins, Jory. The Avrora of August 26, 1916. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ x1. 133-134. 1917. ;

Srozss, J. T. The Earthquake of January 14th, 1916, ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’
L. 63-68. 1916.

Swinton, A. E. Meteorological Observations in Berwickshire for 1915. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxi. 404. 1916.

—— Meteorological Observations in Berwickshire for 1916. ‘ History Berwickshire
Nat. Club,’ xxim. 239. 1917.

VAN DER Lincen, J. Srepn. On the ‘ Lines’ within Réntgen Interference Photo-
grams, ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 571-573. 1916.

Simple Apparatus for use in Applied Mathematics. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
South Africa,’ v. 599-602, 1916.

—— Heating and Cooling Apparatus for Réntgen Crystallographic Work. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 647-651. 1916.

Watrorp, Dr. E. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District, 1915.
‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xiv. 75-96. 1916.

Watson, ALBERT D. Companions of theSun. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
x, 354401. 1916.

President’s Address: Astronomy in Canada. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of
Canada,’ x1. 47-78. 1917.

Wiurams, A. R. The Great Frost, 1917. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxvmr. 49-54,
1917.

Youna, J. Earthquakes of January 29 and February 20,1917. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ xt. 146-147. 1917.

Younc, Reynorp K. Orbit of the Spectroscopic Binary Boss 6142. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 297-301. 1916.

Orbit of the Spectroscopic Binary y Aurige. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soe.

of Canada,’ x. 358-374. 1916.

Note on the Spectroscopic Binary 12 Lacertse. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.

of Canada,’ x. 375-375. 1916.

Orbit of the Spectroscopic Binary 2 Sagitte. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soe. of

Canada,’ x1. 127-132. 1917. :

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Armstronc, Dr. E. Franguanp. Modern Explosives. ‘ Proc. Warrington Lit.
Phil. Soc.’ 1914-1916, 8 pp. 1916.

Asuwortn, Dr. J. R. Rochdale Soot-Fall. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ xm.
50-53. 1916.

Bertmeer, J. J. The Physical Condition of Cassiterite in Cornish Mill Products.
‘Report Royal Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ 3, 56-72. 1916.

Drew, W. Newton (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Rectification of Benzol. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ Lor. 10-21. 1917.

Ferauson, Prof. Joux. Some Karly Treatises on Technological Chemistry. Supple-
ment V. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’ xivir. 176-228. 1917.

Grauam, J. Ivon. The Permeability of Coal to Air or Gas, and the Sclubilities of
different Gases in Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ to. 338-347. 1917.

—— The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part X.—The Formation of Water in
the Oxidation of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ Lit. 348-253. 1917.

Wino, T. F. The Estimation of Moisture in Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min, Eng.’
ur. 484-492. 1916.

The Absorption of Oxygen by Coal. Part VIII.—The Effect on the Absorption

of the Size of the Coal-particles and the Percentage of Oxygen in the Air. ‘ Trans.

Inst. Min. Eng.’ 11. 493-499. 1916.

Part IX.—Comparison of Rates of Absorption of Oxygen by different

Varieties of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ t1. 510-531. 1916,

Se,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 251

Section C.—Groboay.

Assort, W. J. Lewis. The Pliocene Deposits of the South-East of England. ‘ Proc,
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 175-194. 1916.

Arser, Dr. E. A. Newett (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Structure of the South Stafford-
shire Coalfield, with special reference to the Concealed Areas and the Neighbouring
Fields. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ to. 35-67. 1916.

Barks, F. Geological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ 1. 138-139. 1916.

Bett, Atrrep. The Shells of the Holderness Basement Clays. ‘The Naturalist
for 1917,’ 95-98, 135-139. 1917.

Bourton, Prof. W. S. An Esker near Kingswinford, South Staffordshire. ‘ Proc.
Birmingham Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc.’ xiv. 25-35. 1916.

Contrys, J. H. Tin and Tungsten in the West of England. ‘ Report Royal Corn-
wall Poly. Soc.’ 3, 89-99. 1916.

Davies, G. M. The Rocks and Minerals of the Croydon Regional Survey Area. ‘Trans,
Croydon N. H. Sci. Soe.’ vot. 53-96. 1916.

Epwarps, E. J. Tho Origin of the Varieties of Coal. ‘Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil.
Soc.’ xtvir. 86-101. 1917.

Esprey, Grorce. The Story of Ophiolepis Damesii. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold N. F. C.’
xx. 125-128. 1917.

Frarnswwes, Prof. W. G. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Some Effects of Earth-movement
on the Goal Measures of the Sheffield District (South Yorkshire and the Neigh-
bouring Parts of Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire). Part II. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ tr. 409-449. 1916.

—— (Midland Inst. Eng.) Supplies of Refractory Materials available in the South
Yorkshire Coalfield. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tit. 261-274. 1917.

Fercuson, DAvip (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Hurlet Sequence and the Base of the
Carboniferous Limestone Series in the districts of Campsie and Kilsyth. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 7-32. 1916.

—— The Form and Structure of the Coalfields of Scotland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
tu. 355-391. 1917.

Foxart, W. H. The Geology of the Eastern Boundary Fault of the South Stafford-
shire Coalfield. ‘Proc. Birmingham Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 46-54. 1916.
Garpiner, GC. I. The Silurian Inlier of Usk, with a Paleontological Appendix by
Dr. F. BR. Cowrrr Reep. ‘Proc. Cotteswold N. I. C.’ xrx. 129-172. 1917.
Guida, A. Norwegian Boulder in the Millstone Gritof Yorkshire. ‘ The Naturalist

for 1917,’ 56-57. 1917.

—— The Occurrence of the Rare Mineral, Monazite, in the Millstone Grit of York-

shire. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 87-88. 1917.

Greenwoop, Herbert W. The Origin of the British Trias: A Re-statement of the
Problem in the Light of Recent Research. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xu. 209-
235. 1916.

Grecory, Prof. J. W. Presidential Address: The Geological Factors affecting the
Strategy of the War and the Geology of the Potash Salts. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol.
Soc.’ xvi. 1-33. 1916.

Harris, A. W. A Note on an Exposure in the Lower Pebble Beds at Mossley Hill,
June 1915. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xu. 236-237. 1916.

Jones, T. A. Notes on some Ferruginous Nedules in the Permo-Triassic Sandstones
of South-West Lancashire. ‘Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x11. 252-263. 1916.
Kennarp, A. §. The Pleistocene Succession in England. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc.

of East Anglia,’ m. 249-267. 1916.
Macarecor, M. A Jurassic Shore Line. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ XVI. 75-85. 1916.
Macnarr, Purser. The Horizon of the Type Specimens of Dithyrocaris tricornis,
Scouler, and D. testudinea, Scouler. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xv. 46-60. 1916.

Norts, F. J. Ona Boring for Water at Rotah, Cardiff ; with a Note on the Under-
ground Structure of the Pre-Triassic Rocks of the Vicinity. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc.’ xiv. 36-49. 1916. ;

Scorr, Dr. ALEXANDER. On Primary Analcite and Analeitization. ‘ Trans. Glasgow

Geol. Soc.’ xvi. 34-45. 1916. >

Dry Channels in Glen Lednock. ‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soe.’ xv1. 61-74. 1916.

Suepparp, T. Glacial Beds at Hunmanby, E. Yorks. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,
248-249, 1916,

252 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

SHEPPARD, T. Bibliography: Papers and Records relating to the Geology and
Paleontology of the North of England (Yorkshire excepted) published during
1916, ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 106-109, 171-175. 1917. =|

Simpson, J.R. Hdustus newtont at Brockholes. ‘ The Naturalist for 1916,’ 352-353.
1916.

Smytue, Dr. J. A. The Newly-discovered Whin-Dykes on the Coast of Northumber-
land. ‘Trans. Northumberland, &c., N. H. Soc.’ 1v. 330-343... 1916.

Stapies, Ernest H. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Some Effects of the Master Folds
upon the Structure of the Bristol and Somerset Coalfields. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ tu. 187-197. 1917.

Stozsss, J.T. A Glossary of the Geological Terms in use in the North Staffordshire
Coalfields. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ ut. 44-62. 1916.

Upton, CHartes. Notes on Chirodota Spicules from the Lias and Inferior Oolite.
‘Proc. Cotteswold N. F. C.’ xx. 115-117. 1917.

Wnuitrneap, W. A. Presidential Address: Sand-banks and Sand-dunes. ‘ Pree
Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ x11. 189-206. 1916.

Wuson, G. V. Preliminary Notes on Volcanic Necks in North-West Ayrshire.
‘Trans. Glasgow Geol. Soc.’ xvi. 86-99. 1916.

Woonnueap, Dr. T. W. A Quorn at Huddersfield. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 376.
1916.

Wray, D. A. <A Description of the Strata exposed during the Construction of the
New Main Outfall Sewer in Liverpool, 1915. ‘ Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc.’ xu.
238-251. 1916. :

Section D.—Zootoey.

Apams, J. H. Report of the Malocological Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 65, 40-41. 1917.

Avxin, Ropert. Ocneria dispar in Britain. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.’
1916-17, 1-5. 1917.

Attey, W. Birp. The Derivation of Bird-Names. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxvumt.
20-22. 1917.

Baenawt, Ricuarp 8. Report on the Field Meetings of the Natural History Society
for 1911. ‘ Trans. Northumberland, etc., N. H. Soc.’ rv. 344-365. 1916.

Barctay, W. Opening Address. [The Life and Work of Henry Fabre.] ‘ Proc.
Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vi. ciiii—cxi. 1916.

Bennett, W. H. The Coleoptera of the Hastings District. ‘ Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 208-212. 1916.

Bickerton, Witu1aAm. Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during 1915.
“Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. C.’ xvr. 141-156. 1917.

Birxs, Rev. 8. Granam. Megalichthys: A Study incorporating the Results of
Work on previously undescribed Material. ‘Trans. Northumberland, etec., N. H.
Soc.’ Iv. 307-329. 1916.

Boia, GxorGr. The Fishes of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders. ‘ History
Berwickshire Nat. Club.’ xxmm. 153-197. 1917.

Bootu, H. B. Notes on the Nesting of the Grasshopper Warbler in the West Riding.
‘The Naturalist for 1916.’ 199-203. 1916.

—— Reported Nesting of the White Wagtail in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1916,’ 354-355. 1916.

Boycott, Prof. A. E. On the Occurrence of Manganese in Land and Freshwater
Mollusca. ‘ The Naturalist for 1917,’ 11-18, 69-73. 1917.

Brave, Hinpa K., and Rev. 8S. GRanAM Birks. Notes on Myriapoda, III. Two
Trish Chilopods : Lithob‘us Duboscqui Brélemann and Lithobius lapidicola Meinert.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxv. 121-135. 1916.

Brown, Col. ALEXANDER Murray. Annual Address. [Bird Life.] ‘ History Ber-
wickshire Nat. Club.’ xxm. 335-346. 1916.

Bryan, B. On the Occurrence of Natterer’s Bat (Myotis Nattereri, Kuhl.) in Stafford-
shire. ‘Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ 1. 87-89. 1916.

Brycst, Davip. Notes on the Collection of Bdelloid and other Rotifera. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club.’ x1. 205-230. 1917.

Burkitt, Jas. P. The Nightjar. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 157-160. 1916.

BUTTERFIELD, W. Ruskin. Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, etc., for the year
1915. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 196-206. 1916.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 253

Buxton, Major AntHoNy. Birds on the Western Front (Flanders). ‘ Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 148-154. 1916.

Cartier, Prof. E. Wacz. Post-Pericardial Body of Skate (Raia batis). ‘ Proc.
Birmingham Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc.’ x1v. 21-24. “1916.

CarPEnTER, Prof. Gro. H. Centipedes and Millipedes : a Systematic Note. ‘ Trish
Naturalist,’ xxv. 164-168. 1916.

Useful Studies for Field Naturalists. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxvr. 66-70. 1917.

Carr, J. W. Hemiptera collected at Baslow, Derbyshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1916,’ 287-289. 1916.

Carter, C.S. Mr. J. Hawkins’ Collection of Grantham Shells. ‘The Naturalist
for 1916,’ 290-292. 1916.

Cuarkz, W. J. White-billed Northern Diver (Colymbus adamsi) and other Sea Fowl
at Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 217-219. 1916.

Ichthyological Notes from the Scarborough District, 1915-1916. ‘The Natura-
list for 1917,’ 58-60. 1917.

Cizee, THomas. Notes on the Moth Fly (Psychoda sexpuntata) frequenting the
Sewage Works, 1914-1915-1916. ‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. and Sci. Soc.’ xu. $2-84.
1916.

Coates, Henry. ‘ Wanted to Complete ’"—Perthshire Vertebrates. ‘Trans. Perth-
shire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vz. 85-102. 1916.

Craia, JoHN. Ornithological Notes from Beith (Ayrshire). ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’
vill. 22-24. 1916.

CRuTTENDEN, C. Ornithological List. “Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 65,
42-44. 1917.

Curtis, W. Parkinson. Phenological Report on First Appearances of Birds, Insects,
etc., and First Flowering of Plants. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. 0.’ xxxvur. 137—
193. 1916.

Day, F. H. Cumberland Hemiptera-Heteroptera. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 252-
257. 1916.

—— Cumberland Coleoptera in 1916. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 93-94. 1917.

Dean, J. Davy. Land Mollusca in the Vale of Glamorgan. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soe.’ xiv. 50-58. 1916.

Denpy, Prof. Arrnur. The President’s Address: The Chessman Spicule of the
Genus Latrunculia—A Study in the Origin of Specific Characters. ‘Journal

- Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 231-246. 1917.

Durnronp, W. A. Decreases in Yorkshire Birds. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 237—
238. 1916.

Fatconer, WM. The Harvestmen and Pseudoscorpions of Yorkshire. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1916,’ 191-193. 1916.

Foreign Spiders in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 350-351. 1916.

Frmpren, H. W. Snipe and Redshank Nesting in Sussex. ‘Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ m. 193-195. 1916.

Frreusson, ANDERSON. Some Records of Coleoptera from Cantyre (Vice-County
No. 101). ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ vi. 46-52. 1916.

Forpuam, W. J. Coleoptera in Yorkshire in 1915. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’
204-207, 258-264. 1916.

Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1916. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 74-76, 160. 1917.

Fortunzr, R. The Protection of Wild Life in Yorkshire. (Presidential Address
to the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union.) ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 154-188. 1916.

Fostrr, Nevin H. Measurements and Weights of Birds’ Eggs. ‘ Irish Naturalist,
xxvi. 41-47. 1917.

GrorGe, G.F. Trombidium parvum, n. sp. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 189-190. 1916.

Gisss, A. E. Presidential Address : The Satyrid Butterflies of Hertfordshire, with
a short Study of Pararge egeria. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. ©.’ xvr. 173-188. 1917.

GrerR, THomas. Notes on Lepidoptera from East Tyrone in 1916. ‘Irish Natu-
ralist,’ xxv. 161-163. 1916. F 2

Gurney, J. H. Immigration of Rough-legged Buzzards in 1915-16. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 168-170. 1916. f :

GyYNGELL, W. Conchological Notes from Malton. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,
356-357. 1916. ore

Hattxrr, H.N. Entomological Notes. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xiv. 71-74. 1916.

Harareaves, J. A., and J. Diany Firrx. Pseudanodonta ¢longaia (?) in Yorks.
“The Naturalist for 1916,’ 229-230. 1916.

254 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Harrison, J. W. Hustop. The Geographical Distribution of the Moths of the Sub
Family Bistonine. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 194-198, 273-278, 358-362, 377—
382. 1916.

—— Cleveland Hymenoptera. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 125-126. 1917.

—— The Geographical Distribution of the Moths of the Sub-Family Bistonine.
“The Naturalist for 1917,’ 161-164. 1917.

Hott, A. E. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soe.’ No. 65, 31-36. 1917. :

Hutt, Rev. J. E. Terrestrial Acari of the Tyne Province. ‘Trans. Northumber-
land, etc., N. H. Soc.’ rv. 381-409. 1916.

Jounson, Rey. W. F. Some Irish Ichneumonide. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 37-
49, 1917.

Inssonota basilis Brischke in Ireland. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxv1. 82-83. 1917.

Kew, H. Wats. Av Historical Account of the Pseudoscorpion-fauna of the British
Islands. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 117-136. 1916.

Kirgratricx, T. W. Report of the Diptera Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 65, 37-39. 1917.

LANCASHIRE AND CHESHIRE EnTomoLocicaL Society. Sphinges. ‘Report Lance.
and Cheshire Ent. Soc.’ 1914 and 1915, 19 pp. 1916.

Lonzs, Dr. T. E. Rotifers of the Country of the Chess and Gade. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H. 8S. F. C.’ xvi. 109-120. 1917.

Macponatp, D. On the Little Gull (Larus minutus) and other Rare Birds near
Glasgow. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ vim. 35-37. 1916.

Marx, Huau. On Rearing Beetles of the Genus Geotrupes. ‘ Proc. South London
Ent. N. H. Soc.’ 1916-17, 18-22. 1917.

MasEFIELD, J.R.B. Zoological Report. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs F’ C.’ n. 123-133. 1916.

MaxweE LL, Sir Herpert. The Hedgehog. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway
N. H. A. Soc.’ tv. (Third Ser.), 84-87. 1916.

Mityz, W. On the Bdelloid Rotifera of South Africa. Part II. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xm. 149-184. 1916.

Moruey, B. Yorkshire Entomology in 1916. ‘ The Naturalist for 1917,’ 77-79. 1917.

Nicnotson, Dr. G. W. Additional Coleoptera from Meath and Cavan. ‘Irish
Naturalist,’ xxv1. 28-31. 1917.

OtpHaM, Cuartes. Report on Land and Freshwater Mollusca observed in Hert-
fordshire in 1913, 1914, and 1915. ‘Trans. Herts N.H. S. F. C.’ xvr. 121-124.
1917.

Parxin, THomas. The Mediterranean Black-headed Gull in Sussex. ‘Hastings
and Hast Sussex Naturalist,’ mu, 207. 1916.

Patren, Prof. C. J. Fragmentary Remains of a Tree-Pipit found on Tuskar Rock.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxv. 85-93. 1916.

Purtuires, R. A. On Two Species of Pisidium (Fossil) new to Ircland. ‘ Irish Natura-
list,’ xxv. 101-105. 1916.

Porritr, Epwarp. Additions to the Crustacea of Hertfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts
N. H. S. F. C.’ xvi. 167-168. 1917.

Proger, T. W., and D. R. Parrerson. Ornithological Notes. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat.
Soc.’ xiv. 59-70. 1916.

Rennie, Wixt14M. Bird Notes from Possil Marsh, January-June 1916. ‘ Glasgow
Naturalist,’ viz. 56-63. 1916.

Ricuarpson, L. On the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Inferior-Oolite Verte-
brates of the Cotteswold Hills and the Bath-Burton Bradstock District. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxvu. 48-55. 1916. .

Ricwarpson, Netson M. Anniversary Address. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
XxxviI. 1-25. 1916.

Ritcuir, JoHN, jun. Notes on some Scottish Leeches. “Glasgow Naturalist,’
vill. 8-1]. 1916.

—— On an Ayrshire Great Grey Shrike (Lanius excubiton L.). ‘ Glasgow Naturalist,’
vim. 42-45. 1916.

RUTHEREURD, Capt. W. J. Unexpected Data as to the previous occurrence of the
Chough on the Middle Marches. ‘History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxm. 201-
204. 1917,

Rouriiepar, Ropert F. The Birds of Lovgh Carra, ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 96-
97. 1916,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 255

RurtLEpar, W. Some Uncommon Lepidoptera taken in South Mayo. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxv. 139. 1916.
Sanperson, A. R. Polynema natans in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’
346-347. 1916.
Sonarrr, Dr. R. F. On the Irish Names of Reptiles, Amphibians, and Fishes. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxv. 106-119. 1916.
5 ae the Irish Names of Invertebrate Animals. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 140-
52. 1916.
—— On the Variation of the Lizard (Lacerta vivipara). ‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxvr.
84. 1917.
Scrtuscn, Hans, Faunula Littorinidae Islandiae Borealis. ‘The Naturalist for
1916,’ 279-280. 1916.
—— The Icelandic Pisidium-Fauna. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 281-282. 1916.
Notes on Helix (Acanthinwa) harpa, Say, and its Distribution. ‘The
Naturalist for 1917,’ 166-168. 1917.
Malacological Fauna of Halldorsstédum, North Iceland. ‘The Naturalist
for 1917,’ 169. 1917.
List of Iceland Land and Freshwater Mollusca. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’
169-170. 1917.
Srxiovs, Epmunv. Ornithological Observations and Reflections in Shetland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1916,’ 324-326, 363-366, 384-388. 1916; for 1917, 89-92. 1917.
Sewett, J. T. Notes on the Wood Ant (Formica rufa). ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’
158-159. 1917.
SuHuFELpt, R. W. Osteology of Paleornis, with other Notes on the Genus. ‘Trans.
Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ vy. 575-591. 1916.
Stcu, Atrrrp. A Hawthorn Hedge in Middlesex. ‘Trans. London H. N. Soc.
1915,’ 48-57. 1916.
Smita, Artuur. The Fishes of Lincolnshire. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union,’
1915, 239-256. 1916.
Soar, Cuas. D. Two New Species of Hydracarina or Water-mites, Dartia Harrisi
and Hylais Wilsoni. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xmr. 277-282. 1917.
StainrortH, T. The Bristly Millipede in East Yorkshire.» ‘The Naturalist for
1916,’ 181-182. 1916.
—— The Distribution of Spiders in the East Riding. ‘Thc Naturalist for 1916,’
_ 282-286, 389-399. 1916.
Stenpatt, J. A. Sipney. Ulster Spiders collected in 1915. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H.
_ Phil. Soc.’ 1915-1916, 95-101. 1917.
Swanton, E. W. Notes on some Dorset Sand Shells. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’
xxxvil. 194-197. 1916.
TuHoutsss, N. J. Presidential Address : Insects in their relation to Mankind. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 80-107. 1916. d
Tomuin, J. R. te B. The Coleoptera of Glamorgan. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soe.
XLVI. 17-35. 1916.
Trueman, A. E. The Lineage of T'ragophylloceras loscombi (J. Sow.) ‘The Natura-
list for 1916,’ 220-224. 1916.

Torner, Hy. J. The Genus Pararge. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.’ 1916-
17, 7-17. 1917. 7 A
Vauauan, Matrurw. A Visit to a Dutch Sanctuary, with Notes on the Bird Life
of Texel Island. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 107-125. 1916 _ ‘
Watxer, J. J. Interim Report on Coleoptera. ‘Report Ashmolean Nat. Hist.

Soc.’ 1916, 44. 1917.
Wats, Aupert. The Snail and its Name. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ xv.
143-154, 171-181. 1916. :
Wees, Witrrrp Marx. Bird Movements. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxvit. 88-89.
1916.

Wioine, R. Presidential Address. [The Entomological Events of the past year.]
‘Proc. Lanc. and Cheshire Ent. Soc.’ 1914 and 1915, 20-28. 1916.

Wit14ms, Harotp B. Notes on the Life History and Variation of Luchlot car-
damines, L. ‘Trans. London N. H. Soc.’ 1915, 62-84. 1916. ;

Wits, Luonarp J. The Structure of the Lower Jaw of Triassic Labyrinthodonts.
‘Proc, Birmingham Nat. Hist. Phil. Soc.’ xty. 5-20. 1916.

256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Section H.—GEOGRAPHY.

CzapLickA, Miss M. A. Siberia and some Siberians. ‘Journal Manchester Geog.
Soc.’ xxxm. 27-42. 1917.

Dick, Rev. C. H. Sources of the Galloway Dee. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Gallo-
way H. N. A. Soc.’ rv. (Third Ser.) 36-38, 1916.

Foxautt, W. H. The Drainage of Shenstone Vale. ‘ Proc. Birmingham Nat. Hist.
Phil. Soc.’ xv. 42-45. 1916.

Hopxinson, JoHN. The Hertfordshire Bourne in 1916. ‘Trans. Herts N. H.S. F.C.’
xvi. 169-172. 1917.

Keurig, Dr. J. Scorr. A Half-century of Geographical Progress. ‘ Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xxxm. 55-80. 1917.

Mezttor, E. W. Southern India—Some Dravidian Landmarks. ‘ Journal Man-
chester Geog. Soc.’ xxxm. 1-26. 1917.

REEVES, Epwarp A. The Mapping of the Harth—Past, Present, and Future. ‘ Jour-
nal Manchester Geog. Soc.’ xxxt. 81-101. 1917.

THompson, BeEBY. The River System of Northamptonshire. ‘ Journal Northants
N. H. Soc.’ xvi. 203-217. 1916.

Section F.—Economic ScrmeNcE AND STATISTICS.

Barn, H. Foster. Prospects for Tin in the United States. ‘ Report Royal Corn-
wall Poly. Soc.’ 3, 114-125. 1916.

Baker, G. 8. The Immediate Commercial Advantages of Experiment Tank Tests.
“Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxvu. 302-313. 1916.

Dantets, G. W. The Cotton Trade during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
“Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1915-1916, 53-84. 1916.

ELLINGER, BARNARD. The Position of the Doctrine of Laissez-faire after the War.
“Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1915-16, 1-24. 1916.

Fraser. D. DrRuMMonD. Treasury War Bonds. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’
1915-16, 25-39. 1916.

Jack, A. Finetanp. The Valueof Money. ‘ Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1915-16,
41-51. 1916.

Jonus, J. H. The War and Economic Progress. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’
XLVI. 25-47. 1917.

Mowat, Davip M. (Min. Inst. Scotland). Presidential Address: Trade After the
War. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 108-111. 1917.

Parrerson, ArtHuR H. The Yarmouth Herring Fishery of 1913. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 174-176. 1916.

Pickup, WitLtam (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Presidential Address: The Effect
of Modern Labour Movements and Legislation on the Economic Position of Coal
Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ro. 199-208. 1917.

Ripspauz, Lanerorn (S. Staffs and Warw. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address. [The
Cost of Coal Production.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 219-226. 1917.

Scort, Prof. W. R. On Paying our War Bill. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Royal Phil. Soc.’
XLV. 122-137. 1917.

Stewart, Dr. C. Parkrr. Perth’s Infant Mortality. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat.
Sci.’ vi. 133-148. 1916.

Symonps, Henry. The Silk Industry in Wessex. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
XXXVI. 66-93. 1916.

Taytor, Epwarp Lyon. Presidential Address : The Early Wool Trade of Rochdale.
‘Trans. Rochdale Lit. Sci. Soc.’ xm. 71-78. 1916.

Witson, Atrc. The Shipbuilding Industry in Belfast. ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil.
Soe.’ 1895-1916, 5-29. 1917.

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

ABELL, Prof.T.B. Some Principles underlying the Water-tight Sub-division of Ships.
‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxvit. 15-39. 1916.

AnpERSON, J. Wemyss. Marine Refrigeration. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxxvu. 120-139. 1916.

ANDERSON, WILLIAM THomson (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Notes on an Old
Colliery Pumping Engine (1791). ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 396-445. 1917

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 957

Arxtnson, H. J. (Midland Inst. Eng.) Widening the Upcast Shaft at Tinsley Park
Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ui. 117-124. 1916.

Buanprorp, THomas (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Cementation Process as applied
to Mining (Francois System). ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tur. 22-29. 1917.

Coon, J. M. Development of Mechanical Appliances in China Clay Works. ‘ Report
Royal Cornwall Poly. Soc.’ 3, 100-110. 1916. ‘

Corer, G. 8. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Electric Supply to Collieries. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ rm. 121-130. 1917. ;

Garrortu, Sir WiiriAm. Opening Address. : The Production and Consumption
of Coal. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ wr. 462-468. 1916.

Harpwick, Prof, F. W., and Prof. L. T. O’SuHma. Notes on the History of the Safety-
lamp. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ 11. 548-718. 1916.

Harrison, Haypn T. Efficiency of Projectors and Reflectors. ‘ Trans. Liverpool
Eng. Soc.’ xxxvi. 237-247. 1916.

Hottinaswortn, E. M. Notes on the Modernising of an Electric Supply Under-
taking. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxvn. 263-282. 1916.

Jones, C. E, Electrical Machinery for Ship Use. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxxvir. 86-110. 1916.

Lez, F. C. (N. England Inst. Eng.). Some Practical Notes on the Economical Use of
Timber in Coal-mines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ mmr. 86-97. 1917.

Maret, F. F. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Economical Production and Utilization
of Power at Collieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ rm. 71-101. 1916.

Marcnant, Prof. E. W. Inaugural Address: The Relation of Science to Practice
in Engineering. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxvm. 2-14. 1916.

Marris, G. C. Recent Developments in Telephony. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxxvul. 154-172. 1916.

Mowat, Davip M. (Min. Inst. Scotland). The ‘Summerlee’ Visual Indicator.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ to. 296-300. 1917.

NeAcHELL, E. J. Notes on the Overhead Railway. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
xxxvu. 47-55. 1916.

Nicnotson, Grorae R. (N. England Inst. Eng.). The Horsley and Nicholson Auto-
matic Compound Syphon. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tim. 99-103. 1917.

Paton, G. K. Electric Power in Slate Quarries. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
XXXVI. 326-359. 1916.

RippELL, Henry. The Search for Perpetual Motion. ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil.
Soc.’ 1915-1916, 62-89. 1917.

Scoumipt, Freperick (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). Shaft-sinking by the Freezing
Process. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ti. 141-183. 1917.

Suaw, JosHua. Notes on the Mersey Railway. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’
Xxxvu. 56-73. 1916.

Tarr, Stmon (N. England Inst. Eng.). Further Notes on Safety Lamps. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ tor. 60-70. 1917.

TxHomson, JonHn B. (Min. Inst. Scotland). The ‘ Chalmers-Black ’ Non-Accumula-
tive Visual Indicator for Shaft-signalling. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tum. 51-57. 1917.

THORNEYOROFT, WALLACE. Presidential Address: The Influence of Science, Educa-
tion, and Legislation on Mining. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 322-333. 1917.

Wa ker, GrorGr BLAKE (Midland Inst. Eng.). Making a Shaft Upwards. ‘ ‘Irans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ tm. 227-229. 1917.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Atsop, J. C. Anthropometrical Report. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 65,
81-108. 1917.

Barnes, the late Rev. Wmitam. Edge Tools in Early Britain. ‘Proc. Dorset
N. H. A. F. C.’ xxxvu. 133-136. 1916.

CuanpierR, R. H. The Implement and Cores of Crayford. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soe
of East Anglia,’ m. 240-248. 1916.

Crarke, W. G. The Norfolk Sub-Crag Implements. ‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of
East Anglia,’ m. 213-222. 1916.

The Grime’s Graves Excavations, 1914. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’

m. 319. 1916.

and H. H. Hatrs. Cone Cultures in the Wensum Valley: Hellesdon. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 194-203. 1916.

Drxon, 8. E. Some Earthworks and Standing Stones in East Anglia in reiation to a
Prehistoric Solar Cultus, ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ Lt. 171-173. 1916,

LON Tc s

258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

George, T. J. Early Man in Northamptonshire, with particular reference to the
late Celtic Period as illustrated by Hunsbury Camp. ‘Journal Northants N. H.
Soc.’ xvi. 182-189, 195-202, 223-230. 1916, 1917.

Havguton, S. H., R. B. THomson, and L. Perinavzy. Preliminary Note on the
Ancient Human Skull-remains from the Transvaal, with Notes appended on
Fragments of Limb-bones and Fragments of Stone. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
South Africa,’ v1. 1-14. 1917.

KENDALL, Rev. H. G. O. Windmill Hill, Avebury, and Grime’s Graves, ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 230-239. 1916.

Lawtor, H. C. Some Notes on the Investigation of Dwelling Places of Prehistoric
Man in N. E. Ireland. ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1915-1916, 31-61. 1917.

Marspen, J. G. Further Note on Workshop Floor near Porthcurno. ‘ Proc. Pre-
historic Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 173-175. 1916.

Morr, J. Reto. A Series of Pre-Paleolithic Implements from Darmsden, Suffolk.
‘Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 210-213. 1916.

Praxe, A. E. The Gravel at No Man’s Land Common, Hertfordshire. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 222-229. 1916.

Presidential Address: Recent Excavations at Grime’s Graves. ‘ Proc. Pre-
historic Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 268. 1916.

Sainty, J. E. Cone Cultures in the Wensum Valley: Sparkham and Lyng. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. of East Anglia,’ m. 203-209. 1916.

Sueprarp, T. A Hoard of Axes, etc., of the Bronze Age, from Scarborough. ‘The
Naturalist for 1917,’ 151-154. 1917.

Some Weapons of the Bronze Age recently found in East Yorkshire. ‘The
Naturalist for 1917,’ 155-157. 1917.

Situ, Prof. G. Extior. Note upon the Endocranial Cast obtained from the Ancient
Calvaria found at Boskop, Transvaal. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’
vi. 15-17. 1917.

Waaner, P. A. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the National Game of Skill
of Africa. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ vi. 47-68. 1917.

Woopuovuse, Eten E. Pre-Saxon Civilisation in Dorset, ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H.
A. F, C.’ xxxvi. 210-227. 1916.

Section I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Asner, W. Bacteriology of Milk. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v1. 71-84. 1916.

Cockayne, Dr. BE. A. Presidential Address: Insects end War. ‘Trans. London
N. H. Soc.’ 1915, 31-40. 1916.

Hatpann, Dr. J. S. The Health of Old Colliers. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tr. 469—
477. 1916.

VaLentinE, Prof. Mental and Physical Fatigue. ‘ Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’
1915-1916, 92-94. 1917.

Van pee Lincen, J. STEPH. Note on the [onisation produced by Degenerating
Nerve-muscle Preparations. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ vi. 25-27. 1917.

Arnstin, M. A. Nitzschia singalensis. A Note on Mr. Merlin’s paper. ‘Journal
Quekett Mic. Club.’ xm. 113-116. 1916.

Arnort, §. The Fasciation of Plants. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway
N. H. A. Soc.’ tv. (Third Ser.) 22-26. 1916.

Barctay, W. Annual Address; Notes on Roses. Part II. ‘Proc. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vi. exv.-cxxiv. 1916.

Bennett, ArtHuR. Notes on Mr. Nicholson’s Flora of Norfolk. ‘Trans, Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 126-137. 1916.

Orobanche reticulata, Wallruth. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 165. 1917.

Brews, J. W. The Growth-Forms of Natal Plants, ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of §,
Africa,’ v. 605-636. 1916.

Boucurr, A. 8. Afforestation in North Staffordshire. ‘Trans. N. Stafis F. C.’
L. 113-118. 1916.

Boyp, D. A. Notes on the Microfungi of the Kyles of Bute District, ‘ Glasgow
Naturalist,’ m. 1-8. 1916. :

Additional Records of Microfungi for the Clyde Area. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’
vit. 52-56. 1916.

BuLLocK-WEBSTER, Canon G. R. The Characese of Fanad, Hast Donegal. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxy1. 1-5, 1917.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 259

Section K.—BoTany.

Burreii, W. H. The Mosses and Liverworts of an Industrial City [Leeds]. ‘The
Naturalist for 1917,’ 119-124. 1917.

Cairns, Jonny. Trees and Shrubs in a Renfrewshire Garden. ‘ Glasgow Naturalist,’
von. 11-17. 1916.

—— On some Eucalypti in the West of Scotland. ‘ Glasgow Naturalist,’ var. 37-
41. 1916.

CHapwick, J. A. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 65, 21-30. 1917.

CurretHam, C. A. Botanical Problems at Austwick. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’
246-247. 1916.

Crarkr, W. G. The Breckland Sandpall and its Vegetation. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soe.’ x. 188-148. 1916.

The Flora of a Norwich Waste Patch. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ x. 171-
173. 1916.

Cortanp, L. An Old Brickfield. ‘Selborne Magazine,’ xxvu. 106-108. 1916.

Cryer, JouN. Casual and Alien Plants from Wakefield. ‘The Naturalist for 1916.’
250-251. 1916.

Drxoy, H. N. Northampton Racecourse Flora. ‘Journal Northants H. N. Soc.’
Xvi. 231-232. 1917.

Dorner, Dr. Erren M. South African Perisporiales. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of South
Africa,’ v. 713-750. 1917.

Durum, A. V. Note on Apparent Apogamy in Pterygodium Newdigatae. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’ v. 593-598. 1916.

Evans, A. H. Notes on Plants found in the District worked by the Berwickshire
Naturalists’ Club. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat. Club.’ xxi. 217-235. 1917.

Evans, I. B. Porn. A New Aloe from Swaziland. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of S. Africa,’
v. 603-604. 1916.

—-— The South African Rust Fungi. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. of 8. Africa,’ v. 637-646. 1916.

-—— Descriptions of some New Aloes from the Transvaal. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. of
South Africa,’ v. 703-712. 1917.

Eyes, Frep. A Record of Plants collected in Southern Rhodesia. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. of South Africa,’ v. 273-564. 1916.

Goopz, G. H. Notes on Leptobryum pyriforme. ‘Journal Northants N. H. Soe.’
Xvuor. 233-234. 1917.

Hares, J. W. Some Notes on the Flora of the Gloucester Docks. ‘ Proc. Cottes-
wold N. F. C.’ xrx. 119-124. 1917.

Harris, G. T. The Desmid Flora of Dartmoor. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm.
247-276. 1917.

Hastines, Somervittx. The Fungi of Bare Pine Woods. ‘Selborne Magazine,’
xxvir. 63-67, 73-79. 1916.

Hicx, Rey. J. M. Report on the Field Meetings of the Natural History Society for
1912. ‘Trans. Northumberland, etc., N. H. Soc.’ rv. 366-380. 1916.

Huron, A. E. On Sporangial Characters of Mycetozoa and Factors which influence
them. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 137-248. 1916.

HOoPkKINSON, JOHN. Report on the Phenological Observations in Hertfordshire
for the year 1915. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. 8. F. C.’ xvr. 161-166. 1917.

Jounson, Rev. W. A New British Lichen. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 88. 1917.

Jounstonr, Mary A. Observations on Ranunculus Ficaria. ‘The Naturalist for
1917.’ 103-105, 127-129. 1917.
JonxES, CHAPMAN. Tho Secondaries or Dotted Structure in Pinnulariae. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 107-110. 1916. : ¢
Ler, Jouy R. Excursions i in Breadalbane (Killin District), July 1915. [With List
of Plants Observed]. ‘Glasgow Naturalist,’ v1. 17-22 1916.

McArptr, Davip. The Musci and Hepaticae of the Glen of the Downs, Co. Wicklow.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxvr. 73-82. 1917.

Meru, A. A. C. Exot. On Nitzschia singalensis as a Test-object for the Highest
Powers. ‘Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xm. 111-112. 1916.

Mitcne.t, J. (Midland Inst. a .). Some Causes of Decay of Timbers in Coal Mines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng. . 246-256. 1917. F

Morris, Sir DANIEL. Avaitabiaa Trees and Shrubs. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.
xxxvi. 94-115. 1916.

260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1917.

Nicuotson, C. 8. The Botany of the District. ‘Trans. London N. H. Soc. 1915,’
40-43. 1916.

PatERsoNn, JOHN. On Matricaria discoidea DC. in Central Scotland. ‘ Glasgow
Naturalist,’ vir. 25-28. 1916.

Pearson, H. H. W. On the Morphology of the Female Flower of Gnetum. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ vr. 69-87. 1917.

Prcx, A. E. Yorkshire Mycologists at Buckden. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 99-
102, 130-132. 1917.

Ports, A. J. Fruit-growing in Small Gardens. ‘School Nature Study,’ 12, 20-21. 1917.

Rea, Marcaret W., and Maraarita D, SteLrox. Some Records for Irish Mycetozoa.
‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxvr. 57-65. 1917.

RIDDLESDFLL, Rev. H. J. Report (No. 6) on the Progress made in connection with
the Flora of Gloucestershire. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold N. F. C.’ xix. 101-102. 1917.

River, W. T. Boypon. Botanical Report. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs F. C.’ u. 134-137. 1916.

Rossins, R. W. The Flora of Epping Forest. ‘Trans. London N. H. Soc. 1915,’
44-48, 1916.

Sauispury, Dr. E. J. Report on Botanical Observations in Hertfordshire during
the year 1915. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. S. F. C.’ xv. 157-160. 1917.

Sanperson, A. R. Observations on Brefeldia maxima Rost. ‘The Naturalist for
1916,’ 225-228. 1916. :

Saxtoy, W. T. Oeccological Notes on the District of Manubie, Transkei. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. of South Africa,’ vi. 37-45. 1917.

Stow, Miss 8. C. Lincolnshire Galled-Plants. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire Nat. Union,
1915,’ 237-238. 1916.

Swan, JosepH. Some Local Plants: their Beauty and Utility. ‘Trans. Dumfries-
shire and Galloway N. H. A. Soc.’ rv. (Third Ser.) 54-58. 1916.

WavveLL, Rey. C. H. Rare Plants of the Co. Down Coast. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
XxvI. 12-13. 1917.

WooprvuFFe-Preacock, Rev. E. Aprian. The East Fen. ‘Trans. Lincolnshire
Nat. Union, 1915,’ 228-236. 1916.

The Means of Plant Dispersal: I. Storm Columns. ‘Selborne Magazine,’

xxvi. 40-44. 1917.

Section L.—EHDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Jzrrruy, J. B. The Education of a Marine Engineer. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng.
Soc.’ xxxvir. 203-209. 1916.

LivERPOOL ENGINEERING Society. Report of a Committee on tho Education of
the Marine Engineer. ‘Trans. Liverpool Eng. Soc.’ xxxvu. 385-396. 1916.
Rosarts, N. F. Presidential Address: Local Museums. ‘ Proc. Croydon N. H.

Sci. Soc.’ viz. xli.—liii. 1916.

Section M.—AGRICULTURE.
Doupexron, Miss KE. C. Electro-Culture ; with Brief Account of some Experiments
. conducted at Lincluden Mains. ‘Trans. Dumfriesshire and Galloway N. H. A.
Soc.’ 1v- (Third Ser.) 88-96. 1916.

OBITUARIES.

CRosSLAND, CHARLES. By T. S[heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 24-26. 1917.

Drane, Ronert. By D.R. Patterson. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtvi. 14. 1916.

Gawitzin, Prince Boris. By Otto Klotz. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
x. 382-383. 1916.

Jounstone, THos. Scott. By F. H. D. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 110-111. 1917.

Kine, Dr. W. F. By J. 8. Plaskett. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’ x. 267—
274. 1916.

Lowe.., Prrctvan. By Frank W. Very. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. of Canada,’
xr. 3-4. 1917.

Masse, GrorcEe. By T. S[heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 139-142. 1917.

Netson, T. H. Py R. F. ‘The Naturalist for 1916,’ 404-405. 1916.

Rep, Clement. By T. S{heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1917.’ 26-27. 1917.

Sevpiz, Conin M. By J. N. Halbert. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 137-138. 1916.

Tuomas, THomMAS Henry. By John Ballinger. ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xtvmt.
5-16. 1916.

TippEMAN, R. H. By T. S{heppard]. ‘The Naturalist for 1917,’ 142-143, 1917.

261

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