Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science

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REPORT

OF THE

EIGHTY-SEVENTH MEETING OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

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BOURNEMOUTH: 1919

SEPTEMBER 9—13

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1920

Office of the Association: Burlington House, London, W. r.

CONTENTS,

PAGE
ORIGERSHAND COUNCID, 1919=1920) 20.50. cncceassscdenaeiecsdsstebes suleesucercet ee iii
ULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION ............0.0-.2.c0ccceeeeseetecsee scenes Vv
Tasies: Past ANNUAL MEETINGS :*
Trustees, General Officers, &c. (1831-1919) .........cce cee cece cece eens xxi
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries (1901-1916) ..................... xxii
Evening Discourses (1901-1916)...............065 cs eceeceeeee eee eeeeeneenes XXxi
Pablionmectires (LOTZ=V91G): \iiccscsecedass-ceccescesmscsvicecsemeiscs sere xxxii
Chairmen, Presidents, and Secretaries of Conferences of Delegates
DOR NOIG) Magee cisetoercie nes ocieecl-nans-niavniecleneaiaieotantelnerete taehiaeeatael circle est XXxiii
Grants for Scientific Purposes (1901-1918) .............ceceeseceeeeeeeee XXXIV
BournemoutH Meretine (1919):
GaneriilMign matey ceedtecc suopeacastacoodor seo coccodaes Hane -neneecd Spreceeodse xlii
Sectional Officers. .........e000.-.se-e hh Ree A ce, Bane NS Peer tee Ms xliii
Officers of Conference of Delegates ......... ce ceececeecceeensee esse ences xliv
REvorT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL CoMMITTEE (1918-1919)...... xlv
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL ON THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION......... xlix
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (1918-1919) ooo... ccc e cece cence eeee eee ees liv

AnnuaL Meerines: Piacrs anp Dates, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES,
RECEIPTS, AND SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC

aTEBOSHS (1 Gol NON) yr o.t fe Net resateamassteesiereet-hestasters reer scence bess lvi
PRRAPCSIS TOR AT TONDANOES. soc smavens + vesedacensnasceth sass vsacieucsenecodsteocsesess lviii
RESEARCH CoMMITTEES (1919-20) ......... 20... .ccccecesceccececcetectccscusceseees lx
SPRIESISUOR) GRANTS. OF IWLONEY) “oe eicssiieis eis evict namisnateiindisiancla saleelslieala tens oa eas xxi
RPMPRSEXINE CENT M EES ae = eo tieecaice > co cence sessiesiesnisteawtas tacine dviesceties seve Uealvses salievene Ixxii
RESOLUTIONS REFERRED TO THE COUNCIL .........cccecececeesceeeeees seueees lxxili
COMMUNICATIONS ORDERED TO BE PRINTED WM €@t€NS80 ......... 000 ce eeseeeees lxxv
Pustic LECTURES IN BOURNEMOUTH ..........sceceesccesceseeeeceeceneeneenenaes Ixxv

* Particulars for Early Meetings not furnished in the following Tables will
be found in Volumes for 1911 and previous years.

a2

il CONTENTS.

PAGE
ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, THE Hon. Sir CHARLES Parsons, K.C.B.,
TBS cs ack ive soa vac Seems eyes tre pe ce ae cee oie ee ee eeaiclns Se cape ae ee
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, KC. .....-.0csecccesssccceucssveccconsesens 27
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS:
A.—Mathematical and Physical Science ...............ceeeceeeeeeeues 135
B— Chemisty) 2s. iiavielsccwsaceccapees fettoretvlerals: <ccemte eae maaan omelol!
CMG: eee sen avesnsct wsesinsih conte ve coamt tank: <0 02s: conte ree ne 172
D.—Zoology ........0..sseeeee Poetos tae. «cua select ste’ ole Sasa aaae ey eeenes 199
B= =Geoeraphtys .. tc. .ct-cs0.ses 00 codes 00 a2 tre desinrs dese ega-e-se ce 212
F.— Economic Science and Statistics ........cccceecee ceceeceneenseeecs 232
Gh Min pin ert yee go saeiae ss deena ein dss Gos sc sins sa sees cee opaneseeeta 256
EL ——Amthropolomy sc..5--.4-.tc- 90s teugdeten Poa’ sgicksasatinesb ee ne ata 275
T= By SiOlO py -c2-< occa. secese ss o< suadaes ee ReRD desde Susanne aaeaene one 294
HK SSB OLABY os eco ascias pus caetas sun tadancsten tO pnaee saat uean: doasee eer ecaatees 316
Py =H UCAGION: » ccapkar mmndintiocs Becbaneienagmeneriessieancemae oa toetee eee. 342
M;—-Agrigalture,5) 2... 7.2 cae te dey. Misciendsath. Usa odasieceee site. Raabe 364
COMMUNICATIONS PRINTED 11 CXLENSO........00.0 csc eens nc ecsaeeenenenenceeeensees 385
IVENENG ‘DISCOURSES rtcccteeee secs sect cs drcsceiee cack coos cccaeme saseabacseeae neers 416
ReEPoRT OF THE CORRESPONDING Socretres COMMITTEE AND OF THE
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ......... 422,
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION ................ceeceecaeee 465
GIST OF MPUBULOAMTONG 2s ccaceeeteck osc encsss sees cnes wnwnat a sacoseb bey «neat eenteneee 496
GND IX: Toss oe cae onceas ant hates Soe wabasiiec vin doateercteks vou cuca ssienanvenencus opesmnere 501
List OR SVERMIBERS 3 oe J. ds SAE BEES ete AREA Es RUC: Saad EES 98 pages
LIST OF PLATES. Facing
Plate page
L,II. Mlustrating Report on Determination of Gravity at Sea .........
III. Illustrating the Geographical Factor in Mimicry (Address to
Section D) , -hosea-srcasotonsnwensswwencae tee O52. Ua SM, f 204
IV. Illustrating Paper on the Measurement of Emotion ............... 307
Vi | | 468
ie ; Illustrating Report on Stress Distribution .................0...0000.. 468

VIL. | ‘489

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1919-20.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
Tue Hon, Sim CHARLES A. PARSONS, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS. |

Their Worships the Mayors OF BOURNEMOUTH,
CHRISTCHURCH, and POOLE.

The Right Rev. the Lorp BisHop OF WINCHESTER,

The Right Rev. the LorD BISHOP OF SALISBURY.

The Most Noble the MARQUESS OF SALISBURY,
K.G., G.C.V.O.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF SHAFTESBURY,
K.C.V.0., K.P.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF MALMESBURY, M.A,,
D.L., J.P.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF NORTHBROOK.

The Right Hon. the EARL oF SELBORNE, K.G.,
G.C.M.G., P.C., D.C.L., LL.D., J.P.

The Right Hon. LoRp WIMBORNE, P.C.

Field-Marshal LorD GRENFELL, P.C., G.O.B.,
G.O.M.G.

Brigadier-General the Right Hon. J. H. B. SEELY,
P.C., 0..B., C.M.G., D.S.0., M.P.

The mete Hon. Sir WILLIAM MATHER, P.O., LL.D.

Sir B, Ray LANKESTER, K.C.B,, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc.,
F.R.S.

Sir Dante Morris, K.0.M.G., M.A., D.Se., D.C.L.
LL.D.

Sir MERTON RUSSELL CorTEs, J.P., F.R.G.S.

ARTHUR RANSOME, Esq., M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

ALEX. Hint, Esq., 0.B.E., M.A., M.D.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

“The Right Hon. the LorD MAyor or CARDIFF
(Councillor G. F, ForsDIkr, dee.)

The Most Noble the Marquis OF BUTE.

The Right Hon. the Hart or Piymoura, P.O.
(Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Glamorgan).

Major-Gen. the Right Hon, Lorp TREOWEN, C.B.,
C.M.G. (Lord-Lieutenant of the County of
Monmouth).

The Right Hon. Lorp ABERDARE, D,L.

The Right Hon. Lorp Pontypripp, D.L.

| The Right Hon. LorD TREDEGAR, D.L.

E. H. GrirFiras, D.S&ce., F.R.S.

Sir J. HerBrrT Oory, Bart., M.P.

Principal A. H. Trow, D.Sc. (Principal of Uni-
versity College of S. Wales and Monmouthshire ;
President, Cardiff Naturalists’ Society).

J. DyER LEWIS (President, South Wales Institute
of Engineers).

R. O. SANDERSON (President, Cardiff Chamber of

Commerce).

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JoHN PERRY, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Professor H. H. TuRNER, D.Sc., D.O.L., F.R.S. |

ASSISTANT

Professor J. L, Myrus, M.A., F.S.A.

SECRETARY.

O. J. R. HowArTH, 0.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. StTewARDSON, Burlington House, London, W.1.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Dr. E. F.

Bonk, Professor W. A., F.R.S.
OLERK, Sir DUGALD, F.R.S.
Denby, Professor A., F.R.S.
Drxey, Dr. F. A., F.R.S.
Dyson, Sir F. W., F.R.S.
Fow.er, Professor A., F.R.S. *
GREGORY, Sir R. A.

Griritrus, Dr. E. H., F.R.S.
HADFIELD, Sir R., Bart., F.R.S.
HARMER, Sir 8. F., F.R.S.
JEANS, J. H., F.R.S., K.B.E,

KEITH, Professor A., F.R.S.
KELTIE, Sir J. Scott.

KIRK ALDY, Professor A. W.
Morris, Sir D., K.0.M.G.
PERKIN, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., F.R.S.
RUSSELL, Dr. E, J., O.B.E., F.R.S.
SAUNDERS, Miss E. R.

Scott, Professor W. R.
STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S.
STRAHAN, Sir Aubrey, F.R.S.
WHITAKER, W., F.R.S.
WoopwakbD, Dr, A, SMITH, F.R.S.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
ARCHIBALD BROWN. | Sir Tomas E. Watson.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF,
CrciL G. BRown, Town Clerk of Cardiff.
W. Evans Hoyts, M.A., D.Sc,

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local res and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
eeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Major P, A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Sir A. Geikie, K.0.B.,0.M., F.R.S.|Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S. Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.

Sir James Dewar, F.R.S. Sir J.J. Thomson, 0.M., Pres.R.S. Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S,
Sir NormanLockyer,K.0.B.,F.R.S. | Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S, Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S,
Arthur J. Balfour, O.M., F.R.S. Sir E. Sharpey Schiifer, F.R.S. Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S.

Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.O.B.,F.R.S.

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.S, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. Major P, A, MacMahon, F.R.S.
Sir E. Sharpey Schafer, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. Professor W. A. Herdman, O.B.E..
F.R.S.

HON. AUDITORS.
Sir EDWARD BRABROOK, O.B, | Professor A. BOWLEY.

a iil ee ee

——— a

RULES OF

foot BRITISH. ASSO@IATION.

[ Adopted by the General Committee at Leicester, 1907,
mith subsequent amendments. |

—_— Oo

CuapTer I.

Objects and Constitution,

1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance- Objects.

ment of Science are: To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in different parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.

The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.

2. The Association shall consist of Members and
Honorary Corresponding Members.

The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.

3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or
longer, and at such other times as the General Committee
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and the arrangements for these meetings shall
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association,

Cuapter II.
The General Committee.

1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the
following persons :—
(i) Permanent Members—

(a) Past and present Members of the Council, and past
and present Presidents of the Sections.

Constitution.

Annual
Meetings.

Constitution.

vi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

(b) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.

(ii) Temporary Members—

(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.

(6) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.

(c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies.

(d) Delegates—not exceeding altogether three in
number—from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.

Admission. 2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
General Committee shall be final.

(i) Claims for admission as a Permanent Member must
be lodged with the Assistant Secretary at least one
month before the Annual Meeting.

(ii) Claims for admission as a Temporary Member may be
sent to the Assistant Secretary at any time before or
during the Annual Meeting.

Meetings. 3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.

Functions. 4, The General Committee shall—

(i) Receive and consider the Report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the Report of the Committee
of Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council.
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors.
(x) Elect the Officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.

7

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS. vii

Cuapter ITI.
Committee of Recommendations.

1. * The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom-
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the President of the Conference of Delegates, the
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and
the Presidents of the Association in former years.

An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.

If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Assistant Secretary.

2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than ‘by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so transmitted.

Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.

Every proposal for establishing a new Section or Sub-
Section, for altering the title of a Section, or for any other
change in the constitutional forms or fundamental rules of
the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration and report.

3. The Committee of Recommendations shall assemble,
for the despatch of business, on the Monday of the Annual
Meeting, and, if necessary, on the following day. Their
Report must be submitted to the General Committee on the
last day of the Annual Meeting.

* Amended by the General Committee at Winnipeg, 1909, and
Manchester, 1915.

Constitution.

Functions.

Procedure.

Procedure.

Constitution.

Proposals by
Sectional
Committees.

Tenure.

Reports.

Vill RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

CHapTer IV.
Research Committees.

1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.

In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee to conduct research or administer a grant in aid of
research, and in any case to report thereon to the Association ;
and the Committee of Recommendations may include such
recommendation in their Report to the General Committee.

Such Research Committee shall be composed of Members
of the Association, provided that it shall be competent for the
General Cummittee to appoint, or for a Research Committee to
co-opt, as an assessor or consultative member, any person, not
being a Member of the Association, whose assistance may be
regarded as of special importance to the research undertaken.*

2, Every appointment of a Research Committee shall be
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Such Research Committee, if appointed, shall have power to
add to their numbers.

3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen-
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.

All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall
be forwarded by the Recorder to the Assistant Secretary not
later than noon on the Monday of the Annual Meeting for
presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.

4, Research Committees are appointed for one year only.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
in that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant—or a further grant—of money.

5. Every Research Committee shall present a Report,
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed, and may in the

* Amended by the General Committee at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1916.

es.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1X

meantime present a Report through a Sectional Organising
Committee to the Council.* Interim Reports, whether in-
tended for publication or not, must be submitted in writing.
Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain whether a Report
has been made by each Research Committee appointed on their
recommendation, and shall report to the Committee of Recom-
mendations on or before the Monday of the Annual Meeting.

6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call
on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.

Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting
expire on June 30 following. The General Treasurer is not
authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants.

The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before
the Annual Meeting next following the appointment of
the Research Committee, forward to the General Treasurer
a statement of the sums that have been received and ex-
pended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains un-
expended ; provided that a Research Committee may, in the
first year of its appointment only, apply for leave to retain
an unexpended balance when or before its Report is presented,
due reason being given for such application.t

When application is made for a Committee to be re-
appointed, and to retain the balance of a former grant, and
also to receive a further grant, the amount of such further
grant is to be estimated as being sufficient, together with
the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.

In making grants of money to Research Committees, the
Association does not contemplate the payment of personal
expenses to the Members.

A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
*Commititee.

7. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description shall include in their
Reports particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens
thus obtained for disposal, as the Council may direct.

Committees are required to furnish a list of any ap-
paratus which may have been purchased out of a grant made

* Amended by the General Committee at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1916.
+ Amended by the General Committee at Dundee, 1912.

GRANTS
(a) Drawn by
Chairman,

(b) Expire on
June 30.

(c) Accounts,
and balance
in hand.

(d) Addi-
tional Grant.

(e) Caveat.

Disposal of
specimens,
apparatus,
&e.

Constitution,

Fanctions,

x RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

by the Association, and to state whether the apparatus is
likely to be useful for continuing the research in question or
for other specific purposes.

All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of
the Association, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall
be deposited at the Office of the Association.

CHAPTER V.
The Council.

1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Com-
mittee.

(i) The ex officio Members are—the Trustees, past Presi-
dents of the Association, the President and Vice-
Presidents for the year, the President and Vice-
Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the ensuing Annual Meeting.

(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.

2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.

In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.

The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.

The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.

Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the
Council at the Meeting in February, and the names selected
shall be issued with the summonses to the Council Meeting in
March, when the nomination shall be made from the names
on. the list.

_ THE COUNCIL. xi

The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss Elections.
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.
3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same
time as that of the Officers of the Association.

(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary

| Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-

election in the ensuing year :

(a) Three of the Members who have served for the

| longest consecutive period, and

: (b) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near

London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.

: Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.

(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,

in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three

Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council.

(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-

mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
| election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.

: Any member of the General Committee may propose

another member thereof for election as one of these two

: Members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,

they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five Members at least require it to be by ballot.

Cuapter VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.

1. The President assumes office on the first day of the The Presi-
Annual Meeting, when he delivers a Presidential Address, “¢"*:
He resigns office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.
| The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President. In his absence, he shall be represented
by a Vice-President or past President of the Association.
2. The General Officers of the Association are the General General
Treasurer and the General Secretaries. Cairiehie

The General]
Treasurer.

The General
Secretaries.

The Assistant
Secretary.

Assistant
Treasurer.

Financial
Statements.

Xi RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs
of the Association.

4. The General Secretaries shall control the general
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.

5. The Assistant Secretary shall hold office during the
pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.

The Assistant Secretary shall be charged, subject as afore-
said : (i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.

6. The General Treasurer may depute one of the Staff, as
Assistant Treasurer, to carry on, under his direction, the
routine work of the duties of his office.

The Assistant Treasurer shall be charged with the issue of
Membership Tickets, the payment of Grants, and such other
work as may be delegated to him.

CuHapter VII.
Finance.

1. The General Treasurer, or Assistant Treasurer, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account; and, after
June 30 in each year, he shall prepare and submit to the
General Committee a balance-sheet .of the Funds of the
Association. :

Ee

FINANCE. xii

2. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.

3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council. ;

4, The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the
account of the Association, and to invest on its behalf,
part or all of the balance standing at any time to the credit
of the Association in the books of the Bank of England,
either in Exchequer Bills or in any other temporary invest-
ment, and to change, sell, or otherwise deal with such tem-
porary investment as may seem to him desirable.

5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.

Cuaprer VIII.
The Annual Meetings.

1. Local Committees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.

2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General Officers
and the Assistant Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
shall be empowered to enrol Members, and to receive
subscriptions.

3. The Local Committees and Sub-Committees shall under-
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.

Cuaprer IX.
The Work of the Sections.

1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans-

acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time

to time by the General Committee.

Audit.

Expenditure.

Investments,

Cheques.

Local Offi-
cers and
Committees,

Functions.

THE
SECTIONS.

Sectional
Officers.

Rooms,

SECTIONAL

XiV RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.

2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or
more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.

Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.

3. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall
not be used for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes
than those of the Association.

4, The work of each Section shall be conducted by a

COMMITTEES. Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following :—

Constitution.

Privilege of

Old Members,

Daily
Go-optation.

Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents.

EXECUTIVE
FUNCTIONS

(i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office.

(ii) All past Presidents of that Section.

(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :

Provided always that—

(a) Any Member of the Association who has served on
the Committee of any Section in any previous year,
and who has intimated his intention of being present
at the Annual Meeting, is eligible as a member of
that Committee at their first meeting.

(b) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above

} set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.

(c) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.

5. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on
behalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional

Committee at its next meeting.

THE WORK OF THE SECTIONS. XV

The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.

The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission to the Assistant Secretary of the daily programme of
his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the Sectional
Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts, reports, or papers
appertaining to the proceedings of his Section at the Annual
Meeting, and for the correspondence and minutes of the
Sectional Committee.

6. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual Meeting, not more than six of its own
members to be members of an Organising Committee, with
the officers to be subsequently appointed by the Council, and
past Presidents of the Section, from the close of the Annual
Meeting until the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of
the ensuing Annual Meeting.

Each Organising Committee shall hold such meetings as
are deemed necessary by its President for the organisation
of the ensuing Sectional proceedings, and may at any such
meeting resolve to present a report to the Council upon any
matter of interest to the Section,* and shall hold a meeting
on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting : to nominate
members of the Sectional Committee, to confirm the Pro-
visional Programme of the Section, and to report to the
Sectional Committee.

Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other-
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting: to co-opt
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by a member, or may
arise out of the proceedings of the Section.

No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted
on its Minutes.

Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read
also in any other Section.

No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the
Annual Report of the Association unless the manuscript has

been received by the Recorder of the Section before the close -

of the Annual Meeting.

It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com-

mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding

ij
* Amended by the General Committee at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1916.

Of President

and of
Recorder,

Organising
Committee.

Sectional
Committee,

Papers and
Reports.

Recommen-
dations.

Publication.

Copyright.

Applications.

Obligations.

Xv1 RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required: to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research
Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task
of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa-
tion, whether by reference to local authorities, public institu-
tions, or Departments of His Majesty’s Government. The
appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.

No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Committee.

7. Papers ordered to be printed im extenso shall not be
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports of
Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere than in
the Annual Report without the express sanction of the Council,

8. The copyright of papers ordered by the General Com-
mittee to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report shall
be vested in the authors ; and the copyright of the Reports
of Research Committees appointed by the General Committee
shall be vested in the Association,

CHAPTER X.

Admission of Members.*

1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member of the
British Association ; but the Council is empowered, in the
event of special circumstances arising, to impose suitable
conditions and restrictions in this respect.

Every person admitted as a Member shall conform to

_the Rules and Regulations of the Association, and for any

infringement thereof shall be liable to exclusion by the
Council, who have also authority, if they think it necessary,
to withhold from any person the privilege of attending any

* Amended by the General Committee, 1908, 1918, 1919.

ADMISSION OF MEMBERS AND ASSOCIATES. XVii

_ Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of admission already
issued.

Tf it appears to the Council that it is not desirable that a Expulsion.

person shall continue to be a Member of the Association,
_ the Council shali direct the General Secretaries to ascertain
_ whether that person is willing to resign his membership.
If that person do not, within a time to be fixed by the
Council, either resign or appeal in writing to the General
Committee, the Council may declare such person to be no
longer a Member. Upon the appeal, the General Committee
_ may make the like declaration by a majority of two-thirds of
those present and voting.

The Council shall also have power to refuse any application
for membership.

It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
_ cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
_ and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.

2. All Members, except as hereafter provided, are eligible Conditions
to any office in the Association. ee ee
(i) Every Life Member hereafter admitted shall pay, on ship.
admission, the sum of Fifteen Pounds.
(ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
sum of One Pound, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound.
(iii) University and other Students and Teachers,
vouched for by the Local Executive Committee as
resident or working in the locality where the
Annual Meeting takes place, may obtain ‘ students’
tickets’ for the Meeting on payment of 10s.
Holders of such tickets shall not be entitled to any
privilege beyond attendance at the Annual Meeting.
(iv) Transferable tickets, admitting one person to any
meeting or function during the Annual Meeting,
shall be issued at the price of £1 5s. Holders of
such tickets shall not be entitled to any privilege
beyond such admission. No other tickets issued
by the Association shall be transferable.

3. Honorary Corresponding Members may be appointed Correspond-
y the General Committee, on the nomination of the Council, ing Members.
hey shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.

4, Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual Annual Sub-

ting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may %¢riptions.
B

XVlll RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. .

make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year on June 30 of the following year.
The Annual (i) Every Life Member, whether admitted before or after
as the adoption of these Rules,shall be entitled to receive
gratis,on demand, the Annual Reports of the Associa-
tion issued in and after the year of admission.

(ii) Annual Members attending an Annual Meeting
shall be entitled to obtain the Report of that
Meeting for an additional payment of 10s. made
before or during the Annual Meeting, or of 12s. 6d.
made after the Annual Meeting within a period
not extending beyond the close of the financial
year (June 380).

Provided that Annual Members who have paid
the annual subscription of £1 without intermission
from a date anterior to September 14, 1919, and con-
tinue to doso, shall be entitled to receive the Annual
Report, on demand, without further payment.

(iii) Annual Members who pay the annual subscription
of £1, but do not attend the Annual Meeting, shall
be entitled to receive the Annual Report, on
demand, without further payment.

(iv) Holders of Students’ or transferable tickets shall not
be entitled to receive the Annual Report on the
terms above stated.

(v) Subject to any statutory rights, or other considera-
tions in the discretion of the Council, libraries and
institutions shall be entitled to purchase the Annual
Volume ata subscription rate of 12s. 6d. per annum.

(vi) The publication price of the Annual Report shall be
£1 5s.

(vii) Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication can only be issued by direction of the
Council.

Cuaprer XI.
Corresponding Societies: Conference of Delegates.

AFFILIATED Corresponding Societies are constituted as follows:

ecu: 1. (i) Any Society which undertakes local scientific inves-

tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.

Each Affiliated Society may appoint a Delegate,
who must be or become a Member of the Associa-
tion and must attend the meetings of the Conference
of Delegates. He shall be ex officio a Member of
the General Committee.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES : CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. XiX

(ii) Any Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.

Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con-
ference. Such Delegates must be or become
Members of the British Association, and shall have
all the rights of Delegates appointed by the
Affiliated Societies, except that of membership of
the General Committee.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed
on the list of Corresponding Societies. Such application must
be addressed to the Assistant Secretary on or before the Ist of
June preceding the Annual Meeting at which it is intended
it should be considered, and must, in the case of Societies
_ desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by specimens of the
publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
_nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the
General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties and of superintending the preparation of a list of the
papers published by the Affiliated Societies. This Com-
mittee shall make an Annual Report to the Council, and
shall suggest such additions or changes in the list of Corre-
sponding Societies as they may consider desirable.
| (i) Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year

to the Assistant Secretary of the Association, on or

before June 1,* such particulars in regard to the

Society as may be required for the information of

the Corresponding Societies Committee.

(ii) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the
Association a list of the papers published by
the Corresponding Societies during the preceding
twelve months which contain the results of local
scientific work conducted by them—those papers
only being included which refer to subjects coming
under the cognisance of one or other of the several
Sections of the Association.

* Amended by the General Committee at Manchester, 1915.

Assoc

IATED

SoOcIETIEs.

Applications.

CORKE-
SPONDING.
SOCIETIES

COMMITTEE,

Procedure.

4, The Delegates of Corresponding Societies shall consti- ConrerENcEe
te a Conference, of which the President,* Vice-President,* O* DELE-

TES.

B 2

Procedureand
Functions.

Alterations.

xx RULES OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

and Secretary or Secretaries shall be nominated annually by
the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The

‘members of the Corresponding Societies Committee shall be

ex officio members of the Conference.

(i) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by
the Secretaries to hold one or more meetings during
each Annual Meeting of the Association, and shall
be empowered to invite any Member to take part
in the discussions.

(ii) The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to
submit Resolutions to the Committee of Recom-
mendations for their consideration, and for report
to the General Committee.

(iii) The Sectional Committees of the Association shall
be requested to transmit to the Secretaries of the
Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda-
tions to be made to the General Committee bearing
on matters in which the co-operation of Corre-
sponding Societies is desirable. It shall be com-
petent for the Secretaries of the Conference of
Delegates to invite the authors of such recom-
mendations to attend the meetings of the Conference
in order to give verbal explanations of their objects
and of the precise way in which they desire these
to be carried into effect.

(iv) It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves
familiar with the purport of the several recommen-
dations brought before the Conference, in order that
they may be able to bring such recommendations
adequately before their respective Societies.

(v) The Conference may also discuss propositions
regarding the promotion of more systematic ob-
servation and plans of operation, and of greater
uniformity in the method of publishing results.

CHAPTER XII.
Amendmenis and New Rules.

Any alterations in the Rules, and any amendments
or new Rules that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee on the first day of the Annual Meeting, and referred
forthwith to the Committee of Recommendations ; and, on the
report of that Committee, shall be submitted for approval at
the last meeting of the General Committee,

xxi

TRUSTEES, GENERAL OFFICERS, &c., 1831-1919.

TRUSTEES.

1832-70 ae R. I. Murcuison (Bart.),
B.S.

1832-62 ie TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Esq., F.R.S.
1839-44 F. BAILy, Esq., E.R.S.
1844-58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGERTON, Bart., F.R.S.

1872— {Sir J. Lupsock, Bart. (after-
1913 | wards Lord AVEBURY), F.R.S.
GENERAL T
1831 JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.

1832-62 JOHN TAYLOR, Hsq., F.R.S.
1862-74 W. SPOTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.S.
1874-91 Prof. A.W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.S.

1881-83 W.SPOTTISWOODE,Hsq.,Pres.R.S.
1883-1919 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.
1883-98 Sir Lyon (afterwards
PLAYFAIR, F.R.S.

1898-1915 Prof.(Sir) A.W. RUCKER,F.R.S.
1913— Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S.
1915-19 Dr. G. CAREY Foster, F.R.S.
1919— Sir A. Evans, F.R.S.

Lord)

REASURERS.
1891-98 Prof. ee A. W. RwUcker,
F.R

1898-1904 Prof. ria C. Foster, F.R.S,
1904— Prof. JOHN PERRY, F.B.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1832-35 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT, ,

1835-36 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
F.R.S., and F. Batty, Esq.,
F.R.S.
1836-37 Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MurcuHison,
Esq., F.R.S.
1837-39 R. I. MuRcHISON, Esq., F.B.S.,
and Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1839-45 Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.R.S,,
and Major E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1845-50 Lieut.-Colonel E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1850-52 General E. SABINE, F.R.S8., and
J. ¥. Roy ez, Esq., F.R.S.
1852-53 J. F. Roy sy, Esq., F.R.S.
1853-59 General HE. SABINE, F.R.S.
1859-61 Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.8.
1861-62 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S.
_ 1862-63 W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.
1863-65 W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1865-66 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S.
1866-68 F. GALTON, Esq., F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S.
1868-71 Dr. T. A. Hrgst, F.R.S., and Dr,

T. THOMSON, F.R.S.

|

JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.

Prof. J. D. FORBES, Acting
Secretary.

832-62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting

Secretary.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES, &c.:

1871-72 Dr.T. THomson,F.R.S.,and Capt.
DOUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1872-76 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. MICHAEL FostnHR, F.R.S.
1876-81 Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Dr. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S.
1881-82 Capt. D. GaLron, F.R.8., and
Prof. F. M. BALFouR, F.R.S.
1882-83 Capt. DoUGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.
1883-95 Sir DouGLAS GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARCOURT,

Esq., F.R.S.
1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Bae re
F.R.S., and Prof, E.

ScHAFER, F.B.S.
1897- {PW ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir
1900 W.C.ROBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.
1900-02 Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
F.R.S., and Dr. D. H. Scott,
F.R.S
1902-03 Dr. D. i. Scort, F.R.S., and
MajorP. A. MAcMAnon, FERS.
1903-13 Major P. A. MACMAHON, F.R.S.,
and Prof. W. A. HERDMAN,
¥F.R.S.
1913-19 Prof. W. A. HERBDMAN, F.RB.S.,
and Prof. H.H.TURNER, F.R.S.
Prof. H. H. TURNER, F.R.S.,
and Prof. J. L. MYyREs.

1831-1904.

1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.,
Secretary. .
1885-90 A. T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.
1890-1902 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1919-

1890

78-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.
904-09 A. SILVA WHITE, Esq.

1902-04 J. G. GARSON, Esq., M.D.

ASSISTANT SECRETARIES.

1909- O.J.R. HowartHa, Esq., M.A.

XXli § PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association,
1901-1916.

(The List of Sectional Officers for 1919 will be found on p. xliii.)

, Secretaries
Date and Place Presidents | (Ree. = Recorder)

SECTION A.'—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

1901. Glasgow ...|Major P.A. MacMahon, F.R.S.|H. S. Carslaw, C. H. Lees (Rec.), W.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.|’ Stewart, Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.
H. H. Turner, F.R.S.
1902. Belfast...... Prof. J. Purser,LL.D.,M.R.I.A.|H. S, Carslaw, A. R. Hinks, A.
—Dep. of Astronomy, Prof.; Larmor, C. H. Lees (Rec.), Prof.
A. Schuster, F.R.S. W. B. Morton, A. W. Porter.
1908. Southport |C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.—Dep.|D. E. Benson, A. R. Hinks, R. W.
of Astronomy and Meteoro-| H. T. Hudson, Dr. C. H. Lees
logy, Dr. W.N. Shaw, F.R.S.| (Rec.), J. Loton, A. W. Porter.
1904, Cambridge | Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.—Sub-|A. R. Hinks, R. W. H. T. Hudson,
Section of Astronomy and| Dr. C. H. Lees (Rec.), Dr. W. J.8.
Cosmical Physics, Sir J.| Lockyer, A. W. Porter, W. C. D.

F Eliot, K.C.I.E., F.R.S. | Whetham.
1905. SouthAfrica| Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,/A. R. Hinks, 8. 8. Hough, R. T. A.
F.R.S. | Innes, J. H. Jeans, Dr. C. H. Lees
| (Rec.).
L0G. VY ork —..5e.c% Principal E. H.Griffiths,F.R.8.|Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. J. A. Harker,

| A. R. Hinks, Prof. A. W. Porter
(Rece.), H. Dennis Taylor.
1907, Leicester...| Prof. A. E. H. Love, M.A.,/E. E. Brooks, Dr. L. N. G. Filon,

F.RB.S. Dr. J. A. Harker, A. R. Hinks,
Prof. A. W. Porter (Ree.).

1908. Dublin ...... Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. ......|Dr. W. G. Duffield, Dr. L. N. G.
Filon, E. Gold, Prof. J. A.
McClelland, Prof. A. W. Porter
(Ree.), Prof. E. T. Whittaker.
1909. Winnipeg | Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S....|Prof. F. Allen, Prof. J. C. Fields,
E. Gold, F. Horton, Prof. A. W.
Porter (fec.), Dr. A. A. Rambaut.
1910. Sheffield ... | Prof. E, W. Hobson, F.R.S....|,H. Bateman, A. 8S. Eddington, E.
| Gold, Dr. F. Horton, Dr. S. R.
| Milner, Prof. A. W. Porter (Rec.).
1911, Portsmouth | Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...|H. Bateman, Prof. P. V. Bevan, A.S.
Eddington, E. Gold, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Ree.), P. A. Yapp.
1912. Dundee ... |Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.|Prof. P. V. Bevan, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
| Heywood, R. Norrie, Prof. A. W.
Porter (Rec.), W. G. Robson,
¥. J. M. Stratton.
1913. Birmingham ; Dr, H. F. Baker, F.R.S. ......|Prof. P. V. Bevan (Rec.), Prof. A. 8.
Eddington, E. Gold, Dr. H. B.
Heywood, Dr. A. O. Rankine, Dr.
G. A. Shakespear.
1914. Australia... | Prof. F. T. Trouton, F.R.8..../Prof. A. §S. Eddington (Ree.),
E. Gold, Prof. T. R. Lyle, F.R.S.,
Prof. 8. B. McLaren, Prof. J. A.
Pollock, Dr. A. O. Rankine.

u Section A was constituted under this title in 1835, when the sectional division
was introduced, The previous division was into ‘Committees of Sciences.’

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Date and Place

1915. Manchester

1916. Newcastle

1901. Glasgow ...
1902. Belfast......
1903. Southport

1904, Cambridge
1905, South frica’
1906,,/¥ ork:..:2:..:
1907. Leicester...
1908. Dublin......

1909. Winnipeg...

1910. Sheffield ...

1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham

1914, Australia...
1915. Manchester

1916. Newcastle

XXlli

Presidents |

Sir F. W. Dyson, F.R.S. ...

Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

Prof. A. §. Eddington, F.R.8.
(Rec.), E. Gold, Dr. W. Makower,
Dr. A. O, Rankine.

Prof. A. N. Whitehead, F.R.S.'C. M. Caunt, Prof. A. 8. Eddington,

F.R.S. (Ree.), H. R. Hassé, Dr. W.
Makower, Dr. A, O. Rankine.

SECTION B.2—CHEMISTRY.

Prof. Perey F. Frankland,
E.R.S.

Prof, ie wivers, ERS. ..cscess

Prof. W. N. Hartley, D.Sc.,
F.R.S.

Prof. Sydney Young, F.R.S....

George T. Beilby ........-....5.

Prof. Wyndham R. Dunstan,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S. ...

Prof. F. 8. Kipping, F.R.S....

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.

J. HE. Stead, F.R.S.

Sub-section of Agriculture—
A. D. Hall, F.B.S.
Prof. J. Walker, F.R.S. ......

.| Prof. A. Senier, M.D. .........

Prof. W. P. Wynne, F.R.S....

Prof. W. J. Pope, F.R.S.......
Prof. W. A. Bone, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Henderson, F.R.S.

W.C. Anderson, G. G. Henderson,
W. J. Pope, T. K. Rose (Ree.).

R. F. Blake, M. O. Forster, Prof.
G. G. Henderson, Prof. W. J. Pope
(Ree.).

Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, J. Ohm, Prof. W. J. Pope
(Rece.),

Dr. M. O. Forster, Prof. G. G. Hen-
derson, Dr. H. O. Jones, Prof.
W. J. Pope (Ree.). ©

W. A. Caldecott, Mr. M. O. Forster,
Prof. G. G. Henderson (fec.), 0. F.
Juritz.

Dr. E, F. Armstrong, Prof. A.W. Cross-
ley, 5. H. Davies, Prof. W. J. Pope
(Ree.).

Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Prof. A. W.
Crossley (#ec.), J. H. Hawthorn,
Dr. F. M. Perkin.

Dr. H. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr. A.
McKenzie, Dr. F. M. Perkin, Dr.
J. H. Pollock.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr.
T. M. Lowry, Dr. F. M. Perkin,
J. W. Shipley.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong (Rece.), Dr.
T. M. Lowry, Dr. F, M. Perkin,
W. #E.S. Turner.

Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr.
K. J. Russell.

Dr. EH. F. Armstrong (Rec.), Dr.
F. Beddow, Dr. C. H. Desch,
Dr. T. M. Lowry.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong (ee.), Dr.
C. H. Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr.
J. K. Wood.

Dr. E. F. Armstrong (ee.), Dr.
C. H. Desch, Dr. A. Holt, Dr. H.
McCombie.

D. Avery, Prof. C. Fawsitt, Dr. A.
Holt (Ree.), Dr. N. V. Sidgwick.

..|Dr. H. F. Coward, Dr. C. H. Desch,

Dr. A. Holt (Ree.).
Dr. C. H. Desch, Dr. A. Holt (Ree.),
Prof. R. Robinson,Dr.J.A. Smythe.

? «Chemistry and Mineralogy,’ 1835-1894.

XXIV PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Secretaries

Date and Place Presidents (Rec. = Recorder)

SECTION C.3—GEOLOGY.

1901. Glasgow ...| John Horne, F.B.S. ............ H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton

(Ree.).

1902. Belfast...... Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon,|H. L. Bowman, H. W. Monckton

F.R.S. (Rec.), J. St. J. Phillips, H. J.
Seymour.

1903. Southport |Prof. W. W. Watts, M.A.,)/H. L. Bowman, Rev. W. L. Carter,

M.Sc. J. Lomas, H. W. Monckton (Ree.),

1904, Cambridge | Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. ...... H. L. Bowman (Ree.), Rev. W. L.

Carter, J. Lomas, H. Woods.
1905. SouthAfrica| Prof. H. A. Miers, M.A., D.Sc.,|H. L. Bowman (Rec.), J. Lomas, Dr.

E.RB.S. Molengraaff, Prof. A. Young, Prof.
R. B. Young.
1906. York......... G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S.......|H. L. Bowman (Rec.), Rev. W. L.

Carter, Rev. W. Johnson, J. Lomas.
1907. Leicester ...| Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....| Dr. F. W. Bennett, Rev. W. L. Carter,
Prof. T. Groom, J. Lomas ( Rec.).

1908. Dublin...... Prof. John Joly, F.R.S. ......) Rev. W. L. Carter, J. Lomas (Rec.),
Prof. S. H. Reynolds, H. J. Sey-
mour.

1909. Winnipeg...;Dr. A. Smith Woodward,|W. L. Carter(Rec.), Dr.A. BR. Dwerry-

F.R.S. house, R. T. Hodgson, Prof. S. H.
Reynolds.

1910. Sheffield ...) Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S...|W.L. Carter (Rec.), Dr. A. R. Dwerry-
house, B. Hobson, Prof. S. H.

Reynolds.

1911. Portsmouth] A. Harker, F.R.S. ............... Col. C. W. Bevis, W. L. Carter (Rec.),
Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, Prof. 8.
H. Reynolds.

1912. Dundee .../Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S. ......| Prof. W. B. Boulton, A. W. B. Don,

Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (fec.),
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

1913. Birmingham] Prof. H. J. Garwood, M.A. ...|Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R.
Dwerryhouse (Rec.), F. Raw,
Prof. 8. H. Reynolds.

1914. Australia ...| Prof. Sir T. H. Holland, F.R.S.| Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse (Rec.), E. F.
Pittman, Prof. 8. H. Reynolds,
Prof. E. W. Skeats.

1915. Manchester | Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole ...| W. Lower Carter (Ree.), Dr. W. T.
| Gordon, Dr. G. Hickling, Dr.
| D. M.S. Watson.

1916. Newcastle |Prof. W. S. Boulton ............ W. Lower Carter (fec.), Dr. W. T.
| Gordon, Dr. G. Hickling, Dr. D.
Woolacott.

SECTION D.4!A—ZOOLOGY.

1901. Glasgow ...|Prof. J. Cossar Ewart, F.R.S.|J. G. Kerr (Rec.), J. Rankin, J. Y.
| Simpson.
1902. Belfast...... |Prof. G. B. Howes, F.R.S. ...| Prof. J. G. Kerr, R. Patterson, J. Y.
Simpson (ec.).
1903. Southport ([Prof. 8. J. Hickson, F.R.S....|Dr. J. H. Ashworth, J. Barcroft,
| A. Quayle, Dr. J. Y. Simpson
(Rec.), Dr. H. W. M. Tims.

* “Geology and Geography,’ 1835-1850.
* Zoology and Botany,’ 1835-1847 ; ‘Zoology and Botany, including Physiology,’
1848-1865 ; ‘ Biology,’ 1866-1894.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF

Date and Place

1904. Cambridge

1905.

- 1906.

1907.

1908.

1909.

1910.

1911.
1912.

1913. Birmingham

1914.

1915.

1916.

1901.
1902.

1903.

1904.
1905.

1906.

SouthAfrica)

Leicester ...

Dublin......

Winnipeg...

Sheffield ...

Portsmouth

Dundee

Australia ...

Manchester

Newcastle

Glasgow ...

Southport... |

Cambridge
SouthAfrica

ROME). cibece

elOhy

‘Dr. H. B. Mill, F.B.G.S. ......
‘Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.B. ...

Presidents

William Bateson, F.R.S.......

G. A. Boulenger, F.B.S. ......
J. J. Lister, F.R.S. ..

Dr. W. E. Hoyle, M.A..........
Dr. 8. F. Harmer, F.R.S.......
Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.8.

Prof. G. C. Bourne, ¥-.RB.S. ...

Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson,
C.B.
P. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.

Dr. H. F. Gadow, F.R.S.......

Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S.......... |
|

Prof. E. A. Minchin, F.R.S....

Prof, E. W. MacBride, F.R.S. |

SECTION

Capt. E. W. Creak, R.N., C.B.,
E.R.S.

Douglas W. Freshfield.........

Adm. Sir W. J. L. Wharton,
R.N., K.C.B., F.B.S.

'Rt. Hon. Sir George Goldie,

SECTIONS (1901-16).

KXV

Secretaries
( Rec. = Recorder)

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. J. Y. Simpson (ee.), Dr.
H. W. M. Tims.

Dr. Pakes, Dr. Purcell, Prof. J. Y.
Simpson (Rec.), Dr. H, W.M. Tims.

.| Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,

Oxley Grabham, Dr. H.W. M. Tims
(Rec.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
EK. E. Lowe, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Ree.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
Prof. A. Fraser, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Rec.).

.|C. A. Baragar, C. L. Boulenger, Dr.

J. Pearson, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Ree.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, L. Doncaster,
T. J. Evans, Dr. H. W. M. Tims
(Ree.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, C. Foran, R. D.
Laurie, Dr. H. W. M. Tims (Rec.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, R. D. Laurie,

Miss D. L. Mackinnon, Dr.
H. W. M. Tims (Rece.).

Dr. J; H. Ashworth, Dr. C. L.
Boulenger, R. D. Laurie, Dr.

H. W. M. Tims (Rec.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. T. 8. Hall,
Prof. W. A. Haswell, R. D. Laurie,
Prof. H. W. Marett Tims (Rec.).

Dr. J. H. Ashworth (Rec.), F.
Balfour Browne, R. D. Laurie,
Dr. J. Stuart Thomson.

Dr. J. H. Ashworth (Rec.), R. A. H.
Gray, R. D. Laurie.

E.o—GEOGRA PHY.

H. N. Dickson (Ree.), E. Heawood,
G. Sandeman, A. C. Turner.

G. G. Chisholm (Ree.), E. Heawood,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson, Dr. J. A.
Lindsay.

EK. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A. J. Her-
bertson, E. A. Reeves, Capt. J. C.
Underwood.

E. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A.J. Herbert-
son, H. Y. Oldham, E. A. Reeves.

A. H. Cornish-Bowden, F. Flowers,
Dr. A. J. Herbertson (Rece.), H. Y.
Oldham.

EK. Heawood (Rec.), Dr. A. J. Her-
bertson, E. A. Reeves, G. Yeld.

* Section E was that of ‘Anatomy and Medicine,’ 1835; of ‘Medical Science,

1836-44; of‘ Physiology ’ (afterwards incorporated in Section D), 1844-1847.

It was

assigned to ‘ Geography and Ethnology,’ 1851-1868 ; ‘Geography,’ 1869.

XXV1

Date and Place

1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.

1912
1913
1914
1915

1916.

SECTION F.6—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND
1901.

1902.
1903.

1904.
1905,
1906.
1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.

Leicester ...
Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth
. Dundee
. Birmingham
. Australia...
. Manchester

Newcastle

Glasgow
Belfast

Southport

|
Cambridge

SouthAfrica

Leicester ...

Dublin

Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth

Dundee

Presidents

George G. Chisholm, M.A. ...

Major EH. H. Hills, C.M.G.,
R.E.

Col. SirD. Johnston,K.C.M.G.,
C.B., R.E.

Prof. A. J. Herbertson, M.A.,
Ph.D.

Col. C, F. Close, R.E., C.M.G.
.|Col. Sir C. M. Watson,
K.C.M.G.
Prof. H. N. Dickson, D.Sc....
Sir, Cc. \P: duuecas, . K.C.B.,
K.C.M.G.

Major H. G. Lyons, F.B.S. ...

E. A. Reeves

eer eee eee

Sir R. Giffen, K.C.B., F.R.S.

..|E, Cannan, M.A., LL.D. ......
re W.Bralbrook; ©.B: ........

Prof. Wm. Smart, LL.D. ......

Rev. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.Sc.

A. L. Bowley, M.A. ............

Prof. W. J. Ashley, M.A.......
|W. M. Acworth, M.A. .........

Sub-section of Agriculture—
Rt. Hon. Sir H. Plunkett.
Prof. §. J. Chapman, M.A....

Sir H. Llewellyn
K.C.B., M.A.
Hon. W. Pember Reeves

Smith,

Sir H.H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

E. Heawood (Rec.), 0. J. R. How-
arth, EH. A. Reeves, T. Walker.

W.F. Bailey, W. J. Barton, O. J. P.
Howarth (fec.), E. A. Reeves.

G. G. Chisholm (Ree.), J. McFar-
lane, A. McIntyre.

Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec.), Dr. R.
Brown, J. McFarlane, E. A. Reeves.

J. McFarlane (Rec.), H. A. Reeves,
W. P. Smith.

Rey. W. J. Barton (Rec.), J. McFar-
lane, EK. A. Reeves, D. Wylie.

Rev. W. J. Barton (Rec.), P. E. Mar-
tineau, J. McFarlane, H.A. Reeves.

J. A. Leach, J. McFarlane, H. Yule
Oldham (Rece.), F. Poate.

Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown,
McFarlane (Rec.).

Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, J. Mc-
Farlane (Rec.), H. Shaw, B. C.
Wallis.

J.

STATISTICS.

W. W. Blackie, A. L. Bowley, E.
Cannan (fec.), 8. J. Chapman.
A. L. Bowley (Rece.), Prof. 8. J.

Chapman, Dr. A. Duffin.

A. L. Bowley (Rec.), Prof. 8. J.
Chapman, Dr. B. W. Ginsburg, G.
Lloyd.

J. E. Bidwell, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),
Prof. 8S. J. Chapman, Dr. B. W.
Ginsburg.

R. a Ababrelton, A. L. Bowley (Rec.),
Prof. H. E. 8. Fremantle, H. O.
Meredith. ;

Prof. S. J. Chapman (Rec.), D. H.
Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, B. S.
Rowntree.

Prof. 8. J. Chapman (#ee.), D. H.
Macgregor, H. O. Meredith, T. S.
Taylor.

W.G. S. Adams, Prof. 8. J. Chap-
man (Ree.), Prof. D. H. Macgre-
gor, H. O. Meredith.

A. D. Hall, Prof. J. Percival, J. H.
Priestley, Prof. J. Wilson.

Prof, A. B. Clark, Dr. W. A. Mana-
han, Dr. W. R. Scott (Ree.).

C. R. Fay, H. O. Meredith (Rec.),
Dr. W. R. Scott, R. Wilson.

C. R. Fay, Dr. W. R. Scott (Rec.),
H. A. Stibbs.

C. BR. Fay, Dr. W.R. Scott (Rec.), E.
Tosh,

6 « Statistics,’ 1835-1855.

:

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Xxvll

Date and Place

1913. Birmingham

1914. Australia.

1901. Glasgow ...

1902. Belfast .
1903. Southport

1904. Cambridge
1905. SouthAfrica
W906. York, ....;..
1907. Leicester...
1908. Dublin

seeene

1909. Winnipeg...

1910. Sheffield ..
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ....

1913. Birmingham
1914. Australia...

1915, Manchester

1916. Newcastle

1901. Glasgow ...
1902.

Belfast

|
ue | Prof. E. C. K. Gonner

..| Prof. J. Perry, F.B.S. ...

f& ta A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.

ee Presidents

/ Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

\Rev. P. H. Wicksteed, M.A.

Beene eee wwn eee

O. R. Fay, Prof, A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. H. O. Meredith, Dr. W. R.
Scott (Ree.).

Prof... BR. EH. “Irvine, Prof. A. W.
Kirkaldy (#ec.), G. H. Knibbs,
Prof. H. O. Meredith.

B. Ellinger, E. J. W. Jackson,
Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy (Rece.).

|Miss Ashley (ec.), J. Cunnison,

C. R. Fay, Prof. H. M. Hallsworth

EK. J. W. Jackson.

SECTION G.7—ENGINEERING.

R. E. Crompton, M.Inst.C.E.

C. Hawksley, M.Inst.0.E.
|Hon, C. A. Parsons, F.R.S.

Col. Sir C. Scott-Moncrieff,
G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., R.E.
ldo Ae EIWHl OHS. accescess ©

Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson,
E.R.S.

Dugald Clerk, F.R.S.

Sir W. H. White, K.C.B.,

E.R.S.

Prof. W. E. Dalby, M.A.,
M.Inst.C.E.

Prot J.) Hs Biles, Lb.D*,
Di Se:

ProlvA VBarr Di SC..tee Aeneas

Prof. Gisbert Kapp, D.Eng....
Prof. E. G. Coker, D.Sc........

Dr. H. 8. Hele-Shaw, F.R.S.
G. G. Stoney, F.R.S.........008

H. Bamford, W. E. Dalby, W.A. Price
(Ree.

de
...|M. Barr, W. A. Price (Rec.), J. Wylie.
..|Prof. W. E. Dalby, W.

T. Maccall, .
W. A. Price (Kec.).

...|J. B. Peace, W.T. Maccall, W. A. Price

(Rec.).

W. T. Maccall, W. B. Marshall (Rec.),
Prof. H. Payne, E. Williams.

W. T. Maccall, W. A. Price (Rec.),
J. Triffit.

Prof. EH. G. Coker, A. C. Harris,
W.A. Price (Rec.), H. E.Wimperis.

..| Prof. E. G. Coker, Dr. W. E. Lilly,

W.A. Price(Rec.), H. E. Wimperis.

E. E. Brydone-Jack, Prof. EH. G.Coker,
Prof, E. W. Marchant, W.A. Price
(Ree.).

F. Boulden, Prof. E. G. Coker (Rec.),
A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

H. Ashley, Prof. E. G. Coker (Rec.),
A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

Prof. HE. G. Coker (Rec.), A. R. Ful-
ton, H. Richardson, A. A. Rowse,
H. E. Wimperis.

Prof. E. G. Coker (Rec.), J. Purser,
A. A. Rowse, H. E. Wimperis.

Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Rec.), Prof.
H. Payne, Prof. W. M. Thornton,
Prof. W. H. Warren.

Dr. W. Cramp, J. Frith, Prof.
G. W. O. Howe (Ree.).

Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Ree.), Prof.

| HE. W. Marchant, Prof. W. M.

Thornton.

SECTION H.*—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Prof,
F.R.S.

7 * Mechanical Science,’ 1836-1900.

D. J. Cunningham,

W. Crooke, Prof. A. F. Dixon, J. F.
Gemmill, J. L. Myres (Rec.).

.. R. Campbell, Prof. A. F. Dixon,

J. L. Myres (Rec.).

8 Established 1884.

XXVUl

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Date and Place

Presidents

1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.

1907.
1908,

1909.
1910.

1911.

1912.

1913. Birmingham Sir Richard Temple, Bart. ...|

1914.

1915.
1916.

1901.
1902.
1904.
1905.

1906.

1907.

Southport...

Cambridge

SouthAfrica

Leicester ..

Dublin .....

Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...

Portsmouth

Dundee

Australia ...|Sir E. F. im Thurn, C.B.,

.| Prof. G, Elliot Smith, F.R.S.

Prof. J. Symington, WRG! as
|H. Balfour, M.A. .....sescee
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.8.
E. Sidney Hartland, F.S8.A....

D. G. Hogarth, M.A.............
Prof. W. Ridgeway, M.A.

Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. ....

W.H. R. Rivers, M.D., F.R.S.

Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

Hartland (Rec.).

Shrubsall.

sall.

Steele.

Shrubsall.

Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

| K.C.M.G. owski, Dr. R. R. Marett (Jec.),
| Prof. J. T. Wilson.

Manchester Prof. C. G. Seligman ......... E. N. Fallaize (Ree.), Dr. F. C.

| Shrubsall, J. 8. B. Stopford.

Newcastle (Dr. R. R. Marett ............... Rev. E. O. James, Dr
sall (Ree.), BE. P. Stibbe.

SECTION I.°—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExpERIMENTAL
PATHOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL PsYCHOLOGY).

Glasgow ...|Prof.J.G. McKendrick, F.R.S.|W. B. Brodie, W. A. Osborne, Prof.
W. H. Thompson (#ec.).

Belfast .|Prof. W. D. Halliburton,|J. Barcroft, Dr. W. A. Osborne

E.B.S. (Ree.), Dr. C. Shaw.

Cambridge | Prof. C. 8. Sherrington, F.R.S.|J. Barcroft (Rec.), Prof. T. G. Brodie,
Dr. L. E. Shore.

SouthAfrica}Col. D. Bruce, O0.B., F.R.S. ...|J. Barcroft (Rec.), Dr. Baumann, .
Dr. Mackenzie, Dr. G. W. Robert-
son, Dr. Stanwell.

VOLK ossssce Prof, F. Gotch, F.R.S. .........|d. Barcroft (Ree.), Dr. J. M. Hamill,
Dr. D. 8. Long, Prof. J. 8. Mac-

donald.

Leicester ...|Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. ......| Dr. N. H. Alcock, J. Barcroft (Ree.),

| Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Dr. A.

| Warner.

5’ Established 1894.

E, N. Fallaize, H. §. Kingsford,
H. M. Littler, J. L. Myres (Rec.).
W. L. H. Duckworth, E. N. Fallaize,

H.S. Kingsford, J. L. Myres (Rec.).
..|A. R. Brown, A. von Dessauer, EH. 8S.

Dr. G. A. Auden, E. N. Fallaize
(Rec.), H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C.

C. J. Billson, E. N. Fallaize (Rec.),
H. 8. Kingsford, Dr. F. C. Shrub-

..|E. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings-
ford, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, L. E.

..|H. 8. Kingsford (Rece.), Prof. C. J.
Patten, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

W. Crooke BeAt ii... cvscasssnene HE. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings-
ford, Prof. C. J. Patten, Dr. F.C.

EK. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. 8. Kings-
ford, E. W. Martindell, H. Rundle,

D. D. Craig, HE. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H.
W. Martindell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
HK. N. Fallaize (Rec.), H. W. Martin-
dell, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall, T. Yeates.
Prof. R. J. A. Berry, Dr. B. Malin-

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16). = xxix

Date and Place

Secretaries

Presidents (Rec.= Recorder)

1908. Dublin......

1909. Winnipeg...
1910. Sheffield ...
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee ...

1915. Birmingham
1914. Australia...
1915. Manchester

1916. Newcastle

1901. Glasgow ...

1902. Belfast
1903. Southport
1904. Cambridge

1905. SouthAfrica
W906. York.........

_ 1907. Leicester...
1908. Dublin......

1909. Winnipeg...

1910, Sheffield ...

191]. Portsmouth

Dr. J. Scott Haldane, F.R.S. Prof. D. J. Coffey, Dr. P. T. Herring,
Prof. J. $5. Macdonald, Dr. H. E.
Roaf (Rec.).
Prof, E. H. Starling, F.R.S.... Dr. N.H. Alcock (#ec.), Prof. P. T.
Herring, Dr. W. Webster.
Prof. A. B. Macallum, F.R.S. Dr. H. G. M. Henry, Keith Lucas,
Dr. H. E. Roaf (Ree.), Dr. J. Tait.
Prof. J. 8. Macdonald, B.A. Dr. J. T. Leon, Dr. Keith Lucas,
_ Dr. H. E. Roaf (#ece.), Dr. J. Tait.
Geonard Hall, WER.S. ...ccs.0: ,Dr. Keith Lucas, W. Moodie, Dr.
; H. E. Roaf (Rec.), Dr. J. Tait.
Dr. F. Gowland Hopkins,|C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring, Dr.

¥.R.S. T. G. Maitland, Dr. H. E. Roaf
| (Ree.), Dr. J. Tait,
Prof. B. Moore, F.R.S8.......... Prof. P. T. Herring (Rece.), Prof.

T. H. Milroy, Prof. W. A. Osborne,
Prof. Sir T. P. Anderson Stuart.
Prof. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S. C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring
(Rec.), Dr. F. W. Lamb, Dr. J.
Tait.
Prof. A. R. Cushny, F.R.S. .../C. L. Burt, Prof. P. T. Herring(Rec.),

Prof. J. A. Menzies,

SECTION K.'°—BOTANY.

Prof, I. B. Balfour, F.R.S. ...;D. T. Gwynne- Vaughan, G. F. Scott”
| Elliot, A. C. Seward (Rec.), H-
| Wager.

.| Prof. J. R. Green, F.R.S.......|A. G. Tansley, Rev. C. H. Waddell,

H. Wager (#ec.), R. H. Yapp.

A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ......... H. Ball, A. G. Tansley, H. Wager
| (Rec.), R. H. Yapp.
Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ......| Dr. F. F. Blackman, A. G. Tansley,

Sub-section of Agriculture—| H. Wager(Rec.), T. B. Wood, R. H.
Dr. W. Somerville. app.
Harold Wager, F.R.S. .........)R. P. Gregory, Dr. Marloth, Prof.
Pearson, Prof. R. H. Yapp (#ec.).
Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S. ...|Dr. A. Burtt, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
A. G. Tansley (Ree.), Prof. R. H.
Yapp.
Prof. J. B. Farmer, F.R.S. ...|W. Bell, R. P. Gregory, Prof. A. G.
' Tansley (ec.), Prof. R. H. Yapp.
Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S....| Prof. H. H. Dixon, R. P. Gregory,
A. G. Tansley (Rec.), Prof. R. H.

Yapp.
Lieut.-Col. D. Prain, C.I.E.,|Prof. A. H. R. Buller, Prof. D. T.
E.R.S. | Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof, R. H.Yapp
(Ree.).

Sub-section of Agricultwre—|W. J. Black, Dr. E. J. Russell, Prof.
Major P. G. Craigie, C.B. J. Wilson.
Prof. J. W. H. Trail, F.R.S. |B. H. Bentley, R. P. Gregory, Prof.
D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof.
R. H. Yapp (fee.).
Prof, F. E. Weiss, D.Sc. ...... \C. G. Delahunt, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan, Dr. C. E. Moss, Prof.
R. H. Yapp (ece.).

‘olHstablished 1895.

xxx

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF SECTIONS (1901-16).

Date and Place

Presidents

1913.

1914,

1915.
1916.

1901.

1902.

1903.

1904.

1905.
1906.
1907.

1908.

1909.
1910.
TOLL.

1912.

1913.
1914.
1915.
1916.

. Dundee

Birmingham

Australia...

Manchester

Newcastle

Sub-section of Agriculture—
W. Bateson, M.A., F.R.S.

.| Prof. F. Keeble, D.Sc..........

Miss Ethel Sargant, F.L.S. ..
Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S.

Prof. W. H. Lang, F.R.S. ...

Dr.

Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

J. Golding, H.. R. Pink, Dr. H. J.
Russell.

J. Brebner, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan (Rec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,

_ D. Thoday.

W. B. Grove, Prof. D. T. Gwynne-
Vaughan (fec.), Dr. C. E. Moss,
D. Thoday.

..|Prof, A. J. Ewart, Prof. T. Johnson

(Rec.), Prof. A. A. Lawson, Miss
E. N. Thomas.

R. 8. Adamson, Dr. C. E. Moss

| (Ree.), D. Thoday.

A. B. Rendle, F.R.S. ......|

R. C. Davie, J. Small, D. Thoday
(Rec.), Dr. Ethel Thomas.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL . SCIENCE.

Glasgow ...

Belfast

Southport ..

Cambridge

SouthA frica

aceeeeaee

Winnipeg...
Sheffield ...
Portsmouth

Dundee

Birmingham
Australia ...
Manchester

Newcastle

...|Prof, J. Adams, M.A.

\Sir John EH. Gorst, F.R.S.

.| Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.

Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.

Bishop of Hereford, D.D.

Prof. Sir R. C. Jebb, D.C.L.,
M.P.
Prof. M. E. Sadler, LL.D. ...

.../Sir Philip Magnus, M.P. ......

Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S. .

Revi EB Gray, DED cesta
Principal H. A. Miers, F.R.S.

Rt. Rev. J. HE. C. Welldon,
D.D.

Principal E. H. Griffiths,
E.R.S.

Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S. ......

Mrs. Henry Sidgwick

Rev. W. Temple

.|R. A. Gregory, W, M. Heller, R. Y.

Howie, C. W. Kimmins, Prof.
H. L. Withers (Ree.).

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Rec.), R. M. Jones, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins, Prof. H. L. Withers.

Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Rec.), Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Dr.
H. L. Snape.

..{J. H. Flather, Prof. R. A. Gregory,

W. M. Heller (Rec.), Dr. C. W
Kimmins.
A.D. Hall, Prof. Hele-Shaw, Dr. C. W.
Kimmins (fec.), J. R. Whitton.
Prof. R. A. Gregory, W. M. Heller
(Rec.), Hugh Richardson,

W. D. Eggar, Prof. R. A. Gregory
(Rec.), J. 8. Laver, Hugh Rich-
ardson.

.| Prof. E. P. Culverwell, W. D. Eggar,
George Fletcher, Prof. R. A.
Gregory (fec.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, R. Fletcher, J. L.
Holland (Rec.), Hugh Richardson,

A. J. Arnold, W. D. Eggar, J. L.
Holland (Ree.), Hugh Richardson.

W. D. Eggar, O. Freeman, J. L.
Holland (Rece.), Hugh Richardson.

D. Berridge, Dr. J. Davidson, Prof.
J. A. Green (Rec.), Hugh Richard-
son.

D. Berridge, Rev. S. Blofeld, Prof.
J. A. Green (Rec.), H. Richardson,

.|P. Board, C. A. Buckmaster, Prof.

J. A. Green (Ree.), J. Smyth:

|D. Berridge, F. A. Bruton, Prof.
J, A. Green (Ree.), H. Richardson.

D. Berridge, Prof. J. A. Green (Rer.),
P. Sharp, Dr. E. H. Tripp.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

XXx1

Date and Place

1912. Dundee ...
1913. Birmingham
1914. Australia ...
1915. Manchester

1916. Newcastle

Presidents

Secretaries
(Rec. = Recorder)

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

T. H. MiddJeton, M.A..........

Prof. T. B. Wood, M.A. ......
A. D, Hall, FUR.Si...0...06is.00-
‘R. ERP Re wi Ci Bretvtscss' scones

ree ee

‘Dr. E. J. Russell
|

|Dr. C. Crowther, J. Golding, Dr. A.
| Lander, Dr. E. J. Russell (Ree.).
|W. E. Collinge, Dr. C. Crowther,
| J.Golding, Dr. BE. J. Russell (Rece.).
Prof, T. Cherry, J. Golding (Rec.),
| Dr. A. Lauder, Prof. R. D. Watt.
\Prof. C. Crowther (Rec.), Dr. A.
| Lauder, T. J. Young.

|S. H. Collins, Prof. C. Crowther
| (Ree.), Dr. A. Lauder.

Date and Place

EVENING DISCOURSES, 1901-16.

(For 1919, see General Meetings, p. xiii.)

Lecturer

1901. Glasgow ...

1902. Belfast
_ 1903. Southport...

1904. Cambridge

1905. S. Africa:
Cape Town
Durban
Pietermaritz- ~

burg.
Johannesburg
Pretoria
Bloemfontein...
Kimberley

Bulawayo
~1906. York

1907. Leicester ,..

1908. Dublin,

..| Douglas W. Freshfield

.|A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. ...

.|D. Randall-MacIver

Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......

Francis Darwin, F.R.S.

...| Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S....

Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S.
Dr. R. Munro

ee eee weer ee eeeeane

DT ALGELOW.E 1 seis chet scissaacccone
Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S....
Prof. H. F. Osborn

.| Prof, E. B. Poulton, F.R.S....

C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S. .
Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
Col. D. Bruce, C.B., F.R.S....
ED MOMPAIN |. 322332 seesseavenes
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S....
Prof. J. O. Arnold

eee e eee eeeeeee

A. R. Hinks

eee ee eee nee eeeeene

...|Sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S.......

Prof. J. B. Porter

Dr. Tempest Anderson. ; : 2 ; ,
Dr, A. D. Waller, F.RB.S. ......

W. Duddell, F.R.S. ............
Dre W (A. DIXCY:.. ccsevecssceces:

Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...
Prof. W. M. Davis

|
Subject of Discourse

‘The Inert Constituents of the
Atmosphere.

|The Movements of Plants.

Becquerel Rays and Radio-activity.

Inheritance.

Man as Artist and Sportsmanin the
Palzolithic Period.

The Old Chalk Sea, and some of its
Teachings.

Ripple- Marks and Sand-Dunes.

Paleontological Discoveries in the
Rocky Mountains.

W. J. Burchell’s Discoveries in South
Africa.

..|Some Surface Actions of Fluids.

The Mountains of the Old World.
Marine Biology.

Sleeping Sickness.

The Cruise of the ‘ Discovery.’
The Distribution of Power.

Steel as an Igneous Rock.

..|ly-borne Diseases: Malaria, Sleep-

ing Sickness, &c.

The Milky Way and the Clouds of
Magellan.

Diamonds.

The Bearing of Engineering on
Mining.

The Ruins of Rhodesia.

Volcanoes.
The Electrical Signs of Life, and
their Abolition by Chloroform.
The Ark and the Spark in Radio-
telegraphy.

Recent Developments in the Theory
of Mimicry.

Halley’s Comet.

The Lessons of the Colorado Canyon.

XXxli

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS

” LECTURES.

Date and Place

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

1909. Winnipeg...

1910. Sheffield ...

1911. Portsmouth

1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham

1914. Australia:
Adelaide

Melbourne
Sydney ...

Brisbane

1915. Manchester

1916. Newcastle

.| Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. ...

Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.B.S....|

Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.
! Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S....
1 Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.
Prof, W. Stirling, M.D.
D. G. Hogarth
Dr. Leonard Hill, F.R.S.......
Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. ...

Prof. A. Keith, M.D...........0:
Sir H. H. Cunynghame, K.C.B.

Dr. A. Smith Woodward,
FE.RB.S.

Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ..
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S....
Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S. ..
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S.
Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S.
Prof. H, EK. Armstrong, F.R.S.
Prof. G. W. O. Howe
Sir HE. A. Schafer, F.R.S.......

HW. Waser HO ReS. atecs

Prof. R. A. Sampson, F.R.S.

Prof. W. A. Bone, F.R.S.......

Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,
F.R.S.

The Seven Styles of Crystal Archi-
tecture.

Our Food from the Waters.

The Chemistry of Flame.

The Pressure of Light.

Types of Animal Movement.”

New Discoveries about the Hittites.

The Physiology of Submarine Work.

Links with the Past in the Plant
World.

Radiations, Old and New.

The Antiquity of Man.

Explosions in Mines and the Means
of Preventing Them.

Missing Links among Extinct
Animals.

The Ether of Space.

.|Ancient Hunters.

Mimicry.

... |Greenwich Observatory.

Primitive Man.

.| Atoms and Electrons.

The Materials of Life.

Wireless Telegraphy.

Australia and the British Associa-
tion.

The Behaviour of Plants in Re-
sponse to Light.

A Census of the Skies.

Flame and Flameless Combustion.

Evolution and the War.

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES, 1912-16.

Date and Place

(For 1919, see p. lxxv.)

Lecturer

Subject of Lecture

1912. Dundee

1913. Birmingham

1914. Australia :
Perth

.|Prof. B. Moore, D.Sc. .........

‘Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ..
| Frederick Soddy, F.R.S.......

. Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.

Prof. A. D. Waller, F.B.S. ... |

Prof, E. C. K. Gonner, M.A.
Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ......
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...
Dr. Vaughan Cornish
Leonard Doncaster, M.A.

Prof. A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S.
FPSBalfour, MeA. 2. s.c..3c.0cce

Science and National Health.
Prices and Wages.

The Sun.

The Decorative Art of Savages.
The Panama Canal.

.|Recent Work on Heredity and its

Application to Man.

.|Metals under the Microscope.

The Evolution of Matter,

Why we Investigate the Ocean.

Stars and their Movements.

Primitive Methods of Making Fire.

Electrical Action of the Human
Heart.

1 *Popular Lectures,’ delivered to the citizens of Winnipeg.
* Repeated, to the public, on Wednesday, September 7.

CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES.

XXX111

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Lecture
Kalgoorlie C. A. Buckmaster, M.A. ...... | Mining Education in England.
Adelaide Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. Saving and Spending.

Melbourne Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S. ... Making of a Big Gun.
‘Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. .... Explosions.
Sydney ... Prof. B. Moore, F.R.S........... Brown Earth and Bright Sunshine.

Brisbane
1915, Manchester

and Neigh- |

bourhood

Newcastle
and Neigh-
bourhood :
Newcastle

1916.

Sunderland
Durham

CHAIRMEN, PRESIDENT,

|

Prof. H. H. Turner, P.R.S. ...
Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.RB.S. ..
Prof. F. W. Gamble, F.R.8.
Dr. Vaughan Cornish .........
Dr. W. Rosenhain, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Stirling

Parte INKS, RRO, vercccsos see

... Prof. J. W. Gregory
Ashington...| Prof. A. W. Kirkcaldy

/Rev. A. L. Cortie
‘Prof, H. H. Turner, F.R.S. ...

Dr. Dugald Clerk, F.R.S.

Prof. B. Moore, F.R.S..........

A. L. Smith, M.A........0c0.-+
Dr, F. A. Dixey

Ameer eee eeeeenee
see eeneeeeee

eee eeeeee

Comets.

. Decorative Art in Papua.

| Evolution and War.
| Strategic Geography of the War.

.| Making of a Big Gun.

Curiosities and Defects of Sight.

Daily Uses of Astronomy.

|Health Conditions in the Modern
Workshop.

Formation of the Sun and Stars.

Some Lessons from Astronomy.

..|Gas, Oil and Petrol Engines,

Education after the War.

Warfare in Nature.

The Evolution of Geography.

‘The Economic Outlook after the
War.

AND

SECRETARIES or THE

CONFERENCES OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES, 1901-16.!

Date and Place

1901. Glasgow ...
1902. Belfast
1903. Southport ..
1904. Cambridge
1905. London

1906. York

1907. Leicester ... |

1908. Dublin
1909. London
1910. Sheffield ...
1911. Portsmouth
1912. Dundee
1913. Birmingham

1914. Le Havre...
1915. Manchester

1916, Newcastle

1919.

(Yor 1919, see p. xliv.)
|
Chairmen | Secretaries
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S. ......... Dr. J. G. Garson, A. Somerville.
BOL. « Prof. W. W. Watts, F.G.S. .../E. J. Bles.
W. Whitaker, F.R.S. ......... F. W. Rudler.
Prof. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. |F. W. Rudler.
..{/Dr. A. Smith Woodward,|. W. Rudler.
F.R.S.
.Sebsee Sir Edward Brabrook, C.B....|F. W. Rudler.
H. J. Mackinder, M.A.......... F. W. Rudler, 1.8.0.
Eben Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S.......|W. P. D. Stebbing.
.|Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. ...|W. P. D. Stebbing.
Dr. Tempest Anderson......... W. P. D. Stebbing.
Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S....|W. P. D. Stebbing.
.| Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ...|W. P. D. Stebbing.
Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell,|W. P. D. Stebbing.
E.RB.S.
Sir H. George Fordham . |W. Mark Webb.
Sir T. H. Holland, ¥.R.S. ... |W. Mark Webb.
} President.
| Prof. G@. A. Lebour ............ W. Mark Webb.

1 Established 1885.

XXXIV

GRANTS OF MONEY.

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes, 1901-1918.

1901. Sree. Gs
Electrical Standards ......... 45 0 0
Seismological Observations... 75 0 O
Wave-length Tables............ 414 0
Isomorphous Sulphonic De-

tivatives of Benzene ...... 35 0° 0
Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ...........- 20), 0°"0
Underground Water of North-

West Yorkshire............... 50 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 15 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

HIOH Naples) Sau. cersesae cape 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20, 0°°0
Index Generum et Specierum

AMATTYicg TUT nes caieeeeene tanec cae fio~ 10-0
Migration of Birds ............ 10 0 O
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 5 O OQ
Changes of Land-level in the

Phlegrzan Fields............ 50 0 0
Legislation regulating Wo-

MEWS AVOUT sca, snsacessssas » 150° °0
Small Screw Gauge............ EN eles
Resistance of Road Vehicles

COMMTACHION cesbese ssn ssecchcnes 75 0 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 10 0 0
Ethnological Survey’ of

Canada’ .c.cssesersss RanOCAn GEE: 30 0 0
Anthropological Teaching ... 5 0 0
Exploration in Crete ......... 145 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

UID AE Se snags badconnacutodosne cee 30 0 0
Chemistry of Bone Marrow... 5 15 11
Suprarenal Capsules in the

aD bith sieccpacetanstsastese css ae) 10)
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0 0
Morphology, Ecology, and

Taxonomy of Podoste-

MAACO oe crieves ons: acca tanesaree 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MNIGGCCrenssateesaranaes iesteeesoe 15 0 0

£920 91
1902.
Electrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Seismological Observations... 35 0 O
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

RIVES acaccnessapeedbereecepeeeee 7 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOUs scmas, eeesdeeseeae eee ase 80” 0) 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Organic Sub-

SHANCES “(.teaseareecsrsoanenenare 20 0 0

£ s. d.
| Wave-length Tables............ 5 0 0
| Life-zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 45 0 O
Table at the Zoological

Station, Naples ............... 100 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalium |. tas. cages eee teenes 100 0 O
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0
Structure of Coral Reefs of

Indian Ocean......0.....-...-+ 50 0 O
Compound Ascidians of the

Olyde Area... s:ssssagerccsexcets 25 0 0
Terrestrial Surface Waves ... 15 0 0
Legislation regulating Wo-

men’s Labour............ aseigaa 30 0 0
Small Screw Gange ............ 20 0 0
Resistance of Road Vehicles

| toni ractiony oo nqsckererseenean 50 0 0
Ethnological Survey of

Canada, “wec--5: seraten dees lbp. 0) 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Exploration in Crete............ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Investigation

of Native Egyptian Soldiers 15 0 0
Excavations on the Roman

Site at Gelligaer ............ 5 0 0
Changes in Hemoglobin ...... 15 0 0
Work of Mammalian Heart

under Influence of Drugs... 20 0 0
Investigation of the Cyano-

PHY CEH 22 iensccccucvsmes nme 10 0 oO
Reciprocal Influence of Uni-

versities and Schools ...... 5 0 0
Conditions of Health essen-

tial to carrying on Work in

Hchoolsy! Gk. Soccs 2 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MIULLEE We sceeeceet = Pes Per IS) 15 0 0

£947 G 0
1903.
Electrical Standards......... -- 35 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of

RIGES. erzise conone tone e ance 7 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOUs. J, apse doses see 40 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SbalGEs! ”..: casereetasedeee see 20 0 0
Ercatic Blocks ............s0000 10 0 0
Exploration of Irish Caves... 40 0 0O
Underground Watersof North-

West Yorkshire ............... 40 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

o 28
Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks ............ 5 0
Geological Photographs ...... 10 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ............... 100 0
Index Generum et Specierum
PREMIROAMIUIN | occcnesosneaseosonss 100 0
Tidal Bore, Sea Waves, and
PROMO NER raids st .kalaegese sven 15 0
Scottish National Antarctic
b Expedition .........sccsceceeees 50 0
| Legislation affecting Women’s
BRADDN ba xistebedodiaticcddedecle’ 25 0
Researches in Crete ............ 100 0
_ Age of Stone Circles............ 3 13
_ AnthropometricInvestigation 5 0
_ Anthropometry of the Todas
: and other Tribes of Southern
MRI Faso sanpsscwotieveseekeakte « 50 0
The State of Solution of Pro-
PRIMATE ays ass gS eas'vs ax'ss'ves'en as 20 0
Investigation of the Cyano-
EVER ac capcnclss ob isccsteeds 25 0
Respiration of Plants ......... 12 0
Conditions of Health essential
for School Instruction ...... 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
(P29) A a ae 20 0
£845 13

1904.

Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere by means of
BM sivas sane snacaeb eau

Magnetic Observations at
BES IBONGN 7.555500 20s coi peacasss

Wave-length Tables of Spectra

Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BEMEEIDCES . .. cccncescsessiecnsactiecs

Erratic Blocks. ............ce.00

‘Life-zones in British Car-
boniferous Rocks ............

Fauna and Flora of the
MT ooo ceive v3 Sees ap son's
a eee ee

‘Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion, Naples ..................

Index Generum et Specierum

BUMPEMUALIUM ......-0c0secesccsces

Development in the Frog......

Researches on the Higher

BORUSLACEA | aces icsecereccsecses

British and Foreign Statistics

of International Trade......

_ Resistance of Road Vehicles

MenbO, TYACtion........:...-00060, ¢2s

_ Researches in Crete ............

Researches in Glastonbury
Lake Village

ee eee eee eee

Investigation of Fossiliferous -

50

60
10

100

100

fe Pico tom ihe HOOF sO Boe Ol ON C'Oos COS OS

SONIC mom Or.e- Saat &

N!lo o oo o [—]

‘Seismological Observations... 40 0 0

= CST FS NP ee — ae ai a Sle a)

XXXV
£ Yad

Anthropometric Investigation

of Egyptian Troops ......... 810 0

Excavations on Roman Sites

in) BYitaWh. /1..01055seacdcusanans 25 0 0

The State of Solution of Pro-

EOIOS ey traveled Titan cawonen mes 20 0 0

Metabolism of Individual

ARISSMOS .eteeecdsddeceestiesses3 4. 40 0 0

Botanical Photographs......... Tso) 11
| Respiration of Plants............ 15 0 0

Experimental Studies in

IGTOUItY, cadscecensbstateaasnces 35 0 0

Corresponding Societies Com-

mittee ..... Giedletegecvanernedte 20 0 0
£887 18 11
1905.

Electrical Standards............ 4010 0
| Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
| Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere by means of
PSU EA peetoraseccrocarnanne: 40 0 0

Magnetic Observations at Fal-

MOUGH' spss snesape <pbiewereet dees 50 0 0

Wave-length Tables of Spec-

DEAD Ne seas stddscbyaddde nes cosas se 5 0 0

Study of Hydro-aromatic

Substances ..........4. ee 25 0 0

Dynamic Isomerism............ 20 0 0

Aromatic Nitroamines ......... 25 0 0

Faunaand Flora of the British

fig Cleon EEE eee ret oe 10 0 0

Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion, Naples ............s0000. 100 0 0O
Index Generum et Specierum
MATE AIY TO seee esses sereeeney 75 0 0

Development of the Frog 10 0 0

| Investigations in the Indian
OCEAN, Hae loser tattecces tke 150 0 0

Trade Statistics ..............000 4 4 8

Researches in Crete ............ 75 0 0

Anthropometric Investiga-

tions of Egyptian Troops... 10 0 0

Excavations on Roman Sites

in: Britaiibe 23:7. Ranier. 10 0 0

AnthropometricInvestigations 10 0 0

Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0

The State of Solution of Pro-

GE1ASiy.5 sy sdsemeabees teats eaeh ows 20 0 0

Metabolism of Individual

WISSHUES | soes.o en oes cesta taeten cee 30 0 0

Ductless Glands.......00...1008 woud) 05.10

Botanical Photographs......... 3.17 6

Physiology of Heredity......... 35 0 0

Structure of Fossil Plants 50 0 0

Corresponding Societies Com-

MILLCC) wuss. Hidde ks RK 20 0 0
£928 2 2

XXXV1

GRANTS OF MONEY.

1906. £ 8. d.
Electrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at Fal-

TMOGUM . ccsncoccadauoapsverrs coe 50 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

PRETIOCA. ore ltacerceotatacssomets 99 12 6
Wave-length TablesofSpectra 5 0 O
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SEANCES ee coeuceseseees gates 25.0 0
Aromatic Nitroamines ......... LON TOSiO
Faunaand Flora of the British

RUIAS He cctee war casssbusaspescsea=8 Was! 11
Crystalline Rocks of Anglesey 30 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

TIONWNAPIES (1. ..csceceessecees 100 0
Index Animalium ............... {5.0
Development of the Frog...... 10 0
Higher Crustacea .......0....005 15 0
Freshwater Fishes of South

ATEICD ivsdeis ccesestnsueveverssss 50 O
Rainfall and Lake and River

WisCharCeG 1.2. scasasdivsceaeeer 10 0
Excavations in Crete ......... 100 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 40 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

UT BLWAIN sec cdensiecrere tees 30 0
Anthropometric Investiga-

tions in the British Isles... 30 0
State of Solution of Proteids 20 0
Metabolism of Individual

TPISSUCS: WoevsiUeedestcveceeess se 20 0
Effect of Climate upon Health

and DISCABC ii ssssascvctardecte 20 0
Research on South African

CY CAGS*-serceneveecces .ccawaceee’ 14.19
Peat Moss Deposits ............ 25 0
Studies suitable for Hlemen-

1) tary Schools) ..ccesseus.0-ccees 5 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
WMILUCC. caranaateneae soctis oat 25000
£882 0
1907.
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 0
Seismological Observations... 40 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Halmouth cease. Wee 8s 40 0 0
Magnetic Survey of South

Afrien, . wera het ay Z2bwWToLG
Wave-length Tables _ of

DPeCbra Wid. cd. teveswteaee ase 10 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic

Substances...........scceceeeee 30 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0 0
Life Zones in British Car-

boniferous Rocks ............ 10 0 O
Erratic Blocks ............... 10 0 0
Fauna and Flora of British

Pras. castes hasten eth 10 0 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone of

South-West Engiand ...... 15 0 0

clo o oy 2 i=) oo i=) ooo o oooo fo)

!

Tae ys!

Correlation and Age of South
African Strata, &c. ......... 10 0 0

| Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples........ ss... 100 0 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0 0

Development of the Sexual
Cells). -cas.cceesscersesste eee 111 8

Oscillations of the Land Level
in the Mediterranean Basin 50 0 0

Gold Coinage in Circulation
in the United Kingdom ... 819 7

| Anthropometric = Investiga-
tions in the British Isles... 10 0 0

Metabolism of Individual
| THSSUGS: <... sss .ccaseeveenenmeeee 45 0 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 25 0 0

Effect of Climate upon Health
and Disease iiieuscstettss 55 0 0
Physiology of Heredity ...... 30 0 O

| Research on South African
Oycads. .....iteseccoceseteesckanw 35 0 0
Botanical Photographs.....,... 5 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 5 0 0
Marsh Vegetation............+6+ 1 0 0

Corresponding Societies Com-
MIthCe .; saaseen cheese Meamanee oe 1614 1
£757 12 10

1908.

Seismological Observations... 40 0 0

Further Tabulation of Bessel
Min ChIONS Sise se eees Sean esau 15is 0" 0

Investigation of Upper Atmo-
sphere by means of Kites... 25 0 0

Meteorological Observations
on Ben Nevis.........006 cseees 25 0 0
Geodetic Arc in Africa......... 200 0 O
Wave-lengthTablesof Spectra 10 0 0

Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-
SUANGES. cvosassvesesesd seebaabess 30 0 0
| Dynamic Isomerism ..,......... 40 0 0

Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines .........s.0sss0 . 30 0 0
Erratic Blocks °............ss000 1716 6

| Fauna and Flora of British
|'\4 "Wrids' ..ccissssstessssceeeesssene 10 0 O

Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the
British Isles) Zoi cscvcsces sane 10 0 0
Pre-Devonian Rocks............ 10 0 0

Exact Significance of Local
TOrMs ...icesaus-saceseaneeaceeeee 5 0 0

| Composition of Charnwood
Rocks’. .22:3:2453.. So). caeeeees 10 0 0

Table at the Zoological Station
at Naplesi:tiicss.ceseuecerseaade 100 0 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0 0
| Hereditary Experiments ...... 10 0 0

‘Fauna of Lakes of Central
Pasmaniay:reasccsegeeeeee meena 40 0 0

' Investigations in the Indian
Ocean cissactecescotedieaa cone 50 0 O

—————

GENERAL STATEMENT,

£ 8. a.
Exploration in Spitsbergen... 30 0 0
Gold Coinage in Circulation

in the United Kingdom...... 3 7 6
Electrical Standards ......... 50 0 0
Glastonbury Lake Village ... 30 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

THODYYERIN 3... cc eee necenesaees 15 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 50 0 0
Anthropological Notes and

BIE MOS Oy reacacec doco senses Pr 40 0 O
Metabolism of Individual

RCA reer dcccpasenceceadensnsls© 40 0 0
The Ductless Glands............ 13 14 8
Effect of Climate upon Health

and Disease........scesceesenees 35 0 O
Body Metabolism in Cancer... 30 0 0
Electrical Phenomena and

Metabolism of Arum Spa-

RMS UR ecen.acaases-nsxces-- sss sas 10 0 O
Marsh Vegetation ............... 15 0 O
Succession of Plant Remains 18 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

UIEECOliscessspecceccs vevcsunssss 25 0 0

£1,157 18 8
1909.
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Investigation of the Upper At-

mosphere bymeans of Kites 10 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

Falmouth © ..........0eceeeeeeee 50 0 O
Establishing a Solar Ob-

servatory in Australia ...... 50 0 0
Wave-lengthTablesofSpectra 916 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

BEANCES’ 203.0... .2ccececavesseee 15: 00
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic

Nitroamines ...........:..00++ 10 0 0
Blectroanalysis ...........000-4+ 30 0 0
Fauna and Flora of British

SEEIAS lec ycec dense scseacseesse'esn' 8 0 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

British Isles .........ceeseeees 8 0 0
Paleozoic Rocks of Wales and

the West of England .....- ee a)
Igneous and Associated Sedi-

mentary Rocks of Glensaul 1113 9
Investigations at Biskra ...... 500010
Table at the Zoological Station

MENDES Pies oresessecseas. 100 0 0
Heredity Experiments......... 10 0 O
Feeding Habits of British

PAM Cer. . cbis! ac scisistetsazazas 5000
Index Animalium............... 75 0 0
Investigations in the Indian

Deans, .osthusceassstesssestd sss 35 0 0
Gaseous Explosions ............ 75 0 O
Excavations on Roman Sites

AW BritAin’ .....0ccrceeseecceeee D0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 30 0 0
Researches in Crete............ TOF Os 0

XXXVU

£ 8. a.

The Ductless Glands ......... 8b »0)4:0
Electrical Phenomenaand Me-

tabolism of Arwm Spadices 10 0 0
Reflex Muscular Rhythm...... 10 0 O
Anesthetics ....2.:..0ssccccecses 25 0 0
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 27 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants... 5 0 0
Botanical Photographs......... 10 0 0
Experimental Study of

FRGTCCULY.<.--sesccsccccsnssnacss 30 0 0
Symbiosis between Tur-

bellarian Worms and Alge 10 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 66 0 0
CurriculaofSecondary Schools 5 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

IMIGHCE 2c cnsyieveencnsenanieseacad 21 0 0

£1,014 9 9
1910.
Measurement of Geodetic Arc

in South Africa........00..... 100 0 0
Republication of Hlectrical

Standards Reports ......... 100 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

WalmMOUth nos ccecsasswasue=s cen 25 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere .........sesereees 25 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

StANCES!) Wives evoeevesccnsays 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism............ 35 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic

Nitroamines ........cscseeeeee 15 0 O
Electroanalysis ......,.-.sessse0e 10 0 0
Faunal Succession in the Car-

boniferous Limestone in the

British sles os. te sces eee ess 10 0 0
South African Strata ......... Bo O30
Fossils of Midland Coalfields 25 0 O
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples .............+ 100 0 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0 0
Heredity Experiments........ 15 0 0
Feeding Habits of Brivisn

[BIL Gi era necee tens sccreneeanet ss 5°0 0
Amount ‘and Distribution of

THEONTE Masse -tddapeewaarencte's 15 0 0
Gaseous Explosions ............ foro 0
Lake Villages in the Neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites

DOS LT Dale ceils oee smetesteel 5 0 0
Neolithic Sites in Northern

(ANEGCCEL. atoreoresssncencsube aoe ro OO
The Ductless Glands ......... 40 0 06
Body Metabolismin Cancer... 20 0 0
Anesthetics ......0....c:scececes 25 0 0
Tissue Metabolism ............ 25 0 0
Mentaland Muscular Fatigue 18 17 0
Electromotive Phenomena in

AAs cgasnscacveteesceesaents® 10 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 10 0 0
Experimental Study of

CPedI ty << cebeccscanesan sarees 30 0 O

XXXVili

£ 8s. d.
Survey of Ciare Island......... 30 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MILE EL. actors haces teerneeee 20 0 0
£963 17 O
1911.
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at

WalmOuthy eraececccsccasesrans 25 0 0
Investigation of the Upper

Atmosphere ....2...0s2seeeeee 2p. 00
International Commission on

Physical and Chemical

Constants ...........sesseree. 30 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic Sub-

SDATICCSU MRM elsaisndelsacaecoeceissle 20 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 25 0
Transformation of Aromatic

INIGTOAMINGS! ce. cee saesurien 15 0
Hlectroanalysis ........sseeeeeeee 15 0
Influence of Carbon, &c., on

Corrosion of Steel............ 15 6
Crystalline Rocksof Anglesey 2 0
Mammalian Fauna in Miocene

Deposits, Bugti Hills, Balu-

OMIS CAD ee res escinssioe seasons scan 75 9
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............00. 100 0
Index Animalium ............... 75 0
Feeding Habits of British

BIRGS Paeceeson es aBntiadasubstato seek
Belmullet Whaling Station... 380 0
Map of Prince Charles Fore-

LANG eeciceng shone stan asacesurciders 30 0
Gaseous Explosions .....,...... 90 0
Lake Villages in the Neigh-

bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0
Age of Stone Circles......... See LO
Artificial Islands in Highland

HG QCH EME evecesvessaees on ac rawang 10 0
The Ductless Glands............ 40 0
ATI SthHetiCs weceovpeneccmges axe 20 0

Mental and Muscular Fatigue 25 0
Electromotive Phenomena in -

IPIANUB oss scocechcnsccsaececessss 10 0
Dissociation of Oxy-Hemo-

SIODIN .. sey cnasp eats epee eccds anc 25 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0
Experimental Study of

THI@KCOUGY; cscs vscasnecederes<oeoss 45 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0
Registration of Botanical

Photographs ............0..0+ 10), 0 «0
Mental and Physical Factors

involved in Education ...... 10 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

mittee ........... wage cabcesmeidet 20 0 0

£922 0 0

oo oo oo So

oo oo =) So on oo oo oo oo o

|

GRANTS OF MONEY.

£ 8.. a,
1912.)
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
Magnetic Observations at,
Hal mouth’ ii eceseeesteeeeasae 25 0 O
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere .......2...0s0+0+- 30 0 0
International Commission on
Physical and Chemical
COonStants coccncsnversecaepeeee 30 0 0
Further Tabulation of Bessel
BaOncChions csece- +h eee neneeeeee tS ORO
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances........ ABBE nSaC see 20 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 30 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ........ aeepepetinn 10 0 0
Hlectroanalysis .........seesseee ste OE
Study of Plant Enzymes...... 30: 0, 0
Erratic BloCKS ........2.seseee0e 5 0 0
Igneous and Associated Rocks
of Glensaul, &C...........0000- 15 0 0
List of Characteristic Fossils 5 O O
Sutton Bone Bed .......... iecest alte OCU,
Bembridge Limestone at
Creechbarrow Hill ......... 20 0 0
Table at the Zoological
Station at Naples..... oonth pant Ores0)
Index Animalium...... sopaeeeee 75,0, ,0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 20 0 0
Secondary Sexual Characters
IN BSITAS Vs. eceloes sacs cee sasicoo tpl Ok pp QumnO
Gaseous Explosions azaleas cHeee 60 0 0
Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 0
Artificial Islands in High-
lame WOCHSiesesse-+ pene aspeceee 10 0 0
Physical Character of Ancient
Egyptians ........ odes Se paaaiiee 40 0 0
Excavation in Easter Island 15 0 0
The Ductless Glands ........ _ 385 0 0
Calorimetric Observations on
MM ain sis ome apieeans aes hereeten 40 0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants nae lintlO vig
Experimental Study of
LETC tY.c5.0 «be smaee cares ae 35 0 0
Survey of Clare Island......... 20 0 0
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 15 0 0
Overlapping between Second-
ary and Higher Education 118 6
| Curricula, &c., of Industrial
and Poor Law Schools...... 10 0 0
Influence of School Books
upon Hyesight ........6...0+. 3. 9..0
Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee....... Bech scobuderonocaes- 25 0:0
Collections illustrating
Natural History of Isle of
Wight...... ropa ee one 40 0 0
£845 7 6

1 For grants froza Caird Fund in this and following years, see p. 1xxii.

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1913. SO AG) de
Seismological Investigations 60 0 0
Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere ..........s0es000- 50 0 0
International Commission on
Physical and Chemical
PTHSUANTR) 235226 cis csc cesncsems 40 0 0
Further Tabulation of Bessel
BRRMICIIONB to 2c. -cescoeceeracceve 30 0 0
Study of Hydro-aromatic
PIMDBEANGCES..2....20cscccceeenss 20 0 O
Dynamic Isomerism............ 30 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic
INGETOAMINES ......0002.c00e..e0e 20 0 0
Study of Plant Enzymes...... 30 0 0
Igneous and Associated Rocks
Of Glensaul, &C.....0..c0.00000 10% G20
List of Characteristic Fossils 5 0 0
Exploration of the Upper Oid
RedSandstoneof DuraDen 75 0 0
Geology of Ramsey Island... 10 0 0
Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
MEPITORGAN . ....2.0cccesesccesee. 1L5})'0.40
Table at the Zoological Sta-
tion at Naples ............... 50 0 O
Ditto (Special Grant) ......... 50 0 0
Nomenclator Animalium
Generum et Sub-generum 100 0 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 15 0 0
Ditto (Special Grant) ......... 10 0 0
Gaseous Explosions............ 80 0 0
Lake Villages in the Neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... 5 0 O
Age of Stone Circles (Special
Grant) ...... ERE eee Louk O'es0
Artificial Islands in the High-
lands of Scotland ............ 5 0 0
Excavations on Roman Sites
MPESTEUALIT \35550.cscevescecesoss 15 0 0
Hausa Manuscripts ............ 20 0 0
The Ductless Glands ......... 40 0 0
Calorimetric Observations on
MPMRTUETSS sais sop de odelycespanet6’ >: 45 0 O
Dissociation of Oxy-Hzemo-
globin at High Altitudes... 15 0 0
Structure and Function of
the Mammalian Heart...... 20,.0 0
Structure of Fossil Plants ... 15 0 0
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire 412 4
Vegetation of Ditcham Park,
BMMNPSLITG. =. s.0r...00-0sc00e= 45 0 0
Influence of School Books on
LU THEU Soe aa 9-4. ad
Corresponding Societies Com-
UNCER SRE GES Oe BASBSOr oper 25 0 0
OTB SET M1

1914.

Seismological Investigations 130 0 0

Investigation of the Upper
Atmosphere

International Commission on
Physical and Chemical
Constames YS... Re

Disposal of Copies of the
‘ Binary Canon’
Study of Hydro-aromatic
Substances) svevsss.t.cseesese
Dynamic Isomerism............
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ............0.006
Study of Plant Enzymes......
Correlation of Crystalline
Form with Molecular Struc-
MORO T OP Tevtanqacsevtteeenat a aes
Study of Solubility Pheno-
Meal I. s....c.esb esha ae
List of Characteristic Fossils
Geology of Ramsey Island ...
Fauna and Flora of Trias of
Western Midlands .........
Critical Sections in Lower
Palaeozoic Rocks ..........+.
Belmullet Whaling Station...
Nomenclator Animalium
Generum et Sub-generum
Antarctic Whaling Industry
Maps for School and Univer-
sity Use tices sheaccseseeee
Gaseous Explosions............
Stress Distributions in Engi-
neering Materials ............
Lake Villages in the Neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury...
Age of Stone Circles .........
Artificial Islands in the High-
lands of Scotland ............
Excavations on Roman Sites
INPDUIGAM cosessses sacesnenaes
Anthropometric Investiga-
tions in Cyprus. ............
Paleolithic Site in Jersey ...
The Ductless Glands .........
Calorimetric Observations on

Structure and Function of the
Mammalian Heart
Binocular Combination of
Kinematograph Pictures ...
Structure of Fossil Plants ...
Jurassic Flora of Yorkshire
Flora of the Peat of the
Kennet Valley ............++.
Vegetation of Ditcham Park
Physiology of Heredity
Breeding Experiments with
(notheras
Mental and Physical Factors
involved in Education......
Influence of School Books on
Kyesight...... Resreamecarciccscs

eae eeteee

Peet w weer neeeenee

XXX1X

o (>) ooo o So (=) =) oo. co oo o ooo o coo oo

i=)
iy

o
oro oo

oo co o So o

oO ad cwo ooo i=) Oo ooo o o oo o coo oo oo o ooo Oo

cc

xl GRANTS
so ae
Character, Work, and Main-
tenance of Museums......... 10 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
INILGCE, . Le nerieonssenskvaddec sees 25 0 0
£1,086 16 4
1915.
Seismological Observations... 130 0 0
Annual Table of Constants,
WGA, (aobeesssenssnscvasretesse edie 40 0 0
Calculation of Mathematical
WADLES Ae. scactncvovanracvesecsere 25 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 40 0 0
Transformation of Aromatic
Nitroamines ................5- 20° 0 0
Study of Plant Enzymes ...... 10 0 0
Chemical Investigation of
Natural Plant Products ... 50 0 0
Influence of Weather Condi- :
tions on Nitrogen Acids in
Rainfall . Uy. esac steoderiees 40 0 0
Non-Aromatic Diazonium
Salts: icesccete tonsa dddes sess 5 0
Biology of Abrolhos Islands 40 0
Collection of Marsupials...... 100 0
Survey of Stor Fjord, Spits-
ergeniv. ..ctdissectwesisees soak 50 0
Antarctic Bathymetrical
Chart osecest ist We ekkes 100 0
Fatigue from Economic Stand-
point ...... S58 Scco gan bseaciadda 30 0
Gaseous Explosions ............ 50. 0
Stress Distributions ......... 50 0
Lake Villages in the Neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury... 20 0
Age of Stone Circles ......... 10 0
Paleolithic Site in Jersey ... 50 0
Excavations in Malta ......... 10 0
Gazetteer and Map of Native
Tribes in Australia ......... 20 0
Electromotive Phenomena, of
GhHEVHEarh wiccsecccsccessdecsees 20 0
Metabolism of Phosphates... 20 0
Structure of Fossil Plants... 6 0
Physiology of Heredity ...... 45 0
Renting of Cinchona Botanic
Station, Jamaica ............ 25 0
Influence of Percentages
of Oxygenit.. Saieni.enk. 50 0
Australian Cycadacee ....... re) Zaiteng
Sections of Australian Fossil
PIANLSY, soca0ieoetenee cotes's tak Me 25 0
Influence of School Books on
WYESIONG ssi.tsnscossveevs cesece 5 0 0
Scholarships, &c., held by
University Students ..... Sot mu
Character, Work, and Main-
tenance of Museum)s......... 20 0
Corresponding Societies Com-
MILES. .csnwswcveste eerste tene 25 O
£1,159 2

—) O° l=) ooco (=) oooco oe S fo) j=) ooo

on SO =~ 7-00

MONEY.
1916. eau
Seismological Investigations 130 0 0
Tables of Constants ............ 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 35 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 20 0 0
Non-Aromatic Diazonium

Balls 22. 22 cckescemesctecereaeeeee 810 0
Old Red Sandstone Rock of

Kiltorean '..s.cce-ceanneeesse Tone 0
Old Red Sandstone Rock. of

RBynie?. 27... cckeceste ee eeeeeeee 250° 0
Belmullet Whaling Station... 25 0 0
Fatigue from Economic Stand-

POMC. ...ccceeees Sueseawaete 20 0 0
Industrial Unrest ..,.....-...... 20 0 0
Women in Industry ............ 99 0 0
Effect of War on Credit ...... 25 0 0
Stress Distributions ............ 40 0 0
Engineering Problems affect-

ing the Prosperity of the

Country .....beh eee 10 0 0
Physical Characters of Ancient

Hoy plans), i. ssseseccsenteeeeertes 12 8 1
Paleolithic Site in Jersey ... 25 0 0
Distribution of Bronze Age

Implements.........0sceceoesses 3) 509
Ductless Glands (1914)......... 35 0 0

if GLO ees. 14 0 0
Physiology of Heredity ...... 45 0 0
Renting of Cinchona Station 1210 0
Mental and Physical Factors

involved in Education ...... 20 0 0
School Books and Eyesight... 3 5 O
Museums: ... Weeceedecceareeeaanses 15 0 0
Free Place System ........... 10 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

IMIGHEE!, (J, coseseerswscucdaemersee 25 0 0

£715 18 10

1917.

Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Tables of Constants ............ 40 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 20 0 0
Dynamic Isomerism ............ 15 0 0
Absorption Spectra, &c. ...... 10 0 0
Old Red Sandstone Rocks of

IKGIDORGAN ences een aene Calls Spi chaps
Fatigue from EHconomic

Standpoint’.........2-cscesssen. 40 0 0
Physical Character of Ancient

Hey pttansssscecessee ste npen es reel Ke ide
Paleolithic Site in Jersey ... 25 0 0
Archeological Investigation

AE) WA eibee «2c anceess==e) ieeeees 2002.0
Distribution of Bronze Age

Implements” (i ccssceceretotsee Ll 3
Artificial Islands in Highland

TGCS ceceseeeseee Soc nessocs of loro
Ductless Glands..............0008 6 0 0
Psyehological War Research 10 0 0
Physiology of Heredity ...... 45 0 O

GENERAL
£ 8.
Ecology of Fungi ............... 8 0
Mental and Physical Factors
involved in Education ...... 10 0
DMITIROUMIB 22.03 05.. ces odd sewwssesesee 15 0
School Books and Eyesight 5 0
Free Place System ............ 15. 0
Science Teaching in Second-
BUY SCHOGIS. Le !..c00..adaeveess Sas |
Corresponding Societies Com-
WEUURURR eerie axes seesenavesecases 25 0
£427 17
1918.
Seismological Observations... 100 0 0
Colloid Chemistry and its In-
dustrial Applications 10 0 0

Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan

Pere neces sete eeeenee

5 0 0

wlio o ocoo Of

STATEMENT. xli
£ 8. a.
Inheritance in Silkworms Sid! 20
| Women in Industry ............ 10%, .0;.,0
| } GOLAN). 10.0: 11
| Effects of the War on Credit
| CLG), accaggees stecedacnesstpecesae- 10 0 0
| i (ISL) LO, 0} 0
Archeological Investigation
ADE Malta ws .addaeseeeeedes ese tt LOM020
Distribution of Bronze Age
| Implements ............0.000- 018 6
_ Artificial Is]ands in Haaeinnd
lenptluoobiay fae ..toi$2s care «void fas bass 210 0
| Physiology of Heredity ...... 15 0 0
| Free Place System ............ 5 0 0
| Science Teaching in Second-
| ary Schools,........0s05-0+<:2«- 4 310
Corresponding Societies Com-
WMIGCE Grip -ctace she dawesiede sos nsx 25 0.0
£220 13 3

xlii GENERAL MEETINGS.

GENERAL MEETINGS AT BOURNEMOUTH.

On Tuesday, September 9, at 8.30 p.m., in the Winter Gardens
Pavilion, Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S., resigned the office of President to
the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S. Before vacating the
chair, Sir Arthur Evans moved, and it was unanimously resolved, that
the following message be forwarded to His Majesty the King :—

Your Masesty,—

On the occasion of the outbreak of the great war we, the Members of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science, at that time assembled in
our eighty-fifth Congress, gave an unanimous expression to our devoted loyalty
to Your Majesty’s person, which Your Majesty was graciously pleased to
acknowledge.

To-day, once more assembled in our eighty-seventh Congress, it is our heart-
felt desire on the victorious conclusion of the war and the formal proclamation of
peace, to renew those assurances and to express, in more than a formal manner,
our high sense of the example of self-sacrificing devotion to the service of the
country that has been so simply offered by Your Majesty throughout this long
and arduous struggle.

We are painfully, aware indeed that, in spite of the decision in the field, the
period of stress is by no means over. We cannot from our special point of view
be blind to the extent to which the bitter emergencies of war-time have been
prejudicial to those ideas and methods which it is our mission to promote. But
in the not less arduous struggle that lies before us to regain the stable paths of
peace we are heartened by the knowledge that the same wise and conciliating
influence and high example that was of such sovran help to the British people
in war-time will still be with them.

His Majesty was graciously pleased to accept the above Address.

Sir Arthur Evans referred to eminent members of the Association
who had died since the previous meeting. These included the follow-
ing :—

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., President, 1884; Trustee-
1883-1919.

Sir Wilham Crookes, F.R.S., President, 1898.

Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., General Treasurer, 1898-1904;
Trustee, 1916-19.

Dr. A. G. Vernon Harcourt F.R.S., General Secretary, 1883-1897

Sir Charles Parsons then delivered an Address, for which see page 3.

On Wednesday evening, September 10, at 8 p.m., a conversazione
was given in the Winter Gardens Pavilion by His Worship the Mayor
of Bournemouth.

On Thursday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m., in the Winter Gardens
Pavilion, Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ The
Palace of Minos and the Prehistoric Civilisation of Crete.’ (See p. 416.)

On Friday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the Winter Gardens
Pavilion, Mr. Sidney G. Brown, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on
‘The Gyroscopic Compass.’ (See p. 418.)

After the above discourse (the occasion being the concluding General
Meeting), the following resolution was unanimously adopted on the
motion of the President :—

That the cordial thanks of the British Association be extended to the Mayor.
Corporation, and Citizens of the Borough of Bournemouth (especially to the

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1919. xliii

members of Bournemouth Natural History Society) for their hearty welcome, to
the Corporation in particular for placing their magnificent Municipal College
and the Winter Gardens Pavilion at the disposal of the Association; to the
Municipal and other Authorities, particularly those of H.M. Cordite Factory,
Holton Heath, who have authorised facilities for excursions of high scientific
interest ; and finally to the Local Officers and their able assistants, and to the
Local Executive Committee and individual members thereof for the admirable
arrangements made for the meeting.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS AT THE BOURNEMOUTH
MEETING, 1919.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. A. Gray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Col.
Sir Charles Close, K.B.E., C.B., F.R.S., Sir Oliver Lodge, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.,
Prof. A. N. Whitehead, Sc.D., F.R.S. Secretaries.—W. Makower, M.A., D.Sc.
oS ;H. R. Hassé; J. Jackson; A. O. Rankine, D.Se.; E. Fenwick, M.A.,
LL.D., B.Sc.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. EH. C.
C. Baly, C.B.E., M.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. G. G. Henderson, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.1.C. Secretaries.—A. Holt, M.A., D.Sc. (Recorder); Prof. C. H.
Desch, D.Sc., Ph.D.; Prof. R. Robinson, D.Sc.; H. Painter, B.Se., F.C.S.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—J. W. Evans, D.Se., LL.B., F.G.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof.
W. S. Boulton, D.Se., F.G.S.; Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, D.Sc., F.R.S.; Dr. W. G.
Miller; Prof. 8. H. Reynolds, M.A., Sc.D.; Prof. W. J. Sollas, Se.D., F.R.S.;
Sir A. Strahan, K.B.E., F.R.S. Secretaries.—W. T. Gordon, D.Se. (Recorder) ;
Prof. A. R. Dwerryhouse, D.Sc.; G. Hickling, D.Sce.; W. T. Ord, L.R.C.P.
Lond., M.R.C.S.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—F. A. Dixey, M.A., M.D.,F.B.S. _Vice-Presidents.—K. J. Allen,
D.Se., F.R.S.; Prof. E. W. MacBride, D.Sc., F.R.S.; Lt.-Col. H. W. Marett
Tims, O.B.E.,.M.D. Secretaries.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Re-
corder) ; F. Balfour Browne, M.A.; R. Douglas Laurie, M.A.; F. G. Penrose,
M.D., M.R.C.P., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Prof. L. W. Lyde, M.A. Vice-Presidents.—G. G. Chisholm,
M.A., B.Sc.; Prof. H. J. Fleure, D.Se.; Col. Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.M.G.,
K.C.L.E., C.B.; Miss M. I. Newbigin, D.Sc.; E. A. Reeves, F.R.G.S. Secre-
taries.—J. McFarlane, M.A. (Recorder) ; C. B. Fawcett ; J. Scattergood.

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., D.L., J.P. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. A.
W. Kirkaldy, M.A., M.Com.; Prof. W. R. Scott, M.A., Litt.D. Secretaries.—
C. R. Fay, M.A. (Recorder); A. W. Ashby; J. Cunnison ; F. H. Pilcher.

xliv OFFICERS OF SECTIONS.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

President.—Prof. J. E. Petavel, D.Sc., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W.
E. Dalby, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.; Sir A. Ewing, F.R.S.; Sir E. Tennyson d’Kyn-
court, K.C.B. ; Sir R. Hadfield, Bart., D.Sc., F.R.S.; Prof. G. G. Stoney, F.R.S.
Secretaries.— Prof. G. W. O. Howe, D.Sc. (Recorder) ; Prof. W. H. Watkinson ;
I. Bulfin, B.A., A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.L.E.E.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President.—Prof. A. Keith, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—W.
Crooke, B.A.; R. R. Marett, D.Sce.; Prof. J. L. Myres, M.A. F.S.A. Secre-
taries.—F. C. Shrubsall, M.A., M.D. (Recorder); E. N. Fallaize, B.A.; Rev.
E. O. James ; Claude Lyon.

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. D. Noél Paton, M.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents.—Prof.
W. M. Bayliss, D.Sc., F.R.S. ; Prof. A. R. Cushny, M.D., F.R.S.; Prof. W. D.
Halliburton, M.D., F.R.S.; C. S. Myers, M.D., Se.D., F.R.S.; Prof. W. H. R.
Rivers, M.D., F.R.S.; Prof. E. H. Starling, M.D. Secretaries—H. E. Roaf,
M.D., D.Sc. (Recorder) ; C. L. Burt; A. C. Coles, M.D., D.Se.; C. Lovatt
Evans, D.Se.

SECTION K,—BOTANY.

President.—Sir Daniel Morris, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Se., D.C.L., LL.D.
Vice-Presidents—Rev. Prof. Henslow; Prof. M. C. Potter, M.A.: <A. B.
Rendle, M.A., F.R.S.; Miss E. R. Saunders, F.L.8.; D. H. Seott, LL.D.,
D.Se., F.R.S.; H. W. T. Wager, F.R.S. Secretaries—Miss EK. N. Thomas,
D.Sc. (Recorder) ; F. T. Brooks ; W. E. Hiley ; W. Munn Rankin, M.Sce., B.Sc.

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Sir Napier Shaw, M.A., Se.D., F.B.S. Vice-Presidents.—
Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir R. Blair, M.A., B.Se.; Prof.
J. A. Green, M.A.; Sir R. A. Gregory; E. H. Griffiths, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. ;
Rev. Canon W. Temple, M.A. Secretaries.—D. Berridge, M.A. (Recorder) ;
C. E. Browne, B.Se.; E. H. Tripp, Ph.D. ; C. J. Whitting.

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

President.— Prof. W. Somerville, D.Se. Vice-Presidents.—Principal P. H.
Foulkes ; F.. W. Keeble, C.B.E., Se.D., F.R.S.; E. J. Russell, O.B.E., D.Sce.,
F.R.S.; Rt. Hon. Viscount Wimborne. Secretaries—A. Lauder, D.Se.
(Recorder) ; C. G. T. Morrison; T. J. Meaby, F.S.1.

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES.

President.—The Right Hon. Lord Montagu of Beaulieu, C.C., J.P., V.D.,
D.L. Vice-President.—W. Dale, F.S.A. Secretary.—W. Mark Webb.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlv

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1918-19.

I. The Council have to record with deep regret the death of Lord
RayueicH, O.M., F.R.S. (President, 1884; Trustee, 1883-1919), of Sir
Wiuiam Crooxes, O.M., F.R.S. (President, 1898), of Groras
Carry Fostrr, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (General Treasurer, 1898-1904;
Trustee, 1916-19); and of Aucustus GrorGE VERNON Harcourt,
M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S. (General Secretary, 1883-97).

II. Professor W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., has been unanimously
nominated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Associa-
tion for the year 1920-21 (Cardiff Meeting).

III. Resolutions referred by the General Committee, July 5, 1918,
to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were dealt
with as follows :—

From the General Committee.

‘That, having regard to the expression of opinion here and else-
where, the Council be respectfully requested to consider the
question of holding a Meeting of the Association in or near
London during the year 1919, if the Bournemouth Meeting
be dropped.’

On consideration of this resolution, the Council appointed the follow-
ing Committee (with power to add to their number) :—

The President and General Officers, the President-elect, Sir E.
Brabrook, Sir Dugald Clerk, Sir R. A. Gregory, Sir E. im
Thurn, Major P. A. MacMahon,

with the following terms of reference:

“To consider and report upon the question whether, in the event
of it being impossible to hold an ordinary Annual Meeting in
1919 in Bournemouth or elsewhere, a Meeting of the Associa-
tion in London is desirable, and, if so, to suggest arrangements
for such a Meeting.’

It was fortunately, however, unnecessary for the above Committee
to meet, as the invitation from Bournemouth was cordially renewed and
unanimously accepted, the Council expressing thanks on behalf of the
_ Association to the municipality of Bournemouth for the renewed

invitation.

xlvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

From Section H.

‘The Organising Committee of Section H submit to the Committee
of Recommendations that they should recommend the Council
of the Association to send a communication on behalf of the
Association to the University of New Zealand, Wellington,
stating that ‘‘ the British Association for the Advancement
of Science expresses its strong approval of the movement
for promoting the teaching of anthropology by the University
of New Zealand.’’’

The Council resolved that such a communication should be for-
warded.

TV. The General Officers reported to the Council that they had
received from the Assistant Secretary a memorandum dealing with the
future cost and distribution of the Annual Volume, with membership
fees and rights, and with certain arrangements at Annual Meetings,
and that they considered these matters worthy of consideration by the
Council.

The Council appointed the following Committee (with power to add
to their number) :—

The President and General Officers, the President-elect, Mr. D.
Berridge, Sir E. Brabrook, Sir Dugald Clerk, Sir R. A.
Gregory, Dr. E. H. Griffiths, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Dr. A
Holt, Dr. Ethel Thomas,

with the following terms of reference :—

‘To review and report upon the working of the Association, with
especial reference to the future cost and distribution of the
Annual Volume, membership fees and rights, arrangements
at the Annual Meeting, and other matters germane to the
receipts and expenditure of the Association.’

The Committee duly reported, and the Council, having adopted the
report with one amendment, transmit it to the General Committee as
a separate addendum to the present report.

V. Onthe proposal of the South African Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, it was resolved that the trustees of the South African
Medal Fund should in future be designated as follows (in amendment
of resolution under Minute of Council, Nov. 1906, §3):—

The Superintendent-General of Education for the Cape Province,
the Controller and Auditor-General for the Unjon of South
Africa, the Registrar of the University of South Africa.

VI. The Royal Society made a grant to the Association of £100
for physical research and £150 for purposes of publication. The grate-
ful thanks of the Council were conveyed to the Society.

VII. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research were
asked, and consented, to recommend the publication of the Second

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. xlvul

Report on Colloid Chemistry by H.M. Stationery Office, and this has
been done in the name of the Association, the Stationery Office
acquiring the copyright, and the Association receiving 2,000 copies of
the report for incorporation with the Annual Volume, at the cost price

of £70).

VIII. Carrp Funp.—The Council made the following grant during
the year, additional to annual grants previously made :—

Conjoint Board of Scientific Societies . ‘ ' ap el0

LX. CoNFERENCE oF DELEGATES and CoRRESPONDING SOCIETIES
COMMITTEE :—

The following Nominations are made by the Council :—

Conference of Delegates.—Lord Montagu of Beaulieu (President),
Mr. W. Dale (Vice-President), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary).

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Mr. W. Whitaker (Chair-
man), Mr. W. Mark Webb (Secretary), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham, Mr. A. L. Lewis, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,

_ Mr. Mark L. Sykes, and the President and General Officers of the
_ Association.

: X. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
during the past year. His accounts have been audited and are presented

to the General Committee.

XI. The retiring members of the Council are :—

By seniority.—Sir E. Brabrook, Prof. W. D. Halliburton.
By least attendance.—Prof. H. N. Dickson, Sir E. Rutherford,
Prof. F. E. Weiss.

The Council nominated the following members :—

Prof. A. Fowler,
Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy,
Prof. J. L. Myres,

: leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
- nomination by the Council.

The full list of nominations of ordinary members is as follows :—

Dr. E. F. Armstreng. Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy.
Prof. W. A. Bone. Sir Daniel Morris.
Sir Dugald Clerk. Prof. J. L. Myres.

; Prof. A. Dendy. Prof. W. H. Perkin.

} Dr. F. A. Dixey. Dr. E. J. Russell.

+ Sir F. W. Dyson. Miss E. R. Saunders.
Prof, A. Fowler. Prof. W. R. Scott.
Sir R. A. Gregory. Prof. E. H. Starling.
Dr. S. F. Harmer. Sir A. Strahan.
Sir Everard im Thurn. Mr. W. Whitaker.
Prof. J. H. Jeans. Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Prof. A. Keith.

xvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

XI. Tuer Grenerat Orricers have been nominated by the Council
as follows :—

General Treasurer: Prof. J. Perry.
General Secretary: Prof. H. H. Turner.

The Council received, with great regret, Prof. W. A. Herdman’s
resignation of the office of General Secretary, which he had held since
1903.

The Council appointed a committee, consisting of the President and
General Officers, the President-elect, Sir J. J. Thomson, Dr. T. G.
Bonney, Sir E. Sharpey Schafer, Sir Oliver Lodge, Prof. W. Bate-
son, Prof. A. Schuster, Dr. A. Vernon Harcourt, Dr. D. H. Scott,
Major P. A. MacMahon, and Sir E. Brabrook, to select a name or
names for the consideration of the Council when nominating Prof.
Herdman’s successor.

On the report of this Committee, the Council have made the following
nomination :—

General Secretary: Prof. J. L. Myres.

XIII. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee :—

Dr. E. N. da C. Andrade. Prof. F. A. Lindemann.
Prof. P. G. H. Boswell. Dr. A. Low.

Prof. L. Doncaster. Miss T. L. Prankerd.
Prof. A. Fowler. Lady Shaw.

Sir R. Hadfield. Sir R. F. Stupart.

Prof. H. H. Hilton, Dr. C. Tierney.

Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis.

—

THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION. xlix

THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION.

REPORT BY THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL
COMMITTEE, 1919.

INTRODUCTION.

The Council, having received a report from the General
Officers in 1918, appointed a Committee consisting of the Pres:-
dent and General Officers, the President-elect, Mr. D. Berridge,
Sir Edward Brabrcok, Sir Dugald Clerk, Sir R. A. Gregory,
Dr. E. H. Griffiths, Prof. S. J. Hickson, Dr. A. Holt, and Dr.
Ethel Thomas,

‘To consider and report upon the working of the Asso-
ciation, with especial reference to the future cost and distri-
buticn of the Annual Volume, membership fees and rights,
arrangements at the Annual Meetings, and other matters
germane to the receipts and expenditure of the Association.’

The Council also referred to the Committee a suggestion re-
ceived from Mr. R. T. A. Innes (Union Astronomer, Jchannes-
burg Observatory) that a system of ‘ institutional membership ’
should be adopted, whereby institutions should be enabled tc
subscribe to the Associaticn, send representatives, and receive
the Annual Report.

In the first instance each member of the Committee received
a copy of a memorandum prepared by the Assistant Secretary,
and was asked to comment upon it in writing, and at the same
time to bring forward any matters, not covered by the memoran-
dum, which it might seem desirable for the Committee to discuss.
A digest of the views expressed by members in response to this
request was drawn up and circulated, and the Committee dis-
cussed the various questions thus raised at a meeting on March 7,
1919. The Committee’s report was afterwards drawn up, and
was presented to the Council on June 6, 1919, and their recom-
mendations, with one exception, were adopted by the Council (see
next page), and ordered to be forwarded to the General Committee.

1919. D

] THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Supsects CONSIDERED AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

(A) Membership Subscriptions, Rights of Members, and
Distribution of the Annual Volume.

In dealing with these the Committee had before them the
following principal considerations :

(a) That the cost of printing, and therefore the cost of the
Annual Volume of the Association, had considerably increased in
recent years before the war, and has done so very largely during
the war.

(b) That under the present system whereby Life Members,
New Annual Members, Old Annual Members subscribing regu-
larly, and Honorary Corresponding Members, are entitled to the
Annual Volume free, a not inconsiderable number receive the
volume who do not really require it.

(c) That an excessive number of libraries and institutions
receive the volume free, and that any publications received by
the Association in exchange are not of commensurate value.

(d) That in view of the above conditions the cost of the Annual
Volume has become an excessive charge upon the funds of the
Association.

(e) That the division between Members and Associates (of
whom the latter have no right to hold office, serve on committees,
or receive the volume free) gives rise to frequent difficulty, as
when it is desired to appoint to office or on a committee a person
who has joined only as an Associate, and it becomes necessary
to demand from him a further subscription of £1 so that he
may become a ‘ new annual member.’

(f) That the present subscription for life membership (£10,
with right to receive the Annual Volume free) is tco low.

With these and other considerations in mind, the Committee
reviewed the whole question of subscriptions and the distribution
of the Annual Volume, and after consideraticn of their report, the
Council make the following recommendations :

(1) New Life Membership Fee, £15, including right to receive
the Annual Volume free.—Under present arrangements, Life
Members are asked each year whether they wish to claim the
Annual Volume: they should be invited to refrain frem doing
so unless they have a real use for it.

The Council recognise that the position of present Life
Members must remain unaffected. But they recommend that
the General Treasurer be instructed to lay before present Life
Members the positicn in respect of the increase in the cost of
the Annual Volume (and of the administration of the Association
in other directions), and to invite them, if they wish to continue
to receive the volume, to add a sum not exceeding £5 to their
previous subscription.

(It should be added that the Committee had before them
vroposals on equitable grounds for a sliding scale of life-member-'

NN eEEEEEECOUeyEEeEEEe=_

——— L--

THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION. hi

ship fees according tc age, but after consideration they preferred
to recommend the continuance of the usual arrangement of a
flat rate.)

(2) Seale of Fees for New Annual Members —

(a) Subscription payable before the close of the Annual
Meeting, including right to attend the Meeting and
to receive the Annual Volume—#1 10s.

(b) Subscription for the Annual Meeting but excluding
right to receive the Annual Volume—#£1.

(c) Subscription of members not attending the Annual
Meeting, but desiring to receive the Annual Volume
—Z£1.

(Any of the above subscriptions to carry the present eligi-
bility to service as officers or on committees.)

The Council recognise that the right of old annual mem-
bers subscribing regularly to receive the Annual Volume free (if
they wish it) must remain unaffected.

(3) Abolition of present ‘entrance fee’ of £1 for new annual
members.

(4) Abolition of Associateship.—All persons joining the Asso-
ciation would thus have the same rights and privileges in respect
of eligibility to office or committee-service; the Council believe
that by this means a not uncommon source of friction would be
removed; moreover, a measure of simplification in the issue of
tickets, accounting, etc., would be introduced.

(5) Transferable Tickets, £1 5s.—These should not be con-
fined to Ladies, as at present. They should carry no right to
the Annual Volume.

(6) ‘Students’ Tickets,’ 10s.—These, confined to university
and other students, teachers, etc., vouched for by the Local
lixecutive as resident or working in the locality where the
Annual Meeting takes place, have already been experimentally
introduced with success, and should be established on a regular
footing.

(7) All Annual Members who, having attended the Annual
Meeting, have not paid the subscription entitling them to the
Annual Volume, should be advised, shortly before the volume is
ready for issue, that they may obtain it by payment of 12s. 6d.
within a fixed period, not extending beyond the close of the
financial year (June 30).

_ (8) Publication price of the Annual Volume, £1 5s.
(9) Honorary Corresponding Members should be entitled
to the Annual Volume free upon application each year.

_ (10) Libraries and Institutions should be entitled to purchase
the Annual Volume at a subscription rate of 12s. 6d. per annum,
and libraries and institutions which at present receive the Volume
free should be informed accordingly, subject to any statutory

rights or other considerations.

D2

li THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION.

(11) The Council do not recommend the adoption of
‘Institutional Membership.’

(12) Membership Tickets for Subscribers to Local Funds.—
When a guarantee or subscription fund is to be raised, to meet
local expenses of an Annual Meeting, in the locality where the
meeting is to be held, there should be a regular understanding
that £1 from each guarantee or subscription of £5 or over should
be paid by the Local Executive to the Association, in return for
which the Association will provide each guarantor of £5 or over
with a ticket of membership for the meeting.

(B) Changes in the Annual Volume, and Separate Issue of
Sectional Transactions.

Questions of possible changes in the contents of the Annual
Volume, and the partial substitution of an issue of separate
transactions of individual Sections, were reopened before the
Committee, but they considered that the discussion of these ques-
tions in recent years (culminating in a plébiscite of members) has
disposed of them.

The Committee considered, however, that if any Sectional
Committee in any year is aware of a demand for not less than
50 copies of a separate issue of its transactions, and will under-
take their distribution by sale so as to repay the extra cost of
these copies, the Council should sanction such separate sale. The
Council accepts this recommendation.

(C) Arrangements at Annual Meetings.

(1) Duration of Annual Meeting.—There is support for the
permanent adoption of the period Tuesday—Saturday for the
Annual Meeting (as at the recent Manchester and Newcastle
meetings), and there are strong arguments in its favour as against
the old period, Wednesday—Wednesday. But the period Tues-
day—Saturday has been decided upon for the meeting this year
at Bournemouth, and the Council consider that this will afford
further opportunity for consideration of the question ; they there-
fore make no recommendation.

(2) Numbering of Seats at Inaugural Meetings and Evening
Discourses. —It has been proposed that this practice should be
given up, in order to simplify work at the Reception Room
counters, and to avoid penalising members who cannot arrive, and
book seats, early. On this proposal all seating (except any
retained for officers, members of General Committee, or guests)
would be unreserved, and the membership ticket alone would admit.

The Committee made no recommendation, but they suggested
that the General Officers, with the Assistant Secretary, at the
forthcoming meeting, be instructed to inquire into the question
on the spot, and this suggestion will be carried out.

(3) Excursions.—An opinion has long existed that the general
excursions which used to be arranged for Members attending

THE WORKING OF THE ASSOCIATION. hu

Annual Meetings had little or no connection with the scientific
work of the Association, and had besides other obvious dis-
advantages.

The Council consider that the question whether general
excursions be arranged, and their arrangement, if decided
upon, ought to be left entirely to the Local Executive: that the
Association should not ask for them as part of the regular pro-
gramme, and that the permanent officials of the Association should
undertake no duties in connection with them.

The Council consider that sectional excursions for the
purpose of field-work, visits to works, etc., arranged by Organis-
ing Sectional Committees, are appropriate to the work of the
Association and should be encouraged.

(4) Attendance of non-Members as Speakers at Sectional
Meetings.—The Council recognise that on occasion a discussion
in a Section may be enhanced in value by the presence of specially
qualified speakers, who may not be Members of the Association,
invited by the Organising Committee. But they consider that
Organising Committees should exercise discretion as to the number
of speakers so invited, and (while not proposing a fixed limit to
the number of such invitations) they recommend that it be u
direction to Organising Committees that their Recorders shall
acquaint the Assistant Secretary with the names of non-members
proposed as speakers, in order that he may inform such persons of
the terms and privileges of membership or (at the General
Treasurer’s discretion) issue ‘ special admission’ tickets to them
for any particular sectional meeting.

(5) Service of non-Members on Research Committees.—The
Council recognise that the expert assistance of non-members
may, on occasion, be essential to the success of a Research Com-
mittee’s work. They recommend that thé names of such persons
should appear in a separate category as assessors or consultative
or co-opted members of the Committee.

(D) Grants.

The Committee received a suggestion that in view of the
increase of other claims upon the revenue of the Association, the
funds devoted to purposes connected with research should be more
closely limited to incidental expenses, inasmuch as other funds
have become available to assist research itself. While recog-
nising the extreme importance of, this question, the Committee
did not discuss it at length, understanding that another opportunity
might arise for the Council to consider it.

The Council will make a separate report to the General
Committee on this question.

(Norte.—The recommendations in the above report were adopted by
the General Committee, which ordered that alterations in the Rules,
where necessary to give effect to changes proposed, should be made.)

liv

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER IN ACCOUNT
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
RECEIPTS.
Side Oe Bae Sen ie
To Balance brought forward :—
Lloyds Bank, Birmingham ................c0ec00 i ssiunet eckuces eacaece at 1,877 6 11
Bank of England—Western Branch :—
On $iCaind Mand) \ 55 v.cssticeesspsuvet ses Ast teoetererrcre ceo boree: 493 10 4
Less General Account OVerdrawn .....,....0cceccesceeeeseeneeseeeees 68 4 10
————._ 425 5 6
2,302 12 5
Masham ay Tiedessesakvos iowsseyosreues Boag isanaccasanerevenees eee AE: 1111
Less Petty Oash OV EXOTAWI. Wek eta neering eaten 013 1
———— 0 810
——— _ 2,303 1 38
Life Compositions (including Transfers) .............essessscessecceneeeesreeeeeees 153 0 0
Annual Subscriptions .........:csesecceeeeeeeeeee 345 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions .. 20 0 0
Sale of Publications .............. Nashibdes df Aidcuccodeokeheredastines hil seee teens Bea 18212 3
Grants from Royal Society :—
In aid of Publication Expenses ,......... Mee istd Abe cheatoa enter aateaet aod 150 0 0
For purposes of Research.,...........0008 ioe agel sidaceneve ss vate tnas cucesdr teen ueddtes 100 0 0
— 250 0 0
DOM aON ERP eee coca ose duc vesvaddiaiecs lav iaatindeese wasnph tee Aan tee 35 0 0
incomey Lax RECOVEEEG!,, 21, haces tons say couve) sicanaasac-) este teas senek ateamie roe ae 443 18 2
Interest on Deposits :—
Lloyds Bank, Birmingham .. ; 16 6 8
44 a “Oaird Gift 5 35 3 10
a 5110 6
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned .........cecccsecceseeees Bilas seks 9 610
Dividends on Investments :—
Gonsols;24 per Cents ..:..cc0ss:cvessscacbevteusenenee Saheb swosavseveteee Rvtestsuceseene 81 8 0
India 3 per Cent. ..............000008 7512 0
Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B’ Annuity 23 4 5
War!Stock Sper Cent. ..iiscsssepdesesssansstexetens 43 3 0
Wiarrbondstoiper|Gentacvcc.cedetcetssoo st -sceameeenenunteecitee os tareeneccdtreettas 49° 0'°0
— 272 7 5
Dividends on ‘ Caird Fund’ Investments :—
Tndia Sper! Cent. ccpecctcuscavecssacucdoscssvonns meaceee Ove catanen meat ter te 64 7 4
Qanada 34 per Cent. (including extra 2 per Genti)i en auc emer e ne 70 0 0
London and South-Western Railway Consolidated4 per Oent. Preference
SLOGK sedeee pcvn dee ea esco teh maaan ues co ndnan ae one Wee evndtey Sen akeaecret eee iaad 71 5 0
Londonand North-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Oent. Preference
POG cee ran scescame meee spxtnnon sa dteas cusgh de tc acaxtee tepeedusteuducnwars caseecs ae 5917 0
——— 265 9 4
Mem,—Sales of tickets for September 1919 Meeting, £45 10s., are not included above.
$ Investments.
Nominal Amouut,
esses
4,651 10 5 Consolidated 24 per Oent. Stock
3,600 0 0 India 3 per Cent. Stock
879 14 9 Great Indian Peninsula Railway £43 ‘B’ Annuity
2,627 0 lu India 3} per Cent. Stock, ‘ Caird Fund’
2,100 0 0 London and North-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Cent.
Preference Stock, ‘Caird Fund’
2,500 0 0 Oanada 3} per Cent. (1930-50) Registered Stock ‘Caird Fund’
2,500 0 O London and South-Western Railway Consolidated 4 per Cent,
Preference Stock, ‘ Caird Fund’
96 38 6 Sir Frederick Bramwell’s Gift of 24 per Cent. Self-Oumulating
Consolidated Stock
863 210 War Loan 5 per Cent, Stock
1,400 0 0 War Bonds 5 per Cent., 1929-47
1,000 0 0 Lloyds Bank, Birmingham—Deposit Account included in Balance
at Bank, Sir J. Caird’s Gift for Radio-Activity Investigation
£22,217 12 4 £4,331 5 9
ees rn

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Value at 30th June, 1919, £15,087 Os, 5d.

EE

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. lv

WITH THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE Cr.
July 1, 1918, to June 30, 1919.

PAYMENTS.

By Rent and Office Expenses ............000ccceeee-
Salaries and Travelling Expenses,
Printing, Binding, etc.

Grants to Research Committees :— BINS. ds
alsolithic|Site im:erseyeu.s.derecssarctswectcs-O2eeevcdeerssveseeeeveseve 5 0 0
Colloid Chemistry ..... se 5 0 0
Geophysical Discussion .. 10 0 0
Physiology of Heredity ......... SRREIIEA 402.0
Seismological Investigations ......... SERVICIO! 0
Corresponding Societies Oommittee ooo... .e ee eceecceccceeecceeeeven 25 0 0
--—_—_ 160 0 0
eattanite a duphi's each aay ascat <idcvadea cvacnacenava store 250 U0 0
Balance at Lloyds Bank, Birmingham (with Interest accrued), including
Sir James Caird’s Gift, Radio- Activity Investigation, of £1,000 and
Interestiaccrued thereon: 5173 58. cc..3s..ccescscestve s ectecccsacsseeececees 1,728 17 3
. £508 19 8
by eR: ee”)
-— 681 3 10
Bras ira HANG 5 cc cessssecctadfoBieus Sack Prada ptieeny pocottics Moree eet Oe LaL
2,410 3 0
Bensieutiys CRED OVELOLA WIL (..occateattvcbanvalestsesttecsieUesipevencescsvevivecerceghie, BION D
——— 2,407 17 10
£4,331 5 9

JOHN PERRY, General Treasurer,

I have examined the above Account with the Books and Vouchers of the Association, and certify the
same to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers, and have ascertained that the Invest-
ments are registered in the names of the Trustees, or held by the Bank of Engiand on account of the
Association.

W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,

APPROVED— August 28, 1919,

EDWARD BRABROOK, Auditor.

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

1831, Sept. 97
| 1839, June 19,

1834, Sept. 8

1847, June 23
1849, Sept. 12
1851, July 2,

1861, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1
1863, Aug. 26
1864, Sept. 13

| 1833, June 25,

1848, Aug.9 ..,
1850, July 21 .

1835, Aug. 10......
1836, Aug. 22......
1837, Sept. 11......
1838, Aug. 10......
1839, Aug. 26 ......
1840, Sept. 17......
1841, July 20.
1842, June 23,
1843, Aug. 17......
1844, Sept. 26 ......
1845, June 19......
1846, Sept. 10,

1852, Sept.1 ......
1853, Sept.3 ......
1854, Sept. 20 ......
1855, Sept. 12......
1856, Aug.6 ......
1857, Aug. 26 ......
1858, Sept. 22......
1859, Sept. 14 .
1860, June 27.

1865, Sept.6 ......

1866, Aug. 22
1867, Sept. 4

1868, Aug. 19,
1869, Aug. 18,

1870, Sept. 14
1871, Aug. 2

1872, Aug. 14
1873, Sept. 17
1874, Aug. 19
1875, Aug. 25
1876, Seps. 6

1877, Aug. 15.
1878, Aug. 14.

1879, Aug. 20
1880, Aug. 25
1881, Aug. 31
1882, Aug. 23
1883, Sept. 19
1884, Aug. 27
1885, Sept. 9

1888, Sept. 5
1889, Sept. 11
1890, Sept. 3
1891, Aug.19.,

1886, Sept.1 .
1887, Aug. 31.

1892, Aug.3 .....

1893, Sept. 13
1894, Aug. 8

1895, Sept. 11.
1896, Sept. 16,

1897, Aug. 18
1898, Sept. 7
1899, Sept. 13
1900, Sept. 5

Where held

Cambridge
Edinburgh ..,
Dublin .....
Bristol ..
Liverpool ,..,........-+.
Newcastle-on-Tyne...
Birmingham
Glasgow........
Plymouth .,
Manchester
Cork
YOrkKy ye cecesy
Cambridge
Southampton
Oxford

Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich ..,
Belfast ..
js iy 0 Dap
Liverpool
Glasgow........

Dublin
Leeds

Oxford

Manchester .. .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.......
Cambridge ............ The Rey. Professor Willis, M. A.,F.R.S.
Newcastle-on-Tyne..,| SirWilliam G. Armstrong,0.B., F.R.S.
BBE eainee come aate Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Birmingham,, .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL TaD F.R.S.
Nottingham... ..| William R. Grove, Q. 0. E.R.S. .
Dundee ........ ..| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O.B. F. RS.
Norwich ..|sDr. Joseph D. Hooker, yas: is ee
Exeter ... ..| Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S.
Liverpool .. .| Prof. T, H. Huxley, LL. D. rll RS...
Edinburgh Prof, Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S.
Brighton Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ........0.0
Bradford Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S..
Belfast .| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D. F. B.S. .
Bristol Sir John Hawkshaw, F. "R. BS. ties
Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, MD. ., E.R. 8.
Plymouth ..| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D.,
Dublin .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F, R s.
Sheffield ..| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D.
Swansea .| A. O. Ramsay, LL.D., F.

ODK Seewrveeass ..| Sir John Lubbock, Bart.
Southampton .| Dr. 0. W. Siemens, F F.RB.S.
Southport ..... .| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., BE
Montreal .. ..| Prof. Lord Raylei gh F.R.
Aberdeen ..... .| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B.,
Birmingham ..| Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G.
Manchester .| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., Pe sled
Bavhyi esi vacceucuveboexers Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. Cae Li

Leeds

.| Edinburgh A
Nottingham .,
Oxford

Dover......
Bradford

‘| The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.
..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.

..| The Rey. W. Whewell, F.R.S. .... we
.| The Lord Francis Egerton, EGS. .

“| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F-BS. ...|

ie TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.
‘|| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S.......
..| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
x The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S
"| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., EES...
“"| Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.RS...

"| H.R.H. The Prince Consort’
.| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ...

| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S.

_.| Sir nec Te K.O.B., Fl

"| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S
.| Sir W. Orookes, F.R.S. ...........0:

Presidents

Old Life | New Life
Members | Members

Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R
The Rey. W. Buckland, F.

|
8. + val

R.
EF.
R..
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... |

Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., st
R. S.
The Marquis of Lansdowne, F. S..
The Duke of Northumberland,
The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt,
The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.

F.RS.
F.R.S.)
RS.

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.

Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., FERS.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart, »F.R.S,
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F. R. Ss.

Ss.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S.
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.

William Hopkins, F.R.S...........

The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S.

The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D., ERS.

Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.R.S.
Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S.
Dr. W. Huggins, ERS.

Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres.

Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S....
Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...

|
|

TE aA ST
SU TSIEN

169 65
303 169
109 28
226 150
313 36
241 10
314 18
149 3
227 12
235 9
172 8
164 10
141 13
238 23
194 33
182 14
236 15
222 42
184 27
286 21
321 113
239 15
203 36
287 40
292 44
207 “31
167 25
196 18
204 21
314 39
246 28
245 36
212 27
162 13
239 36
221 35
173 19
201 18
184 16
144 ll
272 28
178 17
203 60
235 20
225 18
314 25
428 86
266 36
277 20
259 21
189 24
280 ‘14
201 17
327 21
214 13
330 31
120 8
281 19
296 20
267 13

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843,

} Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

[Continued on p. lviii,

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS. lvii

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

y 1 7 fel -_ 3 Sums paid
old New A oe on account
Annual | Annual inte. Ladies |Foreigners| Total B iG the of Grants Year
Members | Members| “®°SS | Meett for Scientific
| | ~ ceting | Purposes
& = Ss ee = 353, = — 1831
— — a _ — \ — -- | — 1832
=T au ae ae ie 900 = | 1833
— _— — _ — 1298 _— | £20 0 0 1834
25, i ie = = = — ee 167 0 0| 1835
- _ _ = — 1350 — 435 0 0 1836
—_— | — — — _ 1840 —_ 922 12 6 1837
— _— — '- 1100* — 2400 — 932 2 2 1838
—- — _— — 34 | 1438 — 1595 11 0 1839
—_— Sos — | — 40 1353 — 1546 16 4 1840
46 317 — | 60* — 891 — 1235 10 11 1841
75 376 sof} 331* 28 1315 — 144917 8 1842
71 185 | — | 160 — | — — 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 of -} 260 —_— _— 98112 8 1844
94 22 407 172 35 | 1079 —_ | $31 9 9 1845
65 39 270 196 36 857 — ; 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 | 1320 | — 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 | 819 £707 0 0 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071. | 963 0 0; 15919 6 1849
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 | 710 620 0 0 391 9 7; 1851
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 | 876 | 903 0 0} 205 0 0 1853
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 | 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 10 507 15 4 1857
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0O| 61818 2 1858
125 179 1206 821 22 | 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
177 59 636 463 47 } 1689 1604 0 0 766 19 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 | 3138 3944 0 0/1111 510 1861
150 57 433 242 25 | 1161 1089 0 0/1293 16 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 | 2802 2965 0 0/| 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 | 2227 0 0/ 1591 7 10 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 «=| 2469 0 0| 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0/1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45{ | 2004 |2042 0 0] 1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17 | 1856 1931 0 0] 1622 0 0 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0| 1572 0 0 1870
311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 O O| 1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0/1285 0 0 1872
237 99 796 601 11 | 1983 2120 0 0| 1685 0 0 1873
232 85 817 630 12 ; 1951 1979 0 0O/| 115116 0 1874
307 93 884 672 17 | 2248 2397 0 0] 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876
238 59 446 283 11 | 1229 1268 0 0/1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 | 2578 2615 0 0 725.16 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0} 1080 11 11 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899.0 0} fal ot 7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 O| 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 O| 1126 111 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0] 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 26&60H.§ 1777 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0/1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0} 995 O 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0| 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0} 1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 | 2441 0 0] 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0}; 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 «=3§| 2007 0 O 864 10 0 1892
328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 O| 90715 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0} 58315 6 1894
290 31 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0 977 15 5 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0] 1104 6 1 1896 |
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0} 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0; 1212 0 0 1898
324 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 Oj] 143014 2 1899
297 45 801 482 9 1915 } 1801 0 0} 107210 0 1900

} Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association wereadmitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
[Continued on p. lix.

lvili ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

Table showing the Attendances and Receipts

}
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Oe Ree ue
1901, Sept. 11...... ISSO Wy. nasc2desicssca) | Prof. A.W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. ... 310 | 37
1902, Sept. 10...... Belfast ... .| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., us Peel, eee Oe) | St
1903, Sept. 9 ...... Southport .., . Sir Norman Lockyer, K -C.B., F.R.S. 250 | 21
1904, Aug. 17 Cambridge... .| Rt. Hon, A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S. 419 32
1905, Aug. 15..,...) South Africa .. Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 115 | 40
1906, Anes, 2.5506) MOU coe ccise .| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F. RS. 322 10
1907, July 31..,... Leicester .| Sir David Gill, K.0.B., F.R.S. 0.0.0... 276 19
1908, Sept. 2 ...... Mab 2.5455 .| Dr. Francis Darwin, nC amen 294 24
1909, Aug. 25,..... Winnipeg .| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. ...... 117 13
1910, Aug. 31 ...... Sheffield..... .| Rey. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. ...... 293 26
1911, Aug. 30....., Portsmouth .| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. 284 21
1912, Sept. 4 ...... Mandeeee sess: Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.............006 288 14
1913, Sept. 10 ....,. Birmingham .| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S... oe 376 40
1914, July-Sept....| Australia ......... .| Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. .. 172 13
1915, Sept. 7 ...... Manchester ., ......... Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. 242 19
1916, Sept. 5 ...... Newcastle-on-Tyne. ..| 164 12
1917 (No Meeting) . ‘| Sir Arthur Evans, F.B.S. ... ..... = =
1918 (No Meeting) 3 : — a
1919, Sept. 9 ...... Bournemouth .| Hon, Sir O. Parsons, K.0.B., F.RS..., 235. | 47

{ Including 848 Members of the South African Association.
{{ Grants from the Caird Fund are not included in this and subsequent sums.

ANALYSIS OF ATTENDANCES AT
[The total attendances for the years 1832,

Average attendance at 83 Meetings : 2130.
(The above figure includes, but the following exclude, the Australian Meeting, July-Sept., 1914.)

Average
Attendance
Average attendance at 5 Meetings beginning during June, between
1833 and 1860 . : 1260
Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during’ July, between
1841 and 1907 . - 1122
Average attendance at 32 Meetings beginning during ‘August, between
1836 and 1911 . - 1927
Average attendance at 40 Meetings ‘beginning during September,
between 1831 and 1919 . + 1431

Attendance at 1 Meeting held in October, Cambridge, 1862 . - Swen
—_— oo
Meetings beginning during August.

Average attendance at—

4 Meetings beginning during the 1st week in August( Ist- 7th) . 1905
5

» ” » » 2nd ,_, « ( 8th-l4th) . 2130
9 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” ( 15th—21st) . 1802
14 » ” » 4th 5, 4 » (22nd=Silsh)es amos

ATTENDANCES AND RECEIPTS.

at Annual Meetings of the Association—(continued).

| Sums paid
Old ) New ies | etter | on account |
Annual Annual * a Ladies |Foreigners| Total Rey ssn the | of Grants Year
Members Members| °!***S | > m » [for Scientific
Ceune Purposes |
374 | 131 794 246 20 1912 £2046 0 0 £920 911 1901
314 | 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0 | 947 0 O 1902
319 | 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 0} 845 13 2 1903
449 113 1338 317 121 2789 2650 O 0 | 887 18 11 1904
9379 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0| 928 2 2 1905
356 93 817 352 22 1972 1811 0 0} 882 0 9 1906
339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 O | 757 12 10 1907
465 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 0 115718 8 1908
290** 162 789 90 a 1468 1623 0 0/1014 9 9 1909
379 57 563 123 8 1449 1439 0 0} 96317 0 1910
349 61 414 81 31 1241 1176 0 0} 922 0 0 1911 |
368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 0| 845 7 6 1912
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 O 0 | 97817 1ff| 1913
139 4160] 539|| = 21 5044, | 4873 0 0 |1086 16 4 | 1914 |
287 116 §28* 141 8 1441 1406 0 0/1159 2 8 1915
250 76 251* 73 — 826 821 0 0} 715 18 10 1916
_ _ — — _— _ _ 42717 2 1917
—_ _ - _ | —_ _— 220 13 3 1918
254 102 688 153 3 1482 1736 0 0/| 160 uv 0 1919 |

** Including 137 Members of the American Association.
|| Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
Report, 1914, p.686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of
L’Association Francaise at Le Havre.
* Including Student's Tickets, 10s.

THE ANNUAL MEETINGS, 1831-1919.
1835, 1843, and 1844 are wnknown. |

Meetings beginning during September.

Average attendance at—

Average
Attendance
15 Meetings beginning during the Ist weekin September( 1st- 7th). 1459
i on i ni! gli2ndisn 45 » ( 8th-14th). 1693
5 ” ” ” ” 3rd ” ” ” ( 15th- 21st). 2206
2 ” » Meant etl a. rvs » (22nd-30th). 1025
Meetings beginning during June, July, and October.
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1845, June 19) beginning during the 3rd
week in June (15th-2I1st) . : 1079

Average attendance at 4 Meetings beginning during the 4th week in
June (22nd-30th) 1306
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1851, ‘July 2) beginning during the Ist

week in July ([st-7th) . 710
Average attendance at 2 Meetings beginning during the 3rd week in

July (15th-21st) 1066
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1907, July 31) beginning during the bth

week in July (29th--31st) 1647
Attendance at 1 Meeting (1862, October 1) beginning: “during the Ist

week in October (1st-7th) . : : : c . 1161

lx RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC., APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

MEETING 1n BourNeMouTH: SEPTEMBER, 1919.

(Names marked with an asterisk are those of Assessors or

Consultative Members.)

1. Receiwing Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose | Members of Committee | Grants

Section A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

che 8,
Seismological Investigations. | Chairman.—ProfessorH.H.Turner. 100 0
| Secretary.—Mr. J. J. Shaw.

' Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E.
Crombie, Sir Horace Darwin, |
Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. Dyson,
Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Professors
C. G. Knott and H. Lamb, Sir J.
Larmor, Professors A. E. H.
Love, H. M. Macdonald, J. Perry,
and H.C. Plummer, Mr. W. EH.
Plummer, Professor R. A.
Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir
Napier Shaw, Dr. G. T. Walker,
and Mr. G. W. Walker.

|
Annual Tables of Constants and | Chairman.—Sir H. Rutherford. 40 00
Numerical Data, chemical, phy- Secretary.— Prof. A. W. Porter.
sical, and technological. | Mr. A. E. G. Egerton.*

|
Determination of Gravity at Sea. | Chairman.—Professor A. E. H.}| 10 00

Love.

| Seeretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

| Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Sir H.
Darwin, Professor A. S. |
Eddington, Maj. E. O. Henrici, |
Sir A. Schuster, and Professor
H. H. Turner.

oe

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. lxi

1. Recewing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee | Grants
| —— {
‘ uJ | |
| #£ 8.4. |
Radiotelegraphic Investigations. Chairman.—Sir Oliver Lodge. 100 00)

Secretary.— Dr. W. H. Eccles.

Mr. 8. G. Brown, Dr. C. Chree, Sir
F. W. Dyson, Professor A. 8.
Eddington, Dr. Erskine-Murray,
Professors J. <A. Fleming,
G. W. O. Howe, H. M. Mac-
donald, and J. W. Nicholson,
Sir H. Norman, Captain H. R.
Sankey, Sir A. Schuster, Sir
Napier Shaw, and _ Professor
H. H. Turner.

Calculation of Mathematical | Chairman.— 30 00
Tables.

Secretary.—Professor J. W. Nichol-
son.

Dr. J. R. Airey, Mr. T. W. Chaundy,
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Sir G.
S| Greenhill, Colonel Hippisley,* |
Professor E. W. Hobson, Mr. G. |
Kennedy, and Professors Alfred |
Lodge, A. E. H. Love, H. M. |
Macdonald, G. B. Mathews,
G. N. Watson, and A. G. Webster.

| To assist the work of the Tidal | Chairman.—Professor H, Lamb. 150 0 0
Institute at Liverpool. Secretary.—Dr. A. T. Doodson.
Sir 8. G. Burrard,* Colonel Sir
C. F. Close, Dr. P. H. Cowell, |
Sir H. Darwin, Dr. G. H..
Fowler,* Admiral F. C. Lear-
month,* Professor J. E. Petavel, |
Dr. J. Proudman, Major G. I. |

|
Taylor,* Professor D’Arcy W. —
Thompson, Sir J. J. Thomson, |
;
:

Professor H. H. Turner.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Colloid Chemistry and its In- | Chairman.—Protessor F. G.
dustrial Applications. Donnan.

Secretary.—Professor W. C. McC.

| Lewis.

Mr. E. Ardern,* Dr. E. F. Arm-
strong, Professor W. M. Bayliss,
Mr. W. Clayton,* Prof. C. H.
Desch, Mr. W. Harrison, Mr.
K. Hatschek, Professors H. R.
Proctor and W. Ramsden, Dr.
E. J. Russell, Mr. A. B. Searle*,
Dr. 8. A. Shorter, Dr. H. P.
Stevens, and Mr. H. B. Stocks.

00

cr

Ixii

|

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1, Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Fuel Economy; Utilisation of
Coal; Smoke Prevention.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Com-
pounds.

SECTION

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan, Ireland.

To investigate the Geology of
Coal-Seams.

Chairman.—Professor W. A. Bone.

Vice- Chairman.--Mr. H. James
Yates.

Secretary.—Mr. Robert Mond.

Mr, A. H. Barker, Professor P. P.
Bedson, Dr. W. S. Boulton, Mr.
K. Bury, Professor W. E. Dalby,
Mr. E. V. Evans, Dr. W. Gallo-
way, Sir Robert Hadfield, Bart.,
Dr. H. S. Hele-Shaw, Mr. D. H.
Helps, Dr. G. Hickling, Mr.
D. V. Hollingworth, Mr. A.
Hutchinson, Principal G. Knox,
Mr. Michael Longridge, Pro-
fessor Henry Louis, Mr. G. E.
Morgans, Professor L. T.
O’Shea, Mr. W. H. Patchell, Mr.
EK. D. Simon, Mr, A. T. Smith,
Dr. J. E. Stead, Mr. C. E,
Stromeyer, Mr.G. Blake Walker,
Sir Joseph Walton, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. W. B. Wood-
house, and Mr. C. H. Wording-
ham.

Chairman.—Sir J. J. Dobbie.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. C. Baly.
| Dr. A. W. Stewart.

C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Professor
Cole.

Secretary.—Professor T. Johnson.

Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston,
and Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Grenville

We Ss:

Chairman.— Professor
Boulton.

| Seeretary.—Dr. W. T. Gordon.

To excavate Critical Sections in
Old Red Sandstone Rocks at
Rhynie, Aberdeenshire.

Mr. G. Barrow, Sir J. Cadman,
Professor W. G. Fearnsides,
Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. Walcot
Gibson, Professors J. W.
Gregory and P. F. Kendall, Dr.
R. Kidston, Professor T. F.
Sibly, Sir A. Strahan, and Mr.
J. R. R. Wilson.

Chairman.—Dr. J. Horne.

Secretary.—Dr. W. Mackie.

Drs. J. S. Flett, W. T. Gordon,
G. Hickling, K. Kidston, B. N.
Peach, and D. M. S. Watson.

Grants
£8. d.|
5 00}

|
10 00
15 00
15 00

|
1 00

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

lxili

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose |

To excavate Critical Sections in
the Paleozoic Rocks of England
and Wales.

Members of Committce

Chairman.—Professor
Watts.

Secretary.—Professor
Fearnsides.

Win) We
W.

| Professor W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. S.

Cobbold, Professor KE. J. Gar-
wood, Mr. V.C. Illing, Dr. Lap-
worth, Dr. J. E. Marr, and Dr.
W. K. Spencer,

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

Experiments in Inheritance in
Silkworms.

Experiments in Inheritance of
Colour in Lepidoptera.

Zoological Bibliography and Pub-
lication.

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

| The Effects of the War on Credit,
Currency, Finance, and Foreign
Exchanges.

Replacement of Men by Women
in Industry.

|

}

Chairman.—Professor W. Bateson. |
Secretary.—Mrs. Merritt Hawkes. |

Dr. F. A. Dixey and Dr. L. Don-
caster.

Chairman.—Professor W Bateson.
Seeretary.—The Hon. H. Onslow.*
Dr. F. A. Dixey.

Chairman.—Professor E. B. Poul- |

ton.
Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Bather.

-| Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. E.

Hoyle, and Dr.
Mitchell.

P. Chalmers

Chairman.—Professor W.R. Scott.

Secretary.—Mr. J. E. Allen.

Professor C. F. Bastable, Sir E.
Brabrook, Professor L. R.
Dicksee, Mr. B. Ellinger,
Mr. E. L. Franklin*, Mr. A. H.
Gibson, Mr. C. W. Guilleband,*
Mr. F. W. Hirst, Mr. J. M.
Keynes*, Professor A. W.
Kirkaldy, Mr. F. Lavington,*
Mr. R. McKenna,* Mr. &,
Sykes, Mr. Herbert Samuel,*
Dr. J. C. Stamp,* Mr. Hartley
Withers,* Mr. Hilton Young,*

Chairman.— Professor W. BR. Scott.

Secretary.—Miss Grier.

Miss Ashley, Mr. J. Cunnison, Mr.
Daniels, Mr. C. R. Fay, Mr. J. E.
Highton, and Professor A. W.
Kirkaldy.

G. |

| |
| 30

|

|

17 00

00

10 00

100 00

30 00

lxiv

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To co-operate with the National
Association of Railway Tra-
vellers in obtaining better
conditions of travel for members
of this Association.

Members of Committee

Chairman.—Sir K. Brabrook.

Secretary.—Mr. A. H. Garstang.*

Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Sir Philip |
Magnus.

Szotion G.—ENGINEERING.

To report on certain of the more | Chairman.—Professor E. G. Coker.
Secretary. — Professor

complex Stress Distributions in
Engineering Materials.

Professor A. Barr, Dr. Chas. Chree,

‘AL eae lee

Robertson.

Mr. Gilbert Cook, Professor |
W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, |
Professor L. N. G. Filon, Messrs.
A. R. Fulton and J. J. Guest,
Dr. B. P. Haigh, Professors J.
B. Henderson, F. C. Lea, and
A. BE. H. Love, Dr. W. Mason,
Professor J, Perry, Sir J. E. |
Petavel, Dr. F. Rogers, Mr.
W.A. Scoble, Dr. T. E. Stanton,
Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, and Mr. |
J. 8. Wilson. |

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To excavate a Paleolithic Site in
Jersey.

To conduct Archeological Inves-
tigations in Malta.

[To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the Age
of Stone Circles.

(Committee in suspense: grant for
contingent liability.)

To report on the Distribution of
Bronze Age Implements.

|
|
|

Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett.

Secretary.—Mr. G. de Gruchy.

Dr. C. W. Andrews, Mr. H. Bal-
four, Professor A. Keith, and
Colonel Warton.

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres. |

Secretary.—Dr. T. Ashby. |

Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A.C. Haddon,
Professor A. Keith, Dr. R. R.
Marett, and Mr. H. Peake.

Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.

Dr. G. A. Auden, Professor Sir W.
Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
Arthur Evans, Dr. R. Munro, |
Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Professor
J. L. Myres, Mr. A. L. Lewis, |
and Mr. H. Peake.]

Chairman.—Professor J. L. Myres.

Secretary.— Mr. H. Peake.

Dr. E. C. R. Armstrong, Dr. H. A.
Auden, Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. |
L. H. D. Buxton, Mr. O. G. 8. |
Crawford, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins,
Professor H. J. Fleure, Mr. |
G. A. Garfitt, Dr. R. R. Marett, |
Sir C. H. Read, Sir W. Ridgeway.

80 00

10 00

15 00

100 00

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

lxv

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee Grants

To report on the Classification
and Distribution of Rude Stone
Monuments.

Chairman.—Dr. R. R. Marett.

Secretary.— Professor H. J. Fleure.

Professor J. L. Myres, Mr. H.
Peake.

Section K.—BOTANY.

Experimental Studies in the

Physiology of Heredity.

To continue Breeding Experi-
ments on Oenothera and other
Genera.

Chairman.—Dr. ¥. F. Blackman. | 40 00
Secretary.—Miss E. R. Saunders

Professors Bateson and Keeble.

Chairman.—Dr. A. B. Rendle.

Secretary.—Dr. R. R. Gates.

Professor O. V. Darbishire, Dr.
M. C. Rayner, Mr. W. Brierley.

30 00

, Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

The Effects of the ‘ Free-place’ |

System upon Secondary Educa-
tion.

To Enquire into the Practicability
of an International Auxiliary
Language.

To examine, enquire into and
report upon the character, work
and maintenance of Museums,
with a view to their organisa-
tion and development as Insti-
tutions for Education and
Research, and especially to
enquire into the requirements
of schools.

1919.

Chairman.—Mr. C.A. Buckmaster.| 10 00
Seeretary.—Mr.D. Berridge.
Mr. C. H. Bothamley, Miss L. J.

Clarke, Miss B. Foxley, Dr. W.

Garnett, Sir R. A. Gregory,

and Miss Walter.

Chairman.—Mr. W. B. Hardy.

Secretary.—Dr. EK. H. Tripp.

Mr. E. Bullough.*

Professor J. J. Findlay, Sir Richard
Gregory, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, :
Dr. H. Foster Morley, Professor
W. Ripman,* Mr. F. Nowell
Smith,* Mr. A. E. Twentyman.*

00

or

Chairman.—Professor J. A. Green. 1d), On0
Secretaries.—Mr. H. Bolton, and

Dr. J. A. Clubb.
Dr. F. A. Bather, Rev. H. Browne,

Mr. C. A. Buckmaster, Professor

H. J. Garwood, Dr, A. €.
Haddon, Dr. H. S. Harrison,
Mr Mae ene Dr Wirekis

Hoyle, Sir H. Miers, Professor
P. Newberry, Mr. H. R. Rath-
bone, Dr. W. M. Tattersall, Sir
Richard Temple, Mr. H. Ham-
shaw Thomas, Professor F. E.
Weiss, Dr. Jessie White.

Ixvi

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Grants

To inquire into the provision of
Educational Charts and Pictures
for display in schools.

Chairman.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.
Secretary.—Sir R. A. Gregory.

Corresponding Societies Com- |
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

Mr.
Clarke, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth,
Sir Napier Shaw,
H. H. Turner,

D. Berridge, Miss L. J. |

Professor

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

| Seeretary.—Mr. W. Mark Webb.

| Mr. P. J. Ashton, Dr. F. A. Bather,
Rev. J. O. Bevan, Sir Edward
Brabrook, Sir H. G. Fordham,
Mr. A. Ti. Lewis, Mr. T. Shep-

| pard, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing,

| Mr.

President and General Officers

of the Association.

50 00

Mark L. Sykes, and the

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Section AA—-MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar
Observatory in Australia.

Research on Non-Aromatic Dia-

zonium Salts.

Chairman.—Sir Napier Shaw.

Secretary.—

Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Mr. W. H. Dines, Sir
R. T. Glazebrook, Sir J. Larmor,
Sir J. KE. Petavel, and Sir A.
Schuster.

Chairman.—Professor H. H. Turner.

Secretary.—Dr. W. G. Duffield.

Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. 8. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, and Sir A.
Schuster.

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.
| Chairman.—Dr. ¥. D. Chattaway.

Secretary.—Professor G. T. Morgan.
Mr. P. G. W. Bayly and Dr. N. V.
_ Sidgwick.

+ Excepting the case of Committees receiving grants from the ‘ Oaird Fund,’ for which see p. lxxii.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Ixvil

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

Members of Committee

Hemisphere.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Photographs
of Geological Interest.

To consider the preparation of a List
of Characteristic Fossils.

To investigate the Flora of Lower Car-
boniferous times as exemplified at a
newly-discovered locality at Gullane,
Haddingtonshire.

To aid competent Investigators selected

pieces of work at the Zoological
Station at Naples. ;

| To nominate competent Naturalists to
| perform definite pieces of work at
the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

| To summon meetings in London or
| Secretary.—Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

elsewhere for the consideration of
matters affecting the interests of

power to raise by subscription from

organisation.

*
.

To consider the Nomenclature of the |
Carboniferous, Permo-carboniferous,
and Permian Rocks of the Southern |

by the Committee to carry on definite |

Zoology, and to obtain by corre- |
spondence the opinion of Zoologists |
on matters of a similar kind, with |

each Zoologist a sum of money for |
defraying current expenses of the

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

Chairman.—Professor T. W. Edgeworth
David.

Secretary.—Professor E. W. Skeats.

Mr. W. 8. Dun, Professor J. W. Gregory,
Sir T. H. Holland, Messrs. W. Howchin,
A. E. Kitson, and G. W. Lamplugh,
Dr. A. W. Rogers, Professor A. C.
Seward, Mr. D. M. S. Watson, and
Professor W. G. Woolnough.

Chairman.—Professor E. J. Garwood.

Secretary.—Professor 8. H. Reynolds.

Mr. G. Bingley, Dr. T. G. Bonney, Messrs.
C.V. Crook, R. Kidston, and A. §. Reid,
Sir J. J. H. Teall, Professor W. W.
Watts, and Messrs. R. Welch and W.
Whitaker.

Chairman.—Professor P. F. Kendall.
Secretary.—Dr. W. T. Gordon.

Professor W. S. Boulton, Dr. A. R,

Dwerryhouse, Professors J. W.
Gregory, Sir T. H. Holland, and
S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Marie OC.

Stopes, Dr. J. HE. Marr, Professor
W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods, and
Dr. A. Smith Woodward.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Kidston.
Secretary. —Dr. W. T. Gordon.

| Dr. J. S. Flett, Professor E. J. Garwood,

Dr. J. Horne, and Dr. B. N. Peach.

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
| Chairman.—Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Secretary.—Dr. J. H. Ashworth.

Dr. G. P. Bidder, Professor F. O. Bower,
Drs. W. B. Hardy and §. F. Harmer,
Professor 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray
Lankester, Professor W. C. McIntosh,
Dr. A. D. Waller.

Chairman and Secretary.—Professor A.
Dendy.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, Professor J. P.
Hill, and Mr. E. 8. Goodrich.

Chairman.—Professor 8. J. Hickson.

Professors G. C. Bourne, A. Dendy,
J. Stanley Gardiner, Marcus Hartog,
W. A. Herdman, J. Graham Kerr,
E. W. MacBride, Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, and Professor E. B. Poulton.

lxvill RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose Members of Committee

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
(See under Section H below.)

Section G.—ENGINEERING.

The Investigation of Gaseous Ex- | Chairman.—Sir Dugald Clerk.

plosions, with special reference to | Secretary.—Professor W. E. Dalby.

temperature. Professors W. A. Bone, F. W. Burstall,

; H. L. Callendar, and KE. G. Coker,

Mr. D. L. Chapman, Professor H. B.
Dixon, Sir R. JT. Glazebrook, Dr. J.
A. Harker, Colonel Sir H.C. L. Holden,
Professor J. E. Petavel, Captain H.
R. Sankey, Professor A. Smithells, and
Mr. H. Wimperis.

To consider and report on the Stan- | Chairman.—Professor W. H. Warren.
dardisation of Impact Tests. Secretary.—Mr. J. Vicars.
Professor Payne and Mr. E. H. Saniter.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To report on the present state of know- | Chairman.—Dr. W. H. R. Rivers.
ledge of the Ethnography and Geo- | Secretary.—Professor C. G. Seligman.
graphy of Captured Territories inthe Mr. J. Bolton, Mr. E. W. Pearson
Pacific.4 Chinnery, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Professor
L. W. Lyde, Sir E. F. im Thurn, Mr.
E. A. Reeves,and Dr. W. Mersh Strong.

To report on the present state of know- ) Chairman.—Dr. A. OC. Haddon.
ledge of the Ethnography of former | Secretary.—Professor C. G. Seligman.
German Territories in Africa. | Mr. E. 8. Hartland, Sir H. H. Johnston.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia. | Chairman.—Professor Sir W. Ridgeway.
Secretary.—Mr. A. J. B. Wace.

| Professor R. C. Bosanquet, Mr. L. H. D.

Buxton, Mr. S. Casson, Dr. W. L. H.

Duckworth, Professor J. L. Myres,

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys- | Chairman.—Sir C. H. Read.
tematic Registration of Photographs | Seeretary.—Dr. Harrison.
of Anthropological Interest. | Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. O. Forbes, Mr. E.
Heawood, and Professor J. L. Myres.

Section J.— PHYSIOLOGY.

Electromotive Phenomena in Plants. Chairman.—Dr. A. D. Waller.
Secretary.—Mrs. Waller.

Dr. F. O’B. Ellison,* Professor J. B.
Farmer,

Food Standards and Man-power. Chairman.— Professor W. D. Halliburton.
Secretary.—Professor A. D, Waller.
Professor E. H. Starling.

J Joint Committee with Section E.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. lxix

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation, or Purpose

To consider the possibilities of investi-
gation of the Ecology of Fungi, and
assist Mr. J. Ramsbottom in his
initial efforts in this direction.

The Investigation of the Vegetation of
j Ditcham Park, Hampshire.

The Structure of Fossil Plants.

To consider and report upon the neces-
sity for Further Provision for Train-
ing and Research in Horticulture.

The Influence of School Books upon
Eyesight.

| Training in Citizenship.

for the Nation.

Section L.—EKDUCATION.

To take steps to obtain Kent’s Cavern

Members of Committee

Srotion K.—BOTANY.

Chairman.—Dr. H. W. T. Wager.

Secretaries—Mr. J. Ramsbottom and
Miss A. Lorrain Smith.

Mr. W. B. Brierley, Mr. F. T. Brooks,
Mr. W. N. Cheesman, Professor T.
Johnson, Professor M. C. Potter, Mr. L.
Carleton Rea,and Mr. HE. W. Swanton.

Chairman.—Mr. A. G. Tansley.
Secretary.—Mr. R. 8. Adamson.
Professor R. H. Yapp.

Chairman.—Professor F. W. Oliver.

Secretary.—Professor F. EH. Weiss.

Professor A. C. Seward and Dr. D. H.
Scott.

Chairman.—Professor W. Bateson.

Secretary.—Dr. E. N. Thomas.

Mr. F. T. Brooks, Dr. A. B. Rendle,
and Sir Albert Rollit.

Chairman.— Dr. G. A. Auden.

Secretary.—Mr. G. F. Daniell.

Mr, C. H. Bothamley, Mr. W. D. Eggar,
Sir R. A. Gregory, Dr. N. Bishop
Harman, Mr. J. L. Holland, Dr. W. E.
Sumpner, Mr. A. P. Trotter, and Mr.
Trevor Walsh.

Chairman.—Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon.

Secretary.—-Lady Shaw.

Sir R. Baden-Powell,* Mr. C. H. Blakis-
ton, Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Mr. W. D.
Eggar, Mr. C. R. Fay, Principal J. C.
Maxwell Garnett, Sir R. A. Gregory,
and Sir T. Morison.*

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE.

Chairman.—Mr, W. Whitaker.
Secretary.—Mr. W. M. Webb.
Mr. Mark L. Sykes.

Ixx RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

RESEARCH CoMMITTEES ‘IN SUSPENSE.’

The work of the following Committees is in suspense until further
notice. The personnel of these Committees will be found in the Report
for 1917. '

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

To report on the Botanical and Chemical Characters of the Eucalypts and their
Correlation.
Cheniical Investigation of Natural Plant Products of Victoria.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

An investigation of the Biology of the Abrolhos Islands and the North-west Coast
of Australia (north of Shark’s Bay to Broome), with particular reference to the
Marine Fauna.

Nomenclator Animalium Genera et Sub-genera.

To obtain, as nearly as possible, a Representative Collection of Marsupials for
work upon (a) the Reproductive Apparatus and Development, (0) the Brain.

SECTION E.-—-GEOGRAPHY.

To aid in the preparation of a Bathymetrical Chart of the Southern Ocean
between Australia and Antarctica.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.

To investigate and ascertain the Distribution of Artificial Islands in the Lochs
of the Highlands of Scotland.

To investigate the Physical Characters of the Ancient Egyptians.

To conduct Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.

The Teaching of Anthropology.

lo prepare and publish Miss Byrne’s Gazetteer and Map of the Native Tribes
of Australia.

To conduct Anthropometric Investigations in the Island of Cyprus.

To investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connec-
tion with a Committee of the Somerset Archzological and Natural History Society.

To co-operate with Local Committees in Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.

SECTION K,—BOTANY,

To carry out a Research on the influence of varying percentages of Oxygen and
of various Atmospheric Pressures upon Geotropic and Heliotropic Irritability and
Curvature.

The Renting of Cinchona Botanic Station in Jamaica.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

]xxi

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated for Scientific Purposes by
the General Committee at the Bournemouth Meeting, September 1919.
The Names of Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

for Grants are prefixed to the respective Committees.

Section A.—Mathematical and Physical Science.

£
*Turner, Professor H. H.—-Seismological Observations ...... 100
*Rutherford, Sir E.—Tables of Constants .................... ... 40
*Love, Professor A. EK. H.—Gravity at Sea .................008. 10
*Lodge, Sir O.—Radiotelegraphic Investigations .............., 100
*Hill, Professor M. J. M.—Mathematical Tables ............... 30
Lamb, Professor H.—Tidal Institute at Liverpool ............ 150
Section B.—Chemistry.
*Donnan, Professor F. G.—Colloid Chemalehs B alaatuea Sane lli's 5
*Mond, Mr. R.—Fuel Economy .. BERRA raete ae ae bel
*Dobbie, Sir J. J— Absorption Spectra, Tet ere ay Ok WE 10
Section C.—Geology.
*Cole, Professor Grenville—Old Red Sandstone Rocks of
Kiltorcan ........ b peek 15
*Boulton, Professor W. § S.— Geology of Coal Seams ............ 15
*Horne, Dr. J.—Old Red Sandstone at Rhynie .................. 15
*Watts, Professor W. W.—Critical Sections in Paleozoic
RRR B ee an aree tens tretmce as en tg sds bad vice ten datnetin tandeatcaep OO
Section D.—Zoology.
*Bateson, Professor W.—Inheritance in Silkworms ......... 17
Bateson, Professor W.—Inheritance of Colour in Lepidoptera 50
*Poulton, Professor E. B.—Zoological Bibliography............ 10
Section F.—Economic Science and Statistics.
*Scott, Professor W. R.—Effects of War on Credit, &c. ...... 100
*Scott, Professor W. R.— Women in Industry .................. 80
Brabrook, Sir E.—Railway Travel......................ccceecee eee 5

Section G.—Engineering.
*Coker, Professor E. G.—Complex Stress Distributions ...... 80

Section H.—Anthropology.

*Marett, Dr. R. R.—-Paleolithic Site in Jersey .. 5

*Myres, Professor J. L.—Archeological Investigations in
(oat SURMISE ARE GS a a Ls ea Ata) VR 10
*Read, Sir C. H—Stone Circles (Contingent Liability) . 15

; *Myres, Professor J. L.—Distribution of Bronze Age Imple-
BS ei St hcinica's Uely Pn cons abla cuede'gu sa Su Min eve Toes, date haat 100
Marett, Dr. R. R.—Rude Stone Monuments..................... 20

Carried forward ..................e00+2- £967 0

* Reappointed.

So ooo eo o'O Saasoo-

oco

ooo

Se) See ooo cooocoookR

ooo

ooo

xxii CAIRD FUND.

£ s. da.
Brought forward ........... ............ 967 0 0
Section K. — Botany.

*Blackman, Dr. F. F. eee one of rere t =e oa Seas 40 0 0
Rendle, Dr. A. B.—Oenothera... orto teen cr rere, JO. 3G
Section L.— Educational Science.

*Buckmaster, Mr. C. A.—‘ Free-place’ System ...............04 10 0 O
Hardy, Mr. W. B.—International Language.................... 5 0 0
*Green, Professor J. A.—Museuims ............ 0.0 .ceece eee cre eee eee 15 0 0
Armstrong, Professor H. H.—Educational Charts ............ 10 0 0

Corresponding Societies Committee.
*Whitaker, Mr. W.—For Preparation of Report.................. 50 0 0

HA 8 nee arpeintatene name 2 bel 1 "(des Ca

Carrp FunD.

An unconditional gift of 10,000/. was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council, in its report to the General Committee at the Bir-
mingham Meeting, made certain recommendations as to the administra-
tion of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the
Report, by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913.

The following allocations have been made from the Fund by the
Council to September 1919 :-—

Naples Zoological Station Committee (p. lxvii).—501. (1912-18) ; 1001.
(1913-14) ; 100/. annually in future, subject to the adoption of the Com-
mittee’s report. (Reduced to 50/. during war.)

Seismology Committee (p. 1x).—100/. (1918-14) ; 100/. annually in
future, subject to the adoption of the Committee’s report.

Radiotelegraphic Committee (p. 1xi).—5001. (1913-14).

Magnetic Re-survey of the British Isles (in collaboration with the
Royal Society).— 2501.

Committee on Determination of Gravity at Sea (p. 1x).—1001.
(1914-15).

Mr. F. Sargent, Bristol University, in connection with his Astro-
nomical Work.—10l. (1914).

Organising Committee of Section F' (Hconomues), towards expenses of
an Inquiry into Outlets for Labour after the War.—100l. (1915).

Rev. T. E. R. Philips, for aid in transplanting his private observa-
tory.—201. (1915).

Committee on Fuel Economy (p. lxii). —25/. (1915-16).

Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of 1,000/.
to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity.

* Reappointed.

RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS, Ixxill

| RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee gave instructions to the General Officers
upon which the following Resolutions were forwarded after the close
of the meeting in Bournemouth :—

To the Prime Minister and the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
results of scientific method applied to military and other practical arts, recog-
_nises that the successful issue of the War has sprung from the efforts of scientific
men concentrated on those problems, and, with the conviction that the well-being
and security, of the nation is dependent on the continuous study of such matters,
would urge on H.M. Government the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum
- from that allocated to home administration and the upkeep of the fighting forces
for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme of research, as, for example,
on problems connected with health, food, and commerce, on explosives, on
chemical warfare, and on physical and engineering problems bearing on military
_ work.

To the First Lord of the Admiralty.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
results of scientific method applied to naval and military arts, recognises that the
success of our equipment has sprung from the efforts of scientific men concen-
_ trated on those problems, and, with the conviction that the security of the nation
is dependent on the continuous study, of such matters, would urge on H.M.
Government the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum from that allocated
to the upkeep of the fighting forces for the purpose of a definitely organised
‘scheme of research on physical and engineering problems bearing on naval and
‘military work, on explosives, and on biological and other problems related to
military treatment, and to the work of the Naval Intelligence Service.

To the Secretary of State for War.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
results of scientific method applied to military arts, recognises that the success
of our equipment has sprung from the efforts of scientific men concentrated on
those problems, and, with the conviction that the security of the nation is
‘dependent on the continuous study of such matters, would urge on H.M. Govern-
Ment the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum from that allocated to the
fighting forces for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme of research on
explosives, on chemical warfare, on physical and engineering problems bearing
‘on military work, and on biological and other problems related to the work of
the Army Medical Service and the Military Intelligence Department.

To the President of the Board of Trade.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
Tesults of scientific method applied to practical arts, recognises that the successful
issue of the War has sprung from the efforts of scientific men concentrated on
those problems, and, with the conviction that the welfare of the nation and its
economic recovery from the effects of the War are dependent on the continuous
study of such matters, would urge on H.M. Government the necessity for appor-
tioning an adequate sum from that allocated to the upkeep of the Board of Trade
for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme of research on scientific problems
Telating to the objects and methods of the nation’s commerce and industry.

lxxiv ‘RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

To the Minister of Health.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
results of scientific method applied to practical arts, recognises that the successful
issue of the War has sprung from the efforts of scientific men concentrated on
those problems, and, with the conviction that the welfare of the nation is
dependent on the continuous study of such matters, would urge on H.M. Govern-
ment the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum from that allocated to the
upkeep of the Ministry of Health for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme
of research on biologica] and other problems in connection with the causes and
communication of disease, and the preservation of the national health.

To the Food Controller.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, in reviewing the
results of scientific method applied to practical arts, recognises that the successful
issue of the War has sprung from the efforts of scientific men concentrated on
those problems, and, with the conviction that the security of the nation is
dependent on the continuous study of such matters, would urge on H.M. Govern-
ment the necessity for apportioning an adequate sum from that allocated to the
upkeep of the Ministry of Food for the purpose of a definitely organised scheme
of research on scientific problems connected with the production, preservation,

and distribution of foods.

Resolutions and Recommendations referred to the Council for con-
sideration, and, “f desirable, for action :—

From Section D.

_ That in the case of persons applying for membership of the General Com-
mittee who are not known to the Council the matter should be referred to the

Organising Committee of the Section concerned.

From Section E.

The Committee of Section E recommends the Council to ask the Australian
Government if they would kindly inform the British Association as to the
nature and amount of the geographical and anthropological material which the
Committee understands was left by the Germans in New Guinea, and if they
would forward to the Association copies for any maps which they desire to
base upon such material. ‘

From Section H.

To recommend that the Council of the Association approach the Australian
Government to urge that steps be taken to secure the collection and publication
of German anthropological and geographical material, and other scientific data,
captured in New Guinea and the adjacent enemy territories in the Pacific.

From Section H.

To recommend that the Council of the Association express to the appropriate
department of His Majesty’s Government their warm approval of the proposal
to establish a British Institute of Archeology in Egypt with annual grants
from public moneys.

From Section H.

To recommend the Council of the British Association to represent to His
Majesty’s Government the desirability of taking steps to secure the uniform
description and nomenclature of ancient remains in respect to the Ordnance
Survey of the British Isles.

PUBLIC OR CITIZENS’ LECTURES. Ixxv

From Section I.

That the Council be asked to consider the advisability of changing the name
of the Section of Physiology to that of Section of Physiology and Psychology,
and that the Presidents in alternate years represent the two branches of the
Section.

From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies of the British Asso-
ciation asks that the taxes derived from motor spirit and carriages should once
more be ear-marked for the improvement of the roads, and urges that in future
these taxes should be entirely devoted to road improvements.

From the General Commuttee.

That a joint committee of the General Committee and Council be appointed
to consider and advise on the future policy of the Association towards grants
in aid, and the organisation of research.

(The General Committee appointed as its representatives Prof. H. E. Arm-
strong, Prof. A. Gray, Dr. Alex. Hill, Mr. A. G. Tansley.)

Communications ordered to be printed in extenso.

Prof. A. R. Forsyth’s Paper on ‘Gauss’s Theorem for Quadrature and the
approximate Evaluation of Definite Integrals.’

Sir G. Greenhill’s Report on ‘ Wave Motion.’
Brig.-Gen. H. Hartley's Paper on ‘ Chemical Warfare.’

PuBLic or Citizens’ LECTURES.

During the Meeting the following Citizens’ Lectures were arranged, in
co-operation with the local branch of the Workers’ Educational Associa-
tion in Bournemouth : —

September 9th at 7.80 p.m. in St. Andrew’s Institute, Professor
H. H. Turner, F.R.S., on ‘ Modern Astronomy.’

September 11th at 7.80 p.m. in the Technical Hall, Pokesdown,
Professor S. H. Reynolds on ‘ Purbeck Isle and its Geology and
Scenery.’

September 12th at 7.30 p.m. in the Rechabite Hall, Winton, Professor
J. L. Myres on‘ Women’s Place in Nature from an Anthropological

Standpoint.’
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ADDRESS

BY

Tue Hon. Str CHARLES A. PARSONS,
K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT.

Taree years of anxiety and stress have passed since the last Meeting
of the British Association. The weight of the struggle which pressed
heavily upon us at the time of the Newcastle Meeting in 1916 had
increased so much in intensity by the Spring of 1917 that the Council,
after consultation with the Local Committee at Bournemouth, finally
decided to cancel the Summer Meeting of that year. This was the
first time in the history of the Association that an Annual Meeting
was not held.

We all rejoice to feel that the terrible ordeal through which the
whole Empire has been passing has now reached its final phases, and
that during the period of reorganisation, social and industrial, it is
possible to resume the Annual Meetings of the Association under
happier conditions. We have gladly and with much appreciation
accepted the renewed invitation of our friends and colleagues at
Bournemouth.

We are gathered together at a time when, after a great upheaval,
the elemental conditions of organisation of the world are still in flux,
and we have to consider how to mould and influence the recrystallisa-
tion of these elements into the best forms and most economic re-

arrangements for the benefit of civilisation. That the British Associa-

tion has exerted a great influence in guiding the nation towards advance-
ment in the Sciences and Arts in the most general sense there can be
no question, and of this we may be assured by a study of its proceedings
in conjunction with the history of contemporary progress. Although
the British Association cannot claim any paramount prerogative in this

_ good work, yet it can certainly claim to provide a free arena for dis-

rh

cussion where in the past new theories in Science, new propositions for
beneficial change, new suggestions for casting aside fetters to advance-

4 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ment in Science, Art, and Economics have first seen the light of
publication and discussion.

For more than half a century it has pleaded strongly for the advance-
ment of Science and its application to the Arts. In the yearly volume
for 1855 will be found a report in which it is stated that ‘ The Objects for
which the Association was established have been carried out in three
ways: First, by requisitioning and printing reports on the present state
of different branches of Science; secondly, by granting sums of money
to small committees or individuals, to enable them to carry on new
researches; thirdly, by recommending the Government to undertake
expeditions of discovery, or to make grants of money for certain and
national purposes, which were beyond the means of the Association.’
As a matter of fact it has, since its commencement, paid out of its own
funds upwards of 80,0001. in grants in aid of research.

Developments Prior to the War.

It is twenty-nine years since an engineer, Sir Frederick Bramwell,
occupied this chair and discoursed so charmingly on the great import-
ance of the next to nothing, the importance of looking after little
things which, in engineering, as in other walks. of life, are often too
lightly considered.

The advances in engineering during the last twenty years are too
many and complex to allow of their description, however short, being
included in one Address, and, following the example of some of my
predecessors in this chair, I shall refer only to some of the most
important features of this wide subject. I feel that I cannot do
better than begin by quoting from a speech made recently by Lord
Inchcape, when speaking on the question of the nationalisation of
coal: ‘It is no exaggeration to say that coal has been the maker of
modern Britain, and that those who discovered and developed the
methods of working it have done more to determine the bent of
British activities and the form of British society than all the Parlia-
ments of the past hundred and twenty years.’

James Watt.—No excuse is necessary for entering upon this theme,
because this year marks the hundredth anniversary of the death of
James Watt, and in reviewing the past, it appears that England has
gained her present proud position by her early enterprise and by the
success of the Watt steam engine, which enabled her to become the
first country to develop her resources in coal, and led to the estab-
lishment of her great manufactures and her immense mercantile
marine.

The laws of steam which James Watt discovered are simply these:
That the latent heat is nearly constant for different pressures within

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 5

the ranges used in steam engines, and that, consequently, the greater
the steam pressure and the greater the range of expansion the greater
will be the work obtained from a given amount of steam. Secondly,
as May now seem to us obvious, that steam from its expansive force
will rush into a vacuum. MHaving regard to the state of knowledge
at the time, his conclusions appear to have been the result of close
and patient reasoning by a mind endowed with extraordinary powers
of insight into physical questions, and with the faculty of drawing
sound practical conclusions from numerous experiments devised to
throw light on the subject under investigation. His resource, courage,
and devotion were extraordinary.

In commencing his investigations on the steam engine he soon
discovered that there was a tremendous loss in the Newcomen engine,
which he thought might be remedied. This was the loss caused by
condensation of the steam on the cold metal walls of the cylinder.
He first commenced by lining the walls with wood, a material of low

_ thermal conductivity. Though this improved matters, he was not
_ satisfied; his intuition probably told him that there should be some
better solution of the problem, and doubtless he made many experi-
ments before he realised that the true solution lay in a condenser separate
_ from the cylinder of the engine. It is easy after discovery to say,
_ * How obvious and how simple! ’ but many of us here know how difficult
is any step of advance when shrouded by unknown surroundings,
and we can well appreciate the courage and the amount of investigation
necessary before James Watt thought himself justified in trying the
separate condenser. But to us now, and to the youngest student who
knows the laws of steam as formulated by Carnot, Joule, and Kelvin,
the separate condenser is the obvious means of constructing an
economical condensing engine.

Watt's experiments led him to a clear view of the great importance
of securing as much expansion as possible in his engines. The
materials and appliances for boiler and machine construction were at that
time so undeveloped that steam pressures were practically limited to a
few pounds above atmospheric pressure. The cylinders and pistons of
his engines were not constructed with the facility and accuracy to which
We are now accustomed, and chiefly for these reasons expansion ratios
of from two to threefold were the usual practice. Watt had given

to the world an engine which consumed from five to seven pounds of
coal per horse-power hour, or one-quarter of the fuel previously used
by any engine. With this consumption of fuel its field under the con-
ditions prevailing at the time was practically unlimited. What need
was there, therefore, for commercial reasons, to endeavour still further
_ improve the engine at the risk of encountering fresh difficulties and
_ greater commercial embarrassments? The course was rather for him
1919. e

6 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

and his partners to devote all their energy to extend the adoption of
the engine as it stood, and this they did, and to the Watt engine,
consuming from five to seven pounds of coal per horse-power, mankind
owes the greatest permanent advances in material welfare recorded in
history.

With secondary modifications, it was the prime mover in most
general use for eighty years—i.e., till the middle of last century. It
remained for others to carry the expansion of steam still further in
the compound, triple, and, lastly, in the quadruple expansion engine,
which is the most economical reciprocating engine of to-day.

Watt had considered the practicability of the turbine. He writes
to his partner, Boulton, in 1784: ‘The whole success of the machine
depends on the possibility of prodigious velocities. In short, without
God makes it possible for things to move them one thousand feet per
second, it cannot do us much harm.’ The advance in tools of pre-
cision, and a clearer knowledge of the dynamics of rotating bodies,
have now made the speeds mentioned by Watt feasible, and indeed
common, everyday practice.

Turbines.—The turbine of to-day carries the expansion of steam
much further than has been found possible in any reciprocating engine,
and owing to this property it has surpassed it in economy of coal,
and it realises to the fullest extent Watt’s ideal of the expansion of steam
from the boiler to the lowest vapour pressure obtainable in the condenser.

Among the minor improvements which in recent years have con-
duced to a higher efficiency in turbines are the more accurate curvature
of the blades to avoid eddy losses in the steam, the raising of the
peripheral velocities of the blades to nearly the velocity of the steam
impinging upon them, and details of construction to reduce leakages
to a minimum. In turbines of 20,000 to 30,000 horse-power 82 per
cent. of the available energy in the steam is now obtainable as brake
horse-power; and with a boiler efficiency of 85 per cent. the thermo-
dynamic efficiency from the fuel to the electrical output of the alter-
nator has reached 23 per cent., and shortly may reach 28 per cent.,
a result rivalling the efficiency of internal combustion engines worked
by producer gas.

During the twenty years immediately preceding the war turbo-
generators had increased in size from 500 kilowatts to 25,000 kilowatts,
and the consumption of steam had fallen from 17 lb. per kw. hour
to 10.8 lb. per kw. hour. Turbines have become the recognised means
of generating electricity from steam on a large scale, although they
have not superseded the Watt engine for pumping mines or the drawing
of coal, except as a means for generating electricity for these purposes.
In the same period the engine power in the mercantile marine had risen
from 3,900 of the King Edward to 75,000 of the Mauretania.

PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 7

As regards the Royal Navy, the engine power of battleships, prior
to the war, had increased from 12,000 i.h.p. to 30,000 s.h.p., while
the speed advanced from 17 knots to 23 knots, and during the war,
in ships of the Queen Elizabeth class the power amounted to
75,000 s.h.p., with a speed of 25 knots. In cruisers similar
advances were made. The i.h.p. of the Powerful was 25,000, while
the s.h.p. of the Queen Mary was 78,000, with a speed of 28 knots.
During the war the power obtained with geared turbines in the
Courageous class was 100,000 s-h.p. with a speed of 32 knots, the
maximum power transmitted through one gear wheel being 25,000
h.p., and through one pinion 15,500 h.p., while in destroyers, speeds
up to 39 knots have been obtained. The aggregate horse-power of
war and mercantile turbined vessels throughout the world is now about
35 millions,

These advances in power and speed have been made possible mainly
by the successive increase in economy and diminution of weight derived
from the replacement of reciprocating engines by turbines direct coupled
to the propellers, and, later, by the introduction of reduction gearing
between the turbines and the propellers; also by the adoption of water-
tube boilers and of oil fuel. With these advances the names of Lord
Fisher, Sir William White, and Sir Henry Oram will always be
associated.

The British Navy has led the world for a century and more. Lord
Fisher has recently said that many of the ships are already obsolete
and must soon be replaced if supremacy is to be maintained ; and there
can be no question that, to guide the advance and development on the
best lines, continuous scientific experiment, though costly at the time,
_ will prove the cheapest in the long run.

The Work of Sir Wm. White.—With the great work of the Royal
Navy fresh in our minds, we cannot but recall the prominent part
taken by the late Sir William White in its construction. His sudden
death, when President-elect for 1913, lost to the nation and to the Asso-
ciation the services of a great naval architect who possessed remarkable
powers of prevision and dialectic. He was Chief Constructor to the
Admiralty from 1885 to 1901, and largely to him was due the efficiency
of our vessels in the Great War.

White often referred to the work of Brunel as the designer of the
Great Eastern, and spoke of him as the originator of the cellular con-
struction of the bottoms of ships, since universally adopted, as a means
of strengthening the hull and for obtaining additional safety in case
of damage. Scott Russell was the builder of this great pioneer vessel,
the forerunner of the Atlantic liners, and the British Association may
rightly feel satisfaction in having aided him when a young man by
_ pecuniary grants to develop his researches into the design and con-

q F2

8 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

struction of ships and the wave-line form of hull which he originated,
a form of special importance in paddle-wheel vessels. ;

So much discussion has taken place in the last four years as to
the best construction of ship to resist torpedo attacks that it is inter-
esting to recall briefly at the present time what was said by White in
his Cantor Lectures to the Royal Society of Arts in 1906: ‘Great
attention has been bestowed upon means of defence against underwater
torpedo attacks. From the first introduction of torpedoes it was re-
cognised that extreme watertight subdivision in the interior of warships
would be the most important means of defence. Experiments have
been made with triple watertight skins forming double cellular sides,
the compartments nearest the outer bottom being filled, in some cases,
with water, coal, cellulose, or other materials. Armour plating has
been used both on the outer bottom and on inner skins.’ He also
alludes to several Russian ships which were torpedoed by the Japanese,
and he concludes by saying: ‘ Up to date the balance of opinion has
favoured minute watertight subdivisions and comparatively thin water-
tight compartments, rather than the use of internal armour, whose
use, of course, involves large expenditure of weight and cost.’

The present war has most amply confirmed his views and conclu-
sions, then so lucidly and concisely expressed.

While on the subject of steamships, it may perhaps be opportune
to say one word as to their further development. The size of ships
had been steadily increasing up to the time of the war, resulting in
a reduction of power required to propel them per ton of displacement.
On the other hand, thanks to their greater size and more economical
machinery, speeds have been increased when the traffic has justified
the greater cost. The limiting factor to further increase in size is
the depth of water in the harbours. With this restriction removed
there is no obstacle to building ships up to 1,000 feet in length or more,
provided the volume and character of the traffic are such as to justify
the capital outlay.

Tungsten Steel—Among other important pre-war developments
that have had a direct bearing upon the war, mention should be made
of the discovery and extensive use of alloys of steel. The wonderful
properties conferred upon steel by the addition of tungsten were dis-
covered by Muschet ! in 1868, and later this alloy was investigated and
improved by Maunsel White and Taylor, of Philadelphia. The latter
showed that the addition of tungsten to steel has the following effect:
That after the steel has been quenched at a very high temperature near
its melting point it can be raised to a much higher temperature than is
possible with ordinary carbon tool steel, without losing its hardness

1 Who has not been sufficiently credited with his share in making the Bessemer
process a practical success.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 9

and power of cutting metal. In other words, it holds the carbon more
tenaciously in the hardened state, and hence tungsten steel tools, even
when red hot, can cut ordinary mild steel. It has revolutionised the
design of machine tools and has increased the output on heavy munition
work by 100 per cent., and in ordinary engineering by 50 per cent.

The alloys of steel and manganese with which the name of Sir Robert
Hadfield is associated have proved of utility in immensely increasing
the durability of railway and tramway points and crossings, and for
the hard teeth of machinery for the crushing of stone and other materials,
and, in fact, for any purposes where great hardness and strength are
essential.

Investigation of Gaseous Exzplosions.—Brief reference must also
be made—and it will be gratifying to do so—to the important work
of one of the Committees of the British Association appointed in 1908,
under the chairmanship of the late Sir William Preece, for the investi-
gation of gaseous explosions, with special reference to temperature.
The investigations of the Committee are contained in seven yearly
reports up to 1914. Of the very important work of the Committee I
wish to refer to one investigation in particular, which has proved to
be a guiding star to the designers and manufacturers of internal com-
bustion engines in this country. The members of the Committee more
directly associated with this particular investigation were Sir Dugald
Clerk, Professor Callendar, and the late Professor Bertram Hopkinson.

The investigation showed that the intensity of the heat radiated
by the incandescent gases to the walls of the cylinder of a gas engine
increases with the size of the cylinder, the actual rate of this increase
being approximately proportional to the square root of the depth of
the radiating incandescent gas; the intensity was also shown to increase
rapidly with the richness of the gas. It suffices now to say that the
heat in a large cylinder with a rich explosive mixture is so intense
that the metal eventually cracks. The investigation shows why this
occurs, and by doing so has saved enormous sums to the makers of
gas and oil engines in this country, and has led them to avoid the
large cylinder, so common in Germany before the war, in favour of
a multiplicity of smaller cylinders.

Science and the War.

In coming to this section of my Address I am reminded that in
the course of his Presidential Address to Section G, in 1858, Lord
Rosse said: ‘ Another object of the Mechanical Section of the Associa-
tion has been effected—the importance of engineering science in the
service of the State has been brought more prominently forward. There
seems, however, something still wanting. Science may yet do more
for the Navy and Army if more called upon.’

10 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Comparatively recently, too, Lord French remarked: ‘ We have
failed during the past to read accurately the lessons as regards the
fighting of the future which modern science and invention should have
taught us.’

In view of the eminent services which scientists have rendered
during the war, I think that we may be justified in regarding ' the
requirement stated by Lord Rosse as having at last been satisfied,
and also in believing that such a criticism as Lord French rightly
uttered will not be levelled against the country in the future.

Though British men of Science had not formerly been adequately
recognised in relation to war and the safety of their country, yet at
the call of the sailors and the soldiers they whole-heartedly, and with
intense zeal, devoted themselves to repair the negligence of the past,
and to apply their unrivalled powers and skill to encounter and over-
come the long-standing machinations of the enemy. They worked in
close collaboration with the men of Science of the Allied Nations, and
eventually produced better war material, chemicals, and apparatus
of all kinds for vanquishing the enemy and the saving of our own men
than had been devised by the enemy during many years of preparation
planned on the basis of a total disregard of treaties and the conventions
of war.

Four years is too short a time for much scientific invention to
blossom to useful maturity, even under the forced exigencies of war
and Government control. It must be remembered that in the past the
great majority of new discoveries and inventions of merit have taken
many years—sometimes generations—to bring them into general use.
It must also be mentioned that in some instances discoveries and inyen-
tions are attributable to the general advance in Science and the Arts
which has brought within the region of practical politics an attack on
some particular problem. So the work of the scientists during the
war has perforce been directed more to the application of known prin-
ciples, trade knowledge, and properties of matter to the waging of war,
than to the making of new and laborious discoveries ; though, in effecting
such applications, inventions of a high order have been achieved, some
of which promise to be of great usefulness in time of peace.

The advance of Science and the Arts in the last century had, how-
ever, wrought a great change in the implements of war. The steam
engine, the internal combustion engine, electricity, and the advances in
metallurgy and chemistry had led to the building up of immense indus-
tries which, when diverted from their normal uses, have produced
unprecedented quantities of war material for the enormous armies,
and also for the greatest Navy which the world has ever seen.

The destructive energy in the field and afloat has multiplied many
hundredfold since the time of the Napoleonic wars; both before and

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. ti

during the war the size of guns and the efficiency of explosives and shell
increased immensely, and many new implements of destruction were
added. Modern Science and Engineering enabled armies unprecedented
in size, efficiency and equipment to be drawn from all parts of the world
and to be concentrated rapidly in the fighting line.

To build up the stupendous fighting organisation, ships have been
taken from their normal trade routes, locomotives and material from
the home railways, the normal manufactures of the country have been
largely diverted to munitions of war; the home railways, tramways,
roads, buildings and constructions, and material of all kinds have been
allowed to depreciate. The amouni of depreciation in roads and rail-
ways alone has been estimated at 400 millions per annum at present
prices. Upon the community at home a very great and abnormal strain
has been thrown, notwithstanding the increased output per head of
the workers derived from modern methods and improved machinery.
In short, we have seen for the first time in history nearly the whole
populations of the principal contending nations enlisted in intense
personal and collective effort in the contest, resulting in unprecedented
loss of life and destruction of capital.

A few figures will assist us to realise the great difference between
this war and all preceding wars. At Waterloo, in 1815, 9,044 artillery
rounds were fired, having a total weight of 373 tons, while on one
day during the last offensive in France, on the British Front alone,
943,837 artillery rounds were fired, weighing 18,080 tons—over 100
times the number of rounds, and 485 times the weight of pro-
jectiles. Again, in the whole of the South African War, 273,000 artil-
lery rounds were fired, weighing approximately 2,800 tons ; while during
the whole war in France, on the British Front alone, over 170 million
artillery rounds were fired, weighing nearly 34 million tons—622 times
_ the number of rounds, and about 1,250 times the weight of projectiles.

However great these figures in connection with modern land
artillery may be, they become almost insignificant when compared with
those in respect of a modern naval battle squadron. The Queen Eliza-
beth when firing all her guns discharges 18 tons of metal and develops
1,870,000 foot-tons of energy. She is capable of repeating this discharge
_ once every minute, and when doing so develops by her guns an average
of 127,000 effective horse-power, or more than one-and-a-half times the
power of her propelling machinery ; and this energy is five times greater
than the maximum average energy developed on the Western Front by
British guns. Furthermore, if all her guns were fired simultaneously,
they would for the instant be developing energy at the rate of 13,132,000
horse-power. From these figures we can form some conception of the
vast destructive energy developed in a modern naval battle.

12 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Engineering and the War.

With regard to the many important engineering developments made
during the war, several papers by authorities are announced in the
syllabus of papers constituting the sectional proceedings of this year’s
Meeting. Among them are ‘ Tanks,’ by Sir Eustace d’Eyncourt; ‘ Scien-
tific Progress of Aviation during the War,’ by Dr. Bairstow ; ‘ Airships,’
by Lieut.-Col. Cave-Brown-Cave; ‘ Directional Wireless, with Special
Reference to Aircraft,’ by Capt. Robinson; ‘ Wireless in Aircraft,’. by
Major Erskine Murray; ‘ Wireless Telegraphy during the First Three
Years of the War,’ by Major Vincent Smith; ‘ Submarine Mining,’ by
Com. Gwynne; ‘Emergency Bridge Construction,’ by Prof. Ingles;
and ‘ The Paravane,’ by Com. Burney. Accordingly, it is quite un-
necessary here to particularise further except in the few following
instances :—

Sound-ranging and Listening Devices.—Probably the most inter-
esting development during the war has been the extensive application
of sound-listening devices for detecting and localising the enemy. The
Indian hunter puts his ear to the ground to listen for the sound of the
footsteps of his enemy. So in modern warfare science has placed in
the hands of the sailor and soldier elaborate instruments to aid the
ear in the detection of noises transmitted through earth, water, air, or
ether, and also in some cases to record these sounds graphically or
photographically, so that their character and the time of their occurrence
may be tabulated.

The sound-ranging apparatus by which the position of an enemy
gun can be determined from electrically recorded times at which the
sound wave from the gun passes over a number of receiving stations,
has enabled our artillery to concentrate their fire on the enemy’s guns,
and often to destroy them.

The French began experimenting in September 1914 with methods
of locating enemy guns by sound. The English section began work
in October 1915, adopting the French methods in the first instance.
By the end of 1916 the whole Front was covered, and sound-ranging
began to play an important part in the location of enemy batteries.
During 1917 locations by sound-ranging reached about 30,000 for the
whole army, this number being greater than that given by any other
means of location. A single good set of observations could be relied
upon to give the position of an enemy gun to about 50 yards at 7,000
yards’ range. It could also be carried on during considerable artillery
activity.

The apparatus for localising noises transmitted through the ground
has been much used for the detection of enemy mining and counter-

ines «

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 13

mining operations. Acoustic tubes, microphones, and amplifying valves
have been employed to increase the volume of very faint noises.

For many years before the war the Bell Submarine Signalling Com-
pany, of which Sir William White was one of the early directors, used
submerged microphones for detecting sound transmitted through the
water, and a submerged bell for sending signals to distances up to one
mile. With this apparatus passing ships could be heard at a distance
of nearly a mile when the sea was calm and the listening vessel
stationary.

Of all the physical disturbances emitted or produced by a moving
submarine, those most easily detected, and at the greatest distance,
are the pressure waves set up in the water by vibrations produced by
the vessel and her machinery. A great variety of instruments have
been devised during the war for detecting these noises, depending on
microphones and magnetophones of exceedingly high sensitivity. Among
them may be particularly mentioned the hydrophones devised by Captain
Ryan and Professor Bragg, being adaptations of the telephone trans-

_ mitter to work in water, instead of air. These instruments, when

mounted so as to rotate, are directional, being insensitive to sound waves
whose front is perpendicular to the plane of the diaphragm, and giving
the loudest sound when the diaphragm is parallel to the wave front.
Another preferable method for determining direction is to use two
hydrophones coupled to two receivers, one held to each ear. This is
called the biaural method, and enables the listener to recognise the

_ direction from which the sound emanates.

When the vessel is in motion or the sea is rough the water noises
from the dragging of the instrument through the water and from the

_ waves striking the ship drown the noises from the enemy vessel, and

under such conditions the instruments are useless. The assistance of

_ eminent biologists was of invaluable help at this juncture. Experiments

——

Were made with sea-lions by Sir Richard Paget, who found that they have
directional hearing under water up to speeds of six knots. Also Professor
Keith explained the construction of the hearing organs of the whale,
the ear proper being a capillary tube, too small to be capable of per-
forming any useful function in transmitting sound to the relatively large
aural organs, which are deep set in the head. The whale therefore hears
by means of the sound waves transmitted through the substance of the
head. It was further seen that the organs of hearing of the whale to
some degree resembled the hydrophone.

The course now became clear. Hollow towing bodies in the form
of fish or porpoises were made of celluloid, varnished canvas, or very
thin metal, and the hydrophone suitably fixed in the centre of the
head. The body is filled with water, and the cable towing the fish
contains the insulated leads to the observer on board the vessel. When

14 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

towed at some distance behind the chasing ship disturbing noises are
small, and enemy noises can be heard up to speeds of 14 knots,
and at considerable distances. Thermionic amplifying valves have been
extensively used, and have added much to the sensitiveness of the
hydrophone in its many forms.

After the loss of the Titanic by collision with an iceberg, Lewis
Richardson was granted two patents in 1912 for the detection of above-
water objects by their echo in the air, and underwater objects by their
echo transmitted through the water. The principles governing the
production and the concentration of beams of sound are described in
his specifications, and he recommends frequencies ranging from 4,786
to 100,000 complete vibrations per second, and also suggests that the
rate of approach or recession from the object may be determined from
the difference in the pitch of the echo from the pitch of the blast sent
out. Hiram Maxim also suggested similar apparatus a little later.

The echo method of detection was not, however, practically deve-
Joped until French and English scientists, with whom was associated
Professor Langevin, of the Collége de France, realising its importance
for submarine detection, brought the apparatus to a high degree of
perfection and utility shortly before the Armistice. Now, with beams
of high-frequency sound waves, it is possible to sweep the seas for the
detection of any submerged object, such as icebergs, submarines, surface
vessels, and rocks; they may also be used to make soundings. It
enables a chasing ship to pick up and close in on a submarine situated
more than a mile away.

The successful development of sound-ranging apparatus on land
led to the suggestion by Professor Bragg that a modified form could be
used to locate under-water explosions. It has been found that the
shock of an explosion can be detected hundreds of miles from its source
by means of a submerged hydrophone, and that the time of the arrival
of the sound wave can be recorded with great precision. At the end
of the war the sound-ranging stations were being used for the detection
of positions at sea, required for strategical purposes. The same stations
are now being used extensively for the determination of such positions
at sea as light-vessels, buoys which indicate channels, and obstructions
such as sunken ships. By this means ships steaming in fog can be
given their positions with accuracy for ranges up to 500 miles.

Among the many other important technical systems and devices
brought out during the war which will find useful application under
peace conditions as aids to navigation I may mention directional wire-
less, by which ships and aircraft can be given their positions and
directed, and on this subject we are to have a paper in Section G.

Leader gear, first used by the Germans to direct their ships through
their minefields, and subsequently used by the Allies, consists of an

:
4

P, COE eS

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 15

insulated cable laid on the bottom of the sea, earthed at the further
end, and through which an alternating current is passed. By means
of delicate devices installed on a ship, she is able to follow the cable
at any speed with as much precision as a railless electric ‘bus can
follow its trolley wire. Cables up to 50 miles long have been used,
and this device promises to be invaluable to ships navigating narrow
and tortuous channels and entering or leaving harbours in a fog.

Aircraft.—It may be justly said that the development in air-
eraft design and manufacture is one of the astonishing engineering
feats of the war. In August 1914 the British Air Services possessed
a total of 272 machines, whereas in October 1918, just prior to the
Armistice, the Royal Air Force possessed over 22,000 effective machines.
During the first twelve months of the war the average monthly delivery
of aeroplanes to our Flying Service was fifty, while during the last
twelve months of the war the average deliveries were 2,700 per month.
So far as aero-engines are concerned, our position in 1914 was by no
means satisfactory. We depended for a large proportion of our supplies
on other countries. In the Aerial Derby of 1913, of the eleven machines
that started, not one had a British engine. By the end of the war,
however, British aero-engines had gained the foremost place in design
and manufacture, and were well up to requirements as regards supply.
The total horse-power produced in the last twelve months of the war
approximated to eight millions of brake horse-power, a figure quite
comparable with the total horse-power of the marine engine output of
the country.”

Much might be written on the progress in aircraft, but the subject
will be treated at length in the sectional papers. In view of the recent
trans-Atlantic flights, however, I feel that it may be opportune to make
the following observations on the comparative utility of aeroplanes and
airships for commercial purposes. In the case of the aeroplane, the
weight per horse-power increases with the size, other things being equal.
This increase, however, is met to some extent by a multiplicity of
engines, though in the fusilage the increase remains.

On the other hand, with the airship the advantage increases with
the size, as in all ships. The tractive effort per ton of displacement
diminishes in inverse proportion to the dimensions, other things, includ-
ing the speed, being the same. Thus, an airship of 750 feet length
and 60 tons displacement may require a tractive force of 5 per cent.,
or 3 tons, at 60 miles per hour; while one of 1,500 feet in length and
8x60=480 tons displacement would only require 24 per cent. x 480=12
tons at the same speed, and would carry fuel for double the distance.

* See Lord Weir’s Paper read at the Victory Meeting of the North-East
Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, July 1919.

16 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

With the same proportion of weight of hull to displacement, the
larger airship would stand double the wind pressure, and would weather
storms of greater violence and hailstones of greater size. It would be
more durable, the proportional upkeep would be less, and the propor-
tional loss of gas considerably less. In other words, it would lose a
less proportion of its buoyancy per day. It is a development in which
success depends upon the project being well thought out and the job
being thoroughly well done. The equipment of the airsheds with
numerous electric haulage winches, and all other appliances to make
egress and ingress to the sheds safe from danger and accident, must
be ample and efficient.

The airship appears to have a great future for special commerce
where time is a dominant factor and the demand is sufficient to justify
a large airship. It has also a great field in the opening up of new
countries where other means of communication are difficult. The only
limitation to size will be the cost of the airship and its sheds, just as in
steam vessels it is the cost of the vessels and the cost of deepening the
harbours that limit the size of Atlantic liners.

Such developments generally take place slowly, otherwise failures
occur—as in the case of the Great Hastern—and it may be many years
before the airship is increased from the present maximum of 750 feet
to 1,500 feet with success, but it will assuredly come. If, however,
the development is subsidised or assisted by Government, incidental
failures may be faced with equanimity and very rapid development
accomplished.* In peace time the seaplane, aeroplane, and airship
will most certainly have their uses. But, except for special services
of high utility, it is questionable whether they will play more than a
minor part as compared with the steamship, railway, and motor
transport.

Electricity.—The supply and use of electricity has developed rapidly
in recent years. For lighting it is the rival of gas, though each has
its advantages. As a means of transmitting power over long
distances it has no rival, and its efficiency is so high that when generated
on a large scale and distributed over large areas it is a cheap and
reliable source of power for working factories, tramways, suburban
railways, and innumerable other purposes, including metallurgical and
chemical processes. It is rapidly superseding locally generated steam-
power, and is a rival to the small and moderate-sized gas and oil engine.
It has made practicable the use of water-power through the generation
of electricity in bulk at the natural falls, from which the power is trans-
mitted to the consumers, sometimes at great distances.

3 The literature on this subject includes an article which appeared in
Engineering on January 3, 1919.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 17

Fifteen years ago electricity was generated chiefly by large recipro-
cating steam engines, direct coupled to dynamos or alternators, but
of late years steam turbines have in most instances replaced them, and
are now exclusively used in large generating stations, because of their
smaller cost and greater economy in fuel. The size of the turbines
may vary from a few thousand horse-power up to about 50,000 horse-
_ power. At the end of last year the central electric stations in the
_ United Kingdom contained plant aggregating 23 million kilowatts,
_ 79 per cent. of which was driven by steam turbines.

. Much discussion has taken place as to the most economical size
of generating stations, their number, the size of the generating units,
and the size of the area to be supplied. On the one hand, a compara-
tively small number of very large or super-stations, instead of
a large number of moderate-sized stations dotted over the area, results
in a small decrease in the cost of production of the electricity, because
in the super-stations larger and slightly more economical engines are
employed, while the larger stations permit of higher organisation and
_ more elaborate labour-saving appliances. Further, if in the future the
recovery of the by-products of coal should become a practical realisation
as part of the process in the manufacture of the electric current, the
larger super-stations present greater facilities than’ the smaller
stations. On the other hand, super-stations involve the transmission
_ of the electricity over greater distances, and consequently greater capital
expenditure and cost of maintenance of mains and transmission appa-
-ratus, and greater electrical transmission losses, while the larger
‘generating unit takes longer to overhaul or repair, and consequently a
larger percentage of spare plant is necessary.
The greatest element in reducing the cost of electricity is the pro-
Vision of a good load factor; in other words, the utilisation of the
generating plant and mains to the greatest extent during the twenty-
four hours of each day throughout the year. This is a far more
‘important consideration than the size of the station, and it is secured
to the best advantage in most cases by a widespread network of mains,
supplying a diversity of consumers and uses, each requiring current
at different times of the day. The total load of each station being thus
ar average of the individual loads of a number of consumers is, in
general, far less fluctuating than in the case of small generating and

Die bee ee

a state of affairs that exists in London, for instance, at the present
time. It is true that there may be exceptional cases, such as at
i ilmarnock, where a good load factor may be found in a small area,
but in this case the consumers are chiefly mills, which require current
for many hours daily.

There is no golden rule to secure cheap electricity. The most

18 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

favourable size, locality, and number of generating stations in each
area can only be arrived at by a close study of the local conditions,
but there is no doubt that, generally speaking, to secure cheap elec-
tricity a widespread network of mains is in most cases a very important,
if not an essential, factor.

The electrification of tramways and suburban railways has been an
undoubted success where the volume of traffic has justified a frequent
service, and it has been remarkable that where suburban lines have
been worked by frequent and fast electrical trains there has resulted
a great growth of passenger traffic. The electrification of main line
railways would no doubt result in a saving of coal; at the same time,
the economical success would largely depend on the broader question
as to whether the volume of the traffic would suffice to pay the working
expenses, and provide a satisfactory return on the capital.

Municipal and company generating stations have been nearly
doubled in capacity during the war to meet the demand from munition
works, steel works, chemical works, and for many other purposes. The
provision of this increased supply was an enormous help in the produc-
tion of adequate munitions. At the commencement of the war there
were few steel electric furnaces in the country; at the end of last year
117 were at work, producing 20,000 tons of steel per month, consisting
chiefly of high-grade ferro alloys used in munitions.

The Future.

The nations who have exerted the most influence in the war have
been those who have developed to the greatest extent their resources,
their manufactures, and their commerce. As in the war, so in the
civilisation of mankind. But, viewing the present trend of develop-
ments in harnessing water-power and using up the fuel resources of
the world for the use and convenience of man, one cannot but realise
that, failing new and unexpected discoveries in science, such as the
harnessing of the latent molecular and atomic energy in matter, as
foreshadowed by Clerk Maxwell, Kelvin, Rutherford, and others, the
great position of England cannot be maintained for an indefinite period.
At some time more or less remote—long before the exhaustion of our
coal—the population will gradually migrate to those countries where
the natural sources of energy are the most abundant.

Water-power and Coal.—The amount of available water-power in
the British Isles is very small as compared with the total in other
countries. According to the latest estimates, the total in the British
Isles is under 14 million horse-power, whereas Canada alone possesses
over 20 millions, of which over 2 millions have already been harnessed.
In the rest of the British Empire there are upwards of 30 millions
and in the remainder of the world at least 150 millions, so that England

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 19

herself possesses less than 1 per cent. of the water-power of the world.

Further, it has been estimated that she only possesses 24 per cent. of

the whole coal of the world. To this question I would wish to direct

our attention for a few minutes.

1 1 have said that England owes her modern greatness to the early
development of her coal. Upon it she must continue to depend almost
exclusively for her heat and source of power, including that required for
propelling her vast mercantile marine. Nevertheless, she is using up
her resources in coal much more rapidly than most other countries are

consuming theirs, and long before any near approach to exhaustion is
reached her richer seams will have become impoverished, and the cost

_ of mining so much increased that, given cheap transport, it might pay

; her better to import coal from richer fields of almost limitless extent

belonging to foreign countries, and workable at a much lower cost than

her own.

Let us endeavour to arrive at some approximate estimate of the
economic value of the principal sources of power. The present average
value of the royalties on coal in England is about 6d. per ton, but to
this must be added the profit derived from mining operations after pay-
ing royalties and providing for interest on the capital expended and for
its redemption as wasting capital. After consultation with several
leading experts in these matters, I have come to the conclusion that
about ls. per ton represents the pre-war market value of coal in the
seams in England.

It must, however, be remembered that, in addition, coal has a con-
siderable value as a national asset, for on it depends the prosperity of
the great industrial interests of the country, which contribute a large
portion of the wealth and revenue. From this point of view the present
value of unmined coal seems not to have been sufficiently appreciated
in the past, and that in the future it should be better appraised at
its true value to the nation.

This question may be viewed from another aspect by making a

‘comparison of the cost of producing a given amount of electrical power

from coal and from water-power. Assuming that one horse-power of

electrical energy maintained for one year had a pre-war value of 51.,

and that it requires about eight tons of average coal to produce it,

e arrive at the price of 6s. 3d. per ton—i.e., crediting the coal with

alf the cost. The capital required to mine eight tons of coal a year

in England is difficult to estimate, but it may be taken approximately
to be 5/., and the capital for plant and machinery to convert it into
lectricity at 10]/., making a total of 15]. In the case of water-power
the average canted cost on the above basis is 40/., including water rights

(though in exceptionally favoured districts much lower costs are

recorded).

20 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

From these figures it appears that the average capital required to
produce electrical power from coal is less than one half the amount that
is required in the case of water-power. The running costs, however, in
connection with water-power are much less than those in respect of
coal. Another interesting consideration is that the cost of harnessing
all the water-power of the world would be about 8,000 millions, or equal
to the cost of the war to England.

Dowling has estimated the total coal of the- world as over seven
million million tons, and whether we appraise it at 1s. or more per ton
its present and prospective value is prodigious. For instance, at 6s. 3d.
per ton it amounts to nearly one hundred times the cost of the war to
all the belligerents.

In some foreign countries the capital costs of mining are far below
the figures I have taken, and, as coal is transportable over long distances
and, generally speaking, electricity is not so at present, therefore it
seems probable that capital will in the immediate future flow in increas-
ing quantity to mining operations in foreign countries rather than to
the development of the more difficult and costly water-power schemes.
When, however, capital becomes more plentiful the lower running costs
of water-power will prevail, with the result that it will then be rapidly
developed.

As to the possible new sources of power, I have already mentioned
molecular energy, but there is another alternative which appears to
merit attention.

Bore Hole.—In my address to Section G in 1904 I discussed the
question of sinking a shaft to a depth of twelve miles, which is about
ten times the depth of any shaft in existence. The estimated cost was
5,000,0001., and the time required about eighty-five years.

The method of cooling the air-locks to limit the barometric pressure
on the miners and other precautions were described, and the project
appeared feasible. One essential factor has, however, been
queried by some persons: Would the rock at the great depth crush
in and destroy the shaft? Subsequent to my address, I wrote a letter
to Nature, suggesting that the question might be tested experimentally.
Professor Frank D. Adams, of McGill University, Montreal, acting on
the suggestion, has since carried out exhaustive experiments, published
in the Journal of Geology for February 1912, showing that in limestone
a depth of fifteen miles is probably practicable, and that in granite a
depth of thirty miles might be reached.

Little is at present known of the earth’s interior, except by inference
from a study of its surface, upturned strata, shallow shafts, the velocity
of transmission of seismic disturbances, its rigidity and specific gravity,
and it seems reasonable to suggest that some attempt should be made

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 21

to sink a shaft as deep as may be found practicable and at some locality
selected by geologists as the most likely to afford useful information.

When we consider that the estimated cost of sinking a shaft to a
depth of twelve miles, at present-day prices, is not much more than
the cost of one day of the war to Great Britain alone, the expense
seems trivial as compared with the possible knowledge that might be
gained by an investigation into this unexplored region of the earth. It
might, indeed, prove of inestimable value to Science, and also throw
additional light on the internal constitution of the earth in relation to
minerals of high specific gravity.

In Italy, at Lardarello, bore-holes have been sunk, which dis-
charge large volumes of high-pressure steam, which is being utilised
to generate about 10,000 horse-power by turbines. At Solfatara, near
Naples, a similar project is on foot to supply power to the great works
in the district. It seems, indeed, probable that in volcanic regions a
very large amount of power may be, in the future, obtained directly
or indirectly by boring into the earth, and that the whole subject merits
the most careful consideration.

While on the subject of obtaining power, may I digress for a few
moments and describe an interesting phenomenon of a somewhat con-
verse nature—viz. that of intense pressure produced by moderate forces
closing up cavities in water.

A Committee was appointed by the Admiralty in 1916 to investigate
the cause of the rapid erosion of the propellers of some of the ships
doing arduous duties. This was the first time that the problem had
been systematically considered. The Committee found that the
erosion was due to the intense blows struck upon the blades of the
propellers by the nuclei of vacuous cavities closing up against them.
Though the pressure bringing the water together was only that of the
atmosphere, yet it was proved that at the nucleus 20,000 atmospheres
might be produced.

The phenomenon may be described as being analagous to the well-
known fact that nearly all the energy of the arm that swings it is con-
centrated in the tag of a whip. It was shown that when water flowed
into a conical tube which had been evacuated a pressure of over 140 tons
per square inch was recorded at the apex, which was capable of eroding
brass, steel, and in time even the hardest steel. The phenomenon may
occur under some conditions in rivers and waterfalls where the velocity
exceeds 50 feet per second, and it is probably as great a source of erosion
as by the washing down of boulders and pebbles. Then again, when
_ waves beat on a rocky shore, under some conditions, intense hydraulic
pressures will occur, quite sufficient of themselves to crush the rock
and to open out narrow fissures into caves.

Research.—The whole question of the future resources of the Empire

1919. @

22, PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

is, I venture to think, one which demands the serious attention of all
scientists. It should be attacked ina comprehensive manner, and with
that insistence which has been so notable in connection with the efforts
of British investigators in the past. In such a task, some people might
suggest, we need encouragement and assistance from the Government
of the country. Surely we have it. As many here know, a great
experimental step towards the practical.realisation of Solomon’s House
as prefigured by Francis Bacon in the New Atlantis is being made by the
Government at the present time. The inception, constitution, and
methods of procedure of the Department, which was constituted in
1915, were fully described by Sir Frank Heath in his paper to the Royal
Society of Arts last February, and it was there stated by Lord Crewe
that, so far as he knew, this was the only country in which a Govern-
ment Department of Research existed."

It is obvious that the work of a Department of this kind must be
one of gradual development with small beginnings, in order that it
may be sound and lasting. The work commenced by assisting a number
of researches conducted by scientific and professional societies which
were languishing as a result of the war, and grants were also made to
the National Physical Laboratory and to the Central School of Pottery
at Stoke-on-Trent. The grants for investigation and research for the
year 1916-17 totalled 11,0551., and for the present year are anticipated
to be 98,5701. The total income of the National Physical Laboratory
in 1913-14 was 43,7181., and owing to the great enlargement of the
Laboratory the total estimate of the Research Department for this
service during the current year is 154,6501.

Another important part of the work of the Department has been
to foster and to aid financially Associations of the trades for the purpose
of research. Nine of these Associations are already at work; eight
more are approved, and will probably be at work within the next two
months; and another twelve are in the earlier stage of formation. There
are also signs of increased research by individual factories. Whether
this is due to the indirect influence of the Research Department or to a
change in public opinion and a more general recognition of the im-
portance of scientific industrial research it is difficult to say.

The possibility of the uncontrolled use on the part of a nation of
the power which Science has placed within its reach is so great a
menace to civilisation® that the ardent wish of all reasonable people
is to possess some radical means of prevention through the establishment

* The Italian Government are now, however, establishing a National Council
for Research, and a Bill is before the French Chamber for the establishment of

a National Office of Scientific, Industrial, and Agricultural Research and
Inventions.

5 For instance, it might some day be discovered how to liberate instan-
taneously the energy in radium, and radium contains 24 million times the
energy of the same weight of T.N.T.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 23

of some form of wide and powerful control. Has not Science forged

c vilisation, by reducing distance in terms of time? Alliances and
Barve which have successfully controlled and stimulated hea of

t to the Patrolling of the great fortiea of Natuite for the use and con-
venience of man, instead of applying them to the killing of each other.
Many of us remember the President’s Banner at the Manchester
Meeting in 1915, where Science is allegorically represented by a sorrow-
gure covering her eyes from the sight of the guns in the foreground.
This year Science is represented in her more joyful mien, encouraging
arts and industries. It is to be sincerely hoped that the future
ll justify our present optimism.

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REPORTS

ON THE Tv

P STATE OF SCIENCH, ETC.

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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, Ere.

Reports on Physical Sciences for which World-wide Observations
are important.

At a meeting of the Organising Committee of Section A, held on
May 11, 1916, the following Resolution was passed :—

That the Organising Committee of Section A endeavour to obtain

a series of Reports on the present state and prospects of those sciences
for which world-wide observations are important, such reports to aim
at :—

(a) *A brief statement of present achievements.

(b) A specification of problems immediately pressing.

(c) A further specification of problems which should be considered

in the near future, though not perhaps immediately.

This Resolution would apply in the cases of :—

1. Geodesy and Surveying, including Gravity work. It was deter-
mined to invite a report from the Astronomer Royal, the Director of
the Ordnance Survey, and Major Hills, R.E., acting in concert and
with power to ask assistance from others. They were further requested
specially to consider the past and future relations to such work of the
International Geodetic Association.

2. Meteorology. It was determined to invite a report from Sir
W. N. Shaw, asking him specially to consider the relation of the Inter-
national Meteorological Cownetl to the work.

3. Magnetic Observations. It was determined to invite a report from

_ Dr. Chree, asking him specially to consider the relation of the work
_ of the Carnegie Institution to other work.

4. Tidal Observations amd Currents. It was determined to invite a
report from Professor Lamb.
5. Seismology. It was determined to invite a report from Dr.

|G. W. Walker.

The following Reports have been received :—
1. Report on Terrestrial Magnetism. By C. Curse, D.Sc., F.R.S.

2. Preliminary Report on Tides and Currents. By Professor H.

Lame, F.2.S,, and J. Proupman. (See Report, 1918, p. 15.)

98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

3. Report of Geodetic Committee, February 1918.

1. The Geodetic Committee, having been desired to reconsider their
proposals for a Geodetic Institute in the light of the needs of Tidal Pheno-
mena, Seismology, and Terrestrial Magnetism, as well as Geodesy, have
reviewed the whole question.

2. Hvidence has been laid before the Committee of the present posi-
tion in the Empire of each of these branches of Geophysical Science, of
the provision for dealing with them, and of the shortcomings of existing
arrangements.

Careful consideration of the evidence submitted has shown that the
needs of Geodesy are to a large extent similar to those of the other sub-
jects, and that the following general summary is applicable to Geodesy,
Tidal Phenomena, Seismology, and Terrestrial Magnetism.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

(2) There is no provision for the collection and critical discussion
of the work which is being done within the Empire or for its comparison
with that which is being done in other countries.

(b) The various State Departments and local authorities’ have no
British institution to which they can refer for the latest and most accurate
technical data, for the methods which have been found most effective
in various circumstances in the Dominions, Colonies, Protectorates, or
foreign countries, or the improvements that have been made in instru-
ments, or for the latest advances in the theoretical fields of these sub-
jects, except imperfectly in the case of Terrestrial Magnetism.

(c) There is no institution where those who have devoted themselves
to these geophysical sciences can still further improve their knowledge
of them, investigate the problems that arise, and have at their disposal
all the necessary material and instrumental equipment to carry out
research work.

Geodesy.

3. The position of Geodesy and its special needs may be stated as
follows :—

Besides providing the data from which the true form and dimensions
of the earth may be determined—from which, also, can be derived
information as to its local irregularities and attractions, its crustal sta-
bility and structure—triangulation and levelling, of the degree of pre-
cision which geodetic investigations require, provide the most economical
basis of work wherever large areas of country have to be surveyed and
the boundaries of property defined. They not only provide a reliable
control for all other surveying, but also materially raise the standard of
accuracy of such work; and, even where second-order surveys are at
first employed, work of a geodetic standard must sooner or later be
introduced.

Geodetic triangulation and precise levelling are, or have been, in
progress in the United Kingdom, India, Egypt, and in Australia, New
Zealand, Canada, and South Africa; while work of a similar character
will become necessary to a greater or less extent in most of the Crown
Colonies and Protectorates as their development proceeds.

GEODETIC COMMITTEE. 29

Determinations of gravity have been made in the United Kingdom,
Egypt, and at numerous coast stations, and form part of the regular work
of the Survey of India and are desirable in other parts of the Empire.

Geodetic work must form the basis of the control of all the State
Surveys of the Empire, on which about a million sterling was being spent
annually before the war.

An institution in which the results of such work in all parts of the
Empire would be systematically collected and reviewed, where the
methods and instruments were discussed, and where the corresponding
work of other nations would be regularly brought into relation with it,
would be of great value to all these State Surveys.

Tides.

4. The navigational applications of tidal phenomena are providea
for by the Hydrographical Department of the Navy, but there is a
part of the subject which is closely related to Geodesy and especially
to precise levelling.

Oceanic tide gauges are maintained in the United Kingdom (3),
India (9), Canada (4), New Zealand (2), and Austrblia (1), and their
data, which are utilised for providing tide-tables, are valuable also in
discussions of sea-level, reference data, and the movements of the crust
of the earth. The work of correlating these observations in different
countries could be very suitably undertaken in an institution devoted
to Geodesy and allied subjects.

Seismology.

5. While there are nine places in the Empire where seismographs
exist capable of furnishing data for the determination of the physical
properties of the earth, there is a widely spread network of stations
equipped with a simpler form of seismograph, which was instituted and
developed by the late Professor J. Milne, F.R.S. These stations are
situated in all parts of the Empire and also in some foreign countries.
During Professor Milne’s lifetime he received and discussed the records
of all these stations, and practically maintained a Seismological Institute,
so far as these instruments were concerned, in the Isle of Wight. Since
his death the work has been carried on by the Committee of the British
Association, of which he was formerly Secretary.

_ 6. It seems to the Committee that there are two classes of require-
- ments to be considered :—

(1) The need for a few first-class seismological stations, equipped
with the best type of seismographs and established in
different parts of the Empire, to record the vibrations caused
by earth shocks which affect the earth as a whole; and

(2) The study of earthquake frequency, crustal movement, and
local earthquake phenomena generally, which may be
studied with simpler forms of instrument and under local
arrangements.

In the United Kingdom one first-class station would probably suffice,
and this might form part of the Geodetic Institute, since the equipment

30 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

is not cumbersome, the material received from the Colonies and Pro-
tectorates would not be unmanageable, and the seismological study of
the physical structure of the earth is closely allied to the investigations of
structural problems by geodetic methods. This Institute would form a
centre to which local authorities in the Colonies and Protectorates could
turn for advice or assistance.

Such a centre would also communicate with the seismological centres
in other parts of the Empire, exchange data, and co-operate in the
study of the subject. It would also correspond with the Seismological
Institutes of other countries, and actively promote the development of
this branch of Geophysics in this country.

Terrestrial Magnetism.

7. There is more adequate national provision for the study of Terres-
trial Magnetism than is the case with Seismology, though the require-
ments of Terrestrial Magnetism are not fully met as yet.

Magnetographs are in operation or are about to be established at : —

Greenwich. Egypt . - . Helwan. '
Great Britain | paiiiahit Australia. { Weel sanprahar

Stonyhurst. New Zealand . Christchurch.
India Z { reer sai eaters is { Menvitien
Burma. Toungor, 2 | Gamade (itr Testife aaeoaae

+ To be moved. tft Not yet established.

Magnetic observations at sea are made under the direction of the
Hydrographer of the Navy, under whom the Superintendent of Naval
Compasses works.

Greenwich Observatory, including the Magnetic Department, is
maintained by the Admiralty. Continuous magnetic observations have
been taken since 1841, and in recent years new housing and equipment
lave been provided. The observations are published annually and have
been discussed at the Observatory and elsewhere. The magnetic
observations made by officers of H.M. ships are received from the
Hydrographer of the Navy and are used with others in the preparation
at the Observatory of the Admiralty Magnetic Charts.

In the year 1871 the late Mr. John Peter Gassiot conveyed to the
Royal Society a sum of £10,000 for the purpose of assisting in carrying
on and continuing magnetic and meteorological observations and related
physical investigations. The proceeds of this fund, together with the
grant in aid made by the Treasury to the Royal Society for Eskdalemuir
Observatory, are now administered by a Committee of the Royal Society
for the work assigned, in augmentation of the sums at the disposal of
the Meteorological Committee of H.M. Treasury.

There is, however, no provision for the collection and discussion of
the records obtained by the magnetographs in operation in the Empire,
nor for the investigation of various problems in terrestrial magnetism
which from time to time arise, nor for the periodical revision of such
magnetic surveys as have been or may be made of the United Kingdom,

es

yop aie

GEODETIC COMMITTEE. 81

or of the Colonies and Protectorates, nor for any special investigations
that may be necessary.

The Committee are of opinion that these needs might be met if for
that purpose the resources of the Meteorological Office, which now
directs the Observatories of Kew and Eskdalemuir, and receives through
the Royal Society the Government grant which has been referred to,
were correspondingly increased.

Conclusions.

8. The Committee conclude therefore :—

(a) That a Geophysical Institute providing for the requirements
of Geodesy, Tidal Phenomena, and Seismology, as above
summarised, is required.

(b) That such an Institute would prove to be of great service to
the State Surveys of the Empire, in providing a centre for
research and for the dissemination of information.

(c) For such an Institute to be of value it must possess the good
will of the State Surveys, and they should be represented
on its governing body.

(d) That the Institute should be situated near London, and have
access to open ground on which practical operations could
be carried out; or, alternatively, should be situated in

_ London, with an experimental station near London.

(e) That the Institute should form part of, or be affiliated to, an
existing educational establishment.

9. The Committee do not find it possible to draw up any estimate of
the initial or annual cost of such an Institute that would be of any sub-
stantial value until this question of affiliation has been decided and the
possibilities as to accommodation investigated.

Procedure.

10. The Committee do not feel that they themselves can carry the
matter much further for the present, and they suggest, for the considera-
tion of the Conjoint Board (to which there might, perhaps, be added,
for this purpose, representatives of the Colonial Office and of this Com-
mittee), that the Board should, in the first instance, approach the
Imperial College of Science and Technology and ascertain whether that
Institution would be inclined to consider favourably a proposal to esta-
blish a Geophysical Institute as one of its Departments.

Should the reply be in the affirmative, any future steps should,
perhaps, be taken by the Governing Body of the Imperial College, who
would doubtless consult the Conjoint Board and this Committee.

(Nore.—The Committee proceeded no further, inasmuch as it was reported
that further steps had been taken by the Conjoint Board of Scientific Studies
and by the University of Cambridge, and an appeal had been issued by -the
University for funds to found a professorship of geodynamics and a Geodetic
Tnstitute.}

32 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

4. Seismology after the War. By G. W. Waker, A.R.C.Sc., M.A.,
F.B.S.

Tue lamented death in 1913 of that great pioneer of earthquake investi-
gation, Dr. John Milne, followed only two years later by the untimely
demise of Prince Boris Galitzin, left the young art of seismometry
poor indeed.

The war now ended has rendered impossible for many years to
come those friendly personal relations with German seismologists
which some of us valued very highly, and has also given the quietus
to the International Association of Seismology.

It is with sadness and diffidence that I agree to the request of the
British Association Organising Committee, Section A, to give some
outline of my views as to the future of the subject, more especially
as the matter is not solely a scientific one, but involves also the
question of finance and policy. As to the precise meaning and scope
of seismology, different opinions may reasonably be held. I sympathise
with the view entertained by some geologists that the name has been
appropriated by physicists to a subject that has little to do with
earthquakes. That is so, for to the modern seismologist, unless he
happens to live in a seismic region, the earthquake is of interest only
in so far as it reveals the internal dynamical properties of the earth.

Others hold the view (which I share) that all phenomena revealed
by seismographs, such as microseisms, earth tides, and the cognate
theoretical problems of the form and distortion of the earth, are properly
included in seismology.

It has been my privilege for some years to apply the principles
of seismology to the study of small-scale artificial earthquakes, and,
although I cannot give details at present, I have the greatest confidence
in saying that a rich practical harvest is in promise.

The name ‘ seismology’ is probably not the best for the wide field
of investigation that is possible by means of selsmographs. After all,
it is really the application of dynamics to the earth, and thus the
term ‘ geodynamics,’ recently used by the Cambridge Committee, strikes
me as being an eminently suitable one for the subject, and one to
which little objection could be taken.

There is perhaps no other subject in which the need for international
co-operation and a widespread distribution of observing stations is more
clearly evident. This was recognised by Dr. Milne, and it would
be a lasting disgrace to this country if the scheme he established were
allowed to fall through for want of financial support. Doubtless the
scheme requires revision, and the instruments should be brought up
to date, while stations which are clearly insufficient or unsuitable might
be abandoned or replaced by others.

But this raises the question of what scheme is feasible and efficient
and most likely to be generally conducive to progress.

From time to time, largely as the result of individual effort, different
branches will attain prominence and they may require special legis-

ON SEISMOLOGY AFTER THE WAR. 33

lation. But among matters which appear to me the most pressing
_ at present are :—
(1) The precise investigation of time curves and earth tides
and their interpretation.
(2) Investigations in manifestly seismic regions.

The first is concerned with large-scale uniformities of the earth,
and the stations should be in non-seismic regions. The instruments
must be of the highest degree of precision as regards sensitiveness
and time accuracy, and it is vital that the vertical component, as
well as the horizontal components, of motion should be recorded and
analysed. I do not think any great improvement in time curves will
be obtained without the use of the vertical component. A somewhat
analogous case occurs in terrestrial magnetism, where the vertical
component is the discriminating factor.

Earth tides are important, among other reasons, because they
provide a check on the internal properties of the earth deduced from
the time curves.

: As regards the number of stations, the more the better, provided
_ they are really efficient. But much could be done by com-
_ paratively few stations. Is it too much to suggest that, as a start,
| England and each of the Dominions—Australia, Canada, India, and

South Africa—should provide a fully- -equipped _first- order station ?
These might be supplemented as occasion arises in order to fill up

lacunee in the time curves.

_ For the second investigation more numerous stations are required
near the regions selected, but the instruments would not, in general,
require to be so sensitive, nor need three components be registered
at all the stations. The object of such investigation is to some

extent local, and the co-operation of geologists would clearly be fruitful
in throwing light on the connection between volcanic action and earth-
Bepses. One thinks of New Zealand as an obvious field for such work.

Such a scheme requires close co-operation between parts (1) and (2)
for success, but I can imagine that the first-order station for (1) would
in its own region supervise (2)—e.g. Australia and New Zealand or
India and the East Indies.

The first-order stations, limited in number, would in turn co-operate
with a central body, which I will assume is in England.

This brings one to the question of apparatus and standardisation.

“Whatever instruments are used, standardisation is really essential.
Tt involves equipment for determining all the constants of the apparatus
and an experimental table by means of-which a variety of artificial
motions can be given to the instrument and the results observed.
The necessity is almost self-evident, and its practical use was fully
demonstrated by Prince Galitzin.

The question of instruments is somewhat more difficult, as we
“may expect these to be modified and improved in course of time.

At present it is recognised that the most precise and most sensitive
installation for all three components is Galitzin’s system of aperiodic
-pendulums, with galvanometric registration, and until something better
has been devised it would be a good thing if all the first-order stations

34 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

were furnished with these. They do not, however, give the earth
tides, and, like all other seismographs, they do not give a precise
reproduction of the earth movement. This was recognised by Galitzin,
and, shortly before his death, he brought out his new apparatus for
measuring the acceleration of the ground directly, by using the piezo-
electric property of quartz. Whether these instruments will do for
continuous seismometry remains to be proved. There are, however,
other methods, and there is ample scope for work in this direction.

As the question of instruments is so essential to progress in obtain-
ing records in the simplest form, I may be permitted to add some
remarks on a subject so frequently ignored.

In the initial search for a new effect one works rather in the dark,
and it is simply a question of getting an effect at all. But when we
have obtained some idea of the order of magnitude, and especially of the
time element of change, the suitable instrument for measuring it is
not a mere accident, but a matter for scientific design.

A seismometer being essentially a pendulum, and the disturbance
due to an earthquake a complex phenomenon, the instrument in general
gives a record which is neither displacement, velocity, nor accelera-
tion, but a mixture, while some parts of the disturbance are exag-
gerated relative to others. Strict aperiodicity is a great help, and, in
my view, essential. And here may I enter a protest against the
frequent application of the term ‘ dead-beat,’ which is really the same
as aperiodic (and has a precise quantitative significance), to cases where
large damping of indefinite amount is all that is meant?

The primary period of the apparatus is a very important element in
an instrumental record, so that an apparatus suitable for giving the
long-wave phase of an earthquake may not be so suitable for the first
phase.

In conclusion, it appears that there is ample scope in the future
for :—

(1) The scientific design of apparatus suitable for recording the
various movements of the earth.

(2) The establishment of even a few first-order stations, one in
each of the principal countries of the Empire, for record-
ing all three components of motion with a view to a deter-
mination of the mechanical properties of the interior of
the earth.

(3) The establishment of a larger number of second-order stations
for the investigation of local earthquakes.

(4) Theoretical investigation of the form and stability of the
crust, and the propagation of wave motion throughout
the interior.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 35

Seismological Investigations.—Twenty-third Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor H. H. TuRNneR (Chairman),
Mr. J. J. SHAw (Secretary), Mr. C. VERNON Boys, Dr. J. E.
CroMBIE, Sir Horace Darwin, Dr. C. Davison, Sir KF. W.
Dyson, Sir R. T. GuazeBrook, Professors C. G. KNotTtT and
H. Lames, Sir J. Larmor, Professors A. E. H. Love, H. M.
MacponaLp, J. Perry, and H. C. PuumMMsr, Mr. W. HK.
PiumMER, Professors R. A. SAMPSON and A. SCHUSTER, Sir
NAPIER SHAW, Dr. G. T. WALKER, and Dr. G. W. WALKER.

General.

‘Tue Committee asks to be reappointed, with a grant of 100I. (including
printing), in addition to 1002. from the Caird Fund already voted. The
Government Grant Fund administered by the Royal Society has voted
a subsidy of 2001. for 1919, as in recent years.

It was hoped that some modification of this application might have
_ been made this year. Under the auspices of the International Research
~ Council, which met at Brussels July 18-28, a Geodetic and Geophysical
_ Union was constituted, with Seismology as one of its sections. This
involves ultimately the establishment of a Seismological Bureau or
Central Office, where different records may be collated and discussed,
and experimental and standardisation work carried out; and in view
of all the circumstances (including the death of Prince Galitzin and
the uncertain future of seismology in Russia, the interruption of
relations with Germany, and the previous history of seismology in
the British Empire) it was hoped that some locality in England, and
probably Oxford, might be chosen as the locality for the Bureau.
In anticipation of the Brussels meeting a National Research Council
for Geophysics had been constituted under the auspices of the Royal
_ Society, and at the meeting of this Council on June 20 the following
resolution was adopted, on the motion of Professor Schuster :—

‘That an offer be made to the Section of Seismology of
the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics to locate its
Central Bureau at Oxford; but that the Executive Committee
of the Section have power to transfer it to another locality in
Great Britain on the recommendation of the National Research
Council for Geophysics in that country.’

When, however, the location of the Central Bureau came up for
preliminary discussion at Brussels, it was found that the French were
anxious that the claims of Strasbourg, now so dramatically restored
to them, should be considered. As a possible way of meeting both
wishes, a division of the work of the Bureau between Strasbourg and
“Oxford was suggested; but at this point it was remarked that there
were still some points to be settled in connection with the formerly
existing International Seismological Association, and ultimately it was
_ decided to defer the formation of the Seismological Section until these

36 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

points had been finally disposed of, for there was a general agreement
that a totally new departure, untrammelled by links with the past,
was desirable at this juncture. Hence no definite steps towards the
formation of a Seismological Section were taken at Brussels, and the
work of the Committee will proceed as nearly as possible on the same
lines as before for the next year or two.

But an important change of locality has become inevitable. On
the approach of Peace, Mrs. Milne decided to return to Japan as
soon as her voyage could be arranged. This involved the sale of the
house at Shide to which the Milne Observatory (partly a disused
stable, partly an office specially built) is attached, and it was not
feasible to continue the use of the observatory under these conditions.
As a provisional measure the instruments and apparatus are being
transferred to Oxford, where a Milne-Shaw machine had already been
set up (see last Report), and where the facilities temporarily accorded
by Mr. James Walker have been kindly continued by the newly
appointed Professor (Dr. F. A. Lindemann). At the moment of
writing this transference is not complete, and a fuller account of it
is deferred to the next report.

Instrumental.

Wireless time signals were received at Shide regularly up to the
time of removal of the seismographs. The transit lent by the Royal
Astronomical Society has been returned.

The wireless receiving apparatus which had been installed at Oxford
before the War, but taken down on the commencement of hostilities,
was again set up last autumn, and signals have been regularly received.

Milne-Shaw Seismographs.

One of these was set up in the Clarendon basement at Oxford by
Mr. J. J. Shaw on October 8, 1918, just in time to catch the big
earthquake of October 10. Others are completed, or nearly com-
pleted, but it will be convenient to defer details of their installation
to the next report. One of them has been installed by Mr. J. J.
Shaw for trial in. a ‘ dug-out’ at some distance from his house at
West Bromwich, and some interesting results obtained. But of these
again details are deferred. The past year, owing to the cessation of
hostilities, has brought with it so many needs and distractions that
this report is necessarily somewhat imperfect.

Suggested Corrections to Adopted Tables.

This work is proceeding. The suggested corrections are being
applied provisionally to obtain new determinations of epicentres in the
cases of well-observed earthquakes. This second approximation should
show how far the corrections are valid. The work is, however, some-
what extensive, and no report can be profitably made as yet.

Earthquake Periodicity.

In the 1912 Report of this Committee evidence was given for the
existence of a periodicity of nearly 15 months (there identified as

i]

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 37

104/7 months) deducted from the Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes
compiled under Milne’s superintendence. It was natural to examine
the independent Catalogue of Chinese Harthquakes compiled by Milne’s
Japanese assistant, Shinobu Hirota, and published in the 1908 Report
of this Committee (Section XI.), with additions by Professor E. H.
Parker in the 1909 Report (Section XII.). The result was to confirm
the periodicity and to define it more exactly as of period 451°805 days=
148488 months=12370 years. The investigation is given in the
Monthly Notices R.A.S., lxxix., p. 461, and it is pointed out that
the periodicity seems to be affected by one of long period (about 78
years). This led to the examination of the same Chinese series for
long periods (see Mon. Not. R.A.S. Ixxix., p. 531), of which several
seem to be worth further investigation. The most notable is not the
one above mentioned (78 years), but one of about 240 years (which
may therefore be 3X78 years), which is conspicuous in the Chinese
earthquakes and was also found in the records of Nile flood. It is,
however, only faintly traceable in Milne’s Catalogue of Destructive
Earthquakes, and the question arises how far the heterogeneous nature
of the latter can be held responsible for the loss of this periodicity,
and how far, on the other hand, the Chinese records can be regarded
as possessing the necessary homogeneity. There is no doubt of the
defective nature of the material in the Destructive Earthquakes in the
early centuries. The increase in volume of the records is so consider-
able as quite possibly to overwhelm any signs of periodicity. For
example, let us limit attention to European earthquakes and to those
marked III. by Milne (i.e., as ‘ having destroyed towns and devastated
districts ’). It might be supposed that these would be recorded with
some approach to completeness, yet the numbers for successive periods
of 180 years are as shown :—

Ap 631 — 811 — 991 — 1171 — 1351 — 1531 — 1711 — 1891
11 9 14 22 19 39 117

Unless there has been an improbable increase in the number of
such quakes, the figures for 1711-1891 show that only about one in
ten was recorded in earlier centuries. If this happens for European
records, others will scarcely be in better case, and when we compound

_ the different sources it is perhaps not surprising if the accidental errors

are large enough to mask periodic phenomena.

The Chinese records are also probably far from complete, but they
have an appearance of much greater steadiness of some kind, which
may quite possibly be real. A critical discussion by Chinese scholars

_ would be of great interest.

__ Meanwhile we turn to some numerical relations among the periodi-
cities indicated, which seem to strengthen the evidence for their reality.
_ firstly, remark that the period of 451805 days (or 1'2370 years)
is sensibly different from that found for the movements of the earth’s

axis from astronomical observations. The most recent discussion of
this latter period by Sir F. W. Dyson (Mon. Not. R.A.S., lxxviii.,

p. 452) gives it as about 432 days, or accurately 710/6 years=

11833 years. Neither determination can be so much in error as

1919, H

88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

20 days. We must apparently recognise two distinct periodicities
connected in some way with our earth, and our attention is naturally
directed to possibilities of interference.

Now 21 x 1-23698 years = 25-:97658 years.
22 x 1-18333 years = 26-03333 years.

So that the two periodicities interfere in approximately 26 years.
But the differences from 26 years are by no means negligible. If we
adopted exactly 26/21 years for the former we should be returning
to the period of 104/7 months tentatively deduced from the Catalogue
of Destructive Earthquakes and shown by the Chinese Earthquakes
to be in error by about one month in 78 years. The length of the
Chinese series warrants our retaining 5 significant figures.

The astronomical determination, though deduced from observations
of a much higher order of accuracy, depends on a much shorter series,
and the number of significant figures is fewer. Dyson contents
himself with 3, and if we vary his last figure by a few units we get :—

22 x 7-08/6 = 22 x 1-18000 = 25-9600
22 x 7:09/6 = 22 x 1-18167 = 25-9967
22 x 7:10/6 = 22 x 1-18333 = 26-0333
22 x 7-11/6 = 22 x 1-18500 = 26-0700

In the first case interference with the earthquake period would
take place in rather less than 26 years, in the other cases in rather
more. To put the point in another way, let us calculate the period
of the earth’s axis which would interfere with that deduced from
earthquakes (supposed accurate) in various assigned times, say 25 years,
26 years, and 27 years.

Period of Interference Period of Earth’s Axis Six times
years years |
25 years 1-1784 7:070 |

26 years 1-1805 7-083

27 years 1-1825 7-095

It will be seen that if this period of interference could in any way
be independently identified we might deduce a close value for the period
of the earth’s axis.

Now, although this actual period has not as yet presented itself in
other connections, its multiples, and perhaps its submultiples, have
so presented themselves several times over.

Thus we have :—

3 X 26 years = 78 years
6 x 26 years = 156 years
9 x 26 years = 234 years

The last may possibly be the 240-year period already mentioned
as conspicuous in the Chinese earthquakes (Mon. Not. Ixxix., p. 531) in
the Nile floods, and possibly in the motion of the moon. A ‘period
of 156 years approximately was found by Mr. A. E. Douglass in the
growth of trees (Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc. xlvi., pp. 821-335, 1914),
and is illustrated by a striking diagram in Professor D’Arcy Thompson’s

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 39

book on Growth and Form, p. 122 (Camb. Univ. Press, 1917). The
actual length is apparently shorter than 156 years—nearer 150 years,
but the material is scarcely sufficient to warrant a very precise estimate.
The Chinese earthquakes show this periodicity of 156 years very
clearly. Dividing the period into 18 equal parts the totals are as in
the columns O, the columns C being calculated from the formula :—

C = 45 + 15-6 Cos (O — 225°).

Period of 156 years in Chinese Earthquakes, exhibited in 18 groups

of 7 years.
0 GC o-C | 0 C O2Et 1446 c | o-c
29 34 ots 30 41 Be i idee 61 Wary
38 31 ae 32 46 14 Hag Wee Wiles
32 | 30 +2 40 Bl 211 63 saailibeliend
56 | «(29 421 | 69 56 +13 dae SAS Gath B
30 32 ag 70 59 ery 32 Pei igen
29 36 Ly | 66 60 +6 35 Sgr POG ¢

The differences O—C show a variation in the half-cycle of 78 years,
to which attention has already been drawn in the paper on the 15-month
period (loc. cit.), and, moreover, the phases of the 15-month term
vary in this half-cycle of 78 years and in the quarter-cycle of 39 years.
This quarter-cycle appears in numerous meteorological phenomena,
and should probably replace the supposed ‘ Briickner Cycle’ of 35
years (see Q.J.R. Met. Soc. xli., p. 322).

But 39 years is no longer a multiple of 26 years, though related
to it. The submultiple of both—viz., 13 years—has, however, been
shown to affect a large number of meteorological phenomena, being a
_ double ‘chapter’ of the kind indicated in the paper just cited, and
others which have followed it.

As yet it cannot be said that we have anything really tangible in
the shape of a physical hypothesis, but these numerical relations are
certainly suggestive, and are sufficient to guide further inquiry.
Naturally in tentative exploration of this kind much time is spent
in unproductive essays, but this need not be grudged.

H 2

40 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Radiotelegraphic Investigations.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Sir OtIvER LopGE (Chairman), Dr. W. H. Eccies
(Secretary), Mr. S. G. Brown, Dr. C. Cures, Sir F. W.
Dyson, Professor A. 8. Eppineton, Dr. ERSKINE-MURRAY,
Professors J. A. Fueminc, G. W. O. Howz, H. M. Mac-
DONALD, and J. W. NicHouson, Sir H. Norman, Captain
H. R. Sankey, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Sir NAPIER SHAW,
and Professor H. H. TURNER.

DurinG the past twelve months the war-time restrictions on wireless-
telegraphy have continued in operation. A few statistical records
from British Colonial Radio Stations have been sent regularly to the
Committee, and occasional information from other parts of the world
has been received.

Solar Eclipse of May 29.

In connection with the solar eclipse of May 29 the Committee
arranged for the carrying out of experiments on the effect of the eclipse
on signals transmitted across the central line. The British Admiralty
stations at Ascension and the Azores transmitted continuously during
the transit of the umbra across the Atlantic Ocean. Observing stations
north of the equator were for the most part asked to listen to Ascension
for at least an hour round about the time when the umbra passed
between themselves and Ascension; observers south of the equator
were asked for the most part to listen to the Azores. Certain selected
stations north of the equator were asked to listen to the Azores, so as
to afford check observations upon the variations which might be
observed in signals passing across the central line of the eclipse, and,
similarly, selected stations south of the central line were asked to listen
to Ascension. The American station at Sayville also transmitted a
programme during a portion of the period of the eclipse, and arrange-
ments were made for special experiments between Darien and the
Falklands, and between an Egyptian station and a South African
station.

The main portion of the experiment hinged upon Ascension. The
umbral cone passed from West to East, and was expected to affect in
succession the strength in which signals were received at such stations
as Demerara, Jamaica, the stations on the coast of the United States
and Canada, stations in Iveland, England, France, Italy, in the Mediter-
ranean and Egypt.

The shadow of the moon struck the earth first at dawn on the coast
of South America and swept across the Continent in the course of half
an hour, at first with enormous velocity, but losing speed as the Atlantic
Ocean was approached. About the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and
near the equator the speed of the shadow was about one-third of a mile
per second. On crossing the African Continent from the Gulf of
Guinea to the Mozambique Channel the speed gradually increased, and

ON RADIOTELEGRAPHIC INVESTIGATIONS. 41

the eclipse finished at sunset near Madagascar. ‘The effects of the
moving shadow were investigated under three heads :—

(1) Strays.
(2) Signals not crossing the denser parts of the shadow.
(3) Signals crossing through or near the umbra.

Strays.

These were bad on the day of the eclipse and on the preceding day
in Europe, North America, and in temperate latitudes on the Atlantic
Ocean. They were very few in Central and South America and in the
central equatorial Atlantic. In Central America the conditions were
exceptional meteorologically, the day having less rain than nearly every
day of the preceding three weeks. The preliminary survey of the
results recorded throughout the part of the globe reaching from Con-
stantinople to Rio Janeiro suggests that there was no outstanding
occurrence in regard to frequency or intensity of strays that could
be directly ascribed to the passage of the shadow.

Signals not traversing the dense shadow.

Many observations were made in Northern Europe and America
on the signals from the Azores, which were arc signals of 4,700 metres
wave-length. The observing points extended from Berlin through
Holland, France, Italy, Spain, and Great Britain to stations near the *
Atlantic coast of the United States. There were no unusual variations
in the strength of the signals from the Azores.

Another class of experiment comes under this heading. It was
suggested by the effect sometimes observed at sunset or sunrise, in
which the twilight band when on one side of a transmitting station
appears to strengthen as if by reflection the waves received at a station
on the other side of the transmitting station. In order to test whether
such reflections occurred during an eclipse certain stations on the
south of the central line of the eclipse were asked to listen to Ascension,
_ which was also south of the central line. The stations at Durban and
Port Nolloth (South-West Africa) found no trace of the effect, and in
fact the former concluded that the signals from Ascension were rather
_ worse after the eclipse began. An analogous experiment on the
northern side was carried out by one of the Malta stations and also at
Rosyth, listening to Cairo, with similar conclusions.

Effect on Signals passing across the Central Line.

Arrangements were made for the transmission of signals from the
Darien station of the Panama Canal zone, and several stations in South
America attempted to receive the signals. The report from the Falkland
Islands has not yet come to hand, and the other stations in South
America did not succeed in picking up the signals. The only observa-
tion made on the earlier stages of the eclipse are those of Demerara
listening to Ascension. Fluctuations in signal strength are reported,
_ but no steady increase or decrease in strength. Ships at sea within
_the penumbra report a strengthening of all signals during the eclipse.

42 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The most striking results were obtained at some of the stations in
France, Malta, and Teneriffe. At Meudon and at Roussillon the signals
from Ascension were received practically only while the eclipse was in
progress. Both Malta and Teneriffe found that the eclipse produced a
great improvement in the strength of signals. On the other hand,
Durban was unable to pick up Cairo, though this is usually possible,
but Aden was picked up with greater intensity than normal. On the
whole, the records show that the improvement in signal strength
reached its highest value long before the umbra intervened between
the stations, and this value persisted after the umbra had passed; that
is to say, if ionising processes are the cause of the change in the
strength of signals, the results indicate that the processes are prac-
tically fully accomplished in a given region of the air before the arrival
of the umbra at that place, so that there appears to be nothing left for
the umbra to do in the few minutes of complete shadow it brings.

The thanks of the Committee are due especially to the Admiralty
for arranging that their stations at Ascension and the Azores should
transmit the necessary signals, and also to the American Government
for making similar arrangements regarding Sayville and Darien.
Thanks are due also to the American, French, and Italian Govern-
ments, the Admiralty, the War Office, the Air Ministry, and Marconi’s
Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd., for undertaking observations and record-
ing the variations in signal strength.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 43

The Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—eport of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor M. J. M. Hin (Chairman),
Professor J. W. NicHotson (Secretary), Dr. J. R. Autrey,
Mr. T. W. Cuaunpy, Professor L. N. G. Finon, Sir G. Green-
HILL, Professor EK. W. Hosson, Mr. G. Kennepy, and Professors
AurreD Lopar, A. E. H. Love, H. M. Macponatp, G. B.
Matuews, G. N. Warson, and A. G. Wester.

Report on Mathematical Tables of the Elliptic Function.

Criticism was invited of the arrangement of the system proposed of
tabulation, and of the accuracy of the tables calculated as specimens, in
the Reports 1911, 1912, 1913, on the Elliptic Function. °

Some fault was found with the final decimals in the table of the
Lemuniscate Function K=K’, 6=45°, p. 50, Report 1912.

As this table has been used as the base of the calculation of the table

for
= (25,451, « B’,

by means of a transformation of the order 2,3, 4, ... . as explained,
p- 88, Report 19138, it was decided to make a recalculation to a higher
accuracy, going to 10 decimals.

This was undertaken by Colonel R. L. Hippisley, and is given here
in Table I, with a description of the formulas of the series employed ;
and also of the independent verification by the division values, trisection,
quinquisection, and others, given by expressions of finite form.

The notation proposed in Report 1911 may be recalled here, of the
six functions tabulated, A, B, C, D, E, F, with r=90f,

)_OfK nid VELA:
ee ee
Ol") =DG0—r)= DK, Boy = acgo—r) = HO -/)K,

in terms of the theta and eta function of Jacobi.
The elliptic functions are then given by

K -__A(r) z_ Br)
as) Me ein De’
V« infK= A(r) dnfK_ C(r)

Boy’ ve’ D(r)
Jacobi’s zeta function is given by
mfK=K(r), zn(1—-f)K = F(r) = E(90—7).

The table runs down to 7=45, and then up again to 7=90, as in the
ordinary circular function,

44 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

A connexion is made with the original Table IX of Legendre, for
F@ in terms of ¢, by the two outside columns ; of ¢ and y, given in degrees,

where
=am /K, Fo=fK= ak

v=am (1—s)K, AU )kK= a

proceeding by equal increments of r and f, whereas Legendre’s Table IX
takes equal steps in ¢.

The basis on which these three tables have been calculated is the
value of e-* which Gauss has given to 51 places of decimals (Werke,

vol. iii., p. 426). This is the value of q for the modulus oy when

K=K’ and 6=45°. The various powers of q, integral and fractional,
required for the g series were calculated to 20 places by the aid of an
arithmometer, kindly lent for the purpose by Dr. Western, and are

collected in the accompanying table.
In the case of the lemniscate functions (K=K’) all the entries were

computed by means of the q formule,
@u=1—2q cos 2a+2q' cos 4a—2g° cos 6a+...,
Hu=2q' sin « —2q' sin 82+ 2q* sm 5a—...,

Ire.
Zu= Klin Qna(qr+q"+qrt+ Sits a6

rwsin 27°
Byam ane

. 1 { ;
where u=/K, “=r, sin nzv=sin ur°, cos 2nx=cos 2nr°.

The tables for K=2K’ and K=4K’ have been determined by trans-
formation from the Lemniscate Functions, according to the formule given
by Sir George Greenhill in Report iii. 1913 of the British Association
Committee on Mathematical Tables.

The g formule for the higher values of the modulus, especially that
for Zu, are very slowly convergent. From 385 to 40 terms in the series
for Zu would be required for each entry in the table for K = 4K’
to ensure an accuracy of ten significant figures. Check values for
rv = 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 have, however, been obtained by the g formule,
and all the tables have been submitted to scrutiny by the method of
differences to the fifth and sixth orders.

The values of K have been obtained from the formula

“1%
= 2
K=55 00°,

, 7 071.8.5...2r—1\?_— x’?
B’=5/1->, ( a hr ee ) an
but E, for which the above series is slowly convergent, has been
calculated from

and Hi’ from

EK’ +H’K —KK’=}7.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 45

The Lemmscate Function.

1. This is the name given to the elliptic function when the modular
angle 6=45°, and K=K’=L.

It arises in the Weierstrass form when g,;=0 in S=4s*—g.s—q3 ;
and then taking g.=1, A=1, ©,=o;=L, and the period parallelogram is

a square; and s;=%, s.=0, S3=—}.
Some writers prefer s;=1, s,=0, s,=—1, g.—4, \=64, but this has

the disadvantage of making
0) Soy], =181102877714605987 ey

which is Stirling’s A, given in Halphen’s Fonctions elliptiques, I., p. 64.
But with g.=1,9;=0, S=4s*—s,

co. 4, —-
(1) L=| a= se = 18540716778,

4 4, —4 0, —oc
the number employed by Legendre, Jacobi, and all subsequent writers.

In the general case, with 8 resolved into real factors,

(2) S=4s3—gos—gqa=4 . S—S, . S—S2 + S—S83, 8) > S27 83,
co, §, $15 8s
Sue anes 19 S182 : el J (8; —S2)ds tel J (s,;—S3)ds
B) « ~~ $;— S83" , ==" =| /S eS /(—8) ’
S.,—C0

Sige
and the first elliptic integral will be expressible by the inverse elliptic
function of Jacobi, in one of the forms

(51-83)
(4) o> s> 8, R= [YE

s
sty /1— ent, /$ any /H,
S—Ss3 S—S3 S—S3

s

=

(1—e)K=| ie

(6) s:>5>8,, fK'= (“Saar

ie $,—S3.8—Ss Sy—S3.8,;— So—S
sn ‘\/ 2 3 2ont, / 2— $3.8) Sant, /® 3
§,—S_q.S—S3 §,—S_.S8 —S3 S—S3

46 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

82
JV (8, —83)ds
(6) Sg>s> Sy a-gK=(S =
§,—S: 8 —I3) S| —s -S mos s Baie)
=f 1 3 2g. Vi ee 3_q i a 1 2
ae PW S,—Ss mae ay, So—83 .8,—8 id ss"

8

Suess ges, = 83-818
sn BA 3 en! here 2 teen nS
\ So—S \ So—é pahia Sy 3°

=4$, 8, =}, s:=0, s;5=—4, V(s,;—s3)=1, K=K’=L.

The name arose historically in the rectification of the lemnisecate

(8) 7? = 2a? cos 26,
(9) laa tan 20 se =7°" sec? 20= 2a? sec 20,
rao ’ de?
6
(10) = | egos 320)" for the arc AP=s.

Then putting cos 26=cos*¢,

s dg dy
Chea gies ES RS

and writing cl for cn, . . . ., to represent the lemniscate function,

=F (9, sin 45°)=eL,

(12) cos ¢=cl eL=el-, cos 26=cl’eL, cos 6=dl eL,
tan 0=cl(1 —e)Li; ;

and so the cn, cl function is the first in importance compared with sn,
dn, or sl, dl.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

With cos 206= 50m" as variable in the integral,
a

1

git 3 dz J ey
(13) Sel | yp aay)= lz;

but

Zz IG. 24—1)
1vG

obtained from the Weierstrass form by putting s= 2°.

The lemniscate can be described by means of a three-bar linkage,
where the rotating links FG, F’G’ in the figure are equal, and the
traversing link GG’ and fixed link FF’ are each /2 times the length

of a rotating link.

The mid-point P of the traversing link will then describe the

lemniscate curve.

<7

KLEIN
BN wpe

G'
Fig. 1.
Lemniscate APO.
OF =OF'=25 mm. GP =PG'=25 mn.
OA=OA'=35 mm.=FG=F'G’. AOP=30° = 0:

GG’=50 mm. FAK’ = FGF = 45°.

47

48 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Produce FP to meet the circle round FG, F’G’in Q. Then, since
FG2=2GP2=GP.GG’, the circle round FPG’ touches FG; QH’G=
QFG=GG’F = G’GF’, so that F’Q is parallel to GG’, and PF’=PQ.
Then EPR.PR=EPHO—GP PGs) il .GP—ON a eG he
=a/2, FF’=GG'=2a. This is the property of the lemniscate, leading
to the polar equation 7?=2a? cos 26, with OP=7, AOP=0, FQE’=FGE"
=¢, FG sin ¢=FF" sin 6, sin’f=2 sin’6, cos’*6=co0s26,

r=OP=2PH cos 6=FG cos ¢, 1? =2a*co0s"h=2a7co8?6.

The rectification of the lemniscate may be considered to have
originated the true theory of the Elliptic Function in that it introduced
the First Elliptic Integral, inverse of the uniform Elliptic Function.

The previous efforts at the rectification of the Ellipse, which gave
the name to the Elliptic Integral, were on the wrong track, as leading to
the Second Elliptic Integral, not the inverse of a uniform function.

The lemniscate can be expressed in the vector form, in terms of a
parameter w,

(15) a2+iy=a sech(w+47t), 7? =2a? sech 2u, for K’=}7, .=1,

degenerate case of the confocal Cassinians given by

(16) w+ iy=aen(eK+$K"i), or “ dn(cK + 3K’).
Then
(17) ch2u=sec 26, sh2u=tan 26,

th w =tan 6=cl(1—e)L.

Important memoirs to consult on the Lemniscate Function are by
Kiepert, Crelle 75, 1873; Schwering, Crelle 107, 110; Mathews,
Proceedings London Mathematical Society 1896, 1915.

Other forms of the lemniscate integral may be given, such as that

obtained from the Weierstrass integral with g.= —1,g,=0, and then
with 8
00,2
18 Lelé\ #2 = Goal ee
ue Sl AI eee
0
1—cl2v slv
pF eel esi a (et
ic?) 1+¢l2v’ sl(L—v)’
gna te pee es Oy ee
1+2* 1 \

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

And in a Quadric Transformation, with

(20) 1—sl2v_ Cece ie oe
1+sl2v \1l+z $(2+1)
x
(21) an dea mel.
i ad oa Bt oy

-) a= Ve tn (se), = (v2—1)* K=2K’,

as in Table II.

Lemniscate Bisection : r= 45.

2. These are given page 72, Report 1911, for the general case,
a = BE fp tel. Vere.
(45) - }(1—x’)=hav mod. angle= 5(2 4 3) =0'1464466094.
Introducing the angle a= ¢4(45), cot a=V/ x’,
A(45)=sin 45 (sin 2a)1, D(45)=A(45)sec a,
__ A(45)__ kK’ a 1
cos a aE \/ I i =n kK.
as = 24/9(,/2—1) 2=al 0:30102 99957
K

V 2=al 0°07525 74989
J/2—1=al 1°61722 43147
sin 2a=al 1:99351 18093
4/sin 2a=al 1-99837 79523
sin 45=al 1:84948 50022
A(45)=al 1-84786 29545

A(45)=0'70447 07318
A(45)=al 1:84786 29545
sec a=al 0°19138 78426
D(45)=al 0:03925 07971

D(45)=1:09458 82886

slkL=V(2—V2), el L=V(/2—1), aL= , tb=1/2.
K

sin 2a=

49

50 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Lemniscate Trisection : r=80.

3. ‘lhe general formulas are given in p. 72, Report 1911, as taken
from Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 261, ‘The Ellipsotomic Problem,’ and for the
(sin 60): sin 75

(sin 45)! ‘
the trigonometrical form of the division values can be written

special case of the lemniscate, where b=2i/3 sin 75=

(39) — (Sin 75): (sin 45)} (sin 60)?
iy At (sin 75)" }

(sin 45)! ((80) — A(30) = (sin 60)? (sin 75):

(sin 75): ’ 1 45)5

(30) + A(80) = ori es

or otherwise, ;
0(80) + A(80)%== vay = 60)! G(goys_ a(gosa¥ 3 +180 15,

(sin. 45) : 2 sin 45’
__(sin 45): (sin 15): a 4
SAY (sin 60): » F(80)=E(60)=a—B
=(sin 45): (sin 60); (sin 7) Ee 75):
Thus for D(80)
BIA atl ok SRERE OUTER (sin 75)i=al 1-99498 12594

sin 45=al 184948 50022 | (sin 45)i=al 1:97491 41670
D(30)=al 0:02006 70924

= 1:04729 03271

For B(80)
sin 45=al 1:84948 50022 (sin 75)i=al 1°94982 83340
sin 60=al 1-93753 06317 (sin 60)'= 1-98438 26579
1-93421 09919
sin 75=al 1-98494 37781 (sin 75)i= 1.99749 06297

B(30)=al 1-93672 03622
= 086441 11542
B(80)41(80)? = sin 45° sin 60°. '
For C(80) and A(80)

sin 60=al 1:93753 06317 (sin 60)!=al 1:96876 53158
sin 75=al 1:98494 87781 (sin 75)i'=al 1:99498 125938

; 1-96374 65751
sin 45=al 184948 50022 (sin 45)i=al 1-74914 16703

C(30) + A(30)=al 0:21460 49048

= 1/68909 79420

sin 45=al 1:84948 50022 (sin 45)i=al 1-79931 83329

sin 75=al 1:98494 87781 (sin 75)i=al 1-98996 25107

((30)— A(80)=al 1:80985 08142

: = 0'64468 98272

0(80)=1:14189 38846, - A(30)= _0-49720 40572
A(80)? C(80)3=sin 45° sin 15°

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 5l

(sin 45)t=al 1:92474 25011
sin 15=al 1:41299 62306 (sin 15)! =al 111949 43459

1:04423 68470

(sin 60):= 1-98488 26579
B(30)=al 1:05985 41891
= 013258 28561

(sin 45)!=al 1°92474 25011

(sin 60)'=al 198488 26579

(sin 75):=al 1:99247 18890
=(sin 45): (sin 60): (sin 75)!=al 1:90159 70480
= 0°79725 46262

(sin 45)!=al 1:77422 75083

sin 75)i=al 1:97741 56671

sin 75)i=al 175164 31704

(
(sin 45): (si
(sin aa =al 1:92191 32897
(si
(

=(sin 45%) (sin 75)3=al 1-82972 98807

sin 60)i= 0-67566 26010
F(30)=a—B

= 0°79725 46262

. — 0:67566 26010

q = 0:12159 20252

This checks all the trisection values in the lemniscate table; but
some other corresponding values of the elliptic function may be
cited here.

_ Among all the trisection values for the different modular angles, the
Bepiest appear to arise for 6=75° and there

eae hen tl
= 73 = (sin 60°) dng K= vga sin 45°,
, 1
a5k 1 1 1 gv 2
ets 2 ts pds : ats)
=/2, D00)= 7 =F gin 5)’ PBO)= 7 (sin 15°)

a ioe B(80) = 24/8/(sin 15),

: J3— 1
a8 F(80)= "909 °

‘The Table for 0=75°, K=K’V/3 is given in Report 1912, p. 52; and
might have been derived by the cubic transformation of p. 89, Report
pplied to the Table for 6=15°, K’'=K./3, p- 48, Report 1912, for
hh a q series expansion is rapidly convergent.

These division values are useful in settling the number of terms to be
plo yed in the series.

B(20)=5,

52, ' REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

For trisection in general, c=xsn?2K is a root of the Jacobian
oe ee

160° +4 (7 +n) 0— —3=0.

9

=V(1+e)+V (1400) + V(1+0%), o%=1, f=(=— «)

1 84+62?2—<2' 1 = _ 3482+ 62?—2"4
Panes fea ers y= 4a: :
_(1—2)(8-4a), or (1+2)(8—2)
Ay F
b—1 b-1

So also, for en= °K= =; 7% dnsK = 2

‘ —6b?—8bV (1—4x°x'?) —38=0, c8=4x7x"”.

Thus, se the lemniscate function, with c=,

os V3
92 pit 44 v priest
xsl 3K = a/ 5+ = y/at¥ ’

4 2 a —! eh,
b!—6b2—38=0, bD=1/3 Fo’
*/ cos30 _ sin 45 (sin 60):
cl gl= 4/ caso. siny>
sigh ees tas a/ 24/8 als ee V2 8 =\/ (aw)
2 ‘ 1+ /sin60
Te 2 /34+1 1
als = Tam gt — 5 Sac ae

Quarter Section: r=22

4, Taking the formulas in Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 278, for »=8, and
changing to the angle a=¢(45), cot a=/x’, tan 4a=a, the expressions
may be deduced

tle
°

A(224)!= sin *(g7—5a)sin*5a(sin Qa)*
sin (}7 +a)
B(223)!= _sin?(j7r+5 3) cos*}a(sin 2a)
sin (47 +a)
21 2
991)4— 008 3% sin ({7+a)(sin a)*
"4 oe 2. sin?(La+ 4a) cos7a
21 2
1993)1 Sin? Se sin (7 +4)(sin a)*
| 3) 2 sin?(}r— a) CO87a

AH

’

’

?

and then acanaye
hte A(225)°_ tan (Ip 1 1
x’ tn AK=5 (991)? =tan (j7—}a) tan $a,
dn?}K _C(225)?__tan (4a — 4a)
x ~ D22k)? “tana”

—— eunt,

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

oe
co

Also
B(224) + Fiaay) =n Oe) (224) —F(224) = (e= 4")
Thus, for example, we find for
K=2K’, «’ =(/2—1)’, a=er.
For the lemniscate function

tan a=?/ 2, =al 0'07525750=tan 49° 56’.
But taking a=50° in a first approximation, with four-figure
logarithms, as a test of the formulas, :
sin ({7—}a)=sin 20 =al 1°5341
sin ja=sin 25 =al 1-6259
sin (j7 +a)=sin 95°=al 1:9983
sin?a=sin 100 =al 1:9934
sin (}7+ $a)=sin 70°=al 1:9730
cos a=sin 40° = al 1-8081
Thus A(294)4— 81020 sin 25(sin 80)*
c _ sin 85
=al 2°3200
A(224)=al 1-5800=0°3802
B(222)1—8in?70 sin?65(sin 80)*
# 1 sin 85
=al 1:8601
B(224)=al 1:9650=0:9226
D(224)! —sin*65 sin 85(sin 80)*
2 sin?70 sin?40
=al 0:0481
D(224)=al 0:0120=1:026
0(224)! ae sin*25 sin 85(sin 80)*
2 sin?20 sin?40
=al 0°2630
C(224)=al 0:06575=1°168.

Testing r=22; in Table II, where the angle a is exactly three quarters
of a right angle,

23 1 1 ae od ieal _5
em a Sa ae At oo — ae 7 had aa ih
sin?11°} sin?333 (sin 45)
A Wa eee iY, Re ceed SB eae ay
(224) sin 67°
B(294)1—Sin"78°F sin*56°} (sin 45)!
sin 67°
4__8in*56°} sin 67°3 (sin 45)
mien (3 2 sin?78°3 sin?22°h
in?38°3 sin 67°3 (sin 45)
Gn, SS aot as
(223) 2 8in?11°} sin?22°4

1919.

54 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

— _— sin 225 sin?22°4

sin 75 sin?67°? sin?67°3"

Here the seven or ten figure logarithms may be used in the test
calculation.

But tested with ordinary seven figure logarithms

sin?11°15’ sin?83°45’ (sin 45)*
A(223\4 =" ———— A
(223) sin 67°30!

1\4__.8in?78°40/ sin?56°16’ (sin 45)*
Besa) sin 67°30’

A(224)4=al 2-0667058
A(224)=al 1:5166763=0'32860
B(225)* _ 1 ago OB!
Aa4ye om 78°45'tan”56°15
B(223) _.1
A(a2 =al 0:4882228
A(224)=al 1°5166763
B(224)=al 1:9548991 =0-90136
sin?56°15’sin 67°80 (sin 45)"
D(223)'= ~~ 9 sin?78°45' sin’22°30"
D(223)4=al 0°3178220
D(224) =al 0:0794555=1°2008 ..
7 ° laj os 7 t
1\4__.81n?83°45'sin 67 30'(sin 45)*
Cee 2, sin?11°15’sin?2°30'
O(224)4 ; wi.
rap yi tan?38°45 tan?78°45
C(225) _ 1 0.
D @2i) = 0:2630154
D(224)=al 0:0794555
C(224)=al 0:3424709=2-2008
K— F=tan?22°30'
=al 1:2344486=0:171573
tan 22°30"
sin 45° sin 67°30’
=al 1-8021240=0°634051
(224) =0-402812
F(224) =0-231239

E (224) + F(224) H (223) —F(223)=

E+F=

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 55

Lemniscate 5 section: r=18, 86.

‘:
5. The formulas to be employed are given on p. 7, Report 1911, where
we put

(c—1) (c?—4c—-1) | _ (e+) (?—4c—1)
Nie CES are
| —(¢+1)i (0-1): , _ (c+): (C—1):
. Qc? 9c
e,=c,4/a, Pain a a Ay: 1)
Cg=Co4/ dy = —(e+1)% a

€\Co=}(c— 4), €\€)=}(c—4)} (e¢— +_4)3
_ taken from Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 264; and apply the numerical values of
c in the three regions, I, II, III. And with

b _(¢+3) (c?—4e—1) p= Ged) (c?—4c—1)

20ci(c—* +1)! 20ci(e—* +1)'
oe = eT) te ee (e—5=2)(0~5—-4)
4ci(e—! +1) a 141
1 9)8 1
by +2b __(¢+1) (c?--4c—1) as ea pcre
= = te
4c#(c—1 +1) aot 41)
Region IT.
0(86)=., D(8)= °* , A(86)=—4" , B(Le)= °

’. sin 54, a sin 72
c=2 gin 72+ 2 sin 54==4 sin 63 sin 81
—*-4= —8 sin?18, c—}+1=8 sin*54=(2 sin 54)

+)-2=4 sin 72+4 sin 80=8 sin 51 sin 69

itd sin 724 sin 80=8 sin 89 sin 21
2.sin®51 gin*69 sin?54
sin 68 sin 81

0 2 sint54 sin°18 sin’39 sin?21
4 sin 45 sin 63 sin 81

" 10__ 82 8ini54 sin*18 sin*51 sin*69 sin 68 sin 81
q sin® 45

c= , Cy'°=82 sin 63 sin 81 sin339 sin?21 sin?54

56 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

= a +f a +1 By}
el L= —=cos 40° 75.
Joe 5+1-
+a/ 5 ren A
Legendre, F’. 4 II. p. 288, has calculated

$(9)=10° . 59286766=10° 35’ 384” . 8235850

which can be used in a numerical test.

Numerical Calculation : for ¢

77832
52131
52892

99957

gin 51—al 1°89050 25944 sin?51=al 1-67150
sin 69= 1:97015 17377 sin*°69= 1:91045
sin 54= 1:90795 76446 sin254= 1°81591

2— 0°30102
sin 68= 1:94988 08840 N=al 1:69890
sin 81= 1:99461 99270 D=al 1:94450

D=al 1-94450 08110
co" =p=al 1:75440
c,==al 1:97544
/ = 2=al 0:07525
=al 0:05069

= 1:12382

c(a6)= 2

For cy

sin 839=al 1:79887 18089 sin?39=al 1:39661

sin 21= 1°55432 91617 sin321— 266298

sin 54= 1:90795 76446 sin254= 1°81591

sin 68= 1-94988 08840 sin 68= 1:94988

sin 81= 1:99461 99270 sin 81= 1:99461

2—= 0°30102 99957 = 1:50514

cal 132516

Cy=al 1°93251

1
Jeaul 0:07525

D(18)= Gea 0:00777
= 1.01806
sin 54

Tee
a es “xk sin 45

82812
08110

74702
07470

74990
82460
88587

54117
74851
52892
08840
99270
99785
89755

68975
74990

48965
239665

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Numerical Calculation: for e.

sin 54=al 190795 76446 (sin 54)! =al 1:95897 88228
sin 89=al 1:79887 18039 (sin 89)? =al 1:59774 36078
sin 21=al 155482 91618 (sin 21)? =al 1:10865 83236
sin 18=al 1:48998 23641 (sin 18)? =al 844991 18205

N =al 4:11029 25748
sin 45=al 1:84948 50022 (sin 45)!°=al 2°49485 00220
sin 68=al 1:94988 08841 sin 68 =al 1°94988 08841

sin 81 =al 1:99461 99271

D =al 2°48935 08332

A(36)!= y =al 3-67094 17411

A(36) = =al 176709 41741

= 058491 69061

For e, and B(18), (sin 54)! =al 1:95397 88223
sin 68 =al 1:94988 08841

sin 81 =al 1:99461 99271

sin 51=al 189050 25945 (sin 51)? =al 1-78100 51890
sin 69=al 1:97015 17877 (sin 69)? =al 1-94080 34754
sin 18=al 1:48998 23641 (sin 18)§ =al 3-44991 18205

N =al 3-06970 01184
sin 45=al 1-84948 50022; D=(sin Vere 3:29073 00396

B(18)!0— =a=al 177897 00788

B(1s)= > =al 1:97789 70079

= 0:95087 93863
A(36)B(18)="'° _ 2(sin 54°)! sin 18°,

In Region I, c =D(36), co=C(18)

with } (c—*)=yo+1=2 sin 72/(2 sin 18)+1

; (c+2)= 2 sin 72+ ./(2 sin 18)
eto (O4UMo—1) , (e+) (e—1)

82c* 82c?

= (DL) -26-3) 9]

~!I

58 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

=] W541) (V5+Y5+2) = YO) +8)+5 (V5 +1)
=(2 sin 54): sin 7242 sin 54
2 sin 54=i(V5+1)= 1:61808 39888

=al 0:20898 76403

(2 sin 54)!=al 0°31348 14604

sin 72 =al 1:97820 63255

(2 sin 54)! sin 72 =al 0-29168 77859
= 1:95713 69676

6 +¢)°= 3°57547 09563

pele Are ey aes)
C5 ira C alt : 4 Bae

21/51) 1(o4)

=sin 18[2 sin 72+ /(2 sin 18)|
eis (em 15)!
sin 40

(sin 15)'_9.94993 41359
sin 45
sin 86 =0°58778 52528
c,°—c,> =0'88071 98882
c,> =1°37237 57840—=al 0:18747 30637
¢, =1-06535 56397—al 0-02749 46127=D(36)
co> 220309 51722—al 034803 32570
cy =117113 41680=al 0-06860 66514=C(18)

C(18)D(86)=c,0,=5(V5 + 1)

In Region III, c, = B(86), c,=—A(18),
\(c—*)=—¥5+1=—2 sin 72 (sin 18) +1
Cc
i(c+2)= 2 sin 72—,/ (2 sin 18)
¢,°+c,°=—(2 sin 54)3 sin 7242 sin 54= 0°33940 29785

7 a Pt (GN: = 0°34485 11165
sin 45
c= 0:34212 70475 =al 1°58418 74095
c,=al 190683 74819 = 0'80693 30099=B(36)
—c,5= 0:00272 40690 =al 8:43521 81065
—cy=al 1:48704 36218 = 0'30673 80262=A(18)

A(18)B(86)= —¢,c,=5(*/5—1).

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

In Region II, 6,=

4 gin389 sin321 sin?18

H(18) F(86) |
7) Sen

Vip

4 sint51 9in369 sin?18

2b,—b, =~
2b,—b,
b, +20,
tan 39=al 1:90836 92094
tan 21=al 158417 74241

2b,—D,

by +25,
sin 39=al 1:79887 18039
sin 21=al 1:55432 91618
sin 18=al 1°48998 23641

sint54
=tan?39 tan221.

sin 54=al 1:90795 76446

| ba HAO sint54

tan?89=al 1:95418 46047
tan!21=al 1:79208 87121

=al 1:74627 33168

(sin 39)!=al 1:89943 59019
(sin 21)!=al 1:77716 45809

sin'18 = 297996 47282
265656 52110
(sin 54)'= 1:93096 82334

al 2°72559 69776
4=al 0°60205 99920

2b,—b,=al 1°32765 69696
J/ x’ =al 1:92474 25010

2F(36) —E(18)=
2F(36)—E(18) _
F(86) +2H(18)

al 1:25239 94706=0°17881 31556
al 1:74627 33168

F(36) +2H(18)=al 1:50612 61624=0'32082 06813

H(18)=
F(36) =

Thus Region IT gives B(18), D(8), E(1

0:09252 54012.
0°13566 92789

8), A(36),

the remaining six values will be given in Region I or III.

In Region I, 6,= Ny
K

F(18) , _ H(86)

Fal and we have to verify that

F(18)=0-08047 39933

H(36)
F(18)=al 2-90565 55525

aa
b, =al 2:98091 30514
= 0:09570 02454
2b,= 0:19140 48908
2b.—b,= 0'24461 86054

=0°14808 64509

K(36)=al 115557 89815

1 =al 0:07525 74989
/ kK

by=al 1:28085 60108

= 017015 94254

2b,= 0°34081 88508

by+2b,= 0°86156 43162

C(36), F(36); and

60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

and the verification can be carried out with the formulas given above for

b, and b,, 2b,—b, and b,+2b,, taking (c—1)=/5+1 in Region I as
before, and working with

1 o

EL (¢ = == 4)"

e 2) (¢ ¢ 4 2b,—b,_c—1

(-—1 +1) bo+2b, c+1

(2b, —,) (bo +26,)= 7);

It is not difficult to determine the value of ¢ in a quinquisection for
K=2K’, and to make the algebraical numerical verifications in Table II.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 61

Lemniscate Seven Section.
6. With the Weierstrass functions of the First Stage, as defined in
Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 250, and in the 2n+1 section of a period,

= = Yn+1 v= Yn+2 * ares A hl = 0 i
(1) ee 0, ar Yn Yn- : : f 2n+ Ui : ii

a} a
(2) A(2r) Si (e;—@2 .ey— €3)x ey mnxi?

1 Pp
(8) A(2pr)=/ (e,—e2 . @;—e3)@ 8A-2"*4y,
but still requiring the condition of the Second Stage, that the factors
of S should be known.
But with the Lemniscate Function, where

(4) g3=0, A=go?=(e, —e3)°=64(e, —ey)®=64(e,—¢3)®
1 1 l

(5) A(2r)= (5 A\ a." X an

J on

ee ee,
A(pr)=(5.4) "a 3), Bes

Turning to the case of 2n+1=7, Phil. Trans., $9, p. 280, and Proc.
L.M.S., 1893-4, p. 228, where Klein’s modular equation is
J:J—1:1=(7?+138r+ 49)(7?> + 57+ 1)3 : (r#4+147*4 637? + 707—7)?: 17287,

—1—82+52?+25 iis 418 = (Le pentane) s A ~22)

’

2(1—z) 2 oes ae
: £0 27 (1—z+2?)3 : :
P418r+49=(r+4 3) += pao =a 7 cosec?86, if
1S eee
t+ ke, an =r a =_V8 cot 36;
and then, according to Mr. Alfred Lodge, a three roots of this cubic
equation for z, when 7 is given and the auxiliary angle 0, are given by
ee sin 7 1 _ sin(60+6) z—1_sin (120+ 6)
sin (60+0)’ 1—z sin(120+6)’ z sin(180+06)
The lemniscate condition, J=1, requires
t+ 147° 4 637? + 707 —7 = (7? + 77 + 21)?—7(27 + 8)? =
Peal N a iby ea
= 5 272 4/7'7=0°09219 27
27 +18=13°1843854, cot 86=al 0:4043760=cot 21° 30’. 606
__ sin 7° 10’.202___, 10960644
sin 67° 10’.202 = 1-9645709
1 _ sin 67° 10.202 ___, 1:9645709
= ane =al -— = "0681965 =1°1566355
1—2 ain 127° 10. 2027” 1:90187447 *! 0068196
_ 2—1_ sin 127° 10'.202 __, 1:9013744

y ~ —sin 187°10'.202 j-o960644

=al 1:1316935=0°1354238

=al 0°8051100=6°384251

62 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Here, in Proc. L.M.S. 1898-4, p. 228,
A=2"(1 —2)"(1—82z + 52? 4+ 23) =2°(1—2)*r,

with y,=0, =2(1—z)*, y=2(1—z), =U I = 241-2)!
us

Ys

A(2r) = (es (12) "31

De ee
A(4r) = (Fr) "2 21 (022) 21
1 4 5

A(6r) = (Er) "2 "(=)"
= 0:011524088

=al 20616065

(Fr) =al 18384672

2! =al 17932604

1

( 1 _)B=al 0-0030094

_

A(2r) =al 1-6347869=0-4312577=A (2°)
Cpa a ee

hone 9)

2

2’ =al 1°7519124

il
(; ! )=al 00090281

A(4r)
A(Qr) <2 02571157

A(2r)=al 1-6347869
A(4r) =al 1-83918526=0:7795654— =A(")

ae = Pare - 2

A(6r)=al 1-9888121=0:9745680= A()

1

A(2r)A(4r)A(6r) = (.") ¥

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 63
ater =ol'(1—2/)L = = = Beit ea) Ae
Cr)’ N IP, 2
O(4r)2=2- AA FIP, 2

ge SNe

C(2pr)2?=a 3A 2n+1y,"P,/ 2,

12P,=(1+y)?+4a, 12P,=(1+y)?—82,

aP,+Pi=y(1+y)

P,—P,=a, P|, —P3;=y, P,—Py=2(1—2),

C(2pr)? _ ney,» z,

Quo 2, Pu
t=p—— _ SS SS
q (1) 6et(1—2)$( Er) ;

is a root of the equation ¥,=0, given by Mathews, Proc. L.M.S., 1915,
p. 464; and

Set gliaaa oh Get(1—2)8(5r)

z=al 11816935

1—z=al 1:9368085
y=al 1-0684970=0'1170839
a=z(1—z)?=al 1:0053005 =0-1012280
\3 =2?(1—z)=al 2:2001905=0-0158559

r =al 1:4000635
Naa =al 0°5999865
ms!
Ni =al 0:0857052
a} =al 0:9946995
Sl
xg 3 =al 0°3315665
n 3 =al 06631330
eo
N7 ~ =al 0:1714104
1l+y =al 0:0480858=1:1170839
(l+y)? =al 0:0961716
4 =al 0°6020600
2P,+P, =al 1:4941116=0'3119691

P, —P, =f =0°1012280

64 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

3P, =0-4131971, P, =0°1877824
y=0-1170889

P,=P,—2 =0:0865044
P,=P,—y =0:0206485
(check) P, —P,;=A* =0-0158559

C(2r)?=2 gi + PiV2
= al 0°1240945
C(2r) =al 0:0620472 =1°153579
Car)? 0 8B
cae ee P,
=al 1-9875405
C(2r)? =al 0°1240945
C(4r)? =al 0:0616350
C(4r) =al 0° ee 1:073538
(Sag ee 1 P3/2
=al 0:0080973
C(6r) =al 0:0040486=1-0093660
Considering the uncertainty involved in working with only 7 figure
logarithms. the agreement is quite close with the numbers calculated by
Colonel Hippisley from the series given in Table V.

Seventeen Section values are given, too, in Table VI, to serve for future
reference.

Q

These numerical verifications of Seven Section, as well as of Nine
Section, in $7 were carried out by Mr. Alfred Lodge. He has shown also
that, for the Seven Section,

C(2r) C(4r) C(6r) = (7?-+9r +17) +12(24),
which serves therefore as a check on the calculations. Thus
7?497+17=17'8882328—al 1:2513519

12(2)¢— =al 1-1544387
G(2r) C(4r) C(6r) =al 0:0969132.
And in the calculations above
C(2r) =al 0:0620478
(47) =al 0:0808075
C(6r) =al 0:0040486

C(2r) C(4r) C(6r) =al 0:0969133.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 65

Lemniscate Nine Section; r=10.

7. Here, in L.M.S. 1893, p. 238, with £+8=2, the modular equation
of the 9th order becomes

J: J—1 : 1=a3(2'—24)3 : (x®—362' + 216)? : 1728(2°—27),
so that the lemniscate condition, J=1, requires
—362? +216=0, 2? =184+6V3, c= V3 ¥/ (2/8 +42)
x=al 0°4844002 = O5070by. sk."

Then from Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 231, § 10,
w=0, 2=p'(1—p)(L—p+p"), y=P\d—p), A= T=1—1 =p(l—p),
A=p'*(1—p)"*(#—27), with 23 -27=6 / 3—9=1°3923048....
5f=P1—p)" al 12406448
(54) "—=p(1—p) al 19867280

The cubic for the parameter , is here

ye l1—p p
oe 1+p. oS =p —*Y cot 36
2 —p(l—p)
ee g6— ep a Sg = — 4850708
2 p(i—p) 2
from which cot (180° —36)=al 0:2434268
“. 86=180°—29° 43’ 22’06 e
6=50° 5’ 32'"65
sin 6 :
=—______ — i — I
Pp sin(60-+8) al 1:9121104=0'8167900

1 _ sin(60+6)

= =al 0°73 11=5°
ip sin(120-+6) al 0°7370511=5°4582210

_p—1__ sin(120+8)
p __sin(180+8)

A(@r)=[ 5 (2*—27) |"? 9° (1-p)*(1— pep)?

=al 1:35083885=0'2248048

E (2 —21) }=al 19367204

66 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

ps=al 1-9804690
(1—p)3=al 1-5905271
(1—p +p?) 3=al 0:0234665
A(2r)=al 1-5811830=0'3397634= A (20)
ree Ge
= al 0:2749802
)= al 1:8061632=0'6399753= A (40)
A(6r)=A(60), given already in trisection.
)

= al 0-4620709
A(8r)= __al 1:9932589=0'9845866=A (80)
y=p'(1—p)=al 1:8242208
—0°7870511
=al 1:0871697=0:1222277
A\=z=p(1—p)=al 1-9121104
—0°7370511
= 1-1750593=0'1496440
1—p+p?=1—A=al 1:9296008=0°8503560
a=al 1:0167705=0°1039370
*1+y=al 0:0500810=1-1222277
(1+y)?=al 0:1001620
4=al 0:6020600

2 =
OP, +P,=3(1 +y) —al 1-4981020—0:3148488

P,—P,= x =0°'1039370
38P,=0°4187858, P, =0°1895958 ;
P,.=P,—a% =0:0356583 ;

P,=P,—2(1—2} =0:0123447.

C(2r)?=al 01341924 —
C(20)=C(2r)=al 0:0670962=1-1670680

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

C(4r)?_)-3P»
C(2r)? P,

=al 1:9572505
C(4r)?=al 0-0914429

O(40)=C(4r) =al 0-0457214=1-1110187
©(80)_,-1° Py
Geo * ° 4p.

=al 1:8707515
C(80)?=al 0:00496439
C(80)=al 0:0024719=1:005708

As a check on the A values, the product

A(20) A(40) A(80)= (¢ tsin®88) ” (aes ee

ere e=3°05070502 ...,
x?—27=1'3923048454—=al 0°3305999 ;
nd thus 4

A(20) A(40) A(80)=al 1-3806001,

| agreement with the calculations above.

67

68 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Lemniscate Five Section, again.

8. A return can be made to Five Section in this method of the First
Stage, as in Phil. Trans. 1904, p. 229; there with

|
¥5=9; Yy=2, == 73,
yz

and the modular equation
J: J—1: 1=(r?—10r +5)3 : (7? —227 +4125) (r?—47r—-1)? : — 17287,

ae 7 TS eee Ba ee {ar=11-1=9+ /5=8+4 sin 54

1 5=12 sin 72°
x

2=6 sin 72—4—2 sin 54°
=16 sin29 sin 39° sin 51°=al 29459

A=—a°r =2°( /5—2)=25(2 sin 18)3

x 10 al 1:89459

(sin 18)* =al 1:87250

A(2r)=al 176709 —0'5849 . . . =A(86)

A(4r) _ 7-5 al 0-2108

Ar) na i

A(2r) =al 1-7671

A(4r) =al 1:9779=0°95 = A(72)
La: Lyasin18°)? 12 sin 18)?

pee Seo ae =; (i =a= 1
ra +2)? +42] 19” (+2+6) sin T2+5

1 1
(0 an 19°\2
_a(2sin18°)* incase (sin 18%}
=9sin 51° sin 69° sin 51° sin 69°

= .. . =all-7164 . . . =cos 58°.6=cos¢(54)

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 69

1 1 1
=a (gj 2 fy
p> gsi 18)" gin®45(sin18)?
af [« +2)?—82] ~ sin72—sin 30 sin 89 sin 21
12

<= ga =al 1:9702 =cos 21°=cos (18).
So also for 0(36) and C(72).

2 2 2
C(2r)?=a F 15/2 a

1/2 /1
x 12 (,t2+6)

1
= /2(sin 72+sin 30)

1
=2./2 z° gin 51 sin 69

C(2r)=al 00507... =1:124 . . . =C(36)

a,
C(4r)?= 2/2 * sin 39 sin 21

C(4r)=al 000775. . .=1-018 . . . =C(72)
z32L= Cre ae (+3
* 10V (61-83) 0232 sin 18)?
—324+1 —8¢+1
aie et i a te
10V (81-83) 193(2 sin 18)*
es + va)
2\./ax
2zs¢L—zs#L=—\~ ——_,

asili+ 228g L = __f
(2 sin 18)?

9. Table II for K=2K’, «/=(/ 2—1)’, is derived from the Lemniscate
Table I by an application of the Quadric Transformation, using the
formulas in Report 1918, p. 88, and so may be considered of equal
accuracy.

1919, K

70 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Writing any function A(r) as A(rK), to distinguish the period and
modulus, then with
uak L ae 1—r
Roger ee
these formulas may be replaced by
B(rK)? + A(rK)?= /)/C(2rL), B(27L),

=

: ve »\ BerL),

O(rK)?+D(rK)?= =r he oak L),
2X A(2r _ 2K (27rL)

HQrK) + ECR) Yx'DG@rLy +A?

with A=’ = /2 in the Lemniscate ‘Table I.

A second application of this Quadric Transformation will give the
numbers of Table III, where
y2—1\?

G=4@’, y=( ) =cos 89° 34’;

so that the modular angle is more than half-way through the last degree
of the quadrant; and to go further does not seem of practical utility, as
on to K=8K’.

The geometry of these two Quadric Transformations is shown on the
ellipse, of excentricity x, drawn for semi-axes

a=50(/2+1)=120-21 mm, b=50(/2—1)=20-21 mm.

The Quadric Transformations.

To show the relation geometrically, connecting the three Tables I,
IJ, III, corresponding to

Bt ees eae gl
ae 5 Ly
= {2ahK oR Fy _1—*'
Nee WA flak”
the ellipse is drawn with excentricity x, taking
247 2
(cas ELON pees wean Aol
x’ =(/ 2—1)?, k Foul

Then with ¢=amfK the minor excentric angle of a point P on the
ellipse, and w=am (l—/f)K the angle AOY of the perpendicular OY
on the tangent at P, oe a dn(1—/)K, and the coordinates of P are
a, b snfK, 6 enfK.

The longitude of P, perihelion and aphelion, is

ASP =2 am : (1—f)G, A'S'P=2 am : (1+/)G

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 71

ae

Age gine dng (1 +f)G
se ' i

, = =

Jy Tis) We Vy! ’

Aa=by y’ tnt a —f)G, Na’ =bV/y'tn; la+A)G,

ang(t—f)G_ Va: csnfK |,
ah Vas a cad

= (a — b)sn2fL, FJ = (a —b)en 2fL, FI =(a+bd)dn 2fL, and
“Osb=am 2fL, and so on, showing the geometrical interpretation of
"the elliptic function and its Quadric ‘Transformations.
But the A,B,C, D functions cannot be shown in the figure; and
_ E(r), F(7) arise in the rectification of the elliptic arc.

In the motion of the simple pendulum, oscillating through a finite
; gle, four times the modular angle, the pendulum beats the elliptic

ction of the time ¢, such that pu af T, if T is the beat in seconds.

_ The lemniscate function is me when the pendulum swings

rough two right angles.
__ From the relation
te

tand(45+5 5n)G
1—snfK or
tng(1—/)

* a nal NG = VP ~ tand(45)G parser 3 H(°K))

a

te column of Legendre’ s ¢ in Table III can be deduced from that in
4 ble II ; and so also in II from I.

A slide rule may be used in a first approximation to the nearest

ee, to read off from the scale of tangents on a fixed setting of the
Bercor.

K 2

72

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919,

K=1'8540746773=K’, E=1'3506438810=H’

Evuietic Functio

TasLe I.—Lemniscate Function

D(r)

ey Fo ? K(r)
1
0 | 000000 00000 0-000 | 0-00000 00000
1 | 0-02060 08297 1180 | 0-00559 22185
2 | 0-04120 16595 2-360 | 0-01117 56998
3 | 0-06180 24892 3-540 | 0-01674 17286
4 | 0-08240 33190 4-719 | 0-02228 16343
5 | 0-10300 41487 5896 | 0-02778 68123
6 | 0-12360 49785 7-073 | 0-03324 87460
7 | 0-14420 58082 8-248 | 0-03865 90273
8 | 0-16480 66380 9-421 | 0-04400 93780
9 | 0-1854074677 | 10-593 | 0-04929 16689
10 | 06-2060082975 | 11-762 | 0-05449 79400
11 | 0-2266091272 | 12-929 | 0-05962 04166
12 | 0-2472099570 | 14-093 | 0-06465 15306
13 | 0-2678107867 | 15-254 | 0-06958 39334
14 0:28841 16165 16-412 0-07441 05129
15 | 030901 24462 | 17-567 | 0-07912 44078
16 | 0-32961 32760 | 18-718 | 0-08371 90207
17 | 0-3502141057 | 19-866 | 0-08818 80301
18 0:37081 49355 21-010 0-09252 54012
19 | 0-3914157652 | 22-150 | 0-09672 53955
20 | 0-4120165950 | 23-285 | 0-10078 25794
21 | 0-4326174247 | 24-416 | 0-10469 18308
22 0°45321 82545 25-543 0:10844 83455
23 | 0-4738190842 | 26-664 | 0-11204 76417
24 | 0-4944199139 | 27-781 | 0-11548 55630
25 | 0-5150207437 | 28-893 | 0-11875 82813
26 | 0-5356215734 | 30-000 | 0-12186 22978
27 0-55622 24032 31-101 0-12479 44426
28 | 0-5768232329 | 32-197 | 0-12755 18736
29 | 0-5974240627 | 33-288 | 0-13013 20757
30 | 0-6180248924 | 34-373 | 0-13253 28561
31 | 0-6386257222 | 35-451 | 0-13475 23413
32 | 0-6592265519 | 36-526 | 0-13678 89725
33. | 0-6798273817 | 37-594 | 0-1386414993
34 | 0-7004282114 | 38-656 | 0-1403089744
35 | 0-7210290412 | 39-712 | 0-14179 07457
36 | 0-7416298709 | 40-762 | 0-14308 64509
37 | 0-7622307007 | 41-806 | 0-14419 60058
38 | 0-7828315304 | 42-844 | 0-14511 96000
39 | 0-8034323602 | 43-874 | 0-14585 76849
40 | 0-8240331899 | 44-901 | 0-14641 09671
41 | 0-8446340197 | 45-921 | 0-14678 03964
42 | 0-8652348494 | 46-935 | 0-14696 71583
43 | 0-8858356792 | 47-942 | 0-14697 26631
44 | 0-9064365089 | 48-944 | 0-14679 85365
45 | 0-9270373387 | 49-940 | 0-14644 66094
| 90—" F(y) y F(r)

1-00000 00000
1-00005 76114
1-00023 03752
1-:00051 80814
1-00092 03796
1-00143 67802
1-00206 66547
1-00280 92364
1-00366 36213
1:00462 87696
1-00570 35065
1-00688 65237
1-00817 63813
1-00957 15091
1-01107 02088
1-01267 06562
1-01437 09030
1-01616 88793
1-01806 23965
1-02004 91494.
1-02212 67193
1-02429 25769
1-02654 40853
1-02887 85035
1-03129 29893
1-03378 46028
1-03635 03103
1-03898 69880
1-04169 14251
1-04446 03288
1-:04729 03271
1-05017 79739
1-05311 97528
1-05611 20812
1-05915 13149
1-06223 37524
1-06535 56397
1-06851 31742
1-07170 25103
1-07491 97630
1-07816 10137
1-08142 23139
1-08469 96910
1-08798 91523
1-09128 66907
1-09458 82886

O(r)

0:00000 00000
0-01732 23240
0-03463 96092
0-05194 68175
0-06923 89126
0-08651 08611
0-10375 76329
0-12097 42023
0-13815 55494
0-15529 66598
0-17239 25270
0-18943 81524
0-20642 85463
0-22335 87294
0-24022 37330
0-25701 86008
0-27373 83893
0-29037 81691
0-30693 30262
9-32339 80622
0-33976 83967
0-35603 91671
0-37220 55308
0-38826 26656
0-40420 57714
0-42003 00711
0-43573 08120
0-45130 32670
0-46674 27359
0-48204 45468
0-49720 40572
0°51221 66556
0-52707 77628
0-54178 28334
0-55632 73569
0-57070 68597
0-58491 69061
0-59895 31001
0-61281 10868
0-62648 65539
0-63997 52334
0-65327 29030
0-66637 53880
0-67927 85625
0-69197 83514 ©
0-70447 07318 ;

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

TABLE.

6=45°.

kK ‘= k= = ———

= .--—0- 04321391826377

B(r)

1-00000 00000
0-99984 54246
0-99938 17514

- 0-99860 91406

- 0-99752 78584

0-99613 82775
0-99444 08767

0-99243 62407

-0-99012 50593

-0-98750 81276

0-98458 63450
0:98136 07151
0-97783 23446
0-97400 24430
0- -96987 23216
-0-96544 33929

0-96071 71696
0-95569 52639
195037 93863

0-94477 13447

91945 70430
-0-91241 86305
0-90510 08831

0-71675 17348
070447 07318

C(r)

1-18920 71150
1-18914 94665
1-18897 65912
1-18868 87000
1-18828 61440
118776 94140
1-18713 91403
1-18639 60914

1-18554 11736 ©

1-18457 54293
1-18350 00363
118231 63059
1-18102 56817
1-17962 97376
1-17813 01756
1-17652 88244
1-17482 76366
1-17302 86866
1-17113 41680
116914 63907
1-16706 77783
1:16490 08653
116264 82937
1-16031 28097
1-:15789 72608
1-15540 45920
1-15283 78419
1-15020 01398
1-:14749 47011
114472 48239
1-14189 38846
1-13900 53339
1-13606 26928
1-13306 954.80
1-13002 95477
112694 63970
1-12382 38537
1:12066 57231
1-11747 58542
1:11425 81342
111101 64844
1:10775 48548
1:10447 72199
110118 75735
1:09788 99237
1-09458 82886

3

F(r)

F(y)

0-00000 00000
5-00470 60108
0-00940 76502
0:01410 05467
0-01878 03289
002344 26255
0-02808 30653
0-03269 72774
9:03728 08916
0-04182 95382
0-04633 88487
0-05080 44575
0-05522 19994
0:05958 71139
0:06389 54439
0-06814 26379
0:07232 43506
0:07643 62449
0-08047 39933
0:08443 32799
0-08830 98027
0:09209 92756
0:09579 74315
0-09940 00252
0-10290 28362
0:10630 16727
0-10959 23752
0-11277 08206
0-11583 29266
0-11877 46567
0-12159 20252
0:12428 11025
0-12683 80211
0-12925 89815
0-13154 02588
0-13367 82099
0-13566 92789
0-13751 00077
0-13919 70407
0:14072 71344
0-14209 71663
0:14330 41415
0-14434 52037
0-14521 76436
0-14591 89078
0°14644 66094

90-000
89-165
88-330
87-495
86-659
85-823
84-986
84-147
83-308
82-467
81-624
80-780
79-934
79-085
78:235
77-382
76:526
75°667
74-806
73°942
73:074
72-203
71:329
70-450
69-568
68-682
67-792
66-898
65-999
65-096
64-188
63:275
62-359
61-435
60-507
59-574
58636
57-692
56°743
55-788
54-828
53-862
52-890
51-913
50-929

49-940

1-85407 46773
1-83347 38476
1-81287 30178
1-79227 21881
1-77167 13583
1-75107 05286
1-73046 96988
1-70986 88691
1-68926 80393
1-66866 72096
1-€4806 63798
1-62746 55501
1-60686 47203
1-58626 38906
1-56566 30608
1-54506 22311
1-52446 14013
1-50386 05716
1:48325 97418
1-46265 89121
1-44205 80823
1-42145 72526
1-40085 64228
1-38025 55931
1-35965 47634
1:33905 39336
1-31845 31039
1-29785 22741
1-27725 14444
1-:25665 06146
1-23604 97849
1-21544 89551
1-:19484 81254
1-17424 72956
115364 64659
1:13304 56361
1-11244 48064
1:09184 39766
1-07124 31469
1-05064 23171
1-03004 14874
1-00944 06576
0-98883 98279
0-96823 89981
0:94763 81684
0-92703 73387

D(r)

K(r)

F(9)

74

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Tape I].—Euuietic Funotion TasLe

K=38:1651034544=2K’ ; K=1'0393418850

—-

Fo

OMWBHUPWHR OS

000000 00000
0-03516 78162
0-07033 56323
0-10550 34485
0-14067 12646
0:17583 90808
0:21100 68970
0-24617 47131
0-28134 25293
0-31651 03454
0-35167 81616
0-38684 59778
042201 37939
0-45718 16101
049234 94262
0-52751 72424
0-56268 50586
0-59785 28747
063302 06909
0-66818 85070
0:70335 63232
0-73852 41394
0-77369 19555
080885 97717
0-84402 75878
0-87919 54040
0-91436 32202
0-94953 10363
0-98469 88525
1-01986 66686
1-05503 44848
1-09020 23010
1-12537 01171
1-16053 79333
1-19570 57494
1-23087 35656
1-26604 13818
1-30120 91979
1-33637 70141
1-37154 48302
1-40671 26464
1-44188 04626
1-47704 82787
1-51221 60949
1-54738 39110
1-58255 17272

F(y)

a

CO DP bo Oo

E(r)

0-00000 00000
0-02360 56201
0-04712 70168
0:07048 07843
0-09358 51350
0-11636 06632
0-13873 10806
0-16062 38448
0-18197 07731
0:20270 85318
0:22277 90541
0-24212 98632
0:26071 43027
0-27849 16735
0-29542 72842
0-31149 24171
0-32666 42186
0-34092 55218
0-35426 46104
0:36667 49334
0-37815 47792
0-38870 69215
0-39833 82422
0:40705 93432
0-41488 41519
0-42182 95296
0:42791 48870
0-43316 18134
0-43759 37213
0°44123 55115
0-44411 32602
0°44625 39305
0-44768 51059
0-44843 47531
0-44853 10050
0-44800 19712
0-44687 55682
0-44517 93763
0-44294 05137
0-44018 55303
0-43694 03214
0-43323 00554
0-42907 91183
C-42451 10688
0-41954 86092
0-41421 35624

F(r)

D(r)

1-00000 00000
1-00041 52890
1-00166 07060
1-00373 49030
1-00663 56333
1-01035 97538
1-01490 32269
1-02026 11222
1-02642 76205
1-03339 60172
1-04115 87266
1-04970 72852
1-05903 23605
1-06912 37540
107997 04090
109156 04191
1-10388 10347
1-11691 86724
1-13065 89258
1-14508 65738
1-16018 55937
1-17593 91716
1-19232 97163
1-20933 88725
1-22694 75354
1-24513 58656
1-26388 33062
1-28316 86000
1-30296 98066
1-52326 43235
134402 89037
1-36523 96792
1-38687 21817
1-40890 13667
1-43130 16359
1-45404 68644
1-47711 04260
1-50046 52195
1-52408 36987
1-54793 78991
1-57199 94709
1-59623 97068
1-62062 95774
1-64513 97610
1-66974 06801
1-69440 25335

C(r)

-0-23349 36056 ©

A(r)

0-00000 00000
0-01456 71194
0-02913 50336
0:04370 45234 —
0:05827 63405
0:07285 11940
0-08742 97360
0-10201 25476
0-11660 01256
0-13119 28682
0:14579 10626
0-16039 48718
0:17500 43219
0-18961 92905
0:20423 94944
0-21886 44785

0-24812 60455
0-26276 07658
0-27739 65226
0-29203 18523
0-30666 50639
0-32129 42316
0-33591 71882
0°35053 15206
0-36513 45630
0-37972 33943
0-39429 48341
0-40884 54396
0-42337 15048
0-43786 90584
0-45233 38641
0-46676 14214
0-48114 69663
0-49548 54745
0-50977 16634
0-52399 99270

K=2K’.

B(r)

1-00000 00000
-0-99979 69556
0-99918 80246
0-99817 38136
0-99675 53317
0-99493 39885
0-99271 15912
0-99009 03401
0-98707 28236
0-98366 20127
0-97986 12540
0-97567 42629
0-97110 51144
0-96615 82342
0-96083 83890
0-95515 06763
0-94910 05121
0-94269 36200
0-93593 60181
0-92883 40053
0-92139 41482
-0-91362 32667
0-90552 84193
0-89711 68870
0-88839 61588
0-87937 39151
0-87005 80112
tad 64616
0-85057 74217
0-84042 91725

K=(V 2-1)
x ee qg=e-**=0: See agen oes

6=80°7'14'"'58.

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES,

75

C(r)

2-41421 35624
2-41376 73268
2-41242 92194
2-41020 10412
2-40708 57883
2-40308 76487
2-39821 19957
239246 53776
2-38585 55074
2-37839 12498
2-37008 26067
2-36094 07003
2-35097 77549
2-34020 70768
2-32864 30309
2-31630 10195
2°30319 74557
2-28934 97370
2-27477 62174
2-25949 61767
224352 97905
2-22689 80986
2-20962 29703
2-19172 70703
2-17323 38239
2-15416 73798
2-13455 25727
2-11441 48863
2-09378 04130
2-07267 58157
2-05112 82872
2-02916 55104
2-00681 56171
1-98410 71472
1-96106 90080
1-93773 04319
1-91412 09366
1-89027 02821
1-86620 84313
1-84196 55077
1-81757 17564
1-79305 75014
1-76845 31081
1-74378 89429
1-71909 53339
1-69440 25335

D(r)

F(r)

0-00000 00000
0-01051 24733
0-02102 24584
0-03152 74554
0:04202 49414
0:05251 23580
0-06298 71010
0-07344 65063
0-08388 78393
0-09430 82815
0-10470 49177
0-11507 47232
0-12541 45496
0:13572 11109
0-14599 09689
0-15622 05178
0-16640 59688
0-17654 33333
0-18662 84057
0-19665 67464
0-20662 36615
0-21652 41853
0-22635 30587
0-23610 47089
0-24577 32266
0:25535 23439
0-26483 54098
0-27421 53662
0-28348 47221
0-29263 55265
0:30165 93417
0-31054 72156
0-31928 96518
0-32787 65814
0-33629 73328
0-34454 06018
0-35259 44205
0-36044 61289
0-36808 23448
0-37548 89337
0-38265 09832
0-38955 27740
0-39617 77607
0-40250 85448
0-40852 68614
0-41421 35624

E(r)

Fy

3°16510 34544
312993 56382
309476 78221
305960 00059
3°02443 21898
2-98926 43736
2-95409 65574
2-91892 87413
2-88376 09251
2-84859 31090
2°81342 52928
277825 74766
2-74308 96605
2-70792 18443
2-67275 40282
2-63758 62120
2-60241 83958
2:56725 05797
2-53208 27635
2-4969] 49474
2-46174 71312
2-42657 93150
2-39141 14989
2-35624 36827
2-32107 58666
2-28590 80504.
2-25074 02342
2-21557 24181
2-18040 46019
2-14523 67858

2-11006 89696 -

2-07490 11534.
2-03973 33373
2-00456 55211
1-96939 77050
1-93422 98888
1-89906 20726
1-86389 42565
1-82872 64403
1-79355 86242
1-75839 08080
1-72322 29918
1-68805 51757
1-65288 73595
1-61771 95434
1-58255 17272

F(¢)

76

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

TasBie II].—Euuietic Funcrion

K=4K’=6'28327 29540 E=1:00016 13425 E’=1:57077 44156

|
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A(r)

0-00000 00000
0-00603 64042
0-01208 81679
0:01817 06193
0-02429 90271
0-03048 85680
0:03675 42965
0-04311 11140
0:04957 37375
0-05615 66670
0-06285 41547
0-06974 01705
0-07676 83701
0-08397 20607
0-09136 41666
0-09895 71948
0-10676 31990
0-11479 37439
0-12305 98692
0-13157 20525
0-14034 01725
0-14937 34717
0-15868 05185
0:16826 91705
0-17814 65368
0-18831 89404
0-19879 18825
0-20957 00058
0-22065 70585
0-23205 58614
0-24376 82728
0-25579 51579
0-26813 63574
0-28079 06595
0-29375 57725
0-30702 83011
0-32060 37240
0-33447 63744
0-34863 94241
0-36308 48693
0-37780 35221
0-39278 50021
0-40801 77356
0-42348 89556
0-43918 47081
0:45508 98606

Fp o) Kr) D(r)

0 0-00000 00000 0 0 0-00000 00000 1-00000 00000

1 0-06981 41439 4 0 0-05858 80421 1-00204 92085

2 0-13962 82879 7 58 0-11650 21507 1-00819 82674

3 0-20944 24318 11 55 0-17309 42086 1-01845 14653

4 Q-27925 65757 15 48 0-22776 56568 1-03281 58868

5 0-34907 07196 19 36 0°27998 73710 1-05130 13277

6 0-41888 48636 23 20 0°32931 43867 1:07392 01702

7 0-48869 90075 26 57 0-37539 48102 1-10068 72231

8 0-55851 31514 30 27 0-41797 29107 113161 95325

9 0-62832 72954 33 51 0-45688 69337 1-:16673 61537
10 0:69814 14393 37 6 0-49206 25794 1-20605 78963
11 0:76795 55032 4013 0-52350 33154 1-24960 70304
12 0-83776 97272 43 12 0-55127 87232 1-29740 69731
13 0:90758 38711 46 3 0-57551 19971 1-34948 19370
14 0-97739 80150 48 46 0-59636 75185 1-40585 65533
15 1-04721 21590 5119 0-61403 92034 1-46655 54743
16 1-11702 63029 53 46 0-62874 00873 1-53160 29461
17 1-18684 04468 56 3 0-64069 34062 1-60102 23549
18 1-25665 45908 58 14 0-65012 52555 1-67483 57686
19 1-32646 87347 60 16 0-65725 87889 1-75306 34391
20 1-39628 28787 62 12 0-66230 98356 185572 32845
21 1-46609 70226 64 0 0-66548 37561 1-92283 04806
22 1-53591 11665 65 42 0-66697 33531 2-01439 67047
23 160572 53104 6718 0-66695 76408 2-11042 98279
24 1-67553 94544 68 48 0-66560 12877 2-21093 32570
25 1-74535 35983 70 12 0-66305 45812 2-31590 54054
26 1-81516 77422 71 30 0-65945 37698 2-42533 91499
27 1-88498 18862 72 44 0-65492 16739 2-53922 12848
28 | ° 1-95479 60301 73 53 0-64956 84700 2-65753 19744
29 2-02461 01740 74 57 0-64349 25792 2-78024 42315
30 2-09442 43180 75 58 0-63678 16067 2-90732 33850
31 2-16423 84619 76 54 0-62951 32880 303872 65788
32 2-23405 26058 7747 0-62175 64169 3°17440 22854
33 2-30386 67498 78 36 0-61357 17327 3°31428 98349
34 2-37368 08937 79 21 0-60501 27571 3-45831 89676
35 2-44349 50376 80 5 0-59612 65692 360640 94238
36 2-51330 91816 80 45 0-58695 45195 3°75847 05548
37 2-58312 33255 81 22 0-57753 28798 391440 09654
38 2-65293 74694 81 57 0-56789 34314 4-07408 82075
39 2-72275 16133 82 29 0-55806 39922 4-23740 84869
40 2-79256 57573 83 0 0-54806 88926 4-40422 64464
41 2-86237 99012 83 28 0-53792 93957 4-57439 49541
42 2-93219 40452 83 54 0-52766 40718 4-74775 49776
43 3-00200 81891 8419 0-51728 91320 4-92413 54739
44 3:07182 23330 84 42 0-50681 87187 5-10335 33598
45 3-14163 64770 85 4 0-49626 51667 5-28521 35079

90-r Fy) y Fr) C(r)

Bcr)

Taste. G=4(’,

i=

(Br)

6=89°34/19'"25.

0°45598 81277 65996 c=(

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ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

C(r)

F(r)

Fy

~ 1-00000 00000
~ 0-99961 21582
0-99844 95255
~ 0-99651 48079
— 0-99381 24905
0-99034 88308
0-98613 18332
0-98117 12170
0-97547 83788
0-96906 63493
0-96194 97426
0-95414 47008
0-94566 88326
0-93654 11461
0-92678 19770
0-91641 29136
0-90545 67162
_ 0-89393 72325
~ 0-88187 93117
- 0-86930 87124
085625 20119
0-84273 65113
0-82879 01396
- 0-81444 13555
079971 90518
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076927 10350
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070518 93568
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0-67202 71576

- 0-65526 70562
0-63842 51604
0-62152 89454
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57077 92414
55392 64801
0: 53714 66874
-0°52046 15100
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048746 20355
0-47118 81168
0-45508 98606

11-57042 70157
1156594 10742
11-55249 36903
11-53011 61748
11-49886 05646
11-45879 94288
11-41022 56023
11-35265 18136
11-28681 02299
11-21265 20961
11-13034 68769
11-04008 19014
10-94206 15129
1083650 63340
10-°72365 24380
10-60375 04891
10-47706 48340
10°34387 25033
10-20446 22560
10-05913 35212
9-90819 53545
9-75196 53632
9-59076 86075
9-42493 64896
9-25480 56616
9-08071 69028
8-90301 40169
8-72204 27514
8-53814 96983
8-35168 12558
8-16298 25852
7°97239 66050
7-78026 30340
758691 74407
7-39269 03659
7°19790 64627
700288 37071
6-80793 26319
6-61335 56443
6-41944 63701
6-22648 90707
6-03475 81051
5-84451 74622
5-65602 03474
546950 88405
528521 35079

0-00000 00000
0-01110 90021
0-02221 79661
0:03332 68530
0-04443 56226
0:05554 42316
0:06665 26351
0:07776 07826
0-08886 86193
0-09997 60847
0-11108 31100
0-12218 96192
0-13329 55250
0-14440 07287
0-15550 51181
0-16660 85650
0:17771 09231
0-18881 20240
0:19991 16757
0-21100 96573
0-22210 57156
0-23319 95599
0-24429 08557
0-25537 92198
0-26646 42111
0:27754 53228
0-28862 19726
0-29969 34905
0-31075 91082
0-32181 79402
0-33286 89701
0°34391 10296
0-35494 27749
0°36596 26621
0-37696 89165
0-38795 94978
0-39893 20617
0-40988 39140
0-42081 19586
0:43171 26378
0:44258 18640
0-45341 49423
0-46420 64782
0:47495 02782
0:48563 92289
0-49626 51667

6°28327 29540
6-21345 88100
6-14364 46661
6-07383 05221
600401 63782
593420 22343
5°86438 80903
5°79457 39464
5°72475 98025
5-65494 56586
5°58513 15146
5°51531 73707
544550 32267
537568 90828
530587 49389
523606 07949
5-16624 66510
5:09643 25071
5:02661 83632
4-95680 42192
4-88699 00753
481717 59313
4-74736 17874
4-67754 76435
4-60773 34995
4-53791 93556
4-46810 52117
4-39829 10678
4-32847 69238
4-25866 27799
4-18884 86360
4-11903 44920
4-04922 03481
3°97940 62041
3-90959 20602
3°83977 79163
3°76996 37724
370014 96284
3°63033 54845
3-56052 13406
349070 71966
342089 30527
3°35107 89087
3-28126 47648
3-21145 06209
3-14163 64770

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K(7)

Fo

1919.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

78

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79

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

FOEST 9OSGF E8860 FOTIEZ
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CLOLF 06898 66ZST OLEEG-T
960FS LLOOT OSSIT STIFS-F
TP9S8 $0096 S8BET SLELF-F
LOZLO GEESE SECS), ISFIS-6

FO LELOS 6869F SEZET-Z
609Z0 F916 S619 STIZL-F
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LOFFF OSFSL SFOGG ISEES-T
LEQES EGOS S89OT OTILE-Z

LLED 6B0S9 £9990 9II86-F
F806 62620 6IE08 02B60-T
E88SE LZE0S TLOD L196E-Z
996FS SFFIO OOLTS SFSGT-¢

LOST TEP8F S6L0E LOSST-T

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ILPIG I99ET OLETT 8LEET-E
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E161 98S0E 69660 TESOE-E
9GFOL 8E6L8 GSTSS LFEFE-L
POOFE L8689 LPFES LO06S-T
PELGF G6680 GOSES FEL8F-E

FE00 96899 G6LF8 TL8F9-L
SI80L SLES FESTS LELLO-T
LI9G9 GLEZI SI698 BEGLI-E
FSR OI86L SLL68 806FF-S
GLIZI 8918 889L0 861E9-9
89666 6SFOE OLGLT £6690-8
SIGIF OLELT G61F9 96692-1
OSE8F G99LO G6ENS £0E88-E

80

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

TABLE V.

Lemniscate Seven-Section.

Ss

— 0(%8)

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WATE WONH ©

1-00000 00000 00000
100936 58229 47993
1-03560 98708 92518
1-07353 77726 58000
1-11564 03165 97640
1-15357 85775 32318
1-17983 55431 49531
1-18920 71150 02721

|
|

0-00000 00000 00000
0-22129 74250 79583
0-43125 77701 68692
0-62064 82635 15161
0-77956 54242 21669
0-89970 42569 08297
0-97456 79842 81221
1-00000 00000 00000

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0-00000 00000 00000
0:06888 56201 24538
0-12099 28414 62009
0-14556 40387 29594
0-14009 08003 46822
0:10866 34496 84876
0-05896 69011 38268
0-00000 00000 00000

0-00000 00000 00000
0-26486 78110 43001
0:52973 56220 86002
0-79460 34331 29003
1-05947 12441 72005
1-32433 90552 15006
1-58920 68662 58007
1-85407 46773 01008

as)

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Tasie VI.
Lemniscate Seventeen-Section.
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1-00161 02898 05115
1-00638 63848 02693
1-:01416 57603 24650
1-02468 37547 43416
103758 24532 97111
1-05242 28880 79385
1-06869 99396 73849
1-08575 95035 19737
1-10331 73336 19295
1-12047 89245 06076
113675 97564 18633
115160 52142 43612
1-16450 95001 74870
1-17503 28916 99758
118281 67451 47327
1-18759 57941 21283

1-18920 71150 02721

0-00000 00000 00000
0-09158 62798 43390
0-18242 57702 30559
0-27177 54128 50753
0-35889 97495 23133
0-44307 52939 95940
0:52359 49017 76129
0-59977 32511 86474
0-67095 24177 31026
0-73650 81357 50541
0-79585 64012 36780
0-84846 03671 08501
0-89385 30966 27869
0-93156 49681 79213
0-96128 85747 77562
0-98272 56451 55777
0-99567 09714 29336
1-00000 00000 00000

WOBURN WNHr OS

yrs"

ON THE CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 81

carsamswne| a)

= | )
ka (2 17

|»
0:00000 00000 00000 | 0:00000 00000 00000 | 0
0:02939 81312 61952 | 0-10906 32163 11824 1
0:05752 18038 88374 0-21812 64326 23648 2
0-08318 49781 09218 | 0:32718 96489 35472 3
0:10536 59754 05873 | 0:43625 28652 47296 +
0-12326 37214 11676 0:54531 60815 59120 5
0-13632 86187 09034 0-65437 92978 70944 6
0:14425 54793 12253 0-76344 25141 82768 7
0-14698 97191 03705 0-87250 57304 94592 8
0:14467 25130 68447 0-98156 89468 06416 9
0-13761 35319 00651 | 1-09063 21631 18240 10
0:12625 08170 11686 | 1-19969 53794 30064 remit
0-11110 23480 17156 130875 85957 41888 needles
0:09275 86478 88789 | 1-41782 18120 53712 | 13
0-07183 58238 46666 1-52688 50283 65536 | 14
0-04897 12544 34710 | 1-63594 82446 77360 | 15
0-02480 99252 72634 ! 1-74501 14609 89184 16

0-00000 00000 00000 1-85407 46773 01008 otonl ye

Geophysical Discussions.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Sir F. W. Dyson (Chairman), Dr. S. CHapmMan (Secre-
tary), Dr. C. CHREE, Colonel Sir C. F. Cross, Mr. J. H.
JEANS, Professor A. E. H. Love, Colonel H. G. Lyons,
Professor H. F'. Newatu, Professor A. ScHUSTER, Sir NAPIER
SHaw, Sir Auprey SrraHAN, Professor H. H. Turner, and
Mr. G. W. WALKER.

In accordance with the terms of reference to this Committee, ‘To
arrange meetings in the ensuing year for the discussion of papers and
reports on Geophysical subjects, and to co-operate with existing
Committees in making recommendations for the promotion of the study
of such subjects in the British Empire,’ the following meetings were
_ arranged during the session 1918-19 :—

1918.

1919.

1919.

1919.

Noy. 19. Discussion on the Constitution of the Earth’s
Interior, Mr. R. D. Oldham, F.R.S.—Chairman, Major
P, A. Macmahon, F.R.S.

Jan. 21. Report on Seiches, Dr. E. M. Wedderburn ; Tidal
Motions in the Atmosphere, Major G. I. Taylor and Dr. §
Chapman.—Chairman, Sir Napier Shaw, F.R.S.

Feb. 18. Report on Seismology, Prof. H. H. Turner,
F.R.S.; Account of two papers by the late Prince Galitzin,
Mr. G. W. Walker, F.R.S.—Chairman, Dr. A. Schuster,
Sec.R.S.

March 18. Discussion on the Measurement, by means of
Horizontal Coils, of Pulsations in jhe Earth’s Vertical Mag-
netic Force, Dr. Crichton Mitchell, Prof. W. H. Bragg,

82 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

F.R.S.; Report on a Survey of Magnetically Disturbed
Localities in England, and of the Geological Significance of
the Disturbances, Prof. H. Cox and Prof. E. Wilson.—
Chairman, Prof. H. F. Newall, F.R.S.

1919. May 20. Discussion on the Functions of a Geodetic Insti-
tute, Col. H. G. Lyons, F.R.S., Col. Sir C. F. Close,
keen on RS Prot. Sir Ws" anmor Sew Jas.
Admiral J. F. Parry, Sir F. W. Dyson, F.R.S., and others.
-—Chairman, Brig.-Gen. E.-H. Hills, F.R.§S.

1919. June 17. Report on Atmospheric Electricity, Dr. C. T. R.
Wilson, F.R.S.—Chairman, Mr. J. H. Jeans, F.R.5.

These meetings were held at 5 p.m. on the third Tuesdays of the
respective months. The Royal Astronomical Society continued its
hospitality by allowing the use of its rooms for the discussions and
Committee meetings. The attendance at the discussions was well
maintained throughout the year.

The Committee is glad to be able to report that proposals for the
continuance of their work, placed before the Royal Astronomical Society,
were favourably received, and that the Society has appointed a
Geophysical Committee for the said purpose. The new Committee
consists of twelve members, of whom five are appointed on the nomina-
tion, and as the representatives, of the following Societies, which are
thus associated with the Royal Astronomical Society in the work of
the Committee :—

The Royal Geographical Society.

The Royal Meteorological Society.
The Geological Society.

The Physical Society.

The British Astronomical Association..,

The present Committee of the British Association, in consequence, does
not ask to be reappointed.

British Association Report, Bournemouth, 1919.]

Sheaths contain-
ing barometer
tubes

Camera box sup-

<— ported on central

gimbals and carry-

ing the four haro-
meters

Barometer cis-
= terns contained in
Dewar flasks

Bre. 1.

General View of Hecker's Apparatus.

Clock for driv ing
film

Camera hox shows
ing side film 10;
open

Main gimbals su
porting camer
hox

Illustrating the Report on

[Puares I. ann II.

Telescope for
observing position
of images on films.
or In front and he-
hind are electric
lamps for illumin-
ating the mercury
surfaces

Rack and pinion

for adjusting

height of baro-
meter

Dewar flasks sur- Dash pots Barometers with
ounding baro- microscopes for
meter cisterns reading cistern
and stem ther-

mometers

Kia. 2.

Showing the Photographic Apparatus.

imination of Gravity at Sea. [Between pages 82 and 83

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 83

Determination of Gravity at Sea.—Second Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor A. K. H. Love (Chairman).
Professor W. G. Durriexp (Secretary), Mr. T. W. CHaunpy,
Sir H. Darwin, Professor A. 8. Eppineton, Major E. O.
Hewnrict, Professor A. ScHustTeR, and Professor H. H.
TURNER.

[Puates I. anp II.]

I. Report upon Hecxer’s New Metuop or Mrasurine GRAVITY AT
Sea with APPARATUS OF THE ENcLOSED Mercury BaroMETER
Tyrer. By Professor W. G. DurriELp.

Two methods used by the writer in 1914, during the voyage of the
British Association to Australia, have been described in Roy. Soc. Proc. A.,
vol. xcii., p. 505, and in the British Association Report, Newcastle, 1916.
It remains to discuss the third method of attack. The apparatus employed
was lent to the writer in June 1914 by Professor Hecker, of Strassburg,
_ who was anxious to have it tested at sea, and welcomed the opportunity
which the voyage of the British Association afforded. Although less
successful than either of the other methods employed, it will be useful to
put upon record an account of the apparatus, the manner of making
_the experiments, and the causes of failure, in order that subsequent
workers may benefit from the experience gained during the voyages.

The apparatus (fig. 1) was of the enclosed barometer type arranged for
photographic records. The air sealed in the barometer cistern was main-
tained at as constant a temperature as possible in order that its pressure
might vary but slightly during the voyage. This pressure is equal to pgh,
where p is the density and h the height of the mercury column. It is clear

that any variation in g will occasion a change in the level of the mercury,
and that the column will be shorter if gravity increases and longer if it
‘diminishes, provided that isothermal conditions are maintained; con-
versely, a measure of the displacement of the mercury is a measure of the
change of gravity. Four similar barometers were provided, each with a
constriction to prevent excessive ‘pumping’ of the mercury surface at
Sea; each was mounted in a metal sheath and provided with two ther-
Mometers, one, graduated in 0-01° C., for measuring the temperature of
the air in the reservoir, and another, graduated in 1-0° C., for obtaining
the stem temperature.
__ The barometers were mounted in pairs at the ends of a wooden light-
tight box, through the centre of which passed a photographic film operated
by clockwork (fig. 2). An 8-volt lamp illuminated each mercury surface
and a separate lens focussed the image of each meniscus upon the moving

84 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

film, one above the other, vertical slits in the metal sheaths limiting the
widths of the images to narrow lines. As the mercury pumped up and
down each trace upon the moving film was bounded by a wavy line
which represented the combined effect of rolling and pitching, and of
the vertical motion of the ship as it rose or fell upon the ocean waves
(fig. 3). The box was supported centrally on gimbals, dash pots being
provided to check the swinging. The metal stand supporting the
apparatus rested upon three thick felt pads to absorb as much vibration
as possible and the top kept in position by ropes tied to hooks on the
walls. In order to maintain as constant a temperature as possible the
experiments were conducted in the refrigerating chambers of the ships
upon which the voyages were made (see British Association Report,
1916), the reservoirs of the barometer being specially protected by large
Dewar vessels filled with cork shavings.

Save in one respect, the whole apparatus is most beautifully constructed,
and it is all superbly finished, great attention being paid to making the
cabinet work light-tight, to the accuracy of the clockwork driving the
film and to the focussing and adjustment of the several images upon it.

The general type of barometer tube favoured by Hecker has been
described by him in volumes entitled ‘ Bestimmung der Schwerkraft auf
dem Atlantischen Ozean’ (Berlin, 1903) and ‘ Bestimmung der Schwerkraft
auf dem Indischen und Grossen Ozean’ (Berlin, 1908). They possess a
larger space than usual above the mercury in the barometer tube to
diminish the effect of any residual gas, since, with a fine constziction, it
was not feasible to boil the mercury after it had been introduced. The
constriction has symmetrical, funnel-shaped entrances, Hecker claims
that this ensures equal resistance to the flow of mercury when rising and
falling, and that it possesses an advantage over the Kew marine pattern
in this respect. A small trap is provided to catch minute bubbles of air.
All barometers are engraved with short lines at equal distances apart,
which can be identified upon the films.

Method of Observation.

Before entering the small laboratory partitioned off from the main
refrigerating chamber, the temperature was ascertained by extracting
a thermometer which penetrated the wall, the door opened and closed
behind the observer as quickly as possible, lamps illuminating the
mercury surfaces switched on, heights of barometers adjusted to give the
images in their proper places on the films, and sheath readings noted.
The temperatures of all cistern and stem thermometers were recorded
as quickly as possible, the clockwork for driving the film started, an
identification mark made on the film by occulting one or other of the
barometer lights a certain number of times, and the room left for fifteen
to twenty minutes. At the end of this period all observations were
repeated. A fan ran continuously in the refrigerator day and night.
Rubber overalls were worn in the chamber, they had some effect in
reducing the influence of the observer’s body upon the thermometers.
Three sets of observations were carried out on an average each day.

After every three or four days the exposed film was removed and

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 85

r=] ] a g
& a 5 #
= a
= = | >
S co Vn) add
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ra q
be] be =| S
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E 2 2 F
° OL
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7 : 2
A yi Z Z
fo By =
® ra rm 2
a 74 = @)
5 5 re]
= ° 5
2 ‘eS c a
o ~ £
2 . °
n nm a =
$ 6 £ Be
& g S )
4 cal | ae
me =)
9 | = =
=i z a 2,
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ov ="
cay = c
ES n a gj
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HA

34° 14’ N,

Tat. 35°21'S. Long. 125° 12' B,

Lat.

., Sept. 12, 1914,

R.M.S. Morea, 9 v.m., Sept. 23,1914. Lat. 7° 2'N.
R.M.S. Morea, 6.28 p.m., Sept. 14,1914, Lat. 31° 19'S.

R.M.S. Morea, 9.46 p.m., Oct. 8, 1914.

R.M.S. Mover, 11.53 a.m

BIG ae

Types of records obtained with one of Hecker’s self-recording enclosed barometers
on four different days, showing approximate time-scale and the engraved fiducial
lines, which are 2°84 mm. apart on the barometer tube. Sept. 12 and Oct. 8 were
very rough days. The reproductions represent positives, hence the black portion
represents the mercury in the tube, The depths are in fathoms.

1919. L

86 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

developed on board ship ; on the Morea this was done in the refrigerator,
and the results are better than those obtained on the Ascanius when
developing was carried out in a cabin. Rodinol and Hastman’s cine-
matograph films were very satisfactory. During the voyages over 5,000
readings of the thermometers, &c., were made and 100 feet of film
developed.

Reduction of Results.

A measuring machine originally constructed by Hilger for spectroscopic
work and accurate to -002 mm. was used. Each film was placed so that
its length was perpendicular to the direction of travel of the micrometer
eye-piece. A double thread was sighted along the line of hollows, then
along the line of crests, then upon the images of the engraved lines, and
finally upon the top edge of the exposed portion of the film. This was
done in three different parts of each exposed strip, the results tabulated
and the distances calculated.

Two errors peculiar to photographic registration have to be corrected :—

(1) The scale is engraved on the glass, and unless the ray of light
passes horizontally over the curved meniscus the relative positions of
mercury and scale will not be correctly shown upon the film. Assuming
that the shape of the meniscus is known, the correction can be calculated
for different heights of the mercury above the horizontal ray, but it is
more satisfactory to find it experimentally by taking a number of photo-
graphs in harbour when the barometer is steady, thus:—the whole
instrument is moved up and down, so that the mercury surface is at
various heights above and below the horizontal ray, and the distances
on the film of the mercury surface from one of the engraved lines are
tabulated against the depth of the mercury from the top of the window
through which the light passes, a distance easily calculated from measure-
ments of the widths of the exposed band. To correct for any variations
in the barometer during the test it is advisable to return to a fixed reading
at frequent intervals. Experiments according to this programme were
carried out in Cape Town Harbour on July 13, 1914.

The correction to the observed reading of one of Hecker’s barometers
is approximately -008 mm, for a difference of 0-1 mm, in the width of
the exposed strip.

(2) The brightness of the lamps, the rate of running of the film, and
the time of development being variable, all developed images are not of
equal blackness. The position of the boundary of this image depends
to some extent upon its density, hence it is necessary to introduce a correc-
tion on this account.

This can be evaluated by taking a series of records with constant
barometer with illuminations of different powers. The density of each
deposit may be measured by a density meter, and the corresponding
measurement of the film plotted against it. On Hartmann’s scale of
densities the correction varies from — 0-02 mm. for density 5 to + 0-02 mm.
for density 75. The densitics of the films varied over very narrow limits,
so for this reason and others which will appear, these corrections were

regarded as too small to merit application to any of the figures obtained,

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 87

though had conditions been more favourable they would have been taken
into account.

From the dimensions of the apparatus and the coefficients of expansion
of its various parts it is possible to calculate the relationship between 8g
and the variations in T, the temperature of the air reservoir, in ¢, the stem
temperature, and in h, the height of the mercury column in millimetres.
But, in view of the difficulty of accurate determinations of the volumes
of the various parts of the barometers (though this was tried), it
was considered more convenient to use observations made in harbour
stations, where gravity was known from pendulum observations, for the
determinations of the coefficients in the equation

87 = A,dh + B,8T + 0,8.

From a knowledge of A,, B,, C, and the variations in h, T and ¢ from
their values at a primary standard station, the variation, 67, from the
value at that station is theoretically obtainable for any observation made
during the voyage.

The Results of the Test.

The generous provision by Messrs. Holt of a laboratory in the refri-
gerator of s.s. Ascanius has been referred to in previous reports and the
excellent results as regards temperature regulation put on record. It
was with the utmost disappointment that between Cape Town and Austra-
lia after nearly four weeks of continuous observation, it was discovered

- that all four barometers, instead of being sealed up, had developed leaks,
and that they were responding to the changes in the external atmospheric
pressure. This was in spite of great care on the part of the writer in

a

_ assembling the apparatus, the whole reservoir having been coated, after
_ screwing up, with white lead paint. It is believed that the leak occurred
_ where a glass tube and tap runs into the cistern, and that a much better
_ fit would be possible.

By collecting all the paraffin candles on board and melting them in a
pot, into which the barometer tubes were immersed to about 8 inches, the
_ writer, before reaching Fremantle, had sealed up all the barometers. But

the opportunity of using the excellent refrigerator laboratory for the

return voyage vanished on arrival in Adelaide, when it was found that
war had broken out and that the ship had been commandeered as a
_ troopship.
It has already been explained in the Interim Report that accommodation
was found on R.M.S. Morea for the return voyage, but that the tempera-
ture regulation was exceedingly inefficient. Nevertheless, an attempt
‘Was made, and after resealing the barometers in Sydney Harbour, the
whole of the foregoing operations were carried out on the Morea from
September 9 to October 20, 1914.
It was not until! the Armistice that the writer found an opportunity
of attempting the immense labour of the measurement of the films and
of the reduction of the results, but that occasion found him with a staff of
officers of the Royal Air Force, some of them with considerable qualifica-
tions for the work. Other work being in abeyance, they readily agreed to
L 2

88 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919,.

co-operate with him in this research. The films were measured up in the
Physics Laboratory of University College, Reading, by Mr. Whittall,
and the calculations carried out by Mr. F. §. Hayhoe and Mr. Harrenden
Harker.

The first point tc be decided was whether the variations in temperature
during the course of each experiment, due probably in part at least to
the lamps used for illuminating the mercury surfaces, occasioned a change
which ruled the whole investigation out of account. It was, however,
found that in general the mercury did not rise as the run proceeded, in
spite of the usual increase in temperature registered on the stem. It
was decided, therefore, to take the first reading of the stem thermometer
as correct, and it was presumed that the lag of the barometer temperature
was greater than that of the indicating thermometer on the stem within
the casing.

The readings taken as standards were any four observations made at
the following ports—there was usually a choice of two at each port :—Fre-
mantle, Colombo, Bombay, Aden, Malta, Gibraltar.

The following are the constants in the above equation obtained by
taking two Colombo and two Bombay observations as standards :—

A, = —1°2395, B, = 20364, C, = 0131.

Whereas, taking one each for Colombo, Bombay, Aden and Malta, the
values were

A, = —1:1364, B, = 1°816, C,=0-2ll1.

Using the former values, we note that Fremantle (Film 9) works out
as g = 978-904 instead of 979-485 given by pendulum observation, and
that, if the data obtained from Fremantle (Film 8) are used, the value
of g obtained is 978°736. There is thus no agreement between the values
obtained from consecutive films for the same port. Similar discrepancies
were obtained by using the second set of values, and other harbour
stations provided equally unsatisfactory results.

The investigation was thereupon abandoned.

Discussion of the Method.

Apart from the possibility of leakage, which only was obvious in one
barometer on the return voyage, there are difficulties in the method. One
barometer could not be measured up because the image of the engraving
could not be seen on the film, though visible during the adjustments.
The great difficulty, however, lies in the temperature measurement. The
value of the coefficient of d¢ (C, = 211) indicates that a variation in
St of 0-1° C. means a change in the value of g of about 02 cm,/sec.? ; it is
essential that this temperature should be measured on a thermometer
graduated to divisions less than 10° C. It is further necessary that this
thermometer should read the temperature of the mercury within the
barometer tube, and with the present arrangement this is not accomplished ;
it is important that the temperature lags of the barometer stem and of
the attached thermometer should be equal.

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 89

The method of immersing the cistern in a Vacuum flask, while satis-
factory in preserving the tempersture of the enclosed air at a nearly constant
value during each run, involves a difference in temperature between various
parts of the barometer tube, and this gradient cannot accurately be allowed
for. On the homeward voyage, when temperature conditions were noto-
riously adverse, there was sometimes a difference between reservoir and
stem which amounted to 3° or 4°. Even ons.s. Ascanius, where conditions
were exceptionally favourable, there was seldom a difference less than
0°-2 to 0°°3. These considerations involve errors much larger than the
differences in gravity which itis sought to discover.

The aneroid method with a plain mercury barometer is in this respect
better than one which involves a gradient within the tube itself, though
it has other objections.

It is the writer’s opinion that all barometers used for gravity work
must be of uniform temperature and that they should be immersed in a
well-stirred bath of liquid which is kept at as constant a temperature as
possible by a thermostatic device.

It is the writer’s opinion that Hecker’s method of an enclosed barometer,
which is photographically recording, could, if modified in the respect
indicated, be made to yield satisfactory results at sea.

In concluding this report upon the three methods tested during the
voyages to and from Australia of the British Association in 1914, the writer
expresses his thanks to Professor Hecker for giving him the opportunity
of testing the apparatus and to the Council of the British Association for
their grant from the Caird Fund for the purpose of these tests, which are
only to be regarded as preliminary to what it is hoped may prove a suc-
cessful attempt at a later date. For this purpose apparatus is already
in course of preparation.

Il. Tar InFLuence veon A Marine BAROMETER OF THE SuHiP’s Motion
THROUGH THE Arr. Sy Professor W. G. DUFFIELD.

Before a further attempt is made to determine the value of gravity at
sea there are certain problems to be solved. These are chiefly concerned
with the behaviour on board ship of a mercury barometer, which in one
form or another is employed in all methods to which extended trials have

been given.

Both Hecker and the writer have had reason to question the accuracy
of a comparison between readings made in harbour and those on the high
seas, and a far more careful examination of the effect of the ship’s vibration,
due to the throbbing of the engines, as well as to the tossing on the waves,

_ 18 necessary.

It was with the object of testing this point amongst others that the
writer sought and obtained permission to carry out experiments on one

of His Majesty’s Destroyers, and in August 1919 two marine barometers

were mounted on board H.M.S. Plucky, one in the chart-room below the
bridge, where the vibration appeared to be least, and the other in the ward-
room, where it was greatest, It was intended to compare their readings
with one another and with those of a barometer on board a stationary

90 _ REPORTS ON THE STATE OF ScieNcE.—1919.

ship in the neighbourhood, of which the Destroyer manceuvred. It was
during these experiments that a new difficulty appeared which seems to
add materially to the task of determining gravity over the ocean. It
certainly adds to the difficulty of determining the effects of vibration.

The preliminary experiments showed that the vibration on a Destroyer
in calm water does not greatly increase the difficulty of reading the instru-
ment. Even when the ship was running at 22 knots in the sheltered waters
off Spithead it was not difficult to obtain readings which were consistent
to 0-1 mb., and the writer believes that on many occasions the readings
were consistent to 0°05 mb., even with the ordinary vernier type of scale.
Had the dial instrument previously employed by the writer been available,
the readings could have been made with at least as great accuracy, and
certainly much more quickly and easily.

August 29, 1919, was the first day of the trials, which took place off
Spithead ; a fresh breeze was blowing from almost due west, which gradually
strengthened to about 20 or 25 knots. It was found that the barometer
in the chart-room suffered small fluctuations according to the direction
in which the ship was heading ; this was at first attributed to the gravita-
tional change due to the H.-W. motion of the ship, but, as the wind freshened,
the fluctuations became much more marked, and of an order of magnitude
which ruled this effect out of account as the main cause. Moreover, the
ship’s aneroid, also in the chart-house, showed similar fluctuations. It was
evident that the changes of pressure were real, and that they were due to
the eddy motion of the wind about the ship’s hull. Going west the baro-
meters in the chart-house showed invariably a reduced. pressure, indicating
a suction effect as the ship met the wind with a relative velocity of about
45 knots.

Typical readings in the chart-room are shown below, the aneroid
referred to was that belonging to the ship :-—

Time . - | 11.19-11.26 | 11.30-11.39 | 11.43-11.53 | 1.16-1.26 | 1.30-1.42 | 1.46-1.55
Course . - E WwW p W
Mercury Bar. | 994°4-994°7 | 994°0-993°6 | 994°0-994"4 | 993*2-993'9 | 993:2-993'8 | 993°5-992°€
Aneroid Bar. 987°8 987°0 987°2 986°0 986°8 985°5

The aneroid, scale is very much in error, but the changes recorded by it
are certainly real. Two features are obvious: (1) the fall going west
against the wind, and the rise going cast, the difference sometimes
amounting to 1-3 mb., and (2) the gradual change in the reading of the
mercury barometer during each run. The lag is due to the constriction
in the barometer tube ; the lag of the aneroid was scarcely appreciable.

Closing the port-holes and the door of the chart-house made little
difference to the readings, the fluctuations being just as marked as when
they were all open. In the ward-room the barometer showed fluctuations
in the same sense, a fall going west and a rise going east ; but the change
was far less, amounting to 0-6 mb. as a maximum, of which 0:2 mb. is
probably due to the gravitational effect of the K.-W. motion, Subsequent
experiments with a specially sensitive aneroid confirmed the existence of
these fluctuations, which are superposed upon any general atmospheric
change of pressure. Few cabins could be more favourably situated for
avoiding eddies than the ward-room, as its only opening to the deck is

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 91

through a lobby and up a companion-way barely wide enough to permit
the entrance of a rotund seaman.

The point that the writer wishes to make is that, apart from the ordi-
nary atmospheric changes of pressure which are troublesome enough, there
are fluctuations which are due to the relation of the ship’s motion to
the speed and direction of the wind. An anemometer chart has only
to be studied to show how variable these are, so that, even if the ship
does not deviate from her course by a hair’s breadth, there is ample reason
for expecting changes during the time taken for an observation.

As far as the determination of gravity is concerned these fluctuations
would not matter if both the mercury barometer and the comparison
instrument, aneroid or hypsometer, possessed the same amount of ‘lag,’
but this is not the case, and there arises the possibility that the readings
of the two instruments do not give truly simultaneous values of the
pressure. To take an extreme instance—if the aneroid method of
estimating gravity were employed, we should obtain a value for the accele-
ration due to gravity which at 1.55 p.m. would be 0-883 cm./sec.” higher
than the value calculated at 1.46 p.m. As we wish to measure gravity to
005 cm./sec.? we see that on an ocean liner moving through still air the
fluctuations may introduce errors many times larger than this amount,
unless special precautions are taken to obviate this source of error.

As the result of these experiments it appears that a new difficulty is
added to the already complex problem of measuring gravity at sea.
Such methods as employ a mercury barometer exposed to the atmosphere
(as distinct from the enclosed type) are one degree less satisfactory than
was hitherto supposed. In addition to a measurement of the atmospheric
pressure by the height of a column of mercury, some other instrument
for measuring it must be employed, and, if their lags are different, any
additional fluctuation in the pressures to which the instruments are exposed
adversely affects the accuracy of the method. In the method which the
writer has already tested, whereby the readings of an aneroid are compared
with those of a mercury barometer, the two instruments possess very
different rates of lag, so that a momentary change of velocity in the
wind will certainly affect one instrument more than the other ; moreover,
d comparatively small change in its direction may change the eddy pressure
from a positive to a negative quantity. Probably the writer in his
laboratory, in the refrigerator of the Ascanius or the Morea, protected
by two very well-fitting doors from the rest of the ship, and situated in
the bowels of the ship, was as free from this disturbing influence as
one could possibly be on board; but, nevertheless, he was not quite
_ secure against a possible fluctuation during the few seconds necessary
for taking the aneroid readings.

Hecker’s experiments were, as far as the writer can gather, carried
out in passenger cabins which were presumably well above the water-
_ line, and that is adisadvantage. He refers to one cabin as well ventilated,
which might after all not be an advantage. In one voyage his work
was done in two cabins, in one of which he had his barometer, and in
the other his boiling-point apparatus. Without knowing how the cabins
were ventilated it is impossible to say whether the resuits thus obtained

92 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—191 9.

were reliable; if eich had its own port-hole or its own cowl (as is
arranged in “inside ’ cabins) it is highly probable that there was a differ-
ence in the pressures in the cabins, and that the difference varied with
the speed of the ship and the direction of the wind. Experiments should
have been made to test their equality of pressure.

It is, however, easy in the light of later knowledge to find fault with
Hecker’s work, but after all it was the pioneer work in this branch of a
very difficult subject, and it has guided the work of all experimenters
who have followed.

It was rather surprising to watch a barometer falling at the rate of
about 1 mb. a minute as the ship turned about; it might be useful to
inform navigators of the effect of eddies in order that wrong meteorological
inferences may not be drawn from barometric observations on fast-
moving craft.

Ill. THz Gravity CorRREcTIon FoR THE Surp’s Motion 1n LonGITUDE.
By Professor W. G. Durrre.p.

Geophysicists who are interested in the determination of gravity at sea
will remember that, on the completion of his voyages over the Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific Oceans, Hecker published his conclusion that gravity
at sea conformed within narrow limits to the formula obtained by Helmert
from observations made at land stations. Edétvés, however, called his
attention to a possible source of error which had not been taken into
account. The ship when on an east or west course is subject to an
increase or a diminution of the centrifugal force acting upon her, which
results in an apparent decrease or increase in the value of gravity. During
the course of subsequent experiments in the Black Sea, Hecker made
two short series of observations to ascertain if this correction should, in
fact, be made, and came to the conclusion that it should. Reference
to Hecker’s paper shows that he employed the boiling-point method, with
which it is very difficult to get consistent results, and that he had reasons
for rejecting the first set, which appeared to give positive results, and
also that in the second set, upon which he relies, there appears, to the
writer’s judgment at least, to be a considerable degree of uncertainty. It
was partly for these reasons, and largely for reasons which are discussed by
the writer in his account of the influence of the motion of the ship through
the air, that it was considered of importance to make a special examination
of this point, in order that there should be no uncertainty im the matter ;
the effect of E.-W. motion is of sucha magnitude that it might mask the
variations of gravity that it is required to examine at sea.

Through the kindness of Captain Stapleton-Cotton, R.N., it was
arranged that the destroyer Plucky should steam east and west alter-
nately, while a comparison was made between the readings of the mercury
and aneroid barometers which had been installed on board. The captain
of the Plucky, Lieut. J. M. Smith, R.N., gave his whole-hearted co-opera-
tion, and to him and to the chief engineer is very largely due the successful
issue of the experiments. In order that we might have a check upon the
natural changes of pressure which occurred during the experiments,

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 93

Captain Backhouse, R.N., kindly arranged that observations of the
barometer carried by the Battleship Royal Sovereign, which was anchored
in the neighbourhood, should be taken simultaneously. The writer
expresses his thanks to Lieut.-Commander W, R. Priston, R.N., for taking
these readings at intervals of five minutes during the three hours required
for the work.

The marine barometers were all of the Kew standard pattern, those
on the Plucky being specially provided by the Meteorological Office for
this work. The aneroid was that made by the Cambridge Scientific Com-
pany for the writer’s previous experiments on gravity at sea,! but on
this occasion a new mounting was devised. It was placed on a swinging
table which was hung from a hook by rubber cords, a wooden rod sup-
porting a heavy weight being screwed to the centre of the table to give it
a longer period of swing; this acted very well, and obviated most of the
small vibrations due to the engines. Chief Artificer-Engineer 8. Dawson
was chiefly responsible for its introduction.

On the first day of the trials it was evident that when the ship was on
an east course the mercury barometer stood relatively higher than the
barometer on the Royal Sovereign, and also than the aneroid reading,
but that the difference only became marked when the Plucky had nearly
completed her run of nine or ten minutes; this is, of course, due to the
lag of the mercury barometer. ‘The results were fully in accord with
the existence of an effect due to H.-W. motion, but it was decided to
repeat the observations with a longer run. Unfortunately the Royal
Sovereign was not off Spithead during the second trial, but the stationary
barometer readings on the first day gave the writer confidence in his
interpretation of the readings on the moving ship. On the second day

_ Captain Smith managed to find a longer stretch of sheltered water, which
permitted a run of twelve to fifteen minutes in a true east or west
direction at a speed of 22 knots, which gave better results.

On this day (September 1, 1919) the wind at the outset was from
the south and estimated at about 3 knots. This direction was very favour-
able, because the speeds through the air were the same whether going east
or west, and the disturbing influence was reduced to a minimum. Later

in the day, however, the wind blew from the 8.W. at about 8 knots,

_ subsequently freshening to, say, 10 knots, when the observations became

less reliable. Meeting the breeze on a west course, and doing 22 knots,

the destroyer pitched a little, causing the aneroid to ‘ pump ’ appreciably ;

this, as has been explained elsewhere (loc. cit.), introduces a systematic
error into its readings, making them too low.

The results of the day’s observations are shown in the diagrams (fig. 4),
‘in which the times are indicated on the horizontal axis and the reduced
readings of the barometers in millibars on the vertical axis. The mercury
barometer readings were treated according to the method of the Meteoro-
logical Office, the aneroid constant being determined by comparison
with the mercury instrument in harbour. It was found that one division
= 0-214 mb., rather less than in 1914. Since the aneroid possesses no
absolute scale, its graph occupies an arbitrary position on the diagrams

a 1 B.A Report, Newcastle, 1916,

94, \*. REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Dracram 1.

o Mercury Baromeler 1
<2 ” » 2
e Aneroid ”

HM.S. “Plucky?
Sepl 1.1919

Mbs
o_o
6
Pod es
ba
Hoe
‘ Pays
S..
/-
Po rh
al ~
a
“2 o Mercury Barometer |
e Aneroid 3
1017-0
p= —WwW— So + Eso $+ —— Ww aed
10 TO fo) [o}

a)
: soem
< WwW > 7s — <N> <«S>
!
SiH Pee
gg ao

ON THE DETERMINATION OF GRAVITY AT SEA. 95

It was, however, chosen so that it is approximately just as much below
the mercury graph on the eastward run as it is above it on the west-
ward run; the values of a vertical scale division are, of course, the same
for the two barometers. As the aneroid was moved a few inches on its
table at 12.10 p.m., the subsequent readings are not strictly comparable
with those which preceded that time.

From the diagrams it indubitably appears that there is a rise of the
mercury barometer when the Destroyer steams east and a fall when she
steams west. The precise amount is difficult to estimate, but from the
first three observations, made when the wind was on the beam and the
sea smooth, the difference amounts to approximately 2 mbs. The sub-
sequent readings, though made under less favourable conditions, in
general agree with this. Where the ‘pumping’ was particularly notice-
able the diagrams are marked ‘P,’ and there it is that the aneroid is
erroneously low, and it is only at the end of the run, where the water was
smoother and the pumping less troublesome, and when enough time had
elapsed to enable the mercury to fall nearly to its true level, that the
aneroid reading exceeds the mercury reading.

As a depression was approaching from the west, the fall in pressure
going west was greater than the rise going east. Fortunately the aneroid
possesses a very small lag, so with it small and rapid changes can be
detected which would escape a boiling-point method. Mr. F. T. Whipple
and the writer had tested the lag by taking the instrument up and down
in the lift at the Meteorological Office. Each aneroid reading is the
result of five separate observations, each of which took from two to
three seconds.

The last two runs were made on north and south courses, and here,
save for one observation, the agreement is remarkably good, the difference
between the two barometers being in fact smaller than the probable
error of each measurement.

The term involving the correction for H.-W. motion is 2 wv cos) sin a,
where is the earth’s angular velocity, » the speed of the ship, A the
latitude, and a the deviation of the ship’s course from true north or
south. For v = 22 knots, X = 50° 46’, and a = 90°, the expected
difference between east and west amounts to 2-15 mbs. From comparison
with the experimental results we may conclude with assurance that it is
essential that this term shall be introduced into all gravity determinations
made on a moving ship.

In the Committee’s Report for 1916 (Newcastle) the writer, basing
his conclusion upon an erroneous estimate of Hecker’s experiments,
assumed the necessity for including this term, and briefly discussed its
bearing upon meteorological phenomena. During the War the attention
of gunners was drawn to its application to ballistics. It is clear that a
shell fired east will weigh less than when fired west ; assuming a horizontal
velocity of 500 metres per second, a shell fired at an 8,000-yard range
will carry east about 80 yards further than if fired west in these latitudes:
At the Equator the difference amounts to 120 yards; it seems useful,
therefore, to introduce a bearing correction into gunnery. The load which

an airship can carry also depends upon its speed and course ; flying east

at 60 knots an airship of 60 tons can carry about 100 pounds (the weight

96 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

of a fair-sized bomb) more than when flying west. During the war it is
evident that in this respect the western position possessed a natural,
though perhaps small, advantage.

In addition to Lieut. Smith, R.N., of H.M.S. Plucky, and others
named in the text, the writer’s thanks are accorded to Captain H. P.
Douglas, R.N., for helping in the organisation of these tests, and to
Mr. P. E. Turner for assisting in the reduction of the results. Once
again the very kind assistance, which Sir Napier Shaw and the Meteoro-
logical Office Staff are always ready to give, is gratefully acknowledged.

Solar Observatory in Australia.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor H. H. TurnEeR (Chairman), Professor
W. G. Durrietp (Secretary), Rev. A. L. Cortigz, Dr.
W. J. S. Lockyer, Mr. F. MacCuzan, and Professor A.
ScuustTerR. (Drawn up by the Secretary).

Ir will be remembered from previous reports that the Commonwealth
Government accepted the offer to provide a considerable portion of
the equipment of the Solar Observatory, and promised to proceed after
the War with the necessary buildings upon the site of the temporary
observatory at Canberra. This observatory at present contains the
Oddie telescopes, which were contributed to further the purposes of
this Committee in 1909; the six-inch Grubb Equatorial, presented by
the trustees of the estate of the late Lord Farnham, reached Mel.
bourne soon after the outbreak of war and awaits erection.

It is not considered that the present is an opportune time to press
for the erection of the observatory buildings and the provision of the
necessary staff.

ON FUEL ECONOMY, 97

Fuel Economy—-Second Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. Bons* (Chairman), Mr. H. JAMES YATES*
(Vice-Chairman), Mr. Ropert Monp* (Secretary), Mr. A. H.
BARKER, Professor P. P. Bepson, Dr. W. S. Bourton, Mr.
E. Bury, Professor W. EK. Datsy, Mr. E. V. Evans,* Dr.
W. Gatioway, Sir Ropert HapFrieitp, Bart.,* Dr. H. 8S.
HeEuE-SHaw,* Mr. D. H. Hetrs, Dr. G. Hicknine, Mr.
D. V. Houtincworte, Mr. A. Hutcuinson,* Principal G.
Knox, Mr. MicHArn LoneripGcs, Professor HENRY Lovuts,*
Mr. G. E. Moreans, Mr. W. H. PatcHetn,* Professor L. T.
O’SHEA, Mr. E: D. Stwon, Mr. A. T. Smiru, Dr. J. E.
SteapD, Mr. C. EK. Stromtyer, Mr. G. BuakE WALKER,
Sir JosePH WALTON,* Professor W. W. Watts,* Mr. W. B.
WoopHovsE, and Mr. C. H. WorpincHam,* appointed for
the Investigation of Fuel Economy, the Utilisation of Coal,
and Smoke Prevention.

Introduction.

Soon after the Committee had drawn up its First Report, which was
presented at the last meeting of the Association at Newcastle-on-Tyne
in 1916, certain important developments took place in regard to the
subject of its inquiry which it seems desirable now briefly to recount.

In July 1916, largely as the result of the work of the Committee,
the Government, having at length realised the importance of the
problem of fuel economy, appointed what afterwards became the Coal
Conservation Committee of the Ministry of Reconstruction, under the
chairmanship of Lord Haldane. Altogether seven of the then members
of this Committee were invited, in their individual capacities, to serve
on the Government Committee. An advance copy of the First Report
was placed at Lord Haldane’s disposal for the information of his
Committee, which ultimately issued its Report and concluded its labours
in 1918.

One of the first acts of the Coal Conservation Committee was to *

_ memorialise the Advisory Council (afterwards the Department) of
_ Scientific and Industrial Research as to the need of a Chemical Survey
_ of British Coalfields, a proposal which, it may be pointed out, had

_ originated with this Committee, and had already been strongly urged

in its First Report.
Matters having thus progressed so far, and it being clear that

$ nothing further could be done without considerable grants of money,
_ steps were taken, with the concurrence of the Council of the Associa-
tion, to ascertain the attitude and intentions of the Advisory Council

for Scientific and Industrial Research towards fuel research, and in

* Denotes a Member of the Executive Committee.

98 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

what way, if any, the work of this Committee could be assisted and
co-ordinated with that of other similar bodies concerned in the matter.

On 2nd November, 1916, an informal conference was held at the
Board of Education between representatives of this Committee and
of the Advisory Council, with a view to arriving at some mutually
satisfactory arrangement whereby the work of the Committee would
be taken over and continued under the egis of the new Department
of Scientific and Industrial Research. It was then represented, on
behalf of the Advisory Council, that it was their intention to set up,
in the near future, a new Standing Committee on Fuel to organise
and carry out, with adequate financial provision, the various lines of
research already recommended by this and Lord Haldane’s Committee,
and that they desired to take over and incorporate in some way with
the proposed new organisation the more active members of this Com-
mittee. Unfortunately, however, the plan then proposed for so doing
(which would have been entirely acceptable to this Committee) was
eventually set aside by the Department, which, in February 1917,
established its own Fuel Research Board on a different basis. As it
soon became clear that the new Board did not desire any assistance
from an outside Committee, no basis of co-operation could be arranged,
although the Committee had intimated to the Director of Fuel Research
its willingness to collaborate.

For a period of a year afterwards the Committee did not meet, and
its work was suspended, although a nucleus of its members informally.
kept in touch with developments. In October 1918, however, in
response to a widespread and growing feeling that there was need of
an organised body of independent scientific opinion that could be
brought to bear, in the public interest, upon any proposals for research
of public policy with regard to fuel, the Committee resumed its labours,
having been empowered by the Association to reorganise its work and
personnel, to enter into communication, at its discretion, with Govern-
ment Departments, the Federation of British Industries, and other
bodies concerned with fuel economy, and to publish from time to time
through the medium of the technical Press, or otherwise, any informa-
tion or recommendations in the national interest, without prejudice to
the presentation of its Report to the Association.

Reorganisation.

The reconstituted Committee comprised thirty instead of (as for-
merly) forty-five members, and the number of the Sub-Committees was
reduced from five to three, each with its own Chairman and Vice-
Chairman, as follows :—

Number of

Se Members Chairman Vice-Chairman
A. Chemical and Statis-
tical . : i 12 Prof. Henry Louis. | Prof. W. W. Watts.
B. Carbonisation and
Metallurgical ‘ 9 | Sir Robert Hadfield.) Mr. A. Hutchinson.
C. Power . : : 10 Mr. C. H. Wording- | Mr. W. H. Patchell.

ham.

ON FUEL ECONOMY, 99

Hach of the following Societies and Institutions was invited to
nominate for co-option (if not already a member) a representative on
the Committee, which they did, as follows :—

(1) Federation of British Industries : Mr. A. T. Smith.

(2) Association of British Chemical Manufacturers Mr. Robert Mond.

(3) Society of Chemical Industry . é Mr. E. V. Evans:

(4) Institution of Mechanical Engineers. : Mr. W. H. Patchell.

(5) Institution of Electrical Engineers . : Mr. C. H. Wordingham.
(6) Institution of Mining Engineers : . Mr. G. Blake Walker.
(7) Institution of Mining and ‘siege : Mr. G. E. Morgans.

(8) Iron and Steel Institute 3 : Sir Robert Hadfield.

(9) Coke Oven Managers’ Association . : Mr. D. V. Hollingworth.

In addition, Mr. D. H. Helps has continued to represent the Insti-
tution of Gas Engineers, and Mr. H. James Yates the Society of British
Gas Industries.

Finally, an Executive Committee of twelve members was appointed,
including ex-officio the Chairman, Vice-Chairman, and Secretary of
the General Committee, the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of each Sub-
Committee, and in addition, one other representative member from each
Sub-Committee.

Since its reconstruction the General Committee has held four meet-
ings, whilst the Executive has met seven times. In view, however, of
the vastness and complexity of the manifold issues involved in the
present coal situation, and the ditficulty of formulating any definite con-
clusion as to the effects of the war until conditions have become
stabilised once more, the Committee decided to postpone presenting
any final Report until some future year. The present Report is, there-
fore, of an interim nature, concerning such items only as appear to
warrant publication at this juncture.

Coal Outputs and Prices since 1913.

In its First Report the Committee drew attention to the vital im-
portance of relatively cheap coal to the nation’s industrial prosperity,
and stated that, for some years before the war, the average price of coal
at the pithead had been decidedly on the up-grade, a tendency which
might be expected to continue at an accelerated rate. As the result of
circumstances created by, or arising out of, the war, the average pit-
_ head price of coal has already almost trebled since the year 1913, and
is likely to rise still higher, a matter of most serious concern to the
whole nation.

How basic is the necessity of relatively cheap coal to the recovery
of our pre-war prosperity will at once be apparent when it is realised
_ how absolutely dependent are all our principal manufacturing industries
upon imported raw materials. Our own natural resources do not
enable us to provide ourselves, in quantity sufficient for the needs of a
“modern industrial community, with a great variety of raw materials;
hor can we grow sufficient food for our present population. But our
ships can bring abundance of raw materials from all parts of the world

to our coal. Without the impelling power of relatively cheap coal, we
should neither be able to attract the raw materials, nor yet to build
or maintain the ships in which to convey them. Relatively cheap coal

100 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919,

is, in fact, a fundamental necessity to the maintenance, not only of our
great iron, steel, engineering, shipbuilding, and textile industries, but
of our shipping trade and sea power.

Thus in 1913, the chief raw materials which we produced in excess of
our requirements were coal, clay, and salt. By far the most important
of these was coal, of which we exported 97-5 million tons valued (f.0.b.)
at 52 million pounds sterling. Half of the 105 million tons of iron
smelted in our furnaces was from imported ores. We imported also the
whole of the copper and cotton, 95 per cent. of the zinc, 90 per cent. of
the lead, and about 80 per cent. of all the wool and timber used in
British industrial establishments. In addition, we psi: some 257
million pounds’ worth of food, drink, and tobacco.

The great need of the moment is that the true facts of ees situation
shall be brought home to all sections of the community. The Com-
mittee, ee ee desires to draw attention to the following compara-
tive data concerning the movement of coal prices in Great Britain and
the United States during the war-period. The British figures are all
derived from official, or other equally reliable sources, whilst those
relating to America have been extracted from the Bulletins issued by
the Bureau of Labour Statistics (U.S. Department of Labour), to which
the Committee desires to acknowledge its indebtedness. In converting
the American prices into their English equivalents a dollar has been
taken as 50 pence.

Outputs of Coal and Average Pithead Prices in Great Britain.

Annual Output per : .
Total Output Average Pithead Price

— Million Tons cere ee Oper Ton

SB he
1913 287-4 260 10 1
1914 265°6 238 10 0
1915 253°2 270 12 6
1916 256°3 260 NGS 9
1917 248-0 247 16 9
1918 227°7 232 (24 0)!

1 Estimated.

Prices per ton patd by Consumers in Great Britain.

For Gas Coal by the South For Durham

In London for Metropolitan Gas Co. Coking Coal at a

Year | Best House Coal | @crciand tran
delivered {f.9.b, at N.E. Coast| Cost into Works works ?
Set Oe s. a Sala. Sheds
1914 29 0 1 a 14 6 13 0
1915 34 3 sees Pam fl 16 2
1916 of 0 16 65 26. 4: 2 3
1917 38 0 16 8 yds 22 10
1918 44 0 20 11 34 4 24 5

2 The corresponding pithead prices would be about 3s. 63d. less than these. The
average price (at the works) during the first six months of 1919 has been 26s. 6d.
per ton. |

| ON FUEL ECONOMY. 101

The upward tendency of prices has continued since the close of 1918,
and, according to a recent declaration made on behalf of the Government
in the House of Commons, consumers will have to face an all-round
increase on the foregoing prices of 6s. per ton during the coming winter.

The Committee views with concern the recent rapid decline of the
annual outputs per worker employed in British mines. During the
thirty years preceding the war the returns had shown a steady decline,

as follows :—
Average Annual Output

per Worker
Decade Tons
1883-92 i : é : - : 5 320
1893-02 : : : ; : : . 295
1903-12 ; : ; : : : 2 280

That this downward tendency was peculiar to British mines is shown
by the following comparative figures :—

Comparative Annual Outputs per Worker employed in the Mines in

Triennial Period Great Britain Germany United States |
Tons Tons Tons

1905-7 289 248 589
1908-10 265 239 591
1911-13 254 263 651

During the war the British outputs have continued to fall at an
alarming rate, until in 1918 they reached the low level of 232 tons per
worker employed. In marked contrast to this, the American figures
have continued to rise at an accelerated rate until in 1916 they reached
732, and in 1917 the phenomenal record of 768, tons per worker em-
ployed. The official figures for the total production of coal in American
mines in respect of each year since 1913 are as follows :—

Outputs of Coal in the United States during the Period 1913-17

mclusiwve.
Output per Worker
ed Total Ontput employed at the Mines
Million Tons
1913 508°9 681
1914 458°5 601
1915 474°6 647
1916 526°9 732
1917 581°7 768

It would thus appear that in the year 1917 the American output per
Worker employed was more than three times that realised in British
mines.

___ The following figures may be given, as showing how the wholesale
prices of typical classes of American fuels have moved during the

102 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Average Wholesale Prices of Coal and Coke per Long Ton in the United
States for each Year since 1913.

Semi-bitumin- Bituminous
Stove Anthracite] ous Pocahontas, | Pittsburg, Run Connelsville
wi at New York | f.o.b. Norfolk, | of Mine, f.o.b. Coke
Va. Cincinnati
Smads $s. d. s. d. s, d.
1914 2r1 12 6 10 3 8 5
1915 21 0 11 10 10 3 8 4
1916 22 9 15 6 12 6 15 2
1917 23 5 22 8 21 5 38 6
1918 Dit 18 8 18 1 28 0

From an examination of the monthly returns it appears that, with
the exception of those of anthracite, American wholesale coal and coke
prices rose sharply during the latter half of 1916, and reached a maxi-
mum about the middle of 1917. Thus Pocahontas reached a maximum
of 29s. 2d. (f.0.b. Norfolk, Va.) in May-June 1917, and bituminous
one of 28s. per ton (f.o.b. Cincinnati) at the same period. Connels-
ville coke, which is that used in the Pittsburgh blast furnaces, touched
a maximum of 57s. 2d. per ton in 1917. After that period prices fell
‘under control.’ Thus Pocahontas fell to a minimum of 16s, 3d. in
August-October 1917, since which time they have steadily risen until in
April 1919 they were at 20s. 5d. per ton. Bituminous fell to 14s. in
September-October 1917, but have since risen to 18s. 8d. per ton (f.o.b.
Cincinnati) in April 1919. Connelsville coke kept at 28s. for a period
of fifteen months from October 1917 to December 1918 (both inclusive),
since which it has steadily declined, month by month, until in April
1919 it stood at 18s, 2d. per ton. In the same month the price of
Durham coke at the ovens was 33s. per ton plus a subsidy (paid by the
Government) of 5s. 7d. per ton. It thus appears that already American
fuel prices have fallen to a level considerably below those ruling in this
country, a circumstance which gives American manufacturers a great
initial advantage over our own.

Research on the Chemistry of Coal.

Since the previous Report, Professor Bone has continued to direct
the research work upon the Chemistry of Coal at the Imperial College of
Science and Technology, London, which he originally undertook in 1916
at the instance of the Committee. In conjunction with Mr. R. J.
Sarjant he has recently published, in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society,’ the results of a series of experiments upon the so-called solvent
action of pyridine upon coal, to which Bedson first drew attention in
the year 1899.* Since that time it has been investigated by a number
of other chemists as a possible means of discriminating between the chief
types of constituents of the coal substance. Wheeler and his co-workers
have employed it extensively in their researches, claiming that if the

8 Bedson, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1908, p. 147.

en ae

ON FUEL ECONOMY. 103

portion of the coal removed by pyridine be subsequently extracted with
chloroform, a complete separation of the resinic from the cellulosic
constituents may be effected.4 On the other hand, the independent
work of Harger®, Wahl°, Vignon’, and others raised the question
whether the action of pyridine, and other similar basic solvents, is really
one of ordinary solution, and much of the evidence obtained by them
suggested that it is chiefly a depolymerising one. Professor Bone’s
recent experiments support this latter view, and point to the conclusion
that the action in question affects the coal substance as a whoie, and is
by no means confined to any one constituent of it. The action is
retarded, in a degree which may vary considerably according to the
character of the coal, by the presence either of water in the solvent or
of oxygen in the atmosphere in which the extraction is carried out. In
order to obtain comparable results with a series of different coals it is,
therefore, necessary to operate with a carefully dried solvent, and in
an atmosphere from which oxygen is excluded. Suitable means and
apparatus have been devised for carrying out extractions under such
precautions. It has also been shown that the action of pyridine at its
boiling point (under atmospheric pressure) upon a particular coal
approaches in time a practical limit which, however, may be consider-
ably exceeded if the extraction is carried out at higher temperatures
(e.g. in sealed tubes under pressure). Professor Bone and his co-
workers have also devised a method for extracting in a pure condition
the resinic constituents of coal, particulars of which will shortly be
published.

In connection with the question of the organisation of systematic
investigations upon the chemical characters of the principal British coal
seams, this Committee desires to reiterate the opinion expressed in its
First Report, namely ‘that the resources, both of existing laboratories
which have been established in this country for the special investigation
of fuel problems, and of other laboratories where the technique of the
subject has been developed, might be utilised more than they are in
this connection, and that the time is ripe for the organisation of a scheme
of systematic co-operative research aided by national funds in which all
such laboratories may participate. ’

The Committee regrets to say, however, that, notwithstanding the
establishment of the Fuel Research Board, with large funds at its dis-
posal, no attempt has apparently yet been made to organise any such
comprehensive scheme as was recommended in 1916; and it wishes again
to impress upon both the public and the Denartment of Scientific and
Industrial Research the danger of sterilising fuel research by a policy of
over-centralisation. On the contrarv, it is of the opinion that what is
most needed is a broadly-planned policy which will aim at stimulating

_ and assisting experimental work on the chemistry of coal, fuel economy,

and cognate subjects everywhere throughout the whole Kingdom.

4 Olark & Wheeler, Trans. Chem. Soc. 1913, 108, p. 1704.
5 Haroer, Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 1914. v, 384.

6 Wahl, Compt. Rend. 1912, 154. p. 1094.

7 Vignon, Compt. Rend. 1914, 158, p. 1421.

104 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Fuel Consumptions in the Iron and Steel and other Industries.

During 1916 the Committee circulated a series of carefully drawn
questions among selected representative iron and steel works in Cleve-
land, Lincolnshire, Sheffield, and the Midlands generally, with a view
to collecting reliable data concerning the then fuel consumptions in blast
furnaces, steelworks, and rolling mills. This information has since been
analysed and embodied in a Report which, by arrangement with the
Council of the Iron and Steel Institute, is to form the basis of a full
day’s discussion on the question of fuel economy at their forthcoming
Autumn Meeting in London on 18th September next. It will subse-
quently be published in extenso in their Journal, and thus be made
available to the industry at an early date. On the same occasion also,
a valuable Memorandum, written for the Committee by Mr. H. James
Yates, on ‘ Fuel Economy in Cupola Practice’ will be presented and
discussed. The Committee is thus actively co-operating with the Iron
and Steel Institute in promoting fuel economy in iron and steel works.

The Committee has also been in touch with the Federation of British
Industries with regard to the setting up of an organisation for promoting
fuel economy in industrial establishments generally, and for helping
manufacturers by expert guidance on matters connected with the use
of coal. The question was referred to a special Committee of the
Federation, who reported to its Executive that it is in the province of
the Federation to initiate a scheme, which it hopes shortly to do.

Electric Power Supply.

The Committee has had under consideration the recent Reports of
various Government Committees upon the question of the reorgani-
sation of Public Electric Power Supplies in Great Britain, which is now
engaging the attention of Parliament. Whilst recognising the need of
such reorganisation, and generally approving (a) of the proposed division
of the country into areas in which the authorities dealing with the
generation and main distribution of electricity shall be co-ordinated,
and (b) of standardising in each of such areas the frequency and voltage
of the main transmission and distribution system, the Committee desires
to reserve any expression of opinion as to the best means of carrying
out the needed reform until the Electricity Commissioners have been
appointed and their specific recommendations for the various areas have
been published.

Future Standards of Public Gas Supplies.

The Committee has had under consideration the Report issued on
29th January, 1919 (Parliamentary Paper, Cmd. 108) by the Fuel
Research Board in reply to the inquiry of the Board of Trade as to
‘What is the most suitable composition and quality of gas and the
minimum pressure at which it should be generally supplied, having
regard to the desirability of economy in the use of coal, the adequate
recovery of by-products, and the purposes for which gas is now used.’

Recognising that the said Report opened up important and far-
reaching questions of public policy with regard to the manufacture and

#

ON FUEL ECONOMY. 105

distribution of town’s gas, the Executive, after receiving separate
Memoranda on the subject from Professor Bone and Mr. E. VY. Evans,
referred the whole matter for detailed consideration to a Sub-Committee
consisting of Sir Robert Hadfield, Professor Bone, Dr. J. E. Stead,
Messrs. A. H. Barker, E. Bury, E. V. Evans, D. H. Helps, D. V.
Hollingworth, A. Hutchinson, R. Mond, W. H. Patchell, and H. James
Yates.

This Sub-Committee having reported that it had arrived, by an
eight to one majority, at the conclusions embodied in the following
numbered paragraphs, they were formally adopted by the Committee
as a whole, and ordered to be incorporated in the Report as the find-
ings of the Committee on the subject.

1) The chief recommendations made by the Fuel Research Board
embody substantially the following propositions :—

(a) That the consumer shall in future be charged according to the
thermal units in the gas actually received by him, just as
a consumer of electricity is charged for the Board of Trade
units which have passed through his meter.

(b) That, subject to a maximum limit of 12 per cent. of inert
constituents, and of its undertaking to adjust consumers’
lighting; heating, and cooking appliances so that the gas can
be burnt in them with both safety and efficiency, the gas
undertaking shall be at liberty to fix the calorific value of
the gas it supplies to its customers, although in the common
interests of producers and consumers it is suggested that
burners shall be standardised for a limited number of calorific
values of gas of which (it is suggested) four grades may be
sufficient, namely, 400, 433, 466, and 500 B.Th.Us. per
cubic foot.

(c) That every supply district above a certain magnitude ought to
be provided with one or more gas examiners and, if neces-
sary, a Staff of inspectors, whose whole time should be
devoted to looking after the interests of gas consumers, and

; that the smaller supply centres should be grouped into
% districts for such purposes.

(d) That, provided customers’ appliances are properly adjusted to
the grade of gas supplied, it may be tentatively accepted
that the relative values of different grades of gas are strictly
proportional to their calorific values. Thus, for example,
‘the relative values to the consumer of gases of 500 and
400 B.Th.Us. could be taken as exactly in that ratio.’

(e) That there shall be more complete removal of sulphur and
cyanogen compounds from the gas.

(f) That, under normal conditions of supply and equipment, there
shall be a pressure of not less than two inches of water in
the gas at the exit of the consumer’s meter.

(2) With regard to these recommendations, the Committee
generally agrees that, provided (a) that simple and effective means or
apparatus could be devised, and put in general operation, for determining

106 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

the heat units actually received by each individual gas consumer
throughout the Kingdom, and (b) that certain other conditions (herein-
after set forth) were assured, it would be more equitable to charge the
consumer on a basis of ‘heat units’ than on one of ‘cubic feet’
supplied.

(3) The Committee also agrees generally with the Fuel Research
Board’s recommendations as to (a) the maximum limit of 12 per cent.
of inert constituents, and (b) the minimum pressure of two inches of
water in the gas at the exit of the consumer’s meter.

(4) The Committee considers that it should be the aim of any national
policy in regard to gas standards to ensure (a) to the consumer, and
especially to the domestic consumer, a supply of gas suitable to his
requirements at the lowest cost consistent with reasonable safety, and
(b) to the community at large, as great a recovery of valuable by-products
in the carbonising process as is consistent with the production of a
reasonably safe and usable gas. It certainly ought not to exclude the
possibility of (a) distributing through the public mains surplus coke-
oven gas or (b) securing, to a safe and reasonable degree, the advantages
in regard to reduced costs of production accruing from the modern
practice of steaming the incandescent coke produced by carbonising
coal in vertical retorts on the continuous system. It by no means
necessarily follows, however, that a gas undertaking ought to convert
all its coke into water gas, as some of them apparently would like to do.
It might conceivably be better policy to require gas undertakings, or
at least some of them, to produce and supply the community with (a) a
straight coal gas obtained simply by carbonising the coal, and (b) a
free-burning coke, or semi-coke, fit for consumption in domestic grates.

(5) From information supplied to the Committee it would appear
that, with regard to the quality of the gas generally supplied to con-
sumers in days immediately preceding the war, the following figures
may be quoted for the average gross calorific values, per cubic foot
at 60° Fahr. and 30 in. barometer, of the gas supplied during the year
1913 in six of the largest cities of Great Britain :—

620, 596, 593, 582, 580, and 540 B.Th.Us.

Whilst it may be freely admitted that calorific value, although always
an important one, is by no means the only factor to be considered in
selecting a gaseous fuel for any particular purpose, the Committee is
of the opinion that the proposal of the Fuel Research Board that in
future gas undertakings may be allowed to supply, at their sole dis-
cretion, gas of any calorific value between 400 and 500 B.Th.Us., ought
to be very carefully scrutinised in all its bearings, especially as it involves
a considerable dilution of the old ‘ coal gas’ by ‘ water gas,’ with conse-
quent much higher carbonic oxide and lower methane contents. Indeed
the Fuel Research Board holds that ‘ the natural diluent for coal gas
is water gas, made either from coke in a separate producer, or in retorts
by steaming the hot coke.’

(6) The composition of the gas obtainable by carbonising British gas
coals at high temperatures either in modern vertical retorts or coke

ON FUEL ECONOMY. 107

ovens, without steaming the charge, usually varies between the following
limits, approximately :—

CO, CO. CnHm CH, H, No
2t03, 5t010, 2t04, 25t035, 45055, 5tol0 percent.
Approx.
Mean 2°5 5 3-0 30-0 50°0 7-0

The calorific value of a gas of the mean composition indicated would be
about 560 gross and 495 net B.Th.Us. per cubic foot at 60° Fahr. and
30 in. barometer. The corresponding values for a ‘ debenzolised ’ coke-
oven gas, containing only 25 per cent. of methane, would be about 485
gross and 425 net. And inasmuch ag the thermal efficiency of such
carbonisation processes is admittedly high,* there would appear to be no
particular reason, on the ground merely of thermal efficiency, for seek-
ing to supersede the 1913 practice. The plea for the change is presum-
ably based on the desire, on the part of gas undertakings, to convert a
substantial part (or possibly the whole) of the coke into water gas, and
thus to increase the gas-make per ton of coal at a corresponding
sacrifice of the coke-yield.
(7) Water gas may be generated from coke with a thermal efficiency

of (up to) 70 per cent. ; it contains on an average :—

CO, co H, CH, N,

4:5 43°0 48°0 0°5 4:0 per cent.

Its calorific values per cubic foot at 60° Fahr. and 30 in. barometer
are approximately 300 B.Th.Us. gross, and 275 net, or rather more
than half those of the ‘ straight ’ coal gas already referred to. Its
ealorific intensity, however, is distinctly higher, but its range of
inflammability with air considerably wider, than that of coal gas. Its
high carbonic oxide content makes it a poisonous gas, and, owing to
its high hydrogen and low methane contents, its mixtures with air are
very liable to back-fire. For these reasons it is not a desirable gas for
domestic uses unless largely diluted; and any large admixture of it
with coal gas in public supplies would undoubtedly add materially to
the dangers of carbonic oxide poisoning and of gas explosions in houses.

(8) With regard to the question of the dangers of carbonic oxide
_ poisoning with a gas containing a large proportion of water gas, it
may be recalled that twenty years ago this was the subject of an official
Inguiry by a Committee appointed by the Home Office, of which Dr.
J. S. Haldane and the late Sir William Ramsay were members. They
had laid before them detailed information as to the Uses of Water Gas
in the United States and its effect upon Human Health. In their
Report (C. 9164 of 1899) they stated :—

“The most direct, and in our opinion, the only effective method
of preventing danger from water gas is to fix a limit which
the carbonic oxide in a public and domestic gas supply

§ Tt has recently been shewn that the two Metropolitan Gas Companies in the year
1913 actually sent out in the form of gas, coke, and tar, rather more than 70 per cent.
of the potential energy of the coal carbonised, and that over-all efficiencies exceeding
_ 82 per cent. have been attained in large-scale carbonising tests.

108 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

shall not, in ordinary circumstances, exceed. It is diffi-
cult to assign a limit applicable to all circumstances. In
some cases 12 per cent. of carbonic oxide in the gas
supplied might be proper, in others 16, or perhaps 20.
. We are of opinion that with the present conditions
of gas supply 20 per cent. is the highest proportion of
carbonic oxide that should be allowed, and that this per-
centage should be used only under special circumstances.
. Our attention has been called by several witnesses
to the very imperfect and unsatisfactory gas-fittings often
used in the poorer class of houses in large towns, and the
constant leakages which exist without any attempt to
discover or rectify them. . .’

Clearly then, the 1899 Committee, having in mind the nature of
carbonic oxide poisoning and the faulty character of gas pipes and
fittings in the poorer class of houses, considered that the carbonic
oxide content of a public gas supply should in no circumstances be
allowed to exceed 20 per cent., and only exceptionally 16 per cent.
This Committee considers that even to-day a maximum limit of 20 per
cent. of carbonic oxide ought not to be exceeded. It may be pointed out
that the Fuel Research Board’s recommendations would allow of a
gas company distributing a 40 per cent. coal gas plus 60 per cent.
water gas mixture containing between 27.5 and 30.0 per cent. of
carbonic oxide.

(9) The Committee is unable to agree with the Fuel Research
Board’s apparent endorsement of the proposition that the relative
values of different grades of gases are strictly proportional to their
calorific values. On the contrary, they are of the opinion that the
chemical composition of the gas is not a matter of indifference to the
consumer, and that the cumulative results of forty years of scientific
research on the subject prove that the fundamental properties of the
explosive mixtures formed by different combustible gases with air.
arising from their own peculiar chemical characters and modes of .
combustion, do affect profoundly their uses for power and heating
purposes.

(10) It appears to the Committee that, in particular, the Board’s
Report does not recognise sufficiently the importance of methane as
a constituent of a public gas supply. Owing to the relatively narrow
range of explosibility of its mixtures with air, and the low speeds at
which flame is propagated through them, methane (in addition to the
advantages of its high concentration of potential heat units) as a consti-
tuent has an important ‘ steadying’ influence upon coal gas, rendering
it eminently usable for domestic purposes. Hitherto the public
has been accustomed to using a gas containing 30 per cent. or more
of methane, and it is important that such proportions shall not
be unduly diminished. Accordingly the Committee would urge the
adoption of 20 per cent. as a minimum methane content in a public
gas supply intended for domestic consumption.

(11) If the Committee’s proposals i in the preceding paragraphs be
adopted as safe and reasonable in the interests of domestic consumers,

ON FUEL ECONOMY, 109

the gas might be sold (as proposed by the Board) on a thermal basis,
_ subject to the following provisos :—

(a2) that its methane content shall not be less than 20 per cent.,
its carbonic oxide content not more than 20 per cent., and
its content of ‘inerts’ not more than 12 per cent. ;

(b) that its gross calorific value per cubic foot at 60° Fahr. and
30 in. barometer shall not fall below 450 B.Th.Us.

:
|
_ Within such limits a gas undertaking would be at liberty to supply for
domestic use either (a) ‘ straight’ coal gas, (b) ‘ debenzolised ’ coke-
oven gas, or (c) a mixture of 100 parts of coal gas with (up to) 50 parts
: of blue water gas. | Where, however, gas is supplied in bulk for
industrial uses only, a relaxation in the above conditions might be
permitted subject to agreement as regards cost between gas under-
_ takings and the consumers.
_ (12) In conclusion, the Committee hopes that scientific men
_ generally will strongly support the important recommendation made in
: paragraph 53 of the Board’s Report in regard to sulphur purification.
F The Board rightly urges ‘ the more complete removal not only of the
sulphur compounds but also of the cyanogen compounds.’ The
: important investigations carried out, from 1906 onwards, at the South
Metropolitan Gas Works by Dr. Charles Carpenter, in conjunction with
Messrs. E. V. Evans and Doig Gibb, resulting as they did in a process
i whereby the sulphur content of the gas sent out from these works
has been reduced from 40 to about 8 grains per 100 cubic feet, con-
stitute so notable an advance in the technology of gas purification that
the time has surely come for legislative action in the direction of making
such sulphur removal generally compulsory for all large gas under-
takings.

Mr. D. H. Helps, representing the Institution of Gas Engineers on
the Committee, dissented from certain of the foregoing conclusions on
the grounds that if in future the consumer is charged for gas accord-
ing to the number of heat units supplied to him in it, it will not be
necessary to impose upon gas undertakings the restrictions in regard
to inert constituents which the Committee has recommended. He was
also opposed to the suggested limitation fn regard to the carbonic oxide
content, as well as to any re-imposition of the obligation upon gas
undertakings to remove sulphur impurities other than sulphuretted
hydrogen from the gas; and in regard to the question of pressure he
was of opinion that a minimum of 14-inch water gauge would be
found sufficient.

____ During the discussions which took place upon the question of gas
~ standards, the attention of the Committee was called to what is known
as the ‘ stripping of coal gas,’ by which is meant the extraction of
benzenoid hydrocarbons from it. This process has been instituted as
@ war measure in view of the necessity for providing sufficient raw
aterial for the manufacture of high explosives.

____ It was pointed out to the Committee, however, that with gas selling
at its present average price it would probably be of greater financial
advantage to the gas undertaking to allow the benzenoid hydrocarbons

110 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

to remain in the gas if the sale of gas on the proposed new thermal
basis is instituted. Though fully realising the present national
shortage of motor spirit, the Committee felt that gas undertakings
should be under no obligation to remove benzenoid hydrocarbons unless
the selling price of motor spirit would justify their doing so on financial
grounds.

The Committee recommends that it be reappointed to continue its
investigations, with a grant of 25l.

Rhynie, Aberdeenshire.—Report of the Commuttee, consisting of
Dr. J. Horne (Chairman), Dr. W. Mackin (Secretary), and
Drs. J.S. Furett, W. T. Gorpon, G. Hicknine, R Kidston,
B. N. Psacu, and D. M. 8S. Watson, appointed to excavate
Critical Sections in the Old Red Sandstone of Rhynie, Aber-
deenshire.

Tue plant-bearing cherts discovered by Dr, Mackie in the Old Red
Sandstone at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, when examined under the micro-
scope, showed fragments of Crustacea in certain sections. Some of
the sections were submitted to Dr. W. T. Calman and Mr. D. LI.
Scourfield, who have furnished the following report. ‘The animal
remains are, for the most part, very fragmentary and confused, but
they are in an excellent state of preservation, even the fine feathering
on small sete being, in some cases, easily recognisable. All the remains
examined appear to be referable to the class Crustacea, and to have
belonged to animals comparable in size to the Copepoda of the present
day. The most complete portions hitherto found have been tails,
consisting each of a number of segments and ending in a furca. Both
lateral and dorsal views Have been seen, and the general arrangement
of the parts fairly well made out. Two distinct species appear to be
represented, belonging either to a primitive group of the Copepoda. or
to very small Branchiopoda (? Anostraca). Fragments of appendages
are numerous in nearly all the slides, but are extremely difficult to
interpret. One slide, however, shows a series of about three pairs
of biramous feet in their natural connections. They are remarkably
similar to the swimming feet of Copepods of the genus Cyclops, except
that the branches are unjointed instead of being composed of the usual
three segments. A considerable number of detached mandibles have
also been seen, all of them most closely comparable to those of the
Branchiopoda. It is evident that these remains are of extraordinary
interest, and, although little progress has been made towards reconstruct-
ing any one of the several species that are represented in the material,
enough has been done to show that, given a sufficient number of
sections, the structure of the body and limbs could almost certainly
be worked out, even if no entire specimens should be brought to light.’

During 1918 Mr. D, Tait, H.M. Geological Survey, obtained addi-

ON OLD RED_SANDSTONE OF RHYNIE. lil

tional specimens of chert from the Rhynie outerop, to be examined by
Dr. Calman and Mr. Scourfield. A grant from the Royal Society has
been received to aid the investigation.

Photographs of Geological Interest.—Nineteenth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professors HK. J. GARwoop (Chair-
man) and 8. H. Reynoups (Secretary), Mr. G. Brnaury, Dr.
T. G. Bonney, Messrs. C. V. CRook and W. GRay, Dr. R.
Kinston, Mr. A. 8. Rein, Sir J. J. H. TEAL, Professor
W. W. Warts, Mr. R. WetcH, and Mr. W. WHITAKER.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

'Snvor the issue of the previous Report (Newcastle 1916) 205 photographs
have been added to the collection, which now numbers 5,861.
Although the Committee has lost no member since the issue of its

last Report, it has suffered an incalculable loss in the resignation of the

Secretaryship by Professor Watts, who had held it since 1896. No one
who has knowledge of the facts can doubt that the whole success of

the Geological Photographs Committee has becn due to his energy and
business-like qualities. Fortunately Professor Watts is always ready to
help and advise his successor.

For the first time for many years the Committee is not in receipt of any
photographs from its most generous contributor, Mr. Godfrey Bingley.
Mr. Bingley’s name figures in the first list of contributors (Leeds 1890)
and in two only of the subsequent Reports does he not appear. The
“number of photographs presented by him is as many as 1,123. The
Committee wish to condole with Mr. Bingley most sincerely as regards the
Ss trouble which has interfered with his work, and trust that it may
_ pass away.

Dorset is the county most fully represented in the present Report,
sets having been contributed by the Secretary and by Mr. C. J. Watson.
Mr. Watson, whose first photographs were received as early as 1892, sends
a varied series, including examples from Cornwall, Derbyshire, Durham,

ie Isle of Wight, Monmouth, Nottingham, Stafford, Warwick, Worcester,
Anglesey, Edinburgh, Antrim, and Kerry. The Secretary further
ntributes views from Cornwall, Cumberland, Gloucestershire, Lancashire,
and Somerset.
Another early contributor, Mr. Henry Preston, sends photographs
rom Dartmoor and Nottingham, and a considerable series from Lincoln.
Mr. J. W. Tutcher’s work is illustrated by a set from Somersetshire
ustrating a paper by Mr. L. Richardson, and contributed by him.
The Committee are very glad to welcome a new contributor in Dr. B.
_ Pope Bartlett, who sends some photographs illustrative of the Cretaceous
“succession in the Mere and Shaftesbury districts, which are a model of
what detailed stratigraphical photographs should be. Some characteristic
views of the Burren, co.Clare, have been received from Capt. J. A. Douglas,
having been taken by him and by Mr. E. R. Lloyd.

112 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

F% Photographs of considerable value have been received, through Mr.
Whitaker from the executors of the late Mr. H. B. Woodward. They
include photographs of Cotham Marble, and of a perhaps analogous rock
from the Purbeck, the latter being from negatives by Professor Watts.
They further include views from Norfolk, Herts (Sir J. J. H. Teall), and
Kent (H. C. McNeill), and three from Skye by Messrs. G. P. Abraham,
Valentine and Sons, Ltd., and G. W. Wilson. The Committee are much
indebted to Dr. Alfred Harker for the full descriptions, with illustrative
sketches, which he kindly provided for the Skye views.

Mr. W. Whitaker sends a set of picture postcards, illustrating the geology
of the neighbourhood of Brighton. Many excellent postcards of geological
subjects are obtainable, and it is to be hoped that other contributors will
follow Mr. Whitaker’s example.

Photographs by Mr. J. G. Hamling, Miss E. Hendriks, Miss M. 8.
Johnston, Mr. J. H. Pledge, Miss H. D. Sharpe, Sir A. Strahan, Mr. G. W.
Young and Mr. W. P. Young have also been received. To all contributors
the Committee tender sincere thanks.

The Committee hope that before the issue of the next Report the new
series of geological photographs which has so long been promised will be
published. Reissue of the former series is also under consideration.

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed.

NINETEENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.

From SEPTEMBER 1, 1916, To Aucust 31, 1919.

List of the geological photographs received and registered by the
Secretary of the Committee since the publication of the last Report.

Contributors are asked to affix the registered numbers, as given below,
to their negatives, for convenience of future reference. Their own numbers
are added in order to enable them to do so. Copies of photographs desired
can, in most instances, be obtained from the photographer direct. The
cost at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the print and
on local circumstances, over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photograph
included in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications
for permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photo-
graphers direct.

Copies of photographs should be sent, unmounted, to

Professor 8. H. Reynoups,
The University, Bristol,

accompanied by descriptions written on a form prepared for the purpose,
copies of which may be obtained from him.
The size of the photographs is indicated as follows :—

L=Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4= Quarter-plate. 10/8 =10 inches by 8.
1/2=Half-plate. 12/10=12 inches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargement.

Dieses: = -,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 113

j ACCESSIONS 1916-1919.
ENGLAND.

_ BuckincHAaMsHIRE.—Photographed by J. H. Pieper, 115 Richmond Road,
Dalston, N.E. 1/4.

5640 ( ) Bugle Pit, nr. Aylesbury . Contemporaneous erosion in Purbecks,
about 1900.

CornwaLL.—Photographed by Miss E. Henprixs, 405 Hagley Road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1/4.

5641 ( ) Gunwalloe, nr. Helston . Manaccan Beds (Devonian). 1913.
5642 ( ) - 3 . Contorted Manaccan Beds. 1913.
5643 ( ) 3 ”° -! 99 39 99 99

; 5644 ( ) ” ” . ” ” ” ”

Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Se.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/4.

5645 (14-15) Delabole ; : . Slate Works. 1914.
5646 (14:14) ” . si yl an 3 ausiiisal agi
5647 (14: 35) Cataclews, Trevose : . Sills of Minverite in Slate. 1914.

5648 (14:34) Dinas Head, Trevose . Spherulitic Adinole. 1914.
5649 (14:22) Church Hill Quarry, Port Pillow Lava. 1914.

Isaac.

5650 (14-21) Church Hill Quarry, Port ae a 2

Isaac.
(14-24) Pentire Head ; 4 ie! ee oa
(14: 23) 9 LED z 2? 9 22
(14: 35) . > * >
(14:5) Brown Willy from Rough Granite country. 1914.

Tor.

(14:8) Rough Tor = : - Weathering of Granite. 1914.
(14-6) ” 29 ° . 5 2” 29 cr) 39
(14-9) 29 97 £ ‘2 2 29 9 9 ty)
(14-10) ” or) ‘ . e ”» ” oh] 29
(14-11) 2 a3 . . . > oe oe) ”
(14:12) ,, Rouble . . st FOS A 2
(14-13) ; 3
(14-40) Lantern. Pit, St. Austell . Schorl Veins in China Clay. 1914.
(14: 38) ” 22039 ” . China- clay Working. 1914.
ey 33 ue us . _ Big Schorl-rock Vein. 1914.
(14-42) 6 aatase 26 . Settling Tanks. 1914.
(14- 41) cE) ” cE) . ” ” ”»
(14- 43} Roche Rock : : . Mass of Schorl-rock. 1914.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. 1/4.

5668 (2174) Trewavas ; : . The Bishop rock, Weathered Granite.
P 1910.

€ UMBERLAND.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Se.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/4.

(74:13) Napes Rocks, Great Gable 1913.
(71-13) West of Styhead Tarn . Fine bedded Tuffs. 1913.
ive. 13) Styhead Tarn. g . Silting up of Tarn. 1913.

5669
: oy
2 (69:13) Sonth of Rossthwaite . Boulder Clay on Glaciated surface. 1913.

114 REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

DeRBYSHIRE.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s

Green, Birmingham. 1/A.
Regd.
No.
5673 (2194) Derwent Reservoir . Contorted Yoredale Grit. 1910.

Devon.—Photographed by Miss M. 8. Jounston, Hazlewood, Wimbledon,
presented by the executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.

5674 (| Junction of White and Blue Lias.

Photographed by G. W. Youne, F.G.S.,
1/4.

) Pinhay Bay, Lyme Regis 1906.

20 Grange Road, Barnes, S.W.

5675

Photographed by

5676

( ) Between Combpyne and

Lyme Regis.

( ) Petitor Bay, Torquay .

‘Cloud burst’ effect. 1903.

, presented by the executors of the late
HR. B. Woopwarp.

1/2.

Cliff of Permian breccia. 1900.

Photographed by Henry Preston, Waterworks, Grantham, presented

5677 ( ) Hound Tor, Dartmoor Weathering of Granite.
Photographed by J. G. Hamuine, F.G.S., The Close, Barnstaple. 1/2.
5678 ( ) Highdown Quarry, Codden Chert Beds in Culm.
Hill.
Dorset.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/4.
5679 (1: 7 Broad Bench, Kimeridge Limestone band in Kimeridge Clay.
Bay. 1917.
5680 (5:17) Gad Cliff from W. Portlandian Section. 1917.
5681 (3: 17) ” 99 9 99 39 99 ”
5682 (7: 17) 9 9° > 9 a s 23 99 39 .
5683 (10- i Gad Cliff from Worberrow Portland Stone and L. Purbeck. 1917.
ee
5684 (9-17) Gad Cliff from Worberrow Bs Shes 73 a %
Tout.
5685 (12-17) Worberrow Bay, E. end . Wealden Section. 1917.
5686 (5-18) Worberrow Bay Cretaceous Section. 1918.
5687 (2-18) Arishmell Gap and Flower’s Chalk Cliffs and sub-chalk section. 1918.
Barrows.
5688 (9: ia Mewp Bay Lignite in Wealden. 1918.
5689 (10:18) ,, i Unio Bed, Upper Purbeck. 1918.
5690 (4:18) _., Wealden Section. 1918.
5691 (7:18) ) Mewp Rocks from Bindon Sea Stacks of Up. Portland and Low.
Hill. Purbeck. 1918.
5692 (11-18) Mewp Rocks . Sea Stacks of Portland Stone dais by
Low. Purbeck. 1918.
5693 (18-17) ¥ 5 Sea Stacks of Portland Stone sete by
Low. Purbeck. 1917.
5694 (19-17) hs a2 _ Lower Purbeck Section. 1917.
5695 (20- 17) 3° 9 99 ” ”°
5696 (14: is) Largest Mewp Rock Broken Beds in Cypris Freestone. 1918.
5697 (8-18) Bacon Hole, Mewp Bay . Section Middle and Upper. Purbecks.

by the executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp.

1/4.

1918.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 115

Regd.
No.
5698 (17(«)18) Bacon Hole, Mewp Bay, Purbeck Section. 1918.
and Worberrow.
5699 (17-18) Bacon Hole, Mewp Bay . Middle and Lower Purbeck Section.
1918.
5700 (19-18) Smuggler’s Cave, Bacon Lower Purbeck Section. 1918.
Hole, Mewp Bay.
5701 (23:18) Bacon Hole, Mewp Bay . Cherty Freshwater Bed. 1918.
5702 (20- 18) sy . Fold in Cypris Freestone. 1918.
~ §703 (30-17) Fossil Forest, Lulworth . General View. 1917.
5704 (32-17) ,, Fs “ - Tufaceous Deposit round tree stumps.
1917.
: 5705 (31-17) ,, “ rr Tufaceous Deposit round tree stumps.
. 1917.
5706 (22:17) , + 43 . Tufaceous Deposit round tree stumps.
1917.
5707 (24:18) ,, = ; Caps and associated beds. 1918.
5708 (28-17) > ” > > 99 ” ” 1917.
5709 (22-18) ,, 8 a3 Dirt Bed and Caps. 1918.
5710 (28-18), fH it + 93, «95_:~“OVerlying Soft Cap. 1918
; 5711 (25-18) °° ” 2° ” ” 2° ” 3° 29
«8712 (29:17), o , e ablen de 28) biestelnuss Saket
5713 (2417) ,, °3 x Broken Beds. 1917.
5714 (27- 17) ted 99 99 29 2? 29
5715 (25-17) Broken and associated beds. 1917.
5716 (26-18) Lulworth ‘Cove y Wealden. Section. 1918.
5717 (29-18) E. side Durdle Door pro- Wealden and Purbeck Section. 1918.

montory, Lulworth.
worth.

worth.
(44:17) Durdle Door,
and Bull Rock.
(47-17) W.
promontory, Lulworth.

Door, Lulworth.

(49:17) W. of Durdle Door, Lul-
worth.

(46-17) Durdle Door, Lulworth

(31-18) ,, » »

(32°18) White Nothe .

(33-18)

(39-18) Undercliff below
Nothe.

(87-18) Undercliff below
Nothe.

(88-18) Underclifi below
Nothe.

Birmingham.
| 5732 (983) Lulworth Cove, E. side
5733 (985) » W. side

5734 (986) Stair ‘Cove, Lulworth
(988) ” ” ”

(30-18) Man of War Cove, Lul-
(42:17) Man of War Cove, Lul-
Lulworth
side of Durdle Door
(48-17) Chalk Cliffs, W. of Durdle

‘White
White
White

Crushed Flints. 1918.

The Man of War from Durdle Door.
1917.

Western Termination of the Portland
‘Screen.’ 1917.

Purbeck and Cretaceous Section. 1917.

Thrust plane traversing Chalk. 1917.

Sea Caves worn along Thrust plane.
1917.
Vertical Chert Beds of Upper Greensand

and Chloritic Marl. 1917.

Exogyra conica in Upper Greensand.
1918.

Upper Greensand Section. 1918.

Weathering out of Chert in Upper
Greensand. 1918.

Weathering out of Chert in Upper
Greensand. 1918.

Weathering out of Chert in Upper
Greensand. 1918.

(36-18) Shore below White Nothe Top of Upper Greensand and hase of

Chalk. 1918.

Pictooraphed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s Green,

1/2 and 1/4.

Purbeck Section. 1893.

Contorted Middle Purbecks.
Breach in the ‘ Sereen.’ 1893.

1893.

116 REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Photographed by Sir A. Stranan, Director, H.M. Geological Survey,
28 Jermyn Street, London, W., presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.

5736 ( ) Stair Cove, Lulworth . . Contorted Middle Purbecks.
5737 ( ) Winspit Quarry, Isle of Pur- Lower Purbeck on Portland Stone.
beck.
Photographed by Professor W. W. Watts, F.R.S., Imperial College
of Science, S. Kensington, S.W., presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.

5738 ( ) Durlston Head,Swanage . Lower Purbeck Limestone with Cotham
Marble structure.
5739 ( ) Durlston Bay, Swanage . Mammillated surface of Lower Purbeck

Limestone. Prior to 1895.

Photographed by W. P. Youne, presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.

5740 (_ ) Black Ven, nr. Lyme Regis Lower Lias capped by Selbornian. 1906.

Photographed by Dr. B. Pore Bartiett, Bourton, Dorset. 1/2 and 1/4.

5741 ( ) Melbury Hill, Shaftesbury . Junction of Lower Chalk and Upper
Greensand. 1915.

5742 ( ) i 55 $5 . Junction of Lower Chalk and Upper
Greensand. 1915.

5743 ( ) Cann Common, Shaftesbury Passage Beds between Cenomanian and
Selbornian. 1915.

DuruaM.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/2 and 1/4.

5744 (110) Marsden rock, Sunderland . Marine erosion of Magnesian Limestone.
5745 (104) Marsden . : : : Meet erosion of Magnesian Limestone.
5746 (2473) Sunderland. . : halen Magnesian Limestone.
5747 (2474) 5 - P . Coneretionary Magnesian Limestone.

GioucesteR.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynotps, M.A., Se.D,
The Unwersity, Bristol. 1/2.

5748 (43-18) Southmead bathing-pool Caninia-oolite and overlying dolomite.
191

Quarry. ’ .
5749 (42-18) Southmead bathing-pool On left Laminosa-dolomite, on right ©
Quarry. Caninia-oolite and dolomite. 1918. —
5750 (45-18) Southmead bathing-pool ‘Sub-oolite bed’ (top of Laminosa- —
Quarry. dolomite). |

Photographed under the direction of W. H. Wicks ; presented by the
executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/2.

5751 ( ) Redland, Bristol : . Double Cotham Marble. 1906.
Photographed by —————-; presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/2.
5752 ( ) Near Bristol 4 s . Abnormal Cotham Marble.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

117

Hants. (I. or Wicut).—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville

Regd.
No.
5753
5754
5755
5756

Road, Acock’s Green, Birmingham.

(2434) The Needles
(2435) ” ”
(2439) Freshwater
(2441) 99

1/4.

Chalk Sea-stacks. 1911.

Sea-worn arch in Chalks. 1911.

Sea-cave in chalk. 1911.

Herts.—Photographed by Sir J. J. H. Teatt, 174 Rosendale Road,
West Dulwich, S.E. 21, presented by the executors of the late

5757
5758

H.

( ) Reed, 2 miles 8. of Royston
( ) > 99 99 39

B. Woopwarp.

Disturbed chalk.

” 99

Kent.—Photographed by H. C. McNettz, Juniwart Mine, Ramtek P.O.,

5759
5760

Nagpur, India. 1/2.

Presented by the executors of the late

H. B. Woopwarp.

( ) Chiselhurst.
( ) Crayford

Thanet Sand,
old working.
Junction of Thanet Sands and Chalk.

overlying Chalk with

LancasuirE.—Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,

5761
5762
5763
5764

The University,

(1:16) Hampsfell,
Sands.

(2:16) Hampsfell,
Sands.

(4:16) Hampsfell,
Sands.

(5-16) Hampsfell,
Sands.

Grange-over-
Grange-over-
Grange-over-

Grange-over-

Bristol. 1/4.

Grikes in Carboniferous Limestone.
1916.

Grikes in Carboniferous Limestone.
1916.

Grikes in Carboniferous Limestone.
1916.

Grikes in Carboniferous Limestone.
1916.

Lincotn.—Photographed by Henry Preston, The Waterworks, Grantham.
1/2 and 1/4.

5765
5766

5767
5768
5769

(1031) Handley’s Pit, Lincoln
(1030) Lincoln .

(1025) Little Ponton, Grantham .
(57) Great Ponton . P
(1090) Welsford

(492) Old railway, Little Bytham
(502) Midland Railway cutting,
Little Bytham.

(1369) Leadenham
(1367) »
(1368) 33

(1382) Drake Stones, Anwick
(1381) Anwick .

Middle Lias. 1905.

Ironstone quarry in Northampton Sands.
1905.

Plateau Gravel Pit. 1905.

Lincolnshire Limestone. 1893.

Upper Estuarine Beds on Lincolnshire
Limestone. 1905.

Cornbrash. 1900.

Great Oolite Limestone. 1900.

Tronstone in Northampton Sands.

Undulating Ironstone in Northampton
Sands. 1900.

Boulders probably of Spilsby Sandstone.
1912.

Glaciated end of large Drake Stone.
1912.

N

118 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Monmoutia.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road,
Acock’s Green, Birmingham. 1/2.
Regd.
No.
5777 (1138) Lancaut bend of the Wye, Incised meander.

near Chepstow.
5778 (1136) Near Chepstow Anticline in Carboniferous Limestone.

Norroitx.—Photographed by H. Preston, The Waterworks, Grantham,
presented by the executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.

5779 ( ) Thorpe Pit, Norwich . . Norwich Crag Series.

Photographed under the direction of the late H. B. Woopwarp, and
presented by his executors. 1/2.

5780 ( ) Near Norwich and N. of Flints with appearance of working.
Lowestoft.

Notts.—Photographed by H. Preston, The Waterworks, Grantham.

1/2.

5781 ( ) Hemlock Stone, Bramcote . Stack of current-bedded Bunter cemented
by barytes.

5782 ( ) 35 55 35 . Stack of current-bedded Bunter cemented
by barytes.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. 1/4

5783 (1065) Hemlock Stone, Bramcote Stack of current-bedded Bunter cemented
by barytes.

Somerset —Photoqraphed by ? presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/2.

5784 ( ) Chilcompton railway cutting Lower Lias and Rhaetic foided into a
syncline and faulted against Dolo-
mitic Conglomerate.

Photographed by Professor 8. H. Reynoips, M.A., Se.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/2.

5785 (70-18) Quarry 3, left bank of Caninia-dolomites and shales (C, resting
Avon, Clifton. on Caninia-oolites (C,). 1918.

Photographed by J. W. TutcuEr, 57 Berkeley Road, Bishopston, Bristol,
presented by L. Ricnarpson, F.R.S.E. 1/2.

5786 ( ) Sunnyhill Quarry, Cole, nr. Inferior Oolite—Doulting Stone to Dis-

Bruton. cites-beds. 1914.
5787 (_ ) Strutter’s Hill, nr. Cole . Inferior Oolite—Astarte oblizyua-bed to
Dumortierie-beds. 1914.
5788 ( ) Mill Pitch,nr. Cole . . Inferior Oolite—Garantiana-beds. 1914.
5789 ( ) Limekiln Quarry, Hadspen, Inferior Oolite—Garantiana-beds and
nr. Castle Carey. Hadspen Stone.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 119

Starrorp.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Botiville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/4 and 1/2.

5790 (1182) Kinver . . ; . Inhabited houses in Bunter Sandstone.
1894.

5791 (1087) Holy Austin Rock, Kinver. Inhabited houses in Bunter Sandstone.
1894.

5792 (596) Tipton : , Open Coal Workings. 1891.

5793 (932) Cox’s Rough Quarry, Columnar Dolerite. 1898.

Rowley.
SussEx.—Photographed by A. W. W., presented by W. WuiTaKER.
Postcard.
5794 ( ) Black Rock, Brighton . Recession of coast by fall of cliff-drift

overlying Chalk.
5795 ( ) Devil’s Dyke, nr. Brighton . Dry Valley in Chalk.

5796 ( ) Poynings from the Devil’s Chalk Escarpment of South Downs.
Dyke.

Photographed by H. Preston, The Waterworks, Grantham. 1/4.

5797 ( ) South Downs, nr. Eastbourne Mass of ferruginous sandstone.
5798 ( ) Beachy Head . : . Weathered surface of Melbourn Rock.
1898.
Photographed by Professor W. W. Warts, F.R.S., Imperial College
of Science, S. Kensington ; presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp.

5799 ( ) Near Battle F ! . ‘Cutlet Bed’ from Purbeck, before 1895.

_ Warwicx.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
| Green, Birmingham, 1/4.

5800 (2522) Icknield St., Birmingham . Boulder clay with Erratic. 1913.
5801 (2533) » ”

f 5802 (812) Wilmcote ‘ : ‘ tie shale anit limestone. Tg93.

t
Witts.—Photographed by Dr. B. Porpr Barriettr, Bourton, Dorset. 1/2.
FS

5803 ( ) Dead Maid Quarry, Mere . Junction of Cenomanian and Selhornian
(general). 1915.
5804 ( ) 5 s » -. Junction of Cenomanian and Selbornian
(detail). 1915.
5805 ( ) Norton Ferris, Kilmington . Junction of Cenomanian and Selbornian.
1915.
|

{ Worcester.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
' Green, Birmingham. 1/4.

5806 (295F) Cotteridge Park, Bir- Erratics. 1911.

f mingham.

* WALES.

_ Anetesey.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
, Green, Birmingham. 1/2.

5807 (730) South Stack, nr. Holyhead Marine erosion of Precambrian Schists.
. 1
5808 (729)

Pf “5 Contorted Precambrian Schists. 1892.

N 2

120 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Carnarvon.—Photographed by Miss E. Henprixs, 405 Hagley Road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham. 1/4.

Regd
No.
5809 (_) Merllyn, Criccieth f . ‘ Boulders’ of Boulder Clay.
Photographed by ? presented by executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp.
1/2.
5810 ( ) Tremadoc . : : - Dolerite Sill.

GLAMORGAN.—Photographed by? presented by the executors of the late
H. B. Woopwarp. 1/1.

5811 ( ) Southerndown Cliffs, E. part Lower Lias limestone and shale.
5812 ( ) Southerndown Cliffs, nr. Lower Lias (Sutton Stone) unconformable
Bridgend. on Carboniferous Limestone.

Merioneta.—Photographed by Miss H. D. SHarpe, presented by the
executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/4.
5813 ( ) NearHarlech . : . Peat cutting.
5814 ( ) Near Bala Junction . . Meanders of River Dee.

Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham. 1/4.

5815 (1159) Llanbedr 3 4 . Erratics on glaciated surface. 1894.
5816 (244F) Pant Einion, nr. Bar- Boulder clay on Vertical Cambrians.
mouth Junction 1915.
5817 (2459) Sylfaen, Barmouth . . The ‘Sword Stones.’ 1912.
5818 (2446) _,, Pe atest ts 2 .
5819 (2667) Barmouth : : : Glacial Grooves.
5820 (846) 33 ; - . Entrance to Manganese Mine i in Cam-
brian. 1894.
5821 (1398) Llanaber : : . Submerged forest. 1897.
5822 (2462) Barmouth : . Sand ripples. 1912.
5823 (781) Cader Idris, upper part . Ordovician Igneous rocks, intrusive and
contemporaneous. 1893.
5824 (782) Cader Idris and Llyn-y- Arenig and Llandeilo volcanic rocks and
ee intrusive sills. 1893.
SCOTLAND.

EpinBurcH.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Boltville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/2.

5825 (765) Salisbury Crags, Arthur’s Dolerite on Carboniferous Sandstone.

Seat. 1892.

5826 (762) Salisbury Crags, Arthur’s Dolerite on Carboniferous Sandstone.
Seat. 1892.

5827 (760) Sampsou’s ribs, Arthur’s Colummar dolerite. 1892.
Seat.

5828 (761) Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh. . Volcanic agglomerate. 1892.

INVERNESS.—Photographed by VALENTINE & Sons, Lrp., Dundee,
presented by the executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/1.

5829 ( ) Ben-na-Cailleagh, Broadford, Granite mountains, Lias in foreground.
kye.

= ae

—

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 121

Photographed by G. P.. ABranAM, Lrv., Keswick, presented by the
executors of the late H. B. Woopwarp. 1/2.
Read.
No.
5830 ( ) Cuillin’s from Bruach-na- Gabbro scenery.
Frithe, Skye.

Photographed by G. W. Witson, Aberdeen, presented by the executors of
the late H. B. Woopwarp, 8 x 55.

5831 ( ) Blaven range trom Torran . Gabbro mountains, Cambrian limestone
in foreground.

4
IRELAND.

Antrim.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/2 and 1/4.

5835 (643) Giant’s Causeway - . The ‘Giant’s loom,’ columnar basalt.
1892.

5836 (642) 3 ; . The ‘fan,’ columnar basalt. 1892.

5837 (645) Giant’s Causeway; the Basalt columnar and non-columnar.

‘Spanish organ and chimneys.’ 1892.

5838 (2269) Cave Hill, Belfast . . Dolerite dyke penetrating chalk and
basalt. 1911.

5839 (2253) Ballypalidy . : . Basalt columnar and _ non-columnar.
1911.

5840 (2234) Larne ‘mad man’s windew’ Natural arch in chalk.

CLarE.—Photographed by Capt. J. A. Doveras, M.A., F.G.S.,
University Museum, Oxford. 1/4.

5841 ( ) Glencolombkille . . . Edge of Burren plateau; reprod. Q.J.G.S.,
LXV. (1909) p. 546.
5842 ( ) Burren f . ‘ . Terrace in the limestone escarpment ;

reprod. Q.J.G.S. LXV. (1909) p. 546.

Photographed by EK. R. Luoyp.

5843 ( ) Ballyveghan . : . Natural limestone amphitheatre; reprod.
: Q.J.G.8. LXV. (1909) p. 546.

Kerry.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/2.

5844 (699) Glengariff ... Glaciated rock.

_JERsEY.—Photographed by C. J. Watson, 14 Bottville Road, Acock’s
Green, Birmingham. 1/4.

5845 (1429) St. Helier - . Dyke in granite.

For Report of the Committee on Stress Distribution in Engineering

¥ Materials, see page 465.

192 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—-1919.

Zoological Bibliography and Publication.._Report of the Com-
mittee consisting of Professor E. B. Pounron (Chairman),
Dr. F. A. Baruer (Secretary), Mr. EK. HeRon-ALLEN, iD
W. Evans Hoye, and Dr. P. CHALMERS MITCHELL.

Stvce the last published report, the attention of a few societies has

been drawn to their custom of issuing authors’ reprints without the

required bibliographic details.

So far as work germane to this Committee is concerned, the
activities of its secretary have mainly consisted in service on two com-
mittees, appointed respectively by the Conjoint Board of Scientific
Societies and by the Council of the Royal Society to report on the
future of scientific bibliography.

In Science for July 5, 1918, there appeared a set of rules adopted
by the Entomological Society of Washington to govern publication in
its Proceedings. | Some of these are essentially the same as those
already issued as suggestions by the Committee. Others, which seem to
us worthy of general adoption, are the following :—

Rule 1.—No description of a new genus, or subgenus, will be pub-
fished unless there is cited as genotype a species which is established in
accordance with the current practice of zoological nomenclature.

Rule 2.—In all cases a new genus, or subgenus, must be charac-
terised, and, if it is based on an undescribed species, the two must be
characterised separately.

Rule 38.—No description of a species subspecies, variety, or form
will be published unless it is accompanied by a statement which includes
the following information, where known: (1) the type-locality; (2) of
what the type material consists—with statement of sex, full data on
localities, dates, collectors, etc.; and (3) present location of type
material.

Rule 5.—The ordinal (or class) position of the group treated in any
paper must be clearly given in the title or in parentheses following
the title. :

Suggestion 3.—In discussion of type-material modern terms indi-
cating its precise nature will be found useful. Examples of these
terms are: type [or holotype], allotype, paratype, cotype [or syntype],
lectotype, neotype, etc.

Suggestion 4.—In all cases in the serial treatment of genera or
species, and where first used in general articles, the authority for the
species, or genus, should be given; and the name of the authority
should not be abbreviated.

Suggestion 6.—When a species discussed has been determined by
some one other than the author, it is important that reference be made
to the worker making the identification.

We would also add, as a Rule, That when a new genus, sub-genus,
species, or variety is introduced, it should be accompanied by a dis-
tinct statement that it is new, e.g. by the addition of ‘n.sp.,’ ete.
Also that a species, etc., should not be described as new when it has
been introduced in a previous publication.

Your Committee asks for reappointment, with a grant of £10 to
defray the expense of circulating these and its previous suggestions
among editors of zoological and cognate publications.

—

ON ARCHAOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS IN MALTA. 123

Archeological Investigations in Malta.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor J. Lu. Myres (Chairman),
Dr. T. Asusy (Secretary), Mr. H. Batrour, Dr. A. C
Happon, and Dr. R. R. Marerr.

THis year’s work has consisted of excavations at Ghar Dalam,
commenced in the summer of 1918, and still in progress.
The grant of 10]. was spent in the exploration of that part of the cave
floor separating the Trench described in the Report of the British
Association of 1916, and Trench No. II, described in the Report pub-
lished in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of 1917.

The layers in this part did not, of course, differ much from those
described in the above-mentioned reports. Potsherds occurred in
equal quantity, and belonged to various epochs, some being of a very
fine pattern, a few implements were also met with, and animal bones
were, as usual, found in great profusion. The most important fact,
however, in this part of the cave floor is the occurrence of some
human remains at a lower level than that in which the Neanderthaloid
molars were found in 1917. This particular grant was exhausted by
September 4, but the work continued, and was carried on for the
greater part of the year, with only an interruption of about three months,
the average number of men employed being six.

This work consisted in the digging of three trenches, which will
be fully described in a report when the work is complete, and this will
probably be in about two months more.

Trench I extends from the outer wall of Trench No. II of 1917 to
an old rubble wall towards the entrance. It is about 30 feet long, having
an average width of 25 feet. In this trench potsherds were found
in profusion and belonged to various epochs. Animal bones were also
found in the greatest abundance, and evidence of man’s work has been
traced to a rather low level.

Trench II is still nearer to the entrance of the cavern, extending
from the above-mentioned rubble wall to Trench No. I of 1917. In
both length and width this trench is practically equal to Trench T.
As a considerable difference has been observed in the layers at various
parts, two columns of material, about four feet in diameter, have been
lefé standing for future reference, which, together with that part of
the cave floor which has been left dividing the present trenches, will
preserve for the cave an interest even when it is totally explored. In

_ Trench IT potsherds were not so common as in Trench I, but animal
remains were found in equal abundance. Amongst the important finds

in this trench are several specimens and many fragments of a marine

_ Shell belonging to a species which is at present very rare in Maltese
_ Waters, not to say extinct.

Trench III is still being excavated. It is situated further inside of
Trench I, and is about 18 or 20 feet in length, and lesser in width than
Trenches I and II. Here are to be seen some groups of stalagmites of

os sizes, one of them being nearly equal to that described in my

report of 1916. A coating of stalagmitic formation has preserved in

_ this french many of the animal remains in their anatomical position.
y

124 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The state of the bones varied considerably in the various parts of
the area excavated, some being very well preserved, others, however,
could not be subjected to the slightest handling. Some of the smaller
bones, especially, have already been sent to the British Museum, where
they await determination. In none of the three trenches has the bottom
of the cavern been reached, but in No. I and No. II we have come to a
conglomerate of bones, consisting chiefly of teeth, which is very hard
to dig, but which it is hoped to work when the digging up of Trench IIi
is complete.

Experimental Studies in the Physiology of Heredity.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Dr. F. F. Buackman (Chair-
man), Professors BATESON and KEEBLE, and Miss E. R.
SAUNDERS.

Durine the past year the investigation carried on by Miss Saunders
on the inheritance of surface characters in Matthiola has yielded the
further evidence which was needed in order to render clear the factorial
relations underlying the results obtained. These results show that
Matthiola incana type and its well-known glabrous variety are not the
isolated forms which they appear to be, but represent the end turns
of a series, the intermediate members of which are characterised by
a gradual increase in degree of hairiness in the course of development,
so that the range in one grade overlaps that of the next in the series,
in strong contrast with the constant, wniform appearance exhibited
by the type and the wholly glabrous form. The range limits and the
genetic behaviour of the several grades have now been determined,
the appearance in one at least of the lower grades when hair develop-
ment is almost at vanishing point being such as to suggest that we
have in this case reached limiting physiological conditions.

It is proposed to continue the work on Matthiola and also certain
experiments already in progress on other genera. The expensiveness
of this work has much increased, and from last year’s grant of 191.
they were unable to provide skilled labour. The Committee hope that
it may now be found possible to increase the grant to 401., which sum
falls a long way below the cost of the work.

Australian Fossil Plants.—Final Report of the Committee consist-
ing of Professor W. H. Lana (Chairman), Professor T. G. B.
Osporn (Secretary), Professors T. W. EpGEworRTH DAVID
and A. C. SEWARD, appointed to cut sections of Australian
Fossil Plants, with especial reference to a specimen of
Zygopteris from Simpson's Station, Barraba, New South
Wales. ;

Tur Committee reports that the whole of the block of Zygopteris stem
from Barraba has been sectioned after sécuring accurate casts of the

a

ON AUSTRALIAN FOSSIL PLANTS. 125

specimen. All the slides have safely arrived in Australia, and are in
Mrs. Osborn’s hands. The work of description is proceeding, but final
results cannot be published until her return to England, it is hoped in
1920, owing to lack of essential literature in Australia. There is no
immediate prospect that a committee operating from Adelaide will
be able to secure further petrified material; hence the Committee
feel that, the terms of appointment being fulfilled, its work is finished.

7

Australian Cycadacee.—Final Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor A. A. Lawson (Chairman), Professor
T. G. B. Ossorn (Secretary), and Professor A. C. SEWARD,
appointed to collect and investigate material thereof.

te Die ni ial

THe Committee regretfully reports that all attempts to secure regular

supplies of cycads by post from Queensland and Western Australia
‘have proved unsuccessful. Under the circumstances, therefore, the

Committee does not ask for reappointment, and returns the balance
of the grant herewith. A small amount of material, notably germina-

tion stages of Macrozamia Frazeri and some stages in development of

the female cone of Bowenia spectabilis, has been secured and handed
_to Mrs. Osborn for investigation.

;

Museums.—Interim. Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
} fessor J. A. GREEN (Chairman), Mr. H. Bourton and Dr.
J. A. Cuusp (Secretaries), Dr. F. A. BATHER, Messrs. C. A.
Buckmaster and M. D. Hitt, Dr. W. E. Hoytz, Professors
K. J. GARwoop and P. NEwserry, Sir Henry Miers, Sir
RicHARD TEMPLE, Mr. H. HamsHaw THomas, Professor
F. E. Weiss, Dr. JEsstz WHITE, Rev. H. Browne, Drs.
A. C. Happon and H. 8. Harrison, Mr. Hersert R. RAtu-
BONE, and Dr. W. M. TATTERSALL, appointed to examine the
Character, Work, and Maintenance of Museums.

te SEI

we

Tur Committee have to report that their work has been suspended
for two years, owing to the absence of members upon active service
-at home and abroad. Owing to the likelihood of the educational work
‘of museums being recognised under the Education Act of 1918, the
Committee are revising the several reports they had previously con-
sidered and bringing them up to date. A comprehensive statement
upon the whole question will be presented at the 1920 Meeting.

__ The Committee present a report upon the relation of Overseas
Museums to Education drawn up by the Secretary (Mr. H. Bolton)
and Dr. W. M. Tattersall.

The Committee seek reappointment, with a grant of 151.

126 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Report of Secretary and Dr. W. M. Tattersaty upon Overseas
Museums.

Intropuctory Notes.

Mr. Bolton and Dr. Tattersall were requested by the Committee
to take advantage of the British Association Meeting in Australia to
visit museums in the States and Australia, and to draw up a report
thereon for the Committee’s use. The following is an abstract of
their report :—

AusTRALIAN Musrvms.
West Australian Museum and Art Gallery.

Lectures are given by request upon museum collections on stated
days to schools and classes.

A few museum lectures are delivered annually.

Special student series of specimens, furnished with explanatory
labels, are now being set up.

Adelaide Museum.
Public lectures occasionally, but no definite educational scheme.

Australian Museum, Sydney.

Students and pupils of public and private schools and colleges
are admitted by arrangement on Monday afternoons, and facilities
for study given.

Evening lectures.

Technological Museum, Sydney.

No lectures are given in connection with the museum, but the
specimens in the museum are lent to illustrate lectures given in the
local technical colleges and lessons upon Nature study in the public
schools.

Queensland Museum, Brisbane.

(1) Elementary.—Certain members of the scientific staff—chosen
for this purpose—deliver elementary lectures and give demonstrations,
with specimens, to classes not exceeding thirty students. Special
afternoons are also allotted to junior classes of all grades to visit the
galleries for the purpose of definite work, and a guide is placed at
their disposal whenever one is desired.

(2) Secondary.—The remarks made under ‘ Elementary ’ apply also
to this section, except that the lectures are of a more advanced
character, and more care is taken in the selection of specimens, which,
if opportunity permits, are handed round to each individual student.

(3) Higher Education.—The work in this respect is similar to that
of the Universities, except that the staff are unable to give students
any large amount of personal attention—rare instances excepted.

(4) Research.—Every facility is given for research, both to visiting
students and members of the museum staff. Some of the latter are
able to carry on solid work of this kind for the greater part of the year.

ee

ON MUSEUMS. 127

AMERICAN Museums.

Academy of Sciences, Chicago.

This museum is now specialising upon natural history work for
schools :

(1) By the formation of a large series of group cases of examples
of the Illinois fauna, each group being set up in life positions, backed
by coloured reproductions of the actual Illinois scenery in which the
specimens lived.

(2) The provision of an extensive series of lantern slides, which
are lent to the schools for lectures.

(8) Special series of natural study courses at the museum to
teachers and to children delegates from schools.

(4) Laboratory courses for children are arranged after school hours
and on Saturday mornings.

(5) Aquaria and a reference library are maintained for children.

(6) School visits are encouraged, and teachers and children are
provided with lists of questions to answer from their observations of
the museum specimens.

(7) Public lectures and lectures in schools are delivered by members
of the museum staff.

(8) Future plans include the provision of a children’s museum
and lecture theatre.

Lecturing is paid for at a rate of fifteen dollars per lecture, and
is not necessarily a part of the duty of the staff. Qualified lecturers
are sometimes engaged from outside the museum.

Field Museum, Chicago.

A gift of $250,000 has been received for the formation of a Circula-
tion Series of Specimens to Chicago schools. These are estimated to
reach a quarter of a million of scholars. The Circulation Series are
arranged in compact cases, furnished with pockets, in which are placed
detailed descriptions of the specimens. Natural history specimens
are mounted amongst natural surroundings.

‘The plans of the new museum include provision for lecture theatres
in each of its four great departments, and for an elaborate scheme of
supply of material and information to schools.

Art Institute, Chicago.

The character of the collections and their display is much similar
to that of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington.

A large art school is maintained in connection with the museum,
and many students work in the museum.
_ Art classes also work under guidance of teachers in the museum.
A full series of lectures are available for schools and classes which
desire them.
Several lecturers (ladies) are attached to the museum, and frequently
several lectures are delivered in the museum on the same day.

4

128 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh.

(1) Elementary Schools.—Visits of classes of school children to
the museum are arranged under competent guides from the museum
staff. Specimens are removed from the cases for the better instruction
of school children.

Loan collections are made to schools.

Lectures to school children, and prize essay contests are arranged.

(2) Secondary Schools.—Special demonstrations similar in kind to
those given to elementary schools are arranged, but of a more intensive
character and more adapted to the higher attainments of the pupils.

(3) Higher Institutions of Learning.—Advanced students from the
University attend the museum to carry on special researches under
the direction of the staff, many of whom are also professors in the
University.

Special provision is made for the instruction of the blind.

United States National Museum, Washington.

Members of the museum staff are also professors in the University,
and have established the closest connection between the museum and
the student, who carries out much of his study in the museum.

The museum is one of the recognised institutions at which research
work can be done for the degree of Ph.D. of the George Washington
University.

Boston Museum of Fine Arts.
The educational work of this museum is as follows :—

(1) Special Sunday docent services—i.e., two informal talks by
specialists, who give their services free, on Sunday afternoons, during
the winter.

(2) Members of the staff meet visitors on request on weekdays for
guidance through the museum. No charge.

(3) Public lectures:

a) Museum school courses. <
ts University Extension courses. \ Begs, tonduoph:

(4) Loan collections of lantern slides, photographs, and duplicate
textiles and prints.

(44) Loan collections for instruction.

(5) School of art in connection with the museum.

(6) Issue of free tickets to teachers and students.

(7) Free conferences by specialists on particular objects or groups
of objects in the museum.

(8) Docent service for school children.

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Members, visitors, and teachers desiring to see the collections under
expert guidance may secure the services of a member of the staff
detailed for the purpose.

The service is free to teachers and to scholars under their guidance.

Easels and modelling stands may be used.

Copyists may be asked to satisfy the authorities as to their ability.

pe ~2

ON MUSEUMS. 129

Copying permitted on all days except Saturdays.

Museum instruction for pupils of public schools. Schools pay
part cost of lecture or part cost of course.

‘Sample ’ classes are given to teachers.

Lectures also given to selected classes of children.

The city maintains one paid lecturer.

Regular visits are paid from schools for instruction upon the history
of art.

Children are sent to the museum to study and then write up com-
positions upon the objects studied.

The University and the museum are in close co-operation, especially
on classical and historical sides.

The director hopes yet to see a Faculty of Arts in the. museum,
with special lectures upon special collections.

American Museum of Natural History, New York.

, This museum has for many years done a remarkable work in
education. Its activities are much summarised in the following :—
Lecture courses for teachers.
Teaching collections.
Circulating Nature study collections to 501 schools in 1913, which
reached over 14 million of pupils.
: 597 study collections for circulation.
Lectures to pupils.
A special guide service.
Special class-rooms for students.
30,000 lantern slides.
A large loan series of lantern slides.
Provision for blind students.
Propose to establish ten ‘ Lecture Centres ’ of 18 lectures per year
in various parts of New York.
Suggested branch teaching museums in a number of centrally
located schools.

Columbian University and the American Museum of Natural History.

Professors of the University lecture and demonstrate to their
students in the museum, the Professors occupying the dual position of
Curator in the museum and Professor in the University.

Specimens are provided for the students to handle.

Pennsylvania Museum.
Lectures are given to teachers, also addresses to children in classes
of 50 to 200.
In the latter case teachers attend, and can thus follow up the
instruction given.
The city has been asked to provide instructors.
At present the burden is thrown upon the museum staff.
The following educational establishments send students :—
(1) Preparatory schools.
Carrying students up to Matriculation standard.

130 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

(2) Small colleges.
(3) Grammar, higher grade schools, and ladies’ colleges.
(4) Post-graduate classes. These do good work in museum.

Curators rank as Professors in the University.

The museum is supported by 15,000 dollars from State.

There is an endowment of 150,000 dollars and a bequest of
200,000 dollars, which yield 5 per cent.

All researches are published by the museum.

Philadelphia Commercial Museum.

Lectures every day to scholars from the public schools.

Occasional lectures to high school students and to University
classes.

University Professors bring classes to the museum, and demonstrate
at the cases.

The museum has sent out 600 cabinets of group preparations,
showing various cereals, foods, ores, minerals, &c. Hach shows its
mercantile use and value.

The museum answers all inquiries, and also obtains information for
business men. This work has proved of the utmost value to the
commerce of the city.

Memorial Hall Museum, Philadebphia.

Art and industrial art collections only.

The museum is in close connection with technical schools of city.

Classes are held regularly at the museum.

The museum is specially used to stimulate art and industrial
development, and in giving suggestions and aid to students in design
and construction.

It is maintained partly by the city and partly by student fees.

Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.

Possesses two docents:

(1) A museum docent.

(2) An art docent, maintained by an Art League.

The two lectured to 114,000 pupils in 1913.

Teachers and pupils are most appreciative and enthusiastic.

Children’s Museum, Bedford Park, seeks co-operation with the
schools :

(1) By correlating its exhibits with school courses of study.

(2) By maintaining a free reference library.

(3) By conducting courses of free illustrated lectures for school
children.

(4) By lending charts and natural history specimens for class-room
use, and f

(5) By giving much individual attention and instruction in the
exhihition halls.

ON MUSEUMs. 131

Public Museum of Milwaukee.

Lectures are given for four classes :

(1) General adult public.

(2) School teachers.

(3) Students of normal, vocational, and high schools.
(4) Grammar school children.

The Education Department consists of :

A curator, associate lecturers, professional photographer and lantern
operator, and an expert slide colourist.

Special Sunday afternoon and evening lectures are given.

Museum lecturers give ‘ talks,’ or series of ‘ talks,’ at the schools,
or give lectures, or conduct parties through the museum upon request.

A science club is maintained for high school students.

Arrangements are made whereby all public school children of
certain grades come to the museum twice each year for half-day visits.

The lessons of the American museums may be briefly summarised:

(1) They have solved in the most admirable fashion the problem of
reaching all classes of students.

(2) The educational work is carefully systematised and adapted to
the recipients.

(3) The range of influence of the museum has been in most cases
determined, and the nature of the educational requirements, and these
are well catered for.

(4) The highest degree and research work are encouraged, and the
University and museum work in complete harmony.

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Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND Puysican ScIENncr.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: Professor A. Gray, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S.,
F.R.S.E.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

I nAve devoted some little time to the perusal of the Addresses of my pre-
decessors in this Chair. These have a wide range. They include valuable
philosophical discussions of the nature of scientific knowledge and expositions
of scientific method, ag well as highly instructive réswmés and appreciations of
the progress of mathematics and physics. But as this is the first meeting of
the British Association since the conclusion of peace I have decided to disregard
in the main these precedents, and to endeavour to point out, in the first place,
some of the lessons which the war has, or ought to have, taught our country
and those who direct its policy, and in particular ourselves, whose vocation it
is to cultivate and to teach mathematical and physical science.

Before proceeding with this task I must refer to the loss which physical
science and the British Association have suffered this year through the deaths
of Professor Carey Foster and Lord Rayleigh. Both of these great physicists
were regular in attendance at the meetings of the Association, and they will
be greatly missed.

What Carey Foster was as a man of science, as a teacher, and as a friend of
all students of physics, has been worthily set forth in the columns of Nature,
with all the knowledge and affectionate reverence of one who was at once his
‘pupil and his fellow-worker at University College. To that eloquent tribute I
will not, though I knew Carey Foster well, venture to add a word.

T shall not attempt to appraise here the work of Lord Rayleigh. But I may say
that for something like half a century his name has stood not only for things that
‘are great in physical discovery, but for sanity of judgment, and clarity, elegance,
and soundness of treatment of outstanding and difficult problems of mathe-
matical physics. His researches, too, in experimental science have been fruitful
in results of the utmost importance in chemistry as well as in physics, With
him there was no shirking of the toil of monotonous and systematic observation
from day, to day, in the pursuit of the greatest attainable accuracy : take, for
example, his work on electrical units. But his influence on applied mathematics
has aiso been enormous, and places him for all time in the foremost rank of the
great physical mathematicians, at the head of which stands Isaac Newton.
One has only to read his Treatise on the Theory of Sound, and his papers on
Optics and Wave Theory, to find some of the most striking examples in all
scientific literature of the working of a mind not only of the first order of
iginality, but imbued with a feeling for symmetry of form and clearness of
exposition.

Lord Rayleigh’s genius was, it seems to me, essentially intuitive and prac-
tical. Though he was not given to any striving after the utmost rigidity of
ormal proof, which, as he himself remarked, might not be more but. less
emonstrative to the physicist than physical reasons, no man. made fewer
nistakes. He is gone, but he has left an inspiring example to his order and to
his countrymen of a long life consecrated to the object for which the Royal
0 2

—

136 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

Society, of which he had been the honoured President, was founded, the further-
ance of Natural Knowledge.

The part which physical science has played in the conduct of the war on
our side has been an important one, but it has by no means been so decisive as
it might and ought to have been. And here lie the lessons which I think we
can draw from the terrible events which have taken place. Some few people,
mostly hostile to or jealous of science, whose vision of facts and tendencies
seems to me to be hopelessly obscured by prejudice, would try to impose on
the advance of natural knowledge and the supposed increased influence of
scientific ideas on the minds of men, or, perhaps more precisely, on the diminu-
tion of the study of the so-called humanities, the sole or the main responsibility
for the outbreak of war. It seems to me that a good many people allow
themselves to be misled by aname. The name Humanity is given in the Scottish
Universities to the department of the Latin language and literature, and in a
wider usage the study of Latin and Greek is referred to as that of Littere
Humaniores. But I am not aware that there is any more humanity, in the
common acceptation of the term, about these studies than there is in many
others. And experience has shown that the assertion that these studies have
a special refining influence, while the pursuit of science has a brutalising
tendency, is based on ignorance and partiality. The truth is that the man who
knows nothing of science, and he who has neglected the study of letters, are both
imperfectly educated.

Well, the accusation I refer to may be dismissed without argument.
This is certainly not the time nor the place for a discussion of the causes of
the war, or of the ethics of the extraordinary methods introduced into warfare
by our enemies. But one- thing I will say in this connection. Even poison gas
is innocent in itself, and it occurs as a product in perfectly indispensable and
eminently useful chemical processes. The extraordinary potency of scientific
knowledge for the good of civilised mankind is frequently conjoined with a
potency for evil; but the responsibility, for an inhuman use of it does not lie
with the scientific investigator. The guilt lies at the door of the High Com-
mand, of the high and mighty persons, themselves in feeling and temper
utterly unscientific, who approved and directed the employment of methods of
attack which destroyed the wounded and helpless, and wrecked for ever the
health of many of those who emerged alive from the inferno.

As regards the help which British science was able to render in the defence

against the German attack and the operations which followed when the fortune
of war changed so dramatically, and the enemy was driven back towards the
chain of fastnesses from behind which he originally emerged, one or two obvious
reflections must have occurred to everyone. In one form or another these have
been referred to by various writers, but I may recall one or two of them, for as
a people we are incorrigibly forgetful and appear to be almost incapable of
profiting from experience, which, according to the Latin proverb, teaches even
fools.
Nearly twenty years ago the urgent necessity for the reorganisation of our
military machinery had been, in the view of civilians at least, who had to bear
the cost of the war in South Africa, demonstrated ad nauseam, but nothing of
real importance in the way of reforming the War Office seems to have been done.
The shocks we had received were forgotten, and soon the nation returned to
its insular complacency, the old party. cries resounded in the market-place, the
hacks of party politics again resumed their occupation of camouflage and hood-
winking, and of giving ‘parliamentary answers,’ and the country drifted on
towards its fate.

All this time an enormously powerful war machine was being built up on
the Continent, and its different parts tested so far as that could be done with-
out actual warfare. The real object of these preparations was carefully veiled
by an appearance of frankness and professions of good will, though it was
revealed every now and then by the indiscretions of the German military caste.
To these indications and to others the country, ostrich-like, covered its eyes.

Now, it is often alleged that men engrossed in the pursuit of science are
unbusinesslike, but I think that, if there had been any truly scientific element
in the personnel of the Government (there never is by any chance), attention

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 137

would have been directed at a much earlier period to our hopeless state of
unpreparedness for the storm which was gradually gathering up against us on
the other side of the German Ocean. In discussions of our unpreparedness the
emphasis has been placed on our lack of arms and munitions. But important
as these are, the entire absence of a scientific organisation to guide us in the
exigencies of a defensive war with the most scientific and most military nation
of Kurope was even more serious. ‘

It is this deficiency in our organisation, a deficiency the avoidance of
which would have had no provocative effect whatever, which concerns us
here very specially. It is, moreover, a deficiency which, in spite of the lessons
they have received, has, I fear, not yet been brought home to our military chiefs.
When war broke out nothing had been done to ensure the utilisation for special
service in the multitude of scientific operations, which war as carried on by the
German armies involved, of the great number of well-trained young scientific
men available in the country. The one single idea of our mobilisers was to send
men to the trenches to kill Germans, and for this simple duty all except certain
munition workers and men in the public services were summoned to the Army.
Some modifications were made afterwards, but I am speaking of the failure of
prevision at the outset. The need of men for special service, the inevitable
expansion of the Navy for patrol and other purposes and the like, were, if they
were thought of at all, put aside, without regard to the difficulties which would
inevitably arise if these matters were delayed. Even how the new soldiers
were to be trained, almost without rifles or machine guns, to meet the Germans
in the field nobody knew. And I for one believe that but for the vigour and
_ energy of Lord Kitchener, and the almost too late expression of conviction of
_ our danger, and consequent action, by one outstanding politician, all would have
been lost. We worried through, but at a loss of life and treasure from which
: it will take us long to recover, and which I could wish seemed to weigh more

heavily on the minds and consciences of politicians.

The Germans, I believe, had a complete record not only of all their men
fitted only for the rank and file, but also of all who had been trained to observe
and measure. For the use of even the very simplest apparatus of observation a
certain expertness in reading graduated scales, and generally a certain amount
of trained intelligence is required. For this the laboratories of Germany amply
_ provided, and the provision had its place in the enemy’s mobilisation, Our
people apparently did not even know that such a need existed or might arise.
In a letter which I sent to the Council of the Royal Society at the end of 1915
I ventured to propose that the Royal Society might set on foot an organisation
of some such character as the following :—First, a Central Committee should be
established, in some degree representative of the different centres of scientific
_ teaching and work in pure and applied science. Then this Committee should
nominate representatives at each centre, at least one at each University, or
College, and one at the headquarters of each local society, such, for example,
as the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders of Scotland, and the similar
Society which represents the North-East of England, and has its offices at New-
castle-on-Tyne. This arrangement, it was hoped, would enable the Central
Committee to obtain readily information as to what men were available, and
*would therefore do something to bring the schools of science, and all the great
workshops and laboratories of applied science, into co-operation. Thus
could be formed at once a list of men available for particular posts, for the
task of solving the problems that were certain to arise from day to day, and
for the special corps which it was soon, if dimly, perceived were a necessity.
Some such linking up of London with the provinces is really indispensable.
The districts of, for example, the Tyne and the Clyde are too much ignored in
almost all Government action of a general kind.

My letter was printed and sent out to some prominent men, by whom its
proposals were highly approved. A Conference on its subject was held in
London, and two special Committees were appointed. I was a member of
one of these, the principal duty of which was to provide scientific men for
Special service. It included representatives of the various great departments,
actively engaged in the conduct of the war. For some reason or other, which
I never learned, the Committee after a week or two ceased to be called, and
TI believe that little was done in comparison with what might have been

:

138 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

accomplished. It was certainly not because such a committee would not work.
Everybody was most willing, with proper notice, to attend such meetings as
were involved, and to take any amount of personal trouble; moreover, the
scheme was such as to provide that there should always be a nucleus of members
in London to consult and act in any emergency,

I may briefly refer to one or two examples of the chaos which prevailed
and the attempts that were made to cope with it. Very soon after the formation
of the first Kitchener Army the organisation of the different corps apparently
became a source of anxiety to the War Office. It began to be seen that officers
in sufficient numbers could not possibly be obtained by the usual channels, so
the expedient (a poor one by itself) was hit upon of placing the nominations
to commissions in one at least of the two great scientific corps of the Army—
the Royal Engineers—in the hands of the presidents of certain technical Institu-
tions which have their headquarters in London. These gentlemen, with the help
of the official secretaries, no doubt did the best they could, but a very regrettable,
though perfectly natural, amount of strong feeling was evoked among the young
scientifically educated men in the provinces, who were keenly anxious to join
this corps. The Engineers, I may hardly say, is no refuge for men who are
in the least concerned about their personal safety, for the percentage of casual-
ties among Engineers on active service was notably higher than in the regiments
of the line. Over and over again young engineers came to me, and complained
that under the arrangements made they had no chance of obtaining commis-
sions, or of qualifying as cadets, and begged me to write to the authorities.
Of course, young graduate engineers do not as a rule join Societies such as the
Institution of Civil, Mechanical, or Electrical Engineers, until they have made
their way to some little extent, and begun to earn a little money.

The procedure I have indicated had in time to be relaxed, but such a Central
Committee as I suggested, with antenne stretching out to the educational and
technical centres of the country would, I am sure, have recruited the Engineers
quickly with the best possible material for officers to be found in the country, to
the satisfaction of all concerned. It may be said that full information regarding
every man in the country was in the hands of the authorities. In a sense this
was true; the information existed in millions of returns, and thousands of
pigeon-holes, but no attempt was made, or could be made, by office staffs in
London, enormous as these quickly became, to digest and utilise it.

A large number of engineers and physicists and many others of mechanical
skill and aptitudes found congenial occupation in the Royal Naval Air Service
and the Royal Flying Corps; but even there, where things could be better done,
since a new force had to be brought into existence, arrangements were to a
considerable extent haphazard and ill thought out. Excellent self-sacrificing
service was rendered by many, who risked and gave their lives, and of what
was done we may, well be proud. But from a scientific point of view there is
room for great improvement. The, as I think, hasty and ill-considered amal-
gamation of these two branches of the Air Service, in which naval traditions
were sacrified to those of the War Office, which deserved no such deference,
will certainly have to be undone in the near future, or very greatly transformed.

To anyone who considers the possibilities and probabilities of warfare in the -

future, it appears clear that this country will have to depend more and more
upon its Navy, and that an Air Service Corps will be the companion of every
division of our Fleet, with landings on the warships. Thus a new and highly
scientific service, which will have to be to a great extent naval, is certain to be
brought into existence.

Well, then, to return for a moment to my proposal to the Royal Society, why
should the organisation which I suggested in 1915 not be established now? lL
wish all success to the League of Nations, but we shall prove ourselyes even
greater fools than we have been in the past if we do not use all possible
means to prepare ourselves against eventualities. One attempt by cur enemies
outside our own borders to hold us to ransom has failed. Can we be so sure
that no other attempt will ever be made, or that no casus belli between our-
selves and another great nation will ever arise? This, I notice, is beginning to
be assumed even in the midst of the welter of confusion and unrest that exists,
and, among others, by just the very people who used to teach that the possibility
of war was a great illusion.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 139

The formation of a record of scientific graduates for special service ought not
to be difficult. The material already in great measure exists. Hach University
and College has its roll of graduates or diploma holders, and with slightly more
detailed entries these rolls would give the record. Hach graduate of a University
is kept track of through the necessity for keeping the electoral roll up to date,
and it ought to be possible to devise a means of maintaining touch with the
diploma holder. If each University or College were a local centre of the
Central Committee, the making of the roll of graduates would be achieved at the
different local headquarters, and would be a valuable supplement to the O.T.C.
work now undertaken so willingly and done so well. The Government
machinery which manages the O.T.C. movement might control the keeping of
the register which I have suggested.

IT turn now to another side of scientific work during the war. It was my lot
to serve for nearly three years on the Inventions Panel of the Ministry of Muni-
tions, and as the result of that experience I venture to make some observations
on the utilisation of scientific knowledge and genius in the production of inven-
tions useful for the public service. We had an enormous multitude of inven-
tions to consider, and the Panel was divided into Committees for this purpose.
For each invention or proposal a file or dossier was prepared and most carefully
kept. There were also present at the meetings of the Panel very efficient officers
representing different branches of the service. Everything received careful
attention, and for the ability and fairness with which the initial examination
was made by the corps of examiners, and the précis of the invention presented,
I have great admiration. Much has been said about the inefficiency and the
mistakes of various Government Departments during the war. The Ministry
of Munitions Inventions Department was, so far as I could see, eminently well
managed.

Many of the so-called inventions were not inventions at all. Some were not
at all new; in other cases an idea only was mooted. Could so-and-so not be
done? and so on, and the Department was supposed to be grateful for the
idea, and to do the rest, besides rewarding the proposer. A favourite notion,
which illustrates the diffusion of scientific knowledge among different classes
of people, was that of taking a magnet—any magnet—up on an aeroplane, and
using it to attract Zeppelins and other aircraft. Others suggested electro-
magnets fed ‘by machines which would have involved carrying into the air on
an aeroplane a fully equipped power-house! Another favourite idea, inspired,
no doubt, by a certain sensational type of article in the fiction magazines, was
that of rays charged in some way with electricity, or some other mysterious
agency, and therefore intensely destructive !

But there was a residuum of valuable inventions, which fully justified the
existence of the Department. These were recommended for further considera-
tion by the various departments of the services, or by General Headquarters.
It by no means followed that all that came to this stage received careful further
consideration. Everybody was very hard worked, and many were overdriven.
And it was by no means certain that when important approved appliances were
sent to G.H.Q. a thoroughly well-informed and capable officer would in all
eases have the duty of explaining and showing their action. The absence of
such an officer, I am sure, often resulted in delay and serious error, and, I
fear, also in the rejection of what was in itself exceedingly good, but was not
understood. People who knew nothing about the matter took charge, and ordered
things to be done which brought disaster to the apparatus. I know of one very
important machine which was ruined, with much resulting delay. A Brigadier-
or Major-General, with a confidence born of blank ignorance, ordered a motor
generator to be put on town electric mains, and of course burnt it out.

_ Then, again, we were told that G.H.Q. did not want this or that, and here,
as in all human affairs, mental inertia certainly played a considerable part
The willingness, however, of some departments to adopt at once a device captured
from the enemy was pathetic. Often quite clumsy and relatively inferior con-
trivances were adopted in the midst of hesitation about our own. Anvythine
German of this sort some people assumed must be good—a foolish idea, the
gi of want of confidence, often well founded I am afraid, in their own

140 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

judgment. It is legitimate to copy from the enemy, and in several important
things we have not been slow to do so.

The delays that occurred were to some of us at home, who were anxiously
dealing with all kinds of contrivances, exceedingly exasperating. Some were
undoubtedly unavoidable, but others were, as I have indicated, far otherwise.
Deficiency in scientific education was the cause. It is to enforce the need for
such education that I refer to such matters at all. The ‘‘ playing fields of Eton ”
are all very well. I for one do not scoff at what the old saying stands for,
but scientific laboratories and good intelligent work in them are indispensable.
A man who directs in whole or in part a great machine must know something
of its structure and capabilities. This apparently does not hold in politics.

I feel bound to allude to another aspect of the inventions business which to
my mind was very serious. In doing so, however, I wish it to be clearly
understood that I am criticising a system and in no way here referring to particu-
lar individuals concerned in its administration. Various inventions which had
passed satisfactorily the first examinations by responsible judges were sub-
mitted to technical departments at home to be subjected to practical tests.
These inventions were, frequently, solutions proposed of problems on which
technical officers, of the departments required to conduct the tests, had long
been engaged. It was natural, indeed inevitable, that some of these officers
should have come to regard the solving of these problems as their own special
job, and so did not much welcome the coming of the outside inventor. Then,
no doubt, they often felt that they were just on the point of arriving at a
solution—a feeling that certainly could not facilitate the avoidance of delay.
It was manifestly most unfair to ask them to judge the work of the outside
inventor, or to place in their hands details of his proposals, for exactly the
same reason which in civil life restrains a man from acting as a jurar in a
case in which he is personally interested. Nobody of good sense feels offended
when attention is called to such a rule in practice.

Thus I have no hesitation in expressing the opinion that a testing board of
practical, well-qualified physicists and other experts, with a properly qualified
staff, should be formed for the purpose of carrying out all tests of inventions.
No insuperable difficulty would, I believe, be experienced in forming such a
board. It should be formed carefully, not by more or less casual nomination
of one another by a few persons. Expert knowledge of a subject
should be a necessary qualification; the so-called ‘open mind’ of the much-
lauded but untrained practical man is not worth having. But on that board
neither inside nor outside inventors of the same kind of appliances should have
any place, though of course consultation with the author of an invention under
test would be absolutely necessary. Also those actually carrying out the tests
and those collating the results should not be men in any way in the employ-
ment of or under the supervision of inventors, whether ‘outside’ or ‘ inside.’
It is imperative in the interests of the country that delay in such matters
should be avoided, and that all such work should be done without fear or
favour.

The value of University and College men trained in science has been
thoroughly proved in the Artillery, the Engineers, and in their offshoots, the
Special Sound Ranging and Survey Corps, though its recognition by the
authorities of Whitehall has been scanty and grudging. Some of the oid-
fashioned generals and staff officers could not be got to see the use of men who
had not been trained to field exercises by a long course of drill. What is the
good of officers, they said, who are not skilled leaders of men? This is the
old crude idea again of destroying Germans with rifles, bayonets, and hand
grenades. The falsity of these antiquated notions has now, I believe, been
amply demonstrated.

The objection to these men, however, lies a good deal deeper. Even those
scientifically educated officers who came into the new armies when they were
formed, and were trained by the service of years of warfare superadded to the
initial course of drill, have been demobilised in a nearly wholesale manner,
without the least regard to even very exceptional qualifications. Many of these
were, it seems to me, the very men who ought, above all, to have been retained
in the service. Now (though, as I write, improved regulations are being

a _ PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 141

issued) they are to a great extent to be replaced by the Public School cum Sand-

hurst young gentlemen, who, it appears, are the ‘pucca’ officers par excellence.

The old system of the rule of politician chiefs whose only or main function

is to sign the edicts of heads of departments seems to have returned in full

force, and the coming of the cleansing Hercules that many people desire for
the War Office does not seem to be within the bounds of possibility.

The real cause of the prevailing neglect of science, with all its pernicious
results, is that almost all our political leaders have received the most favoured
and fashionable form of public school education, and are without any scientific

education. An education in classics and dialectics, the education of a lawyer, may

be a good thing—for lawyers ; though even that is doubtful. For the training of

men who are to govern a State whose very existence depends on applications of

science, and on the proper utilisation of available stores of energy, it is

ludicrously unsuitable. We hear of the judicial frame of mind which lawyers

bring to the discussion of matters of high policy, but in the majority of scientific
cases it is the open mind of crass ignorance. The result is lamentable : I myself
heard a very eminent counsel declare in a case of some importance, involving
practical applications of science, that one of Newton’s laws of motion was that
‘friction is the cause of oscillations’! And the helplessness of some eminent
counsel and judges in patent cases is a byword.

As things are, eminence in science is no qualification; it would even seem
to be a positive disqualification, for any share in the conduct of the affairs of
this great industrial country. The scientific sides of public questions are
ignored; nay, in many cases our rulers are unconscious of their existence.
Recently in a discussion on the Forestrv Bill in the House of Lords a member
of that illustrious body made the foolish assertion that forestry had nothing to
_ do with science; all that was needed was to dig holes and stick young trees
_ into them. Could fatuity go further? .This hereditary legislator who, as
_ things are, has it in his power to manage, or mismanage, the conversion into
_ available energy of the radiation beneficently showered on a certain area (his
. area) of this country of ours does not seem tc be aware that the growing of

trees is a hichly scientific industry, that there are habits and diseases of trees
which have been profoundly studied, that, in short, the whole subject of silvi-
culture bristles with scientific problems, the solutions of which have by patient
labour been to a considerable extent obtained.

Take also the case of the Dyes Industries. The publicists and the ‘ good
business men ’—the supermen of the present age—who wish to control and foster
an industry which owes its very existence to an English chemist refuse to have
on the Committee which is to manage this important affair any man of scientific
eminence, and no remonstrance has any effect. These great business men are
as a rule not scientific at all. Thev are all very well for finance, in other
respects their businesses are run by their works-managers, ard, in general, they
are not remarkable for paying handsomely their scientific assistants.

I myself once heard it suggested by an eminent statesman that an electrical
efficiency of 98 per cent. might by the progress of electrical science be increased
fourfold! This, I am afraid. is more or less typical of the highly educated
classical man’s appreciation of the law of conservation of energy; and he is,
save the mark, to be our minister or proconsul, and the conservator of our
national resources. It is not surprising, therefore, that in connection with a.
subject which for several weeks occupied a great space in the newspapers. and
is now agitating a large section of the community. the nationalisation of our
coal mines, there was not a single word, except perhaps a casual vague
reference in the Report of the Chairman, to the question, which is intimately
bound up with any solution of the problem which statesmen may adopt, I mean
the question of the economic utilisation, in the interests of the country at large,
of this great inheritance which Nature has bestowed upon us. In short, are
‘Tom, Dick, and Harry, if we may so refer to noble and other coalowners, and
to our masters the miners, to remain free to waste or to conserve at their own
‘sweet will, or to exploit as they please, this necessity of the country’s existence?

The fact is that until scientific education has gone forward far beyond the
Point it has yet reached, until it has become a living force in the world of
’ Politics and statesmanship, we shall hardly escape the ruin of our country.

142 | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

The business men will not save us; as has been said with much truth, the products
of modern business methods are to a great extent slums and millionaires. It
lies to a great extent with scientific men themselves to see that reform is
forthcoming ; and more power to the Guild of Science and to any other agency
which can help to bring about this much-needed result.

While scientifically educated men, whether doing special work or acting as
officers, have been held of far slighter account in the services than they ought
to have been, for physicists as such there has been little or no recognition,
except, I believe, when they happened to be ranked as research chemists! How
did this happen? Why, the various trades asserted themselves, and the result
was a sufficiently long list of ‘ reserved occupations,’ a list remarkable both for
its inclusions and for its exclusions. There was, for example, a class of ‘ opti-
cians,’ many of whom have no knowledge of optics worth mentioning. They are
merely traders. One of these, for example, the proprietor of a business, made a
plaintive appeal to myself as to how he could determine the magnifying powers
of certain field-glasses which he wished the Ministry of Munitions to purchase.
But for a young scientific man, even if he were an eminent authority om
theoretical and practical optics, but who was not in the trade, there was
no piace.

Research chemists received their recognition in consequence of the existence
of the Institute of Chemistry. I am extremely glad to find that something is
now being done to found an Institute of Physics. I hope this movement will be
successful, and that it will be thoroughly practical and efficient. I hope its
President and Council, its Members and its Associates, will be zealous for
science, and especially for physics. It ought to be a thoroughly hard-working
body, without any frills destitute of work value. Of honorary Members or
honorary Fellows there should be none. There are enough of limelight spots for
those who deserve and like that kind of illumination.

I am glad that something is being done at last for the organisation of
scientific research. This movement has started well in several, if mot in all,
respects, and I wish it all success. There are, however, one or two dangers
to be avoided, and I am not sure—I may be much too timid and suspicious—
that they are fully recognised, and that the result will not be too much of a
bureaucracy. Somehow or other I am reminded by the papers I have seen of the
remark of a poor man who, asking charity of someone in Glasgow, was referred
to the Charity Organisation Society of that city. ‘No, thank you,’ he said;
‘there is a good deal more organisation than charity about that institution.’
So I hope that in the movement on foot the organisation will not be more
prominent than the science, and the organisers than the scientific workers.

There is to my mind too much centralisation aimed at. Everything is to
be done from London : a body sitting there is to decide the subiects of research
and to allocate the grants. There may be a good deal to be said for that in the
case of funds obtained in London. But apparently already existing local incen-
tives to research work are to be transferred to London. The Carnegie Trust
for the Universities of Scotland, soon after its work began, inaugurated a scheme
for research work in connection with these Universities. The beneficiaries of
the Trust, it is well known, must be students of Scottish nationality. The
action of the Trust has been most excellent, and much good work has been
done. Now, so far as chemistry and physics are concerned, it has been pro-
posed, if not decided, to hand over to the organisation in London the making of
the awards, a process of centralisation that will probably not end with these
subjects. I venture to protest against any such proceeding. The more incen-
tives and endowments of research that exist and are administered in the pro-
vineces the better. Moreover, this is a benefaction to Scottish students which
ought not to be withdrawn and merged in any provision made for the whole
country, and administered in London by a bureau which may know little of
the Scottish Universities or of Scottish students.. The bureau might, with
equal justice or injustice, be given command of the special-research scholarships
of all the Universities both in England and Scotland, and administer them in
the name of the fetish of unification of effort. JI do not know, but can imagine,
what Oxford and Cambridge and Manchester and Liverpool would say to that.
But even Scotland, where of course we know little or nothing about education

—— oo. ©

ee

PRESIDENTIAL AUDRESS. 143

of any kind, may also have something to say before this ultra-centralisation
becomes an accomplished fact. f ;
There is, it seems to me, another danger to be avoided besides that of
undue centralisation in London. 1n most of the statements I have seen regarding
the promotion of research work the emphasis seems to be on industrial research,
that is in apflied science. ‘lhis kind of research includes the investigation ot
physical and chemical products of various kinds which may be used in arts and
- wanutfactures, and its deliberate organised promotion ought to be a commercial
affair. I observed, by the way, with some amusement, that according to the
proposals of one Committee for Applied Science, which is prepared to give grants
and premiums for researches and results, the Protessor or Head of a Depart-
ment, from whom will generally come what are most important, the ideas, 1s to
_ have no yayment. He is supposed to be so well paid by the institution he
_ belongs to as to require no remuneration for his supervision of the Committee’s
_ vesearches. And the results are to be the sole property of the Committee!
; There is in this delightfully calm proposal at least a suggestion of compulsion
_ and of interference with institutions and their statis, which ought to be well
_ examined. Also some light is thrown on the ideas of such people as managing
) directors of limited liability companies, who are members of such a committee,
as to what might reasonably be expected of men of high attainments and skill,
whose emoluments taken all round are on the whole miserably insufficient.
: I think that it is in danger of being forgotten that, after all, pure
_ science is by far the most important thing. Most of the great applications of
_ science have been the products of discoveries which were made without any
_ notion of such an outcome. Witness the tremendous series of results in
electricity of which the beginning was Faraday’s and Henry’s researches on
induction of currents, and the conclusion was the work of Hertz om electric waves.
From the first came the ¢roduction and transmission of power by electricity,
from the last the world has received the gift of wireless telegraphy. I am not
at all sure whether the great men who worked in the sixty or seventy years
which I have indicated would have always received grants for proposed
researches, which to many of the good business directors and other supermen
serving on a great bureau of investigation, had such then existed, would have
appeared fantastic and visionary. In research, in pure science at least, control
will inevitably defeat itself. ‘Lhe scientific discoverer hardly knows whither
he is being led; by a path he knows not he comes to his own. He should be
free as the wind. But I must not be misunderstood. Most certainly it is rignt
to encourage research in applied science by ali available and legitimate means.
But beware of attempting to control or ‘capture’ the laboratories of pure
science in the Universities and Colleges of the country. Let there be also ample
_ provision for the pursuit of science for its own sake; the return will in the
future as in the past surpass all expectation.

I had intended to say something about scientific education as exemplified by
the teaching of physics. 1 have left myself little time or space for this. {
cannot quite pass the matter over, but I shall compress my remarks. In the first
place I regard dynamics, especially rotational dynamics, as the foundation of all
physics, and it is axiomatic that the foundation of a great structure should be
soundly and solidly laid. The implications of dynamics are at present undergoing
@ very strict and searching examination, and now we may say that a step in
advance has been taken from the Newtonian standpoint, and that a new and
important development of dynamics has come into being. I refer of course to the
hew theories of relativity, which are now attracting so much attention. I hope to
learn from the discussions, which we may possibly have, something of the latest
ideas on this very fundamental subject of research. It is a matter for con-
gratulation that so many excellent accounts of relativity are now available in
English. Some earlier discussions are so very general in their mathematical
treatment and notation as to be exceedingly difficult to master completely. I
have attacked Minkowski’s paper more than once, but have felt repelled, not by
the difficulties of his analysis, but by that of marshalling and keeping track of

I his results. Einstein’s papers I have not yet been able to obtain. Hence it
48 a source of gratification to have Professor Eddington’s interesting Report to
the Physical Society and the other excellent treatises which we have in English.

144 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

But continual thought and envisaging of the subject is still required to give
anything approaching to instinctive appreciation such as we have in ordinary
Newtonian dynamics. I venture to say that the subject is pre-eminently one
for physicists and physical mathematicians. In some ways the new ideas bring
us back to Newton’s standpoint as regards so-called absolute rotation, a subject
on which I have never thought that discussions of the foundations of dynamics
had said absolutely the last word. Some relativists would abolish the ether,
I hope they will not be successful. Iam convinced that the whole subject requires
much more consideration from the physical point of view than it has yet received
from relativists.

The better the student of physics 1s grounded in the older dynamics, and
especially in the dynamics of rotation, the sooner will he be able to place himself
at the new point of view, and the sooner will his way of looking at things begin
to become instructive.

With regard to the study of physics in our Universities and Colleges, I had
written a good deal. I have put that aside for the present, and will content
myself with only a few general observations. First, then, it would, I think, be
conducive to progress if it were more generally recognised that dynamics is a
physical subject, and only secondarily a mathematical one. Its study should
be carried on in the departments of physics, not in those of mathematics or in
separate departments of applied mathematics. It is, or ought to be, essentially
a subject of the physical lecture-room and the physical laboratory. It belongs
in short to natural philosophy, but not to physics divorced from mathematics,
nor to the arid region of so-called applied mathematics, where nothing experi-
mental ever interrupts the flow of blackboard analysis. The student should be
able to handle rotating bodies, to observe and test the laws of precession and
nutation, to work himself, in a word, into an instinctive appreciation of at least
the simpler results of rotational theory. He should learn to think in vectors,
without necessarily referring either to Hamilton or to Grassmann. Some people
appear to censure the use of vector ideas without the introduction at the same
time of some form of vector notation. I cannot agree with them. Personally 1 do
not fee] drawn to any system of vectors in particular—all have their good points,
and in some ways for three dimensional work the quaternion analysis 1s very
attractive—but vector ideas are of the very utmost importance.

Hence I deprecate the teaching, however elementary, which as a beginning
contents itself with rectilineal motion. The true meaning of rate of change of a
directed quantity, even of velocity and acceleration, is missed, and instead of
having laid a foundation for further progress the teacher, when he desires to
go beyond the mere elements, has not merely to relay his foundations, he has in
fact to extract imperfect ideas from his pupils’ minds and substitute new ones,
with the result that a great deal of avoidable perplexity and vexation is pro-
duced. The consideration of the manner of growth of vectors—the resultant vector
or it may be component vectors, according to convenience—is the whole affair.
As a simple illustration of what I mean, take this: A vector quantity has a
certain direction, and also a magnitude L. It is turning im a certain plane with
angular speed w. This turning causes a rate of production of the vector quantity

about a line in that plane and perpendicular to the former, and towards which

the former is turning, of amount Lw. Thus a particle moving in a curve with
speed v has momentum mv forwards along the tangent at the position of the
particle. The vector is turning towards the principal radius (length R) of
curvature at the point at rate v/R. Hence towards the centre of curvature
momentum is growing up at time rate mv?/R.

Dealt with in this way, with angular momentum instead of simple momentum,
the motions of the principal axes of a rigid body give the equations of Euler
instantly and intuitively, and all the mind-stupefying notions of centrifugal
couples, and the like, are swept away.

With regard to mathematics, the more the physicist knows the better, and
he should continually add to his store by making each physical subject he takes
up a starting-point for further acquisition. Some very philistine notions as te
mathematics prevail, and are very mischievous. For example, I once heard an
eminent practical engineer declare that all the calculus an engineering student
requires could be learned in an hour or two. This is simply not true, nor is
it true, as some exponents of ultrasimplicity seem to suggest, that the profes-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 145

sional mathematical teacher wilfully makes his subject difficult in order to
preserve its esoteric character. Like the engineer or physicist himself, he is
not always so simple as he might be; but the plain truth is that no good
progressive mathematical study can be carried out without hard and continued
application of the mind of the student to the subject. And why should he
depend on the mathematical teacher? Let him be his own teacher! There are
plenty of excellent books. If he has a determination to help himself he will, if
he makes a practice of reserving difficulties and returning to them, find them
vanish from his path. Let him also cultivate the power of giving attention, and
he will both understand and remember.

As I have said, I am specially interested in rotational dynamics. In the
course of the war I have been appalled by the want of appreciation of
the principles of this subject, which, in spite of considerable acquaintance with
the formal theory, seemed to prevail in some quarters. I don’t refer to mistakes
made by competent people—it is human to err—but to the want of appreciation
of the true physical meaning of the results expressed by equations. <A gyrostat
as ordinarily considered is a closed system, and its dynamical theory is of a
certain kind. But do away with the closedness, amd the dynamical theory is
quite a different affair. Take, as an example, the case of two interlinked
systems which are separately unstable. This compound system can be
made stable even in the presence of dissipative forces. A certain product of
terms must be positive, so that the roots of a certain determinantal equation
of the fourth degree may all be positive. The result shows that there must be
angular acceleration, not retardation, of the gyrostat frame. This acceleration
is a means of supplying energy from without to the system, the energy necessary
to preserve in operation the functions of the system.

I have ventured to think this stabilising action by acceleration of the
compound motion very important. It is lost sight of by those who consider
and criticise gyrostatic appliances from the usual and erroneous point of view.
Also I believe that it is by analogy a guide to the explanation of more com-
plicated systems in the presence of energy-dissipating influences, and that the
breaking down of stability or death of the system is due to the fact that
energy can no longer be supplied from without in the manner prescribed for
the system by its constitution. ;

I had just concluded this somewhat fragmentary address when the number
of Nature for July 24 came to hand, containing a report of Sir Ernest Ruther-
ford’s lecture at the Royal Institution on June 6. The general result of Sir
Ernest’s experiments on the collision of a-particles with atoms of small mass is,
it seems to me, a discovery of great importance, whatever may be its final inter-
pretation. The conclusion that ‘the long-range atoms arising from the collision of
a-particles with nitrogen are not nitrogen atoms, but probably charced atoms of
hydrogen or atoms of mass 2,’ is of the utmost possible interest. The a-particle
(the hefium atom, as Rutherford supposes it to be) is extraordinarily stable in its
constitution, and probablv consists of three helium nuclei each of mass 4, with
two attached nuclei of hydrogen, or one attached nucleus of mass 2. The
intensely violent convulsion of the nitrogen atom produced ‘by the collision
causes the attached nuclei, or nucleus, to part company with the helium nuclei,
and the nitrogen is resolved into helium and hydrogen.

It seems that. in order that atoms may be broken down into some primordial
constituents, it is only, necessary to strike the more complex atom sufficiently
violently with the proper kind of hammer. Of course, we are already familiar
with the fact that radio-active forces produce changes that are never produced by
so-called chemical action; but we seem now to be beginning to get a clearer notion
of the rationale of radio-action. It seems to me that it might be interesting to

observe whether any, or what kind of, radiation is produced by the great

tribulation of the disturbed atoms and continued during its dying away. If
there is such radiation, determinations of wave lengths would be of much
importance in many respects.

I may perhaps mention here that long ago, when the cause of X-rays was
a subject of speculation, and the doctrine that mainly found acceptance was
that they were not light waves at all, I suggested to the late Professor Viriamu
Jones that radiation of extremely small wave length would be produced if

146 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

atomic or molecular vibration, as distinguished from what in comparison might
be called molar vibration, could be excited. An illustration that suggested
itself was this: Take a vibrator composed of a series of small masses with
spring connections. If these masses are of atomic or molecular dimensions any
ordinary impulse or impact would leave them unaffected, while vibrations
of large groups of them, vibrations depending on the connections, would result.
But the impact on one of the masses of a hammer of sufficiently small dimensions
and mass would give vibrations depending on the structure of the mass struck,
and independent ot the connections, just as the bars of a xylophone ring, while
the suspended series of bars, if it swings at all, does so without emitting any
audible sound. This is, I believe, in accordance with the theory now held as
to X-rays. We now have some information as to the mode of producing a local
excitement so intense as to cause not merely atomic disturbance, but actual
disruption of the atomic structure. Further developments of Sir Ernest Ruther-
ford’s experiments and of his theory of their explanation will be eagerly awaited.

The following Reports and Papers were then read :

1. Report of Committee on Radiotelegraphic Investigations.
See Reports, p. 40.

2. The Spectrum of Nova Geminorum.
By F. J. M. Strarton, D.S.O., M.A.?

The following types of spectrum occur in the course of the star’s history :
(1) An absorption spectrum of hydrogen and enhanced lines of calcium, iron,
and titanium, displaced towards the violet by amounts varying on different
dates between 0.0035A and 0.0005A. (2) An absorption spectrum of hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and helium displaced towards the violet by amounts
varying on different dates from 0.0061A to 0.0027. (3) A spectrum of bright
bands corresponding to both sets of lines represented in the absorption spectrum.
The bands were generally about 24 tm. wide, were slightly displaced to the
red, and appeared later than the corresponding absorption lines. For some
elements these bands were flanked by faint wings at each end, giving a wider
band of double the width. In the bright central band two maxima appeared
which for hydrogen varied in brightness with the strength of the two
absorptions. (4) A bright band spectrum, consisting of hydrogen and helium
lines and the nebulium lines known in the planetary nebule. The structure
of the bright bands is maintained unaltered, the same maxima showing as
in stage (3). (5) A bright band spectrum, with the nebulium giving place to
the lines typical of the bright-line Wolf-Rayet stars.

In addition, there are present in the early stages certain undisplaced narrow
dark lines, notably D,, D, of sodium and H and K of calcium. All structure
in the bright bands and displacements of dark lines of an element vary directly
as the wave-length of the presumed source; velocity is the only physical
cause which seems capable of producing the results. The velocities are so
large, reaching up to 2 x 10® em./sec., that electrical causes are suggested
for them. The sequence of spectral type from heavy elements to light ones
and the maintenance of a common structure in the bright bands for many
months after the initial changes seem typical of all Nove, but the structure
of these bands is different for each Nova.

1 To be published in Annals of Solar Physics Observatory, Cambridge, Vol. 4.
See also Monthly Notices, R. Astronomical Soc., Vols. 73, 79.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 147

3. The Progressive Spectra of Nova Aquile. 1918-19.
By the Rev. A. L. Corriz, S.J., F.B.A.S.?

The present paper gives a general account of the changes in the spectrum
of Nova Aquile, between the dates June 10 and October 23, 1918, and in
July, August 1919. Measurements and comparisons of the earlier plates lend
little, if any, countenance to the view that a spectrum of the G, or solar type,
was present in the ultra-violet regions of the spectrum. The broad dark bands
observed in this part of the spectrum were mainly due to the doubling ox
the dark hydrogen series, and the superposition with decreasing wave-length
of members of the second series over those of the first, on account of their
relative displacements. The blends so formed probably contained also enhanced
lines of titanium, vanadium, and calcium, found in the spectrum of a Cygni.

There is more evidence for a spectrum of the Procyon, or F type, in the
ultra-violet spectrum of the Nova in its earlier stages. The K line of calcium,
and the Hj tine of hydrogen, with which possibly is blended a magnesium
line, bear a greater likeness to Procyon than to a Cygni. But, with these

_ exceptions, the dark line spectrums of the Nova, even in the ultra-violet,
exactly matches that of a Cygni, the great majority of the lines in the
_ spectrum of which are characteristic of the solar chromospheric spectrum.

Although the increase in brilliancy of the star in its earlier life-stages was
rapid, 2:41 magnitudes in 24 hours, yet it was not much greater than that
of some variable stars; eg. R. Urse Maj., 187 mag., and S.S. Cygni,
1-97 mag. per 24 hours.

The whole of the hydrogen series of dark lines was represented in the
spectrum, which extended very far into the ultra-violet. These dark hydrogen
lines were doubled, and greatly displaced. The displacements were propor-
tional to wave-length. These dark lines were accompanied on their more
refrangible sides by broad bright bands, about 50 A.U. in average width. ‘lhe
bright red band of hydrogen was by far the brightest in the early stages of
the spectrum. A noimal spectrum of a Cygni fits the centres of these bright
bands. This entails that the dark hydrogen lines were displayed with a velocity
of approach of the order of 1700 km/sec for the first set, and 2400 km/sec
for the second set, twice and thrice respectively the velocity of the quickest
“moving solar prominences. The dark line a Cygni spectrum was displaced
concomitantly with the first set of hydrogen lines.

The regularly decreasing widths of the hydrogen bright bands with
decreasing wave-length indicates also velocity in the line of sight. 'These bright
bands were very complicated in structure in the earlier spectra, but by June 15
showed a definite triple character, which was maintained until they began
to fade away at the end of August 1918. That is, for about five months they
Maintained their relative widths and displacements, of the order of 1300 km
sec approach, and 1200 km/sec recession. The spectrum represented by the
middle members of the triple bright bands remained stationary. The long
continuance of the widths and great velocities of these bright bands present
a great difficulty for any explanation based on a motion in the line of sight.
Is it possibly a Zeeman magnetic effect?

By June 15 the spectrum was almost entirely a bright band spectrum of
the a Cygni or A type. The bright bands were in many cases doubled, notably
in the band A 4640, which is a nebula band appearing thus early in the
spectrum. This band grew in intensity until the end of August.

_ By the end of July 1918 the bright band a

:

t Cygni spectrum had become
faint, which phase was accompanied by the brightening of a bright band

y Brionis. or B type spectrum, chiefly helium lines. The brighter nebula
nes were also very prominent.

After August 23 the predominant type of spectrum was that of a planetary
aebula. The chief nebula and O-type star lines were relatively much the
tronger. But the y Orionis lines remained until at least October 23; helium,
mxygen, nitrogen. Some a Cygni lines also still faintly subsisted ; e.g. titanium.

* See Observatory, Oct. 1949, Vol. 42, No, 544, Pp. 266, 367.

148 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

The star was again observed in July and August 1919. Visually it showed
a planetary nebula disc surmounting a bright stellar point. Its usual spec-
trum too was concentrated in a single green line A 5007. The photographic
spectrum showed in addition A 4363 very prominently, and other nebula lines
faintly.

The sequence of progressive changes was therefore from a possible Procyon
type spectrum (FSG) through an a Cygni spectrum (A2F.p.), and a y Orionis
spectrum (B2), to that of a planetary nebula. This sequence is in agreement
with that generally adopted for giant stars rising in temperature. But in
the Nova it was accompanied by a gradual lowering in magnitude, and pre-
sumably of temperature. The nebula was therefore most probably present
at the very beginning of the changes. A solar eruption on a magnified scale
in a giant star situated in a dark nebula would square with the observed spectral
changes. The nebula would be put into sympathetic luminous vibration by
the eruption. The a Cygni lines are chromospheric lines. ‘The displaced hydro-
gen is characteristic of such eruptions. The y Orionis, the O-type star and
nebula lines belong to the nebula in which the eruption took place.

4. Report on Wave Motion. By Sir G. Gresnuruy, F.R.S.
See p. 403.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
Discussion on Thermionic Tubes.

The following Papers were read :—

Discussion on Thernuonic Tubes, opened by Professor W. H. Ecciss,
D.Sc.

Professor Eccles gave a general description of the history and development
of the three electrode valve, and explained its rectifying property and its uses
in amplifiers, heterodyne reception, and the arrangements necessary to produce
continuous waves. Experiments were shown illustrating these uses of the valves
and the way was thus prepared for the discussion of special points by subsequent
speakers. Professor Fortescue drew attention to the functions and properties of
the various parts of the valve in some detail. ‘The hot filament is the source of
the electrons upon which the action of the valve fundamentally depends, and
with tungsten filaments as at present used only 4g per cent. of the energy heating
the filament is usefully employed as electron emission. This efficiency might be
improved by using oxide-coated filaments or higher temperatures, but at present
neither of these methods has been entirely successful in practice. The construc-
tion of the grid and the question of freeing the anode and containing vessel from
occluded gas were also discussed, and the importance of investigating the methods

of removing the last traces of gases and examining their nature was emphasised. —

Dr. Whiddington drew attention to the possibility of using valves and oscillating

circuits for making many standard physical measurements. Thus, for instance, —
the coefficient of mutual induction between two coils can be measured by deter-—
mining the degree of coupling at which oscillations are just started and main-—

tained in the valve circuit. He also alluded to Professor Eccles’ example of the
extreme sensitiveness of heterodyne reception as represented by the effect of
passing coal gas between the plates of a condenser in an oscillating circuit. The’

temperature coefficient of resistance, the conductivity of flames, the permeability ;

of liquids and other quantities could also be measured by this delicate method.

4
\
,
j

iz

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 149

1. A Wireless Method of Measuring e/m.
By R. Wuipprnaton, M.A., D.Sc."

It is well known that if inductance capacity circuits of low resistance be
associated with a three electrode thermionic valve in the manner shown in
fig. 1, oscillations may be set up in the anode circuit having a period 2 m/LC
(very nearly), providing that

(1) The resistance R of the anode circuit is small.

(2) The ‘resistance’ p of the valve is great. :

(3) Lhe mutual induction M between the grid and anode coils is only
just great enough to maintain the oscillations, a condition approximately
realized when M > AG + RC).

In the arrangement of fig. 1, which represents a typical oscillation circuit,
the ionic flow within the valve pulsates at a frequency determined by the
values of the inductance and capacity associated with the anode circuit.

This method of producing oscillations has been very largely used for many
purposes, particularly in wireless teiegraphy and telephony, and in modern
practice is usually employed in conjunction with ‘hard’ valves—that is to

say, valves from which gas and vapour have been removed to such a degree
that ionisation by collision is negligible.

The arrangement of fig. 1 can be used equally successfully, however, and
usually more efficiently with ‘soft’ valves—that is to say, valves containing
small quantities of gas or vapour so that ionisation by collision can occur.

It is the object of this short paper to show that in the case of soft valves
a simpler scheme than the one just outlined—and, moreover, one involving
entirely different principles—can be used to produce oscillations. This new
arrangement is represented in fig. 2.

There are in this arrangement no capacity inductance circuits, as in fig. 1,
but simply a non-inductive potentiometer device in the grid circuit and a
constant source of high potential in the anode circuit.

It is found in practice that quite strong oscillations can be produced, of
_a frequency dependent almost altogether on the grid potential and geometrical
dimensions of the valve electrodes.

Tt will be convenient at this stage to outline a simple theory which explains
broadly the observed phenomena,

1 See Radio Review, Nov. 1919.
1919.

150 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

An assumption that has to be made at the outset is that, although one
filament as a whole is emitting electrons continuously according to the accepted
exponential temperature law, yet there are often one or more spots which
are emitting with exceptional power. Such spots in the case of a tungsten
filament are probably of chemical origin, due to the presence of local impurity,
and would be very sensitive to small changes of temperature. In the theory
to be developed it is supposed that the bombardment by positive ions of the
filament in the neighbourhood of such an emitting spot would greatly increase
the local electronic emission so long as the bombardment lasted. Very direct

i

evidence of the existence of such selectively emitting spots on a tungsten
filament is afforded by the experience of manufacturers of hard valves. It
is customary in the factories to ‘clean up’ the anode by passing a heavy
thermionic discharge through the valve when on the pump. ‘The dissipation
of energy at the anode is regulated to such a point that the metal of the
anode is maintained at a cherry-red heat. During this process it is frequently
observed that one or more points on the anode are very much hotter than
the main surface, a fact which can only be explained on the assumption that
there is exceptionally powerful emission from the corresponding points on
the hot filament.

Consider one of these spots on the filament. If a burst of electrons be
emitted they proceed towards the filament with a speed uw given by

(ti

bili fifi

Fiaq. 2.

Lmu— Ve; Or, & = V2V.e/m

where e/m is the charge to mass ratio for the electron and V is the positive
grid potential with respect to the particular point on the filament considered.

(It is assumed as an approximation that the filament is screened from
the anode by the grid, approximately true for the particular type of valve
used in the experiments, which had a fine-meshed grid.)

The electrons will thus take a definite and calculable time to travel from
filament to grid under the moderate potential applied. On passing through
the grid, however, the electrons emerge into a strong electric field and assume
ionising speed. The negative ions produced follow the electrons to the anode,
but the positive ions pass back through the grid towards the filament with speed

u, = V2V.elm
where e/m is in fhis case the charge to mass ratio of the atom or molecule

concerned. Sy ;
There will thus be a cloud of positive ions focussed on the filament and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 15]

bombarding the original electron, emitting spot.. This bombardment prodaces
a new burst of electrons, and so a self-sustaining current oscillation may be
seb up, the period of which depends on the applied grid potential.

The following table shows what frequency and wave-length of oscillation
would be expected from the above general theory in the case of a valve with
eylindrical gauze grid 6 millimetres in diameter and an axial hot wire. The
singly-charged ions of hydrogen and mercury are there worked out for a grid
potential of 1 volt.

— | an
Nature of Charged | e/m | u | n | Wave-length

Particle (approximate) (ems/sec) (eycles/sec) | (metres)
Electron . «| 1°7 x 107 6 x 10! 4-0 x 108 0717
Hydrogen Atom. 10! 1-4 x 108 1:0 x 10". | 30
Mercury Atom . 50 To" x 10° GO x 107 ow 450

In actual experiments it was found that the arrangement of fig. 2 usually
radiated energy at a frequency varying between 7.0 x 10° and 4.0 x 10°
cycles. The wave-lengths (from which the frequencies were deduced) were
measured by means of a heterodyne wave-meter in the vicinity.

The oscillations may therefore be safely ascribed to mercury vapour. It
is ‘to be observed, however, that the above calculated frequencies are based
on singly-charged monatomic molecules, and that the frequency 6.6 x 10°
cycles corresponds to the monatomic mercury molecule. If polyatomic molecules
are involved the frequencies to be expected would be 14/2, 1/3, 1/4, etc., times
6.6 x 10° cycles.

In the following table are shown the frequencies to be expected theoretically,

. and for comparison those actually observed.

|
Number of Theoretical | Observed

atoms in Frequency | Frequenc
Molecule q 7 4

1 6.6 x 10° | 64 x 10°

2 4.7 x 105 4:5 x:10° |

3 3.8 x 10° 3°5 x 10°

4 3.3°X 10° =

Oscillations in addition to the above have been detected, believed to be
due to the oxygen and carbon dioxide molecules, but have not yet been
investigated in detail.

Referring back to the formula, it will be seen that the square of the
speed of the ions (and therefore the square of the oscillation frequency) should
be proportional to the potential applied to the grid.

This prediction is amply borne out in practice (the frequency of oscilla-
tion)? plotted against the grid potential yielding in all cases so far studied
an excellent straight line. These lines cut the axis of potential at points
determined partly by the position of the emitting spot on the filament and
martly by the natural velocity emission of the electrons. This is a point
which is being investigated in further detail, particularly from the point of
view of getting a more accurate value for the ratio e/m than has hitherto
een found possible.

152 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

2. The Diffraction of Electric Waves.
By G. N. Watson, Sc.D., F.R.S.

The theory of the fundamental mathematical problem presented by long-
distance wireless telegraphy has been investigated by Poincaré, Nicholson,
Macdonald, Love, and by some of Sommerfeld’s pupils, on the hypothesis that
the earth consists of a sphere of high conductivity surrounded by dielectric.
The results obtained are not obviously consistent, and they do not agree with
experimental results. I have recently obtained a general formula whereby the
theoretical results can be reconciled, and this formula shows that the magnetic
force at angular distance and from the transmitter is roughly proportional to
exp(— 23°94 @)./A), where A is the wave-length in kilometres. The experimental
result obtained by Austin is exp(—9°6 6),/A). In order to obtain this result
(which is obviously inconsistent with the result of the diffraction theory) by
mathematical reasoning, I have investigated by my method the Heaviside-
Eccles hypothesis that the upper regions of the atmosphere act as a conductor,
and Austin’s formula is exactly obtained if

70 = 1-67 x 10",

where fi is the height in kilometres of the conducting layer above the surface
of the earth and o is the conductivity of the layer in rational units. If
h=100, this formula gives the layer a conductivity of about 3-5 times the con-
ductivity of fresh water. The mathematical investigations are given in detail
in two papers, Proc. Royal Soc. 954, and also in a paper by Dr. van der Pol
in the Phil. Mag., September 1919.

In the course of discussion of the above paper, Dr. B. van der Pol said :—

I consider that the mathematical work of Macdonald, Nicholson, and Watson
does not leave the slightest doubt that the propagation round the earth of wire-
less waves cannot be explained by means of pure diffraction only.

As expounded by Prof. Watson, numerical agreement with experiments can
be obtained when a concentric spherical shell having a certain conductivity is
supposed to surround the globe. This shell was taken for mathematical reasons
to have a sharp inner boundary. Such a boundary can hardly be expected to
exist in the upper atmosphere, and it is likely that in a transition region con-
siderable amounts of energy will be dissinated. When. however, regard is taken
of the equation of motion of free ions in an aiternating field, as indicated by
Professor Eccles several vears ago, it appears that the medium has not only a
finite conductivity, but also an apparent diminution of the dielectric constant e
must occur.

In some experiments carried out at the Cavendish Laboratorv, Cambridge.
I have used as ionised medium the negative glow of a slow discharge, and
waves were sent through it. Results were obtained confirming the above view.
As this diminution of e with height causes the wavefront to fall over in the
direction of propagation, and is therefore favourable to wireless transmission,
it is not unlikely that, when this increase of phase velocity with heicht is taken
into account, the propagation of waves round the earth can be explained with
the assumption of a gradual variation with height of conductivity and apparent
dielectric constant.

3. On a possible Theory of Vision. By Sir Oriver Lopaz, F.R.S.

A resonance view of the action of the retina has long been in contemplation.
The present writer pointed out in Nature for March 1890 that the rods and
cones were of reasonably right dimensions to respond, like Hertz resonators,
to transverse vibrations falling on their ends with the frequency of luminous
waves. (See also Modern Views of Electricity, § 157A and fig. 60.)

But this gave no indication of how the nerves were thereby stimulated. The
subsequent discoveries of excited radioactivity, and of the astronomical structure
of an atom, give a hope of a more detailed theory.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 1538

An atom with K,L,M orbits is known to respond to K,L,M frequencies of
X radiation, and to be ionised thereby.

Outlying electrons, such as are often held responsible for chemical or molecular
processes, could respond to lower frequencies characteristic of visible light.

And if the orbital radius is estimated which shall enable an electron to
respond to red, green, or violet light, the order of magnitude is not much
larger than the atomic size 10° centimetre, even for heavy atoms. ‘The necessary
radius varies as the cube root of Moseley’s atomic number, and with the two-
thirds power of the wave length.

The suggestion is that the retina may be found to contain atoms in such a
condition of incipient instability (‘sub-generative,’ as Professor Eccles calls
the state of certain wireless ‘ valves’) as to be readily excited by cumulative
impulses of the right luminous frequency, and thereby to be stimulated so as
to expel an electron and excite a nerve. The energy of expulsion could only
be attributable to the incident light on the principle of syntonic accumulation—
the ionisation-energy might be represented as An—and so the extreme sensi-
tiveness of the eye would be accounted for. The atom would be an amplifier
or relay, able to respond to the faintest vibration of the right frequency. Re-
tinal fatigue and other phenomena of vision could also be accounted for,

If, however, vision is tri-chromic, the tuning must not be too precise, the
responders must be somewhat damped so as to respond over a fair range; and
in the current Phil. Mag. (September 1919) Professor Barton, of Nottingham,
claims to have shown by mechanical experiments on damped pendulums that
three suitably damped and connected vibrators will exhibit phenomena which
by an effort may be regarded as analogous to colour-vision.

Whether three varieties of vibrator are sufficient, or whether more are
necessary, makes no difference to the present communication, which is intended
to suggest to physico-physiological experimenters the attempt to examine whether
chemical substances can be found in a recently removed retina which are able
to emit high-speed electrons when subjected to light.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. The \Ionisation of Argon and Helium by Electron. Collisions.
By Professor F. Horton and Miss A. C. Davins.*

: Experiments were described showing that there are two critical velocities
for electrons in both Argon and Helium. At the lower critical velocity, radiation
is produced from the gas; at the higher critical velocity ionisation of the gas
takes place. In the case of Argon these velocities correspond to potential
differences of 11-5 volts and 15-1 volts respectively, and in Helium to potential

3 of 20-4 volts and 25:6 volts respectively. From the values found for

’

the ionisation velocities the high-frequency limits of the spectra of the two
gases were calculated by applying the quantum relation eV=An and it was
shown that these limits agree with those recently determined spectroscopically
by Lyman.

2. The Production of Luminosity in Helium by Electron Collisions.
By Professor F. Horron and Miss D. Barry.”

Helium atoms were bombarded by electrons, the velocity of which was
gradually increased until luminosity was produced in the gas. It was found
that the electron velocity could then be decreased slightly and the duminosity
maintained. Experiments were made to determine the least velocity of the

- 1 Partly published in Proc. Roy. Soc. A, vol. 95, p. 408. Remainder to be
published in the same.
2 To be published in Phil. Mag.

‘
:

H
bh

154 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

electrons which sufficed to maintain the luminosity, and observations were made
to ascertain whether the different series of lines in the Helium spectrum required
different electron velocities for their production. It was found that luminosity
was never produced until the electron velocity was about 25 volts, and that
it could not be maintained at velocities lower than 23 volts, and then only in
the presence of traces of impurity. No evidence was obtained that any one of
the Helium series could be excited without producing the others aiso,

3. The Aither and the Perihelion of Mercury. By Dr. R. A. Houstowun.?

It is well known that the perihelion of Mercury advances some 42 seconds of are
per century, and that this progression has been explained by Einstein on his theory
of generalised relativity. Sir Oliver Lodge attempted to explain it by assuming that
the mass of Mercury was given by m,/(1—v?/c?)?, where v was the velocity of mercury
relative to the ether, the ether being at rest in space, the same law of variation as
holds for the mass of a cathode particle, but his attempt was unsuccessful. I recently!
suggested that the optical difficulties associated with the earth’s motion through space
were best met by assuming that the ether to the uttermost corners of space had the
same velocity of translation as the earth had, by making it, in fact, geocentric. This
suggestion leads to a very interesting result as regards the perihelion of Mercury.

For if we use Eddington’s equation for the orbit,

and Sir Oliver Lodge’s expression for the mass, but regard v as the velocity of Mercury
relative to the earth, since according to my view the ether moves with the earth, the
problem reduces to Newton’s revolving orbit, and we find that the perihelion rotates a
fraction of a revolution equal to

21a?
eT(1—e)
while the planet moves through one revolution. This expression is the same as
Einstein’s, except that he has the factor 12 instead of 2. Hence, if the mass of Mercury

varied six times as fast as the mass of a cathode particle, we would have perfect
agreement.

4. The Interpretation of the Quantum. By Dr. R. A. Houstovun.

Planck’s theory of radiation assumes that a certain quantity of energy hy, the
quantum, is associated with radiation of frequency v. This quantum is alleged to
be inexplicable on the basis of Newtonian mechanics and has given rise to much
theorising cf a revolutionary nature: it seems to have altogether escaped notice,
that it can be quite tolerably explained by the ordinary model atom which some of
us use in our lectures.

This model atom consists of a sphere of positive electricity of uniform density p,
the radius of the sphere being a. Inside the sphere there is one electron, which oscil-
lates about its centre through the positive electricity. Let v be the frequency (recipro-
cal of the period) of the oscillations, and suppose that the radius of the sphere is just
large enough for the positive electricity to neutralise the electron. Then

z= nf ae) and e= 2 ma'p.

The sphere is supposed to be rigid.
Now suppose that the electron starts from rest on the surface of the sphere and
falls towards the centre of the atom. Let v be the velocity acquired by the time it

reaches the centre. Then v=2zav. On eliminating p and a these three relations
give

244
v= (= ae
1 Phil. Mag., Feb. 1919.

It

or

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 1

If an electron has one quantum kinetic energy, its velocity is given by

v= (YF

m

The difference between the two formule for v amounts to the sixth root of v, an
amount which would hardly matter if only the visible spectrum were in question,
but is much too great when we take the X-ray region also into consideration. But
there is a surprising numerical agreement. If we fix our attention on two wave-
lengths, (i.) that of sodium in the visible spectrum and (ii.) the wave-length 10-8 em.
in the X-ray region, we find that the two expressions for v give, in the case of (i.)
9°29 x 10? cms./sec., and 8°64 x 10” cms./sec., and in the case of (ii.) 1°68 x 10° cms. /sec.,
and 6°64 x 10° cms./sec., the second value in each case being given by the quantum
formula. Thus, there is fair agreement for sodium, but the new formula gives only
one-quarter of the correct value in the X-ray region. If we make the electron fall
from infinity, or vary the law of density of the positive electricity, we can shift the
point of exact numerical agreement along the spectrum, but the power of v always
remains the same.

However, the agreement, such as it is, is sufficient to make it probable, that the
quantum is the amount of energy acquired by a free electron in falling into a void
atom.

5. On Gauss’s Theorem for Quadrature and the Approximate Evaluation
of definite Integrals with finite Limits. By Professor A. R.
Forsytu, F.R.S.—See p. 385.

6. On certain Types of Plane Algebraic Curve.
By Professor Haronp Hinron.?

The equation of the most general plane algebraic curve of degree six with
deficiency 1 or 0, having a triple point at which two linear branches have
five or six-point contact, while a third linear branch has ordinary contact
with them both, can be put in one of the forms

(w—a y) (u~ By?) (u—y y2) = Rew —y?)?,
(w—a y*) (w—By*) (u—y y*) = ha'u?;
where a, 8. y are constants and wu is written for yz + @.

If in these equations we put k=1 and divide through by y, we get the
most general quintic curve of deficiency 1 or 0, whose double points all coalesce
at a single double point.

In general all these double points are nodes; but one is a cusp, if one
or all of a, B, y are zero. The deficiency is zero, if (8—¥) (y-4) (a—B) = 0;
otherwise it is unity,

The properties of the curve may be investigated in two ways :—

(i.) The co-ordinates of any point on the curve may be expressed in terms
of a parameter ¢ by finding the intersections of the curve with u=ty?.

(ii.) The curve may be transformed into the cubic

ha*z = (y—az) (y—Bz) (y—Y2)

by the birational transformation which replaces wu by y?/z and a by x+z2 (or
a in the case of the second of the equations).

7. Some unsolved Problems of Canadian Weather.
By Sir Freveric Sruparr.

* Will probably be published in Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo.

156 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.
8. Report of Seismology Commiltee.—See Reports, p. 35.

9. Report of Committee on Gravity at Sea.—See Reports, p. 83.

10. Report on Seismology after the War. By Dr. G. W. Watxer,
F'.R.S.—See Reports, p. 32.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers and Report were read, and Discussion took place :—

1. Photographs taken at Principe during the Total Eclipse of the Sun,
May 29th. By Professor A. §. Eppineton, F.R.S., and EH. T.
CorrincuaM, followed by a Discussion on Relativity, opened by
Professor Eppineton, F'.R.S.

Professor Eddington gave an account of the observations which had been
made at Principe during the solar eclipse. The main object in view was to
observe the displacement (if any) of stars, the light from which passed through
the gravitational field of the sun. To establish the existence of such an effect
and the determination of its magnitude gives, as is well known, a crucial test of
the theory of gravitation enunciated by Einstein. Professor Eddington explained
that the observations had been partially vitiated by the presence of clouds, but
the plates already measured indicated the existence of a deflection intermediate
between the two theoretically, possible values 0:87” and 1-75”. He hoped that
when the measurements were completed the latter figure would prove to be
verified. Incidentally Professor Eddington pointed out that the presence of
clouds had resulted in a solar prominence being photographed and its history
followed in some detail; some very striking photographs were shown.

Following on this account Professor Eddington opened the discussion on
relativity, and referred again to the bending of the wave front of light to be
expected from Einstein’s new law when the light passes near a heavy body. It
should be possible to test experimentally: this law, which demands that the speed
of light varies as 1—2 Q where Q is the gravitational potential. He showed that
whether Einstein’s solution of the problem be correct or not, it has at any rate
given a new orientation to our ideas of space and time. Sir Oliver Lodge
regarded the relativity theory of 1905 as a supplement to Newtonian dynamics

2
by the adoption of the factor (1-3) and its powers necessitated by experi-
mental results; but he did not consider this dependence of mass and length on
velocity. as entailing any revolutionary changes of our ideas of space and time, or
as rendering necessary the further complexities of 1915. He compared the diffi-
culties involved with the case of measuring temperature, defined in terms of a
perfect gas, and made with gases which only approximate to this ideal state.
Dr. Silberstein pointed out that Hinstein’s theory of gravitation predicts three
verifiable phenomena, 7.e., a shift of spectral lines, the bending of light round
the sun and the secular motion of the perihelion of a planet. In the neighbour-
hood of a radially symmetric mass, such as our sun, the line element ds is given
by :—
ds?=(1 —2M/c?r \c?dt? — (1 —2M/c?r (da? +dy?+dz2*).

The coefficient c2dt? gives by itself a lengthening of the period of oscillation for
a terrestrial observer in the ratio (1+M/c?r) : 1, demanding a shift of spectral
lines of about 01A.U. Secondly, the path of rays of light is obtained by putting
ds=o, and the first and second coefficients give jointly a bending which, for rays
almost grazing the sun, is 1:75”. Thirdly, Keplerian motion is predicted with a
progressively moving perihelion which in the case of Mercury turns out to be
43” per century. He drew attention to the fact that St. John’s results in 1917

passes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 157

_ showed no shift of the spectra] lines, a fact which in itself would overthrow the
theory in question. Father Cortie pointed out that Campbell’s photographs,
taken in 1918 and measured by Curtis, gave no trace of any displacement of the
images of 43 stars distributed irregularly round the sun.

Spectrum Emission of Atomic Systems containing a Double or More
Complex Nucleus. By L. SiuBerstern, Ph.D.

The subject proper of the paper is preceded by a short historical account
of the work done since 1913 by Bohr, the pioneer of the quantum theory
of spectra; by Sommerfeld (relativistic refinement of Bohr’s theory leading
to the fine structure of spectrum lines); and by Epstein (Stark effect).

In all these investigations the nucleus of the atom is assumed to be a
homogeneous spherical charge, or, which is the same thing, a point charge.
rail
m2 22
m and m being integers. These series consist, apart from relativistic refine-
ments, of sharp (ideally monochromatic) lines.

In order to obtain series of other more complicated types, and, moreover,
consisting of ‘lines’ which, even without taking into account the relativistic
terms, will show a complicated fine structure, the author works out, on the
lines of the quantum theory, the spectra emitted by atoms containing
aspherical nuclei. As a first example the case of two fixed positive centres
‘as nucleus is treated without restrictions of the dimensions of the
electron’s orbits. This being the famous soluble case of Euler and Jacobi,
the author treats it by the method of separation of variables. A variety of
orbits and of the corresponding types of spectrum series are described and
illustrated in their general features. The sub-case of comparatively large
orbits, which is physically the most interesting one, is treated, with all details,
by the method of perturbations. If 2a be the mutual distance of the two
centres, the negatived energy belonging to any stationary orbit, in three

The corresponding spectra are all series of the Balmer type, : = const. (

ls - 7 a\'
dimensions, is, un to (*) -terms,
ae

= «Nhe { fies (2, + 22 + M3)”
(2, + Ny + Nz )o Y (M+ 2q)8

(1, ,77 9,23) \ , a ACL)

where «xe is the total charge of the nuclens, N the Bohr expvession of the
Rydberg constant,

N,, n-, n, three independent integers, and

#3 ( 1- qe) (1482) - (454): She besa an dig e:

=m+n+n,; € the eccentricity of the ‘osculating’ orbit, which is quantitized
y the usual principles so that

Dv

Seana
e a ose :
and finally a a number contained between 1 and 3, namely
4=1+ 2sin?4,. SiR resect fy (2)

being the longitude of the perihelion counted from the equatorial plane.
Hor y=o, the series corresponding to (1), is a Balmer series of sharp lines.
The y? term gives doublets, or triplets, etc., according to the value of
Mi+M2+N3 in the constant term; moreover, each of the components of these
doublets, etc., consists in general of several sub-components. Those corresponding
to N2=0 or N3=0 are sharp, ideally monochromatic [these correspond to orbits
contained in the equatorial plane or to any circular orbits]; all others have a

158 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

small but finite breadth, owing tol <a <3. A few concrete examples are quoted,
together with the distribution of the components and sub-components. If, say
in the case of doublets, the frequency interval is to be such as that observed for
the doublet Ha, formula (1), with (2), gives for the distance of the centres
2a=3.1072 cm.

In the next place, nuclei of any axially symmetric form are discussed and
shown to lead to essentially similar results. Finally, the most general case
of an arbitrarily shaped nucleus is investigated, when besides & also the
longitude of the node is shown to be a source of finite breadth of some of
the sub-components; moreover, formula (1) is in all such cases replaced by
a somewhat more complicated one.

The full paper will shortly be published in the Philosophical Magazine.

3. The Determination of the Viscosities of Liquids at High Pressures.
By Dr. T. EH. Stanton, F.B.S.

The method consists essentially of a system of two horizontal (the upper one
of capillary dimensions) and two vertical tubes forming a closed circuit of
liquid under pressure, the lower half of the circuit containing mercury and the
upper half the liquid under test. The end of the system rests on a horizontal
knife edge, and the other is carried by a spiral spring. On the mercury being
displaced by a given amount, flow will take place round the circuit owing to
the difference of head, and it is evident that if the spring be so designed that,
its rate of extensions is equal to the rate of change of head of the mercury, flow
of the liquid under test will take place through the capillary tube under a
constant pressure difference and at a velocity which can be calculated from
the rate of extension of the spring. In this way all the data required for the
determination of the absolute viscosity of the fluid are determined.

4. Wireless Telegraphy during the First Three Years of the War.
By Major T. Vincent Suitu, M.C.

This paper deals with wireless in what was the Military Wing of the Royal
Flying Corps during the first three years of the war, and brings the history
of this work up to the time of the amalgamation of the Royal Naval Air Service
and Royal Flying Corps into the Royal Air Force.

It shows the state of knowledge at the beginning of the war, and the
gradual progress made in the building up of an immense organisation.

It gives in detail the experiences of the early days, the difficulties which
arose, and how they were met.

Improvements in apparatus, methods, etc., and their effect upon operations
are shown, and the technical means by which the enemy was beaten are
discussed.

The important work of the Royal Flying Corps in co-operation with Artillery,
Infantry, and Cavalry would have been practically impossible without wire-
less. These things are discussed from their inception, and their progress followed
from birth to maturity.

The introduction of thermionic values for transmission and reception, inter-
aeroplane telephony. and directional wireless are touched upon, though the war
ended before their influence had time seriously to affect the final operations.

The story is a collection of details, each one small in itself, but the com-

bined whole shows how the many difficulties, inseparable from an ever-increasing

demand, were overcome in a manner which earned the respect of the enemy.

5. The eons of Relativity.
By W. J. Joenston and Sir Josrpu Larmor.
The following propositions are believed to be valid, on the basis of a con-

cise symbolic calculus, subject, of course, to critical verification.
(1) If a field of physical activity possesses the two characteristic properties

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 159

(i) that the quantities which define it are propagated through the xther with
a single constant velocity, and (ii) that translatory uniform convection as a whole
through the ether produces no modification in the field, then it is necessarily
restricted to the special type of the electrodynamic field as formulated by
Maxwell.

(2) A field of gravitation is included as the limiting form of such a type
when the velocity of propagation becomes very great. As like source is now
to attract like, the energy of the field must be kinetic and not elastic. The
question of interaction between a field of gravitation and electric fields or rays
of light is, of course, a separate and fundamental one, independent of theories
of relativity, and is now being put to refined test by astronomical observation.

(3) If time were linked with space after the manner of a fourth dimen-
sion, relativity in electrodynamic fields would be secured as above, but the
sources of the field could not be permanent particles or electrons. If physi-
cal science is to evolve on the basis of relations of permanent matter and its
motions, time must be maintained distinct from space, and the effect of con-
vection must continue to be thrown on to the material observing system in the
form of slight modification of its structure.

6. How could a Rotating Body such as the Sun become a Magnet?
By Sir Josepu Larmor.

The obvious solution by convection of an electric charge, or of electric polar-
isation is excluded; because electric fields in and near the body would be
involved, which would be too enormous. Direct magnetisation is also ruled out
by the high temperature, notwithstanding the high density. But several feasible
possibilities seem to be open.

(1) In the case of the sun, surface phenomena point to the existence of a
residual internal circulation mainly in meridian planes. Such internal motion
induces an electric field acting on the moving matter: and if any conducting
path around the solar axis happens to be open, an electric current will flow round
it, which may in turn increase the inducing magnetic field. In this way it
is possible for the internal cyclic motion to act after the manner of the cycle
of a self-exciting dynamo, and maintain a permanent magnetic field from insigni-
ficant beginnings, at the expense of some of the energy of the internal circula-
tion. Again, if a sunspot is regarded as a superficial source or sink of radial
flow of strongly ionised material, with the familiar vortical features, its strong
magnetic field would, on these lines, be a natural accompaniment: and if it
were an inflow at one level compensated by outflow at another level, the flatness
and vertical restriction of its magnetic field would be intelligible.

(2) Theories have been advanced which depend on a hypothesis that the
force of gravitation or centrifugal force can excite electric polarisation, which,
by its rotation, produces a magnetic field. But, in order to obtain sensible
magnetic effect, there would be a very intense internal electric field such as no
kind of matter could sustain. That, however, is actually got rid of by a
masking distribution of electric charge, which would accumulate on the surface,
and in part in the interior where the polarisation is not uniform. The circum-
stance that the two compensating fields are each enormous is not an objection;
for it is recognised, and is illustrated by radioactive phenomena, that molecular
electric fields are, in fact, enormous. But though the electric masking would
be complete, the two distributions would not compensate each other as regards
the magnetic effects of rotational convection : and there would be an outstanding
magnetic field comparable with that of either distribution taken separately.
Only rotation would count in this way; as the effect of the actual translation,
along with the solar system, is masked by relativity.

(3) A crystal possesses permanent intrinsic electric polarisation, because its
polar molecules are orientated: and if this natural orientation is pronounced,
the polarisation must be nearly complete, so that if the crystal were of the

‘size of the earth it would produce an enormous electric field. But, great or

small, this field will become annulled by masking electric charge as above. The

_ explanation of pyro-electric phenomena by Lord Kelvin was that change of

temperature alters the polarisation, while the masking charge has not had

160 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A.

opportunity to adapt itself: and piezo-electric phenomena might have been
anticipated on the same lines. Thus, as there is not complete compensation
magnetically, an electrically neutralised crystalline body moving with high speed
of rotation through the zther would be expected to produce a magnetic field :
and a planet whose materials have crystallised out in some rough relation to
the direction of gravity, or of its rotation, would possess a magnetic field. But
relativity forbids that a crystalline body translated without rotation at astrono-
mical speeds should exhibit any magnetic field relative to the moving system.

The very extraordinary feature of the earth’s magnetic field is its great
and rapid changes, comparable with its whole amount. Yet the almost absolute
fixity of length of the astronomical day shows extreme stability of the earth
as regards its material structure. This consideration would seem to exclude entirely
theories of terrestrial magnetism of the type of (2) and (3). But the type (1),
which appears to be reasonable for the case of the sun, would account for
magnetic change, sudden or gradual, on the earth merely by change of internal
conducting channels: though, on the other hand, it would require fluidity and
residual circulation in deepseated regions. In any case, in a celestial body
residual circulation would be extremely permanent, as the large size would make
effects of ordinary viscosity nearly negligible.

During the meeting, Models of Crystals, devised by Miss Nina
Hosatt, were shown, as to which the following statement was issued :—

The object of these models is

(1) To illustrate the forms possible to crystals;

(2) To show as clearly as possible the different kinds of symmetry possessed
by these forms; and

(3) To show how the forms are referred to crystallographic axes.

Each model illustrates one of the thirty-two classes of symmetry, and
represents several crystal forms correctly orientated with regard to the crystallo-
graphic axes, the latter being shown by black threads. A model consists in
the first place of a glass envelope whose shape is that of some simple crystal
form, and within this envelope two or three other forms are represented by
means of coloured silk threads stretched over frameworks of thin copper wire.
By this means it is easy to make the forms intersect if necessary, and they
are readily distinguished from one another by the use of differently coloured
threads.

The symmetry elements of the class represented by any model are shown
as follows :

(a) The traces of the Planes of Symmetry on the glass erivelope are shown
by steel wires.

(6) Axes of Symmetry are shown by wiite threads. (If an axis of symmetry
and a crystallographic axis are coincident, the white and black threads repre-
senting them are twisted together.) The degree of symmetry possessed by an
axis is indicated by small numbers attached to the thread near its ends.

(c) When simultaneous rotation about an axis and reflection across a
perpendicular plane occur to produce Alternating Symmetry, the traces of the
plane on the glass envelope are shown by red and while twisted threads, and
the axis is shown by a white thread, its degree of symmetry being indicated
by small numbers fixed to it and printed in red.

(d) When the symmetry elements are such that the forms are Centro-
Symmetrical (i.e. when the faces occur in parallel pairs), a couple of white beads
are placed at the centre of the model.

The set of twenty-four models here exhibited represents twenty-one out
of the thirty-two classes and over seventy different forms. In many cases
different varieties of the forms may be produced by rotating or inverting the
models, or by reflecting them in a mirror, and, when these modificatious are
taken account of, the number of forms shown is brought up to about 140.

= - ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.! PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 16]

SECTION B: CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION: Professor P. Pumps Brpson, D.Sc.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

In again taking up the work of this Section, after an interval of three years, a
discontinuity without parallel in the annals of the Association, it is natural that
our thoughts should turn to the past, and in so doing we are reminded of the
gaps in the ranks of those who were accustomed to contribute to the work of
our Section. In 1916 we met under a shadow caused by the death of Sir W.
Ramsay, whose genius has added in so many ways to our science. And to-day
we have to record the loss of one who in his long life contributed in a variety
of ways to the advancement of chemistry, and to whom we owe an addition
to the number of elementary substances in the discovery of thallium, one of
the early fruits of the use of the spectroscope. The chemistry of the rare
earths has been especially illumined by the researches of Sir William Crookes.
With physicists we would join in a tribute to the memory of Lord Rayleigh,
amongst whose experimental researches is one of special interest to chemists—
namely, the revelation of the existence of argon, of which discovery Sir J. J.
Thomson has recently written that it was not made ‘ by a happy accident, or by
the application of new and more powerful methods than those at the disposal of
Bis predecessors, but by that of the oldest of chemical methods—the use of the
alance.’

In this connection it is but right that, despite the feelings engendered by
the war, I should refer to the passing of two great chemists—Baeyer and Fischer.
The former died some two years ago, and the latter within the past.few months.
Each of them has advanced by his experimental researches the progress of
organic chemistry, and has brought illumination into many of the obscure
departments of this branch of science. The field of investigation latterly culti-
vated by Fischer has revived an interest in the ‘ vital’ side of organic chemistry
as distinguished from the study of the chemistry of the carbon compounds.
Moreover, there are many British chemists, amongst them some of the most
distinguished, who, as students, received guidance and inspiration from the

_ teaching of Baeyer or of Fischer, and with them we gratefully acknowledge our

indebtedness.
Fifty years ago Mendeléeff communicated to the Russian Chemical Society

a memoir which has exercised a profound influence on chemical philosophy, and

continues to serve as a guide in the interpretation of research and speculations

on the nature of the elements. Without entering on the somewhat vexed ques-

tion as to whom should be assigned the credit of the discovery of the Periodic
Law, I trust I shall not be considered unmindful of the claims of Newlands,
by adopting the traditional history, and, as is usual, associate this discovery
with the name of Mendeléeff, and consequently we may look on this year as the
Jubilee of the Periodic Law. Although there is already abundant special litera-
ture dealing with this subject, and the periodic system has been assimilated into

_ the teaching of the science and is dealt with in the text-books of chemistry, in

some of which it forms the basis of the system employed in the exposition of the

162 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

facts and theories of inorganic chemistry, still it appeared to me that I might
utilise this as an opportunity of passing in brief review some of the features of
the rise and development of the ‘ Periodic Law.’

The memoir, made known to the non-Russian reader by the abstract in
German, shows the principle of periodicity—viz., the recurrence of similar pro-
perties at regular intervals with increase in the magnitude of atomic weights,
the possibility of utilising the atomic weights as a basis of the classification of
the elements, the necessity for the revision of the values thus assigned to the
atomic weights of certain elements, and finally that the scheme demanded for
its completeness the existence of many new elements.

The later writings of Mendeléeff contain the mode of tabulating the elements
in the form usually adopted in chemical text-books, portraying the principle of
periodicity and showing the grouping of the elements into natural families.
But undoubtedly the clearest demonstration of the association between the
atomic weights and the physical properties of the elements is that exhibited
by the curve of atomic weights and atomic volumes, which is an outcome of the
independent studies of these relationships by Lothar Meyer, and, as is well
known, shows the members of the natural families of elements occupying corre-
sponding positions on the curve. This curve, with its undulations, corresponding
to the series of the elements, has contributed to impress on the mind of the
student the relationship between the properties of the elements and their atomic
weights, and may have exercised an influence in drawing attention to these
relationships which the attempts of the earlier workers in this field were not
successful in doing.

Mendeléeff’s Table of the Elements was just beginning to figure in the
teaching of chemistry in my undergraduate days, and, together with the specu-
lations underlying it, aroused considerable interest and proved an incentive and
inspiration for experimental inquiry. Foremost in this country amongst those
who by their writings have contributed to spread a knowledge of Mendeléeff’s
speculations was my fellow-student, Carnelley. His experimental investigations
added materially to our knowledge and definition of the physical properties of
elements and compounds, which further emphasised the periodicity in the rela-
tion of the atomic weights to the properties of the elements, and have provided
data from which curves, resembling in contour the atomic volume curve, have
been set up.

A valuable guide in fixing the atomic weights of the elements has been the
specific heat which, as the discovery of Dulong and Petit showed a hundred
years ago, varies in the case of solid elementary bodies inversely with their
atomic weights; or, as is more usually expressed, the solid elements have the
same atomic heat. The investigation of the exceptions to this empirical rule
brought out the fact that the specific heat is influenced by temperature, and the
study of the influence of low temperatures led Sir James Dewar to the discovery
that at about 50° Absolute the atomic heats of the elements are a periodic func-
tion of the atomic weights. Further, the graphic representation of this relation
gives a curve very similar in its course to that of the atomic volume curve. So
that the specific heat is another of the physical properties to fit into the periodic
scheme.

The necessity for a revision of the atomic weights of certain elements, as
pointed out by Mendeléeff, has induced several workers to direct their energies
to the solution of the problems indicated, so that in our present-day tables many
of the anomalies of position and sequence which existed in the earlier schemes
have disappeared. Tellurium has still resisted all attempts to bring it into
order, with an atomic weight less than that of iodine, which its association with
sulphur and selenium demands. The interesting attempts to decompound tel-
lurium have so far remained unfruitful.

But undoubtedly the most fascinating feature of the periodic system is that
‘it allows the discovery of many new elements to be foreseen.’ This and the
manner in which Mendeléeff, in full conviction of the truth of the ‘ Periodic
Law,’ boldly assigned properties to those elements required to fill the blank
spaces in the table of elements, and the verification within twenty years in
three instances of these prophetic specifications have contributed to the recogni-
tion and firm establishment of the ‘ Periodic Law’ as an article of belief in

ay POS

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.» 163

chemical philosophy, and to make it the mainspring and inspiration of the
greater part of modern inorganic research.
The discovery of argon, the announcement of which formed a notable feature
in the proceedings of the Association at the Oxford meeting in 1894, and the
recognition in it of an element with an atomic weight of 40, raised doubts in
the minds of some as to the validity of the scheme of the elements based upon
the Periodic Law. It was indeed a time of testing the faith. The suggestion
that argon would prove to be a modified form of nitrogen was brushed aside
by the incontrovertible establishment of it as an element, endowed only with
_ specific physical properties and distinguished from all known elements by its
lack of any of those activities which characterise the remaining elements. But
argon was not destined to enjoy a splendid isolation for long. The researches
of Sir W. Ramsay soon brought helium to earth, and he and his colleagues
provided a number of companions for argon. So, in a very short period, was
recognised the existence of a group of gaseous elements forming a natural family,
whose molecules are monatomic, the members of which are distinguishable by
their spectra and atomic weights, but are all in agreement in their unreadiness

to take part in any chemical change. This inertness or nonvalence provided a
simple means of reconciliation with the periodic scheme of the elements, as all

that was required was simply to add to the eight groups of the table of elements

a zero group containing helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon, and with
_niton, the emanation from radium, as a recent addition. If we are to accept
1 Mendeléeff’s suggestion, the zero group should contain a member lighter than
_ hydrogen, in Series I., and in a zero series a still lighter representative of the
elements of the zero group, which he has postulated as the ‘ether’ of the
physicist.

Thus the discovery of argon has formed a starting-point in the development
and a justification of the natural system of the elements, but it still remains, to
make the tabulation complete, that provision should be made for the accommoda-
tion of the rare earths. The paper published by Werner in 1905, under the
title ‘A Contribution to the Development of the Periodic System,’ shows how
this can be satisfactorily accomplished.

The elements of the argon group form a valuable extension to the periodic
system, and the knowledge acquired in the investigation of these substances has
proved serviceable in the solution of problems in the realms of science and of
industry. The knowledge of the properties and behaviour of helium was
destined soon to play a part in the solution of the riddle of the radio-active
elements, whilst it is specially noteworthy that argon, the ‘idle one,’ should
have been pressed into industrial service.

This fact suggests the thought that idleness has its uses, and at the present
time how satisfactory would it be were we able to find useful application for a
quality which appears to be plentifully and widely distributed in this country.

__ The history of helium is still more astonishing, for not until thirty years
after its existence had been surmised from spectroscopic observations of the
un was this element found to have a terrestrial existence, and now, as one of
he achievements of science during the war, we may look on its production in
bulk as a commercial proposition. Moreover, we are told ‘ that the advances
1ade in the production of helium warrant the opinion that, had the war con-
tinued after November 11, 1918, supplies of helium at the rate of 2,000,000 cubic
feet per month would have been produced within the Empire and the United
States, and helium-filled aircraft would have been in service.’ }

Some of the speculations that the periodic system of the elements has given
ise to have been the subjects of communications to this Section.

_ At the Aberdeen meeting Carnelley, whom I have already mentioned as an
tdent worker in this field, gave an account of a scheme based on the conception
nat the elements are composite, having relations similar to those exhibited by
the paraffin hydrocarbons and the isologous series of radicals derived from them.
He regarded the elements, other than hydrogen, as made up of two simple
ments, A and B. A he identified with carbon, with the atomic weight of 12,
d B was assumed to have a negative atomic weight of 2.

1 Nature, July 17, 1919.

164 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

In the following year, at Birmingham, Sir W. Crookes devoted his address
to this Section to an exposition of his ideas of the ‘ Genesis of the Elements,’
a subject to which he on many subsequent occasions returned, and amplified in
the light of recent discovery. The process of evolution of the elements from a
primal ‘protyle’ is depicted as taking place in cycle after cycle, in each cycle
the ‘ unknown formative cause’ scattering along its journey clusters of particles
corresponding to the atoms of the ‘elements,’ forming in this way a series such
as that beginning with hydrogen and ending with chlorine; a repetition of the
movement under somewhat altered conditions giving rise to a series of similarly
related elements, and thus homology, which is shown by the members of the
natural families, is provided for.

The investigations of Sir J. J. Thomson on the discharge of electricity
through gases have established the divisibility of the atoms, and in his * Cor-
puscular Theory of Matter’ he has given us conceptions of how atoms may be
constituted to provide a series so related that they reflect, if not reproduce,
many of the chemical characters of the elements and their periodic relation to
atomic weights.

With the discovery of radium and its remarkable properties we have been
brought in contact with an element undreamt of in our philosophy. The inter-
pretation of the results of the investigation of this element has called for
drastic changes in our conception of an element. The pursuit of the researches
of the radio-active elements, guided by the theory of the spontaneously disin-
tegrating atom propounded by Rutherford and Soddy, has served to reveal facts —
which lend a special emphasis to many passages in the address of Sir W. Crookes
to which I have already referred.

For instance, the passage in which he said : ‘Should it not sometimes strike
us, chemists of the present day, that after all we are ina position unpleasantly
akin to that of our forerunners, the alchemists of the Middle Ages? The necro-
mancers of a time long past did not, indeed, draw so sharp a line as do we
between bodies simple and compound; yet their life-task was devoted to the
formation of new combinations, and to the attempt to transmute bodies which
we commonly consider as simple and ultimate—that is, the metals. In the
department of synthesis they achieved very considerable successes ; in the trans-
mutation of metals their failure is a matter of history.’

Or again, when he propounded the question, ‘Is there, then, in the first
place, any direct evidence of the transmutation of any supposed ‘‘ element’’ of
our existing list into another, or of its resolution into anything simpler? ’—a
question to which he, Sir William Crookes, was at that time forced to reply in
the negative, whereas to-day many instances might be cited in support of an
affirmative answer to this question. Radio-activity has supplied a method of
analysis—radio-active analysis—surpassing in delicacy any of the previously
known methods for the examination of material substance; the application of
these methods has not only added to the list of elements but also new classes of
elements. First, elements indistinguishable and inseparable by chemical means,
yet differing slightly but definitely in their atomic weights. The existence of
these ‘isotopes,’ as Soddy styles them (a name giving prominence to the fact
that such elements occupy the same place in the table of the elements), demon-
strates that absolute uniformity in the mass of every ultimate atom of the
same chemical] element is not an essential, but that ‘our atomic weights merely
represent a mean value around which the actual atomic weights of the atoms —
vary within certain narrow limits.’ * ‘

Whether the possibility of separating isotopes, recently suggested by Dr. -
Lindemann and Dr. Chapman, will be found. capable of experimental realisa-—
tion, must be left to the future to decide; in fact, in this matter we must
adopt the attitude, prevalent in other than scientific circles, of ‘wait and
see.’ :
The investigations in the field of radio-activity have further brought to light
that identity in atomic weight may be associated with difference im chemical
properties, revealing the existence of a further class of elements for which
Dr. Stewart suggests the name ‘isobares.’ Further, Dr. Stewart considers that

2 Crookes. Address to Section B. 1886.

ee

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 165

isobaric elements are to be found not alone amongst the radio-active, but some
of the normal elements exhibit properties which may be explained on the assump-
tion that they are isobarics. Thus the compounds formed from iron are
regarded as indicating the existence of three irons, all having the same
atomic weight. One of these, termed ferricum, is tervalent; one, ferrosum,
is divalent; whilst the third, ferron, is inert and takes no part in chemical
changes. The three are under certain conditions mutually interconvertible.
This last condition does not apply in the case of the radio-active isobares.

The elements are to be regarded as divisible into three classes: (1) Isotopic
elements, each set of which have different atomic weights but identical chemical
properties; (2) Isobaric elements which have identical atomic weights but
different chemical properties; (3) Normal elements which differ from each other
both in atomic weights and chemical properties.

The discovery of X-rays may be acclaimed as having added a new sense to
aid us in our investigation of material objects, and to their innumerable services
may be reckoned the results which have followed from the investigations of
the X-ray spectra of the elements by the late Lieut. Moseley, whose death in
Gallipoli in 1915 is one of the many tragedies of the war specially deplored in
the scientific world. From the analysis of the X-ray: spectra, Moseley has
shown that for each element a value can be deduced, which is styled the
atomic number and which represents the space in the atomic table the element
should occupy. The researches of Rutherford and Andrade on Lead and
Radium B have proved that ‘isotopes’ have the same atomic number. What-
ever may be the ultimate explanation of the meaning of the atomic numbers,
their experimental determination has already proved valuable in the solution
of some of the anomalies of the Periodic Table. In addition to the case of
isotopes, just referred to, the number of elements between hydrogen and uranium
is fixed by finding 92 as the atomic number for uranium, and further, Moseley’s
work has revealed that the atomic numbers are in agreement with the order of
the chemical sequence, rather than the order of the atomic weights, which is of
special interest and value in the cases of tellurium and iodine, and of potassium
and argon, the decision in each case proving a welcome support to the position
in the table assigned to these elements on chemical considerations.

Again, Moseley’s atomic numbers remind us of the arrangement of the ele-
ments adopted by Newlands in his communication to the Chemical Society of
pil in which he set forth the ‘ Law of Octaves,’ the precursor of the Periodic

Ww.

In concluding this-brief sketch, cognisance should be taken of the specula-
tions of physicists as to the structure of the atom. Already several models of
the atom are in the field which leave the uncuttable Daltonian atom far out of
view, still in a measure they help to an understanding of some of those regulari-
ties exhibited by: the elements, and set forth in the natural system. Valency
and its vagaries, which we are accustomed to describe by phrases, such as
“variable valency,’ ‘selective valency,’ and the like, still call for a full
explanation.

I purpose now to direct attention to matters of another nature, which
appear to me of interest to chemists, and to that extent have a bearing on
the welfare of chemistry in this country.

Among the numerous revelations and surprises of the past five years has
been the realisation on the part of the public and the Government of the
importance of the chemical industries to the national well-being. The apathy
and indifference of pre-war times were replaced by. an apparently lively interest
in things chemical, and there was what in the religious world would be styled
a revival.

Politicians, the Press in all its varied forms, daily, weekly, monthly, and
quarterly, took up the subject of our industrial insufficiencies and emphasised
In various ways the importance of research in connection with our industries.
Again, the coal-tar colour industry furnished, as it had done again and again,
some thirty to forty years ago, the text from which research and its importance
Was preached. This time the reiteration had the effect that the ‘aniline
phantasm,’ as I have seen it described, was recognised as a ‘key industry,’
important to the vitality of the manufacture of textiles; with the result that
the Government, discarding its fiscal policy, was induced to subsidise the

1919. Q

166 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

enterprise for the manufacture of dyes and other coal-tar products. The nego-
tiations preceding the formation of the ‘ British Dyes Co., Ltd.,’ have been
remarkable as revealing that in the eyes of some, at any rate, special knowledge
is a ‘dangerous thing,’ and, in fact, was deemed suflicient to exclude its
possessors trom a seat on the directorate. This is all the more remarkable as
the history of similar enterprises in Germany shows the personnel of the
directorates to be made up of university-trained men and, in not a few instances,
of professors. So that in Germany academic distinction and theoretic learning
are not considered as excluding the possession of commercial acumen and those
other qualities needed in a successful man of business,

In the early stages of the war the demand for explosives was met by the
expansion of already existing factories, the increase in staff of which called
for many: additional men with chemical training, a call which became unpre-
cedented and insistent when the national factories were founded, so that men
and women with a chemical training found an opportunity of putting their
knowledge at the service of their country. And in not a tew instances those
who, for financial reasons, had at the close of their college career taken up a
less congenial emp.oyment were able to return to the practice of chemistry, for
which in their student days they had specially fitted themselves.

In the foreword of the publication ‘ Reports on Costs and Efficiencies for
H.M. Factories,’ issued by the Ministry of Munitions, we are told ‘ when it was
decided to commence the erection of new and national factories, and an attempt
was made to collect from existing factories the necessary technical data and
assistance, did it become evident that, due to the extraordinary demands of the
war, there was—practically throughout the entire country—a regrettable lack
of available accurate technical data, and an even greater lack of trained technical
men—more particularly chemical engineers.’

To anyone acquainted with the conditions existing in this country in pre-
war days, the lack of ‘trained technical men’ is no matter of surprise. In
fact, one cannot fail to be astonished at the phenomenal development of chemical
manufacture which has taken place under the directing influence of Lord
Moulton, in response to the call from Army to Navy. That men were found
capable of taking a part in these varied undertakings, cannot, at any rate, be
credited to the encouragement which the teaching of chemistry or the students
of the science had received from those directing industries which employ or
should employ the services of chemists. It is no uncommon experience to find
the chemist employed simply in the analytical testing of raw materials and
manufactured products, and even in the working of processes under their
control the potentiality of the chemist is not utilised to the full, as is evident
from the following, which is a quotation from the Preface to the brochure,
issued by the Ministry of Munitions, to which I have already referred : ‘ Since
the beginning the policy of the Department with regard to our national fac-
tories has been to aim at maximum efficiency in respect of cost and usage of
materials.

‘For this purpose the greatest efforts have been made to place before all
those who are in any way responsible for control full details concerning the
working and costs of the factories. This was rather an innovation in the field
of chemical manufacture, as until comparatively recently, either intentionally
or through negligence, it was customary at many chemical plants to keep the
chemists in complete ignorance not only, of the cost at their plants but also
even of the efficiencies.

‘lt is amazing that manufacturers can expect improyements in chemical
processes when their chemists are kept in ignorance of such vital facts.

‘It has happened very often that as soon as detailed figures were seen by
chemists at a plant, important alterations and improvements have at once been
suggested, the need for which would otherwise never have been noticed.’

The condition of service indicated in the passage quoted, together with the
low scale of remuneration which obtained hitherto in chemical industries, help
to explain the scarcity of the kind of scientific labour referred to in the quota-
tion I have made from the ‘ Foreword.’

But are we not told and invited to believe that all this is changed, that the
records of the magnificent achievements of British chemists in the war have so
educated the people and, may we say, the Government also, that the prac-

|
.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 167

titioners in chemistry will no longer find it essential that in describing their
vocation they should be required to add, unless for special reasons, such pre-
fixes as ‘analytical,’ ‘research,’ ‘scientific,’ or ‘engineering!’ to the word
chemist, secure in the feeling that by describing themselves as ‘ chemists ’ their
standing, training, and profession will be correctly understood.

Still a feeling akin to despondency, if nothing worse, is pardonable, when
realising the fundamental importance of chemistry to our industries, and the
thousand and one ways chemical research has ministered to the amenities of
our every-day life, there should exist not alone in the mind of the general
public, but of the educated also, such a lack of information as has been revealed
during the past few years—to wit, the myth woven into the history of the
production of glycerine, the confusion in the minds of legislators between
phosphates and phosgene. More serious, however, is the fact that the method
of investigation employed by the chemist is so little appreciated or understood
as to lead one to imagine that the discoveries and achievements are the results
of a species of legerdemain. The production of new colours, a succession of
happy thoughts, and that ‘by an accident the secret of synthetic indigo was
unlocked.’ This last is a quotation from a review entitled ‘The Value of
Scientific Research,’ published some three years ago, and is typical of much
that passes muster in appraising the value of chemical research. That the
unravelling of the constitution of indigo which occupied Baeyer and his pupils
some thirteen years, the account of these investigations covers some 180 pages
of Baeyer’s collected works, should be summarised in this way appeared to me to
call for a protest. My protest was made and I attempted to put the matter
in the correct light, showing the synthesis of indigo to be, indeed, a brilliant
example of the value of theory and of a practical illustration of the importance
of the chemist’s conception of the Architecture of Molecules, as exemplified by
Kekulé’s theory of the constitution of benzene. The protestation evoked a
reply from a correspondent, signing himself D.Sc., Ph.D., who sought to justify
the description of the revelation of the secret of synthetic indigo by reference
to an accident which occurred in the investigation of the processes for the manu-
facture of phthalic acid and which certainly: greatly facilitated the production of
this substance, an intermediate in the manufacture of artificial indigo. So, if
the initiated emphasise the unessential, why should we blame the layman and be
surprised that well-ordered and planned design should appear to be but the
workings of chance, for every such achievement is a witness to the conquest
of well-founded theoretical speculation ?

But I do not wish to conclude on a despondent note, nor is it right that I
should do so, in view of the many activities operating for the promotion of
scientific research, and of such evidence as that supplied by the magnificent
endowment of the Chemical Department of the University of Cambridge, all of
which are evidences of what we may reasonably hope to be a happy augury for
the future of chemistry and chemists in this country.

‘The following Papers were then read :—

1. Chemistry and the War. By Sir Wruxtam J. Porn, F.R.S.

2. Chemical Warfare. By Brigadier-Gen. H. Harrury.
(See p. 393.)

3. High Explosives. By Lieut.-Col. C. D. Crozmr.?

1 See Journ. Royal Artillery, vol. 46, No. 9.

168 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Metallurgy during the War. By Professor C. H. Descu, D.Sc.

2. Glass Manufacture at the end of the War. By Dr. M. W. Travzrs.

3. The Recovery of Nitre and Pitch from Smoke Candles. By Major
EK. R. THomas.

4. Geochemistry and the War. By Professor P. G. H. BosweE.u.

5. Equilibrium in the System NaNO,—NH,C1—NaC1—NH,NO,.
By Dr. T. M. Lowry, F.R.S., and Dr. E. P. PErman.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Industrial Bacteriology. By Dr. C. A. THaysEn.*

2. The Mechanism of the ‘ n-Butyl-Alcohol and Acetone’ Fermentation
Process.
By Josepu Remuy, M.A., D.Sc., and Wiurrep J. HIcKINBOTToM.

Among the more recent applications of bacteriology to technical processes
is the conversion of carbohydrates into a mixture of n-butyl alcohol and acetone
(A. Fernbach and E. Strange, E. P. 21073, 1913). Certain bacteria are known,
as, for example, granulobacter butylicum, bacillus amylobacter, and the butylic
bacillus of Fitz, tyrothrix tenuis, which, under certain conditions, convert carbo-
hydrates mainly into n-butyl alcohol and acetone, producing, in addition, carbon
dioxide and hydrogen, together with small quantities of acids and other
alcohols (chiefly ethyl). From 100 grams of maize may be produced 7 grams
of acetone, 16 grams of n-butyl alcohol, 2 grams of volatile fatty acids, 19 litres
of carbon dioxide, and 16 litres of hydrogen at 20°.

In a normal fermentation, which usually lasts about 24-30 hours, the acidity
of the mash gradually increases from a very small value until 10 c.c. of the
mash liquor requires from 3.5 to 4.5 c.c. of 0.1 N-sodium hydroxide solution
for neutralisation, after eliminating carbon dioxide. Usually 13 to 17 hours
are required before the acidity reaches its maximum value, when the formation
of acetone and n-butyl alcohol commences. The actual value for the maximum
acidity and the interval before the n-butyl alcohol and acetone are formed,
depends to some extent on the experimental conditions, the source of carbo-
hydrate, and the percentage of inoculant. During the production of acetone
and n-butyl alcohol in the mash, the acidity falls gradually to a constant
value of about 1.5-2.5 c.c. of 0.1 N-sodium hydroxide per 10 c.c. of mash.
It was considered that, in view of these variations, a study of the acid-forma-
tion in the fermenting mash might give an insight into the fermentation pro-
cess.

The acids present in the mash are principally acetic and butyric acids
with a small quantity of a non-volatile acid. It is found that the ratio of these
acids to each other depends on the age of the fermentation. Shortly after
inoculating, the acids are present in the proportions of approximately 4 or 5
molecules of acetic acid to one of butyric acid, but as the acidity increases, the
ratio of acetic acid to butyric falls, until at the period of maximum acidity
there are about 1.1 to 1.4 molecular proportions of butyric acid to one of

1 To be published in Journ. Inst. of Brewing.

vo a ey

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 169

acetic acid. During the production of the acetone and alcohol the ratio of
acetic to -butyric acid increases gradually, so that, when the fermentation is
completed, the volatile acids in the mash are 4 or 5 parts of acetic and one part
of butyric acid.

The fluctuations in the relative amounts of the two acids present in the
mash would indicate that the acids are intimately connected with the produc-
tion of acetone and n-butyl alcohol, especially as the formation of the latter
substances may be suppressed almost completely by conducting a fermentation
in presence of calcium carbonate. Under these conditions the main products
formed are acetic and butyric acids. These acids are obtained in the ratio
of ten molecules of acetic to nine molecules of butyric. Using these proportions,
and assuming that n-butyl alcohol and acetone are formed from the acids with-
out any appreciable side reactions, n-butyl alcohol and acetone should be pro-
duced in the ratio of 2:3 parts by weight of the former to one of the latter.
Such a result is in accordance with the actual yields obtained. It seems likely,
therefore, that the n-butyl alcohol is produced from the butyric acid. In
support of such a view, several facts are adduced; the decrease of the amount
of butyric acid in the mash is coincident with the formation of n-butyl alcohol ;
the hypothesis is in agreement with experimental data given by Buchner and
Meisenheimer (Ber., 1908, 41, i410); the reduction of butyric acid to butyr-
aldehyde has been observed to be brought about by certain extracts; the addi-
tion of butyric and propionic acids results in the formation of n-butyl and
n-propyl alcohols respectively ; n-butyric acid has been observed in most fermen-
tations in which n-butyl alcohol is obtained.

It is also probable that the acetic acid is an intermediate substance in the
formation of the acetone, since the decrease in the amount of this acid in
the mash during the fermentation is much slower than that of butyric acid.
The amount of acetone produced is only half that of the alcohol. Also on
adding acetic acid to the fermenting mash it is found that the added acid is
converted principally into acetone. The fatty acid is best added periodically
some hours after the maximum acidity of the mash has been reached, in such
a manner as to maintain a figure for the acidity of the mash equal to the
Maximum acidity obtained in a normal fermentation.

There is produced also in the fermentation a small amount of ethyl alcohol.
It is not yet determined whether this is obtained in a side reaction, or whether
it is due to the presence of some impurity.

The two volatile fatty acids in the mash appear to be attacked, each in a
different manner, the butyric acid undergoing a reducing action, while the
acetic acid is condensed to acetone. To account for this difference it is sug-
gested that the formation of dipropyl ketone by condensation from the butyric
acid nay be prevented owing to the increased steric hindrance imposed by the
presence of large groups.

3. Intramolecular Rearrangement of the Alkylarylamines.
By Josepx Rettiy, M.A., D.Sc., and Witrrep J. HicKinportom.

The intramolecular change brought about by heating the hydrochlorides of
the alkylanilines under pressure is well known (Hofmann, Ber., 1872, 5, 720). It
is now shown that not only the hydrochloride but also certain addition compounds
of the secondary and tertiary amines with metallic salts are capable of under-
going this change on heating. Compounds of the type B.RCl, (where B
represents one molecule of a monovalent base, and R one atom of a divalent
metal), produced by the addition of chlorides of zinc, cobalt, and cadmium, to the
secondary amines, readily yield alkyl nuclear substituted amines, on heating
under pressure. Unless the assumption is made that these double compounds
teadily split off hydrogen chloride, it is difficult to reconcile these facts with
the view that methyl chloride is an intermediate product in the formation of
p-toluidine from methylaniline double salts.

In the alkylarylamines each group occupies a definite space and has a cer-
tain definite vibration path. If a change of conditions occurs each group will
tend to occupy a position in which the vibration is least restricted. This may
occur simply on heating, or by combination or reaction with another compound.

170 TRANSACTIONS} 0F SECTION B.

In the case of heating alone only a slight effect is apparent, but in presence
of a substance which can cause an alteration in the arrangement of the mole-
cule some profound change occurs. The extent of the rearrangement and
consequently the ease with which the change occurs, will depend on several
factors, among which the steric effect of constituent groups and the free valency
have an important influence.

It might be expected that, in the series of alkylanilines, the larger groups
would show a tendency to be removed before the smaller ones. Comparative
experiments with monoalkylanilines indicate that the total amount of change
including intramolecular rearrangement, brought about on heating in sealed
tubes, does not differ greatly whether the alkyl group is butyl or methyl. It
is suggested that the other influences, such as the increasing steric hindrance
imposed by the larger alkyl groups, may modify the reaction.

4. Distillation of Aqueous Solutions of Related Organic Substances.
By Joseru Remuy, M.A., D.Sc., and Wiurrep J. HickinBorTom.

When dilute solutions of organic fatty acids are distilled, it is well known
that certain regularities are observed (compare Duclaux, Ann. Inst. Pasteur,
1895, 9, 265, 575; Naumann and Miller, Ber., 1901, 34, 224; Stein, J. pr. Chem.,
1913, 58, 83). Various forms of distillation constants have been advanced by
these authors to express such regularities. These constants may be derived
from Nernst’s law of distribution. This law may be used as a starting-point
for the discussion of the theory of distillation of dilute solutions (Reilly and
Hickinbottom, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc., 1919, 15, 513). For large changes
in concentration Nernst’s law does not hold exactly, and a method of steam
distillation is recommended in which only small changes in concentration occur.
By plotting the constants for the normal fatty acids (formic to caprylic acid)
against the number of carbon atoms present in the acid, an approximately
straight line results, showing an interdependence between molecular constitu-
tion and rate of steam distillation. Acids containing a branched carbon chain
(as isovaleric) have greater constants than normal acids of the same molecular
weight. The experimental evidence at present available shows that for isomeric
substances (as for example normal and iso butyric acids), the distillation con-
stants are distinct enough to differentiate between the substances.

The lower saturated monohydric alcohols, phenols, and other substances
have been distilled in a current of steam under definite conditions, and results
have been obtained showing a relation between molecular complexity and the
distillation constants.

In cases where the constitution of a substance is uncertain, and when it is
volatile in steam, a comparison of its distillation constants with those of allied
substances may assist in deciding its molecular constitution.

Within certain limits the distillation constants for formic and acetic acids
and the lower saturated aliphatic alcohols are subject to variations depending
on the concentration. The addition of certain non-volatile substances, such
as acids or salts, also causes an alteration in the distillation constants. As the
homologous series of saturated fatty acids and alcohols are ascended, the distilla-
tion constants increase with the molecular weights, the reverse of what might
be expected from a knowledge of the vapour tension of the pure substances.
It is considered likely that the tendency for the acids or alcohols to form mole-
cular complexes may account for this behaviour.

As well as using the method of steam distillation for analysis of fermenta-
tion products, and various technical preparations containing the volatile fatty
acids, a method has been worked out to detect the presence of butter and of
fats of the coconut-oil type in margarine and other products. By determining
the distillation constants of the water-soluble volatile acids under definite con-
ditions, constants for the fats are obtained which differ considerably in the
case of butter fats compared with other fats which have been examined
(coconut oil, palm-kernel oil, babassu fat).

il i el Oe i ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 171

5. Addition Compounds of Aromatic Amines and their Nitro-derivatives
with Metallic Salts. By JosEpH Retuty, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.C.S8c.1.

Certain p-nitroso derivatives obtained during a study of the butylarylamines
were characterised by the formation of addition products with various metallic
salts (Reilly and Hickinbottom, Trans. Chem. Soc., 1918, 118, 105, 928).
p-Nitrosodibutylaniline yielded double salts with the chlorides of zinc, cadmium,
copper (cupric), mercury (mercuric), iron (ferric), manganese (ous), tin (stannic),
and with the nitrates of nickel, cobalt, and copper. 45-nitroso-n-butyl-o-toluidine
also gave a double salt with cupric chloride.

It has been observed that secondary and tertiary amines, such as mono- and
di-butylanilines, are able to combine with metallic salts.

Derivatives of methylaniline and butylaniline with cobaltous chloride, zinc
chloride, and cadmium chloride were prepared and compared.

Although the derivatives of the alkylanilines with metallic salts must be
considered as formed by the calling into play of the residual valency of the
nitrogen, the double salts with p-nitrosoalkylanilines may either be considered as
nitrogen or as oxygen addition substances. Pickard and Kenyon (Trans.
Chem. Soc., 1907, 91, 896) showed that nitrosobenzene also combine additively
with metallic salts. The colour of the p-nitrosodimethylaniline zinci-chloride
differed also from that of salts which are considered to be true nitrogen addi-
tion compounds. They suggested that these compounds of p-nitroso-alkylani-
lines were due to the residual valency of the oxygen atom.

The comparative ease with which the different mono-substituted anilines yield
addition compounds has been studied. It is found that aminophenols form
a double complex more readily than nitroanilines. Also the stability of the
addition compounds of the alkylarylamines is less than that of the corresponding
metallic salt derivatives of the primary arylamines. In general, by altering the
basicity of the amino group, or by causing an alteration in the disposal of the
valencies of the nitrogen atom, the power to yield additive products is altered.

Taking into consideration the behaviour of nitro80-hydroxy compounds, and
the ability of nitrosobenzene to yield addition compounds, it is possible in
p-nitrosoalkylarylamines that not only the amino group but also the nitroso group
may have an influence on the formation of a complex with a metallic salt.

In the afternoon a sectional excursion took place to H.M. Naval
Cordite Factory, Holton Heath, by kind permission of Capt.
DESBOROUGH.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

1. Discussion of Report on Fuel Economy.
(For Report see p. 97.)

The following Papers were then read :—

2. An Automatic Filter for measuring the suspended Dust in the Air.
By Dr. J. S. Owens.
3. The Molecular Phase Hypothesis: a Theory of Chemical Reactivity.
By Professor HE. C. C. Baty, C.B.E., F.R.S.

4. Latent Polarities in the Molecule and Mechanism of Reaction. By
Professor A. Larpwortu, F.R.S.

5. The Conjugation of Negative and Positive Valencies. By Professor
R. Rogrnson.

iL TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION :C.

Section C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: J. W. Evans, D.Sc., LL.B., F.B.S.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The President delivered the following Address :—

I propose in this address to consider the methods by which the progress
of geological research may be most effectively promoted, and to point out some
directions in which I think it possible important advances may be made in
the early future.

One of the most striking features of our science is the need in which it
stands of a large and widely distributed body of workers, and the opportunities
it affords to every one of them of making important contributions to scientific
knowledge.

Every locality has its geological history stretching away into the ‘ dark
backward and abysm of time,’ and this history has left its records in the
rocks of the earth’s crust: an imperfect reeord, it is true, for much of it
has long since been destroyed, but enough remains to reward long years cf
patient labour in deciphering it.

Everywhere someone is needed who will devote his spare time to the
examination of the quarries and cliffs, where the materials that build up
the solid earth are exposed to view, and who will record the changes that
occur in them from time to time; for a quarry that is in work, or a cliff that
is being undermined by the sea, constantly presents new faces, affording new
information, which must be recorded if important links in the chain of evidence
are not to be lost. It is equally important that some one should always be
on the look-out for new exposures, road or railway cuttings, for instance, or
excavations for culverts or foundations, which in too many instances are
overgrown or covered up without receiving adequate attention. It is, again,
only the man on the spot who can obtain even an approximately complete
collection of the fossils of each stratum and thus enable us to obtain as full
a knowledge as is possible of the life that existed in the far-off days in which

it was laid down. In his absence, many of the rarer forms which are of .

unique importance in tracing out the long story of the development of plants
and animals, and even man himself, never reach the hands of the specialist
who is capable of interpreting them. It was an amateur geologist, a country
solicitor, who saved from the road-mender’s hammer the Piltdown skull, that
in its main features appears to represent an early human type, from which
the present races of man are in all probability descended. Another amateur,
who was engaged in the brick-making industry near Peterborough, has pro-
vided our museums with their finest collections of Jurassic reptiles. A third,
a hard-worked medical man, was the first to reveal the oldest relics of life

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 1738

that had at that time been recognised in the British Isles; and many more
examples could be instanced of the services to geological science by those
whose principal life-task lay in other directions.

Such workers are unfortunately all too few—fewer, I fancy, now than
they were before the pursuit of sport, and especially of golf, had taken such
a hold upon the middle classes and occupied so considerable a portion of their
leisure hours and thoughts. One might hope that the extended hours now
assured to the working classes for recreation would lead to a general increase
of interest in science among them, if it were not that the students of that
admirable organisation, the Workers’ Educational Association, seem almost
invariably to prefer economic or political subjects to the study of Nature, a
choice in defence of which they could no doubt advance most cogent arguments.
In a large county in which I am interested the number of those in every
condition of life who are able and willing to take part in geological research
might be told almost on the fingers of one hand, and so far as I am aware
there has not been a single recruit in recent years from the ranks of the
younger men or women.

It seems strange that there are so few of our fellow-countrymen or country-
women who feel a call to scientific research, especially in a subject which,
like geology, makes a strong appeal to the imagination, telling us of the
strange vicissitudes through which our world and its inhabitants passed before
they assumed the guise and characters with which we are familiar. How few
are there who realise that the prolific vegetation to which we owe our wealth
of coal was succeeded after the lapse of incalculable years by far-stretching
deserts, and these, after continuing for a period still longer in duration,
were submerged beneath wide inland semi-tropical seas, under whose waters
were accumulated the sediments of sand and mud and calcareous débris out
of which the fertile valleys of Central England have been carved; or that
the conditions under which we now live were only reached through the portals
of bleak, desolate ages of excessive cold, the reasons for which we are still
at a loss to understand.

Even if the appeal to the imagination were not a sufficient incentive to
the cultivation of geology, one would have thought its economic importance
would have been effective. Its intimate bearing on the problems of agricul-
ture, engineering, water-supply, and hygiene is too obvious to need emphasis
here, and it is scarcely more necessary to point out that all our fundamental
manufacturing activities, without exception, are dependent on adequate supplies
of materials of mineral origin, so that we need not be surprised that one of
the earliest administrative acts of the Imperial Conference was the con-
stitution of an Imperial Mineral Resources Bureau to secure that the whole
mineral resources of the Empire should be made available for the successful
development of its industries.

It might be suggested that the prevailing indifference to the attraction of
geological research was due to a conviction that after eighty years of work
by the Geological Survey, as well as by University teachers and amateurs,
there was little left to be done, and that all the information that could be
desired was to be found in the Survey publications. Such a belief can
hardly be very widespread, for, as a matter of fact, comparatively few of the
general public realise the value of the work of the Geological Survey, and still
fewer make use of its publications. Municipal libraries, other than those of
our largest provincial centres, are rarely provided with the official maps and
memoirs relating to the surrounding areas, and in the absence of any demand
the local booksellers do not stock them. This cannot be attributed to the
cost, for, though most of the older maps are hand-coloured and_ therefore
expensive, the later maps—at least those on the smaller scales*—are remark-
ably cheap, and the memoirs are also issued at low prices.

The true explanation appears to be that a geological map conveys very
little information to the average man of fair education who has received
no geological instruction. This is certainly not the fault of the Survey maps,
which compare very favourably with those of other countries, and have been

* 1 inch to the mile, 1 : 63,360; 4 inch to the mile, 1 : 253,440; and 1 inch to
25 miles, 1 : 1,584,000.

174 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

greatly improved in recent years. In particular, the introduction of a longi-
€udinal section on each map and the substitution of the vertical section drawn
to scale for the old colour index must greatly assist those into whose hands
it comes in obtaining a correct view of the succession of the strata and the
structure of the country. Some of the maps are, it is true, so crowded with
information—topographical and geological—that it is frequently difficult, even
for the trained geologist, to read them without a lens. This is largely duo
to the fact that they are printed over the ordinary topographical maps in
which there-is a great amount of detail that is not required in geological
maps. In India the Trigonometrical Survey are always ready to supply, as
a basis for special maps, copies of their own maps printed off plates from
which a portion of the topographical features have been erased. —

The best remedy, however, would be to extend the publication of the maps
on a scale of 6 inches to a mile (1:10,560). For many years all geological
survey work has been, in the first place, carried out on maps of this scale,
but they have not been published except in coal-mining areas. There the
geological boundaries are printed, but the colouring is added by hand, which
makes the maps comparatively expensive. In other localities manuscript
copies of the geological lines and colouring on the Ordnance Survey maps can be
obtained at the cost of production, which is necessarily considerable.

There is, I believe, a wide sphere of usefulness for cheap colour-printed
6-inch geological maps, especially in the case of agricultural and building land,
for which the 6-inch Ordnance maps are already in demand. They afford ample
room for geological information, and, accompanied by longitudinal sections on
the same scale without vertical exaggeration, their significance would be more
readily apprehended than that of maps on a smaller scale. It may be noted
that this is the favourite scale employed by those engaged in independent
geological research for their field work, and, when the area is not too great,
for the publication of their results.

It would be of great advantage if there were a uniform usage by which the
position in the stratigraphical series of rock outcrops were indicated by colour
and their lithological character by stippling (in black or white or colour)
following the ordinarily accepted conventions. This course has been pursued
by Professor Watts in the geological map prepared by him to illustrate his
‘Geography of Shropshire.’ This increases the practical value of the map
for many purposes, but is only possible when it is not overburdened with
topographical detail.

Some explanation, apart from the maps themselves, is however needed if
they are to be rendered, as they should be, intelligible to the general public.
The official memoirs which deal with the same areas as the maps do not afford
a solution of the difficulty. Excellent as they are from the technical stand-
point and full of valuable’ information, they convey little to the man who has
not already a considerable acquaintance with the subject. What is needed is
a short explanatory pamphlet for each map, presuming no previous geological
knowledge, describing briefly and in simple popular language the meaning of
the boundary lines and symbols employed, and the nature and composition of
the different sedimentary or igneous rocks disclosed at the surface or known to
exist below it in the area comprised in the map. A brief account of the fossils
and minerals visible without the aid of a microscope should also be included.
The probable mode of formation of the rocks and their relation to one another
and the subsequent changes they have undergone should be discussed, and at
the same time their influence on the agriculture value of the land and its
suitability for building sites, as well as on the distribution and level of under-
ground water, should be pointed out. Some account too should be given of the
economic mineral products and their applications.

These pamphlets should be illustrated by simple geological sections, views
of local quarries and cliffs showing the relative positions of the different rocks,
figures of the commoner fossils at each horizon, and, where they would be
useful, drawings of the forms assumed by the minerals. Each pamphlet would
be cemplete in itself. This would involve a considerable amount of repetition,
but it must be remembered that different pamphlets would have as a ruje
different readers. An alternative plan would be to follow the example of the
United States Geological Survey and reprint the same brief résumé of geological

a aS x2 me rr OC—™CS—S~;ZXXCDCté;C;

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 175

principles in every case with such additions as are required to explain the
meaning of individual maps. There can, however, I think, be no doubt that
an explanation written expressly for each map can be made at once more easy
to understand and more interesting to those without special geological knowledge.

That something further is required to render the information contained in
the Geological Survey Maps generally available to the public is illustrated by a
correspondence that took place some years ago in one of our leading provincial
papers with reference to the achievement of a manipulator of the hazel
twig in discovering water in the Triassic rocks of the south-west of Derbyshire.
No one seemed to realise that with the help of the Geological Survey Map
published forty years before and the contoured Ordnance Survey Map more
recently issued, it was possible for anyone who possessed a little geological
knowledge and common intelligence to predict within narrow limits the depths
at which it would be possible to find water at any point within the area under
consideration,

When measures such as I have suggested have been adopted for rendering
the publications of the Geological Survey easily comprehensible to the general
public, it should be the policy of the Government to obtain for them the widest
circulation, so that the information they contain should be generally known,
a consummation not only desirable for its own sake as tending to increase the
general interest in geology, but because it would be an important factor in
developing the industries of the country.

During the war publications containing desirable information were circulated
widely and gratuitously by the authorities to all public bodies concerned, and
there seems no reason why the information laboriously gathered by the Geological
Survey in the national interests and paid for out of the public funds should not
now receive the same treatment. All Municipalities, District Councils, public
libraries, colleges and schools, both secondary and elementary, should receive
free copies of the Geological Survey publications dealing with the area where
they are situated or with those immediately adjoining it.

When a new publication is issued the same measures should be taken to
make it known locally as a private firm would employ; copies should be sent
to the local press, which should be assisted to give an interestitig and intelli-
gible account of its contents, with a selection from the illustrations. There
should also be a standing notice in the ‘ Publishers’ Circular’ of the Survey
publications, so that local booksellers may know where to apply for them.
I am told that at the present they are sometimes completely ignorant on the
subject.

Every facility should, of course, be afforded to the public to make use of
the Survey publications. They should not only be on sale at the post offices in
the areas to which they relate, but it should also be possible to borrow folding
mounted copies of the maps as well as bound copies of the explanations and
memoirs, on making a deposit equal to their value. When they were no longer
required, the amount of the deposit, less a small charge for use, would be
repaid on their return to the same or any other post office and the production
of the receipt for cancellation. It would thus be possible, when traversing any
part of the country, to consult in succession all the Geological Survey publica-
tions of the districts passed through. This system would also enable the
permanent residents to refer to the more expensive hand-coloured maps, includ-
ing the 6-inch manuscript maps, at a comparatively small cost.

The preparation and printing of the explanations of the Survey Maps, and
the increase in the numbers printed of other publications, would obviously
involve additional expenditure. This would be to some extent set off by
increased sales; but even if there were a net loss on the balance, it would be
worth while if it enabled the fullest advantage to be taken of the expenditure
incurred in any event by the Survey in investigating the mineral resources of
the country.

The Survey publications should be illustrated in every museum and school
in the districts with which they deal by small collections showing the characters
of the local rocks, and of the minerals and fossils that occur in them, and care
should be taken to see that these collections are maintained in good order and
properly labelled.

176 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

It would be a good plan for the Survey to appoint a local geologist, an
amateur or member of the staff of a university or college, in every area of
twenty or thirty square miles’ to act as their representative and as a centre
of local geological interest. He would be expected to give his assistance to other
local workers who stood in need of it. He would receive little official remunera-
tion, but inquirers in the neighbourhood would be referred to him, and where
commercial interests were involved he would, subject to the sanction of the
Central Office, be entitled to charge substantial fees for his advice. He would
report to the Survey any event of geological importance in the area of which
he was in charge—whether it was the discovery of a new fossiliferous locality,
the opening of a new quarry,? the sinking of a well, or the commencement of
boring operations. Many of these matters would be adequately dealt with by
local workers, but in other cases it might be desirable for the Survey to send
down one of their officers to make a detailed investigation.

One of the most important duties of the Survey, or its local representative,
would be to see that the records of well-sinkings and borings are properly kept,
and that where cores are obtained the depth from which each was raised is
accurately recorded. At the present time the officers of the Survey make every
effort to see that this is done, but they have no legal power to compel those
engaged in such operations to give the particulars required. Equally important
is a faithful record of the geological information obtained in prospecting or
mining operations. This is especially necessary where a mine is abandoned.®
If care is not then taken to see that all the information available is accurately
recorded, it may never be possible later to remedy the failure to do so.

Probably these objects would be much facilitated if engineers in charge of
boring or mining operations had sufficient knowledge of geology and interest in
its advancement to make them anxious to see that no opportunity was lost of
observing and recording geological data. This would be in most cases ensured
if every mining student were required to carry out geological research as part of
his professional training. It is now recognised that no education in science can
be considered to be up to University standard if it is limited to a passive recep-
tion of facts and theories without any attempt to extend, in however humble
a way, the boundaries of knowledge. In the case of geology such research will
naturally in most cases take the form of observations in the field. The important
point is that the work must ‘be original, on new lines, or in greater detail than
before, and not a mere confirmation of published results. It is only by the
consciousness that he is accomplishing something which has not been done before
that the student can experience the keen pleasure of the conquest of the unknown
and acquire the love of research for its own sake.

At present it is disheartening to realise how few of those who have received
scientific instruction understand the obligations under which they lie of them-
selves contributing to the growth of knowledge. If they have once had the
privilege of achieving individual creative work they will henceforward desire
to take advantage of every opportunity of continuing it. j

There is one respect in which geological workers suffer a heavy pecuniary
handicap—the cost of railway fares. This affects both the staff and students of
colleges, as well as local workers who are extending their radius of work—an
inevitable necessity in the investigation of many problems. It also seriously
interferes with the activity of local Natural History Societies and Field Clubs,
the Geological Societies and Associations of the great provincial towns, and,

1 T am afraid that in many parts of the country there are so few amateur
geologists that this area would have to be increased, at any rate at first. .

2 It is very desirable that arrangements should be made for the co-operation
of the Geological Survey or their local representatives with the Inspectors of
Quarries appointed by the Home Office, and that the annual official list of
quarries should describe the rocks which are worked, not only by their ordinary
economic designations, but also by their recognised geological descriptions.

3 Those engaged in mining are already required to furnish mining plans to
the Mining Record Office, but there is no obligation to give any geological
information that may have been obtained. This office was formerly attached
to the Geological Survey, but was transferred some years ago to the Home Office.

a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ees

above all, that focus of amateur geological activity—the Geologists’ Association
of London. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of these agencies in the
promotion of geological education. Both professional and amateur geologists
are deeply indebted to the excursions which are in most cases directed by
specially qualified workers, with whom it is a labour of love. At the same time
one of their most valuable results is the creation of interest in scientific work
in the localities that are visited. Now that the railways are, if report speaks
truly, to be nationalised, or at any rate controlled by the State, the claims
of scientific work carried out without reward in the national interest to special
consideration will surely not be ignored. All questions as to the persons to
whom such travelling facilities should be extended and the conditions that
should be imposed may safely be left to the decision of the Geological Survey,
which has always had the most friendly and sympathetic relations with private
workers and afforded them every facility and assistance, which their compara-
tively limited staff and heavy duties permitted.

It is impossible to speak in too generous terms of the Geological Survey * and
its succession of distinguished chiefs (the last of whom, I am glad to say, is
with us to-day), or of the work it has accomplished, in spite of somewhat
inadequate financial support from the powers that be, who have taken every
precaution that the Honours graduates who join its ranks should do so for the
pure love of science and not for the sake of worldly advantage. With increased
staff and less straitened finances the Survey would be in a position, not only to
discharge the additional duties my suggestions would impose on them, but to
extend still further the sphere of their usefulness. There is, for instance, at
the present time a very urgent need for the provision of further facilities for
the analysis of rocks and minerals to assist and complete the researches both of
the official surveyors and of private persons engaged in research. The work is
of a very special character, and the number of those who have given sufficient
attention to it and understand its difficulties and pitfalls is very limited. The
chemical staff at our Universities are chiefly concerned with organic chemistry,
and private analysts devote themselves mainly to the examination of economic
products. The effect of a hasty excursion of workers of either of these cate-
gories into the analysis of such complex silicates as augite or biotite or any
of our ordinary igneous rocks is apt to be disastrous, only exceeded in this
respect by the results obtained when, as not infrequently happens, a student is
given a similar task by way of practice. A certain amount of good work is
undoubtedly done in College laboratories, but it is very little in comparison with
what is needed.*®

At, present the analytical work of the Survey is organised on a very modest
scale in comparison with the personnel and equipment of the laboratory of the
United States Geological Survey, though the quality of the work has been as
a rule in recent years quite as high. There are two analytical chemists attached
to the Geological Survey, and some of the other members of the staff are capable
of doing good analytical work. The demand, however, for analyses for economic
purposes is so great that it is impossible to carry out all the analyses that would
be desirable in connection with the purely scientific work of the Survey itself.
There is consequently no possibility of their being able to assist private investi-
gators.

Strictly speaking, the individual minerals of a rock should be separately
analysed and their relative amounts determined, but this is at present a counsel
of perfection that we cannot hope to attain; and when the difficulty of obtaining
pure material, especially in the case of fine-grained rocks, and the zoned character
of practically all complex rock-forming minerals are considered, it is sean that
intrinsically it is not quite so important as it would seem to be at first sight.
The bulk analysis, intelligently interpreted in connection with the actual

“ Since 1905 the Irish Survey, a small but enthusiastic band led by one of
the most broad-minded of modern geologists, has been separated from that of
the remainder of the country.

5 TI should like to refer in this connection to the excellent analytical work of
Dr. H. F. Harwood, of the Chemical Department of the Imperial College of
Science and Technology.

178 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

mineral composition of the rock as revealed by the microscope, is, in fact, at
present the most practical method of determining the composition of the minerals.
I need scarcely say that volatile constituents still retained by the rock should
be separately determined, and the amount reported as water should not include
any other substance given off at the same time.

In the absence of facilities for obtaining rock analyses, petrological work in
this country is at present seriously handicapped. A striking illustration of the
inadequate provision for analyses is revealed in the fact that for the whole of the
early Permian granitic intrusions in the south-west of England, covering nearly
2,000 square miles, and including numerous different types and varieties, there
are only four analyses in existence, and of these two are out of date and imper-
fect. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that these rocks are
closely connected with the pneumatolytic action that has given us almost all the
economic minerals of the south-west of England, comprising ores of tin,
tungsten, copper, lead, and uranium, as well as kaolin. If the Survey, by
increasing its staff of analysts, were in a position, not merely to multiply the
number of analyses illustrating its own work, but to help others engaged in
research, they would only be proceeding on lines which have long since been
followed in some of our Dominions.

Another direction in which the work of the Survey could with advantage be
extended is in the execution of deep borings *® on carefully-thought-out schemes
by which a maximum of information could be obtained. Both in Holland and
Germany borings have been carried out to discover the nature of the older
rocks beneath the Secondary and Tertiary strata, and Prof. Watts, in his
Presidential Address to the Geological Society in 1912 (Proc. Geol. Soc.
pp. lxxx.-xc.), dwelt on the importance of exploring systematically the region
beneath the wide spread of the younger rocks that cover such a great extent
of the east and south of England. Prof. Boulton, my predecessor in this
Chair, has endorsed this appeal, but nothing has been done or is apparently
likely to be done in this direction. It seems extraordinary that no co-ordinated
effort should have been made to ascertain the character and potentiality of
this almost unknown land that fies close beneath our feet and is the continuation
of the older rocks of the west and north to which we owe so much of our
mineral wealth. It is true that borings have been put down by private enter-
prise, but, being directed only by the hope of private gain and by rival interests,
they have been carried out on no settled plan, and the results and sometimes the
very existence of the borings have been kept secret. The natural consequences
of this procedure have been the maximum of expense and the minimum of
useful information.

Unfortunately in recent years percussion or rope boring, which breaks up the
rock into fine powder, has more and more, on account of its cheapness, replaced
the use of a circular rotating drill which yields a substantial cylindrical core
that affords far more information as to the nature of the rocks and the geulogical
structure of the district. If private boring is still to be carried on, the adoption
of the latter procedure should be insisted on, even if the difference of cost has
to be defrayed by the Government. It is quite true that a considerable amount
of useful information can be collected by means of a careful microscopic examina-
tion of the minute fragments which alone are available for study, so that the
nature of the rocks traversed can be recognised ; but the texture of the rock is
destroyed, as well as any evidence which might have been available of its
larger structures and stratigraphical relations and almost all traces of fossils.
Tt is, too, impossible to tell with certainty the exact depth at which any par-
ticular material was originally located, for fragments broken off from the sides
of the bore may easily find their way to the bottom.

A good illustration, and one of many that might be cited, of the misdirected

° IT have not space to deal here with the shallow borings in soft strata which
have been so successfully conducted on the Flanders front during the war by
Captain W. B. R. King, of the Geological Survey. Similar borings have been
already carried out by the Survey on a limited scale, but in the light of the
experience that has now been gained we may look for a widely extended use of
the method both by private workers and by the Survey officers.

(te el

sare

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. : 179

energy that is sometimes expended in prospecting operations, was afforded a
few years ago by a company that put down a boring for oil through more than
a thousand feet of granite without being aware of the nature of the rock that
was being traversed. In this case a percussion drill was employed, but a few
minutes’ examination of the material should have enabled the engineer in charge,
supposing he had even an elementary knowledge of geology, to save hundreds
of pounds of needless expenditure. The sum total of the funds which have
been uselessly expended in this country alone in Lopeless explorations for minerals,
in complete disregard of the most obvious geological evidence, would have been
sufficient to defray many times over the cost of a complete scientific underground
survey.

a Rbarch is to be carried out economically and effectively, it must be
organised systematically and directed primarily with the aim of advancing know-
ledge. if this aim be well and faithfully kept in view, material benefits will
accrue which would never have been thought to be sufficiently probable to warrant
the expenditure of money on prospecting.

Tt is, however, not only in the areas occupied by Secondary or Tertiary rocks
that systematic boring is urgently needed. There are many other localities where
important information as to the structure of the rocks could probably be obtained
in this manner. Opinion is very much divided as to the relation of the Devonian
to the older rocks in South Devon and Cornwall,’ but there is little doubt that
a series of judiciously placed borings would solve the problem without difficulty.
In North Devon and West Somerset, the question as to whether the Foreland
Grits are a repetition by faulting of the Hangman Grits could also be settled
at once by borings in the Foreland Grits and in the Lynton Beds.

In the North of England, again, there are many points where the strata
exposed at the surface are low down in the Carboniferous, and it would be com-
paratively easy to ascertain the nature of the earlier rocks beneath them, with
regard to which we are much in need of information.®

It would be easy to cite other cases where information of considerable
geological value could be obtained by boring at comparatively small expense, and
would in all probability in the majority of cases lead ultimately to results of
economic importance.

It is obviously only right that any commercial advantages resulting from
investigations carried out at the public cost should accrue to the State, and, if
this principle were adopted, expenditure by the Government or geological re-
search on the lines I have suggested would be sooner or later recouped by the
mineral wealth rendered available to the community.

It is not, however, on terra firma alone that such investigations may be
usefully carried out. The floors of the shallow seas that separate these islands
from one another and from the continent of Europe are still almost unknown
from the geological standpoint, although their investigation would present no
Serious difficulties. Joly® has described an electrically driven apparatus which,
when lowered so as to rest on a hard sea floor, will cut out and detach a eylindri-
cal core of rock, and retain it till raised to the surface. Subsequently

* I have already referred to the economic importance of this area. The
desirability of ascertaining its true geological structure is too obvious to need
emphasis here.

§ The recent borings for mineral oil in the Carboniferous rocks of Derbyshire
were put down largely by means of public funds, and such success as they have
attained has been due to the fact that they were directed by expert geologists ;
but there can be little doubt that, if they had been carried out as part of a
carefully-thought-out scheme of underground exploration wherever it was needed
to elucidate the structure of the country, economies would have been effected
and the sum total of our knowledge even from the economic standpoint would
have been far greater. It is a pity that these borings have been carried out
by means of the percussion process. It is, however, usually employed in borings
for oil—in America almost exclusively—and in war-time its greater speed was
no doubt an important factor in the decision to resort to it.

* ‘On the Geological Investigation of Submarine Rocks,’ Sci. Proc. Roy. Dubl.
Soc., vol. viii., pp. 509-524, 189.

180 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

he invented a still more ingenious device,!° in which the force of the sea-
water entering an empty vessel is substituted for electrical power, but unfortu-
nately neither the one or the other has actually been tried or even constructed.

Meantime, however, vertical sections up to 80 cm. (2 ft. 73 in.) of the mud
of the deep seas have actually been obtained in iron tubes attached to sounding
apparatus employed in the course of the voyage of the Gaussberg. These reveal
a succession of deposits of which the lower usually indicate colder water condi-
tions than the upper, and have been referred for that reason to the last Glacial
Period.1+

In many places rock fragments are dredged up by fishing boats. These
should of course be used with caution in drawing conclusions as to the distribu-
tion of rocks in situ on the sea bottom, as such fragments may have been
transported when embedded in ice sheets or in ice bergs or other forms of floating
ice, or entangled in the roots of floating trees; but where the rock-fragments
can be shown to have a definite distribution, as in those described by Grenville
Cole and Thomas Crook from the Atlantic to the west of Ireland, and by
R. H. Worth from the western portion of the English Channel,’ they may be
regarded as affording trustworthy information as to the geology of the area.

There seems every reason to believe that advances in submarine geology
will not be of only scientific interest, but will bring material benefits with them.
Even at present the working of coal seams and metalliferous veins has been
extended outwards beyond low-water mark, and, if evidence should be forth-
coming that valuable deposits underlie the shallower waters of the North Sea
at any point, there is no reason to doubt that mining engineers would find means
of exploiting them. It seems quite possible that off the shores of Northumber-
land and Durham there are, in addition to extensions of the neighbouring coal-
field, Permian rocks containing deposits of common salt, sulphate of calcium
(gypsum and anhydrite), and, above all, potash salts comparable to those at
Stassfurt, which have proved such a source of wealth to Germany.

No less important than the work of the Geological Survey is that of our
great national museums. I have already alluded to the need for local collections
to illustrate the geology of the areas in which they are situated. ‘The museums
of our larger cities and our universities will naturally contain collections of 2
more general character, but it is to our national museums that we must chiefly
look for the provision of specimens to which those engaged in research can
refer for comparison, and it is imperative that they should be maintained in
the highest state of efficiency, if the best results are to be obtained from scientific
investigations in this country. The ability and industry of the staff of the
Mineral and Geological Departments of the Natural History Museum are
everywhere recognised, as well as their readiness to assist all those who go to
them for information, but in point of numbers they are undeniably insufficient
to perform their primary task of examining, describing, arranging, and cata-
loguing their ever-increasing collections so as to enable scientific workers to
refer to them under the most favourable conditions..* Even if the. staff were
doubled, its time would be fully occupied in carrying out these duties, quite
apart from any special researches to which its members would naturally wish to
devote themselves. The additional expense incurred by the urgently needed
increase of the museum establishment would be more than repaid to the country
in the increased facilities afforded for research.

1° ‘On the Investigation of the Deep Sea Deposits,’ Sci. Proc. Roy. Dub.
Soc., vol. xiv. pp. 256-267, 1914.

11. Philippi; ‘Die Grund-proben der deutschen Sudpolar Expedition,’
1901-3, vol. ii., pp. 416-7 and 591-598.

12 «On Rock-specimens Dredged off the Coast of Ireland and their Bearing
on Submarine Geology,’ Mem. Geol. Surv., Ireland, pp. 1-35, Dublin, 1910.

13 ‘The Dredgings of the Marine Biological Association ’ (1895-1906) as a
contribution to the knowledge of the Geology of the English Channel.—J/ourn,
Marine Biol. Assoc., vol. viii., pp. 118-188. 1908

14 Hven the number of skilled mechanics is quite insufficient, though their
work is urgently needed. In the Geological Department provision is only made
for two, and at present but one is actually at work.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 181

There is room, too, for a considerable extension in the scope of the activity
and usefulness of our museums in other directions, and more especially in the
provision of typical lithological collections illustrating the geology of different
parts of the British Empire and of foreign countries. __ ;

So far as the United Kingdom is concerned, this requirement has been admi-
rably fulfilled in the museums attached to the Survey Headquarters in London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin, and there is a smaller collection of the same nature,
excellent in its way, at the Natural History Museum. But to obtain a broad
outlook it is essential that the attention of geological workers should not be
confined to one country, however diversified its rocks may be, and it is impossible
to assimilate effectively publications dealing) with the geology of other parts of
the world without being able to refer to collections of the rocks, minerals, and
fossils described.

The rocks, for instance, of the Dominion of South Africa are of the greatest
scientific and economic interest, and many important communications have been
published with regard to them. They present at the same time many features
which distinguish them from European types, but I am not aware of any
museum in this country where they are adequately illustrated.

Such collections should include not only rock specimens in the ordinary
sense of the term, but also examples of metalliferous veins and other mineral
deposits which present important distinctive features.

In the Imperial Institute there are at the present time collections from most
of the different constituent parts of the British Empire, which fulfil to a certain
extent these requirements, and they have been employed by myself and others
in demonstrations to the Geologists’ Association in illustration of the geology
of Peninsular India and different parts of Africa; but they are very incomplete,
having been collected with the view of exhibiting, not so much the character of
the rocks and mode of occurrence of the minerals, as the economic resources of
the British Empire.

This is, of course, a function of the very greatest importance, but collections
of minerals of intrinsic economic significance gathered together to assist in the
development of the resources of the Empire should be organised on a different
plan. They should be arranged, not according to the areas in which they occur,
but with reference to the products obtained from them. The object of such
collections is to enable those who are in want of materials for commercial
purposes to ascertain where they can be obtained, and of what quality and at
what price. For this purpose different samples of the same or similar ores or
other products should be placed together irrespective of their origin, and
each specimen should be accompanied by an assay or analysis, and such informa-
tion with regard to its source and mode of occurrence as will enable the
inquirer to form an opinion as to whether it will be likely to satisfy his require-
ments.

The lithological and paleontological collections which I am now advocating
should, on the other hand, be arranged so that each group of specimens illus-
trates an area possessing distinctive geological features. Little has, hitherto,
yet been done in this direction. The Mineral Department of the Natural
History Museum possesses a large and extensive collection of foreign and

colonial lithological specimens arranged according to localities, which is too

little known, but it is naturally very unequal and incomplete, some countries
being comparatively well represented and others scarcely at all. The Geological
Department of the Museum is well provided with paleontological specimens,
but these are arranged according to their biological affinities, and they might
well be supplemented by a series of typical collections illustrating the fauna
and flora of the more distinctive horizons in different areas. This is all the more
important, as the mode of preservation may be very different in different places.
It is probable that the geological surveys of British Dominions and Depen-
dencies and of foreign countries would in many cases be able to supply such
collections of rocks, mineral deposits, and fossils as I have suggested. Where
this is not possible, the only practicable means of obtaining really typical
collections is to despatch a representative of the Museum, preferably one of its
own ‘officers, to make one himself. The provision of such facilities for the
study of the geology of other lands is especially desirable in London in view
1919. R

182 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,

of the number of students of mining and economic geology who receive their
training in this country and ultimately go out into the world to find themselves
face to face with problems in which a true understanding of the local geology
is absolutely essential.

I shall not discuss here the important subjects of the indexing of
geological literature and the preparation of abstracts of current publications.
he former is already being efficiently dealt with by the Geological Society,
and the latter will, [ trust, be provided for in some way in the immediate
future.

I now proceed to indicate some lines along which it seems to me probable
that there are opportunities for progress in geological research.

In the investigation of the sedimentary rocks attention has been usually
directed mainly to the larger and more obvious features, and these have sufficed
to afford considerable insight into the conditions which prevailed when they
were laid down. The detailed study of the minor structures or texture of
these rocks by lens and microscope has, on the other hand, been comparatively
neglected, though it is capable of affording us valuable information that could
be obtained in no other way. There are, however, I need hardly say, important
exceptions, the classical researches of Sorby extending over more than half
a century, the investigations of Hutchings on the argillaceous rocks, and much
useful work in recent years on the mineral constituents and microzoa of the
sedimentary rocks generally. But, although individual sediments have been
carefully studied, few, if any, attempts have been made to carry out a detailed
examination of the successive beds of a stratigraphical succession comparable
to the systematic zoning by means of fossils which has yielded such valuable
results.

Not only ought the texture and composition of the individual lamine to be
patiently studied to obtain information as to the exact manner of their deposition,
but attention should be more especially directed to the character of the trans-
ition by which one layer gives place to another, so as to determine, if possible,
the cases where there has been a gradual passage without a break, and those
in which there has been a pause in the deposition of greater or less duration,
or even a removal of material, although nothing in the nature of an uncon-
formity, however slight, can be detected. Even in apparently uniform deposits,
such as chalk and clay, variations in texture and composition may be brought
out by special treatment and reveal interesting details of the conditions under
which they were deposited.

It is of special importance to recognise and examine in detail the occurrence
of rhythmic repetitions of a similar succession of sedimentary materials and
characters. A single cycle in such a succession may be only a twentieth of an
inch in thickness, as in the case of ferruginous banding in the Lower Hangman
Grits at Smith’s Combe in the Quantocks, or may include thirty or forty feet
of strata, as in the Caithness Flags. Rhythms have been described from the
pre-Cambrian of Finland, the Ordovician of North America,is the Permian
of Stassfurt,’® the Cretaceous of Arkansas,’’ and the Quaternary of Scandinavia

and Palestine, and many more, no doubt, occur in the stratigraphical succession”

of different countries. It would probably be found that a similar repetition
occurs in fine terrigenous deposits off the coast of tropical countries where there
is a well-defined alternation of wet and dry seasons. In some places minor
cycles may be superimposed on: larger, as in the case of the Skerry Belts
described by Bernard Smith ’* in the Upper Keuper of East Nottinghamshire.
The general question of the significance of such rhythms of stratification must,
however, be reserved for another occasion.

lt is more difficult to arrive at the true interpretation of the phenomena

15 Joseph Barrell; Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xxviii., pp. 789-90, 1917.
16 ©, Ochsenius; Zeitsch. fiir practische Ceologie, vol. 13, p. 168, 1905.
7G. K. Gilbert; Journ. of Geology, vol. iii., pp. 121-127. A
18 Geol. Mag., 1910, pp. 303-305.

—— s ~_

7

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 183

presented by the endogenetic rocks!® which have come into existence by the
action of the forces of earth’s interior, for the conditions of temperature and
pressure under which they were formed, whether they are igneous rocks in
the narrower sense, or mineral veins, or metamorphic in origin, were widely
different from those with which we are familiar. Under such circumstances the
ultimate physical principles are the same, but the so-called constants have to
be determined afresh, and a new chemistry must be worked out. It is necessary,
therefore, as far as possible, to reproduce the conditions that prevailed—a
task which has ‘been courageously undertaken and to a considerable extent
accomplished by the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institute at
Washington.

By artificial means temperatures and pressures have been already produced
far higher than those that were in all probability concerned in the evolution of
any of the rocks that have been revealed to us at the surface by earth-move-
ments and denudation, for it is unlikely that in any case they were formed at a
greater depth than five or six miles, corresponding to a uniform (or, as it is
sometimes termed, hydrostatic) pressure of 2,000 or 2,400 atmospheres, or at
a greater temperature than 1,500° C. Indeed, it is probable that the vast
majority of igneous and metamorphic rocks, as well as mineral veins, came into
existence at considerably less depths, and at more moderate temperatures. It
is true that most of the rock-forming minerals crystallise from their own melts
at temperatures between 1,100° C. and 1,550° C., but they separate out from
the complex magmas from which our igneous rocks were formed at lower
temperatures, rarely much exceeding 1,200° C., and frequently considerably
less.?°

1t has been found possible at the Geophysical Laboratory to maintain a
temperature of 1,000° C. or more under a uniform pressure of 2,000 atmospheres
for so long a time as may be desired, and, what is equally important, the tem-
perature and pressure attained can be determined with satisfactory accuracy,
the temperature within 2° C., and the pressure within 5 atmospheres.

It has been ascertained that such uniform pressure as would ordinarily
be present at the depths mentioned does not directly affect the physical proper-
ties of minerals to anything like the same extent as the difference between the
temperature prevailing at the earth’s surface and even the lowest temperature at
which igneous rocks can have been formed. It has, however, a most important
indirect action in maintaining the concentration in the magma of a considerable
proportion of water and other volatile constituents?! which have a far-reaching
influence in lowering the temperature at which the rock-forming minerals
erystallise out, in other words, the temperature at which the rock consolidates,
and in diminishing the molecular and molar viscosity of the magma, thus facili-
tating the growth of larger crystals and the formation of a rock of coarser
grain. They must also be of profound significance in determining the minerals
that separate out, the order of their formation, and the processes of differentia-
tion in magmas.

It is, therefore, obvious that any conclusions derived from the early experi-
ments which were carried out with dry melts at normal pressures must be
received with very considerable caution. Nor does much advance appear to
have been made, even at the Geophysical Laboratory, in experiments with melts
containing large amounts of volatile fluxes, and yet, if we are to reproduce even
approximately natural conditions, it is absolutely necessary to work with magmas
containing a proportion of these constituents, and especially water, equal in
weight to at least one-third or one-half of the silica present. This will obviously
present considerable difficulties. but there is no reason to doubt that it will
be found possible to surmount them.

19 T. Crook; Min. Mag., vol. xvii., p. 87, 1914.

2° It is probable that the temperatures recorded in some lavas higher than
the melting point of copper, which is well over 1,200° C., are due to chemical
reactions, such as the oxidation of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ferrous oxide,
and perhaps sulphur. See Day and Shepherd, Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. xxiv.,
pp. 599-601, 1913.

21 John Johnston, Journ. Franklin Inst., Jan. 1917, pp. 14-19.

R 2

184 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

A much more formidable obstacle in realising the conditions under which
rocks are formed is the small scale on which our operations can be carried on.
There are important problems connected with the differentiation of magmas,
whether in a completely fluid or partly crystallised state, under the action of
gravitation, for the solution of which it would seem for this reason impossible
to reproduce the conditions under which Nature works. Instead of a reservoir
many hundreds of feet in depth, we must content ourselves in our laboratory
experiments with a vertical range of only a few inches. There are, however,
other phenomena that require investigation and that involve a great difference
of level in their operation, but do not take place at such elevated temperatures.
Such are some of the processes of ore deposition or transference, especially
secondary enrichment. Here, with the friendly assistance of mining engineers,
but at the cost of considerable expenditure, it might even be possible to experi-
ment with columns several thousand feet in vertical height.

In any attempt to reproduce the processes of metamorphism other than those
of a purely thermal or pneumatolytic character, or to imitate the conditions
that give rise to primary foliation, we must consider the effects of non-uniform
or directed pressure involving stresses that operate in definite directions
and result in deformation of the material on which they act. Unlike uniform
pressure which usually raises the crystallisation point, directed pressure may
lower it considerably and thus give rise to local fusion and subsequent recrystal-
lisation of the rock.2! At the same time it profoundly modifies the structure,
resulting in folds and fractures of every degree of magnitude. One of the most
pressing problems of geology at the present moment is to determine the effects
of directed pressure in its operation at different temperatures, and in the
presence of different amounts of uniform pressure, a factor which has probably
an important influence on the result, which must also depend on the proportion
and nature of the volatile constituents which are present, as well as on the time
during which the stresses are in operation. There seems no reason why valuable
information should not be obtained on all those points by properly conducted
experiments.

The time element in the constructive or transforming operations of Nature
cannot, of course, be adequately reproduced within the short space of individual
human activity, or, it may be, that of our race; but I am inclined to think that,
even in the case of metamorphic action, the importance of extremely prolonged
action has been exaggerated.

In attempting to imitate the natural processes involved in the formation and
alteration of rocks and mineral veins, we require some means of ascertaining
when we have approximately reproduced the conditions which actually pre-
vailed. It is not sufficient to bring about artificially the formation of a mineral
occurring in the rocks or mineral deposits under investigation, for the same
mineral can be reproduced in many ways. It is, however, probable that a mineral
produced under different conditions is never identical in all its characters.
Its habit, or the extent to which its possible faces are developed (a function
of the surface tension), the characters of the faces which are present, its
twinning, its internal structure, inclusions and impurities, all vary in different
occurrences, and the more closely these can be reproduced, the greater the
assurance we obtain that an artificial mineral has been formed under the same
conditions as the natural product.

For this purpose it is above all necessary that there should be in the first
place a systematic comparative study of these characters and of the association
in which they are found. The results thus obtained should be of the greatest
value in indicating the directions along which experimental work would be most
probably successful. They should, of course, be supplemented by laboratory

* See J. Johnston and L. H. Adams, Jour. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. xxxiv.,
p. 563 (1912); Am. J. Sci., vol. xxxv., p. 206 (1913); A. Harker, Proc. Geol. Soc.,
vol. Ixxiv., pp. 75-77 (1919). It is interesting to note that similar principles
apply to the pseudo-fluidity induced in clay by directed pressure. See
P. M. Crosthwaite, Proc. Inst. C.H., December 19, 1916, p. 149; Journ. and

Trans. Soc. Eng., vol. x-, pp. 82-86, 92-94, 1918; Alfred S. E. Ackermann, ib.
pp. 37-80, 102-107.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 185

studies of the relations of such subsidiary crystallographic characters to the
environment in the case of crystals which can be formed under normal con-
ditions of temperature and pressure, and therefore under the immediate observa-
tion of the experimenter. Some work has, in fact, already been done on the
effects on these characters of the presence of other substances in the same
solution.

In the study of the secondary alterations of metalliferous deposits, especially
those which consist of the enrichment of mineral veins by the action of circulat-
ing solutions, either of atmospheric or intratelluric origin, the study of pseudo-
morphs gives, of course, valuable assistance in determining the nature of the
chemical and physical changes that have taken place.

A successful solution of the problem of the exact conditions under which
deposits of economic importance are found would be of incalculable value in
facilitating their discovery and exploitation, and would be the means of saving
a vast amount of unnecessary labour and expense.

The problem of the structure ahd nature of the earth’s interior, inaccessible
to us even by boring, would seem at first sight to be well nigh insoluble, except
as far as we can deduce from the dips and relations of the rocks at the surface
their downward extension to considerable depths. We can, however, gain
important information about the physical condition of the deeper portions from
the reaction of the earth to the external forces to which it is subjected, and still
more from a study of the ‘preliminary’ earthquake tremors that traverse it,
the time occupied in their passage, and the difference in intensity of those that
follow different paths. These methods are, however, not applicable to the
earth’s crust. Its physical characters appear to be distinct from those of the
interior, but very iittle is as yet definitely known about them, except of course
in the neighbourhood of the surface, and for this reason they are usually
ignored in calculating the paths of tremors traversing the earth. It seems to
be separated from the deeper portions of the earth by a surface of discontinuity
at which earthquake vibrations travelling upwards towards the surface may be
reflected. Calculations based on the total time taken by these reflected waves
to reach the surface after a second passage through the earth’s interior appear
to indicate that this surface of discontinuity, whatever its nature may be, is at
a depth of about twenty miles, though there can be little doubt that this
depth varies considerably from point to point.

The main earthquake vibrations appear to follow the curvature of the
earth, and to be confined to its crust, instead of traversing the interior, as is the
case with the preliminary tremors. In these vibrations a period of about seven-
teen or eighteen seconds is usually predominant, and is believed to be due to the
natural period of vibration of the earth’s crust. Wiechert ?? assumes that there
is a node halfway down and a free movement above and below, so that the full
wave length would be twice the thickness of the earth’s crust. Assuming a
velocity of propagation of 34 km. per second, he calculates the depth of the
crust to be approximately 30 km. There seems, however, to be no warrant for
supposing that the lower surface of the crust is capable of free vibration. The
fact that, not only waves of compression, but waves of distortion can traverse it
shows that it must possess very high rigidity so far as forces of brief duration
are concerned. The lower surface should therefore be regarded as a node, and
enly the upper as capable of free movement, so that the whole would correspond
to a quarter of a wave length. On the other hand, the velocity of 35 km. per
second, which is that of the propagation of waves round the earth’s crust, in all
probability a complex process, is not the same as the true velocity of vibrations
passing upwards and downward through the earth’s crust. Those with a period
of about 18 seconds appear to consist partly of horizontal vibrations and partly
of vertical ; the former would seem to correspond to waves of distortion, and the
latter to waves of compression. The velocity of the former would probably be
about 4 km. and the latter 7-km. per second, corresponding to the thicknesses of

22 Géittingen Nachrichten, 1907, pp. 468-9.

186 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

18 km. and 314 km, (eleven and twenty miles). There is some evidence in the
case of a distant earthquake of a period approximating to 30 km. per second,
which would correspond, with waves of distortion, to a thickness of 30 km.
(nineteen miles). However in the present state of our knowledge of these
vibrations such calculations are only of speculative interest.

There must be numerous surfaces of discontinuity in the earth’s crust in
addition to that forming its lower limit. Such would be the boundaries
between great tracts of granite or granitoid gneiss and the basic rocks that
in all probability everywhere underlie them; the surface dividing gneisses and
crystalline schists from unmetamorphosed sediments overlying them unconform-
ably; that between hard Paleozoic rocks and softer strata of later age; and
the surfaces of massive limestones or sills. Wiechert observed at Gottingen, at
the time of the Indian earthquake of April 4, 1905, small horizontal vibrations,
superimposed on the others, with a period of only 14 seconds. He believed
that these were due to horizontal distortional vibrations of the local sand-
stone formation with a node at its basal surface. He found the velocity of
similar vibrations at the surface to be 250 m. per second, and thence calculated
the depth of the sandstone stratum to be 90 m.2* No doubt similar correlations
of terrestrial vibrations and the structure of the earth’s crust may be made in
other cases.

It deserves consideration, however, as to how far it may be possible to
add to our knowledge of the earth’s crust by experimental work with a view
of the determination of surfaces of discontinuity by their action in reflecting
vibrations from artificial explosions, a procedure similar to that by means of
which the presence of vessels at distance can be detected by the reflection of
submarine sound waves. The ordinary seismographs are not suited for this
purpose; the scale of their record, both of amplitude and of time, is too small
for the minute and rapid vibrations which would be expected to reach an
instrument situated several miles from an explosion, or to distinguish between
direct vibrations and those that may arrive a second or two later after reflexion
at a surface of discontinuity. As the cylinder on which the record is made
would be only in motion while the experiment was in progress, there would be
no difficulty in arranging for a much more rapid movement. At the same time
it would be desirable to dispense with any arrangement for damping the swing
of the pendulum, which would be unnecessary with small and rapid vibrations,
and would tend to suppress them. It is possible that it might be better
to employ a seismograph which records, like that devised by Galitzin shortly
before his death, variations of pressure expressing terrestrial acceleration, instead
of one which records directly the movements of the ground. It would, however,
probably be found desirable to substitute for the piezo-electric record of pressure
employed by Galitzin a record founded on the effect of pressure in varying the
resistance in an electric circuit. This is, in fact, the principle of the micro-
phone and most modern telephone receivers, but quantitatively they are very
unreliable. This would not matter so much for the present purpose, where the
time of transmission is the most important feature in the evidence, but satis-
factory results even in this respect appear to be given by Brown’s liquid micro-
phone, from which the record could be taken, if desired, by means of the
reflection of a mirror, attached to the needle of the galvanometer.

Evidence of the structure of the earth’s crust is also afforded by observa-
tions on the direction and magnitude of gravitation which have been carried
out in considerable detail in India and the United States—especially in the
neighbourhood of great mountain ranges. At the present time the problem
of correlating the variations observed with the underground structure is only in
an embryonic stage. It is probable that our greatest hope of advancing researches
with this object is by detailed work in areas which present no marked oro-
graphical features, and where the geological structure is already fairly well
ascertained. ?

The same remarks apply to the results obtained by magnetic surveys. Apart
from the marked effect of masses of magnetite in the immediate neighbourhood
of the surface, local magnetic irregularities appear to be mainly determined by

29 Géttingen Nachrichten, 1907, pp. 467-8.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C,. 187

the presence of basic igneous rocks,2* but there seems to be considerable room
for research as to the relation between these phenomena and the form and com-
position of an igneous intrusion.

In this review of some of the possibilities of geological research I cannot
claim to have done more than touch the fringe of the subject. In every
direction there is room for the development of fresh lines of investigation,
as well as for renewed activity along paths already trodden. Whether my
particular suggestions prove fruitful or not, they will have served their purpose
if they have stimulated anyone to look for new fields of work.

Postcrvpt.—Since this Address was written, I have learned that Professor
Kendall has from time to time made valuable suggestions with regard to the
association of the Survey with local workers, more especially the geological staff
and students of our colleges.

The following Papers were then read :—

2. The Tertiary Beds of Bournemouth and the Hampshire Basin.
By Dr. Wiru1am T. Orn, F.G.S.

The physical history of these Eocene beds is briefly as follows :—The gradual
uprising of the bed of the Cretaceous sea was in this district accompanied by
a planing off of the highest zones to some distance down the Belemnitella zone.
This left an eroded surface on which the earliest Tertiary beds (Woolwich and
Reading) were deposited. Flint pebbles, once rolled in chalk-enclosed coves,
form a basement bed. As the new chalk land-surface developed, a west-to-east
drainage system rapidly formed, which during the next period—London Clay—
took the form of a vast river, rivalling the Ganges or Amazon. It entered the
sea near Sheppey, in Thanet, where tropical vegetable flora and estuarine fauna
have left abundant remains. Here the fluviatile beds—of sand and clay, with a
few pebble bands—are almost unfossiliferous. This is true locally for each
division of the Tertiaries, following the usual rule of fluviatile deposits, the nearer
the mouth the more organic remains, the nearer the source the fewer. Since
Bournemouth occupies a place far from Sheppey, fossils are few or wanting.
The exception are leaves and fruits which have been deposited in clay bottoms
of backwaters and lagoons, and hence occur in lenticular patches in the cliff
face.

In the succeeding beds—the Bagshots—abundant vegetable remains occur.
During this period the sea continually encroached from the east, until at the close
of the Bagshot period it is believed to have reached a point near the East-cliff
Lift. The shingle-beds of the Bracklesham (Boscombe Sands) covering the
Bagshots were a beach deposit. The succeeding Bracklesham deposits, locally
known as Hengistbury Head beds, are followed by the Barton sands and clays;
these are increasingly marine, and their organic remains show a marked fall of
temperature from the sub-tropical climate of Bagshot age. The succeeding
strata. Headon beds and Oligocene, concluded by the Bembridge Limestone, occur
in the Isle of Wight and the Headons, also in the opposite coast. These were
denuded off the Bournemouth area in Miocene times, except for an important
outlier in Purbeck known as Creech Barrow. All these Eocene strata were
deposited over a far greater area than they now occupy, and their remains have
been preserved in the Thames Valley and Hampshire Basin through the pro-
tection afforded by the results of the ereat earth movements of Miocene and
Pliocene times. The Chiltern Hills and North Downs protected the Tertiaries of
the Thames Valley, and the South Downs and the Brixton anticline of the

*4 A. Hubert Cox : Abstracts of the Proceedings of the Geological Society of
London, 1918, pv. 71-74.

188 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

Isle of Wight with the Purbeck Hills protected the Tertiaries of the Bournemouth
area, forming as they do the boundaries of the Hampshire Basin. But for this
fact that the Bournemouth, Bagshot and Bracklesham beds lie in the syncline
of the Hampshire Basin, this area would have been stripped bare to the chalk,
as have other unprotected parts of the south coast. The characteristic beauty
and scenery of Bournemouth has thus happily been preserved for us, with the
pines, gorse and heather which flourish on such soil. In conclusion, mention
should be made of several local peculiarities of the Tertiary beds. First, that
they all rapidly thin out westward. Secondly, the pipe-clay deposits of the
Lower Bagshots derived from decomposition of granite to the west and brought
down by the Solent River. Thirdly, the complete absence of lime, and conse-
quently of molluscan remains, from the Woolwich and Reading beds to the
base of the Bartons. This is due to prolonged percolation of surface water
through the sand. No traces of the prolific shell-life of Selsey are found in the
Bracklesham beds of this district.

2. The Lithological Succession in the Avonian of the Avon Section,
Clifton. By S. H. Reynoups, Sc.D., F.G.S.

Several previous workers have dealt with the lithology of the Avon section,
and, -in particular, Mr. E. B. Wethered and the late Dr. A. Vaughan. The
results of the present paper are based in part on field work, in part on the
study of over 200 rock slices which have been cut with the aid of grants from
the University of Bristol Colston Society.

The chief rock-types occurring are the following, the horizons being alluded
to under the designation adopted in Vaughan’s original paper.*

Calcareous Rocks.

ALGAL LIMESTONES are abundant (a) in Km, (6) at the top of C2, (c) in
the lower part of Si, (a) in the pisolitic beds of the lower part of Sz, (e) in
the ‘ Concretionary Beds’ of the upper part of §,: this is the most important
development.

Mitcheldeania and Solenopora are the most persistent forms ranging from
the base of K to the top of Sz. Spongiostroma is the prevalent form in the
calcite-mudstones which are so abundant in Cz and §.

_ Foraminirerat Limestones : Foraminifera first begin to be fairly common
in Z,. They occur in great abundance in the upper part of Sz and the
lower part of Dy.

Corat Limestones : Zaphrentid corals play an appreciable part as limestone
builders in Z,, while bands full of Lithostrotion martini are most characteristic’
of 8. Corals attain their greatest importance in D.

CrINOIDAL LIMESTONES : Crinoids are abundant in K, and Kz, and are the
greatest limestone builders throughout the whole of the Z beds.

_ Bracuriorop LimesTones are met with throughout nearly the whole section.
Spirifer, Orthotetes and Chonetes being the most abundant Tournaisian genera,
Seminula, Productus and Chonetes the commonest Viséan.

OsTRACoDS are very plentiful wherever the rocks are shaly or of the calcite-
ae type, viz. : throughout K, at the top of Cz, and in the lower part
10} 1:

GotitEs occur at the following levels: (a) in the upper par iC. i
the middle of Sz, (c) throughout D. na ae aphas h t b

Siliceous Rocks.

_ Grits are met with only in the D beds. Chert bands occur (a) near the
middle of Z,, (b) in S, below the oolite, (c) in 8, between the oolite and the
‘ Concretionary Beds.’

1 Q.J.G.8., vol. xi. (1905).

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ve 189

Argillaceous Rocks.

Thick shales are met with (a) throughout K,, (6) in upper C2 and lower
$,, (ce) in upper D,; and upper Dz

Changes which have affected certain of the Rocks.

Penecontemporancous brecciation (dessication breccias) are characteristic of
all the shallow water (lagoon-phase, Dixon) rocks of Cz and 8.

Dolomitization proves to be considerably more widespread in the Avon
rocks than had been previously supposed. The matrix of the Petit Granit
of Z:, Zz and_ y is almost everywhere dolomitized. The almost complete dolo-
mitization of C, and the upper part of Cz has long been familiar. There has ©
been considerable dolomitization in the calcite-mudstones of S, and lower Sz.
All the chief dolomites are to be classed as contemporaneous according to the
classification of Mr. L. M. Parsons.”

3. Interim Report of the Committee to Investigate the Geology of
Coal Seams.

4. Interim Report of the Committee on the Old Red Sandstone
Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.

5. Interim Report of the Conmittee to Investigate the Flora of Lower
Carboniferous times, as exemplified at a newly-discovered locality
at Gullane, Haddingtonshire.

6. Interim Report of the Committee to Excavate Critical Sections in
the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.

7. Interim Report of the Committee to Hacavate Critical Sections in
Old Red Sandstone Rocks at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire.—See Reports,
p. 110.

8. Interim Report of the Committee to Consider the Preparation of a
List of Characteristic Fossils.

9. Interim Report of the Committee on the Collection, Preservation,
and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geological Interest.
—See Reports, p. 111.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion to Bournemouth Cliffs took place.

2 Geol. Mag. Dec. vi., vol. v. (1918), p. 246.

190 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Paners were read :

1. The Mesozoic Rocks of the Bournemouth District.
By Sir Auprey Srrawan, K.B.H., F.R.S.

Th ‘Isle’ of Purbeck includes a part of the healthy tract underlain by the
Tertiary beds of the Hampshire Basin, a central ridge formed by the chalk
which rises abruptly from beneath those beds, and, in its southern part, a
hilly region underlain by Wealden, Purbeck, Portland, and Kimmeridge strata,
and terminated by bold cliffs. Each formation gives rise to characteristic features
in the landscape, the Portland Stone especially forming a dominant escarpment
and vertical sea-cliffs.

The emergence of the chalk and underlying formations from beneath the
Tertiary beds is due to an extremely sharp fold, accompanied by overthrusting.
The age of the movement is proved in the Isle of Wight to have been post-
Oligocene, inasmuch as the Oligocene strata are there involved in it. On the
other hand, it was accomplished, and the uplifted strata were exposed to pro-
longed denudation, in pre-Pliocene times. The sagging of the strata which
led to the formation of the Hampshire and London basins and the arching-up
of the intervening Wealden anticline are attributable to the same period and
to the same earth-movement.

So energetic a movement, coming into activity at so late a geological age, had
a profound influence upon the physical geography of the South-East of England.
The principal rivers, the Thames and Frome, each followed a syncline eastwards.
On either side they received tributaries which rose upon the anticlines. The
anticlines, however, have suffered severe denudation, and no longer maintain
their dominance of elevation, but the rivers have kept their courses, and now
cross in narrow defiles the chalk ridges which formed the foundations of the
once continuous chalk arch. Admirable examples of such defiles are shown at
Corfe Castle.

The curve of the strata in the Isle of Purbeck may be compared to the
figure 2. The lower limb of the 2 represents the horizontal beds of the Hampshire
basin, the middle limb shows the strata in a vertical or inverted position, while
the upper limb illustrates the gentle curve by which they regain a more normal
position. The strain, however, was too great to be relieved by folding alone,
and overthrusting on a considerable scale came into play. The cliff-section
of Ballard Down shows curving strata which belonged to the lower limb of the
2 resting upon the edges of vertical strata which belonged to the middle limb,
a sharply-defined slide-plane (the Isle of Purbeck Fault) separating the two.
Westwards from Lulworth Cove innumerable subsidiary thrust-planes can be
detected in the chalk, and less easily in the Wealden and Purbeck beds. Every-
where along the line of the Isle of Purbeck Fault the chalk is greatly hardened,
while the flints are broken, pulverised, and even drawn out into streaks of
flint-powder. The Isle of Purbeck Fault dies out under Weymouth Bay, but
is replaced a mile or two to the north by the parallel and still more energetic
Ridgeway overthrust.

As regards the regions which it is proposed to visit, in the neighbourhood
of Swanage the whole sequence from the base of unper chalk to the Portland
Stone is open to examination, but time will not admit of more than a brief
inspection of the Purbeck and Portland cliff-sections. The Upper Purbeck with
Paludina limestones (or ‘marble’ beds) and Unio beds form Peveril Point, and
the Middle and Lower Purbeck beds are shown more or less continuously in
Durlston Bay, a band composed of shells of Ostrea distorta (the ‘ Cinder Bed’)
forming an easily recognised horizon. About 30 feet below the ‘Cinder Bed’
lies the Mammal Bed, a thin, earthy layer which has yielded the remains of
several genera of marsupials. Below this again are the Lower Purbeck lime-
stones and marls, some with gypsum, casts of crystals of rock-salt and insect
remains, others yielding a brackish water estuarine fauna. A double fault,
with a downthrow south of 100 feet, near the zig-zag path, throws the Cinder

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION GC. 191

Bed from the top of the cliff to below the beach. The junction with the Port-
land Stone is not well shown in Durlston Bay.

The cliffs near Kimmeridge give a continuous section from the lowest Purbeck
(on the top of St. Alban’s Head) to a low horizon in the Kimmeridge Clay, more
than 1000 feet of strata in all. From the head westwards they show a descending
section in gently inclined strata, and at rather more than 500 feet below the
top of the Kimmeridge Clay the ‘Kimmeridge coal,’ or ‘ brownstone,’ emerges
from below the beach. This highly bituminous layer is about 2 feet 10 inches
thick, and has been worked in the neighbourhood from time immemorial, firstly
for the manufacture of ornaments or utensils, latterly as a fuel and as a source
of oil. During the war it attracted much attention as a possible source of oil
and other products. Alum was also once manufactured here. In Hobarrow Bay
the main anticlinal axis is reached, and thence westwards the same strata are
crossed in ascending order, until the beetling crag formed by the Portland Stone
comes down to the beach and stops further progress.

Lulworth Cove illustrates the effect of attacks by the surf upon nearly vertical
strata, varying in their power of resistance. The Portland Stone has formed
a natural break-water, which, however, has been breached in places. Stair
Hole shows the first effects of a breach; the waves have worn holes through the
stone, and are swilling the débris of the soft Upper Purbeck and Wealden strata
through them. In Lulworth Cove the breakwater has been completely broken
through, and a beautifully symmetrical natural harbour formed in the outcrops
of the Purbeck, Wealden, and Gault formations. Everywhere the sea suffers
a prolonged check on reaching the chalk.

The east side of Lulworth Cove shows all the formations below the chalk
except the Lower Greensand, but much attenuated as compared with Swanage.
Here an unconformity below the Gault, which becomes most pronounced at
White Nothe, a few miles westwards, becomes manifest for the first time. The
absence of Lower Greensand may be due in part to overstep by the Gault,
and some of the uppermost Wealden beds also may be absent for the same
reason. The section at White Nothe shows the Gault resting on steeply up-
turned Wealden, Purbeck, and Kimmeridge strata, and proves that there has
been produced in pre-Gault times a set of flexures wholly independent of those
of post-Oligocene age, though parallel to them. These earlier flexures are
ignored by the rivers.

Mupe Bay, east of Lulworth Cove, affords a clear view of the passage of
the Purbeck beds up into the Wealden, and of the abrupt but conformable junc-
tion of the Lower Purbeck and Portland Stone. Half a mile east of Lulworth
Cove a ledge of the cliff provides an unrivalled opportunity of examining the
lower part of the Purbeck beds, including the junction with the Portland Stone,
the thin layer of carbonaceous, gravelly soil known as the dirt-bed, numerous
stumps and prostrate trunks of coniferous trees silicified and enclosed in cal-
careous tufa, and the brecciated limestones associated with tufa, known as the
‘broken beds.’ Here the incoming of bands of tufa, among the sedimentary
limestones, and the close association of such incoming with brecciation of the
limestones, can be studied in detail. Westward from Lulworth Cove the cliffs
illustrate the intense compression and supplementary overthrusting which all
the formations have undergone in the neighbourhood of the Isle of Purbeck
Fault.

2. The Chines of Bournemoulh. By Henry Bury, F.G.S.

The country round Bournemouth consists of an almost level plateau, intersected
by numerous valleys, and some of the latter, running down to the sea, are of a
precipitous character, and are distinguished under the name of ‘ Chines.’ They
are usually described as having started as small gullies in the face of the cliff
and having worked back inland; but the evidence seems to be against this.
Not only is there no sign of special activity at their heads, but each is found to
consist of an older valley with a U-shaped section, and a newer one, shorter and
narrower, shaped like a V. The older valleys probably joined the Frome-Solent
River about 1-2 miles from the present shore-line; the newer ones owe their

192 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©.

smaller size to reduction in water supply, and their steepness to the rapid retreat
of the shore-line under marine action. They are in fact growing shorter, and
not longer, and the final obliteration of some of them may have helped to give
rise to the belief that the cliffs themselves are growing steeper.

A Joint Discussion with Section H then took place on the Post-Tertiary
Geology of the district, with special reference to flint implements, opened by the
following Paper, which was illustrated by a collection of implements specially
arranged by Mr. Scott :—

3. The Post-Tertiary Deposits of the Bournemouth Area.
By Reainaup A. Smita.

The temporary exhibition of paleoliths from the Bournemouth district
suggests further inquiry into the age and character of the beds in which they
are found. Gravel is widely distributed cover the high ground between the
Stour and the coast at about 100 ft. O.D., and the implements are often found
at the base of deep deposits in an unrolled condition, and therefore presumably
in situ. The current view is that the gravels were laid down by a great river
flowing eastward between the present coast-line and a southern bank connecting
the Needles with the Isle of Purbeck; but in view of similar discoveries on
St. Catherine’s Hill (between the Avon and Stour and close to their junction),
it seems likely that the Bournemouth gravels were originally continuous with
those of the New Forest, and that the implements were imbedded in them
before the present valleys of the Stour and Avon were deeply cut. Several
implements have been found in. high and low gravel-beds in the New Forest,
and coast finds are abundant from Poole Harbour to Southampton Water. A
section from Bramble Hill south-west to the coast is given in Proc, Geol. Assoc.,
Xxvi. (1915), 4, suggesting that the implement-bearing beds are part of a
plateau deposit rather than the terrace-gravel of a Solent river.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion to Swanage took place.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

Joint Meeting with Section D.—See Section D, p. 211.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion to Corfe took place.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Pre-Cambrian of Central Canada.
By Wiu.er G. Mier.

Ten years ago, at the Winnipeg meeting of the British Association, the
author presented a paper dealing with the age relations of the pre-Cambrian
rocks of Canada. Since then much field work has been done in connection
with these rocks, not only in the province of Ontario, but to the eastward in
Quebec and, to a lesser extent, to the westward in Manitoba and Saskatchewan.
There has been great mining activity in the pre-Cambrian areas of Ontario,
which has afforded special facilities for study to the geological staff of the
Ontario Bureau of Mines. From time to time papers and reports have been

———e- —C Ce

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 193

published as our knowledge has increased, and the age classification has been
revised.! The following classification is now employed by the Ontario Bureau? :—

Pru-CamMBRIAN.

KEWEENAWAN
Unconformity

ANIMIKEAN Under this heading are placed not only
the rocks that have heretofore been
called Animikie, but the so-called
Huronian rocks of the ‘ classic’ Lake
Huron area, and the Cobalt and
Ramsay Lake series. Minor uncon-
formities occur within the Animi-

kean.
Great unconformity
(AncGomAN granite and gneiss) Laurentian of some authors, and the
Igneous contact Lorrain granite of Cobalt, and the
Killarney granite of Lake Huron,
etc.
‘TIMISKAMIAN In this group are placed sedimentary

rocks of various localities that here-
tofore have been called Huronian,
and the Sudbury series.

Great unconformity There is no evidence that this uncon-
formity is of lesser magnitude than
that beneath the Animikean.

(LAURENTIAN granite and gneiss)
Igneous contact

Grenville The Grenville limestones, with more or
(Sedimentary) less greywacke quartzite and iron
LoGanian Keewatin formation or jaspilyte at the base,
(Igneous) were deposited on the Keewatin

lavas.

It will be noted that the historic name ‘Huronian’ has been discarded.
Much confusion has arisen through the employment of this name, especially with
the prefixes Upper, Middle and Lower, in different senses. The term ‘ Lower
Huronian,’ for example, has been applied indiscriminately to certain rocks
that lie below one of the greatest known unconformities—that between the
Timiskamian and Animikean in the table—as well as to some of those above
it. When making use of the term ‘ Huronian,’ in order to secure clearness.
it has been necessary to say in what sense it is employed, whether in that of
the United States Geological Survey or in that of various writers on the subject.

Logan first studied the rocks, to which he afterwards gave the name
“Huronian,’ on the shores of Lake Timiskaming. There are two series of
conglomerates and other fragmental rocks here, separated by a great uncon-
formity, which was discovered only when the geology of the Cobalt area was
worked out. The lower series belongs to the Timiskamian of the table and
the other to the Animikean.

The age relations of another historic series, the Grenville, have also been
determined only during recent years. Most authors had suggested that the
Grenville belonged to the so-called Huronian group of sediments, but it has

1 Ont. Bur. Mines, vol. xix., part 2; ibid., vol. xxii., part 2.
2 Journal of Geology, vol. xxiii., No. 7.

194 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

proved to be the oldest sedimentary series. The Keewatin rocks, essentially
schists and greenstones, represent, for the most part, submarine lava flows.
On the surface of these flows were deposited the Grenville sediments. While
the major part of the Grenville is later than the major part of the Keewatin,
a minor part of one group is contemporaneous with a minor part of the other.
It is remarkable that among the oldest series of Australia, India, Africa and
other countries are rocks that resemble very closely the Keewatin of Canada,
with its associated iron formation or jaspilyte.

Among most of the workers on the pre-Cambrian of North America there
is now general agreement as to the age relations of the rocks, but different
classifications and nomenclatures are employed. Most authors make a dual sub-
division of the pre-Cambrian which seems to the author to be purely arbitrary
and based on a misconception. There is no proof that the unconformity at
the base of the Timiskamian is of less magnitude than that at the base of the
Animikean, or vice versd.

2. The Correlation of the Devonian Rocks of North Devon with those
of other localities. By Dr. Joun W. Evans, F.B.S.

The Dartmouth Slates of South Devon and Cornwall, which correspond, it
would seem, to the Schistes d’Oignies of the Ardennes, are not seen in North
Devon, but may be concealed by later rocks and be represented in South Wales
and the Welsh Border by the Red Marls of the Lower Old Red Sandstone. It
is possible that the Foreland Grits are a local facies of the upper portion of
the Dartmouth Slates, just as the arenaceous Cosheston Group is a local develop-
ment of the upper part of the Red Marls. Both the Foreland Grits and the
Cosheston Group appear to have yielded the typical Old Red Sandstone plant
Psilophyton.

[Note.—The author is not inclined to accept the view that the Foreland Grits
are identical witli the Hangmans Grits, which are repeated by faulting.]

The usual correlation of the Lynton Beds with the Meadfoots of South
Devon seems well founded. The lower beds with Pteraspis may be compared
with the Schistes de Saint Hubert of the Ardennes, with Spirifer primevius
and Pteraspic dunensis, and the Schistes a Pterasyis dunensis in the Pas de
Calais. The Senni Beds, which overlie the Red Marls on the north of the South
Wales Coalfield, and contain Pteraspis and Cephalaspis, may be of the same
age. The two strata as mentioned have not, up to the present, yielded any
marine forms.

The Hangmans Grits represent a great thickness of arenaceous beds of the
Old Red Sandstone type overlying the Lynton Beds. Little is known of the
lower portion, but the upper beds include lacustrine or fluviatile beds, with
plant remains which are probably referable to the Middle Devonian plant Psilo-
phyton. These are succeeded by marine beds with several fossiliferous horizons,
some of which have yielded Stringocephalus. The upper part at least of the
Hangmans Grits must therefore be considered to be of Givetian age—that is to
say, Upper-Middle Devonian, instead of Upper-Lower Devonian, according to the
usual correlation. This view is supported by the discovery (after the reading of
the paper) in the plant-bearing beds of a fish-plate referred by Dr. Smith Wood-
ward to Coccosteus, a genus which is usually of Middle Old Red Sandstone and
Middle Devonian age, though it has been found in the Upper Old Red Sandstone.
The Staddon Grits of South Devon, on the other hand, which are usually con-
sidered to be the equivalent of the Hangmans Grits, cannot extend upwards much
beyond the base of the Eifelian or Lower-Middle Devonian, as they are succeeded
by calcareous slates with Calceola sandalina. The succession in the Middle
Devonian of North Devon may be paralleled in the Boulonnais, where micaceous
sandstones with plant remains are overlaid by marine beds with Stringocephalus
burtini.

The Hangmans Grits are succeeded by the Combe Martin Beds, grits with
occasional ferruginous crinoidal limestones, and these by the Ilfracombe Beds,
shales and limestones with crinoids and corals. Except for an alleged occur-
rence of Stringocephalus which cannot now be verified, no distinctive forms

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C0. 195

in fossils have been found either in the Combe Martin or Lower Ilfracombe
Beds, and they may be either Upper-Middle Devonian (Givetian) or Lower-
Upper Devonian (Frasnian). Unfortunately no goniatites have been found in
the Devonian of North Devon, so that exact correlation is difficult. In higher
portions of the Ilfracombe Beds Spirifer verneuili and Rhynchonella (Wilsonia)
cuboides are found, which are sufficient to establish the Upper Devonian (pre-
sumably Frasnian) age of the rocks. The highest Ilfracombe Beds are less
calcareous, and there seems no reason to doubt that they pass upwards con-
formably with the Merte Slates, the Upper Devonian age of which is com-
pletely established by the occurrence of Spirifer verneuili (var. hamlingi), and
they may well represent the Schistes de Matagne, which form the highest beds
of the Frasnian in the Ardennes. Rocks of the same age appear to be met with
in the Boulonnais and in the boring in Tottenham Court Road in London.. The
Morte Slates become more arenaceous at the summit, and are probably suc-
ceeded conformably by the Pickwell Down Sandstones. The junction is usually
faulted, but this is apt to be the case in strongly folded areas where succes-
sive beds differ considerably in physical characters, and the resistance they
offer to the forces to which the rocks have been subiected. The Pickwell Down
Sandstones have yielded the typical Upper Old Red Sandstone fish Holopty-
chius and Bothriolepis, and may be compared to the beds with the same forms
reached by a boring at Southall, west of London, and to the Psammites de
Condroz. They must be referred to the terrestrial or Old Red Sandstone type
of the Famennian. The Baggy and Marwood Beds that overlie the Pickwell
Down Sandstone and the lower portion of,the succeeding Pilton Beds represent
a marine facies of the Upper Famennian, as well as the Calcaire d’Etreeungt,
which forms a passage to the Carboniferous in the Ardennes. The Upper
Devonian of the Turnford boring in the Lea Valley, north-east of London, and
the marine beds of the Upper Old Red Sandstone of South Wales and the
Coomhola Grits in South Ireland are probably at about the same horizon as the
Baggy and Marwood Beds and the base of the Piltons. The Upper Pilton
Beds have now been shown to be of Carboniferous and not Devonian age, and
to extend upwards and include the basement beds of the Zaphrentis zone.

It will be seen that North Devon is characterised by a repeated alternation
of the terrestrial or Old Red Sandstone facies formed of materials laid down
by rivers or in lakes or transported by the action of the wind and the marine
facies of the Devonian. This alternation is even more remarkable here than
that in the Eastern Baltic, with which all students of geology are familiar.
There were three periods when the marine recession resulted in the deposition
of the former, the first commencing in some areas towards the close of Silurian
times. Each recurrence of the terrestrial facies is characterised by a com-
pletely different fauna and flora. There were also three periods of marine
transgression, one about midway in the Lower Devonian, the second in the
Givetian and Frasnian, and the third commencing near the close of the Famen-
nian and reaching its maximum in the Carboniferous. In South Devon and
Cornwall the conditions as a whole were more marine than in North Devon, and
it was only during the deposition of the Dartmouth Slates in North Cornwall
that entirely terrestrial (in this case fresh-water) conditions prevailed. In
South Wales, on the other hand, Continental conditions were more prevalent
than in North Devon, but a far more important difference between the north
and south of the Bristol Channel lies in the complete omission, due either to
non-deposition or erosion, of any representative of North Devon strata from at
least low down in the Lynton Beds to the summit of the Morte Slates.

The variation of conditions of deposition which are so strongly marked in
North Devon can be traced in most of the occurrences of Devonian rocks in
other parts of the world, though they are nowhere else so striking and unam-
biguous. It is the deepening and transgression of the sea in Givetian and
Frasnian times that is the most widely extended and most strongly marked of
all these changes.

The Devonian period is not a natural division of the history of marine sedi-
mentation characterised by a gradual deepening and subsequently a gradual
shallowing of the ocean waters, but was determined solely by the interval
between the last marine beds of the Silurian and the earliest marine beds of

196 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

the Carboniferous Limestone on the Welsh Border, where these strata were
first studied in the early days of stratigraphical research. It was here that
the limits of the Old Red Sandstone were originally fixed, and as a consequence
also those of the contemporaneous rocks of marine origin elsewhere deposited
which were a little later grouped together to form the Devonian.

3. Types of Faults in the Coal Measures (Yorkshire and Cumberland).
By Professor P. F. Kenpauu and Dr. A. GILuiGan.

4. The Erosion of Bournemouth Bay and the Age of its Cliffs.
By Dr. Witt1am T. Opp, F.G.S.

The first step in the erosion of Bournemouth Bay was the breaking through
by the sea of the range of chalk hills which were formerly continuous from the
Needles to Ballard Down. There is evidence that the gap occurred at a point
due south of Bournemouth pier. It is thought that the Swanage River would
here have flowed through the hills to join the Solent River (which then crossed,
what is now the bay, from Poole Harbour to the Solent), following the examples
of the Corfe streams, and the Yar in the Isle of Wight, each of which cuts north
through the chalk. The break through must have taken a long period, though
once accomplished the friable Tertiary beds were rapidly washed out of the bay.
During Miocene times the Hampshiré Basin was formed by upheaval of the two
southernmost chalk anticlines, as were the North and South Downs and Chiltern
Hills. The sea was then far to the south, and busy eroding the Purbeck and
Portland barrier, which still shows in fragments along the Dorset coast. The
Frome-Solent River flowed across what is now Bournemouth Bay, through the
Solent, to enter the sea at Spithead. Its tributaries were the Bourne, Stour, and
Avon, and others from the New Forest. During the Pliocene subsidence the sea
advanced to the southern flanks of the chalk anticline between Purbeck and the
Island. Then occurred the Raised Beach Period, when the land was stationary
at 30 ft. above O.D. for a time sufficient to form the beaches, remains of which
are found at Portland, Torquay, Cornwall, and the Bristol Channel. It was
probably at this time that the sea first gained access to Bournemouth Bay
through the gap cut by the Swanage River. Rapid erosion occurred on both
sides, but chiefly eastward towards the Needles. Admiralty charts show a
shallow bank which indicates the base of the destroyed chalk ridge. The sea
destroyed the old drainage system, and received the Rivers Frome, Bourne, Avon,
and Stour directly. As it advanced it formed a low line of cliffs around the
bay some distance south of the present cliffs. This period closed by a re-
elevation of the land, when the sea receded to the south, leaving Bournemouth
Bay once more dry; this probably continued during the Glacial Period which
immediately followed. There is nothing to show what changes occurred during
the Glacial Period, but we know that, towards the end, vast floods from melting
ice washed flint gravel from the high ground northward and deposited it in
sheets (containing paleolithic implements) as the Plateau Gravels that cover our
cliffs to-day. The Neolithic Period was ushered in, according to Mr, Clement
Reid, by a re-elevation of some 80 feet. Since then a gradual subsidence has set
in, and the sea has again invaded Bournemouth Bay. Then grew the forests which
have gradually become submerged. Remains of these, far to the south of the
present pier, were observed by Sir Charles Lyell in 1825, and forty years pre-
viously by Mr. Fisher. A century ago Sir John Evans records that a stretch of
swampy ground separated the foot of the cliffs from the sea. It seems then that
only within the last century has the sea reached the foot of the old line of cliffs,
which were formed in pre-Glacial times. As the talus which protected them
was washed away and the new and old cliffs became one, erosion would be more
rapid, and the cliff face more perpendicular. There is plenty of evidence to
confirm this in recent measurements by the Borough Engineer, which give
accurately the present rate of erosion of the cliffs at various points.

i re

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION OC. 197

The Discovery of Diamonds in the Gold Coast, British West Africa.
By A. E. Krrson, C.B.H., F.G.S. (Director, Geological Survey,
Gold Coast).*

The site of the discovery of diamonds, which I made early this year, is at
Abomoso, in the district of Akim Abuakwa, about sixty-five miles to the north-
west of Accra, the capital of the Gold Coast. The rocks of the district consist
of a thick series of phyllites, altered mudstones, sandstones, grits, and con-
glomerate, with interbedded altered dolerites and tuffs. They have a general
strike of about N.E.-S.W., and are moderately folded. On their north-western
and south-eastern sides, and in their south-westward extension, they are
intruded in many places and greatly metamorphosed by granites and pegmatites,
and to a less extent by diorite.

The diamonds occur in detrital gravels resting on the top and side of a
low ridge, and in the beds of shallow streams. These gravels consist very
largely of quartz, principally of opaque, semi-opaque, and transparent varieties.
The associated minerals are chiefly sisolite, white and brown micas, zircon,
pyrite, magnetite, ilmenite and gold, with rarer fragments of rutile, black tour-
maline, red garnet, chalcedony, brown corundum, kyanite, and sphene. In
general character this gravel has unquestionably the appearance of having been
derived from granitoid rocks.

Small diamonds have been found also in the beds of four streams up to
fourteen miles to the north-west, and in two streams to five miles to the north-
east of this place. In addition, one diamond has been found in the quartz
pebble gravels of the upper terrace of the Birrim River.

At the site of the original discovery the bulk of the gravel is distinctly
angular in character, but has associated bands of rounded quartz sand, and a
few water-worn pebbles of quartz.

The diamantiferous gravels of the streams to the north-west consist largely
of quartz, felspar, mica, and fragments of pegmatite, but have a good deal
more chert and chalcedony than those near Abomoso, though still in small
proportions.

The pebbly gravels of the high terraces of the Birrim River, and of the
beds of the streams to the north-east, which are mainly rounded pebbles of
quartz, altered sediments, and volcanic rocks, give concentrates consisting
largely of chloritic minerals, ilmenite, magnetite, and quartz.

Some 620 diamonds have been found merely by panning during operations
to test the character, extent, and distribution of the diamantiferous material.
All the stones are small, the average being about thirty-two to the metric carat
(3.174 grs. Troy). The largest, a clear, colourless, octahedron, weighs a little
over one-sixth of a carat. Many of the diamonds are beautiful crystals, colour-
less and transparent, the commonest forms being the octahedron and the rhombic
dodecahedron, though there are numbers of tetrahedral forms as well. Cleavage
plates of octahedra occur in fair numbers. [Several of these show that the
parent crystals were much larger than the largest stone hitherto found here.
Some of the crystals show curved faces; many others are chipped; and there
are numerous fragments. Many of the stones are clear and colourless; others
are of pale yellow, blue, green, grey, and brown tints, principally the last.

The largest stone is valued at about £1. The largest grade of colourless
stones, weighing about eleven to the carat, are valued at 80s. to 100s. per
carat; the medium grade, about twenty-two to the cardt, at 60s. to 70s. per
carat; and the smallest grade, about sixty-four to the carat, at 25s. to 40s. per
carat. The coloured stones of the same groups may be taken at about 40s., 30s.,
and 15s. per carat respectively.

In the Abomo Su area the bed-rock in some places proved to be phyllites or
sandstones; in others, a decomposed altered basic tuff or lava, full of chloritic
minerals. A good deal of this material was panned, but no diamonds were
found in it, though the overlying detrital material in every case yielded
diamonds.

1 See Report published by Government of the Gold Coast.
1919. s

198 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C.

The general character of the diamantiferous gravel, and the concentrates
therefrom, occurring at the site of the first discovery, suggests a derivation
from a granite-pegmatite area, but the angular quartz and the ragged gold are
undoubtedly of local origin. Since veins of quartz occur plentifully in the
underlying rocks, this angular material has most probably been derived there-
from. The diamond found at a depth of about eight feet in the Birrim terrace
gravels, and those found in the streams to the north-west and the north-east,
show clearly that some at least of the stones, though detrital, are not of local
derivation.

The matrix of the diamonds has not yet been determined. The stones may
have been derived from volcanic pipes of kimberlite, as in South Africa, or of
dolerite, as in New South Wales, intruded into or through the Birrim series in
Birrimian (pre-Cambrian?) or post-Birrimian times; or from conglomerates
of those times; or they may have been formed by the action of pegmatite dykes
or granite intrusions on carbonaceous rocks of the Birrim series. Whatever
may be the origin of the stones, the evidence so far obtained suggests that they
have not been derived directly from pipes, but that they are detrital.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion to Barton and Hordle Cliff took
place.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

Sectional Excursion to Lulworth.

SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 14.

Sectional Excursion to Kimmeridge.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 199

Section D.—ZOOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION: F. A. Dixty, M.A. M.D. F.R.S.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The President delivered the following Address :—

One of the results of the great war now happily at an end has been its effect
upon science. On the one hand it has checked the progress of scientific investi-
gation; it has done much to destroy international co-operation and sympathy ;
it has removed from our ranks, temporarily or permanently, many admirable
workers. On the other hand it has acted as a great stimulus in many depart-
ments of scientific inquiry, and it has given the general public an interest in many
scientific questions which have hitherto met with little recognition or encourage-
ment from the people at large. It was perhaps inevitable, but at the same time,
as I venture to think, rather to be deplored, that that interest has tended to
concentrate itself upon applied more than upon abstract science; that it has been
concerned chiefly with the employment of natural knowledge in devising and
perfecting new methods of destruction. Terrible as is the power which the
present-day engines of warfare have attained, it may be reasonable to hope that
some compensation for the mischief and suffering which they have caused may
eventually be found in peaceful directions; that the submarine, the air-craft,
and even the high explosive may cease to be a terror to civilisation, and in spite
of their past history may after all become agents in the advancement of the

general welfare :
Hoe paces habuere bonae, ventique secundi,

will, let us hope, be a legitimate reflection in later times. But for the true
scientific worker, I think I may safely assert, the primary object of his studies
is the attainment of knowledge for its own sake : applications of such knowledge
may be trusted to follow; some beneficial, some perhaps the reverse. Still,
whether they do or do not so follow is less a concern of the scientific man than
whether his labours have resulted in a fresh advance into the realms of the
unknown. I confess to some sympathy with the feeling which is said to be
expressed in the regular toast of a certain scientific gathering :—‘ Pure mathe-
matics, and may they never be of any use to anybody.’

For genuine enthusiasm in the cause of science for its own sake, I think
that we zoologists may claim a good record. We are by no means unmindful
of the great benefits to humanity which have taken their rise more or less
directly from zoological science. I need do no more than mention the services
to medicine, great at the present and destined to be greater still in the future,
that are being rendered by the protozoologist and the entomologist. We may
look forward also to results of the highest practical importance from the investi-
gations into the laws of heredity in which we are engaged with the co-operation
of our allies the botanists. But what we are entitled to protest against is the
temper of mind which values science only for the material benefits that may be
got from it; and what above all we should like to see is a greater respect on
the part of the public for science purely as science, a higher appreciation of the

s 2

~
n 4

200 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

labours of scientific men, and a greater readiness, in matters where science touches
on the common affairs of life, to be guided by the accumulated knowledge and
experience of those who have made such matters the subject of constant and
devoted study. If the war leads to any repair of the general deficiency in these
respects, it will to that extent have conferred a benefit on the community.

Regarding, as I do, my present position in this Section as a great honour and
privilege, especially in view of this being the first meeting of the British
Association to be held after the war, I hope I may be allowed a few preliminary
remarks of a somewhat autobiographical character. As far back as I can
remember, zoology has been a passion with me. I was brought up in a non-
. zoological environment, and for the first few years of my life my only knowledge
of the subject was gained from an odd volume of Chambers’s ‘ Information for the
People.’ But on being asked by a visitor what I intended to do with myself
when I grew up, I can distinctly remember answering, with the confident assur-
ance of seven or eight, ‘ Zoology suits me best —pronouncing the word, which
I had only seen and never heard, as zoology. By the time I went to school, my
opportunities had increased, but I soon found myself engaged in the classical
and mathematical routine from which in those days there was little chance of
escape. In due course I went te the University with a classical scholarship,
which recessitated for the time an even more rigid exclusion of scientific aspira-
tions than before. I mention this because I wish to pay a tribute of gratitude
to the College authorities of that day, to whose wise policy I owe it that I was
eventually able to fulfil in some measure my desire for natural, and especially
biological, knowledge. After two years of more or less successful application to
the literary studies of the University, I petitioned to be allowed to read for the
final school in natural science. The petition was granted; my scholarship was
not taken away, and was even prolonged to the end of my fifth year. This I
think was an enlightened measure, remarkable for the time, more than forty
years ago, when it was adopted. I only hope that we have not in this respect
fallen back from the standard of our predecessors. The avidity with which I
took up the study of elementary chemistry and physics, and the enthusiasm
with which I started on comparative anatomy under the auspices of George
Rolleston are among the most pleasant recollections of my youth. But from the
force of circumstances, though always at heart a zoologist, I have never been
in a position to give myself unreservedly to that department of biology; and
even now, in what I must call my old age, I’ fear I cannot regard myself as
much more than a zoological amateur. My working hours are largely taken
up with serving tables.

What moral do I draw from this brief recital? Not by any means that I
should have been allowed to escape a grounding in the elements of a literary
education, though I think it quite possible that the past, and even the present
methods of school instruction are not ideally the best. My experience has led
me to conclude that much of the time spent over the minutiae of Greek and
Latin grammar might, in the case of the average boy, be better employed.
But I do not agree that a moderate knowledge of the classics, well taught by a
sensible master, is useless from any reasonable point of view. To those of my
hearers who appreciate Kipling, I would call to mind the vividly truthful
sketch of school life called ‘Regulus.’ Let them reflect how the wonderful
workmanship of the inspired and inspiring Ode of Horace, round which the
sketch is written, must have sunk into the mind of the apparently careless and
exasperating ‘ Beetle,’ the ‘ egregious Beetle’ as King calls him, to bear such
marvellous fruit in after years. Beetle, as we all know, is no professional
scholar, no classical pedant, but a man of the world who has not forgotten
his Horace, and upon whose extraordinary literary skill those early school-tasks
must have had, whether consciously or not, a dominating influence. How else
could he have written ‘Regulus’? ‘You see,’ says King, ‘that some of it
sticks.’ So it does, if it is only given a fair chance; and in the skirmish
between King the classical and Hartopp the science master, both right up to a
point and both wrong beyond it, I give on the whole the palm to King. To
revert to my own case. I do not regret a word of either the Latin or the Greek
that I was obliged to read, nor even the inkling of the niceties of scholarship
to which I got, I hope, a fair introduction. But I do think that I might have
been allowed to start on scientific work at an earlier period, and that a good

Wy eine

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 201

deal of the time spent, say, on Greek and Latin prose and verse writing, might
in my case have been well spared for other objects.

To generalise what I have been saying. Start teaching your boy or girl on
a good wide basis. Nothing is better for this than the old school subjects of
classics, history and mathematics, with the addition of natural science. In
course of time a bent will declare itself. Hncourage this, even at the expense of
other studies desirable in themselves. But do not allow any one subject, however
congenial, to usurp the place of a grounding in those matters which are proper
to a general education. The time for specialising will come; and when it has
arrived do all you can to remove obstacles, pecuniary and other. Do not hamper
your historian with chemistry or your zoologist with the differential calculus. If
they have a taste for these things by way of diversion or recreation, well and
good. But let their action be voluntary.

This, however, is not a fitting occasion for propounding my views on the
question of education, and it is time to turn to the immediate object of my
address. And here I think I cannot do better than to bring before your notice
certain facts which have a bearing on the subject of insect mimicry; a subject
which for many years past has engaged much of my attention. The facts on
all hands are allowed to be remarkable. As to their interpretation there is much
diversity of opinion; and indeed, until complete data are forthcoming, this
could hardly be otherwise.

The Geographical Factor in Mimicry.

In the first place let us glance at a certain assemblage of butterflies that
inhabits New Guinea with some of the adjacent islands. These butterflies,
though belonging to different subfamilies, present a resemblance to each other
which is too strong to be accidental. Three of them belong to the Pierines, the
group which includes the common white butterflies of this country; the fourth is
a Nymphaline, not widely removed from our well-known tortoiseshells, red
admiral and peacock. The resemblance on the upper surface between two of the
three Pierines is not especially noteworthy, inasmuch as they present in common
the ordinary Pierine appearance of a white or nearly white ground colour with
a dark border somewhat broadened at the apex. But this, an everyday feature
in the Pierines, is almost unknown in the very large subfamily to which our
present Nymphaline belongs. Still, though sufficiently remarkable to arrest
the attention of anyone familiar with these groups, the Pierine-like aspect of the
upper surface of this Nymphaline, which is known as Mynes doryca, would
not by itself have seemed to call for any special explanation. The resemblance
would pass as merely an interesting coincidence. But the under surface of the
three Pierines, known respectively as Huphina ahnormis, Delias ornytion and
Delias irma, presents a striking combination of colour very unusual in their own
group; and this peculiar character of the under surface is shared by the
Nymphaline Mynes doryca. The ‘long arm of coincidence ’ could scarcely reach
as far as this. Whatever might be said about the likeness seen from above,
that the wings beneath should show virtually the same unusual pattern in the
Mynes as in the Pierines seems to call for some explanation other than an
appeal to chance or accident. Moreover, with regard to the Pierines themselves,
the two members of the genus Delias are of course fairly closely related; but
the Huphina belongs to an entirely distinct genus, separated from Delias by
many important structural differences. The two species of Delias perhaps
depart less widely in aspect from their nearest congeners than does either the
Huphina or the Mynes. The under surface of the Hwphina is unexampled in
its genus, but the upper surface is quite ordinary. The Mynes, as we have
seen, stands alone among its nearest relatives not only in the character of its
under surface, but also in the Pierine-like character of its wings above.

We will now turn to another assemblage, which presents us with the same
problem from a somewhat different point of view. In south-eastern Asia, with
certain of the adjacent islands, is found a genus of large butterflies, called by
Wallace Prioneris from the saw-like front margin of the forewing in the male.
More than fifty years ago it was remarked by Wallace that the species of Prioneris

202 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

in several cases seem to mimic those of the genus Delias, and that ‘in all cases
the pairs which resemble each other inhabit the same district, and very often are
known to come from the same locality.’ The parallelism is even stronger than
was stated by Wallace, for there is not a single known member of the genus
Prioneris which does not resemble a species of Delias, so that Prioneris cannot
really be said to have an aspect of its own. Prioneris clemanthe and Delias
agostina form apair inhabiting the Himalayas, Burma and Further India. In
the same region occur Prioneris thestylis and Delias belladonna, the striking
similarity of which species, especially on the underside and in the female, drew
the special attention of Mr. Wallace. A still more remarkable instance is that
of Prioneris sita of southern India and Ceylon, the likeness of which to the
common Indian Delias eucharis is spoken of by Wallace as ‘perfect’; while
Fruhstorfer, a hostile witness, testifies to the fact that the Prioneris always flies
in company with the Delias, and rests just like the latter with closed wings on
the red flowers of the Lantana. Prioneris hypsipyle of Sumatra and P. autothisbe
of Java are like Delias egialea and D. crithoe of the same two islands. Here
again Fruhstorfer says of Prioneris autothisbe, that it visits the flowers of the
Cinchona, ‘always in company with the similarly coloured Delias crithoe.’
Wallace remarked on the close similarity between Prioneris cornelia of Borneo
and Delias singhapura of the Malay Peninsula; in this case, it will be noted, the
localities though not far distant from each other, are not identical. But a
Delias form which was unknown at the date of Wallace’s paper has since been
found in Borneo, and this latter butterfly, known as D. indistincta, is even more
exactly copied by P. cornelia than is the Delias which first drew Wallace’s
attention. Prioneris vollenhovii of Borneo is a kind of compromise between
Delias indistincta and, on the underside, D. pandemia of the same island; and
it may be added that another Bornean Pierine, Huphina pactolica, is a good copy
of Delias indistincta, therefore resembling also the Bornean Prioneris cornelia
and P. vollenhovii.

The memoir, published in 1867, in which Wallace remarked on the parallelism
between Prioneris and Delias, contains a noteworthy prediction by the same
author. Speaking of Pieris (now called Huphina) laeta of Timor he says that
it ‘departs so much from the style of colouring of its allies and approaches so
nearly to that of Thyca (Delias) belisama of Java, that I should almost look
for an ally of the last species to be discovered in Timor to serve as its pattern.’
Thirty-four years after the expression of this anticipation, Mr. Doherty dis-
covered in Timor an ally of Delias belisama which at once suggests itself as the
model from which the peculiar and brilliant colouring of Huphina laeta has
been derived. Fruhstorfer, who is by no means friendly to the theory of
mimicry, says of this Dedias, which was named splendida by Lord Rothschild,
that beneath it is ‘deceptively like Hwphina laeta.’ But here comes in a curious
point. The black forewing with its yellow apex and the orange-yellow hindwing
with its scarlet black-bordered costal streak are present on the underside of
both the Delias and the Huphina; but the latter butterfly possesses in addition
to these features a row of scarlet marginal spots on the hindwing which are
not to be found on the Delias. In spite of this discrepancy, the likeness is
sufficiently striking. But from the same island of Timor, Doherty sent home
another Delias which besides resembling D. splendida, possesses a row of
scarlet patches in the corresponding situation to those of H. laeta. In this
latter Delias, however, named dohertyi by Lord Rothschild after its discoverer,
the brilliant scarlet costal streak is completely absent. The Huphina, there-
fore, is more like either species of Delias than they are like each other, forming,
as it were, a link between them. So that, adopting Professor Poulton’s
terminology, we may say that, if this is a case of mimicry, one form may possess
at the same time the aposemes belonging to two distinct models. I will not now
stop to discuss the bearing of this case on current theories, but will only remark
that, granting mimicry, the whole assemblage, D. splendida, H. laeta, VD.
dohertyi, may be expected to gain advantage from the blending action of the
intermediate H. laeta. This I think would happen whether Jaeta is a ‘ Batesian ’
or ‘ Millerian’ mimic, but the gain to the association in the latter case is
certainly the more obvious.

This state of things would be sufficiently curious if it stood by itself. But it

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 208

does not stand by itself. In Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores there occurs another
member of the peculiar group of Huphina to which H. laeta belongs. This
butterfly, known as H. temena, resembles H. laeta in many respects ; possessing
on the underside of the hindwing a scarlet costal streak and a row of scarlet
marginal spots like those of that insect. The forewing, however, differs from
that of H. laeta in having its ground-colour not uniformly black, but divided
between a dark shading to the veins, a dark submarginal band, and series of
pale streaks and patches in the interspaces between the veins. The question
at once suggests itself : Is there a relation between H. temena and one or more
species of Delias corresponding to that between H. laeta and D. splendida and
dohertyi? The answer to this question is in the affirmative. Delias oraia,
together with Delias sumbawana, both species inhabiting the same three islands
as H. temena, form with it an assemblage quite comparable with the former
triad from Timor. Further, the points in which H. temena differs from H. laeta
have their counterpart in the distinctions between D. oraia and D. splendida
on the one hand, and D. sumbawana and D. dohertyi on the other. These points
are chiefly, in the temena assemblage, the less definitely black-bordered costal
streak, the more strongly-marked black bordering to the submarginal scarlet
spots, and the diversely-coloured as compared with the uniformly black forewing
of the Timor insects.

Again, in the island of Bali, Huphina tamar would seem to combine certain
features of two species of Delias in a similar manner to the cases of laeta and
temena just considered. The underside as a whole is reminiscent of D. periboea,
a member, like D. dohertyi and D. sumbawana, of the eucharis or hyparete group
of the genus; while the red costal streak suggests the influence of a representative
in Bali of the belisama group, like D. splendida and D. oraia in the other islands.

Finally, in the island of Sumba we have another member of this remarkable
group of Huphinas. Huphina julia, the butterfly referred to, so_ closely
resembles Delias fasciata of the same island, that even the sceptical Fruhstorfer
is constrained to speak of it as a ‘faithful copy’ of that insect. But here once
more it is noticeable that one of the most conspicuous features of the Huphina
is absent from the Delias. This time it is not, as in the case of D. splendida,
the submarginal row of scarlet spots on the underside of the hindwing, but it
is the scarlet costal streak that is wanting. Huphina julia was discovered by
Mr. Doherty in the year 1887, and described in 1891. It is interesting, in the
light of what is now known of the butterfly fauna of the Lesser Sunda islands,
to read what Doherty has to say about the mimicry question in relation to the
Delias and Huphina forms that have just been mentioned. Speaking of ZH. julia,
he says, ‘If it stood alone, I should certainly suppose it to be a mimic of some
form of Delias hyparete yet undiscovered in the island. But both H. laeta and
H. temena require to be accounted for in the same way, and while it is possible
that some Timorese Delias may resemble H. laeta, I feel sure that H. temena
can have no such original. It must then be assumed that this group is less
pressed by its enemies in the Timorian Islands, and has therefore been able
to acquire more brilliant colours than its allies.’ So far Doherty.

Whatever may be the value of this last hypothesis, we have just. seen that
the supposed facts on which it rests are non-existent, for (1) the ‘form of
Delias nyparete as yet undiscovered’ has actually turned up in the person of
PD. fasciata; (2) it is not only possible, but actually the case that ‘some Timorese
Delias may resemble H. laeta’; (3) Mr. Doherty ‘feels sure that H. temena
can have no such original,’ but Delias oraia and Delias sumbawana have just
the same relation to Huphina temenaas /). splendida and D. dohertyito H. laeta.
_ In view of these facts it may be not rash to suppose that the apparent absence
of a model for the red costal streak of H. julia may hereafter be accounted for.

Of the three instances of possible mimetic association which have now been
mentioned, I think that only one—viz., the first, has previously been treated in
detail. The numbers of cases more or less similar to these three might be very
largely extended, but for our present purpose it will be sufficient to confine our
attention to those already given. It is probable that to some minds the facts
adduced are simply curious coincidences, needing no explanation: but it can
hardly be wrong to suppose that to most students of Nature the observed
phenomena do call for some attempt at interpretation; and on a review of the

204 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

evidence it seems clear that the geographical element must enter largely into
any explanation that may be offered. On the whole, it is certainly the case
that the forms which are supposed to be related by mimicry do inhabit the
same localities; the continental Prioneris, for example, is like the continental
Delias, and the island Prioneris recalls the island, not the continental, Delias.
Moreover, we find the differences between the Delias of Timor, of Sumbawa and
Sumba, reflected in the associated Huphinas of the same islands. If it be
granted that the geographical element is a factor, it is natural to inquire how
it works.

It is no doubt true that external geographical conditions are occasionally
capable of producing, whether directly or indirectly, a community of aspect in
the animals or plants exposed to their influence. The prevalence of a sandy
coloration in the mammals and birds of a desert, and of whiteness in the
inhabitants of the arctic snow-fields, the spiny character so often assumed by
the plants of arid regions, and the general dwarfing of the vegetation that grows
close to the sea, may be given in illustration. At first sight these phenomena
may seem to be of the nature of direct effects of the environment; quite
possibly some of them are so, but I think that few observers would deny that
they are at least largely adaptive, being used for purposes of aggression or
defence. Still, even if we allow the direct effect of the environment, as perhaps
we may do especially in the case of the plants, can we frame any hypothesis
of the action of geographical conditions which shall lead directly to the assump-
tion of a common pattern in the case of the three or four butterflies from New
Guinea? I confess that I am quite unable to do so. If the climate, or the soil,
or any other geographical condition in New Guinea is capable of directly
inducing so remarkable a combination of colour as we see in these Pierines and,
Nymphaline, why does it not affect other organisms in a similar way? Why do
not other Pierines, for instance, closely related to ornytion and abnormis, share
in the same coloration? And considering the characteristic aspect of the under-
side, which is supposed to be called into being by some unexplained condition
peculiar to New Guinea, we may well ask, Why should its most conspicuous
features belong in the one case to the forewing and in the other to the hind-
wing, and vice versd, the general effect being the same?

Fruhstorfer, we may note, does not feel these difficulties. ‘Many Pierids,’
he says, ‘present typical examples of that resemblance to other butterflies which
has been named Mimicry. The origin of this resemblance, however, is now
explained by the supposition that the mimics were modified by the same (as
yet unknown) influences under which the colouring of the models, mostly Danaids,
developed.’ I think it will be generally agreed that this reference to ‘unknown
influences ’ is no explanation at all.

It is necessary to take into account the fact that the resemblances of which
we are speaking are independent of structural differences, being, in fact, merely
superficial. This is a point which is capable of much wider demonstration than
I am giving it to-day. But even from the instances now before us I think there
cannot be much difficulty in coming to the conclusion that the resemblances are
“an appeal-to vision. They are meant to be seen, though by whom and for what
purpose may be open to question. Speculations as to recognition and sexual
attraction may, I think, in these cases be put out of court; but there remains
the theory of warning colours assumed in reference to the attacks of vertebrate
enemies. From the fact that the most striking and most conspicuous of these
common aposemes or danger-signals belong to the under surface—that is to say,
the part chiefly exposed to view during rest—it may be inferred that the enemies
to be guarded against are mainly those that attack butterflies not on the wing, -
but when settled in repose. Both birds and monkeys are known to feed on
butterflies, and there is a good deal of evidence as to their preference for one
kind of food over another. I will not stop to give details, but anyone who
wishes to study the evidence may be referred especially to the Memoirs of
Dr. G. A. K. Marshall, Mr. C. F. M. Swynnerton, and Captain G. D. H.
Carpenter.

If the warning-colour interpretation of these resemblances be the true one,
we see at once why they are so largely independent of structure and affinity.
Being meant to catch the eye, they ride rough-shod, so to speak, over incon-

7a r
<\H WSEg .
CN : 6
Les )

British Association Report, Bournemouth, 1919.| [Puate IIT.

Illustrating ‘The Geographical Factor in Mimicry.’

[ Between pages 204 and 205.

EXPLANATION OF

. Delias ornytion Godm. & Salv.
. Mynes doryca Buti.
. Huphina abnormis Wallace .

Delias splendida Roths. .
Huphina laeta Hew.

. Delias dohertyi Roths.
. Delias oraia Dohrt.

. Huphina temena Hen,

. Delias sumbawana Roths.
. Delias fasciata Roths.

. Huphina julia Dohrt.

. Delias eucharis Drury

. Prioneris sita Feld.

. Delias belladonna Fabr.

. Prioneris thestylis Dowbl.
. Delias indistincta Fruhst.
. Prioneris cornelia Vollenh.

PLATE.

New Guinea

Sumbawa,

| Lombok,
Flores

Sumba
India,
Ceylon

S. India,
Ceylon

N. India

”

Borneo

”

fee
SEQ
&
“ag.

e283
aN

2)
r
U
RAL as

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS, 205

spicuous features, such as venation; nor do they respect more than the nature
of things obliges them to do, the ties of blood-relationship. Then, again, it is
obvious why they occur in the same and not widely different localities; in some
instances, as we have seen, their bearers actually flying in company and fre-
quenting the same flowers; for the common aspect, supposing it to be in any
sense protective, would only take effect when the sharers in it were exposed to
the attacks of the same body of enemies ; that is to say, when they inhabited the
same locality. And this would be equally true, whether the warning colours
are shared between distasteful forms, or whether they are deceptively adopted
by forms unprotected by inedibility ;—whether, in Professor Poulton’s terms,
they are synaposematic or pseudaposematic. I do not enlarge upon this part of
the question, or upon the theories which aré known under the names of Bates
and Miller respectively, because these theories have been fully dealt with else-
where, and I think I may assume that they are familiar to the greater part of
my hearers. But that mistaken ideas as to what is really meant by protection
and mimicry still prevail in some quarters is evident from certain remarks of
Fruhstorfer in dealing with the genus Prioneris which we have just been dis-
cussing. ‘ Wallace,’ he says, ‘regards the ‘‘rarer’’ Prioneris as a mimetic
form of the ‘‘commoner ”’ Delias. But I cannot accept his view, since mimicry
among the in all respects harmless Pierids appears no sort of protection, and
properly speaking the smooth-margined Delias should rather copy the armed
Prioneris if there is assumed to be mimicry at all.’ If anyone has no better
knowledge than this of what is meant by the theory of mimicry, it is not won-
derful that he should consider the subject unworthy of serious attention.

The warning-colour theory, then, gives a rational explanation both of the
superficial character of the resemblances and of the geographical factor in their
occurrence. But it obviously involves the reality of natural selection; and it
is here that some are disposed to part company with the upholders of the
theory. I have already referred to the fact that much positive evidence now
exists both that butterflies are eaten and that preferences on the part of their
enemies exist between one kind and another. I will only remark in passing
that the objector on this score sometimes adopts an attitude which is scarcely
reasonable, and which perhaps on that very account is somewhat hard to
combat. The kind of objector that I mean begins by saying that the destruction
of butterflies by birds and other enemies is not sufficient to give play for the
operation of selection. You beg his pardon, and produce evidence of consider-
able butterfly destruction. To which he replies, ‘O, they are eaten, are they?
I thought you said they were protected.’ This is a good dilemma, but the
dilemma is notoriously an unconvincing form of argument. If a reply be called
for it may be given like this : ‘Butterflies are either preyed upon or they are
not. If they are, an opening is given for selection; if they are not, it shows
the existence of some form of protection.’ The essence of the matter is that
both the likes and dislikes of insectivorous animals, and the means of protection
enjoyed by their prey, are not absolute but relative. A bird that will reject
an insect under some circumstances will capture it under some others; it will,
for instance, avoid insect ‘A’ if it can get insect ‘B,’ but will feed on ‘A’
if nothing else is to be had; and it is probable that hardly any insect is entirely
proof against the attack of every kind of enemy. The relative nature of pro-
tection is readily admitted when the question is not one of mimicry or of warning
colours, but of protective resemblance to inanimate objects. All degrees of
disguise, from the rudimentary to the almost perfect, are employed; the lower
degrees are allowed to be of some service, and on the other hand a disguise that
is almost completely deceptive may at times be penetrated. This consideration
applies also to the objection that the first beginnings of mimetic assimilation
can have no selective value. If the rough resemblance to an inanimate object
affords some amount of protection, though that amount may be relatively
small, why should not the same apply to the first suggestion on the part of a
mimic of an approach to the aposeme or warning colour of its model? The
position that neither kind of assimilation is of service is intelligible, though not
common; but there is no reason why benefit should be affirmed in the one case
and denied in the other. There are further considerations which tend to deprive
this latter criticism of force; the fact, for instance, that a resemblance to one

206 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

form may serve as a stepping-stone for a likeness to another; or, again, the
existence of clusters, as they may be called, of forms varying in affinity, but
embodying a transition by easy stages from one extreme to another. In a case
of this sort the objection that may be felt as to two terms in the series arbi-
trarily or accidentally picked out is seen to be groundless when the whole
assemblage is taken together.

Much attention has lately been given to the fact that of individual variations
some are transmissible by heredity and some are not; under the latter heading
would generally fall somatic modifications directly induced upon the individual
by conditions of environment. Whether any other kind of variation belongs
to the same category need not for the present purpose come into discussion.
But with regard to the undoubtedly transmissible variations, or mutations if
we like to call them so, there is, I think, a fairly general consensus of opinion
that they need not necessarily be large in amount. A complete gradation in
fact appears to exist between a departure from type so slight as to be scarcely
noticeable and one so striking as to rank as a sport or a monstrosity. And we
know now that where the Mendelian relation exists between two forms, no
amount of interbreeding will abolish either type; intermediates, if formed. are
not permanent, and if one type is to prevail over the other it must be by means
of selection, either natural or artificial.

In view of all these considerations I venture to think that there is no reason
to dispute the influence of natural selection in the production of these remarkable
resemblances. Other interpretations may no doubt be given, but they involve
the ignoring of some one or more of the facts. It may fairly be claimed that
the theories of Wallace, Bates and Miller, depending as they do on a basis of
both observation and experiment, come nearer to accounting for the facts than
any other explanation as yet offered. It will of course always be possible to
deny that any explanation is attainable, or to assert that we ought to be satisfied
with the facts as we find them without attempting to unravel their causes. But
such an attitude of mind is not scientific, and if carried into other matters
would tend to deprive the study of Nature of what to most of us is its princiual
charm. It is quite true that before the validity of any generalisation is
accepted as finally and absolutely established, every opportunity should be taken
of deductive verification. This has been fully recognised by the suprorters of
the theory of mimicry, and much has been done to test in this manner the
various conclusions on which the theory rests. The verification is not complete,
and perhaps never will be, but every successive step increases the probability of
its truth; and probability, as Bishop Butler taught, is the guide of life.
Meantime it is, one may say, the positive duty of everyone who has the oppor-
tunity, to fill up, so far as is in his power, the gaps that still exist in the chain
of evidence. Here is an especially promising field for naturalists resident in
tropical regions.

Before concluding this address, there are two points on which I should like
to lay some special emphasis. One is the undesirability—I had almost said
folly—of undervaluing any source of information, or any particular department
of study, which does not come within the personal purview of the critic or
commentator. ‘I hold,’ says Quiller-Couch, ‘there is no surer sign of intel-
lectual ill-breeding than to speak, even to feel, slightingly of any knowledge
oneself does not happen to possess.’ This is a temptation to which many of us
are liable; and falls, I fear, are frequent. It was a matter of sincere regret
to me to find one of my most valued scientific friends speaking publicly of the
Odes of Horace as a subject comparatively devoid of interest. I can only
confess my utter inability to sympathise with my friend’s point of view. If he
had merely said, ‘excellent as those works may be, I have other things to do
than to attend to them,’ I could approve; but that is a different matter. The
failing that I speak of is unfortunately by no means unknown among scientific
men, and is perhaps rather specially prevalent when such subjects as those of
my present address are in question. I can recall a very eminent man of science,
no longer living, speaking with scarcely veiled scorn of those who occupied
themselves with ‘ butterflies in cases.” This was in a Presidential Address to
a Section of this Association. If so little respect is paid by a leader of science
to work done in another part of the field, it is perhaps not to be wondered at

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 207

that one of His Majesty's Judges should speak of the formation of a great
collection of butterflles—a most valuable asset for bionomic research—as the
‘ gratification of an infantile taste.’ This or that collector may be an unscientific
person, but it would be easy to show that the study of insects in general, and
of butterflies in particular, is one of the most efficient of the instruments in our
hands for arriving at a solution of fundamental problems in biology.

My second and final point is this. I have not hesitated to attirm my con-
viction of the importance in evolution of the Darwinian doctrine of natural
selection. This necessarily carries with it a belief in the existence and general
prevalence of adaptation. I am willing to admit that at times too much
exuberance may have been shown in the rursuit of what Aubrey Moore called
‘the new teleology.’ ‘Men of science,’ it has been said, ‘like young colts in a
fresh pasture, are apt to be exhilarated on being turned into a new field of
inquiry ; to go off at a hand-gallop, in total disregard of hedges and ditches,
to lose sight of the real limitation of their inquiries, and to forget the extreme
imperfection of what is really known.’ This is not the utterance of some cold
outside critic, but of a great exponent of scientific method—no other than Huxley
himself. It may be true of some of the wilder speculations of Huxley’s date.
I am by no means sure that there is not truth in it as applied to some of the
developments of a later time. But however wide of the mark our suggested
explanations and hypotheses may be, the net result of all our inquiries, after
the gradual pruning away of excrescences and superfluities, will be a real
advance into the realms of the unknown. We may feel perfectly assured thav
the objections so far brought against our own interpretations are null and void,
but we may yet have to give way in the light of further knowledge. ‘Let us
not smile too soon at the pranks of Puck among the critics; it is more prudent
to move apart and feel gently whether that sleek nose with fair large ears, may
not have been slipped upon our own shoulders.’!

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Some Further Experiments in the Artificial Production of a Double
Hydrocele in the Larve of Echinus miliaris. By Professor E. W.
MacBripg, F.R.S.

In January 1918 I read a paper before the Royal Society in which I described
a method of producing a second hydrocele (i.e., a rudiment of the water-
vascular system) in the larve of the common shore-urchin, Hchinus miliaris.
During the last year I have repeated my experiments and obtained a complete
confirmation of my previous results, with the addition of some further inter-
esting details of which I propose to give now a short account.

The method which I outlined in my paper of 1918 was as follows :—The
ripe urchins were obtained from Plymouth, and they were opened immediately
on their arrival in London, and.the eggs shaken out into clean sea-water which
had been purified by being shaken up with charcoal and subsequently passed
through a Berkfeld filter. After development had gone on for three days
and the eggs had become transformed into four-armed plutei, these larve were
transferred to water the salinity of which had been enhanced by the addition
to it of 2 grams of NaCl per litre. In this hypertonic water they remained
for seven days, and they were then retransferred to ordinary sea-water. At
the age of about twenty-one days the extra hydrocele which was situated on
the right side of the larva began to develop. The experiment was only carried
on till the larve were a month old, by which time metamorphosis had not
been accomplished. The largest proportion of larve with two hydroceles
which was obtained in any culture was 5 per cent.

These experiments, which were carried out during the summer of 1917, were
the culmination of a series which were begun in 1914 and carried on during
the summers of 1915 and 1916. The reason that the larve, after being exposed
to the hypertonic water for a week, were retransferred to normal sea-water
was that I experienced great difficulty in getting the diatom Nitzschia, which

1 Dowden.

208 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.

served as food for the larve, to grow in the hypertonic sea-water. 1 naturally
supposed that, had I been able to accomplish this, I should have obtained a
much larger proportion of larve with a double hydrocele. In 1919, accordingly,
I instituted experiments with a view of attaining this end. I succeeded in
obtaining a strain of Nitzschia which grew luxuriantly in hypertonic water;
and three large cultures were instituted in bell-jars of 30-litres capacity,
each fitted with a Browne plunger. In one of these there was normal sea-water,
in which larve were placed which had never been exposed to hypertonic water ;
in another there was hypertonic sea-water containing larve which had been
in this medium since they were three days old; and in the third there was
normal sea-water in which were larve which had been exposed to hypertonic
water for eleven days—viz., from the time when they were three days old until
they were fourteen days old. The result of these experiments was as follows :—
In the jar containing larve which had never been in hypertonic sea-water no
specimens with two hydrocceles were found; in the jar filled with hypertonic
sea-water one specimen with two hydroceles was found; whilst in the jar
containing larve which had been in hypertonic water for eleven days 4 per cent.
of the larve were provided with two hydroceles. In all three jars the larve
were exceedingly vigorous, and many of them completed their metamorphosis.
Unfortunately, owing to the premature removal of the larve with two hydroccles
to a smaller vessel in which they did not flourish, none of them completed the
metamorphosis, but this is not impossible, as I possess one larva obtained from
a pre-war culture which actually accomplished this feat.

The conclusion to be deduced from these experiments is that retransferring
the larve to normal sea-water after they have been exposed to hypertonic
sea-water is an essential part of the process of producing a double hydroceele.
I hope next spring to be able to determine the length of exposure to the action
of hypertonic sea-water which gives the optimum result. The question as to
what is the reason of this necessity is not easy to answer. Of course, when
Loeb used hypertonic sea-water to stimulate the development of unfertilised
eggs, he’ found that there was a certain optimum time of exposure to this
medium, but in this case too long exposure checked development and gave rise
to only abnormal and sickly larvee. But the larve of Hchinus miliaris flourished
exceedingly in hypertonic sea-water; and Loeb’s explanation is therefore not
available. I can only tentatively suggest the following :—The exposure to
hypertonic water acts on a hidden rudiment in the larve and starts the right
hydroccele developing. But I have already shown, in my Royal Society paper,
that the organs developing on one side of the larva tend to inhibit the develop-
ment of similar organs on the other side. So, when the proper hydrocele on the
left side begins developing and gets a long start over its right antimere, it may
check and eventually entirely suppress the development of this. The retrans-
ference to normal sea-water may possibly hold up temporarily the exuberance
of development of the left side and allow the right side to hold its own.

If this supposition be well founded, Kchinoderm development would afford
a striking instance of that ‘struggle between the parts’ on which Roux has
always insisted as an important feature of development.

In conclusion, I should like to say a word about the water used in these’
experiments. In performing the experiments, the results of which were given
in my paper read to the Royal Society, I used sea-water collected at Lowestoft
and sold by the Great Eastern Railway for bathing purposes. The distribution
of this water ceased early in 1918. I tried artificial sea-water made with
Tiedmann’s sea-salt, but found that, although Nitzschia flourished in it, it
was instantly fatal to both adult urchins and larve. I then had artificial
sea-water made by the formula given by Dr. Allen (Journ. of M.B.A., vol. 19),
and found that it answered admirably, for the larve flourished in it and
completed their metamorphosis in it. The fertilisation of the eggs, however,
was effected in sea-water sent from Plymouth.

2. (a) Leptospira icterohemorrhagis from the Kidney of local Rats.
(b) Spirocheta (? n. sp.) from Guinea-pig. By Dr. A. C. Coxzs.

ON SS, Eee

r=.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 209

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Iridomermyx humilis: A Contribution to the Life History of the
Argentine Ant. By Dr. M. C. Grasnam (communicated by Dr.
F. G. PEnrose).

The author described the insidious introduction of this ant into Madeira,
its spread, and the complete suppression of competing species. It is established
in destructive colonies up to 2,500 feet above sea-level. Coffee cultivation is
ruined, and every sort of fruit tree—Citrus especially—which will support coccus
or aphis is almost entirely destroyed. Sugar-cane and bananas still exist, though
badly attacked; sweet potatoes (Batatus) have disappeared in many districts,
a teeming population being thus deprived of a most important food. Every
house is invaded and every kind of food carried off, and there is no winter
weather to check the ant. Poultry, young birds, and bees are defenceless.

The author pointed out the methods and ingenuity of the ant in food-search:
ing; how the ant transplants its pup into favourable conditions, and makes
bridges to reach flies caught on sticky fly-paper. j

The females are mostly impregnated within the formicary, and immediately
afterwards shed their wings. Experiments show that the sense of smell is
predominant. Reference was made to harmony in working and to the singular

absence of fighting when separate communities meet. The ant’s enemies are

few; spiders devour them and Pholcus phalangoides is a formidable enemy.

One hope is in the eventual exhaustion and decreased fertility of the ant.
Methods of control—singular effect of chalk powder; banding trees with rags
soaked in corrosive sublimate is efficient.

By surrounding a lemon tree with a circle of powdered potassium cyanide
every ant in passing to or from the tree was killed, and it was found that
40,500 ants had been tending the scale-insects on this one tree.

The progress of the ant in Madeira justifies American opinion that this pest
is an agent of destruction as formidable as the Colorado beetle or the cotton-
boll weevil. Our colonies should be warned as to the importance of this pest.

2. Sex Inheritance in Lice. By Dr. E. Hrnpiz.*

Pairs of body-lice were isolated and their offspring raised through five
generations, but of sixty families obtained, twenty-four were mixed—i.e., com-
prised both males and females—nineteen were female, thirteen male, and four
crosses were sterile. The three sorts of families occurred simultaneously,
although the lice were fed on the same individual and reared under the same
conditions, and no explanation of their appearance could be discovered. The
proportion of females to males in the total number of adults raised to maturity
agreed almost exactly with that occurring in Nature (60 per cent. females,
40 per cent. males).

From the three types of families, four kinds of crosses are possible, and the
results of a number of these are as follows :-—

1. 9 from a female family x ¢ from a male family; 11 families; 2 female.
5 male, 3 mixed (18 99 : 834), 1 sterile.

2. 9 from a female family x d from a mixed family; 7 families; 3 female,
2 mixed (15 99: 234 (7?) ), 2 sterile.

3. 9 from a mixed family x g from a male family; 11 families; 3 female,
7 mixed (33 99 : 614), 1 sterile.

4. 9from a mixed family x ¢ from a mixed family; 3 families all mixed
(10 99 : 19328).

Different types of families were obtained by crossing the same female with
two successive males, and also by crossing the same male with two females,
ae a suggesting the existence of two kinds of males and two kinds
of females. .

1 See Journ. of Genetics, vol. 8, No. 4, Sept. 25, 1919.

910 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.
e

3. Phagocytosis and Protozoa. By BE. S. Goopricn, F.R.S.!

4. The Food of Larval and Post-larval Fishes.
By Dr. Marte V. Lesour.?

Further Observations on the Building Habits of the Polychete Worm,
Pectinaria Koreni, Mer. By Arnotp T. Watson, F.L.S.

The Abstract of a Note by the Author on the Habits and Building Organ of
Pectinaria (Lagis) Koreni, Mgr. has appeared in the Report of the Proceedings
of Section D. at the meeting of the Association in Birmingham, 1913.

Since then he has made further observations and experiments, as the result
of which he has found that the suction therein mentioned, by means of which
sand below the surface is removed by the worm for the purpose of forming
working space, rapid burrowing and other purposes (the sand always travelling
between the wall of the tube and the dorsal side of the worm) is not the result
of ordinary peristaltic action, but is due to two currents through the tube (at
opposite sides of the worm) which differ considerably in character, though both
are the effect of waves produced by the worm’s body.

The current produced by the dorsal body-wall of the animal, though it is
sufficient to draw into the tube the sand swent to its mouth by the glistening
head-bristles, is insufficient to expel it through the small end of the tube; and
for this purpose it is reinforced by a much more powerful current, for production
of which the ventral body-wall is specially adapted. This wall is exceedingly
thin and mobile, while the dorsal is very thick, and consequently slower in
action. The direction of the waves can be reversed and the worm igs evidently
mainly dependent upon the ventral one for supply of water for respiration. In
production of the currents as described above the worm is assisted by the
alternate extension and retraction of its body.

Owing to the head of the worm being always buried under the sand, and to
the great number of tentacles which surround the mouth, it is impossible to see
the building operations of the adult, but by observation of the post-larval stage
(when the tentacles are few, and before the worm has dug itself into the sand)
the author has been successful in seeing a portion of a sand-tube actually built
and attached to the membranous tube, which at the time of its later metamor-
phosis is secreted by the larva. This membranous and characteristic tube is
apparently secreted rapidly once for all by the whole surface of the body. It
appears to consist of plates of areolated chitin. It is evidently indispensable to
the future life of the worm, as apparently, it cannot be replaced, and in its
absence mot only is it impossible to commence building the permanent tube for
want of something to which to attach the sand, but the violent unrestrained action
of the ventral body-wall when drawing water through the tube for purpose of
respiration occasionally causes splitting up the middle of the back of the young
worm.

In the early post-larval stage there are two buccal tentacles only; by these
the minute particles (5,4. to =4, inch in size) are collected and passed to the
mouth which opens at their base; here, what is required for food is swallowed,
but such sand-grains as seem suitable for building purposes are rolled over for
a short time in the mouth, and then deposited by it on the edge of the tube at
the point selected; the young worm then advances slightly in its tube and, for
four or five seconds, applies to that sand-grain the organ which, in the author’s
previous note, is called the ‘building organ,’ but which it is now evident
merely supplies the cement from the cement-gland beneath.

In the adult worm there are numerous tentacles which collect the sand-grains,
and in their midst a mobile membranous horse-shoe-shaped organ (not previously
recorded by any naturalist), which no doubt (as in Sabellaria) guides the sand

1 For an account of leucocytes of invertebrates described in this paper, see
Quart. Journ, Micr. Sci., Vol. 64, Pt. 1, p. 19; Oct. 1919.

* See Journ. Marine Biological Assoc., Vol. 11, No. 4, May, 1918; Vol. 12,
No. 1, July, 1919; remainder to be published in same journal.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 211

to the mouth beneath. By the mouth the selected grains are placed in position,
and then finally fixed by the cementing organ, described as a ‘ building organ’
in the author’s previous note. The nuchal organs of the worm were shown in
position external to the tentacles on either side of the head.

Attention was called to a pair of long lateral glands, which are a striking
feature in the post-larval stage. Possibly these may represent the large white
glands of the adult, the function of which has been questioned. Lack of material
prevented sections being made to test the point.

6. Report of Committee on Zoological Station at Naples.

7. Report of Committee appointed to summon meetings for the con-
sideration of matters affecting the interests of Zoology or Zoologists.

8. Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication.
See Reports, p. 122.

9. Report on Inheritance in Silkworms.

10. Report of Committee on Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.

11. Afternoon Lecture on Lice and their Relation to Disease.
By Professor G. H. F. Nurtauu, F.B.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
Joint Meeting with Section C, at which the following Papers were read:

1. The Geographical Distribution of Freshwater Fishes, with special
reference to the past History of Continents. By C. Tarr Reaan,
F.R.S.

2. Paleontology and the Evolution Theory. By D. M. 8. Watson.

Afternoon Lecture on Grain Pests and the Storage of Wheat.*
By Professor A. Drnpy, F’.R.S.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
Joint Meeting with Section K.—See p. 339.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

Sectional Excursion to Lulworth Cove.

1 For an account of the work referred to in this lecture see papers which
have recently appeared and will shortly appear in Parasitology.

For an account of the work referred to in this lecture see Heports on
Grain Pests (War) Committee of the Royal Society of London.

212 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

Section F.—GEHOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE Section: Professor L. W. Lp, M.A.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The International Rivers of Europe.

Tuts subject was chosen before the publication of the Treaty of Peace, and
was dictated by a wish to combine my geographical creed with the political
conditions of an ‘ Americanised’ Europe. The Treaty embodies so many of
the principles which I wished to emphasise, that my treatment should perhaps
now be rather historical than political.

My geographical faith is in Outlook; the jargon of to-day is about Leagues
of Nations. This is the day of nations and nationalities, and geographers
must rejoice in the fact, because civilisation depends on a blend of varied
influences—each an individua] element, a genius lJoci—and the triumph of
nationality must curb that tendency to a drab cosmopolitanism which would
crush out all such variety. But these varied influences cannot blend into a
progressive civilisation unless they have all possible facilities for friendly
meeting; for instance, International Rivers should not be, like International
Finance, anti-national, but really inter-national, ‘between nations,’ common to
all nations, and encouraging the friendly meeting of diverse political elements
and ideas. Liberty always makes for differentiation—in nations as in indi-
viduais; and if our international intercourse becomes really ‘free’ the desired
variety is guaranteed.

This is why I would like to press the truth that Outlook is, or ought to
be, the motto of geography. It is so for many of us, and it ought to be for
all. But the word covers both a process and an objective. The Outlook is
essentially over Big Mother Earth; the process is visualisation—the picturing
of forms and forces, places and peoples, beyond the horizon, all possible horizons
being included in the one great unit of the globe. But the geographical inter-
action of the Man and the Place cannot be dissociated—least of all in Political
Geography—from the historical interdependence of group and group. Both
alike are concerned with progress. We want to know, therefore, the whole
simple truth—what the particular features and phenomena mean as world
features and world phenomena, not what special meaning can be read into them,
or extracted from them, by some local and interested political unit. Geography
is, first of all, the visualisation of the world and the relations of the various
parts of that world.

Now, the one predominant feature of the earth’s surface ig not land, but
water. Nearly all international problems to-day have to do, explicitly or
implicitly, with the ocean, i.e. with access to cheap water transport on the
medium which covers three-quarters of the whole surface of the earth. Even
the problem of Alsace-Lorraine, itself perhaps purely a land problem, conceals—
especially from the Swiss point of view—a problem of access to the sea; and
the problems of Poland, of Italy, of Jugoslavia, are obviously sea-problems or
sea-problems very slightly disguised. F

Sa

>

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 913

It is a truism that the ocean attracts rivers and their trade and their riverine
population. Industry, commerce, even culture, have been starved and stunted
in various parts of the world by lack of easy access to the sea. Even your
League of Nations idea has more than once approximated to a substantial fact—
round the Mediterannean and round the Baltic, facilitated by inter-national or
inter-racial rivers. The Hanseatic League was essentially based on the relation
of a number of more or less mavigable rivers to an inland sea, and that
was why it came to include such distant ‘inland’ members as Breslau and
Cracow.

Accessibility is now more than ever before a supreme factor in all cultural
and economic development, and rivers are still the chief natural intermediaries
between land and sea. The first real internatjonal attempt to solve the problem
of international rivers followed the victory of Sea Power over the France of
Napoleon the Great; the second has followed the victory of Sea Power over
this would-be ‘ Napoleon’ of Prussia.

Now, I submit that to many of us the mere word river by itself suggests,
at once and primarily, a physical unity—no doubt, with some variety of relief
and climate—and that on this physical unity we are prepared to sanction some
social and economic and even political unity. But directly you add the quality-
ing international, the suggestion changes; the adjective raises a picture not of
local features, but of regional relations.

In recent years I have pleaded for the use of rivers as political boundaries—
on the ground that they clearly separate lands without at all separating peoples
except in time of war; we want to preserve the valuable variety of political and
cultured units, but to draw the various units together. Our object is unity, not
uniformity. The proposal has been objected to—even by some who are not at
heart hostile to the idea of fostering all possible aids to the easy, honourable,
friendly intercourse of peoples—on the ground that rivers shift their courses.
They do, and trouble has come of this in the past, political trouble as well
as economic. The Missouri was a fertile source of inter-State squabbles. But
no normal person would choose a mud-carrier, like the Missouri, ‘ Muddy Water,’
as a political boundary, unless there was a marked difference of racial type or
nationality running approximately along the line of the river. In fact, I would
suggest that the troubles along the Upper Missouri were really due to the fact
that the river was nowhere an inter-State boundary, and therefore each State
claimed the right to monopolise it in the particular section. If it had been an
inter-State boundary from the first, such a claim would have been obviously
absurd. And it was the iniquity of the claim to monopoly that forced the United
States, as similar conditions forced the Australian Commonwealth, to take over
the control of the inter-State rivers.

The principles behind the control are significant. Thus, the Murrumbidgee
is entirely within New South Wales, as the Goulburn is entirely within Victoria ;
but the Murray is an inter-State river—in a double sense, acting as the boundary
between New South Wales and Victoria, and emptying through South Australia.
New South Wales has entire use of the Murrumbidgee, and Victoria of the
Goulburn, but the whole volume of the Murray up to normal low-water level is
left to South Australia. In Europe navigation is usually far more important
than irrigation. Why should not Europe exercise similar control over the
navigable rivers of Europe?

For, geographically, great navigable rivers are essentially a continental
feature, 2.e. really a world feature, for all major continental features must be
included in a survey of world features, even if they are minor world features ;
and the world can recognise no right of a political unit to regional monopoly
of the commercial advantages of such a feature to the disadvantage of other
political units—least of all, others in the same region. As with the irrigation
when a river is obviously and entirely within an area where identity of culture
and sentiment proclaims a natural or national unit, there that unit has a claim—
even if it should prove impolitic to press it—to some monopoly of the facilities
afforded by that river. But when the river runs through or between two or
more such natural or national units, i.e. is really international, one of the units
has no claim to any monopoly against the other or others.

It was reasonable that expanding Prussia should get to the mouth of the
hee it was certain that Holstein had been both a fief of the Holy Roman

; T

214 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

Empire and in the German Confederation of 1815, and that succession in
Holstein could noé go in the female line. It was equally certain that Schleswig
had never been in either the Holy Roman Empire or the German Confederation,
and that succession in Schleswig could go in the female line. The reasonable
sequel in 1864 would have been for Prussia to purchase Holstein from Denmark,
and share the facilities of the international river.

One would not expect such a view to be taken by a Prussian, but that was
the actual principle laid down by France nearly one hundred years earlier. The
famous Decree of November 16, 1792, asserted that ‘No nation can, without
injustice, claim the right to occupy exclusively a river-channel, and to prevent
the riparian States from enjoying the same advantages. Such an attitude is a
relic of feudal slavery, or ab any rate an odious monopoly imposed by force.’
This was not mere talk. It was followed, in 1793, by the complete freeing of
the Scheldt and the Meuse to all riparians—France herself being a Tiparian in
each case, for the Scheldt was naturally navigable up to Valenciennes. Some-
what similar rights were extended, in 1795, to all riparians on the Rhine—
France herself, of course, being again a riparian; and in 1797 the freedom was
extended, so tar as France was concerned, to the ships of foreign nations, though
Holland was able to make the privilege valueless.

The original Decree had not pressed the precise question of internationality.
But, if the general principle holds—that a great navigable river cannot be
monopolised by a single political unit against riparians, even if they are its
subjects and of alien ‘race ’—still more must it hold when the river in question
is fully international, flowing through or between two or more States. Of course,
Rhine, Danube, and Vistula do both.

As a matter of fact, in Europe this principle has been generally accepted for
the last century except by Holland. Prussia and Saxony agreed about the
Elbe in 1815, and the agreement was extended to Austria, Hanover, and Den-
mark in 1821. Prussia, Hanover, and Bremen made a similar agreement about
the Weser in 1823; and Spain and Portugal made similar agreements about the
Tagus and the Douro in 1829 and 1835. Holland, however, has a tarnished
record.

One has not an atom of sympathy with the arrogant German demand that
‘small nations must not be allowed to interfere with the development of great
nations, least of all with that of the greatest of nations,’ and that Holland—
simply on the ground of her small size—should be robbed of her three estuaries
in the interest of Germany. But neither has one an atom of sympathy with the
Dutch habit of taking advantage of that small size to behave in a mean and
unreasonable way on the assumption that no Power except Germany would
use force against such a little people. I would like to illustrate the position by
an analysis of the problem on a canal, for one must include straits and canals
with rivers. Their inclusion may involve some difficulty, but in the most serious
case the difficulty is already largely solved. I refer to the Panama Canal during
the second year of the war, when British shipping was exactly half as large
again as U.S.A. shipping, amounting to very nearly 42 per cent. of the whole
trafic. The total result of the war, however, has been a loss of over 5,200,000
tons of British shipping, involving a reduction of 13.5 per cent. in our carrying-
power at sea, while the U.S.A. tonnage has increased by nearly 6,730,000 tons,
2.€. an increase of 382.1 per cent. in the U.S.A. sea-going tonnage (June, 1919).

The case which I propose to analyse is that, of the Verneuzen Canal, and I
wish to press it with all possible emphasis because it shows a typical case of
quite natural—and, therefore, almost pardonable—human selfishness, and because
its supporters are guilty of an extraordinary blindness to their own mercantile
advantage.

Ghent is the second port in Belgium, and the first industrial town in Flanders.
In the days before the separation of the two countries it was connected with
Terneuzen, i.e. ‘open-sea’ navigation on the Scheldt, by a canal twenty miles
long, of which rather more than half was in ‘ Belgian’ and rather less than
half in ‘Dutch’ territory, the actual sea-connexion being—unfortunately—in
the Dutch territory.

At the time of the Franco-Prussian War the Belgians decided to enlarge the
canal, but had to waste eight years in obtaining the consent of the Dutch to the
undertaking. Even then the consent was given only on the condition that the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 215

Belgians should pay for all work done by the Dutch, give an annual grant of
some £13,000 for the upkeep of the new works, and grant Terneuzen reduc-
tion of rates on Belgian railways! Some twenty-five years later it became
necessary again to enlarge the canal; this was begun in 1895 on condition that
Belgium again paid all the cost, that the Dutch had the right to close the
locks ‘whenever they deemed it useful to safeguard Dutch interests,’ and that
various other concessions were granted, e.g. about the Antwerp-Rozendaal rail-
way; and the complete agreement was signed in 1902. The total cost was
£1,600,000, a large proportion being spent on the canal port at T'erneuzén; but
the control is entirely in the hands of the Dutch, with the result that the
Belgian part of the canal is both broader and deeper than the Dutch part, and
the larger Belgian boats even now cannot reach Terneuzen! That is to say, after
all the cost, the concessions, the delay, etc., the trade of Ghent is still
hampered, and may be cut off at any moment. Of course, the stupidity of the
Dutch in thus crippling their own trade is unpardonable; but what about
Belgium? Even then her boats have only reached the Scheldt—a river of little
use to Holland, but vital to Belgium.

I wish to press this case, because the two little countries have managed
to live together in peace in spite of the serious ‘ international servitude’ of
Belgium to Holland, and because practically everything that Holland has done
has been quite legal.

If Belgium has to pay almost the entire cost, she ought to have almost
the entire control. The profit on the traffic is so great that Terneuzen has
relatively heavier tonnage than any other Dutch port. A considerable part of
the cost has been due to the canal having formed part of the Dutch border
system, and under international control the total costs would have been met
out of the profits.

Further, I press the point that, though refusals to grant facilities have
been very rare, they have occurred, e.g. in 1906-7; and preposterous delays
have been almost regular, e.g. a delay from November 11 till the following
September 17 in granting permission to dredge a bank. Under international
control all necessary precautions and facilities would have been supplied
instantly—on their merits. Of course, I am far from wishing Dutch sovereignty
to be displaced in favour of Belgian. I want international control in order
to displace ‘international servitude.’ If what Holland has done has been
legal, it is ‘high time that it was made illegal.

It has been typical, too, that, when the Dutch have granted any facilities,
it has been done by a specific treaty, ic. done as a matter of policy, not of
justice. It was from this point of view that they agreed to the Lek and the
Waal being recognised as the proper mouths of the Rhine. ‘This emphasis on
policy rather than on justice has not, however, been confined to Holland, though
she alone still adheres to it. In Europe, in America, in Africa, and even in
Asia, there have been, first, attempts to enforce a so-called political right of
Sovereignty against neighbours, e.g. on the Mississippi by Spain, on the St.
Lawrence by us, on the Amazon by Brazil, on the Zambesi by Portugal, and
then special conventions somewhat on the lines of a Treaty of Commerce. Such
treaties grant commercial facilities, and power of navigation is such a facility ;
but if the navigation is on a great continental] feature, such as an international
ape surely the particular facility should be admitted without any special

Treaty.

This claim has been specifically put forward on several occasions. For
instance, by the Treaty of Paris (1763) we had the privilege granted to us of
“mavigation on the Mississippi to the sea,’ and ‘to the sea’ meant ‘out on to the
sea.’ When the river passed under the control of the United States, the con-
ditions were altered. Spain had granted no such facility to them, and she
claimed the political right to block the estuary against them, while Jefferson
claimed that they had a natural right to use the whole river, i.e. had such a
“right in equity, in reason, in humanity.’ The same question arose on the St.
Lawrence, where we claimed the political right to block the lower river against
the United States in 1824. The case is specially important because Adams at
once admitted the political right, i.e. the riparian ‘ sovereignty,’ but claimed—as
Jefferson had done—a natural right to use the river itself, a right which he

T2

916 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION

based on necessity and on the supnort of the political Powers of Europe as
formulated in many conventions and agreements and commercial] treaties.

There had been so many of these that it had become possible to generalise
as to a common principle—really the princinle of justice; and so the Treaty of
Paris in 1814 and the Congress of Vienna had adopted the principle, and had
passed general rules in sympathy with it. rules which have been applied to
many rivers and even to canals—e.g. in the old Kingdom of Poland. In the
particular case of the St. Lawrence, the water right would not cover any right
of portage; but, of course, the international boundary comes to this river from
New York State below the last of the rapids.

Tn 1851 Brazil claimed the political right to block the mouth of the Amazon,
but this was universally condemned as a gross misuse of the right of riparian
sovereignty. for the mouth of the Amazon is even more truly than the Dollart
an arm of the sea—so truly that it separates two distinct faunas; and, as the
Plate was declared free in 1852, Brazil could not in decency exercise her dubious
‘yioht.’ Tt was not formally given un, however, till 1867; and it lies implicitly
behind the recent so-called ‘ concessions’ to Bolivia.

Portuguese law raised a similar difficulty in 1883 on the Zambesi. Of course,
Portugal was our oldest ally, and our relations were very friendly; but, though
she neither controlled nor traded with the interior, she claimed the political
right to block the estuary against us, and we admitted the political right so far
as to consent to her imposing duties—which, in theory, might have been
prohibitive of all trade.

The Zambhesi is specially interesting because it was concerned with one of
the first of those land-corridors about which there has been so much discussion
lately—the ‘ Caprivi finger.” Everyone except our lawyer politicians knew the
real object, the certain meaning, and the probable result, of our conceding that
strip to Germany—though most of us pictured German troops marching east-
ward along it to cut the ‘ Cape-to-Cairo’ route in Rhodesia, rather than
Rhodesians ridine westward into Ovamboland. But theoretically the Germans
made a demand for access to navigable water on an international river. and we
recognised this as a reasonable demand. and granted it. Here, again, we stand
historically in a position of great moral-strength. Further, if we accept inter-
national land-corridors and international air-corridors, we must accept also
international water-corridors, such as a navigable river or a narrow strait,

I do not want, however. to press an African example, partly because I do
want to repudiate entirely the application of the Berlin Conference to any
rivers outside Africa. For in 1884 Africa was essentially a virgin continent,
and its inhabitants were completely ignored—in theory by all the deliberators,
and in practice also by the nation which had engineered the Conference. For
one of Germany’s essential objects was to converge on the Congo, and squeeze
out Belgian interests ; and eventually, to do that, she did not hesitate to employ
the most unscrupulous propagandists in this country on ‘Congo atrocities.” It
was, therefore, part of her scheme to press—what was accepted by the Con-
ference—that the Congo should be open to all flags for all commercial purposes,
and that no riparian rights should be recognised. It was equally to her interest
that the International (Committee of Administration agreed upon should never
be set up, and it never has been; and, of course, in 1911 she used the trouble
which she had provoked in Morocco, to acquire 100,000 square miles of the
French Congo, so that she became a territorial Power in the West as well as in
the East.

The whole question has two asnects—(1) the freedom of the actual navigation,
and (2) the administration of the river. The former is largely a matter of
equity, and so did not appeal to the Dutch or Portuguese lawyers; the latter
is largely a matter of law, and has been much complicated by legal subtleties.
But the two are closely connected, for the European rivers with which we are
specially concerned all have a lower course over the plain and an upper course
involved in the folds and blocks of Central Europe. They are, therefore,
important in the one case merely as carriers by water, and—al]l things considered,
and in spite of superstitions to the contrary—are probably dearer as well as less
flexible than the carriers by rail that cross them from west to east; thus the
quantity of foodstuffs that reached Berlin—or New Orleans—by water in 1913
was quite insignificant. In the other case, however, they are of supreme

es
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“Te <a

ee ert

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 217

importance, for their valleys focus the whole commercial movement,
e.g. of Switzerland, both by rail and by water. ‘This puts the people of the
upper river-basin commercially at the mercy of the holders of the lower; at
least a third of the Swiss imports before the war were from Germany, and a
fifth of the exports went to Germany—much, in each case, done under what the
Swiss felt as ‘ compulsion.’ 15

In this particular case the people of the Rhine delta were also—politically—at
the mercy of the Germans. For the natural outlets of the Rhine basin, such as
Rotterdam and Antwerp, had taken on naturally the international character of
all great ports, while the river-towns behind them, such as Cologne and Frank-
fort, were nurseries of intense national feeling, most carefully and criminally
fostered by the Government with the declared object of presently imposing
that ‘nationality’ upon the ‘internationalised’ port. One way of entirely
undermining a position offering such opportunities to the unscrupulous is inter-
national control, with its impartial improvement of the waterway on its own
merits. Thus, in 1913 nothing like 1 per cent. of the navigation on the Rhine
was British, while over 65 per cent. was Dutch; but the deepening of the Rhine
up to Basel to admit sea-going vessels, e.g. from London or Newcastle, would
instantly free the Swiss from their slavish dependence on e.g. Westphalian coal.

It is the political aspect, however, rather than the economic that I want
to press for the moment. ‘Ihe economic aspect is useful only because it can
be presented more easily in a statistical form, while the historic—though
equally, if not more, illuminating—cannot be applied to recent events. We
can see now that Peter the Great did not provide ‘a gate by which (his) people
could get out to the Baltic,’ only one by which foreigners got into Russia;
but we cannot have similar knowledge of the political value to Bohemia of
the economically invaluable Elbe-Moldau. We cam note, however, that it is
essentially a way out, for the quantity of down-stream trattic (e.g. lignite, sugar,
grain) is five times that of the up-stream traffic (e.g. iron, cotton, oils).

The agreements already mentioned, with regard to Elbe and Weser, Tagus
and Douro, show that freedom of navigation has been granted as a reasonable
courtesy for many years by nearly all civilised Powers, though even to this day
Holland has persistently blocked progress by her stupid commercial policy and
her unique position at the mouths of Rhine and Maas and Scheldt; and the
essential principles are illustrated by the irrigation laws of Australia and the
United States, where everyone now admits that the individual State cannot
have any local standing, any riparian claims, as against the Commonwealth.
All States, whatever their size or wealth or population, must be equal, though
the natural advantages are with the upper riparians for irrigation as with the
lower riparians for navigation.

The serious administrative difficulties are two—concerned respectively with
the riparian sovereignty and with the different geographical conditions of different
rivers or different parts of the same river; e.g. you can easily decrease the pace
a ihe Rhine above Mannheim, but not without increasing the susceptibility to
rost.

Historically, riparian sovereignty, in the case of Rhine and Danube, is only
a relic of feudal robbery. When they first became part of the civilised world
under Rome, there was no such thing as riparian sovereignty. They were
public property, which had to be kept in order and improved; and for this
purpose the Romans exacted dues, which were spent wholly and solely on the
upkeep of the waterway. The Franks continued the same custom on the
Rhine; but the feudal system brought in a horde of petty princelings—as
impecunious as German princelings have normally been—who completely upset
the old régime, converted public into private property, and exacted every kind
of tax and toll. Unfortunately, because Rhine and Danube had been frontiers
for Rome, they had been associated with a strictly military control, and the
legacy of this favoured the feudal princelings—as it also helped to poison the
Whole political development along both rivers, for they got only the worst side
of Roman civilisation. Now we must go back to the primitive conditions. If
an. international river is a world feature, then its world relation is the first
consideration. In that case, riparians must tolerate representatives of the whole
world, or of such parts of the world as are most concerned with the particular
river, on the executive for the administration of the river. In most cases,

218 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RE.

moreover, riparian sovereignty must be limited, even in the interests of the
riparians themselves, for the presence of non-riparians on the executive may be,
and has been on the Danube, of the greatest value in minimising friction amongst
the riparians. In this respect France has played a most honourable part,
generally supported by Britain, especially on the Danube, where, e.g., Austria
tried to exclude Bavaria from the deliberations about the river, and to dominate
and intimidate the representatives of the lower riparians. Indeed, it was only
the day before yesterday that we had the gratification of reading the German
decision to ‘exclude French and British representatives from the Danube Com-
mission on the ground that they had hindered the ships of the more important
nations from obtaining priority of treatment.’ What greater compliment could
have been paid to us?

The fact only emphasises the vital point referred to above, that different
parts of the same river have different conditions and may need different
treatment, i.e., that even riparians have not all naturally equal use of the
. river, and that the strongest or the most favourably situated can grossly

misuse their opportunities. The Dutch showed this on the Rhine in 1816, and
the Austrians on the Danube in 1856. Obviously, such differences are, in
themselves, potential causes of serious trouble; riparians have not necessarily
and naturally real equality even when the executive consists of only one
representative from each riparian State. The greater opportunities of expan-
sion, political and economic, on the lower river may favour the growth of a
stronger Power; and the State with the largest share of the river or the
best position on it has already advantage over the others. ‘For instance, the
Dutch on the Maas and the Russians on the Danube have indulged in ‘ voluntary
negligence ’; it was in this way that Russia blocked the mouth of the Danube,
and that Holland made it impossible for the Belgians to continue their com-
mercial navigation on the Meuse down through Holland to the sea, though,
since the discovery of coal in Limburg, the Belgians have—stupidly—turned
the tables on Holland to some extent. A low riparian may no more monopolise
or ruin navigation on the lower course of a river than a high riparian may
poison or exhaust its upper waters. The river is a unit, and its unity is essential
to the fulfilling of its duties in the evolution of world commerce; and, therefore,
it needs a unity of administration. This is best secured by a commission of
riparians and non-riparians, and such conditions facilitate the use of a river
as a political boundary.

Nearly all the important details involved in the internationalising of navig-
able rivers have been illustrated already in the history of Rhine and Danube,
and in both cases France has been an admirable guide to Europe. On the Rhine,
as I have mentioned, she abolished in 1795 most of the restrictions which had
made the river practically useless even to riparians; and that she was not
thinking only of her own interests was proved by her attempt—defeated by
Holland—to extend the freedom of the river to all nations in 1797. Again
in the Convention of Paris (1804) France enforced unity of administration—
sharing this with Germany on the ground that the river was of special concern
to herself and Germany, as she has shared the administration of the Niger with
us in recent years on the same ground.

The Rhine thus received a simple, just, uniform administration, which is
a model for us now. All tolls were abolished except two—one on the boat
and the other on the cargo—which were to be only large enough to meet the
upkeep of the waterway, and were to be used for no other purposes. ‘These
tolls could be paid in each political area with the coin of that area, but a
fixed ratio was maintained between the various coinages.

Of course, in 1815 France was ousted from the bank of the river; and in
the reorganisation elaborated by the Congress of Vienna Von Humboldt, the
Prussian representative, adroitly introduced into the regulations for the Central
Commission of Riparian Representatives words which were afterwards made
to mean exactly the opposite of the freedom enforced by France, and exactly
the opposite of what our British diplomats at the time thought and said that
they meant! Not only so; but during the sixteen long years while France
remained more or less submerged, Holland was allowed to make the whole
scheme ridiculous by the claim that ‘to the sea’ did not mean ‘ out into the
sea,’ and that a tidal estuary was ‘sea.’ The Regulations of Mainz gave each

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 219

riparian State full sovereignty over its own part of the river, and limited the
right of pilotage to the subjects of riparian States; and in 1868 the Regulations
of Mannheim further whittled down the old liberal principles of France—to
the disadvantage of non-riparians, although they were admitted to rights of
navigation. The Revised Rhine Navigation Treaty of that year was still in
force in 1913, administered by the six riparian States—Holland, Prussia, Hesse,
Baden, Bavaria, and Germany (as owning Alsace). Even since 1871 Prussia,
as the strongest Power, has hampered the development of non-Prussian ports,
using even the most childish tricks with pontoon bridges, choice of wharves,
accessibility to rail, etc., against other German States.

Since 1871, too, the Rhine has illustrated another important point—namely,
that the traffic on an inland waterway depends largely, perhaps vitally, on
the extent to which railways are willing or forced to co-operate; and this
has a present importance even from a purely international point of view.
One of the results of the Franco-Prussian war was that Prussia bought up a
number of private railways in the Rhine valley, and eventually used the profits
of the transaction to make a secret fund for aggressive purposes. Now, if -
properly administered as an international waterway, the Rhine will be perfectly
free except for trifling dues on boat or cargo for the expenses of upkeep; and
it will compete so favourably with the Prussian railways that their rates will
have to be reduced to a minimum. This will cut hard at such differential
treatment as has handicapped British trade in the last twenty years, and it
will leave no surplus with which the unscrupulous can juggle.

Of course, the Rhine is essentially linked with the Meuse and the Scheldt—
Politically, economically, historically; and the Powers have long been too
lenient or too timid with Holland, possibly because her purely legal position
appeals to lawyer politicians. The Dutch base their claims to monopolise the
estuary of the Scheldt on the Treaty of Munster (1648), but have greatly
strengthened their legal position in recent years. The marriage of the Dutch
queen to a German princelet was followed immediately by the intrigue that
ended in Belgium definitely granting to Holland special rights on the
Scheldt in time of war, and Germany strongly supported Holland in getting
these rights extended between 1905 and 1908. But the Scheldt is merely an
international river; it is navigable into France, and it was only by France
waiving her claims in 1839, and proposing a dual control by Belgium and
Holland—like that of the Rhine by France and Germany at the beginning of
last century, and that of the Niger by France and ourselves now—that Holland
ever obtained the power which she has abused. When Napoleon annexed
Antwerp, he declared the Scheldt free; and the Rhine Regulations, when
extended to the Scheldt, were interpreted as meaning ‘free for all flags out
into the sea.’ Even so, the Dutch raised every possible difficulty, and naviga-
tion had no fair chance until the railway from Cologne to Antwerp brought in
the only kind of influence which the Dutch seem to understand.

We have, therefore, full knowledge of all the essential conditions necessary
to ensure the proper administration of international rivers, and shall have no
kind of excuse if we are caught napping or misled by plausible and ‘interested ’
tricksters. Amongst their last tricks is ‘the great difficulty of policing such
a river, where a German boat may be stopped by a French official.’ That is
not more terrible than a Rumanian boat being stopped by an Austrian official ;
and the experience on the Danube shows that there is really no difficulty at
all—for the simple reason that offenders are always dealt with, naturally and
reasonably, by officials of their own nation, just as the various European Powers
have the right of jurisdiction over their own subjects in the Belcian Congo.
In Article 25 the effete and pharisaical Berlin Act of 1884-5 provided that its
regulations for the Congo ‘shall remain in force in time of war.’ To-day we
are less ambitious, and desire only to further safe, easy, honourable, intercourse,
in time of peace, between nations that are unequal in size and population, wealth
and power, situation and relation to navigation facilities. We have seen that
one small nation may ill-treat another small nation from stupidity almost as
easily and as grossly as a large nation may ill-treat a small nation from tyranny.
Under the circumstances it seems necessary to remove from both the stupid and
the tyrannical the opportunities for misusing such facilities; and the obvious
way of doing this is to make international rivers international jin use and in

220 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

government. Commerce is already a prime factor in the evolution of Human
Brotherhood. Progress towards that ideal may be gauged as well by the price
of a banana or a piece of chocolate as by the number of sermons preached on
the subject; the sea is already free, made so mainly by British perseverance
in clearing it of pirates; it only remains to make navigable rivers equally free,
and the opposition comes mainly from those who have talked most loudly about
‘the freedom of the seas.’ But ‘the freedom of the seas’ does not mean that
war is to be removed only from that element on which land power is weak, while
the land power may still block access to the free sea by the natural avenue—
the navigable river.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Three Years with the Staff and Two Months’ Excavation in Meso-
potamia. By R. Campsetn Tuompson, M.A., F.S.A., late
Captain, Special Service Officer with Intelligence, G.H.Q. Staff,
Mesopotamia.

The object of the present paper is, first, to describe briefly the result of
excavations, particularly at Abu Shahrain, and the examination of certain
other ancient mounds in Lower Mesopotamia undertaken in the spring of
1918. After three years’ service with H.Q. Staff during the war in Meso-
potamia, Mr, (then Captain) R. Campbell Thompson was ordered by the War
Office, at the instance of the Trustees of the British Museum (who proposed
to carry on the Museum traditions of excavations in Babylonia as soon as the
conditions of war would allow), to conduct these explorations. The present
description of these diggings is a résumé of a paper read before the Society
of Antiquaries last January (quoted in the Times of January 31), and the
author’s thanks are due to them for their courtesy in allowing him to repeat
the main points of the discoveries described in his paper before their publication
of the complete account.

The district in which these explorations were made is the area to the S8.W.,
S., and S.E. of Nasiriyah, which lies about 100 miles W.N.W. of Basrah. This
area, which may be described as Southern Babylonia, contains the ancient
mounds of Ur of the Chaldees (Mugayyar), Eridu (Abu Shahrain), and several
smaller mounds, including Tell-el-Lahm, Tell Tuwaiyil, Murajib, Abu Rasain,
Tell Jabarah, Tell Judaidah, and another unnamed. Test trenches were dug in
Ur (Muqayyar), but the greater part of the digging, lasting nearly a month,
was carried on at Abu Shahrain.

Abu Shahrain lies twenty miles distant from Nasiriyah to the S.W., out
in the desert, and at this time outside the ‘ protected area,’ but fortunately
the loca! Shaikh Hamud of the Dhafir was friendly, and on the ninth of April
Captain Thompson started for the mound, with his Irish orderly, Pte. Thomas
Higgins (one of the old ‘Contemptibles’), fifty Arabs, and the Shaikh. All
food, of course, had to be transported thither on camel-back from the nearest
station ten miles away; there were wells within two miles of the mound
containing enough water for the expedition, which camped just below the
ancient mound.

This mound, Abu Shahrain (the ancient Eridu), has always been held to
be one of the most interesting remains in Mesopotamia on account of the
tradition of its high antiquity. It rises abruptly out of the flat, saline desert,
the top of its slopes being about forty feet above the plain, and the perimeter
about 1,100 yards. The ancient zigurrat, or temple-tower, crowns the N.W.
portion, and rises another forty feet or more. The mound had been partly
excavated by J. E. Taylor in the middle of last century, but the limitations
of archzological science in those days prevented him from making the most
of his discoveries.

The results of the present excavations are of the greatest importance for the
pre-history of Mesopotamia. Hitherto the two peoples known to have occupied
ancient Babylonia about the third millennium B.c. were the Semites (Akkadians)
in the north, and the Sumerians in the south. But a quantity of fragments

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 221

of buff pottery, painted with black geometric designs, was found in these
explorations at Abu Shahrain, and—although in far less quantity and sometimes
only in coarse traces—even on the surface of five of the other mounds men-
tioned, which is exactly of the same kind as those found in the two lowest
strata of Susa (the capital of Elam) and Mussian by the Dr. Morgan expedition.
This Susian pottery, as is well known, bears a striking resemblance to pottery
fragments found by the Pumpelly expedition to Anau about 300 miles E. of
the Caspian. It is entirely distinct from either Sumerian or Semitic remains,
and consequently we must now recognise the presence of a third people settled
in very early times in this area in S. Babylonia, of the same stock as the peoples
of Anau and Elam.

The stone implements of Abu Shahrain are numerous, and the expedition
found quantities of flint, obsidian and crystal flakes, and about 400 chipped
axe-heads similar in shape to those from Susa. Particularly noticeable even
on the surface were the baked clay sickles, quite practicable for their work,
and a large quantity of clay ‘nails’ always bent round at the point, similar
to some found at Susa and Mussian. The large quantity of fresh-water mussels
found in the strata, in contrast to the very few sea-shells, proves that the
Persian Gulf was further from the mound than the great Euphrates lagoons.

From all indications it seems almost certain that these prehistoric Anau-
Elamitic foik could not write. They must have been succeeded by the Sumerians,
three kings of whom—Ur-Engur (c. 2400 B.c.), Bur-Sin (c. 2350 B.c.), and
Nur-Adad (c. 2175 s.c.)—left inscribed bricks telling of their restoration of
the zigurrat.

The more modern portion of the paper deals very briefly (with lantern
slides) with the campaign, irrigation, towns, and mode of life of the inhabitants.

: 2. Surveys in Mesopotamia during the War.
By Lieut.-Colonel G, A. Brazury, D.S.O., R.E.

Mesopotamia was unsurveyed before the Expeditionary Force landed in the
country, the only maps available were the Indian Degree Sheets on the 4-inch
scale compiled from reports and travellers’ sketches. Sir William Willcocks’
skeleton irrigation maps were of great use, and were used to tie down both the
ground- and air-photo surveys when triangulation was not available.

The Survey of India undertook the whole of the survey work and mapping
carried out in Mesopotamia.

A survey party under Col. F. W. Pirrie, C.M.G., C.I.E. (who was also Deputy
Director of Surveys), was organised, consisting of about seven officers, twenty-six
surveyors. and 300 men, to deal with all the survey operations exclusive of air-
photography and map compilation.

The survey personnel was organised briefly as follows :—

1. A detachment operating from Nasiriyah as its centre under Capt. W. E.
Perry, M.C., R.E., who was responsible for all work in the Euphrates Valley,
and whose detachment, after the fall of Baghdad, was strengthened, and carried
the work up as far north as Hit and Falujah on the Euphrates, and up to the
right bank of the Tigris.

2. A small section under Lieut.-Col. H. H. Turner, R.E., on the Tigris front as
far as Kut.

3. The remainder of the party under Col. Pirrie filling in the blanks in rear
- the fighting fronts, from the Persian hills to the east to the Arabian desert on

e west.

Lieut.-Col. G. A. Beazley, D.S.0., R.E., succeeded Col. Turner (who was
invalided) in October 1916, and was attached to G.H.Q. His detachment was
responsible for all survey work on the Ticris front till some time after the fall

“4 of Baghdad. In May 1917 his small party was considerably strengthened, and
its operations embraced ail the country from Samarrah and Tekrit on the west
_ to the borders of Persia on the east. and a nortion of Persia itself.

4, Lieut.-Col. C. P. Gunter. 0.B.E., R.E., was in charge of Map Compilation
G.H.Q., and was resnonsible for all mans on various scales based principally on
air-photography. and subsequently for all maps required by the force on various
scales compiled from all sources of survey.

|
;

-

299, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

The small detachment under Col. Beazley was also responsible for (a) pro-
viding map compilation with fixed points to tie down the air-photographs;
(b) providing batteries that required them with artillery boards; (c) fixing
objects and targets in enemy territory and the sites of batteries.

The latitude and longitude of Fao at the mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab had been
previously accurately determined by the Survey of India. The longitudes of
Baghdad and Kermanshah were determined by wireless from Fao, the latitude
of these places being known. On these co-ordinates the whole of the triangu-
lation carried out was based.

No geodetic triangulation was attempted : the destructive proclivities of the
Arab and the flat nature and unsettled state of the country put all scientific
survey out of the question. All that could be attained was a general map of
as large an area as possible on the 4-inch scale. larger scales being used wherever
required by the military authorities. Triangulation was for the most part con-
fined to the more important rivers, the deserts and swamps elsewhere making
more than a few extensions impossible; strong escorts were required, and
transport on a liberal scale for water and rations had to be provided whenever
the rivers were left.

The flat nature of the country made triangulation very difficult, involving a
verv large number of short-sided triangles; mounds were only occasionally met
with. Mirage also greatly hampered the work; in the hot weather distant
objects frequently disappeared at 10 a.m. and did not reappear till about
4.30 p.w. Under these circumstances it was impossible at times for the trianigu-
lation to keep pace with rapidly moving columns, and recourse had to be made to
measuring distances by means of cyclometers fitted to bicycle wheels. As soon
as the triangulation was pushed up behind the moving columns the scattered
bits of survey based on (a) triangulation, (b) measuring wheels, were linked up
and adjusted, more complete surveys of the areas covered being subsequently
rarried out.

An interesting experiment was tried by map compilation at Baghdad, which
was quite successful, i.e. a 12-inch survey of the city based on air-photographs
tied down to fixed points. The map was completed in about a fortnight. To
have carried the same operation ont by ground survey would have taken several
weeks. When photographing from the air the neighbourhood of Samarrah in
connection with a large-scale survey required by the military authorities, the
outline in detail of a very large ancient city was revealed; the traces of walls,
foundations, public gardens, etc., which were not visible to anyone on the ground
showed up quite plainly on the photographs, and revealed the fact that surveys
of areas for archelogical research can in future be greatly assisted by air-
photography,

A rapid means of topographical sketching from an aeroplane was evolved by
Col. Beazley to take the vlace of air-photogranhy over unmapped areas when
time does not permit the latter process. By this method a map of the ground
over which operations are contemplated can be very rapidly prepared and issued
to the troons beforehand. Col. Beazley’s aeroplane was shot down and he
was captured by the Turks, stopping the work. Further experiments are now
being carried out. The method is applicable to unsurveyed areas in arid
countries when it is not desirable to incur the expense of air-photographic
surveying.

8. The Geographical Position and Site of Bournemouth.
By C. B. Fawcerr.

Bournemouth is a new town and of a new type. As a town of any size it is
parely forty years old. The O.S. map of 1811 showed the site as open heath Jand
crossed by an unfenced road from Christchurch to Poole. There was one house,
with a lodge, at Boscombe, and decoy ponds for wild fowl occupied the present
site of the lower Public Gardens. ‘

The town is built on a low wedge-shaped plateau between the Stour Valley and
Bournemouth Bay. This is formed of unconsolidated materials, mainly tertiary
sands and gravel. The Bayi is in the axial valley of the Hampshire Basin, and
the minor surface features are a result of this position and the physical history of
that region. The depression of the basin let in the sea to produce the cliffs,

Ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 223

and lowered the base level of the small streams which have since cut out the
chines. It also produced the sand beach,

The position of the town on the South Coast 100 miles from London is a prime
factor in its development. It was beyond the reach of the cheap tripper, but
within easy reach for the long-date visitor, and has become primarily a resort of
the latter type of seaside visitor. It first appeared in the Census report in 1871,
but not in 1881, and it became a borough in 1890 and a county borough in 1900,
so that its growth has been very rapid. The striking feature in its population is
the very high proportion of females to males : this has ranged from 1762 to 1556
to 1000.

Bournemouth arose after the construction of the earlier railways. The oldest
line in the neighbourhood, the Southampton and Dorchester, was opened in 1847 ;
it entirely ignores this town. Afterwards, as the town grew and gave rise to
trafic, the lines were gradually extended to it. It is an interesting example of
roads following the growth of the settlement—not preceding or causing the
settlement.

For fresh water the town depends on deep wells. The site lacks surface
supplies, and hence was unsuitable for dwellings before it was possible to distri-
bute water from a distance—a fact which prevented earlier growth here.

It has no local industry, other than the retail occupations required to supply
local needs. The most important sections of the population are :—

1. Persons who have retired from active life by reason of age or ill-health.

2. Persons here on long visits for reasons of health.

These account for the great excess of females, partly because the sons of such
families are more generally out in the world than the daughters, and partly
because they employ a large number of domestic servants. And while the direct
government of the town is mainly in the hands of the local trading class it is
dominated by the classes just mentioned. They are the spending section, and
the town is organised for their comfort and convenience. Such towns are a
direct result of those economic changes which have produced a new class in
modern society, the class of wealthy, but non-localised people—shareholders who
have no function in the industry from which they draw incomes and people living
on pensions or savings. This class has made such towns as Bournemouth and
determines its character.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Future of Turkey. By H. Cuartes Woops.

History has proved that the Near East has been the scene of, and the cause
of, war after war, and from the moment of the entry of Turkey on the side
ot the Central Powers the problems connected with her future have been among
the most important questions to come up for settlement by the Peace Conference.

For the purposes of that settlement Turkey means not only the areas which
formed an actual part of the Ottoman Dominions at the time of the outbreak
of the war but also the Adgean Islands, especially those occupied by Italy after
the Turco-Italian campaign, the Island of Cyprus, and last, but not least, the
districts of Erivan, Kars, and Batum, annexed by Russia after the war of
1877-1878.

Two principal conditions must be fulfilled in these areas. Firstly, safe-
guards must be established against a continued or a renewed danger of Pan-
German control in territories the domination over which formed a prominent
part of the ‘ Drang nach Osten.’ And, secondly, the misgovernment and oppres-
sion carried on or permitted by the Turkish Government must cease.

_These being the areas under discussion and the conditions to be realised, it
will be found that there are certain already existing arrangements possessed
_ of an influence upon the future. Among these arrangements, the effect of which
Was given in the paper, are the Treaty of Lausanne, the decision of the London
Ambassadorial Conference in regard to the Aigean Islands, the then secret Treaty

a

-/ al

224 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

made with Italy in 1915, the agreement made vetween Great Britain, France,
and Russia in toe spring or lYiv, ana, lastiy, the terms or the armistice anu
tne cause Ot the League of Nations VUovelauc which abrogates ali opligatious
between members inconsistent with its verms.

‘he great question 1s whether 1urkey, 1s to disappear as a Great Power or
whether ner lite 1s to be extended, more or less nuts present form, tnough unaer
emcient control. ‘he adoption ot the nrst aiternative presents great Uuuculites,
and it therefore Seems lecessaly Lo seek a soiutlon in the second, Coupied, now -
vcr, With the maintenance of we iurkish flag, there must be adequate contro at
Constantinopie and the tullest autonomy tor une various Nationatities OF Asiatic
‘Yurkey. A unilied mandate tor tue wuo.e KMpire, especiaily were 1t an American
or Brivish mandate, would prove more workable than contro] carried out by a
number of different mandatories.

‘The natures of the diferent States, or autonomous areas and their possible
frontiers, present great ditticulties, owing to the mixed population ana to the
rival claims which exist. Whatever, theretore, may be the subdivisions of the
Uttoman Hmpire agreed to by the t’eace Conterence, as the populations ot all.
une new States must remain mixed, steps should be taken to establish absolute
equality before the law for minorities and majorities, for Christians and tor
Moslems.

in conclusion, two vastly important questions must come up for settlement
in connection with the future of l'urkey. ‘lhe first concerns the regularisation,
and, if possible, the unification, of the several systems of jurisprudence existing
in the Ottoman Hmpire—systems necessarily to be inherited by any newly-createu
States, unless measures be taken to put an end to or to modity them. And
the second is bound up with the financial position of the country—her pre-war
public debt and other liabilities—a position which must receive the most careful
consideration if precautions are to be taken to prevent these burdens from being
untairly distributed in the future.

2. Some Geographical Aspects of Nationality and Internationalism.
By Marion 1. Newsiain, D.Sc.

In one of its aspects the war was a conflict between the older ideals asso-
ciated with the National State and the newer conception of Internationalism,
based upon the development of modern industry. broadly speaking, it may
be said that the former so far has conquered in the western section of the
Continent, with its great diversity of surface, and the latter in the wide uniform
plains of the east. or while Belgium has been restored and France re-estab-
lished in her old boundaries, the aims of the party still dominant in Russia are
definitely anti-national. Thus while the internationalists aimed at substituting
for the old-established National States of the west a greater unit with a purely
economic basis, their success has been limited to a region where neither
nationality nor modern industry has attained full development. Similarly,
whereas the internationalists claim that just as the National State rose from
local groups or separate city States, as the result of an improvement in com-
munications, so the greater unit of the future is the inevitable consequence of
modern means of transport; in point of fact, their doctrines so far have only
prospered in an area where these are poorly developed. The paper examines
the factors which have determined the rise of National States and endeavours
to show that these are a response to largely unalterable physical conditions,
and are therefore destined, in one form or another, to persist as against the
conception of the industrialised International State.

3. Hthnic versus Economic Frontiers of Poland.

By Miss M. A. Czapuicka.!

The war has made familiar such expressions as ‘ Geographical,’ ‘ Historical,’
‘Ethnic,’ and ‘ Economic’ frontiers. The ‘Geographical’ frontiers are the only
ones upon the definition of which everyone agrees, i.e., frontiers marked by

1 To be published in Scottish Geographical Magazine.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 225

water, mountains or any other boundary—making geographical feature. Favour-
able geographical frontiers are merely important for strategic purposes.

The definition of ‘ Historical’ frontiers is the most debatable since several
countries may claim to have held a certain frontier at various times. A con-
sideration must be made here as to whether a frontier is gained by a country
through conquest, an economic colonisation against the wish of the inhabitants,
or else by arrangement with the local inhabitants. Finally, the stability of a
historical frontier and the conditions accompanying it are not to be disregarded.

‘Historical’ frontiers are of special imnortance in the case where there is a
question not of altering the frontier, but of establishing it anew, if the country
in question did not possess political independence at the time preceding the
making of the frontier. This is the case with Poland. Before trying to define
what frontiers she ought to have, if they are to be based on racial grounds, and
what if the minimum economic necessities are considered which would provide
her with material independence, it is necessary to recall to memory Poland’s last
frontier. Such was her frontier of 1772 before the veriod of the partitions, which
frontier with small variations she enjoyed for some four or more centuries. The
historical frontier of 1772 included some 760,000 sa. km., and the territories thus
united in Polish hands, if non-Polish ethnically, were acquired by dynastic and
other arrangements. At various times Poland extended over a larger area, ¢.9.,
when she included the lower Dnieper, the original home of the Cossacks, but those
were acquisitions based on conquest and she did not possess them in 1772.

The last hundred and fifty years have made great changes in the political
orientation of some of the inhabitants of the Polish lands of 1772. The Poles
did not become Germanised or Russified, but in that part of the Polish State
coming under the Russian régime, which was composed of several other nationali-
ties besides the Poles, Russificatory measures stimulated a national revival, and
brought even a auite new national awakening to the Ukrainians, Lithuanians,
Letts and Esths. Thus the fact that on the territory of the Poland of 1772 there
live to-day some 53 millions of peovle, of whom 38 per cent. are Poles, makes
much greater difference now than it would have in 1772. In short the ethnic
principle demands that some 369,000 sq. km. of old Poland be ceded to the
newly constituted national States. The remaining 391,000 sq. km. forms what
people call ethnic Poland, i.e., where the Poles form an absolute majority. The
historical claims are stronger in that case, for naturally these lands form the
cradle of the Polish race. If the Peace Conference had wanted to make definite
Section 8 of the Treaty and had followed the ethnic principle this would have
been the limit of Poland to-day. end she would have formed a more truly national
State than any other in Eastern Europe.

The economic principle often does not coincide with the national one, a
difficulty which has arisen in all newly-formed countries. In the case of Poland
it does rouchly coincide, and to the two districts the only ones which are some-
times considered ethnically debatable—Gdansk (Danzig) and Eastern Galicia—
the economic and historical claims of Poland are particularly strong.

4. The Dodecanese. By O. H. T. Risuseru.

The name to most signifies little more than ‘a few barren rocks,’ yet the
historical associations, economic standing, and apparent political value of these
islands call for consideration. The name (‘ Twelve Islands’) has been variously
interpreted as to its content, but in questions of frontiers it is clear that all
those islands lying off the south-west coast of Asia Minor, and which are not yet
Greek, are meant. They stretch from close below Samos on the north to Rhodes
on the south-east, towards the Cyclades westwards, and towards Crete south-
westwards, and from the south-eastern part of the ‘Grecian Archipelago.’ They
appear to be mainly a fragmentary fringe,of the south-west Asia Minor coast,
though others (Karpathos, Karos, Astypalaia) seem links of westward-stretching
former mountain chains, of .which they are the unsubmerged summits. They
are mainly small barren crags with deeply bitten and often precipitous coasts,
hilly or mountainous, devoid for the most part of streams, natural vegeta-
tion, and girt by dangerous seas. Rhodes and Kés are larger and are excep-
tional in many of the above respects, and they have fair stretches of level

226 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

ground. Geologically the islands are related to south-west Asia Minor and
Crete, and volcanic formations and agencies prevail in the more northerly isles.
The climate is on the whole temperate, but the rainfall for the most part is
scanty, and the islands are exposed to winds often violent and treacherous.
Conditions of human existence, with some exceptions—notably Rhodes and
Kos—are hard: there is little arable ground, often little water, and ceaseless
toil is necessary to maintain cultivation. Methods are backward, and Rhodes,
mainly owing to Turkish occupation, is largely undeveloped. Most of the islands
produce some fruit, vegetables, grapes, olives, a little corn, and live-stock.
Some are able to export a little; others are not self-sufficing even in these
respects, and all depend largely on the import of grain and other commodities.
There are no industries of importance; the mineral resources have not been
tested, and, with the exception of sponge-fishing—which is interesting in itself,
the sole means of livelihood to some of the islands, and productive of considerable
wealth—marine pursuits are unimportant. The people—nearly all Greeks—are
simple, hard-working, enterprising, and hardy, patient agriculturalists, cunning
mariners, daring and skilful fishermen. They are becoming more sophisticated
with the growth of better communications and Western ideas. Their historical
social institutions are highly interesting and show them to possess a strong
sense and capacity for self-government, not inferior to—though little better
than—that of ancient democratic States. They are devoted to education and
religion (Greek Orthodox Church). The nature of their towns and sites of
settlement is also instructive. The chief motives controlling the choice of these
are evident and are climatic and economic, but far more those of security,
especially security from pirates. The development or shifting of the site from
seashore to lofty crag and vice versa reflects accurately the phases of historical
evolution in the Aigean as well as modern commercial influences. Rhodes has
an historical interest of its own. The modern towns are mostly solidly built,
prosperous, and well kept, occupying striking sites on harbours often naturally
fine. The standards of education, comfort, and personal refinement are fairly
high, especially in the richer sponge-fishing communities. Rhodes is more
backward. 'The population was about 120,000, all of whom, except some 16,000,
were Greeks, but during the last ten years emigration has gone on apace. The
islands have had a chequered history, but under Turkish rule (1522-1912) enjoyed
a large degree of autonomy and throve upon it. The Turks became oppressive
in proportion as the islands grew wealthy. The Italians occupied the islands
in 1912, and subsequently retained them as a guarantee for the Turkish evacua-
tion of Tripoli, and the outbreak of the European War found them in the
hands of Italy, to whom they were later pledged in the ‘Secret Treaty’ of
1915. The Greek claim to the islands is based on racial and linguistic, historical,
religious, and sentimental grounds. But the possession of these islands, while
not without economic profit (e.g. Rhodes, Kés, in agriculture and minerals;
Syme, Kalymnos, etc., for sponge-fishing) is valuable mainly for the facilities
they offer—with their fine natural harbours—for the exploitation of the south-
west Asia Minor (Adalian) coast, and for the control they afford of the Agean
communications with Syria and Egypt.

5. The Geography of Imperial Defence.
By Vauauan Cornisu, D.Sc., F.R.G.S.

International security is founded on the fact that no Government commands
nearly half the population and resources of the world, so that none can engage
the rest with a prospect of success. Consequently, the one purpose common
to the foreign policy of each Government is the prevention of dangerous pre-
pohderance by any other. At present there are about fifty Sovereign States,
of which seven administer about two-thirds of the world and its population.
Of the remaining third the Chinese constitute one-half, so that the minor
States, about forty in number, have only one-quarter the population of the
seven Great Powers. Consequently, strategic geography to-day is concerned
chiefly with the territorial relations of the Great Powers, and with certain
strategic positions between their territories which are in the occupation of
lesser States. The British nation is unique in its geographical condition, for

'

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 224

it alone occupies racial homes on each ocean. Consequently, before the national
army can be concentrated, parts of 1t must be conveyed great distances by sea,
which can only be achievea in security it a supreme navy be maintained. All
otrer nations can concentrate their armies by railway, and therefore to none
ot them is a supreme navy essential, as it is to the British. A second peculiarity
ot the British Empire 1s the inclusion of the vast Indian population. For
each British subject there are in the world only three foreigners, a fact which
by: itself goes far to provide a humanitarian justification ot that supreme navy
on which the continuance of the Empire depends. !

The geographical position of the Empire may appropriately be described
by reference to the ocean instead of the continents, since the communications
are maritime. The United Kingdom and the chief entrance to Canada are
on the Atlantic Ocean; South Atrica, India, and Australia are ranged round
the Indian Ocean, with New Zealand in the adjacent part of the Pacific.
Thus the maintenance of naval communication extending halfway round the
world suffices, without the necessity for crossing the other half o1 the circuit,
which is comprised in the Pacific Ocean. The naval communications are, there-
fore, relatively short, and they are improved by an unrivalled selection of
intermediate narbours at natural junctions of maritime routes. The coastal
communications of Great Britain and the Colonial communications of the
Empire are flanked by the territories of the French Republic much more
closely and extensively than by those of any other Great Power. In addition
to possessing good naval communications, the territories of a maritime State
should be diticult of approach from the continental interiors. ‘This condition
is fulfilled in the British Isles and Australasia by their insularity, in India
by a great mountain barrier, in Egypt by deserts, and in South Africa by
remoteness and the barrier of tropical forest. In Canada alone, which has
restricted maritime access and a very open frontier, is there a marked dis-
cordance between geographical conditions and strategic requirements. The
neighbourhood of the British Empire and the American Republic is, however,
not confined to the common frontier, but is also to an important extent upon the
sea. This results from the dependence of the American Republic upon mari-
time communications for the maintenance of the Monroe policy, upon the out-
post of Panama, which is required for the maintenance of coastal communica-
tion, and upon the sea for almost all foreign commerce except that with
Canada itself.

Australasia and India being nearer to Japan than to Great Britain the
strategic position is locally advantageous to the Japanese, but this is offset by
the great maritime superiority of the geographical position occupied by the
British Kmpire as a whole and the United Kingdom in particular. It should
also be noted that the security of maritime communication in general is an
important common interest of both States.

Egypt not only provides the shortest naval connection between Great Britain
and india but the only route for the railway connection between our African
and Asiatic possessions. It is also at the junction of the air routes from

_ Great Britain to South Africa on the one hand and to India and Australasia on

d
»

’
?
j

the other. Owing to the disruption of the Turkish Empire no one Government

_ now has power to provide protected communication from the Bosporus to the

Egyptian frontier, or to Mesopotamia, which is one of the approaches to
India both via Persia and the Persian Gulf,

Z Formerly the foreign policy of Russia and Germany so conflicted in refer-

ence to Constantinople that an entente was impossible. Now that this position

_ is beyond the attainment of either, the advantages of alliance should be obvious

_ chief recruiting base of white troops, the chief factory and shipyard. Germany

to both those nations. If possessing a common frontier, so that their com-
plementary resources could be pooled without possibility of interference, they
would have all in the way of men and material requisite for a prolonged war
on the largest scale. At one end of their combined territory railways reach

On borderland of India, the most vulnerable portion of the British Empire.

‘he other end faces the most vital part of the Empire, Great Britain—the

has excellent harbours within three hundred miles of Great Britain, and
adjoins the Low Countries, which provide in the harbours of the Rhine and
Scheldt the best base from which to invade the citadel of our Empire. In

298 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E.

order to prevent the pooling of resources by Russia and Germany it is im-
portant that the reconstituted States of Eastern Europe should form a complete
intercept. Hence the importance of securing the continuity of Rumania and
Poland by the restoration of Eastern Galicia to the latter State. The recon-
stituted States of Eastern Europe will form a continuous territory with
population and resources equal to those of a Great Power. We shall have
naval access to Jugo-Slavia by Adriatic ports, and to Rumania by the newly-
opened Black Sea. Holstein: and Southern Schleswig being retained by
Germany, that State will have opportunities for military control of the Kiel
Canal in the event of war, thus jeopardising our naval communications with
Poland.

Such are the outstanding facts in the defensive geography of the British
Empire as now constituted; but if, as has been proposed, the Government of
Great Britain and Ireland be separate instead of united as at present, a vital
change in the conditions would result. The real vulnerability of Great Britain
is not to invasion but starvation by blockade. The area per capita is less
than half that of France, which country has only just enough land to feed
its people. No system of farming at present generally practised will make
Great Britain independent of foreign food. This comes across the North
Atlantic and Bay of Biscay, since Western Europe has little to spare. Hven
if there were through railway communication by a Channel tunnel, supplies by
this route would be dependent on the grace of foreign Powers. Thus if Ireland
be governed separately from Great Britain the subsistence of the population
of the latter would be dependent on the controllers of the Western Island,
which flanks the routes from the ocean, and is at present the naval outpost
of the United Kingdom. The passages past the Irish coasts are also the
routes by which reinforcements and munitions must be sent to the dominions
and territories beyond the ocean from Great Britain, the main recruiting and
munition base of the Empire. Thus if Ireland and Great Britain were
politically separated neither Great Britain mor the outlying dominions and
territories would be strategically secure.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

1. Discussion on Geographical Aspects of Evolution, opened by the
following Paper :—

Some Geographical Aspects of Devolution in England.
By C. B. Fawcerr.?

The prominence of ‘ Devolution’ during this time of reconstruction may be
ascribed to three principal causes, namely :—

1. The strength and urgency of the Irish demand for some form of home rule,
and the existence and growing strength of similar demands in Scotland and
Wales. 1 fag

2. The congestion of business in Parliament and the fact that the present
Parliament is obviously unable to cope with all the tasks which fall to it.

3. The increasing realisation that our counties and county boroughs are too
small, in area and in the authority of their councils, to deal adequately with
many problems of local government.

The realisation of these facts has led to many references, in the Press and
from public platforms, to a ‘federal solution.’ This is usually understood as
involving the erection of four national Parliaments—in England, Scotland,
Treland, and Wales—to deal with the internal affairs of each country.

The fatal weakness of this solution, as it is thus stated, is that one of the
four partners possesses more than three times as much population and wealth as
the other three together. The German Empire was the one prominent example
of a federal State in which one partner was dominant—and Prussia was less

1 See C. B. Fawcett, Provinces of England (London : Williams & Norgate,
1919).

.

,
|
f

mn *
7

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 229

dominant in that Empire than England would be in a federal Britain. In most
Yederal States no one member is dominant; this is the case in Canada and
Australia as well ag ‘in the United States and Switzerland. Experience suggests
that it is better that no single member of a federal State should be able to out-
vote all the rest. These considerations lead to the suggestion that in a federal
Britain England should enter as a number of provinces rather than as one unit.
This would require a division of the country into suitable provinces, a division
which must be based primarily on its geography. Each province should be
comparable in population with Wales and Scotland.

There are in England a number of distinctive regions of this order of magni-
tude of which we may mention East Anglia, the Devon Peninsula, Yorkshire, and
the North Country. The last two of these are more populous than Wales, and
the others have each more than a million inhabitants.

A division of England into such provinces should be based largely on a study
of the present distribution of the population. The existing distribution into
counties is, for the most part, based on divisions which grew up long before the
Industria] Revolution, and the resulting great increase and shift of the population
which hag taken place in the last 150 years. Hence the new provinces cannot be
based directly on the counties. The principles on which such a division could
be made may be set out as follow :—

1. Provincial boundaries should be so drawn as to minimise interference with
the everyday movements and activities of the people.

2. Hach province should have a definite capital, which should be the real
focus of its regional life.

3. The least province should contain a population sufficiently numerous to
justify self-government.

4, No one province should be able to dominate the federation.

5. Provincial boundaries should be drawn near watersheds rather than across
valleys, and very rarely along streams. .

6. The grouping of areas must pay: regard to local patriotism and tradition.

(Of these Nos. 5 and 6 may be regarded as corollaries of Nos. 1 and 2.)

There should be no effort to secure uniformity, of area or of population, among
the provinces. Any such attempts would inevitably produce very unsatisfactory
and unstable groupings of population, and boundaries which would handicap
rather than facilitate effective organisation of public services in the provinces.

Several of our larger provincial cities have already become well-developed
regional capitals, centres of the economic and social life and thought of populous
regions. Among these we may place Newcastle-on-Tyne, leeds, Sheffield,
Nottingham, Manchester, Birmingham, and Bristol. Each of these is also an
important node in our road and railway systems, a university town, and the

seat of an important press. Hence each could well serve as a capital for one of
the provinces.

The following Papers were then read :—

2. The Site of Westminster. By H. Ropwetu Jones.

The original importance of the site of Westminster seems to have lain in
the fact that it formed a sandy eminence rising slightly above the saltings ot
the Thames flood-plain at a bend in the river where the stream was probably
fordable and where there was an easy passage for boats. There can be little
doubé that the Roman surface, which now lies some nine feet below high water,
lay originally at much the same height relatively to the level of the Thames
as the actual surface does to-day. Whether this change of conditions be due
to a gradual sinking of the Lower ‘Thames Basin or to a gradual increase in
the rise of tide as a result of embanking it is difficult to decide. Probably both

, influences have been at work.

Thorney Island, on which the Abbey was built, is often spoken of as part

of a delta formed by the Tyburn. Geographically speaking, this is an unfor-

tunate description. It is not the habit of the Thames tributaries to form
deltas. In almost every case the tributary stream enters the main river on
the outer curve of a meander. Westminster flats lie opposite to the outfall of
roe those of Fulham to the confluence of the Wandle; the formation of
9.
U

230 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION RK.

the meander being due probably to the inflowing tributary in the first igstance.
The natural confluence of the Tyburn would seem to have been at the West-
minster bend, in the neighbourhood of Whitehall. Once the stream had left
the gravel-capped plateau, whose brink lies along Piccadilly and debouched into
the tloodplain to the north of Buckingham Palace, its course may easily have
been diverted again and again by accident or intention. It may at one time
have joined the Westbourne, or its waters may have been turned into one or
other of the numerous tidal creeks that drained the flats at low water.

It does not seem possible to determine whether Thorney was a natural or
an artificial island, though the collection and plotting of excavation records in
sufficient number may eventually help us to some conclusion.

The course of the Tyburn in its upper and middle reaches, on the other hand,
may be easily traced, and can best be seen on the contoured map sketched from
the bench marks and ground levels given on the Ordnance Survey maps of 5 feet
to the mile. A street map, however, that gives minor lanes and alleys will
show the line the stream traced clearly enough to the observant eye, and its
valley is still fairly obvious to anyone who has the patience to track it out.

From the geographical point of view the main interest in the site of West-
minster focuses round the work of tidal river and tributary stream in controlling
movement and settlement.

3. Some of the Conditions Governing the Selection of an Aerial Route.
By Colonel Towner, R.H.

The purpose of this short paper is to describe some of the peculiarities of
aircraft and their effect on the conditions aimed at in selecting an aerial route.

An abstract of the requirements is as follows. The various items being con-
sidered individually, that route giving the best average fulfilment would be the
one selected.

1. The first requirement is safety.

Oversea flights in a land machine should, if possible, be not longer than half
the distance a machine can glide, without her engine, from the height at which
it is customary to fly.

A suitable number of possible landing places available so that in the event of
engine failure a machine will, at any time, be within gliding distance of at least
one. Good and frequent meteorological information obtainable when required
so that risk of accident through sudden formation of fog and mist may be small.

2. The second requirement is speed.

The distance from the starting point to the destination should be the shortest
possible in order to economise in time and fuel.

In the event of a forced landing the telegraph and railway should be near so
as to be available to forward news immediately of the position and requirements
of the aeroplane. Another machine can then be sent to complete the journey
with the passengers or merchandise, or again the necessary spare parts for the
repair of the machine which has landed cam be sent by air or rail.

The requirements as to communication may in many instances be fulfilled by
the wireless telegraph or telephone installation carried in the machine.

3. The third requirement is that the route shall have a number of distinctive
landmarks to help, the pilot in his navigation by recognition of position.

4. The Static Power of Melting Ice. By A. Trevor Barryr, M.A.
5. Crete. By A. Trevor Barrys, M.A.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Colonisation in Africa. By Sir Aurrep Suarp, K.C.M.G.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EF. 231

2. Persia. By Lieut.-Colonel G. 8. F. Napirr.

Why the independence and prosperity of Persia are important to England
on strategic, commercial, and political grounds :—First British Mission to Persia.
Early Persian diplomatic relations with European Powers. Napoleon’s intrigue
in Persia. Russian and Turkish encroachments on Persia in nineteenth century.
Russian intrigues. Germany’s policy to prevent any understanding between Russia
and England. King Edward the Peacemaker. Anglo-French Entente. Anglo-
Russian Convention of 1907. Spheres of interest in Persia. The new Anglo-
Persian agreement. Order and security, in the provinces and cheap and efficient
transport the crying needs of Persia. Robber bands. Extinction of the powerful
robber combine under Reza Khan Juzdani and Jafar Kuli in the Isfahan area
and of the Jangalis under Kuchik Khan on the shores of the Caspian. Shortage
of transport animals in Persia owing to the war and to famine. Active resump-
tion of export and import trade delayed by present heavy cost of transport. Pro-
vision in new agreement to co-operate in railway construction and other forms
of transport. Importance of motor transport to develop the country and act as
pioneers to the railways. Advantage of unlimited cheap petrol from the Ang]lo-
Persian and Baku oilfields. Existing roads available for motor transport. Rail-
ways to the frontier on east and west and new Bushire-Borasjun line. Tehran,
Roads therefrom. The Lynch road from Tehran through Kum and Kashan on
to Isfahan. The Isfahan-Shiraz road. The road from Baghdad.

3. Some New Experiments in Atmospheric Electricity, and their
Possible Connection with Terrestrial Magnetism.
By E. A. Rreves.

The experiments described in this paper resulted from investigations made
in the subject of Terrestrial Magnetism, and appear to show that there is a
more or less permanent static electric field in the lower atmosphere, with its
lines of force connected with the rotation axis of the earth. The question of
the possibility of a connection between this supposed field and the magnetism
of the earth is raised. With a special apparatus it is shown that a strip of
paper or other light material, when electrically charged and covered with a
glass shade, coated with shellac varnish, will, if placed on a stand and set up
on high open ground away from obstructions, come to rest within a degree or
two of the true north and south points. In exceptional circumstances the line
indicated is approximately at right angles to this line, that is, true east and
west; but still the connection is with the rotation axis of the earth, amd not
with the magnetic meridian. Observations have been made in various parts
for years past, and the results of some of these will be shown at the meeting.
The apparatus and method of using it are described, and the state of the
atmosphere, localities, and other conditions under which the observations are
likely to give the most satisfactory results are given in detail. When the
indicator does not come to rest it continues to oscillate on either side of the
true north and south points, and the mean of these is very nearly the line
of the rotation or geographical axis.

The principal object the author has in bringing the results of these observa-
tions to notice, now for the first time. is that they may induce others to take
an interest in the subject and continue experiments in other parts of the
world. So far his own experiments have only been carried out in South-Fast
England. but one or two friends have obtained much the same results in other
parts of the country, and abroad.

4. Air Photography. By Colonel WintrrsotHam, R.E.

5. Aeroplane Photo Surveys in the East.
By Captain H. Hamsnaw Tuomas.

v2

932 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F,

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

PRESIDENT OF THE Secrion: Sir Huau Barun, Bart., C.B.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :

Ar last, after an interval of three years, the British Association resumes its
meeting and takes up the business which the Council decided to suspend during
the period of the war.

The meeting at Newcastle in 1916 found the world plunged in warfare of
a most destructive character, and left us unable to determine either the extent
of the destruction or the probable period of its continuance. Few would
have then believed it possible that the following year would find the situation
unchanged and the outlook at least as black as in 1916. Much less would it
have been believed that in the summer of 1918 we should be in even greater
anxiety as to the final outcome, and that not till the early winter of that
year should we be relieved of the nightmare of horrors under which we
suffered in the five years which have elapsed since August 1914.

It is said that at a very early stage Lord Kitchener foretold a war of five
years, and on his interlocutor protesting and expressing his belief that such
a thing was impossible, reduced his estimate by one year, ‘provided Russia
held out so long.’ The collapse of Tsardom coming when it did may be
taken as fully justifying Lord Kitchener’s estimate, for not till three months
of the fifth year had run out were we greeted with the joyful news of the
Armistice. Many months had to elapse before the Armistice was ended by
a treaty of peace with our chief opponent. Even then we found ourselves
engaged in more or less active warlike operations in various parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa. To-day we are still unable to review in any but a preliminary
fashion the economic or other results of the war as a whole. We shall have
to wait till long after our meeting at Bournemouth before a complete survey
is possible.

Meanwhile, let us, in passing, take note of the fact that the cessation of
hostilities did not carry with it the cessation of expenditure. The figures
given each week in the Hconomist show the daily disbursements of the kingdom
to have amounted to 64 million pounds for the twenty-one weeks from
November 16 to April 12. I append a table giving them for the twelve weeks
prior to the date of the Armistice and for the twelve weeks following it,
omitting the week in which it fell. It will be seen that whereas from
August 24 to November 9 our expenditure amounted to 5854 million pounds,
from November 23 to February 8 we expended 564 million pounds, a reduction
of only 214 million, or about a quarter of a million a day. This means
that the debt with which the war burdened us continued to augment long
after the cause of it had ceased to operate. The Chancellor of the Exchequer’s
statement in August that the expenditure even then exceeded four million
pounds a day against pre-war expenditure of 541,000 shows that we are
still vastly exceeding our income. Even if we take into account the interest
on the war debt, which amounts to about one million pounds a day, it is
clear that the various obligations undertaken by the Government during the
war continue to impose on us a huge expenditure which is largely in excess
of our revenue.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 933

We have been led to believe that the expenditure of the last five years
had gone, in part at least, into channels which would leave us with profit-
able and realisable investments. Some time will be required to demonstrate
this, and we may still hope that the sale of the national factories will bring
some relief to the burden of debt. It may be admitted that the process
of ‘cleaning up’ is necessarily costly and slow, but it would be satisfactory
to be able to record that the ‘assets,’ whether fixed or floating, had been of
sufficient value to pay for their realisation, whereas we are being fed on the
unsubstantial hope. that at some future date vast sums will flow into the
Exchequer as the ‘surplus stores’ remaining on hand in November 1918 are
turned into cash, and the various factories sold or put to some useful purpose.

A cause of yet greater apprehension is to be found in the fact that new
claims are made on the national purse and are accepted with the same apparent
light-heartedness and disregard of consequences which mark so many previous
acts of those responsible for our expenditure both during the war and before it.

We must recognise that we could not ask the multitudes of women who
came forward to meet the call for munitions of war of various kinds, and for
even more direct and active service at home and abroad, to abandon their
activities and return to the conditions which satisfied them prior to the war.
A like observation applies to the men who accepted the call of the nation and
gave up their accustomed work to serve their country at the Front or at
some employment at home quite different from that to which they had been
used. Some compensation for these sudden changes was no doubt inevitable.
The disorganisation of the whole industrial machine made it difficult, if not -
impossible, to turn these different classes adrift into a world in the chaotic
condition into which the war had thrown it. But it does not follow that this
compensation should have been given in a way actually to encourage unemploy-
ment. Tales, more or less authentic, pass from mouth to mouth indicative of
the results of the ill-considered plans adopted to meet the difficulties which
were no doubt most serious. The Irish farm labourer, offered a job at 30s.,
who replied, ‘Sure, I’m not likely to work for your honour for 1s. a week;
I’m getting 29s. for doing nothing,’ is one of these. The girl typist, paid the
quite inadequate wage af 15s., who gave up her work and at once received
unemployment pay at 25s., is another. Let us hope that the story of the
navvy found smoking under a hedge, and, reproached for his idleness, who
rejoined that ‘he was engaged in working overtime at Cippenham,’ is a fable,
but it is of sort in which an unkind world may detect an element of truth.
Whether true or not, these observations are of little importance in_ themselves
except as indications of a general tendency to extravagant expenditure which
must be checked before the course of our economic existence can return to
normal lines. It should be the purpose of all patriotic citizens to accomplish
that return at the first possible moment. To enable us to do this we must
consider what has happened to the world economically since August 1914.

The first and perhaps most striking change to be noticed is that in these
five years an immense quantity of wealth has been destroyed. JI have had
the sad advantage of paying a visit to the countries where the destruction
can be seen. From the Belgian coast to Verdun, over a stretch of country from
ten to as much as twenty miles or more in breadth and not less than 400 miles
in length, I passed through a land where the effects of modern warfare were
painfully visible. It is impossible to convey to those who have not seen it
the extent and completeness of the destruction. For miles every sign of
cultivation has disappeared. The trees with which in places the country was
covered are represented by dead, unsightly stumps. We were told that
these were useless even as firewood. They are so full of morsels of steel that
it is impossible to cut them down or saw them up. They must stand till they
rot. We passed through the pitiable remains of what the ruined walls and
defaced gardens showed to. have once been a village. But even more
frequently we saw heaps of broken stones and bricks which, but for a board
with a name on it at the side of the road, might have been taken for
merely a more stoney and dishevelled piece of country. The epithet just
used is more appropriate than one who has not been an eye-witness could
suppose. The immense quantities of barbed wire which are being gradually

934 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

gathered up look like the fantastically ugly coarse tresses of some gigantic
maenad.

Even more pitiable were the towns which bore still some semblance of
life, just as a wounded creature inspires more compassion than one from
which life has departed. Arras, for example, of whose beauty some traces
remain in the picturesque great square and the adjoining Petite Place, with
its lovely Town Hall, evokes a more poignant sorrow than Albert, or even
Ypres, where the gaunt ruins of the Cloth Hall and Cathedral bear hideous
testimony to the destruction worked by modern war. In all that part of the
country the poor quality of the building materials have made the ruins most
unsightly. As the traveller goes further east he comes into a region where a fine
building-stone produces better houses and less unsightly ruins. But even therea
shell makes a very hideous wound, and the remains, such as they are, have none
of the dignity which Time bestows on human structures which have fallen
into decay under his more kindly hand.

It forms no part of my subject to deal with the esthetic side of the
question, but I cannot refrain from expressing the horror with which I saw
the ruins of Reims Cathedral. What has been said of the effect of shell-
fire is infinitely true of the appearance of this wonderful monument of human
art and human piety. Would it were possible to let it stand just as it is,
taking means to guard it from the weather and from further damage, but not
attempting to restore it to its pristine glory. The beautiful remains would
be a perpetual monument to the shame of those who brought this irreparable
injury to one of the most splendid examples of architectural art.

There must be many hundred thousand acres of cultivated land, with the
apparatus required for its cultivation, which has been reduced to the condi-
tion I have endeavoured to picture. It is difficult to see how it can ever be
brought again into use at any early date. The mere clearing away of the
wire entanglements to which I have referred must be a costly operation.
Great quantities of shell abandoned by the Germans in their hasty retreat
still cumbered the ground they had occupied. These must be carefully
removed—not a very simple operation, and one which must be carried out
under skilled direction.

We saw numbers of ungainly tanks, the result of British ingenuity, left
where their valiant occupants had been compelled to quit them. At one place
we counted six of these in the space of a few acres. The removal of one of
them was being effected by a valid tank, which was hauling a derelict to some
place to be repaired or, more likely, to be broken up. I dwell on all this to try
to bring home to you what must be done before what was once a smiling,
prosperous countryside can be brought back to the state in which we saw
the land lying outside the battle area on either hand.

Can anyone doubt the huge destruction of wealth which has occurred? But
it is really worse than it appears, for the very process of destruction was even
more costly than the damage done. Millions of tons of steel in the form of
guns and their projectiles—millions of lives had gone to produce this untoward
result. For fifty months all the energies of the most active and energetic
people on the globe had been turned from beneficial enterprise to such work
as that which produced the result I have sought to portray to you.

When all these things are considered it is not surprising to find our estimate
of the cost of the war reaches a total the mind cannot grasp. When you begin
to speak of pounds by thousands of millions the difference between twenty-five
and forty is hardly noticeable. But be the sum larger or smaller, the all-
important fact to be borne in mind is that the wealth which it represents has
passed out of being.

So much confusion exists on this subject that it is worth while dwelling
on it for a moment. Some contend that there has been a mere change of
wealth from one ownership to another. Into whose possession, may we ask,
has passed the wealth which used to exist in the towns and villages and
cultivated land of the battle area? It is true that the steel which went to
effect this destruction has been paid for, but from what source has that payment
come? Let us think what might have happened but for the war. The steel
might have made rails and been laid on a railway to bring the produce of

a. oS =

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 935

Central Africa to lands ready to pay for it and desiring to consume it for
useful purposes. For all time there would have arisen in the process an income
which would have gone to support in comfort those receiving it, and its surplus,
after this had been effected, would have served to add yet more miles of railway
and to bring yet more tons of useful produce. All this energy has been dis-
sipated in the manner indicated, and all that remains is the obligation of the
‘State’ for all time to pay interest on a debt which has been created.

There is, as it seems to me, but one way to escape from the situation we
have created. No measure of confiscation, however disguised, will remove the
burden under which we lie. It may be decided to alter the incidence of the
burden from one set of shoulders to another. Any proposal of the kind must
have very careful and earnest consideration. If two men are journeying
together, one carrying a heavy pack and the other none, it may well be that
by dividing it they will reach the end of their journey sooner than by one
carrying it all. But do not let us imagine that there is less to carry because it
is borne by two instead of one.

It is sometimes said that all taxation is in the nature of confiscation. Is
this really a valid contention? In the ordinary way, taxes are levied for services
rendered or to be rendered. It is indeed true that the tax is frequently not in
proportion to these services. There is good reason to hold the opinion that at
one time, if not now, the wage-earner paid by means of indirect imposts, which
then were his only contribution to the revenue, an amount out of proportion to
his income. It cannot be doubted that, what with tax and super tax and, in
a certain Measure, excess profits tax, the possessor of a large income pays much
in excess of his percentage share towards the revenue. In each of these cases
the excess payments smack of confiscation.

If a really sound and equitable scheme of taxation could be devised each
taxable unit would contribute to the common fund raised for the purpose of the
Government an amount which would be arrived at after due allowance was
made for his services to the community and his ability to pay. A bachelor,
with no claim on him but to support himself without State aid, who had done
nothing to provide for a citizen to take his place in the fulness of time, might
be called upon to pay more than a man under obligation to maintain a family
and supply by his children the means of carrying on the torch of progress.

All kinds of refinements suggest themselves which show how difficult it is
to give effect to the dictum that the amount of the tax should be regulated by
the ‘ability to pay.’ It might, for example, be suggested that, since the thrifty
man is better able to pay than the thriftless, some exemption should be granted
to the latter. A graduated income tax presents the hope of a solution of the
problem. Professor Edgeworth in the Hconomic Journal of June 1919 deals
very elaborately with this question. He mentions the scheme proposed by
Professor Castle in 1901, and says: ‘‘ Distinction may be claimed for it on the
following among other grounds: It is elementary, ‘intelligible to the most
untaught capacity,’ a great merit in a principle of currency, according to Mill,
and doubtless some merit in a principle of graduation.’”’ It may perhaps be
questioned whether the pages which follow this quotation are so easily ‘ in-
telligible to the most untaught capacity’ as Mill and the learned professor
suppose. We may also doubt whether a careful man would fully appreciate
the introduction into the equation of a modulus representing that particular
ground for exemption which would cause him to pay relatively more tax than
his less thrifty fellow.

One of the chief objections of graduation seems to be the danger of gradually
increasing the steepness of the scale till the higher incomes would be taxed
out of existence and the revenue they produced disappear. This would no
doubt bring its own remedy. The State needs a certain annual revenue to
provide the services demanded by the community. If the result of taking much
the greater part of incomes over a certain smount ends by extinguishing these
the State will cease to derive the revenue on which it counts. It must then
either reduce the tax on them till a point is reached at which they will continue
to exist, or it must increase the tax on all or some of the other incomes. Unless
it means to rush headlong into bankruptcy, it must find the point of equilibrium
at which its scheme of graduated taxation continues to produce the revenue

236 | TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

required, not in any one year, but in all future years. Such a scheme, could it
be discovered, would meet entirely that very important desideratum of a tax,
namely, that it should be based on ability to pay.

Two other points must be kept in view. A tax must be equitable in its
incidence and reasonably continuous in its imposition. Given these three condi-
tions the economic burden of the impost will quickly fall on the right shoulders.
We may dismiss the argument which asks for a levy on capital and defends
it against the accusation of being confiscatory on the ground that it is no more
confiscatory than any other means of raising money by the State. No juggling
with the balance sheets of the nations of the world will get rid of the fact that
many thousands of millions of wealth slowly accumulated in the generations
which lived before August 1914 have been dissipated.

If we confine ourselves to the more manageable figures which relate to
our own activity we find that our public debt has risen from 7104 million
pounds, at which it stood in 1914, to the colossal sum at which it stands to-day.
The history of the debt in the hundred years preceding 1914 had been one of
almost continuous reduction. From just over 900 million pounds in 1816 it fell to
628 million pounds in 1899. There were periods when the fall was arrested.
In 1905 it had risen to 798 million pounds—a figure comparable to that of thirty-
five years earlier. The Boer War was chiefly, but not entirely, responsible for
this increase. In 1914 it stood considerably above the lowest point which it
ever touched, but in the preceding eleven years every year but one showed
a marked reduction.

In the last five years all this has been changed. From August, 1914, to
March, 1915, 450 million pounds were added. The next year added more than
1,000 million pounds. By March, 1917, it stood at 3,906 million pounds, and
now it has nearly doubled and is more than ten times what it was at the out-
break of the war.

It is true we have something to set against this vast sum. We have acted as
the financial agents of our allies. The sums we have found for them amount to
close on, 2,000 million pounds. On the other hand, we have ourselves contracted
debts abroad to the extent of well on to 1,500 million pounds. On balance, there-
fore, we have interest to receive on about 400 to 500 million pounds. But
to enable the inhabitants of this country to tind money for our Govern-
ment we have sold fully as large an amount of our holdings in foreign securities.
On balance it may be contended that we are little worse off. I fear in closer
examination this view will not be found good.

Let us admit that our allies will find no difficulty in paying the 100 million
pounds a year or thereabouts due for the interest on their debt to us. We must
recognise that this will meke a sericus draft on their resources. Very different
were the securities held by individuals in this country with which they
parted to take up each successive issue of Government Bonds at the urgent
insistence of successive Chancellors of the Exchequer. The securities
sold were usually first-class industrial or public-utility issues. They might be
the obligations of a Government in the wisdom and stability of which confidence
could be placed; or the bonds of some great and progressive city, the money
having been used to bring water to the inhabitants; or shares in some com-
mercial undertaking to further the development of the country. In the great
majority of cases we may assume that they had been invested so as to produce,
directly or indirectly, a revenue to meet the interest. What have we got now?
A charge on a heavily burdened country of which, it may be, many thousand
acres have passed into the condition I attempted to describe a little while ago.
I fear if an accountant from the planet to which Mr. Gladstone told us years
ago we had banished political economy were to pay us a visit he would regard
with no favourable eye the balance sheet which placed at their full valu
debts of the sort we are considering. ; 5

Put at the highest not many of our millions of pounds will find their own
interest. All the balance must come out of the product of the other and real
industries of the debtor country, and to this branch of the subject we must
now turn.

At the present moment it is of more vital importance than ever that we
should come to a clear and unprejudiced understanding on this subject. To

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 937

judge by appearances, the vaguest and most unsatisfactory opinions exist as
to the capacity of the community to meet the various claims which are pre-
ferred for a share of the wealth from which alone these claims can be satisfied.
Many people seem to think that no demand is too exorbitant. We are asked
to provide houses by the hundred thousand undeterred by the consideration
that they will cost two, three, or even four fold the amount at which they
could have been built before the war. They are, moreover, to afford accommoda-
tion of a much better character than was thought sufficient a very short time
ago. Houses built as recently as twenty years ago are no longer good enough
for the social reformers of to-day. It is forgotten that something like 80,000
houses are needed each year to accommodate the growth of the population.
There are to-day something over eight million inhabited houses in Great
Britain, Not more than half of these are more than fifty years old. During the
war housebuilding had almost ceased, but before 1914 the building of houses had
been checked by two causes. The various Acts of Parliament dealing with
matters affecting the building of houses had so enhanced their cost that there
was the greatest uncertainty whether houses could be built to return a reason-
able interest on their cost.

But the second cause was of as great, or possibly even greater, significance.
The trade unions connected with the building trades had gradually succeeded
in imposing conditions which had added enormously to the cost of building.
It would not be difficult to show why this had been possible, but it would
take me too far to follow this line of thought. The fact will not be denied
by anyone conversant with the circumstances. The result of all this is a serious

_shortage of houses, and this it is proposed to make up by grants from the
public purse. If this were the only demand of the kind we might face it
with more equanimity than is in fact the case. But when we look elsewhere
we capiier claims comparable in their effects on the public purse but differing
in kind.

The railway enterprise in this country may serve as typical of what is
meant. Prior to the war the railways were carrying on their duties in a manner
which enabled the country to get through its business in a profitable and, on
the whole, fairly satisfactory way. They earned sufficient revenue to pay a
fair return to the shareholders. It is true the prospect was not reassuring.
The railway management was meeting the usual contradictory claims preferred
against almost every industry. It was asserted that they were rendering
services which were not nearly as great as were demanded by their customers,
and they were charging for them rates which were regarded as quite out of
proportion to the value of the services. On the other hand, they were paying
wages which the recipients thought entirely inadequate for much longer hours
of service than their workmen were disposed to give. Negotiations between
the parties had obtained certain concessions as to hours of work, and also as
to rates of pay; but these were not accepted as sufficient, and Parliament was
called upon to intervene, with the result that statutory hours were imposed.

The very essential difference between hours of work or rates of pay resulting
from convention between the parties interested and the same imposed by statute
is often overlocked. The convention can be varied to meet the varying cireum-
stances. The statute provides a hard and fast rule, from which it is impossible
to depart without incurring penalties. An example of this may be found
in the Cleveland Ironstone Mines, which, by a series of strange accidents, come
under the Coal Mine Regulation Acts, and are thus subject to all the condi-
tions imposed by statute on coal mining. Employers and workmen are agreed
in desiring to modify the provisions of the Acts as to hours of work on Satur-
days. Their joint application to the proper Department for permission to
do this has been refused for reasons’ which that Department (quite properly)
regards as unanswerable. The officials decline to exercise a dispensing power
and require that the provisions of the Act be rigidly followed. ‘

When the railway companies pointed out the serious effect which these
statutory obligations imposed on them had cn their revenue-earning capacity
and sought power to increase the rates their customers were up in arms. The
very men who, in Parliament and elsewhere, were applauding the decision
to give relief to the railway servants resolutely refused to pay the extra
cost thus incurred. With difficulty was Parliament induced to give the

238 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

companies leave to add to their charges something towards meeting this cost.
The companies found still greater difficulty in obtaining a settlement with
their customers as to the amount which should be so added. The question was
still awaiting a final settlement at the outbreak of war.

But the case of the railways seems irrefragable. They point out that their
earnings are barely sufficient to meet the claims on them and leave a suitable
return to their shareholders. And when answer is made that these critics and
customers are indifferent as to this, they point out that, unless they can do
it, they will be unable to meet the demands of the districts which they serve.
No railway serving a prosperous and growing district can continue to render
the services required unless it is able to raise capital to be expended on the pro-
vision of those additional facilities for which the expansion of the district
calls. But to attract capital the railway must be able to show a revenue of
which the surplus, after meeting all expenses, will serve to pay adequate
interest. Even before the war, the never-ceasing demands of the workmen, and
the ever-increasing obligations placed on the companies by Parliament as to
the facilities to be given, were rendering it more and more difficult to find
the necessary capital. It cannot be said that the return to the shareholders
of all classes was inordinate. The 1,500 million pounds of railway stock earned
a surplus of 50 million pounds in 1913—not quite 4 per cent. It is evident, there-
fore, that one or other of the following things must happen. LHither the railway
development must cease, and with it, to a large extent, the development of the
country, or the revenue must be increased per unit of traffic, or the expenses
must be diminished either by reduction of the actual charges or by improve-
ments in the methods of operating.

We may dismiss the first of these possibilities, for we must decline to
believe that the country will cease to develop. It would be with great reluct-
ance that we should accept an increase of the charge per unit of traffic. We
would rather hope that by adopting better operating methods we should reduce
costs and so reduce charges. It is to this side of the question that we must
address ourselves. In doing so we may pass from the special case of railways
to the general case of the national industries.

There has been a persistent demand by labour throughout the country for
better pay, and an equally persistent demand for more leisure. To these
demands no objection can be taken. On the contrary, rightly understood,
they must meet with approval by all who desire to see the country, as a
whole, happy and prosperous. But we must consider how they can be satisfied.
This is a question to which recently a great deal of attention has been given.
In its satisfactory solution lies all our hope for the future.

To begin with, the only source from which satisfaction can be is the
sum-total of the product of the industry of the country, and indeed of the
world, in the period under consideration. It must be noted that in many
cases the product may not be realised within that period, as, for ex-
ample, when a manufacturer holds large stocks of goods which he has
not yet marketed, but on which much the greater part of the cost has been
paid. It must also be noted that a very considerable part of the industry
of the country does not add to the total product which is the subject of division,
but is in fact a charge on that product. The whole burden is borne by those
engaged in providing commodities or services necessary for the members. We
touch at this point a very difficult problem, the proper solution of which may
possibly show us how all our economic troubles may be ended. I can do no
more than state it as briefly as may be.

There can be no question that a very great part of human activities is spent,
and the resulting product used, in providing things which cannot be called
necessaries of existence. ‘The simplest food, clothing, and shelter may be said
to coyer all that comes under this head. But life that gives us nothing but
the indispensable minimum of these essentials would be so dull and monotonous
as to be hardly worth the exertion needed to procure them. We must have more
than these if we are to get enjoyment as well as mere life. How much more can
we claim—perhaps we might say, extort—from our environment? And how
shall this extra tribute be shared among us?

If we made a complete analysis of the result of the product of industry
we should be astonished to find how large is the amount which remains after the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 939

essential demands have been satisfied. Take a survey of some town you know
and ask yourself what the multitude of public-houses and _picture-palaces
indicate but a spending of money on non-essentials. Or look nearer home,
and consider whether the things you could quite easily spare do not bulk very
large. If we sought to classify our expenditure we might come to some
such division as this:

On essential needs.

On things making for the irreproachable amenities of life.

On luxuries which add to and aid our reasonable enjoyment.

On those which subserve mere pleasures.

On extravagant expenditure for which no justification can be offered.

It is difficult to draw any clear line between the heads of this very rough
division. Each class passes imperceptibly into the next. Fortunately for our
present purpose we do not require to do this. It is enough that we should
admit that not all activities are well directed, and that we consume a great
many things we could do without. No class is exempt from this blame, if blame
it be. Each is disposed to look askance at what is called the extravagance
of some other. When people talk of waste, they often mean expenditure on
things for which they themselves do not care. But the question is how can we
check this extravagance and provide more fully for the more essential needs of
the whole people?

If rich men did not drive motor cars or drink costly wines, would the people
who produce.these luxuries be better off? Or if, instead of making these things,
they made articles needed for the mass of the people, could these buy the
result if they had no more means than they now possess?’ Do we not come back
at the end to the proposition that men can only have more if they have more
to offer in exchange? The great mass of. mankind labours to gain ‘daily bread.’
If more is produced, more of these necessities will be satisfied.

It may be contended that men ‘have obtained more or less completely what
they wanted most urgently. They wanted shorter hours. In many trades they
have got them, and might have had them in more had they gone about it in the
right way. They were not sufficiently desirous of having better houses, and
they failed to procure what their wellwishers desired for them. It remains to
be seen whether the movement in this direction, to which reference has already
been made, will produce the results which we all desire to see—though some of
us would like to see them obtained under more satisfactory economic conditions
than are at present proposed.

A relatively small part of the population do unquestionably get a very large
share of the total income produced by the whole community. Can we do any-
thing by which this share may be reduced without bringing about greater evils
than those we seek to overcome? The history of the sumptuary laws do not en-
courage much hope that attempts to prevent expenditure in particular directions
will have much success. My own studies had brought me, many years ago, to
the conclusion that in every industry examined there is no way of giving to those
engaged shares greatly differing from what has been afforded in the past. The
margins on which manufacture in general is conducted are too small, to make
it possible to give the larger contributors to the ultimate result any considerabie
addition to what they have been accustomed to receive. This impression was
confirmed by the elaborate general survey of the industry of the kingdom
carried out by the Census of Production of 1907.

No doubt labour (which is much the most important item of cost) has
obtained a gradually increasing payment, though not necessarily any larger pro-
portionate share. A steady iraprovement in the methods in which the labour of
men is applied has resulted in enabling a larger product to be obtained. Each
new implement, each fresh application of energy of various kinds, as, for
example, steam and electricity, has meant that the individual man produced
more in his day’s work, and he got, in fact, a larger return for what he did.
But at the same time, the capital engaged was increased, and consequently the
proportion of the product to be allotted to rewarding capital also increased.
It is neither possible nor desirable to attempt to alter this state of things.

The whole question has been treated in a very masterly way by Professor
Bowley in a book published some months ago entitled ‘The Division of the

240 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Product of Industry,’ a title I had myself adopted for a lecture I gave at
the National Economy Exhibition in July 1916. Mr. Herbert G. Williams’s
pamphlet entitled ‘The Nation’s Income’ also deals with the same subject
with much care and skill. In it he makes a critical examination of Sir Leo
Chiozza Money’s book entitled ‘Riches and Poverty.’

The conclusion reached in these publications is practically the same. It may
be stated in the cautious words with which Mr. Bowley ends his book :—

““ This analysis has failed in part of its purpose if it has not shown that the
problem of securing the wages, which people rather optimistically believe to be
immediately and permanently possible, is to a great extent independent of the
question of national and individual ownership unless it is seriously believed
that production would increase greatly if the State were sole employer. The
wealth of the country, however divided, was insufficient before the war for a
general high standard ; there is nothing as yet to show that it will be greater
in the future. Hence the most important task—more important immediately than
the improvement of the division of the product—incumbent on employers and
workmen alike, is to increase the national product, and that without sacrificing
leisure and the amenities of life.’

These statesmanlike words need to be borne in mind by all who are engaged
in dealing with the difficult problems of to-day.

I shall have failed in my purpose if I have left my hearers under the impres-
sion that I am wedded to or pleading for any particular division of the wealth
of the country. We hear much talk about abstractions called “capital” and
‘‘Jabour.”” The terms are convenient enough if we do not let ourselves be deluded
with the idea that they mean more than the sum of those who own the capital or
supply the labour. Labour itself is a somewhat ambiguous term. Till compara-
tively recently the members of the ‘labouring classes’ so called thought it was
synonymous with the man who laboured with his hands, and ‘ the horny-handed
son of toil’ was contrasted with ‘the pampered minion of luxury.’ The Labour
Party itself has been fain to enlarge its definition so as to include all those
who ‘labour by hand or brain.’ If we could be brought to see that there is no
hard-and-fast division of men and women into the one or other of these classes,
but that nearly all of us belong to both, a good deal of our present trouble
would disappear. Not one of us, if independent of capital, the most poverty-
stricken member of the community relies as implicitly on it as the richest among
us. To talk of the ‘ abolition of capital’ is to use a form of words which is abso-
lutely meaningless. What most people who use them really mean is one or other
of two things, sometimes both at the same time—either that the capital is in
the wrong hands and that it should not be held in the way or to the amount
which is at present the case, or that the division of the joint product of capital
and industry is defective, and should be altered.

It will be seen that these are two quite different questions, and call for con-
sideration on quite different lines. If great aggregations of wealth are deemed
undesirable the community may take means to limit the amount held by any
one man. But where the line should be drawn is a very difficult problem.
It would be easy to show that human progress has depended on the thrift of our
ancestors,.and to prove that, in like manner, our future progress depends on
a continuance of this policy of not spending on the enjoyment of the hour all
the product of our industry. Implicitly this assumption is made by every one
who criticises the condition of our various industries in this country and com-
pares them unfavourably with those of other lands. They are, in fact, saying
that our railways or mines or steel works have been starved. Yet, with almost
the same breath, they complain that the men engaged have been insufficiently
remunerated for their labour. I see great difficulty in saying no man’s fortune
shall exceed some given sum, and even in saying no man shall bequeath to his
survivors more than some very moderate amount. In either case I should fear
endangering that building up of capital which, however it may be divided, is
essential to our national progress.

When we come to the division of the joint product of industry and capital
other considerations become apparent. The question at once arises whether any
other division would have been possible in the past, or could be accomplished
in the future, without great changes in the way in which the product arises.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 241

Reference has already been made to my own examination of this matter, which
leaves me in no doubt that any considerable increase of the part of labour
would have left the share of capital so small as to have stifled enterprise.

This does not mean that lange fortunes may not have been made by those
whose skill and industry and enterprise enabled them to seize the advantages
presented to them. If an illustration may be drawn from the history of my own
firm, I may say that over and over again have we embarked on undertakings
which we had in the end to abandon as unprofitable. Those who were, in fact,
our co-adventurers, the men whom we employed, ran no risk. They were paid
the sums to which they were entitled as the result of bargaining in an open
market. The wages paid were those ruling in the district. Such machinery or
other supplies as were needed were bought as cheaply as was possible. We took
all the risk, and bore all the loss which often resulted. We ‘had no qualms
about taking the profit when any ensued. The capital which by incessant
industry and application has been thus accumulated has served to provide
employment for the sons and grandsons and remoter descendants of those who
first worked for my father and his brothers seventy-five years ago this very year.

Those who cry out against capital overlook the fact that in modern industries
no man can be set to work except by means of a capital sum first found for the
purpose. In the industries I know best something over £200 is needed to put
a man to work. The population of this country increases at the rate of about
1 per cent. per annum. This means that for every 1,000 men to whom employ-
ment is being given about ten youths are ready to be set to work each year, and
something over £2,000 must be found year by year to give them employment.
It is not an unreasonable boast for a captain of industry to say that im this
respect he has performed his duty to the community.

One further point must be made. Men see some great enterprise (and the
railways will serve very well as an example), and look upon it as a capitalist
organisation. But when the circumstances are examined it is found that it
consists of a multitude of small holdings, and comparatively few of large amount.
In the North-Eastern Railway something like 60,000 shareholders hold the
83 million pounds of capital of various denominations—say, on the average, some
£1,600 each. Consider the widespread distress which would be caused if the
income from the sum were to cease.

I have made a similar calculation for a large colliery undertaking in which
T am interested, with the following result. The capital in shares and debentures
is about £1,300,000. There are just over 1,800 shareholders. We employ
5,500 men. Each shareholder therefore provides employment for about three men
and holds on the average £725. Before long we shall recuire further capital.
We see our way to enlarge our operations and so to provide employment near
to their homes for the 50 to 60 youths who, each year, grow to manhood and
need productive employment if they are not to become burdens on the com-
.Mmunity. We hope our 1,800 shareholders will have laid by enough to provide
the £12,000 a year which is necessary for this purpose. We are assuming they
or someone will provide it, for we are using our resources (reserves and depre-
ciation funds) in this way, and shortly it will be incumbent on us to fund this
obligation and add it to our capital.

Let us be very cautious how we interfere lest we produce evils infinitely
greater than those which it is sought to remove. What, for example, will those

_ 50 to 60 young men say, if we reply to their applications to be given work with
us, that all our resources have been used in paying additional wages, and we

have accordingly been obliged to let our plant deteriorate instead of adding

to it and that, far from offering additional employment, we fear we may have

to dismiss men to whom we at present give work?
_ Weare thus brought to the last subject which I desire to consider with you—

t the widespread tendency towards what is somewhat vaguely called Nationalisa-
tion. It may be questioned whether any large number of people have very clear

ideas what is meant by the term.

Let us assume for the present purpose that it signifies that the State shall
become the owner of any enterprise which is nationalised—as it owns the busi-
-ness—the Post Office, the Telegraphs and the Telephones. Let us ask what

advantage will be gained by the assumption of ownership. A centralised

249, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

management even of so simple a business as that of collecting and distributing
letters and parcels has not been an unqualified success. Where the business
is more complicated, as in the other examples, the success has been even less
conspicuous. What reason have we to hope then in such intricate matters as
the Railways or the Mines better results will follow?

The incentive of individual gain will have disappeared and with it the readi-
ness to accept such risks as those to which reference has already been made.
We may easily find that the developments needed to find employment for our
young people is not forthcoming, for without such risks being taken no growth
of employment will take place. Unless I am much mistaken a great temptation
will be put before politicians to make concessions to the huge army of voters
who will be in the direct employment of the Government.

The experience of these five years has failed to teach the lesson that you
cannot touch one branch of labour without affecting all others. An advance of
wages given to one section will inevitably be demanded by all others. The
result will be prejudicial to the whole community. As regards each individual
trade it may be of little moment what we call the wages, the wage earner has
in the past obtained a certain (very large) percentage of the whole value of
the product ; whether it is called one hundred or two hundred is of little moment
unless indeed he can succeed in obtaining for himself higher rates of wage than
those prevailing in other industries. But as regards international trade the
position may be very different, and we may find ourselves shut out of foreign
markets because our wages are made artificially high, just as we should be
excluded if, for example, the shipowners could compel us to pay inordinate
freights on some indispensable raw material like cotton.

A cure will speedily come, but it may come after great suffering has been
inflicted on the whole community. Parliament can easily impose on the em-
ployer, whether a private individual or the State, the payment of a certain
wage if a man is employed, but one thing it cannot do and that is compel the
employment of the man at a wage which the price of the article he produces
will not suffice to pay. The man will remain unempioyed. That is the drastic
remedy which economic law imposes. We may escape it by making up from
some other source the deficiency if we insist on having the article and refuse to
pay the cost. But this remedy is only applicable to some small part of our total
product. When we come to such industries as those now talked of it is
impossible. We must make the industry self-contained.

The hope that by transferring its ownership to the State from the individual
will enable us to pay more is foredoomed to disappointment. There is indeed
one—and only, one—way in which higher wages can be obtained. That is by a
greater product per unit of capita] and per unit of wage. If en article now
produced at a combined capital and labour cost of, say, 100 can by improved
methods be produced at, say, 80 and still sold for 100, and if capital is still
satisfied with its former share, then the whole of the extra 20 will come to.
labour. Long experience teaches me that it is in this way that wages have
advanced in the past and that in this way alone can they be further increased
in the future.

But it may be said that those most concerned are not striving alone, or even
chiefly, for higher wages, but desire to participate in the management and to
bear their part in deciding the questions of policy which up to now have been
in the hands of the employers. To this no fundamental objection can be raised.
The more completely the men engaged in any enterprise understand it the better
it will probably be for the whole. But large questions of policy require know-
ledge and appreciation of circumstances which can with difficulty be acquired by
persons whose life is necessarily passed in quite other surroundings. That the
fullest information should be given to the persons in question cannot be denied.
The claim to deal with matters of management lying quite beyond their com-
petence cannot be conceded. The final impulse comes from one mind which cannot
divest itself of its responsibility nor exercise it under such conditions as those
suggested would impose.

In the brief compass of an hour I have sought to describe the difficult
situation in which we are placed and to enumerate some of the intricate economic
and social problems which call for solution. It is impossible to view the future

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 943

without apprehension. A universal unrest pervades the world. This had indeed
already become apparent before 1914. The war has exacerbated the symptoms
which were already sufficiently menacing. Remedies by legislation had been
applied here and elsewhere without success. In the nineteenth century the
political emancipation of the inhabitants of this country was gradually effected.
By the end of it freedom had been practically won. The great changes which
occurred in the political condition of the country as it was before 1832 and as it
became by the end of the century had been brought about with relatively little
trouble. It is not surprising that this should have led to the conclusion that
economic changes could be effected with equal ease. Perhaps the confusion which
we continually observe between a ‘law ’ imposed by the will of a legislature and
a ‘law of Nature,’ so called, is responsible for this confusion. Parliament, we are
told, can do anything except ‘make it rain or hold up.’ It may perhaps even
effect this by enacting that under certain circumstances it shall be ‘deemed’
to rain or hold up, as the case may be. But the most ardent believer in the
power of legislation to bring about important changes will not be prepared to
deny that, whatever the legislators may say, he who goes out in the rain will get
wet.

Having gained political freedom comparatively easily people seem to have
thought economic freedom would be got with equal facility. We have had
numerous instances of this on which it is unnecessary to dwell. Concessions have
been made by which, apparently, life was made much easier for certain people.
_ But the fund out of which these concessions were to come has not been increased.
_ Many of them, though not so intended, had the effect of positively lessening that

total. In a perfect world it ought not to have had this effect, but, human nature

being as it is, it was easy to foresee the result. It could have been foretold that

a minimum wage established by law would sooner or later reduce the output of

the man paid by piece. It had that effect on the coal miners at a very early

date after its enactment.

The demand for higher wages without corresponding increased output was
causing anxiety before the outbreak of war. The inordinate expenditure which
the war brought with it seemed to justify the contention of the workmen that
the claims they had put forward would easily have been met in the past and
must be conceded when things became normal again. It was forgotten that

_ all thought of economic production had ceased. We were living, not on the
_ earnings of the year, but on credit raised on our expectations of the future.

In the past this course was also pursued, but (as has already been pointed out)
_ in very different circumstances, for the capital thus created was calculated to

yield an adequate return to the persons interested.

It is to be feared that the limitations imposed are not appreciated by those
who will be most affected. The Legislature reduces hours from eight to seven in
the coal mines. The miner claims that his earnings shall not suffer. Circum-
stances make it difficult for him to get as much coal in seven hours as in eight
even if he were willing. It is hard to see how we can escape the conclusion that

_ the coal will cost more. The coal owner alleges that he is unable to pay the
_ higher cost except by obtaining a higher price.
4 None of the remedies proposed touches the difficulty. We must obtain a
larger product if we are to have more to divide. Restrictions in output, whether
_ produced by theact of the Legislature, the will of the worker or (let us add)
_ the hindrance of a tariff, will fail to effect this. None of the short cuts now
proposed will lead us to our goal. Can we convince those most deeply interested
of the truth of this? The task is not an easy one, for promises without end
are made to accomplish what is desired without pursuing the patient and laborious
_ ourse which alone can lead to a happy solution. For my part I rely on the
_ common sense of my fellow countrymen. The speedy abolition of all artificial
prices by which we shall get to know the real cost of what we buy will be a
_ great help. We may hope that on this will follow an earnest desire on the part
_ Of all to do their best for the commonweal—convinced that on this intelligent
altruism we are best serving our own ends. A better division of industry would
ensue. The net result would be a happy and contented nation, in which the
efforts of each would be more guided by the common welfare than by the selfish
desire for the advantage of the individual.

244 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Perhaps employers and employed alike will come to see how greatly a strike
or lock-out militates against the true interests of both. Perhaps the employed
will learn that the party in the State to which they belong suffers much more
than any other by these occurrences. Is it too sanguine to hope that, as Pro-
fessor Cannan says, we may drop ‘the notion that trade is a kind of war, whereas
it ought to be regarded as co-operation between friends, none the less friendly
because they bargain and even haggle.’ +

None of these things can be accomplished by Acts of Parliament. Statutory
prices and statutory hours offer no solution—rather increase the evil than lessen
it. There is no Royal Road by which we can travel to a solution. We must by
patience and mutual forbearance seek to alter the present hostile attitude. We
may frankly accept Professor Cannan’s opinion ‘that the economic organisation
of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries will not endure for ever, but will
be gradually replaced by something else more suitable for its own day and
generation.’ 2

Let all parties in the State lend themselves to this change, in which again, to
quote Professor Cannan: ‘Free associations of free men able to go out and
come in as each pleased, would voluntarily give service for service, irrespective
of domicile and nationality.’ This is a change which we may agree with him
in thinking more ‘desirable than any restoration of the feudal system basing
economic organisation on the territory of the lord, even if the personal lord of
the Middle Ages is replaced by a Parliament elected by universal suffrage and
proportional representation.’ °

Pusric EXPENDITURE.

Twelve Weeks before the Armistice.

Period Supply Interest on | Tetal
Ended— | Services | War Debt Expenditure

| £ £ | &
August 24. fs) 40,375,000 708,661 41,473,661
on 33 lees Ba 51,939,848 3,059,437 55,169,201
September 7 . ‘ 44,130,000 813,337 45,098,369
14. 5 50,317,042 845,986 51,526,856
or 21h . 40,670,000 828,506 42,119,686
3 23°. : 42,402,700 2,974,400 | 46,780,500
October 5. : 38,190,000 20,804,188 61,410,931
hy Sioa oe 36,105,554 | 2,904,670 39,729,851
eS LO ys : 49,319,000 2,136,672 51,755,672
55 26. Hee 44,355,000 887,398 45,542,398
November 2 . : 47,575,326 1,218,924 49,104,416
As Sess : 54,569,871 | 926,003 55,806,254

| | |
| 539,949,341 38,108,182 585,517,795
1 Coal Nationalisation, p. 25.

2 Tbhid, 3 hid,

———————— LL CLC

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 945

Twelve Weeks After the Armistice.

Period Supply | Interest on | Total
Ended— Services | War Debt Expenditure
£ | £ £
-November23. 30,250,000 | 16,305,458 46,553,458
a BOR! * 39,413,243 819,929 | 40,428,336
mpeem er 7. |. 42,100,000 49,114,928 91,920,829
LF Tau We 42,459,404 6,322,606 : 49,224,649
ns PAT ian 51,571,000 1,340,988 53,003,201
a las hhe 60,256,704 / 2,705,130 64,517,390
January 4. . | 22,600,000 | 834,265 24,874,084
Pr HA opr gcct 26,141,098 1,098,690 28,294,788
_ 18. .| — 38,000,000 689,592 | 38,960,389
35 25. 0. | 31,847,000 573,109 32,420,109
) February 1. . | 49,914,702 788,404 51,153,272
RPO, Bee) jeer ail, 625,206 *+ | 1,097,589 42,733,265
| 564,083,770
|

The following Papers were then read :

1. The National Alliance of Employers and Employed.
By the Right Hon. F. Huru Jackson.

In the autumn of 1916 a group of three employers and four trade unionists
met to discuss the probable effect which war conditions would have on our
industrial system. These seven men, realising the gravity of the problems
which already were confronting the country, and visualising the still greater
problems which the future had in store, took what was then the somewhat adven-
turous step of initiating a movement whose whole foundation was unity of
effort on, the part of employers and trade unions on a basis of frankness, com-
radeship, and good-will. :

To that small and unpretentious gathering is to be traced, not only the
National Alliance of Employers and Employed, which was the immediate result,
but the whole of the great movement towards co-operative effort which now
promises to remould our industrial life and which recently led to the calling
by the Government of the National Industrial Conference, and the setting up
of the National Joint Industrial Council.

From the commencement we have realised that in industrial development
there could be no middle course. The old enemies, Capital and Labour, had
either to plunge into more bitter and more widespread strife or to discover
@ common ground on which they could get together and for themselves work
out the lines of harmonious progress. In the face of innumerable difficulties,
and in spite of misunderstandings and misrepresentations, the National Alliance
has discovered that common ground, and to-day, in thirty of the most important
industrial districts in the country, Joint Area Committees (on which, as on
the central body, employers and trade unionists are represented in equal num-
bers) are working in harmony and understanding, not only for the peaceful

1919. x

246 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

reorganisation of industry as such, but for the development of higher social
conditions and the raising of the standards of life.

This is just where the work of the National Alliance differs in extent from
that of Whitley Committees, and even from that of the organisation to be
set up in connection with the National Joint Industrial Council. We take
the view that, essential though it may be, it is not sufficient for employers and
employed in any one particular industry to co-operate merely for the improve-
ment of the commercial and the working conditions in that industry. The
wider problem is not solved merely by settling hours of labour, rates of pay,
amounts of output, &c., and leaving such questions as the provision of healthy
home surroundings, educational opportunities, recreational facilities, &c., to
take care of themselves. The machinery of the National Alliance is designed
not only to bring the employers and employed of a given industry together for
the settlement of their own especial problems, but also to link up the employers
and employed of all industries in a particular area in a joint endeavour to
improve the general conditions in that area.

The work which the National Alliance has taken in hand is a great and
difficult one, but on its accomplishment depends the future of our country.
The evil centuries of hatred and struggle between the forces of Capital and
Labour have built high and wide their barriers of antagonism and dark mis-
trust. ‘They cannot be swept away in a day, but the experience of the National
Alliance has shown that on each side there is an increasing number of earnest,
thoughtful, far-seeing men who are realising the errors of the past and who
are willing to join in a great national fellowship for the security of the future.

2. Price-fixing, with special reference to Australian experience.
By the Hon. Sir Cuarnes G. Wang."

The demand for fixing prices has arisen from two causes :—

1, The continuous rise in wages has led to a corresponding addition to the
cost of production and the cost of iiving. This increase in turn ‘has led to
demands for still higher wages; and so a vicious circle is established until at
last the workers have demanded that whilst the right to further increases of
wages shall not be curtailed a limit shall be placed upon the consequent
cost of living.

2. The dislocation, during the war, of manufacture and the means of trans-
port, and the commandeering of material, created a scarcity in certain commodi-
ties. The scarcity led to an increase in prices, and some commodities became
the subject of a monopoly.

Some people claimed that this rise in prices was but temporary, that the
law of supply and demand would eventually adjust the trouble automatically ;
but where a commodity is ‘ cornered ’ this is no answer, and some drastic measure
of control is essential. Hence the claim for compulsory fixing of prices; at
all events whilst the war lasted.

This policy met with some success during the war, but must not be taken
as a guide for peace conditions.

During the war producers were less restive; all classes were animated by
patriotic feelings; werkers made greater efforts, the consumer submitted to
hardships and high prices without much protest. Further, although maximum
prices were fixed yet it is generally believed that they were fixed so ‘high as
to dissuade the profiteer from offering opposition.

What would be the result in peace time where private gain is allowed to
operate ?

1. If the price fixed for any one commodity ceases to be profitable, the
efforts of the producers will be directed into another channel which yields
more gain. ‘hus a real scarcity may be created.

1 See Sir C. G. Wade, ‘Price Fixing by Law,’ in Fortnightly Revie
November, 1919. ene sah ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 247

2. Further, if any one trade is controlled in respect of prices the same rule
must be applied to every link in the chain of production. Otherwise an excessive
price of any one factor may unduly raise the cost of the whole. }

3. Again, investment of capital may be discouraged or capital sunk in
existing operations may be withdrawn and placed on deposit. Thus a scarcity
of commodities will be created.

The flow of capital cannot be controlled or the avenues of production be
maintained on unprofitable lines under conditions of private enterprise.

Logically, the only effective policy is for the State to control the channels
of production and te give orders which must be obeyed by producers. The
State will own material and direct the channel and volume of production.
This involves eventually the State control of all production, for if prices are
fixed in Government-controlled establishments alone trade will be diverted
to establishments that are privately owned.

In the next place, if the State is to avoid a glut in production and a loss
to the taxpayer 2n estimate must be provided of all requirements; but whilst
the total estimate may be stated, the individual, from a variety of causes, may
exceed the maximum production expected from him. This would seem to
involve a further control of each individual’s output, and if applied to one
trade must be applied to all in any way dependent upon it.

Thus we are forced into State Socialism and control of the means of pro-
duction and distribution.

Nationalisation is impracticable. Is such a huge Civil Service possible?
Can production be regulated on sound business lines? Can the management be
freed from political pressure? Will it not lead to inefficiency of labour, reduced
output, higher cost to the people, or losses to be made good by taxation?

The war experience in Great Britain in the direction of State control cannot
be taken as a safe precedent. Experience is against Governmental compulsory
price-fixing. An attempt was made during the French Revolution, but the
result was to divert production to more profitable channels, to create a real
scarcity, and cause privation to the people. In a few years a loud demand was
heard to abandon the policy of fixing prices.

In New South Wales an effort was made in recent years to limit prices in
respect of butter and wheat and hay. But the experience was the same as
during the French Revolution. <A real scarcity was created, and the Govern-
ment was compelled to make good the shortage by purchases from overseas at
a price which was greatly in excess of the maximum previously fixed for the
article.

The true remedy lies in—

1, Public investigation of the costs of and profits from operations which
are suspected of profiteering, by means of a tribunal of investigation with com-
pulsory powers of extracting information and giving full publicity to the
inquiry. Trusts and profiteers abhor the daylight. 'The public would learn who
are the offenders and the fear of exposure would compel all producers to bring
their prices to a figure which can be absolutely justified.

2. If the tribunal reports the prices of a commodity are excessive, this
shall by statute be deemed to be prima facie evidence of an offence, involving a
heavy fine. The defendant would be entitled to acquittal provided he can
show (1) that such figures were not in fact unreasonable, bearing in mind the
claims of workers, employers, and the general public; and (2) that they were
not in fact detrimental to the public.

In this way competition may continue on normal lines. Any attempt to
corner commodities would be countered first of all by public investigation ;
secondly, by public reprobation ; and, thirdly, by heavy penalties if the first two
methods failed. The dangers of trade being diverted would not arise. The
experiments of State Socialism need not be risked.

x 2

248 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Industrial Councils and their Possibilities. By T. B. Jounstow, J.P.

2. Transport Policy. By W. M. Acworru.*

3. The Value of Full and Accurate Statistics as shown under Emergency
Conditions in the Transportation Service in France. By
Lieut.-Col. Sir J. Grorcr Benarrety, D.S.O.

Statistics have played a most important part in all our war activities. The
intensive production, coupled with the highest efficiency, necessitated by war
conditions, enforced the preparation of full and exact information.

Output of material, capacity of works, rate of manufacture, and progress
of the various processes had tc be carefully studied, so that all material
came forward in balanced and adequate quantities. This was especially true
of transportation operations in France. The requirements of the various com-
ponents of track, rolling stock, workshop equipment, and personnel for all
sections of the work had to be forecast and provided a considerable time
ahead.

War conditions precluded the application of the ordinary financial test of
the success of operations, but the shortage of men and material compelled
economy and efficiency.

Transportation in France covered a variety of services :—

The equipment and operation of ports.

The provision and operation of craft for inland water transportation, and
the construction and maintenance of necessary work on canals.

The construction and operation of standard gauge, metre gauge, and
60-centimetre railways.

The construction and maintenance of roads and cours.

The working of quarries.

With operations so diverse, and scattered over such a wide and varying
field, complete supervision by the Director-General of Transportation was only
possible by making the fullest use of the science of statistics.

The exceptional circumstances which prevailed rendered it imperative that
statistics should be prepared quickly and given a wide and judicious circulation.
In spite of the difficulties of communication over the wide area involved, it
was possible to produce, not later than Tuesday evening, preliminary figures
for the week ended midnight on the previous Friday, giving the result of the
working of all services, 7.e. four days for collection and compilation in respect
to services extending from the ports at the base to light railways along the
front. The circulation of statistics is most important; a considerable pro-
portion of the success can be attributed to the interest and spirit of emulation
which they created.

Under the new Transportation organisation the Director-General determined
the kind of transportation to be provided. The General Staff communicated
the plan of campaign, and the Director-General of Transportation decided—
having regard to the available resources of men and material, and the traffic
to be moved—whether new broad-gauge lines and railheads should be con-
structed, what use should be made of canals and whether distribution by
ers lines or lorries should be adopted. There was no hard-and-fast
rule. :

Statistics for each branch of the Service will be considered in some detail.

The following indicates the units of efficiency employed. Figures illustrating
the improvements effected will be quoted.

1 See National Review, October, 1919.

— ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ff. 949

Docks.

Regulation of traflic to avoid congestion of quays, achieved by preparation
of programme showing :—
Tonnage of various traffics to be dealt with.
Proportion of each traffic allocated to each port.
Circulation of weekly statistics showing how allocation had been worked to.

Working of Ports.

Tonnage discharged per hour in port.
Tonnage handled per man per hour.
Ship days lost.

Broad Gauge Railways.
Construction.

Progress diagrams.

Percentage of earthwork and track completed.

Number of men employed.

Comparison with rate of progress essential to completion of work in specified
time.

Operation
Record of rolling stock available.

Traffic working :—
Kilometres per locomotive in steam per day.
Hours per locomotive in steam per day.
Number of loaded wagons per train.
Average haul.
Loaded wagon kilometres per effective personnel employed.
Fuel consumption.

Wagon user :—
Wagons standing under load at depots.
Detention at railhead :—
Time before unloading.
Time occupied in unloading.
Time from completion of discharge to return of train.

Repairs.

Output of shops in relation td personnel employed.
Reduction in percentage of locomotives and wagons out of traffic.

Light Railways.

Construction and Operation.

Length of line.

Men per mile of track maintained.

Tons conveyed.

Ton-miles worked.

Power units in service per route mile.

Wagon units in service per route mile.

Ton-miles per power unit in service per day.

Tons per wagon unit in service per day.

Tons per loaded wagon unit trip.

Average length of loaded wagon trip.

Number of loaded wagon miles per route mile per day.
Loaded wagon miles per effective personnel per day.
Loaded wagon miles per power unit in service per day.
Loaded wagon miles per wagon unit in service per day.
Consumption of fuel.

250 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

Repairs.

Output of shops in relation to personnel employed.
Reduction in percentage of locomotives and wagons out of traffic.

Inland Waterways.

Traffic handled.
‘Ton-miles worked.

Roads.

Total mileage maintained by British Army.
Area of new roads and cours constructed.
Area of existing roads and cours reconstructed.
Area of roads and cours re-surfaced.
Material used and number of men employed.
Plant : percentage under repair.
Working of quarries :—
Total output.
Output of stone per man.
Working of lorries conveying road stone, etc. : Ton-miles per lorry per day.

Personnel Employed.

Percentage skilled, unskilled, and non-effective.

Joint Discussion with Section L on Business in relation to Education.
See Section L, p. 355.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

Joint Meeting with Section I and Subsection of Psychology.
See Section I, p. 308.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report of Committee on Replacement of Men by Women in Industry.

2. Inter-imperial Communications. By Sir Cuarues Bricur.

The war has produced a shortage of communicating links with much tele-
graphic congestion and resultant delays that need to be considered with a view
to remedy.

Moreover, the increased tendency and need of communicating with other
branches of the Empire calls for special and early action in political and trade
interests.

The All-Red Cable Route requires to be rendered a complete reality as soon
as maybe, including a new absolutely British Atlantic Cable and a duplication
of the Imperial Pacific line, with satisfactory independent land line connection
between the two.

It is conceivable that national and imperial interests can only be adequately
provided by the State controlling at least one complete cable to all points ot
the British Empire, supplemented by an All-British Wireless Chain. The whole
should be run at a single and distinctly low imperial tariff, common to all and
independent of distance.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 251

bd

It is considered by the author that inter-imperial communication should be
mainly regarded from the standpoint of

1. Its political value ;

2. For defence purposes; and

3. As a means for developing inter-imperial trade and so helping to increase
production.

We require to note American cable and wireless enterprise in this direction.

‘The recently established Telegraph Communications Board, first urged by the
author seventeen years ago, is intended for generally controlling and developing
inter-imperial telegraphic and aerial communication in national and public in-
terests. By this scheme all of the several Government Departments concerned
(strategic as well as civil) are represented by delegates who meet periodically
to discuss and settle all matters germane to the subject. This should do much
towards improving the previously existing arrangements by which the Post
Office alone represented the Government.

Besides increased cable and wireless facilities being necessary and the war
devastations made good, it is highly desirable that improved methods of mes-
sage condensation be introduced so as to get the best results from existing
facilities. £

The field open to inter-imperial air communication is considerable; air
organisation and air routes are among the important questions of the day, while
the rationing of all aerial mail communications should be insisted upon.

3. The Special Taxation of Business Profils in relation to the Present
Position of National Finance. By Dr. J. C. Sramp, C.B.E.

On the present facts, permanent revenue on the existing basis will fail to
meet the permanent expenditure by a large margin, variously, estimated at from
50 to 150 million pounds, and probably not actually far from the latter figure.
Three alternative ways of meeting this deficit are presented :—(1) A substantial
increase of income and supertax rates; (2) a levy on capital; (3) the taxation of
business profits. The increase in income tax would entail either such rates
on the higher incomes as might seriously hinder the accumulation of capital, or
such a considerable addition to the burden upon working-class incomes as would
make the proposition a serious one from a political point of view. The second
contains such elements of difficulty as to make it probable that it would fail to
commend itself as fair and just to more than a very: small proportion of the
payers—a serious outlook for any impost. Those economists who support it do
so distinctly upon the basis of a commutation of future high rates of income
tax, but the proposal receives its main impetus from those who for themselves
give no guarantee either of non-repetition, or of a relaxation of future taxation,
but rather indicate that they propose to be free to impose high taxation for
new social objects. Moreover, there is a failure to do justice as between people
whose fortunes have changed, and injustices may arise through expedients to
make the tax workable in practice, which so far has been an aspect but super-
ficially dealt with. The levy would fall alike upon well-gotten gains saved up
as the result of pure thrift and the gains of profiteering. It would do nothing

towards taking special toll of profiteering elements in future trading. Just as

graduated taxation reaches the differences of ability to pay according to the
amount of individual income, so something is wanted to search out those classes
of gain which serve no functional purpose in that they are a rental surplus the
taxation of which has no evil effects upon supply. The plea that the stiffer
taxation of higher incomes automatically achieves this is so often invalid as to
be of little worth as a main principle. These gains must be ‘tapped’ higher
up the stream of distribution. The basis of the old Excess Profits Duty was
special ability of businesses measured by their success compared with their own
past history before the war. This endowment of the successful would be unsuit-
able for permanent application. But the method tried in the United States
and Canada, suitably modified, has features of permanent value. It submits

1 See Heonomic Journal, December, 1919,

252, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

businesses to a reasonable and fair general comparison. Graduated gently from
the lower excess above a ‘normal’ rate of interest on capital, it reaches a high
rate upon very high rates of earnings on capital. Thus it does not discourage
trade nor lead specially to evasion. Its practical difficulties are no greater than
those attaching to the rival alternatives. Its basis of principle, though new, is
clear : certain economic units through a fortunate set of circumstances get a
special ‘pull’ which yields supernormal profit, that has a high capacity for
bearing taxation without ill-effects. It is an impersonal faculty, which has
hitherto not been realised as a basis for taxation, in an attempt to reach more
directly the differential non-functional elements in profit and income.

4. The Gold Standard. By R. G. Hawrrny.

The monetary standard regulates the value of the monetary unit, or the
unit for the measurement of debts. The function of the standard is to maintain
the stability of the system of debts based on the unit, that is to say, to ensure
that the unit represents approximately the same command over wealth throughout
the currency of the debt. As the relative values of different kinds of wealth
vary, an ideal standard is not theoretically possible. The gold standard is a
rough and ready solution of the problem by fixing the price of one commodity.
Debts are made payable in gold, or alternatively a paper currency is so regulated
that the monetary unit is in fact equivalent to a prescribed quantity of gold.

In 1914 the gold standard was established nearly everywhere, except in
China. Gold and credit were interchangeable. But this” system has been
destroyed by the war. Excessive creations of paper money and credit have
depreciated the monetary units, have driven gold out of circulation, and have
put an end to the interchangeability of credit and gold. During the war there
has been no world market for gold; now that the market is reviving in America,
whither the superfluous gold displaced from circulation in Europe has flowed,
the value of gold in commodities is found to have fallen heavily. The existence
of large stocks of gold in use as currency, which may be released and flood
the market, is a source of instability in the value of gold. In considering the
future monetary standard, we have to deal both with the depreciation of
existing monetary units in comparison with gold, and with the loss of value
of gold itself.

To restore a depreciated unit to its nominal gold value requires a measure
of deflation. Deflation, which is a reversal of the process of inflation, must
mean a decrease in the aggregate of money incomes. This is effected by a
contraction of credit, and especially by a high rate of interest on short-period
borrowings. A high rate of interest deters traders from holding stocks of
commodities or securities. It hastens sales and retards purchases, and brings
about a fall of prices and a contraction in the volume of credit. The fear of
the consequent depression of trade makes the business community hostile to
any drastic measure of deflation, and unemployment and falling wages are
likely to create further difficulties.

Other methods of re-establishing a gold standard are. frst, the immediate
re-introduction of the old gold unit and the reduction of the current value of
the depreciated paper below its face value, or, secondly, the reduction of the gold
value of the monetary unit below its former nominal value. The first gives rise
to serious difficulties owing to the sudden increase in the burden of debts. Both
methods are open to the imputation that public faith is not kept.

If the use of gold as money is restored either by deflation or by a manipulation
of the currency, the result may be a revival of the former demand for gold,
which would intensify all the difficulties. In particular it would cause grave
embarrassment by increasing the burden of national debts. If the embarrassments
of any country become so severe that its credit system breaks down, the natural
consequence will be a relapse into depreciation, and there may follow a complete
loss of confidence in the paper currency and a disregard of the legal tender laws.
‘The resulting demand for metallic currency would raise the world value of gold
in commodities, and threaten the gold standard elsewhere,

To gain the advantages of an unvarying gold currency unit, the demand for
gold as currency must be kept as steady as possible. If the demand is not to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 253

increase, there must be a great economy in the use of gold as compared with
what prevailed before the war. This can be managed by means of the gold
exchange standard. But there must be some method tor preventing the economy
of gold, which this system makes possible, from further diminishing the currency
demand for gold.

International co-operation is required, and this should be directed to
stabilising the general level of prices as measured by index numbers, and to
regulating the actual amount of note issue in each country. Provided the
financially strong countries are included the international co-operation need not
be universal. It can be started as soon as the Anglo-American exchange can
be brought to par. . 2

5. Royal Commission on the Income Tax. Summary of Evidence
submitted on behalf of the British Association by Sir Epwarp
Brasrook, C.B. (Acting Chairman), and J. E. Auunn, Hon.’ Sec.
of Committees on “Income Tax Reform’ and ‘The Effects of the
War on Credit, Currency and Finance.’

The Committee on War Finance, in its Reports for 1916 and 1917, referred
to Income Tax, and suggested certain improvements directed towards making
it fairer and more productive. But the Committee thought that the question
was too large to be dealt with merely as one among several, and accordingly
appointed a special Sub-Committee :

“To consider and report upon possible amendments to the law relating to
income tax.’

The Sub-Committee prepared and circulated a (Juestionnaire and obtained
opinions in reply from Accountants, Surveyors of Taxes, and others.

The Sub-Committee drew up, in 1918, an Interim Report, a copy of which
was sent to the Chancellor of the Exchequer and the Secretary to the Treasury.
The Committee has not arrived at a final Report, and therefore has not pre-
sented one to the Credit, Currency, and Finance Committee.

We are authorised to submit the following points as those on which there
is a considerable amount of practical agreement in the Sub-Committee :

1. That the Income Tax is the fairest, cheapest, and most productive of all
possible taxes.

2. That the tax requires to be adjusted to the much-increased demand for
Revenue.

3. That it is indefinitely elastic and can be made to produce as much Revenue
as the citizens as a body think justifiable.

4, That if skilfully adjusted to the ‘ability’ of each tax-payer it imposes
little real burden.

5. That a heavy Income Tax has a tendency to lower prices of commodities
in general, just as an inflation of the currency increases them.

6. That a graduated Income Tax, unlike most (if not all) other taxes, makes
for greater equality of spending power.

7. That the symmetry and equity of the tax are marred by ‘steps and
jumps’ at arbitrary points in the scale of graduation.

8. That the tax should be intercepted at the time when the tax-payer receives
his income.

9. That the existing machinery of the tax should be preserved as far as
possible, and that the most useful and inexpensive machine in the tax-collecting
plant—‘ collection at (or through) the source,’ should be preserved and extended.

10. We are inclined to suggest that the tax on salaries, wages, and other
Periodical payments should be deducted by the person making the payments, at
the time of payment.

11. That the employer or paymaster should ‘be made the agent of the Inland
Revenue in collecting the tax, and that he should be given some small remunera-
tion for his trouble.

1 We assume, of: course, the existence of a constitutional Government; a
despotic Government might use the Income Tax as an instrument of oppression.

254 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F.

12. That tax should be deducted at the lowest ‘ earned’ rate from all wages
and smail salaries, and that in the case of regular payments such as wages or
salaries the tax-payer’s abatement and allowances should be taken into account
at the time of deduction.

13. That in the case of ‘unearned’ income, deductions should not be made
at the highest rate as at present, because only a small fraction of tax-payers
are finally liable to pay this rate.

14. That in all arrangements and re-arrangements in connection with Income
Tax the convenience of the tax-payer should be consulted before that of the
tax-collector,

15. That the forms connected with assessment and collection should be stated
in simple language, and that the tax-payer should be treated as a reasonable
citizen who is willing to do his duty to the State when he knows what it is.

16. That no concession which makes a tax fairer should be refused by a
Finance Minister on the ground that ‘he cannot afford it.’

17. That all changes which make a tax system fairer make it more productive
of Revenue.

18. We have considered various scales of graduation, but in the absence of
knowledge as to the resulting produce we are not prepared to make a recom-
mendation.

19. We think that any abatement which may be granted should be granted
on all incomes whatever their amount.

20. The Committee was not unanimous on the question of ‘earned’ and
‘unearned’ incomes, but was inclined to dislike this kind of ‘ differentiation.’
Tn particular we could not see why the income from a man’s own savings should
be treated as ‘unearned.’

The following Paper was taken as read in the unavoidable absence of the
author :—

6. Unemployment in Eastern Canada. By G. BK. Jacxson.

1. Ignorance of Canadian labour problems has in the past caused much avoid-
able distress. ‘Seasonal changes in climate disturb industry in Canada far more
than in England; and Canadian business, organised with a view to progressive
expansion, as more labour and capital enter the country, may be dislocated
when expansion ceases suddenly.

2. Lines of development have been decided partly by the tariff, but are not
consciously moulded otherwise. The tariff has stimulated city growth. Immi-
grant farmers have also congregated in the cities, which before the war were
considered disproportionately large.

3. Municipalities have attempted the relief of distress on no fixed principle,
and in proportion as they give adequate relief attract from other cities their
least desirable poor. Each is therefore tempted to shirk the recurring problem
by passing on to cities in the neighbourhood its penniless unemployed non-
residents. In times of stagnant trade the lot of recent immigrants is especially
hard.

4. It was found that the proportion of unemployment among manufacturing
operatives in Ontario, during the first half of 1914, was little less than 11%,
and that the first effect of the war was a further decline in employment.

5. Decisive figures for mines and transportation agencies were not then
secured ; but the Federal Government now publishes a weekly statistical report
on changes in the labour market, of considerable value.

6. Only recently has the State attempted organisation of the labour market.
Till 1916 the foreign-born labourer was alternately helped and victimised by
private employment agencies. Employment vs often found for skilled artisans
by their trade unions. i

7. Since 1916 the Provincial Governments have instituted public employment
agencies. Subsidies are paid by the Dominior Government, which co-ordinates
exchanges by means of clearing houses.

8. Organised labour has refrained in Eastern Canada from encouraging revo-
lutionary social changes. At one time suspicious of attempts by Provincial

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 255

Governments to maintain employment exchanges, now it endorses their accom-
plishment. It has for years condemned the private employment agencies, and
is calling for their suppression.

‘9. Consistently believing that much unemployment in Canada results from
disproportionate city growth, organised labour has also called for the State
encouragement of land settlement, with financial aid and training. Recent
federal legislation is in accord with these demands.

10. Although trade unions refuse to tolerate the coming of Asiatic labour,
there is scant evidence of hostility to European immigration, on the ground that
it causes unemployment. Nor is the view prevalent that it threatens the
standard of life of Canadian workers. Circumstances have altered so as largely
to invalidate the premises on which Walker built his famous argument.

11. Meanwhile, attention is directed in detail to methods of selecting and
assimilating immigrants. This is no longer a domestic, but has become an
Imperial problem, in which, however, Canada finds her freedom of action limited
by the practical need of conforming to certain changes in American policy.

12. The breathing space afforded by the war has enabled the Dominion
to strengthen its immigration service. Nevertheless, the great burden of un-
employment will fall on immigrants for many years to come.

256 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Ge

Srction G.—ENGINEERING.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTion.—Professor J. E. Peraven, D.Sc., F.R.S.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
'’he President delivered the following Address :—

During the last five years every resource of the Empire, moral, intellectual,
and material, has been concentrated on one great task, now successfully achieved ;
and the present period marks the end of a gigantic military struggle and the
beginning of a new social eva.

I.—Lngineering and Science during the War.

To summarise adequately the part played by engineering in the war would
constitute a task far beyond the power of the writer or the scope of the present
address. Now, as in the past, the fate of nations in war or peace is primarily
determined by moral, intellectual, and physical attributes; but, under modern
conditions, these forces can find efficient application, only through the agency
of science and engineering.

A large army depends for its subsistence and equipment on the combined
effort of every branch of human activity ; and every productive industry, when
organised on a large scale, is in turn dependent upon the engineer.

Before the end of the war this country had become transformed into one
vast factory, every department of which required the services of trained engi-
neers. Every member of this section has contributed his own share to the task,
and our programme includes papers giving detailed accounts of several branches
of the work.

It is fitting, therefore, that I should restrict myself to a mere outline of
some of the more outstanding facts :—

The urgent necessity for an output of munitions vastly in excess of any
previous production made centralisation and standardisation essential, and
involved a complete revolution in workshop practice. The Ministry of Munitions
was responsible for the formation of the required organisations, and guidea
the transformation of industrial conditions, and, when the dilution of skilled
labour became inevitable, the technical engineer designed the machinery and
devised the methods which made efficient work possible.

‘Credit is due to the Unions for the concessions made; greater credit to the
women for their enthusiastic response to the call and the steady output they
maintained.

Munitions.—The Ministry of Munitions was created in May 1915, its early
efforts being concentrated on the production of guns and shells. A year later
the Ministry was in a position to meet the ever-increasing demands of the Army,
and by 1918 a large reserve of munitions had been established, the expenditure
being limited only by difficulties of transport at the Front. The maximum
expenditure of ammunition was reached one day in October of that year, when
900,000 shells, weighing 40,000 tons, were fired. The totial number of guns

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 257

manufactured during the war was 20,000, and over 200,000 machine guns had
been delivered by November 1918.

The Ministry of Munitions took charge also of the production of aircraft,
which were ultimately turned out at the rate of 4,000 per month; later the
provision of motor transport was in addition placed under its control. Finally,
our production of ‘ poison gas,’ for which this Ministry was responsible, rose
during the last few months of the war to several thousand tons a month, sufficient
to make the Germans rue the day on which they had introduced this weapon
into warfare.

Among the inventions which have had an influence on military operations I
will mention only three as typical of three distinct classes :

Tanks were first used in 1916, and the results produced were greatly enhanced
by the surprise created, and consequent moral effect, but the idea of an armoured
chariot is as cld as organised warfare. The problem of constructing a vehicle
which could travel across the trackless and shell-pitted district which extended
between the two armies remained to be solved. In the light of the experiénce
gained with various types of tractors it was, however, clearly not insoluble, and
credit is due to the man who had the courage to hazard a novel and important
experiment. The resulting tank was the product of careful design and experi-
ment, and the outcome of the co-operation of several engineers with special
knowledge. Sound-ranging introduced the complex methods and delicate instru-
ments of physical research into the trenches, and, against all precedents, proved
them to be reliable and practical under the most adverse conditions. The
Stokes gun, on the other hand, superseded all other trench mortars by simplicity
of design of manufacture and convenience in handling ; 20,000 of these guns were
used during the war.

Transport.—On *August 4, 1914, the Government assumed control of the
railway systems in this country, but the working and management was left in the
hands of the railway officials, and to them is due the smooth working of the lines
during a long period of exceptional difficulty. British engineers, civil or military,
have been responsible for the transport through France, and during the last two
years of the war large numbers of engines were sent across the Channel and
miles of track was taken up in England and relaid in France. Road transport
was organised on an unprecedented scale, and 100,000 new vehicles were de-
livered. A network of narrow-gauge railways was carried right up to the
‘trenches, and numerous new roads, railway lines, and bridges constructed. Rail-
way construction formed an important factor in connection with the advances
in Messpotamia and Palestine; in the latter case the entire water supply had
for : long period to be drawn from the Egyptian base through a specially laid
pipe-line.

In France and elsewhere the armies were primarily dependent upon sea
transport for their food and equipment. This service, organised by the Navy.
culminated in the unique effort which brought American troops at the rate of
300,000 per month, and thus overbore the balance which for four years had
been oscillating between defeat and victory.

Among the notable new departures the cross Channel train ferry and the
portable steel bridges, principally of the Inglis type, should be specially
mentioned,

Navy.—At the outbreak of war the Navy was ill-prepared with regard to anti-
submarine defence and mining. The influence of the submarine on naval warfare
had been under-estimated, and mines were regarded as a somewhat discreditable
means of destruction ; but during 1915 the depth-charge and the Paravane were
developed by the naval experimental department at Portsmouth, and later
thousands of these were brought into use. In principle the depth charge consists
of a canister containing a large charge of explosive and a pistol actuated by an
hydrostatic valve. The merit of the invention resides in the simplicity, safety,
‘and reliability of the mechanism. In designing the Paravane the body was
borrowed from a torpedo, and wings, rudder, and elevator from an aeroplane.
The secret of the device lies in the stabilising mechanism, which enables it to
keep its position when the ship is running at high speeds. The Paravane enabled
most ships to pass unscathed through a mine-field, and in a slightly modified
form it served to seek out and destroy submarines under the water. —

Sound location proved to be one of the most valuable inventions developed

258 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

by the Board of Invention and Research. By its means the position
of a submarine explosion off the coast of Belgium could be found within a few
hundred yards by observers on the English coast; passing ships or submarines
could also be identified and located. Sound locators were also used on board
anti-submarine craft, but at the time of the armistice were for this purpose
being superseded by other methods.

Mine construction, laying and sweeping formed the object of many successive
improvements. Mines of special construction, which cannot be swept by ordinary
means and which explode without actual contact, were used in large numbers in
1918, and were particularly effective against submarines. Various new types
of oscillating mines were also developed.

Many of the newer fighting units of the Navy were designed for speeds far
in excess of anything that had been previcusly contemplated; the attainment
of the required horse-power was rendered possible by improvements in boiler
construction, by the development of oil-firing, and by the invention of the geared
turbine. ‘At the present time the horse-power of some of the fastest destroyers
equals that of any pre-war Dreadnought.

Numbers of strange craft were designed for special purposes. The monitor
was used as a floating fortress, and ships without funnels or masts formed
cruising aerodremes. The torpedo net was known to be ineffective as well as
inconvenient, but some years elapsed before ships were rendered immune to
torpedo attacks by a wide outer sheaf of resilient construction. Some protection
was first given to mine-sweepers by fitting the vessels with a false prow; the
newer mine-sweepers were rendered nearly unsinkable by the provision of
numerous bulkheads. The submarine was developed with regard to size, range,
and speed. The latest and perhaps the strangest craft was the submarine fitted
with a heavy calibre gun which could be fired when all but the muzzle was
submerged.

Aircraft.—The rapid progress and expansion of aeronautical science and
construction is perhaps the most remarkable achievement of engineering during
the war.

In 1909 Blériot flew the Channel. In 1910 Cody won the British Michelin
Oup by a flight of 185 miles. The Royal Flying Corps was formed in 1912,
and it was decided that the equipment should consist of seventy-two aeroplanes
and two airships. The number of aeroplanes available in 1914 was under 200;
the number ultimately required proved to be more than 3,000 per month. The
aeroplanes which were sent out with the Expeditionary Force in 1914 had a
maximum speed of some 80 miles per hour, a rate of climb at ground level of
300 or 400 ft. per minute ; they were equipped with engines of 60 to 100 horse-
power. Jn 1918 the fast machine had a maximum speed of 140 miles per hour, a
rate of climb at ground level of 2,000 ft. per minute; single-seaters were fitted
with engines of 200 to 300 horse-power, and the largest machines were equipped
with a power plant developing ovér 1,300 horse-power. The maximum heigh*
attainable had increased from 5,000 to 25,000 ft.

The Atlantic flight has given the measure of the success achieved in the
design of long-range bombing machines. Two types were evolved: the fast
day bomber, capable of carrying a useful load of about 3,000 Ib. at a speed of
130 miles an hour, and the night homber with a larger load and slower speed.
The largest aeroplane manufactured in numbers was the Handley Page V/1500,
with a weight of 11 tons and a power plant of 1,300 horse-power. Three days
before the armistice two of these machines stood fully equinped waiting for the
order to start for Berlin. The largest bombs in use weighed over a ton, and
during the war 8.000 tons of exvlosives were dropped on the enemy. The
experience which they had gained in the construction of the high-powered engines
required for airship work proved to be a valuable asset for the Germans. Initially
also their rate of production, both of aeroplanes and engines, was far superior
to ours, and, faced with the menace of otherwise being for a period deprived of
machines, we were bound to continue the use of certain standardised types
lonver than was desirable.

The lahonr difficnltv was overcome by the introduction of a large proportion
of female labour, which proved to be very suitable for aeroplane manufacture,
and especially for wing construction. The bulk production of aero-engines pre-
sented grave difficulties. Every part had to be made to close limits so as to

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 259

be interchangeable, and it was necessary to maintain the highest quality with
the minimum amount of skilled labour. For a period the supply of magnetos
was both inadequate and unsatisfactory. The Germans had acquired practically
a monopoly in this direction, and it became essential for us to build up a new
industry on the results of careful research and experiment. The fact that under
these circumstances a total of eight million horse-power was produced during the
last twelve months of the war represents one of the greatest achievements ot
engineering organisation.

Synchronised gun firing through the propeller was first brought into use by
the enemy, and the success of the Fokker was due, not to superior design, but
to this characteristic armament and to the relatively high engine power. On the
other hand, throughout the war the only stable machines were British. For
observation work, night flying, and flight in fog and cloud the advantages of
a stable machine are obvious. On the other hand, instability, inasmuch as it
favours rapid and unexpected manceuvres, was for a time regarded as an advan-
tage in aerial fighting, but later experience proved that a well-designed aeroplane
could be made stable and yet remain quick and light on the controls.

Seaworthiness, no less than air-worthiness, is required of the seaplane, and
this implies a machine of considerable size and weight. Most of the best sea-
planes in use in 1918 had a total weight of four or five tons each, a speed of nearly
100 miles, and engines of about 700 horse-power.

The machines used by the special aeroplane ships were principally small fast
scouts, but one type was of sufficient size to carry an 18 in. torpedo. In 19i8
seventy aeroplanes were carried by the fleet as part of the regular equipment.

Airships proved to be of great importance in connection with naval work.
The smaller non-rigids were used for patrol duty along the coast and convoy
service, and by their means a submarine could be detected and attacked while
still at a considerable distance below the surface. The success achieved was
extensive, and ships convoyed by airships were practically immune from sub-
marine attack. The larger non-rigids served as scouts in naval operations.

The SSZ had a speed of 50 miles and a gross lift of about 2 tons; the North
Sea type a lift of 11 tons and a speed of 60 miles.

Compared with the achievements in other directions the record of British
work in connection with the development of rigid airships is not entirely satis-
factory. In this field, where consistent policy and firmness of purpose were
essential, the Admiralty vacillated strangely. The May-fly, constructed at
Barrow in 1910, was admittedly an experiment, and although an accident ended
her career after the first few mooring tests, she had already served her purpose
in providing the experience and data necessary for a more perfect construction.
Nothing further was dene, however, until after the war had started.

In Germany, on the other hand, painstaking plodding had built up success
on the ruins of a dozen failures.

Improvements in the rate of climb of aeroplanes and the invention of the
incendiary bullet brought an end to the effectiveness of the Zeppelin as a bomber,

_ but as a scout in long range naval operations its influence remained considerable,

and the recent successful journey of R34 indicates the possibilities of the rigid

_ airship in times of peace. The useful load increases rapidly with size, and a

_ ship 15 per cent. larger than R34 in linear dimensions could have carried

_ 100 people to America.

What is popularly known as an invention, or an idea of revolutionary im-

_ portance emanating from one person, has played relatively little part in the

°

_ gation and to the combined effort of many scientific workers, trained designers,

recent development of aeronautics. Success has been due to systematic investi-

andl practical constructors. With some exceptions the same holds true in the
case of engine construction, Inventions there have been, 8,000 are duly recorded

in the files of the Air Inventions Committee, but equipment and armament and
_ aceessories appear to have offered most scope for brilliant new departures.
____ Several inventions notably influenced the course of the war. 'The successful

_ manufacture of incendiary bullets put an end to the Zeppelin raids, tracer bullets
_ increased the accuracy of aim, and synchronising gear made it possible to fire
_ through the propeller at the rate of nearly 1,000 rounds per minute. A satisfac-
_ tory self-sealing petrol tank was manufactured after many unsuccessful attempts,

and greatly diminished the risk of fire. Much ingenuity was displayed in con-

260 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

nection with komb sighting and navigational instruments. Wireless telephone
and directional wireless were introduced. A reliable turn indicator and im-
proved compass made accurate navigation through clouds possible. Armoured
aeroplanes were constructed ; special machines were also designed for carrying
37 mm. quick-firing guns for use at the Front and against submarines; these
guns fired a 14 lb. high explosive shell.

The increased efficiency of the anti-aircraft artillery and the high rate of
climb of the defending machines put a check on daylight aeroplane raids, while
at night and in mist both searchlights and guns could be trained on the enemy
even if invisible by means of sound directors. A screen of kite-balloons sup-
porting nets formed part of the night defences of London, and justified its
existence by the moral effect produced on the enemy pilcts.

The use of airships near the fighting zone or within reach of enemy aeroplanes
was impossible owing to the inflammable nature of the gas they contained, and
in spite of all precautions the loss in kite-balloons was serious. The proposal to
replace the hydrogen by helium came from a member of the Board of Invention
and Research, and in 1915 experiments were started with a view to the ultimate
production of several million cubic feet per month. The boldness of the idea
is best emphasised by the fact that at that time it took weeks to obtain the few
cubic inckes of gas required for the preliminary permeability tests. Progress
was accelerated when America came into the war, and at the time of the
armistice a supply of 350,000 cubic feet per week was ensured.

The above outline of engineering activities during the war is both incomplete
and imperfect. It may, however, serve to emphasise and illustrate the two
features which characterised the period and made victory possible.

The first is: Large production, obtained by organisation, standardisation,
and co-operation.

The second is: Rapid progress resulting from the stimulus to research and
invention and the immediate application of the results obtained.

The required organisation did not arise as a natural development of the pre-
war industrial activity : it was called into being by dire necessity and applied
with grim determination. Before the war the British nation was anti-militarist,
non-scientific, and strongly individualistic. To achieve victory the nation
accepted universal conscription, and submitted to the mixture of Socialism and
tyranny which necessity dictated. Under extreme pressure, scientific knowledge,
technical skill, industrial ability, military and naval experience welded into a
homogeneous and efficient organisation.

It is easy to disparage the effort or to point to defects, large or small, which
tarnish the record. but the fact remains that, whereas in 1914 we were inferior to
the enemy in every military asset except moral courage, in 1918 victory came as
the result of mastery in practically all the thousand factors on which modern
warfare depends.

The organisation involved the direct control of food, every essential raw
material, shipping, and transport; further, under the cloak of various euphem-
isms, it involved the indirect control of all available capital and labour. The
capitalist was granted the privilege of receiving and paying the interest on the
money required. High wages and the Military Conscription Act ensured an
adequate supply of labour in the factories. And these things came to pass, not
by tyrannical order of an all-powerful Government, but by the force of a great
idea working within the nation.

TI.—Industrial and Economic Reconstruction.

The peace declaration is the opening of a new act in the world’s greatest
drama, and the events of the next few years will decide the fate of many
generations. The future is always the logical sequence of the past; it is the
present which gives direction to the forces which are acting in virtue of the
ideals which are operative. The world is emerging from a furnace, and the
rigid constitution of civilisation, for a moment plastic, will harden in the
mould we form. It is, therefore, the duty of each one of us to attempt to
understand the transformation which is going on, and influence it in the right
direction.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 261

The principal feature of the day is the insistent craving for better and
easier conditions of life; in popular language this is quite inaccurately expressed
by a demand for higher wages and less work. The two aims are far from
identical ; in fact, a little consideration will show that in some respects they
are contradictory. ‘ f

he total remuneration received by a nation is measured by its production,
and this law cannot be alterated or affected by legislation or revolution. On
the other hand, the share received by a class or an individual is capable of
adjustment within certain limits. Thus any class may increase its remuneration
either by increasing the total production or by decreasing the remuneration
received by the other classes. The capitalist who corners wheat, and the miner
who corners coal, are examples of the latter method. No such limitations exist,
however, with regard to the face value of the wages paid; by Act of Parliament
all wages might be increased arbitrarily twentyfold, but as a result the cost
of living would rise in a similar ratio.

Inealculable harm has been done by ignorance and wilful misrepresentation.
During a generation the working classes have been told, and have firmly believed,
that they receive but a tithe of the value of their work, and that the bulk goes
to swell the fortune of the capitalistic class. The actual facts so far as engineer-
ing is concerned will be found in the address of my predecessor in this chair.
On an average in pre-war days the share of the capitalist was one-ninth that
of the workman. The actual position with regard to coal is now known to all.
For each ton raised 19s. 54d. goes for labour and a total of 2s. is paid as
royalties, owners’ profits, and owners’ compensation. It is obvious that the
13s. rise in the miner’s wages cannot be paid out of profits and royalties
amounting to a total of 2s., but the miner, who has been brought up to believe
in the fabulous profits of the wicked duke, is quite ready to strike against the
owners, the Government, and the laws of arithmetic.

These facts, though clearly established, are not easily credited by the working
man; he may have received a penny for what he considers is the manufacture
of an article and sees it selling for a shilling in a shop. He forgets that the
+ price must include, not only his wage, but that of the men in the mine, the
smelting works, and the rolling mill, who provided the material in the shape
required, the wages of the men who built the factory in which he works and
made the machine he uses, the wages of transport workers, packers, shop assis-
tants, advertising agents, printer, papermakers, etc., and that, finally, some
minute fraction of a farthing might with justice be allotted to the engineer
who designed the machine or invented the process. The general position, though
similar, cannot, unfortunately, be followed so closely ; the limitations, however,
are clear. The income of the United Kingdom per head of the population was
before the war about 50/. If, therefore. the State were run on completely com-
munistic lines, and if under these conditions there were no reduction either in
the working hours or the output our wages would average a sovereign a week
each, and we could buy our goods at pre-war prices.1
_ The above considerations indicate that a real improvement in material welfare
is necessarily associated with increased production. The needs of mankind are
many, its desires are unlimited, and for this reason general over-production need
never arise. Many circumstances may, however, lead to uneven balance, and
unfortunately, when this occurs, the producers of the commodity which is in
excess are penalised, and those responsible for a deficiency are rewarded. The
instability is fostered and increased by speculation, and, although it forms the
most powerful check on national prosperity, no serious effort has yet been made
to apply a remedy.

I am inclined to think that two of the most important problems of our time
relate to economic balance and increased production. The solution in the former
case is dependent on the statesman, the economist, and the business man, in the
latter on the combined efforts of various branches of applied science, and more
especially on engineering.

At one time production was directly dependent on muscular effort; it is now
mainly influenced by equipment, organisation, and skill. Increased production

; 1 This statement is optimistic in so far as it does not take account of war
losses.

1919. y

262 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

does not necessarily imply harder work or longer hours; it can be secured by
improvements in method and machinery, but only with the willing co-operation
of all concerned.

Before the war the Americans were far ahead of us in standardisation and
specialised machinery. The American clock and the Ford car are two well-known
examples. During the war we adopted and developed these methods. As a
result, although the cost of all materials increased considerably, although the
wages more than doubled and the profits were more than adequate, the cost was
in many cases reduced. Thus the eighteen pounder shell fell from 22s. to 12s.,
the Lewis gun from 165/. to 627. The importance of standardisation has been
fully realised by the manufacturers of this country, and as a result we may
hope to see a general reduction in cost.

The economic value of an individual depends exclusively on the nature,
quality, and quantity of his output, and his remuneration should correspond to
his economic value. The rule is simple, its application would solve most of the
problems which vex the present generation, but no scheme has yet been evolved
to make its application possible.

There can be no doubt that in this respect our present system is a complete
failure. It has been built up casually in the course of the industrial warfare
of the last twenty years, and each side, regardless of consequences, has entrenched
itself in any position won. The result is a system nearly perfect from the
point of view of offence and defence, well arranged for mutual destruction, but,
like the trenches in France, unsuitable for use in time of peace.

The minimum wage is beneficial in so far as it prevénts sweating, but in two
other respects its consequences are most unfortunate. Under the operation of
this rule the man whose value is a fraction below the minimum is unemployed and
economically unemployable. Further, the minimum wage becomes the standard
wage, and the better men are inadequately paid. Both causes lead to decreased
production. The weaker or less skilful men drift into enforced idleness, and
become a charge to the community under the heading of charity, poor-law, or
some newly invented euphemism. The better men, finding extra effort uncom-
pensated, drop to an ever-decreasing minimum. Small output is in most cases «
the result of inadequate incentive rather than active restriction. Promotion by
seniority is an example of a similar cause, producing similar effects in other
classes of the community,

Among the professional and business classes the remuneration is proportional
to the skill and to the effort; a barrister, an engineer, or a merchant has neither
minimum wage nor fixed maximum output, and, the vagaries of chance excepted,
generally speaking gets what he is worth. At the two extremes stand riches
and starvation, and the economic world can offer no stronger motive forces than
the allurements of the one, the fear of the other. There is no absolute reason
why the working man should not be offered the same incentives to hard work
and progress, but up to the present most. efforts have tended in the opposite
direction. Any form of payment by result is viewed with indifference or distrust
by the Unions, and past experience with piece work explains that attitude.
There has been a disposition for employers to make large individual earnings an
excuse for cutting rates. Errors in rate fixing may easily arise, and in certain
cases special investigation might be necessary, but the advantages of high indi-
vidual production are so great to both employer and employed that in all cases
of doubt the higher rate should be maintained. In this connection the method
of time-study first developed by Taylor in America and the various systems of
payment by results which have been successfully applied deserve careful
consideration.

Another important but difficult subject is the distinction drawn between
skilled and unskilled labour. The experience gained during the war has proved
that many operations scheduled as skilled work could be effectively performed
by women who had only received a few weeks’ special instruction. The oft-
repeated demand for equal opportunity for all becomes a senseless parrot cry if
it does not imply that an individual has the right to undertake better remunerated
work if qualified to do so. It is a misconception which leads the skilled worker
to believe that such a concession would reduce his earnings. Just as it is clear
that if labourers and skilled men were grouped together at a uniform wage, that
wage would necessarily be lower than the present mini:num for skilled work,

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 263

so also the separation of tasks which require but a nominal period of training
would increase the rate of remuneration available for the really skilled man.

I have drawn attention to some of the difficulties which must be solved if
the country is to emerge from the present crisis prosperous or even solvent.
There is little doubt that an elucidation is possible, but it can only be evolved
by the honest and intelligent collaboration of all parties concerned, a task
rendered difficult or impossible by mutual distrust and class hatred. Class
differences there are, and always will be; they exist as the result of breeding,
education, and environment, but they do not extend to the fundamental
characteristics of humanity. Many dukes and many miners are lazy; most
capitalists and most trade unionists are greedy ; all men, with a few exceptions,
are selfish. The war has shown that lazy, greedy, and selfish men will die
or even work for their country in a great exigency, but there is a limit to and
a reaction after any profound emotional stimulus, and the present unrest and
dissatisfaction are but normal symptoms. A satisfactory economic system can
only be based on natural human impulses, and of these the most fundamental
is self-preservation, or, more generally, self-interest. Increased production is
at the present moment the most pressing national need, but it will become
effective only when for every man increased production becomes the talisman
by which /is paper wages can be turned to gold.

The following Report was then received :—
Report on Complex Stress Distribution.—See Reports, p. 465.

In the afternoon a Sectional Visit was paid to the Tramways Generating
Station.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Account of the British Tanks used in the War.
By Sir Eustace Tennyson D’Eyncourt, K.C.B.*

The paper began with a brief account of the earlier history of tanks and
inventions leading up to the idea of the use of tanks.

It then showed how, owing to the fact that the war had become one of
position, it became necessary to devise some means of breaking through the
enemy lines, and the idea of machines which could cross trenches and destroy
machine-gun positions and other defences presented itself very strongly to
many who were thinking of the tactics to be devised with this in view.

The use of armoured cars by the Royal Naval Air Service led some officers
of that Service to bring the matter before the First Lord of the Admiralty,
Mr. Churchill, who took up the idea and established a Landship Committee at
the Admiralty to investigate the question of building landships.

The Committee carried out many experiments, some with tractors of agricul-
tural type obtained from the United States and other devices which finally
led to the War Office laying down certain requirements which had to be
embodied in the design of a machine-gun destroyer.

The design was worked out concurrently with other experiments, and finally
“Mother Tank’ was built to fulfil the War Office requirements, and went

etails. eee rh > det Bebra aad + Giidsd eeee
Mention was made of the actions in which the different tanks were used,

1 See Lngineering, Sept. 12, 1919, p. 334.
x 2

964 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

and reference was made to the anti-tank devices used by the enemy. Reference
was also made to the tanks made by the French, and also to the few that were
made by the Germans as a reply. :

There was a section referring to the tactics of tanks and general considera-
tions from a tactical and strategical point of view. hos J

The paper concluded with a reference to the fact that the British engineers
were able to introduce a new engine of war in advance of anything which the
enemy had been able to devise, and that in this advance British engineers
kept ahead to the end of the war, the importance of maintaining this position
being emphasised.

2. Portable Military Bridges. By Professor C. E. Ineuts.*

3. Development of Geared Turbines for the Propulsion of Ships.
By RB. J. WaALKER.®

Although the successful application of the steam turbine to marine propulsion
dates back to the year 1897, when Sir Charles Parsons demonstrated in that
now historical vessel, the Z'urbinia, the great advantages of the turbine system
when applied to the propulsion of ships, it is only within the last few years
that mechanical gearing has been largely adopted in association with steam
turbines.

The author dealt with the application of the steam turbine when directly
connected to the propeller shaft both in war and mercantile vessels of high
and moderate speeds.

The chief governing factors in marine steam turbine design are those of
economy, weight, and first cost, and it was found in actual practice that the
problem of applying the turbine direct to the propeller was satisfactorily solved
to fulfil these conditions for vessels of about 18-knots speed and upwards.

Up to the year 1909 the steam turbine had not been applied to vessels of
slow and intermediate speeds, with the exception, in a few instances, of the
combination of reciprocating engines with a low-pressure turbine.

In view of the success obtained by Dr. De Laval, of Stockholm, with helical
gearing in connection with his turbine for land purposes for powers up to about
600 b.h.p., Sir Charles Parsons decided to test turbines mechanically geared
to the screw shaft in a typical cargo vessel, and in 1901 experiments were
carried out, the results of which fully demonstrated the suitability of mechanical
gearing for the propulsion of ships.

Several forms of gearing have been proposed, such as electrical, hydraulic,
and mechanical. Electrical and hydraulic transmission gears have been fitted
in a few ships, but the greater majority have been fitted with mechanical
gearing.

Although gearing was primarily introduced to widen the field of operation
of the turbine by its adoption for vessels of low speed, it was quickly recog-
nised that increased efficiency in fast vessels could be obtained by means of
reduction gearing.

The author referred to the progress that has been made in the application
of mechanical gearing for both war and merchant ships, and the advantages
that have accrued by its adoption. Vessels have been put into commis-
sion with installations of geared turbines of 100,000 horse-power each,
the horse-power actually transmitted through a single gear being 25,000, and
the power through a single pinion reaching 15,500 shaft-horse-power.

At the present time the total number of vessels with. geared turbines for
war and commercial vessels built and under construction is 818, corresponding
to a total shaft-horse-power of sixteen millions.

The increased efficiency that has been effected since the earlier days of the
sieam turbine; the measures taken to produce quiet running gears; the advance

2 See Engineering, Sept. 26, 1919, p. 408.
3 See Znginecring, Sept. 19, 1919, p. 386.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 965

made in the design of gears; the introduction of double reduction gears; main-
tenance of efficiency and economy under long continued service as the result
of actual experience; and the application of geared turbines for land purposes
were all dealt with by the author.

In the afternoon a Sectional Visit was paid to Christchurch R.E. Training
Camp, when a demonstration of bridge-construction was given.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Airships. By Wing-Commander T. R. Cave-Browne-Cave, C.B.E.1

‘The paper is intended to set out the present difficulties in development
and the lines along which future research is required.

The principal diflicuty experienced with the use of airships in trop‘cal
climates is the deterioration of the strength and gastightness of the fabric
under the action of light. The gastightness of the bags of a rigid ship is
obtained by goldbeater’s skin, the supply of which is very limited, and a
substitute of equal gastightness and low weight is badly wanted.

An important function of the outer cover of a rigid ship is to reflect as
much as possible of the light and heat which falls upon it. This is necessary
in order to reduce the superheating of the gas to a temperature above that
of the surrounding air, thereby causing a false lift, which decreases as soon
as the intensity oi radiant heat is reduced.

‘he reinforcement of non-rigid envelopes is discussed. It is suggested that
fabric, which is usually of equal strength in both warp and weft directions,
shou.d be reinforced by circumferential bands of string tape, wh-ch will supply
the excess of the circumferential tension over the longitudinal tension.

Attention is drawn to the relative unimportance of permeability to hydro-
gen as compared with ability to resist the passage of air into the gas space,
as air wh-ch has leaked in can only be eliminated by the discharge of large
quantities of gas.

The importance of being able to take weight into the ship during flight to
compensate for superheating or for petrol consumed is discussed.

mxperiments nave been made in using hydrogen as supplementary fuel.
It is found that tne use of hydrogen alone causes excessive detonation, but by
suitably proportioning the mixtures of hydrogen and petrol, sat-sfactory
_Tunning can be obtained, and very considerable economy of fuel achieved.

Attention is drawn to the much greater relative importance of fuel economy
than engine weight, which obtains in an airship by reason of the much greater
duration of flight. The need of accessibility and ease of repair during flight
are discussed, and also various minor aspects in which the ideal airship
engine differs from that of the aeroplane.

Dhe desirability of having a propeller of variable pitch and one capable
of sufficient variation to produce reverse thrust is discussed.

Attention is arawn to the necessity of obtaining some method of deter-
Mining the height of an airship by means other than barometric pressure, so
that the reading of the barometer at a point on the ground below the airship
can be taken for meteorological purposes.

Attention is drawn to the improved ratio of weight carried to fuel expended,
which results from increased size. It is shown that the limitation to the
Size of a rigid airship is set by the diameter of cross-section, which is pos-
sible in view of the lateral pressure of the gasbags when unequally inflated.
4n the case of a non-rigid ship without effective transverse bulkheads, the

1 See Hngineering, Sept. 12, 1919, p. 356.

266 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

limitation to size is probably set by the accumulation of pressure at the upper
end of a long ship when at a considerable angle of pitch.

It is shown that a non-rigid ship of 500,000 cubic feet capacity and a
rigid ship of 2,000,000 cubic feet capacity are each capable of carrying a
useful weight equal to about 50 per cent. of their displacement. The relatively
high ratio in the case of non-rigid ships renders it most desirable that ships
of this type should be developed and considered where the loads to be
carried and the distances to be covered are not so great as to render the more
expensive rigid construction necessary.

Particulars are given of the recent success obtained in mooring out a
rigid airship to a mast. She remained for three weeks in charge of watches,
each consisting of one N.C.O. and five men, and experienced gusts up to
43 m.p.h., very heavy rain, bright sunshine, and several thunderstorms,
including one of exceptional violence. This development is one of the greatest
importance, as it materially reduces the difficulties of landing and handling
an airship.

2. The Scientific Progress of Aviation during the War.
By L. Bairstow, F.B.S.?

At the beginning of the war aeroplanes had a maximum speed of 85 to
90 m.p.h., and were capable of climbing to a height of 10,000 ft. At the end
the greatest speed was over 130 m.p.h., and the greatest height reached over
25,000 ft. in the fighting scouts. The weight-carrying aeroplanes used for bomb-
ing were of similar speed to those of the earlier period of the war, but the
weight has increased from 2,000 lb. to nearly 30,000 lb., with a possible non-
stop journey of 2,500 miles. It is not economical in fuel to fly fast, and there
seems to be no possibility of producing the highest speed and the greatest load-
carrying capacity in a single craft. The increase in performance has been made
chiefly by increased horse-power, the aerodynamics having been well found
from the beginning and subject to little change.

When dealing with control and stability as distinct from performance aero-
dynamic progress has been continuous and is still far from completeness. The
aim in the fighting scouts has been to give the pilot power to mancuvre with
least effort, whilst in the bombing aeroplanes inherent stability has been sought
in ma to render manual control unnecessary for the greater part of the period
of flight.

Many experiments have been made, both on the model and full scales, but
most of the detailed design in an aeronautical drawing office is based on model
tests which in many directions are well ahead of application. The theory of
the relation between tests on models and on the full scale is of considerable
importance and has its special difficulties. It is not possible, as in the case
of ship models, to make full use of a law of corresponding speeds, since the
requirements indicated involve forces on the model equal to those on the full
scale without using velocities in excess of 500 square feet. Apart from changes
at the velocity of sound, which affect airscrews to a very great extent, there
are critical velocities of fluid motion determined by viscosity. The existence
of such a change between model and full scale would render model tests of
little utility, for the connection between the flow above and below the critical
velocity is frequently very slight. The criterion for change is departure from
the law that resistance varies as the square of the speed, and experiments have
been made in the last few years which cover all the important parts of an
aeroplane. For wings the pressure at points on a section has been measured,
both in flight and on a model, and the agreement is close. Model testing is
now firmly established and gives confidence in attacking the complex problems
of stability and control on which the safety of aeroplane transport depends.

The truth of the last observation is shown by a comparison of calculations
made some years ago on the nature of disturbed motion following Bryan’s
mathematical theory and observations taken during flight in the last two years.
All the salient features are indicated by the theory which has been extended

2 See Hngineering, Oct. 10, 1919, p. 493.

x

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 267

to cover flight in a natural wind. The importance of considering the natural
motions of aircraft has an importance in the design of automatic controls which,
in addition to inherent stability, may be expected as aids to comfort in flying.
There is ample evidence in accident statistics to show that unstable aeroplanes
are dangerous.

3. The Variation of Engine Power with Height. By H. T. Tizarp.°

In the early days of the war, when it was decided to reduce all officially
observed ‘performances’ of aeroplanes to a standard atmosphere, it was assumed
that the horse-power of an engine depended on the engine revolutions and the
density of the atmosphere, and was independent of atmospheric temperature so
long as the density remained constant. If the error involved in this assumption
is large, the standard method of reducing performances becomes unreliable, and
the accuracy of comparisons between model and full scale experiments in
aerodynamics is considerably affected. The opposing theory that engine power
depends only on the pressure, and not on the density, of the atmosphere has
recently found considerable support. In this paper the accumulated evidence
from actual flight tests, and from experiments on the ground under artificial
altitude conditions, is examined, and it is concluded that, although the density
theory is not quite true, the standard method of reducing performances is satis-
factory when extreme accuracy is not desired. For accurate comparisons of full
scale and model experiments special corrections must be introduced.

4. Sound Emission from Airscrews. By Professor G. H. Bryan,
F.R.S.

When airscrews were run on the large whirling arm of the Royal Aircraft
Establishment the sound emitted showed only faint traces of the low bass note,
resembling an organ tone, which is often conspicuous when aeroplanes are
flying overhead; on the contrary, the principal sounds of definite pitch heard
were roughly of 400, and in lesser degree 200, vibrations per second, the
ealeulated pitch due to the revolution of the blades being about 70, 40, and
80 per second in the several cases. When, however, the screws were mounted

in fixed bearings on the spinning tower, and the sound observed in the neigh-

bourhood of the plane of rotation, the low bass notes were very conspicuous
and agreed closely with the number of beats per second calculated from the
revolution of the blades—namely, 50, 55, and 60 for a three-bladed screw and
33, 37, and 40 for a two-bladed screw at 1,000, 1,100, and 1,200 revolutions per
‘second. With the two-bladed screw running at the higher speed the octave
(say 80 per second) was also conspicuous.

of sound (say 1,180 feet per second), an extremely unpleasant crackling sensa-

tion was experienced in the neighbourhood of the plane of rotation.

_ The observations lead to the conclusion that when an aeroplane is observed
flying sideways the low organ-pipe tones that are observed are due to the

direct action of the blades of the screw upon the air, but their intensity decreases

.
Le
4
; In the case of an airscrew of which the tip velocity exceeded the velocity
r
4
7

as the angular distance of the observer from the plane of rotation increases,
thus accounting for the rise and fall of the sound with the rotary oscillations

_ of the aeroplane, as well as for the unfavourable results obtainable in the

whirling arm tests. As, however, the pulsations of an eight-cylinder engine

_ agree in frequency with those of a four-blade screw, tones of nearly the same

_ pitch may also be produced by the engine, and these are often heard when an

aeroplane is receding. They differ in tone quality from those due to the screw,
and the motion of the machine gives rise to a slight difference in pitch.

In the case in which the tip velocity exceeds the velocity of sound, the

disturbances produced in three different positions of the tip may reach the
observer at the same instant during a certain portion of each period, and at
the beginning and end of this portion the disturbance theoretically becomes

wy

As, 8 See Hngincering, Oct. 17, 1919, p. 527.

268 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

infinite, thus accounting for the unpleasant sensation and its limitation to a
very narrow zone near the plane of rotation.

A systematic study of the phenomena involves an examination of the theo-
retical sound effects due to moving surfaces and moving sources, and certain
difficulties present themselves which were evidently anticipated by the late
Lord Rayleigh in his ‘‘Theory of Sound.’ So far as these difficulties are
due to physical considerations I find that they in great measure disappear, when
instead of working with the velocity potential we notice that it is on the con-
densation that the sound effects mainly depend. At this stage the mathe-
matical work becomes rather heavy, and confirms Messrs. Lynam and Webb’s
use of Bessel’s Functions in this connection. I lave, however, given a simple
graphical construction for the vibration curve due to a revolving source, with
special reference to cases in which the velocity of revolution exceeds the velocity
of sound. The fiuctuations producing the effect of sound are due partly to
the varying distance of the source from the observer, and partly to the varia-
tions in the interval between the time of emission and the time at which the
disturbance reaches the observer. An important practical application consists
in determining theoretically the law according to which the intensity of the
sound should diminish with the distance as well as its dependence on the rate
of revolution. So far as can be ascertained at present, the effect of a revolving
source is more like a doublet than a variable fixed source, the condensation due
to the former varying as the inverse square, and of the latter as the inverse
first power, of the distance. On this assumption the sound of the exhaust should
be heard further off than that of the alrscrew, even when both are of the same
pitch.

For arranging the Farnborough experiments thanks are due to Mr. McKinnon
Wood and Mr. Lynam.

5. The Problem of Steep Landing and Short Run by Wind Tunnel
Investigation. By R. Rouueston West, D.S.O., B.A.,
A.M.I.C.E.

With the advance of commercial aviation, the problem of landing in a small
area over obstacles is assuming great importance, both from considerations of
safety and expense. The two essentials to its solution are steep gliding angle
and slow landing speed. Till now these two desiderata have been mutually
contradictory.

Mechanical Jandbrakes are inadequate, as an aeroplane when landing is largely
supported still on the wings. There remains aerodynamic methods.

With the engine cut off, two air forces act on the machine, the Lift L and
Drag D. The ratio L/D measures both gliding angle and efficiency, hence,
unfortunately, the more efficiency the flatter the gliding angle and the larger
the aerodrome required.

The three aerodynamic requirements for landing in a small aerodrome are a

arge drag coefficient Ky, a large lift coefficient K,. and a small K,/K, ratio,
1

The second is important, since landing speed V varies as WEE and energy of
5;
machine to be dissipated varies as V?.

A wing flown near its stalling angle complies with these three requirements,
but insufficiently.

Experiments carried out in the wing tunnel] of the Aircraft Manufacturing
Co., Hendon, showed that flaps along the wing greatly increased drag, but
reduced lift; hence landing speed was high and lateral control was also
impossible.

A normal plane between wings also spoilt lift, and filling in undercarriage
struts gave inadequate drag.

Experiments on a special aerofoil showed that dipping the trailing edge gave
high lift, but not very large drag; while dipping leading edge gave very high
drag and a slight reduction in lift. In the case of dipping the trailing edge, the
aeroplane would have to fly very much nose down so as not to stall. In the
case of the dipping leading edge the opposite effect is obtained and the attitude

|
|

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 269

would be nearly normal, though the whole machine would be coming down at
asteep angle. This latter would be an advantage in the hands of an inexperienced
pilot in that he would be less likely to stall the machine in flattening out.

The data obtained may be summarised by the following comparative figures,
taken from a large table of results compiled :—

Dis-
. Total
K ; pte Dis- dis-
Model max. L/D ie tance tance
50 feet run to stop
R.A.F. 15, dippg. leadg. edge 45°| °477 1°86 © 93 261 354
R.A.F. 9, ,, trailing ,, 60°} °840 3°30 165 197 362
R.A.F. 15, normal plane ... eg ea UG. 8-71 436 490 926
9 flap on leading edge... "445 232, 116 312 428
D.H. 4, airbrake on undercarriage | *500 5°68 284 413 697

The aeroplane is assumed to come in at a height of 50 feet in each case.
Distance run is calculated from equation

§ — 62°5 log, K, — leg, Ky
K, — Ky
# being a friction factor.

From the above it is seen that airbrakes alone are not of much effect.
Varying camber, however, seems likely: to afford a better solution of the problem.

In the afternoon a Sectional Visit was paid to the Bournemouth Gas and
Water Company’s Works.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Wireless Navigation for Aircraft. By Captain J. Rosrnson, R.A.F.

Navigation for aircraft differs from that at sea because of the great
importance of drift. This prevents dead reckoning methods from being reliable.
In fogs and at night it is thus desirable to be able to fix one’s position, and
the use of wireless bearings is the most hopeful method of progress. There are
two distinct methods of employing wireless bearings in order to determine
position :

(a) By the first method the machine transmits, and the direction-finding
stations are on the ground. Each direction-finding station finds the bearing
on the moving object and communicates its bearing to a central station. There
the position of the moving object is worked out from the various bearings and
retransmitted to it.

(6) By the second method the moving object, either aircraft or ship, has
its own direction-finding apparatus, and finds bearings on fixed transmitting
stations.

Method (a) has considerable draw-backs ; the first being that in case of war
when the aircraft transmits to ask for its position this is also disclosed to the
enemy.

Secondly, only very few aircraft can be dealt with, as a considerable amount
of transmission is required for a single aircraft to find its position. In con-
sequence, it was decided to attempt to use method (6) in the British Air Service.

Most of the methods known at the beginning of the war for determining
bearings were minimum methods; that is, for accuracy, it was necessary to find

270 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

where the signal vanished. In consequence of the large disturbing noises on
aircraft, this minimum method was not considered to be accurate enough. It
is necessary to use a system where signals can be heard whilst the bearing is
taken. The system devised is to use two coils at right angles, which can be
rotated together on a vertical axis. One coil alone is used first, and the system
rotated to be somewhere near the maximum of this single coil. Then the
second coil is introduced and its effects added to or substracted from those of
the first coil. If the first coil is correctly on its maximum, then the second coil
will be on its minimum, and thus there is no change of intensity on adding or
substracting the effects of this coil by a reversing switch.
This system was applied to aeroplanes in two ways :

(a) The Wing Coil System.—In this case the aerials are fixed rigidly to the
aeroplane which have to be rotated in order to determine bearings. This system
is particularly useful im flying towards an objective where there is a wireless
station.

(6) Rotating Coil System.—In this case rotating coils were placed in the
fuselage and rotated independently of the machine. Considerable difficulties had
to be overcome to bring the R.A.F. system to a stage of perfection :

(a) The external noises on an aeroplane.

(6) The disturbances due to the magneto which produce considerable noise
in the telephones. The cause of this disturbance was traced to the emission of
very short waves by the magneto, the wave length being of the order of from
5 to 30 metres.

(c) When using the fuselage coil system it was found that corrections had to
be applied for the deviation produced by the metad work of the aircraft.

In addition to the preceding difficulties there is another trouble in the
variation of bearings produced by atmospheric influence. The extent of these
variations is not large, possibly never more than about 3 deg. when using waves
of 2,000 metres and upwards.

In spite of the preceding difficulties excellent results have already been
obtained. A large number of flights have been made, and it has been found
that the mean error of bearing is 13 deg. when using beacon stations whose
distance varies from 20 to 500 miles.

2. The Three-electrode Thermionic Valve as an Alternating Current
Generator. By Professor C. L. Forrescur.}

1. The paper refers mainly to the theory of the valve and circuits as worked
out in the course of the development of Naval Wireless Telegraphy. This
development was relatively slow at first, but after the success of the first valve
transmitting sets fitted in 1917 became very much more rapid.

2. The action of the valve and circuit in generating an alternating current
is first explained by the aid of a mechanical analogy. An arrangement of a
spring-controlled piston, a system of water connections, and a double-ported
water valve can be imagined which has properties closely analogous to the
capacity-inductance circuit used with the thermionic valve.

3. An approximate theory of the conditions that have to be satisfied is worked
out on a power basis. The necessary conditions for the maximum power output
from the tube are explained by ‘means of the contour characteristics.

4. The paper is concluded by a short description of certain of the valve
transmitting sets actually in use in the Naval Service.

3. A Method of using Two Triode Valves in Parallel for Generating
Oscillations. By Professor W. H. Eccuzs and F. W. Jorpan.?

The method described consists in arranging two triode tubes so that they
act In turn symmetrically upon an inductance-capacity circuit, one of the tubes

See The Electrician, Sept. 19, 1919, p. 294; Engineering, Oct. 10, 1919, p- 491,
® See The Hlectrician, Sept. 19, 1919, v. 292; Radio Review, Vol, i., p. 80.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 271

strengthening the positive phase of the oscillations, the other the negative
phase. This is accomplished by causing the oscillations in the inductance-

Fig. 2.

capacity circuit to act upon the two grids in opposite senses. Of many possible
circuits the two shown in the accompanying figures have proved very convenient.

4. A Trigger Relay utilising Three Electrode Thermionic Vacuum
Tubes. By Professor W. H. Eccurs and F. W: Jorpan.*®

Input P

Fia. 3.
* See The Hlectrician, Sept. 19, 1919, p. 298; Radio Review, Vol. i., p. 143.

272, TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

‘This is a form ot cascade amplifier with resistance coupling. An even num-
ber of valves must be employed, and back coupling from the last to the first
produces the required trigger action. One of the forms described is seem in
figure 1. When the grid G, becomes positive, say, om account of the arrivad
ot an electric stimulus, the anode current through 7, becomes greater, and the
potential of the second grid falls. In consequence the anode current through
rz decreases, and therefore the potential of G1, to which 7; is connected, becomes
more positive. «is there is no restoring infiuence, the anode current through
the instrument / increases to the highest capacity of the tube and battery.

5. Gaseous Ignition by Hot Wires. By Professor W. M. THornton,
D.Sc., D.Hng.*

This question is important where the possibility exists of inflammable gases
coming into contact with incandescent wires, in coal mines or submarines, for
example. From an examination of the behaviour of wires of platinum, nickel,
iron, tungsten, molybdenum, gold, and silver heated by electric current in mix-
tures with air of hydrogen, methane, ethane, pentane, ethylene, methyl and
ethyl alcohol, ethyl ether, benzene, coal gas and petrol, the following conclusions
were reached :

1. The least igniting current is a linear function of the diameter of the wire.

2. Ignition is for a given size of wire independent of the calorific value of
the gas.

3. It is independent of gas pressure down to a limit of about 10 cm. Hg,
when it suddenly fails. | Above atmospheric pressure it rises slightly. A
platinum wire -02 cm. diameter ignites hydrogen (30 per cent.) at 5°45 amperes
at atmospheric pressure, and at 6:0 ampéres at 100 lb. per sq. inch.

4. Gaseous combination, which proceeds automatically to explosion, begins,
in the case of platinum wires, with the wire at about 200 deg. C., well below
red heat.

5. With an explosion vessel of 50 ¢.c. volume it is practically impossible
to ignite methane by hot wires. Platinum wires glow white-hot and melt, but
do not ignite the gas, which, on being tested afterwards with a spark discharge,
immediately explodes.

6. Electric and magnetic fields have no direct influence on hot-wire ignition.

7. The temperature of platinum wires glowing brightly by surface com-
bustion is, when measured by its change of electrical resistance, much lower
than the apparent optical temperature.

8. Ignition is traced to an action occurring, if not within the surface layer
of the metal itself, so close to it that the ordinary gas laws do not come into
action. It is inferred that the mechanism of hot-wire ignition is an attack
upon oxygen either within the wire or by positive ions of combustible gas
ejected from it.

In the afternoon a Sectional Visit was paid to the Royal Naval Cordite
Factory, Halton Heath.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 13.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Submarine Mining. By Commander A. L. Gwynne.’

4 See Phil. Mag., 38, p. 618, 1919.
1 See Engineering, Sept. 19, 1919, p. 389.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. Oe

9. The Paravane. By Rost. F. McKay, M.Sc., A.M. Inst. C.E.,
A.M.I.Mech.E.?

The Paravane has been developed as a weapon to fulfil two purposes :—

(1) To attack a submarine.
(2) To protect vessels from moored mines.

In order to differentiate between the two, the one used for attacking sub-
marines is termed the ‘ Explosive Paravane,’ and the other for protecting vessels
against mines is called the ‘Protector Paravane.’ A further differentiation
in Protector Paravanes has been to call all those used for protecting warships
‘Protector Paravanes,’ and those used for protecting merchant vessels ‘ Otters.’

The basic principle of all three is the same. They are in effect a form of
water-kite which can be towed by a vessel and will run outwards and downwards
from the towing vessel.

The Explosive Paravanes carry a large charge, amounting in some cases to
over 300 lb. of T.N.T. The Protector Paravanes, or Otters. carry a form of
cutter, but no explosive charge whatever, the cutter being used for severing the
moorings of the mines.

In general, a vessel fitted with either form of apparatus tows two Paravanes,
one on cither side, by specially manufactured wires. A depth-keeping mechanism
is fitted in the tail of the Paravane or Otter whereby the depth at which it
is being towed may be previously fixed. Variations in the speed or course of
the vessel thus have no effect upon the depth of the Paravane.

Explosive Paravanes are necessarily more complex than the protector type,
and, in addition to their charge of T.N.T., carry the necessary firing gear
and depth-recording device, etc. The explosive charge can be detonated by
an electric current which passes through a core in the towing wire. Various
methods of detonation, automatic or deliberate, are arranged. Safety devices
are inserted in the firing circuit so that the Paravane cannot be accidentally
fired whilst it is on deck or in the water near the ship.

The method of attack by the Explosive Paravane against a hostile submarine
is for the attacking vessel to proceed to the spot where the submarine was last
seen, and there to rake the water with the two Paravanes, which will be
towed at a depth of perhaps 200 feet.

The success of the Explosive Paravane has been very remarkable, when it
is realised that this form of attack is only used when other methods, such as
the torpedo, the gun, or the ram, have failed. The only form of attack of a
like nature is the depth charge. In comparing the results obtained by the
Paravane with those obtained by the depth charge, statistics show that the
depth charge destroyed four times as many submarines as the Paravane. Due
consideration must be given, however, to the fact that depth charges were
fitted in twenty-five times as many vessels, and accordingly, proportionately to
the number of vessels fitted, the Paravane is many times more efficient.

The action of a Protective Paravane or Otter can best be likened to a broad
wedge being formed in the front of the towing vessel. Each Paravane is
towed from a point as far forward and as low down as possible by a specially
constructed steel wire, and the hydroplane on the Paravane exerts a heavy pull
upon these wires. These wires, therefore, form a wedge, kept in place by the
tension produced by the dynamic reaction of the water upon the Paravane.
Mine-mooring wires which strike this wedge are deflected away from the ship,
and passing along the towing wire are guided into the cutter jaws on the head
of the Paravane and instantaneously severed. The mine-sinker drops to the
bottom of the sea, whilst the mine floats to the surface, where it can be seen
and destroyed by gunfire.

The success of the Protector Paravane or Otter has been even more striking
than that of the exnlosive type. Out of just under 200 British war vessels fitted
with this device, fifty-three have cut mines involving a total tonnage of over

half a million tons, and representing a money value of about sixty millions
sterling.

1 See Engineering, Sept. 19, 1919, p. 389.

O74 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G.

Of British merchant vessels, 2,700 have been fitted, but, owing to less
accurate reports being obtained from merchant vessels as compared with war-
ships, the actual results are not known. If, in comparison with British
warships, only one-tenth as many merchant vessels, as compared to the number
fitted, have been saved, the saving to the country in tonnage has probably been
much in excess of one hundred million sterling.

3. The Thermal Conductivity of Solid Insulators.
By Professor W. M. Tuornton, D.Sc., D.Eng.*

Thermal conductivity of metals has been adequately explained by the
electron theory of matter. In the case of insulators the argument does not hold,
and the mode of conduction in substances such as quartz or wax has not been
worked out. There is a simple relation between the coefficient of thermal
conductivity k, the density p, and the velocity of sound V, in a solid which
throws much light on the process. It is that /=Vp?, and since V?= E/p,
where E is the elasticity, k=Ep. These relations hold for all true solid in-
sulators, but not for indiarubber or cork which have peculiar elastic properties.
For example :

Velocity
Material. Density. Elasticitv. of sound. Ep. V2p?. k
Flint glass... 2-9 4-8.101! 4-1.105 14- 14-1 14:3
Graphite i 2:3 5-25 4-65 12-1 11-5 12-0
Paraffin wax ... 0-91 0-154 0-13 0-14 0-14 0-141

From the kinetic energy of vibration Jmv? it is found that the ratio of the
velocity of sound to the velocity of atomic vibration by which heat is trans-
mitted in insulators is 2°9.10!°. It is shown that the coincidence of this with
v can be explained and a reason given for the rule k=V*,? by simple electro-
magnetic considerations. The rule is a useful test for a heat insulator; the
chief qualification is that it should be light and inelastic. i

4. The Application of Aerofoil Theory to the Heating of Buildings.
By Professor G. H. Bryan, F.R.S.

The author showed some experiments illustrating by means of smoke the

deflection into the room of the upward current of heated air from a radiator

placed below a window by means of an inclined plate, the layer of cold air
in contact with the window remaining relatively stationary.

In the afternoon a Sectional Visit was paid to the Winton Aerodrome of
the Bournemouth Aviation Company.

3 See Phil. Mag., 38, p. 705, 1919.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 275

Srection H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION: Proressor A. Keitu, M.D., LL.D.,
Ys he a a a OS

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

The Differentiation of Mankind into Racial Types.

For a brief half-hour I am to try and engage your attention on a matter which
has excited the interest of thoughtful minds from ancient times—the problem
of how mankind has been demarcated into types so diverse as the Negro, the
Mongol, and the Caucasian or European. For many a day the Mosaic explana-
tion—the tower of Babel theory—was regarded as a sufficient solution of
_ this difficult problem. In these times most of us have adopted an explanation
which differs in many respects from that put forward in the book of Genesis;

Noah disappears trom our theory and is replaced in the dim distance of time
by a ‘common ancestral stock.’ Our story now commences, not at the close of
, historical flood, but at the end of a geological epoch so distant from us

that we cannot compute its date with any degree of accuracy. Shem, Ham,
and Japheth, the reputed ancestors of the three great racial stocks of modern
, times—the white, black, and yellow distinctive types of mankind—have also
disappeared from our speculations; we no longer look out on the world and
believe that the patterns which stud the variegated carpet of humanity were

all woven at the same time; some of the patterns, we believe, are of ancient date
and have retained many of the features which marked the ‘ common ancestral ’
design; others are of more recent date, having the ancient pattern altered in
“many of its details. We have called in, as Darwin had taught us, the whole
machinery of evolution—struggle for existence, survival of the fittest, spon-
taneous origin of structural variations, the inheritance of such variations—as
_ the loom by which Nature fashions her biological patterns. We have replaced
_ the creative finger by the evolutionary machine, but no one is more conscious
_ of the limitations of that machine than the student of human races. We are
all familiar with the features of that racial human type which clusters round
the heart of Africa; we recognise the Negro at a glance by his black, shining,
_ hairless skin, his crisp hair, his flattened nase, his widely opened dark eyes, his
heavily moulded lips, his gleaming teeth and strong jaws. He has a Carriage
and proportion of body of his own; he has his peculiar quality of voice and action
of brain. He is, even to the unpractised eye, clearly different to the Mongolian
ative of North-Eastern Asia; the skin, the hair, the eyes, the quality of
brain and voice, the carriage of body and proportion of limb to body pick
out the Mongol as a sharply differentiated human type. Different to either of
these is the native of Central Europe—the Aryan or Caucasian type of man;
know him by the paleness of his skin and by his facial features—particularly
narrow, prominent nose and thin lips. We are so accustomed to the pro-
nence of the Caucasian nose that only a Mongol or Negro can appreciate its
gularity in our aryanised world. When we ask how these three types—the
ropean, Chinaman, and Negro—came by their distinctive features, we find
, our evolutionary machine is defective; the processes of natural and of
nal selection will preserve and exaggerate traits of body and of mind, but they

276 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

cannot produce that complex of features which marks off one racial type from
another. Nature has at her command some secret mechanism by which she
works out her new patterns in the bodies of man and Least—a mechanism of
which we were almost ignorant in Darwin’s day, but which we are now
beginning to perceive and dimly understand. It is the bearing of this creative
or morphogenetic mechanism on the evolution of the modern races of mankind
which I propose to make the subject of my address.

Hid away in various parts of the human frame is a series of more or
less obscure bodies or glands, five in number, which, in recent times, we have
come to recognise as parts of the machinery which regulate the growth of
the body. They form merely a fraction of the body—not more than 1/180th
part of it; a man might pack the entire series in his watch-pocket. The modern
medical student is familiar with each one of them—the pituitary body, about
the size of a ripe cherry, attached to the base of the brain and cradled in the
floor of the skull; the pineal gland, also situated in the brain, and in point of
size but little larger than a wheat-grain; the thyroid in the neck, set astride
the windpipe, forms a more bulky mass; the two suprarenal bodies situated in
the beily, capping the kidneys, and the interstitial glands embedded within
the substance of the testicle and ovary, complete the list. The modern physician
is also familiar with the fact that the growth of the body may be retarded,
accelerated, or completely altered if one or more of these glands becomes the
seat of injury or of a functional disorder. It is thirty-three years now since first
one woman and then another came to Dr. Pierre Marie in Paris seeking relief
from a persistent headache, and mentioning incidentally that their faces, bodies,
hands, and feet had altered so much in recent years that their best-known
friends failed to recognise them. That incident marked the commencement of
our knowledge of the pituitary gland as an intrinsic part of the machinery
which regulates the shaping of our bodies and features. Dr. Marie named the
condition acromegaly. Since then hundreds of men and women showing
symptoms similar to those cf Dr. Marie’s patients have been seen and diagnosed,
and in every instance where the acromegalic changes were typical and marked
there has been found a definite enlargement or tumour of the pituitary body.
The practised eye recognises the full-blown condition of acromegaly at a glance,
so characteristic are the features of the sufferers. Nay, as we walk along the
streets we can note slight degrees oi it—degrees which fall far short of the
border-line of disease ; we note that it may give characteristic traits to a whole
family—a family marked by what may be named an acromegalic taint. The
pituitary gland is also concerned ir another disturbance of growth—giantism.
In every case where a young lad has shot up, during his late ‘teens,’ into a
lanky man of seven feet or more—has become a giant—it has been found that
his pituitary gland was the site of a disordered enlargement. The pituitary is
part of the mechanism which regulates our stature, and stature is a racial
characteristic. The giant is usually acromegalic as well as tall, but the two
conditions need not be combined; a young lad may undergo the bodily changes
which characterise acromegaly and yet not become abnormally tall. or he may
become—although this is rarely the case—a giant in stature and yet may not
assume acromegalic features. There is a third condition of disordered growth
in which the pituitary is concerned—one in which the length of the limbs
is disproportionably increased—in which the sexual system and all the secondary
sexual characters of body and mind either fail to develop or disappear—where
fat tends to be deposited on the body, particularly over the buttocks and
thighs—where, in brief, a eunuchoid condition of body develops. In all of these
three conditions we seem to be dealing with a disordered and exaggerated action
of the pituitary gland; there must be conditions of an opposite kind where the
functions of the pituitary are disordered and reduced. A number of cases of
dwarfism have been recorded where boys or gizls retained their boyhood or
girlhood throughout life, apparently because their pituitary gland had been
invaded and partly destroyed by tumoars. We shall see that dwarfism may
result also from a failure of the thyroid gland. On the evidence at our dis-
posal, evidence which is being rapidly augmented, we are justified in regarding
the pituitary gland as one of the principal pinions in the machinery which
regulates the growth of the human body and is directly concerned in deter-
mining stature, cast of features, texture of skin, and character of hair—all of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 277

them marks of race. When we compare the three chief racial types of humanity—
the Negro, the Mongol, and the Caucasian or European—we can recognise in the
last named a greater predominance of the pituitary than in the other two.
The sharp and pronounced nasalisation of the face, the tendency to strong eye-
brow ridges, the prominent chin, the tendency to bulk of body and height of
stature in the majority of Europeans, is best explained, so far as the present
state of our knowledge goes, in terms of pituitary function.

There is no question that our interest in the mechanism of growth has been
quickened in recent years by observations and discoveries made by physicians
on men and women who suffered from pituitary disorders, but that a small
part of the body could influence and regulate the growth and characterisation
of the whole was known in ancient times. For many centuries it has been
common knowledge that the removal of the genital glands alters the external
form and internal nature of man and beast. The sooner the operation is per-
formed after birth the more certain are its effects. Were a naturalist from a
unisexual world to visit this earth of ours it would be difficult to convince him
that a brother and a sister were of the same species, or that the wrinkled,
sallow-visaged eunuch with his beardless face, his long tapering limbs, his
hesitating carriage, his carping outlook and corpulent body, was brother to the
thick-set, robust, pugilistic man with the bearded face. The discovery that
the testicle and ovary contain, scattered throughout their substance, a small
glandular element which has nothing to do with their main function—the pro-
duction of genital cells—was made seventy years ago, but the evidence which
leads us to believe that ihis scattered element—the interstitial gland—is directly
concerned in the mechanism of growth is of quite recent date. All those changes
which we may observe in the girl or boy at puberty—the phase of growth which
brings into full prominence their racial characteristics—depend on the action
of the interstitial glands. If they are removed or remain in abeyance the
maturation of the body is both prolonged and altered. In seeking for the
mechanism which shapes mankind into races we must take the interstitial gland
into our reckoning. I am of opinion that the sexual differentiation—the robust
manifestations of the male characters—is more emphatic in the Caucasian than
in either the Mongol or Negro racial types. In both Mongol and Negro, in
their most representative form, we find a beardless face and almost hairless
body, and in certain Negro types, especially in Nilotic tribes, with their long,
stork-like legs, we seem to have a manifestation of abeyance in the action of the
interstitial glands. At the close of sexual life we often see the features of a
woman assume a coarser and more masculine appearance.

Associated with the interstitial glands, at least in point of development,
are the suprarenal bodies or glands. Our knowledge that these two’ comparatively
small structures, no larger than the segments into which a moderately sized
orange can be separated, are connected with pigmentation of the skin dates
back to 1894, when Dr. Thomas Addison, a physician to Guy’s Hospital, London,
_ observed that gradual destructicn of these bodies by disease led to a darkening
or pigmentation of the patient’s skin, besides giving rise to other more severe
_ changes and symptoms. Now it is 150 years since John Hunter came to the
_ conclusion, on the evidence then at his disposal, that the original colour of
_ Man’s skin was black, and all the knowledge that we have gathered since his
_ time supports the inference he drew. From the fact that pigment begins to
collect in and thus darken the skin when the suprarenal bodies become the seat
of a destructive disease we infer that they have to do with the clearing away
of pigment, and that we Europeans owe the fairness of our skins to some
particular virtue resident in the suprarenal bodies. That. their function is
complex and multiple, the researches of Sharpey-Schafer, of T. R. Elliott, and
of W. B. Cannon have made very evident. Fifteen years ago Bulloch and
‘Sequeira established the fact that when a suprarenal body becomes the site of
“a peculiar form of malignant overgrowth in childhood, the body of the boy or
“girl undergoes certain extraordinary growth changes. The sexual organs become
‘Tapidly mature, and through the framework of childhood burst all the features

of sexual maturity—the full chest, muscularity of limbs, bass voice, bearded
face and hairy body—a miniature Hercules—a miracle of transformation in
‘body and brain. Corresponding changes occur in young girls—almost infants
im years—with a tendency to assume features which characterise the male.
1919. Z

a 4

278 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

Professor Glynn} has recently collected such cases and systematised-our know.
ledge of these strange derangements of growth. There can be no doubt that
the suprarenal bodies constitute an important part of the mechanism which
regulates the development and growth of the human body and helps in deter-
mining the racial characters of mankind. We know that certain races come
more quickly to sexual maturity than others, and that races vary in development
of hair and of pigment, and it is therefore reasonable to expect a satisfactory
explanation of these characters when we have come by a more complete knowledge
of the suprarenal mechanism.

During the last few years the totally unexpected discovery has been sprung
upon us that disease of the minute pineal gland of the brain may give rise to a
train of symptoms very similar to those which follow tumour formation of the
cortex of the suprarenal bodies. In some instances the sudden sexual pre-
maturity which occurs in childhood is apparently the immediate result of a
tumour-like affection of the pineal gland. We have hitherto regarded the
pineal gland, little bigger than a wheat-grain and buried deeply in the brain,
as a mere useless vestige of a median or parietal eye, derived from some distant
human ancestor in whom that eye was functional, but on the clinical and
experimental evidence now rapidly accumulating we must assign to it a place
in the machinery which controls the growth of the body.

We come now to deal with the thyroid gland, which, from an anthropological
point of view, must be regarded as the most important of all the organs or
glands of internal secretion. Here, too, in connection with the thyroid gland,
which is situated in the front of the neck, where it is so apt to become enlarged
and prominent in women—I must call attention to a generalisation which I
slurred over, when speaking of the pituitary and suprarenal glands. Each of
these glands throws into the circulating blood two sets of substances—one set
to act immediately in tuning the parts of the body which are not under the
influence of the will, to the work they have to do when the body is at rest
and when it is making an effort; another set of substances—which Prof. Gley
has named morphogenetic—has not an immediate but a remote effect; they regu-
late the development and co-ordinate the growth of the various parts of the
body. Now, so far as the immediate function of the thyroid is concerned,
our present knowledge points to the gland as the manufactory of a substance
which, when circulating in the body, regulates the rate of combustion of the
tissues; when we make a muscular effort, or when our bodies are exposed to
cold, or when we become the subjects of infection, the thyroid is called upon
to assist in mobilising all available tissue-fuel. If we consider only its immediate
function it is clear that the thyroid is connected with the selection and survival
of human races. When, however, we consider its remote or morphogenetic
effects on growth its importance as a factor in shaping the characteristics of
human races becomes even more evident. In districts where the thyroid is
liable to that form of disease known as goitre it has been known for many
a year that children who were affected became cretins—dwarf idiots with a
very characteristic appearance of face and body.? Disease of the thyroid stunts
and alters the growth of the body so that the subjects of this disorder might
well be classed as a separate species of humanity. If the thyroid becomes
diseased and defective after growth of the body is completed then certain
changes, first observed by Sir William Gull in 1873, are set up and give rise to —
the disordered state of the body known as myxedema. ‘In this state,’ says —
Sir Malcolm Morris,3 ‘ the skin is cold, dry and rough, seldom or never perspires, _
and may take on a yellowish tint; there is a bright red flush in the malar region.
The skin as a whole looks transparent; the hair of the scalp becomes scanty; —
the pubic and axillary hair, with the eyelashes and eyebrows, often falls ©
out; in many cases the teeth are brittle and carious. All these appearances —
disappear under the administration of thyroid extract.’ We have here con- |
clusive evidence that the thyroid acts directly on the skin and hair, just the
structures we employ in the classification of human races. The influence of

* Quart, Journ. of Med., 1912, vol. v., p. 157.

? The story of the discovery of the action of the thyroid gland is told
by Prof. G. M. Murray, Brit. Med. Journ., 1913, II., p. 163.

S Brit. Med. Journ., 1913, I., p. 1038.

ped «

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 279

the thyroid on the development of the other systems of the body, particularly
on the growth of the skull and skeleton, is equally profound. This is par-
ticularly the case as regards the base of the skull and the nose. The arrest
of growth falls mainly on the basal part of the skull, with the result
that the root of the nose appears to be flattened and drawn backwards between
the eyes, the upper forehead appears projecting or bulging, the face appears
flattened, and the bony scaffolding of the nose, particularly when compared
to the prominence of the jaws, is greatly reduced. Now, these facial features
which I have enumerated give the Mongolian face its characteristic aspect,
and, to a lesser degree, they are also to be traced in the features of the Negro.
Indeed, in one aberrant branch of the Negro race—the Bushman of South Africa
—the thyroid facies is even more emphatically brought out than in the most
typical Mongol. You will observe that, in my opinion, the thyroid—or a reduc-
tion or alteration in the activity of the thyroid—has been a factor in deter-
mining some of the racial characteristics of the Mongol and the Negro races.
I know of a telling piece of evidence which supports this thesis. Some years
ago there died in the East End of London a Chinese giant—the subject, we
must suppose, of an excessive action of the pituitary gland—the gland which
I regard as playing a predominant part in shaping the face and bodily form
of the European. The skeleton of this giant was prepared and placed in the
Museum of the London Hospital Medical College by Col. T. H. Openshaw,
and any one inspecting that skeleton can see that, although certain Chinese
features are still recognisable, the nasal region and the supra-orbital ridges
of the face have assumed the more prominent European type. :

There are two peculiar and very definite forms of dwarfism with which most
people are familiar, both of which must be regarded as due to a defect in the
growth regulating mechanism of the thyroid. Now, one of these forms of
dwarfism is known to medical men as Achondroplasia, because the growth of
cartilage is particularly affected, but in familiar language we may speak of
the sufferers from this disorder of growth as being of the ‘ bulldog breed ’ or of
the ‘dachshund breed.’ In the dachshund the limbs are greatly shortened and
gnarled, but the nose or snout suffers no reduction, while in the bulldog the nose
and nasal part of the face are greatly reduced and withdrawn, showing an exagge-
rated degree of Mongolism. Among achondroplastic human dwarfs both breeds
occur, but the ‘ bulldog’ form is much more common than the ‘dachshund’
type. The shortening of limbs with retraction of the nasal region of the face—
pug-face or prosopia we may call the condition—has a very direct interest for
anthropologists, seeing that short limbs and a long trunk are well-recognised
racial characteristics of the Mongol. In the second kind of dwarfism, which we
have reason to regard as due to a functional defect of the thyroid, the Mon-
golian traits are so apparent that the sufferers from this disorder are known to
medical men as ‘ Mongolian idiots "—for not only is their growth stunted, but
their brains also act in a peculiar and aberrant manner. Dr. Langdon’ Down,
who gave the subjects of this peculiar disorder the name ‘ Mongolian idiots’
fifty-five years ago, knew nothing of the modern doctrine of internal secretions,
but that doctrine has been applied in recent years by Dr. F. G. Crookshank 4 to
explain the features and condition of Mongoloid imbecile children. Some
years ago® I brought forward evidence to show that we could best explain the
various forms of anthropoid apes by applying the modern doctrine of a growth-
controlling glandular mechanism. In the gorilla we see the effects of a pre-
dominance of the pituitary elements; in the orang, of the thyroid. The late
Professor Klaatsch tried to account for the superficial resemblances between
the Malay and the orang by postulating a genetic relationship between them;
for a similar reason he derived the Negro type from a gorilline ancestry. Occa-
sionally we see a man or woman of supposedly pure European ancestry displaying
definite Mongoloid traits in their features. We have been in the habit of account-
ing for such manifestations by the theory. at one time very popular, that a Mon-
goloid race had at one time spread over Europe, and that Mongoloid traits were

atavistic recurrences. An examination of the human remains of ancient Europe
yields no evidence in support of a Turanian or Mongol invasion of Europe.

cx

4 The Universal Medical Record, 1913, vol. iii., p. 12.
® Journ, of Anat. and Physiol., 1913.

980 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

All of these manifestations to which I have been calling your attention—the
sporadic manifestation of Mongoloid characters in diseased children and in
healthy adult Europeans, the generic characters which separate one kind of
ape from another, the bodily and mental features which mark the various races
of mankind—are best explained by the theory I am supporting—namely, that
the conformation of man and ape and of every vertebrate animal is determined
by a common growth-controlling mechanism which is resident in a system of
small but complex glandular organs. We must now look somewhat more
closely into the manner in which this growth-regulating mechanism actually
works. That we can do best by taking a glimpse of a research carried. out by
Bayliss and Starling in the opening years of the present century. They were
seeking to explain why it was that the pancreas poured out its digestive juice
as soon as the contents of the stomach commenced to pass into the first part of the
duodenum. It was then known that if acid was applied to the lining epithelial
membrane of the duodenum, the pancreas commenced to work; it was known
also that the message which set the pancreas into operation was not conveyed
from the duodenum to the pancreas by nerves, for when they were cut the
mechanism was still effective. Bayliss and Starling solved the puzzle by making
an emulsion from the acid-soaked lining epithelium of the duodenum and iniect-
ing the extract of that emulsion into the circulating blood. The result was
that the pancreas was immediately thrown into activity. The particular sub-
stance which was thus set circulating in the blood and acted on the pancreas and
on the pancreas alone, and which thus served as a messenger or hormone, they
named secretin. They not only cleared up the mechanism of pancreatic secretion,
but at the same time made a discovery of much greater importance. They had
discovered a new method whereby one part of the human body could commu-
nicate with and control another. Up to that time we had been like an outlandish
visitor to a strange city, who believed that the visible telegraph or telephone
wires were the only means of communication between its inhabitants. We
believed that it was only by nerve fibres that intercommunication was estab-
lished in the animal body. Bayliss and Starling showed that there was a postal
system. Missives posted in the general circulation were duly delivered at their
destinations. The manner in which they reached the right address is of
particular importance for us; we must suppose that the missive or hormone
circulating in the blood and the recipient for which they are intended have a
special attraction or affinity for each other—one due to their physical constitu-
tion-—-and hence they and only they come together as the blood circulates round
the body. Secretin is a hormone which effects its errand rapidly and imme-
diately, whereas the growth or morphogenetic hormones, thrown into the
circulation by the pituitary, pineal, thyroid, suprarenal, and genital glands,
act slowly and remotely. But both are alike in this: the result depends not
only on the nature of the hormone or missive, but also on the state of the local
recipient. The local recipient may be specially greedy, as it were, and seize
more than a fair share of the manna in circulation, or it may have ‘sticky
fingers’ and seize what is not really intended for local consumption. We can
see that local growth—the development of a particular trait or feature—is
dependent not only on the hormones supplied to that part, but also on the
condition of the receptive mechanism of the part. Hence we can understand
a local derangement of growth—an acromegaly or giantism confined to a finger
or to the eyebrow ridges, to the nose, to one side of the face, and such local
manifestations are not uncommon. It is by a variation in the sensitiveness of
the local recipient that we have an explanation of the endless variety to be
found in the relative development of racial and individual features.

Some ten years after Starling had formulated the theory of hormones. Pro-
fessor W. B. Cannon. of Harvard University, piecing together the results of
researches by Dr. T. R. Elliott and by himself, on the action of the suprarenal
glands, brought to light a very wonderful hormone mechanism—one which helps
us in interpreting the action of growth-regulating hormones. When we are
about to make a severe bodily effort it is necessary to flood our muscles with
blood, so that they may have at their disposal the materials necessary for
work—oxygen and blood-sugar, the fuel of muscular engines. At the beginning
of a muscular effort the suprarenal glands are set going by messages passing

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 281

to them from the central nervous system; they throw a hormone—adrenalin—
into the circulating blood, which has a double effect; adrenalin acts on the flood-
gates of the circulation, so that the major supply of blood passes to the muscles.
At the same time it so acts on the liver that the blood circulating through that
great organ becomes laden with blood-sugar. We here obtain a glimpse of the
neat and effective manner in which hormones are utilised in the economy of the
living body. From that glimpse we seem to obtain a clue to that remarkable
disorder of growth in the human body known as acromegaly. It is a patho-
logical manifestation of an adaptational mechanism with which we are all
familiar. Nothing is better known to us than that our bodies respond to the
burden they are made to bear. Our muscles increase in size and strength the
more we use them; increase in the size of our muscles would be useless unless
our bones also were strengthened to a corresponding degree. A greater blood
supply is required to feed them, and hence the power of the heart has to be
augmented; more oxygen is needed for their consumption, and hence the lung
capacity has to be increased; more fuel is required—hence the whole digestive
and assimilative systems have to undergo a hypertrophy, including the apparatus
of mastication. Such a power of co-ordinated response on the part of all of the
organs of the body to meet the needs of athletic training presupposes a co-
ordinating mechanism. We have always regarded such a power of response as
an inherent property of the living body, but in the light of our growing know-
ledge it is clear that we are here dealing with a hormonic mechanism, one in
which the pituitary gland is primarily concerned. When we study the structural
changes which take place in the first phase of acromegaly,° ‘we find that not
only are the bones enlarged and overgrown in a peculiar way, but so are the
muscles, the heart, the lungs, the organs of digestion, particularly the jaws;
hence the marked changes in the face, for the form of the face is determined
by the development of the upper and lower jaws. The rational interpretation
of acromegaly is that it is a pathological disorder of the mechanism of adapta-
tional response; in the healthy body the pituitary is throwing into the circula-
tion just a sufficiency of a growth-regulating substance to sensitise muscles,
bones, and other structures to give a normal response to the burden thrown on
the body. But in acromegaly the body is so flooded with this substance that
its tissues become hypersensitive and respond by overgrowth to efforts and move-
ments of the slightest degree. It is not too much to expect, when we see how
the body and features become transformed at the onset of acromegaly, that a
fuller knowledge of these growth mechanisms will give us a clue to the prin-
ciples of race differentiation.

There must be many other mechanisms regulated by hormones with which
we are as yet totally unacquainted. I will cite only one instance—that concerned
in regulating the temperature of the body. We know that the thyroid and also
the suprarenal glands are concerned in this mechanism; they have also to do with
the deposition and absorption of pigment in the skin, which must be part of the
heat-regulating mechanism. It is along such a path of inquiry that we expect
to discover a clue to the question of race colour.

This is not the first occasion on which the doctrine of hormones has been
applied to biological problems at the British Association. In his Presidential
_ address to the Zoological Section at Sheffield in 1910 Professor G. C. Bourne
: applied the theory to the problems of evolution: its bearing was examined in
more detail in an address to the same section by Professor Arthur Dendy during
_ the meeting at Portsmouth in 1911. At the meeting of the Association at New-
_ eastle in 1916 Professor MacBride devoted part of his address to the morpho-
_ genetic bearings of hormones. Very soon after Starling formulated the hormone
theory, Dr. J. T. Cunningham applied it to explain the phenomena of heredity.”
_ Nay, rightly conceived, Darwin’s theory of Pan-genesis is very much of the
Same character as the modern theory of hormones.

® See Keith, Lancet, 1911, ii., p. 993; 1913, 1., p. 305.
7 Dr. J. T. Cunningham, Proc. Zoo. Soc. London, 1908, p. 434.

982 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION #.

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Some Notes on the Finnic Problem. By Haroup PEaKs.*

It was formerly believed that the Suomi or Finns, who speak a language with
Asiatic rather than European affinities, were a Mongoloid people who had arrived
from Siberia. More recently the view has been advanced that they are a people
of Nordic type, who have imposed their language upon their Mongoloid neigh-
bours. There is no doubt that the modern inhabitants of Finland contain both
Nordic and Mongoloid elements, but the balance of evidence tends to show
that the language and tradition are derived from the Asiatic element.

A fresh examination of the archeological evidence seems to show that the
first wave of these Mongoloid people arrived in the Baltic region on the retreat
of the Ice Sheet, and were responsible for the Maglemose culture, which
developed later into that known as East Scandinavian or Arctic. Towards the
close of the Neolithic Age the Nordic people arrived in Denmark from the
Russian steppes, and there mingled with a remnant of the kitchen-midden
people, and perhaps learnt the custom of erecting megalithic tombs from
‘Prospectors,’ whom they found there searching for amber. The evidence
deducible from the skulls of the passage-graves seems to show that these people
advanced into Scania and Westergotland, driving before them the Maglemose-
Arctic folk, who retreated to the north, where they survive as Lapps.

Meanwhile further Mongoloid tribes were crossing the Urals and advancing
up the Volga as far as its junction with the Oka, and were well established
there early in the Bronze Age. In the middle of that period they were occupy-
ing the margins of the Finnish lakes, and at the same time Nordics from
Sweden were occupying the Baltic seaboard.

In the fifth century B.c. the Nordics took to the fjords and to piracy, and
there was a general movement to the south and west. Meanwhile the Mon-
goloid tribes occupied the whole of Finland, the Baltic provinces, and Kast
Prussia. When, about a.p. 1000, the period of piracy ceased, fresh Nordic
immigrants arrived from Sweden, who were the ancestors of the present Nordic
population of Finland.

2. History and Ethnology in Central Asta. By Miss M. A.
CzaPLicKa.”

The object of this paper is to discuss the relation between history and
ethnology, with reference to the special area of North Central Asia. The
modern teaching of history has suffered from an inadequate treatment of its
ethnological background : we learn a catalogue of events relating to a branch
of mankind, without understanding the racial peculiarities of the mind of that
branch. (For Central Asia the historians have given us, on the one hand, a list
of wars and invasions; on the other, a collection of artistic productions. So
far so good; but to each of these the name of a people has been attached,
and these names have found their way into handbooks of ethnology as racial
terms. Thus such expressions as ‘the Mongol race’ and ‘the Tatar culture’
have been popularised, though they rest on nothing more than the names of
chiefs, or of clans successful in imposing their chiefs on other clans.

Only by sifting Central Asian history by ethnological methods shall we
solve the problems, not only of Indo-European origins, but also of the relation
between Asiatic races, and especially between the two great branches, Iranian
and Turanian. To work out the ethnology of that earliest and richest history
of Central Asia found in the Chinese annals ought to be as much our aim as
the working out of the ethnology of ancient Egypt or of Babylon. In the
meantime, in order to understand the present racial composition of the greater
part of Europe and Asia, it may suffice to analyse the invasions and mixtures
which took place from the time of Attila’s Huns to the ‘Mongols’ of Jinghis

1 Probably to be published in Journ. Anthropological Inst.
2 To be published in Journ. Anthropological Inst. : see also M. A. Czaplicka,
Turks of Central Asia (Oxford, 1918). :

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 983

Khan. And it may be expedient to try, first of all, to throw ethnological light
upon the last great racial re-grouping, which, occurring in the time of Jinghis
Khan, may be said to persist to our own day.

Our existing classification for Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia,

while professedly ethnological, is based on historical rather than ethnological
data. Thus the Asiatic peoples nearest to the Slavs are called ‘ Ural-Altaic,’
because they all crossed the Altai and the Urals on their way to Europe; and
in this grouping are included five ‘ races ’—Finnic, Turkic, Tungusic, Samoyedic,
and Mongolic—who are said to be linguistically alike but, otherwise, to form
separate races. But the ‘ Mongolic race’ cannot be shown to form a distinct
group in the same sense as the other four; and its appearance in the same
rank with Turks and Finns is due to the ethnologists’ uncritical adoption of
the history of the Jinghis Khan period. History, however, when used critically
helps us to define the real position of the Mongols. Ethnologically they form
a bridge between the Tungus and the Turks, originating as they do in a
mixture of those two races on the steppes of Mongolia. Hence it is misleading
to speak of a ‘Mongolian type,’ since there never was an original Mongolian
_ type as there was a Tungusic or a Turkic type.
: In the same way—by the uncritical adoption of historical data into ethnology
—another misleading term, ‘Tatars,’ has come to rank almost as a racial
definition; whereas it is simply a name of Tungusic origin for a clan which at
os time of Jinghis Khan belonged to the same confederacy as did, the Mongol
clan.

Until the real content of these names—Tatar and \Mongol—has been dis-
entangled, we cannot hope to reconstruct. the racial compromise which took
_ place in Eastern Europe (more particularly on the Upper Volga) between Finnic,
_ Slavonic, and Turkic elements. :

= +S

8. Traces of Polynesian, Melanesian, and Australoid Hlements in
Primitive America. By Rev. Francis A. ALLEN.

i

The writer brought forward evidence to support the view that Melanesian,
Polynesian, and Australoid stocks are represented in the native populations of
' America.

; 4. The Physical Characteristics of the Modern Briton.

, By Prof. F. G. Parsons.

7 The subject is brought forward in order to collect the opinions and experience
} of those working anthropologists who may be present as to the most valuable
and, at the same time, most practical characteristics of the modern inhabitants
of the British Isles.
The following characteristics are suggested for discussion :

(a) The Cranial and Cephalic Index.—It is desirable that this opportunity
should be seized for making a considered and up-to-date pronouncement as to
the working value of this index, and the opener, in spite of anything he has said
and written in the past, intends to submit his reasons for believing that, merely
in the shape of a bare index, it is a most valuable clue to racial origin.

Stress will be laid on its value in the hitherto largely uncharted field of
modern Germany, as well as on the fact that the index of the British Isles is

_ the lowest in Europe.

__ An attempt will be made to collect and tabulate all the cephalic indices
t hitherto recorded of the British Isles, and it is hoped that subsequent speakers
-

fF

_ will be able to point out or fill omissions where they occur.
ke In this way, if it achieves nothing more, the discussion will justify itself
in pointing out to coming workers the places where our knowledge is weakest.
_ The advantages of reinforcing the bare index with a statement of length and
Z breadth averages and of frequency curves will be considered and also the effects
_ which sex and environment exert on the index.
(>) The value of the orbital index will be considered, and the orbital

;

&

284 : TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

height as a means of discriminating between the Nordic and Mediterranean
types noted.

(c) The value of the cranial height and facial indices.
i (<) The value of standardised orthogonal projections of the norme of
skulls.

(e) The value of stature and its quick reaction to environment.

(f) The value of eye colour and the presence of brown pigment.

(g) The value of hair and skin colour and its difficulties. Frequency of
red hair as a racial test.

(A) The features, especially the contour of the nose.

5. A Comparison of an Ancient and a Surviving Type of Man. By
Professor H. J. FiEure.°®

Geographical study of anthropological types in modern populations has
revealed nests of persons resembling in many ways types of pre-Neolithic periods,
Among the pre-Neolithic skulls we may isolate the following examples of one
type: Brunn, Brix, Ofnet VI. 21, i, Combe Capelle, and Grenelle (Calotte). To
this list may in a sense be added the following, which, however, do not corre-
spond completely in character to the above: Galley Hill, Dartford, Langwith,
Chancelade, Obercassel, Halling, Tilbury, Solutré 5, Ipswich, and Liri. Several
of the above are of disputable age.

The question of the relationship of the so-called Grimaldi negroids and Barma
Grande No. 2 may be raised here. Of skulls of presumed later date we note
the Cave Skull B from Macarthur Cave, Oban, and from Arena Candida, Rome.

From Novilara (Iron Age), several skulls have index 66, 67, 68, because the
breadth is only 128-129. We may also instance a number of skulls from long
barrows in Britain, from certain French dolmens (Bas Moulins and Billancourt)
and from Swedish megalithic graves. These seem to show a grading from what
we may call Combe Capelle characters to those we call Nordic. In the Combe
Capelle skull and related types we find length of skull approaching 200 or more,
breadth usually rather under 140, the cephalic index, therefore, being rather
under 70. The Basilo-Bregmatic height is slightly in excess of breadth, the
glabella prominent, the supraciliaries large, with a sulcus above them but not
so much over the glabella, forehead retreating, skull hypsistenocephalic, nasal
index over 50, orbit usually low and long, prognathous, ‘ellissoide pelasgico.’
Some characters we associate with the Nordic Race are higher vaulting of the
whole skull, a leptorrhine condition, with a survival of some of the strong, bony
development of the previous type.

As regards living persons we have evidence from Somaliland, Abyssinia,
and Egypt, from Sardinia, from Tras-os-Montes, Portugal, from North Italy,
from the Rhdéne Valley, from various regions mentioned by de Quatrefages and
Hamy such as Austria, Rumania, Russia, and India. Nine clear cases have

been studied in some detail in the immediate vicinity of Plynlymon, and five 4

more from the same region closely approach the type. About ten more have
been found not far off. These are all men of pure local descent. Several indi-
viduals of the type have also been studied on the moorlands in the remoter
parts of S.W. Wales. There is thus a_ strong presumption that we have a
persistent type, and it may be hinted that it is a type which has probably
contributed a good deal towards the evolution of at least the Nordic and the
Mediterranean Races.

The characteristics of this type are those noted above for the Combe Capelle

skull, combined with darkness of hair and eyes, prominence of the zygomatic —

arches, stature rather greater on the whole than that of most Mediterranean

types.
We have evidence of the marked occurrence of the type round about 1870

and round about 1840 in Plynlymon district, so it must be truly characteristic ©

of this very remote region.

3 To be published in Journ. Anthropological Inst,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 285

Most of the individuals noticed in Wales have the hair rather straight, with
low orbital index and prominence of the zygomatics. But rare individuals with
marked prognathism have the hair very curly, and might even suggest a “negroid
character.’ The latter character is emphasised by Giuffrida-Ruggeri in the name
‘eur-african type.’

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Recent Discoveries of Archeological Interest in the Channel Islands.
Communicated by R. R. Marerr, M.A., D.Sc.

(1) La Cotte de St. Brelade.—The excavation of this site, which is entrusted
to a Committee of the British Association, was resumed during July and August
of this year. A cutting 12 ft. deep has been driven from outside the entrance
along the W. wall of the cave, with the object of studying more fully the
nature of the cave-filling below the floor of human occupation, the deposit in
question being known to contain organic remains. Incidentally, it has come
to light that immediately beyond the entrance there existed in Mousterian
times a sloping platform, where flint-knapping operations were carried on.
Above 500 pieces, ranging in quality from mere workshop refuse to highly
finished implements, have already been unearthed here. In the vicinity is a
rich rodent-bed which, though it cannot differ greatly in age from the rodent-
bed found inside the cave, since Hensel’s Banded Lemming is the prevailing
species, presents some peculiar features.

(2) Grotte de la Belle Hougue.—Near the Point of this name on the N.
coast of Jersey a cave has been discovered which, it may be, can claim the rare
distinction of containing Pliocene remains, though further research is needed
to make the matter certain. A party of Jesuits in 1914 lighted on a small
hole in the cliff side through which by means of a rope it was possible to
descend into an ancient sea-cave, its mouth completely blocked by falls from
the high land adjacent. Their secret was not revealed till 1918, when the
Rev. Father H. Morin handed over to the Société Jersiaise such spoils as had
been secured in the course of a somewhat perfunctory exploration. These in-
clude shells of various species, the most interesting of which is Astralium
rugosum, at present confined to more Southern waters; and teeth, bones, and
numerous pieces of antler belonging to Cervide, which Dr. Andrews is at
present disposed to bring into close relation with Cervus Htueriarum and Cervus
Issiodorensis (Croizet and Jobert), Pliocene deer from Auvergne. These speci-
mens occur in a hard breccia, associated with small stalactites, of unique
occurrence in a Jersey cave and geologically puzzling in no small degree. Above
the breccia are loose pebbles, and among these, it would seem, and not in the
breccia, was found a neolithic celt, which may have fallen from above.

(3) Dolmen at De Lancy Park, Guernsey.—The remains of a dolmen have
recently come to light here. The massive props, 10 to the N. side and 9 to
the S., are in situ, but overthrown, while the capstones have disappeared.
Pottery in a damaged state, implements and bones were found, but the bulk
of the neolithic deposit was doubtless thrown out when the monument was
disturbed, presumably in connection with agricultural operations.

(4) Other.matters which call for mention are the discovery of what is pre-
sumably a sculptured design on a capstone of the Déhus dolmen, Guernsey ;
the results of a re-examination of the Couperon dolmen, Jersey; and the
finding of a raised beach at Crabbé, Jersey, at a height of 155 ft. above mean
sea-level, and hence comparable with the raised beach at South Hill recently
examined by Major T. E. Naish.

286 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

2. Recent Discoveries in Prehistoric Archeology in Guernsey.
By Col. T. W. M. pe Guerin.

The recently discovered sculptured human figure on the under surface of
the second capstone of the central chamber of the dolmen of Déhus, Guernsey,
shows an affinity to the anthropomorphic figures of the late neolithic and
aenolithic periods of the valleys of the Seine and Marne and of south-eastern
France. Its presence in the central chamber, the first structure to be erected,
proves the late date of the dolmen.

F. C. Lukis’ account of the excavation of the dolmen showed evidence of its
use as a place of burial for a very long period, and of the erection of the four
secondary chambers at a later date than the central chamber. The discovery
of asad knife-dagger and two rings points to its use in the aenolithic
period.

There is evidence of the worship of the divinity represented by the figure
for a very long period in Guernsey, one of the two existing statue-menhirs in
the island being probably of the Iron Age.

Evidence proves the existence of trade intercourse between Guernsey and
France at the end of the neolithic period and in the Bronze Age.

Joint Meeting with Section C.—See Section C, p. 199.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion took place to Dorchester Museum and
Maumbury Rings.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Death Ritual in Eddystone Island of the Solomons.
By A. M. Hocart, M.A.

The Eddystone Islanders expose the bodies of their dead in the embryonic
position. After the funeral four men catch the soul on a dracaena leaf and a
ring, in order to secure the soul’s services in divination. The widow may be
strangled, but more often she is confined in a small enclosure with her knees
drawn up; she may not wear any finery, nor eat of food cooked in the house.
On the fourth day a big feast is held, at which a long prayer is recited which
enables the soul later on to go to the land of the dead; but in the meantime
it goes to wait in the cave at the top of the highest hill. After ten or twelve
days the skull is fetched away and put in the sun to bleach. The next event
is a small feast called ‘ Bathing.’ On the eighteenth day the skull is put into
the skull-house by the mortuary priest, who makes a burnt offering of pudding.
On the thirty-sixth day a small feast is held, and four baskets are burnt. On
that day the ghosts come to take away the deceased to the land of the dead.
Sometimes a séance is held at night to converse with the ghosts, who answer
by whistling. Life in the other world is exactly as in this world, only it goes
on at night. On the fiftieth day is a big feast, which closes the series for
ordinary people. The day before they bury the string on which the days, or
rather nights, were counted, and put a basket into the skull-house. For chiefs
they have a feast on the hundredth night; then, after a lapse of time which
depends upon supplies, they hold the final celebration or Night Festival, which
is one of the great functions in Eddystone. In olden days it appears to have
been often combined with the great head-hunting feast,

re eat

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. BEF

2. The Cults of the Mother Goddesses in India.
By W. Crooks, C.I.H., Hon. D.Sc. Oxon.*

The cult of the mother goddess is prominent in Minoan, early Hellenic,
Western Asian, and Babylonian ritual. It is suggested that some light on
its origin and development may be thrown by the study of the widespread
mother cults in India. In Vedic mythology goddesses hold only second rank,
and some at least of the modern Hindu goddesses seem to have originated among
the non-Aryans who had at a very early period reached the agricultural stage.
But it is doubtful if the cult is based on the co-operation of women in agri-
culture, or that it is connected with Mother Right. It has been the habit to
derive all the mother goddesses from the cult of Mother Earth, which is
described. But there are other types of goddesses—the Jungle Mothers, deified
women, and elemental deities which cannot be readily connected with earth
worship. The progress of anthropomorphism is traced from the aniconic to the
iconic stage, in the periodical rest and awakening of the mother goddess. Her
energies are recruited in two ways: by the rites of the sacred marriage, and
hy the blood sacrifice, often specially of male victims.

3. Badaga Clans. By F. J. Ricwarps.

Pant I. Introductory.

1. Foreword. Importance of basing the study of a South Indian tribe or
caste on a topographical examination of social organization.

2. Affinities and Environment.

3. Physical characters. The Badagas are not an ‘autochthonous’ jungle
tribe, but comparatively recent immigrants from the Mysore country.

Parr II. Social Organization.

4, Kndogamous Groups. Accounts hitherto recorded of the sections of the
Badaga community fail to discriminate between endogamous groups and
exogamous clans. The Badagas ‘ proper’ and the three ‘ associated clans.’ The
five endogamous groups.

5. The Clan Hamlet. The typical Badaga hamlet consists of members of one
clan, related to the Badagas of other hamlets either as ‘ brothers’ or ‘ in-laws.’

6. The Cult Group. Clan hamlets federated into clan cult groups for cele-
bration of agricultural rites.

7. The Nad. Badaga Cult Groups federated into Nads and associated with
other endogamous groups of the Badaga community and other Hill tribes for
purposes of economic and social autonomy.

Part III. The Harvest Festival.

8. Cult Ingredients. ‘hreefold characters. (a) Autochthonous element repre-
sented by Kurumbar officiant; (6) Cult of Tribal Hero Hiri Odiya; (c) Cult
of the Zingam (Mahalinga-swami).

9. Ritual. (a) Preliminary; (b) The incubation in Hiri Odiya’s House;
(c) Puja to (Mahalinga-swami); (d) Plucking the First Fruits by Kurumbar;
(e) Clan Feast ; (f) Ancillary rites; (g) Sacrifice, goat and buffalo; local variations.

Part IV. The Clans.

10, Distribution of (a) Badaga clans; (6) associated clans; (c) other
endogamous groups.

Part V. Conclusion.

il. Stratification. The Badaga community exhibits traces of at least two
migrations, (a) the early Badagas and the Hoysala conquest, ()) the Ummattdir
conquest and Lingayat influence. Associated clans apparently intermediate.

1 To be published in Folklore.

288 ~ TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

4. Santiago; The Evolution of a Patron Saint. By Harotp Praxs.*

The western side of the Iberian peninsula is strewn with megalithic monu-
ments, erected, according to some writers, by early prospectors for metal and
other precious commodities. Though their original purpose is doubtful, they
became in time objects of veneration, and their worship was prohibited by the
Council of Toledo. Among these monuments two, a menhir and a hollowed
stone, stood near the port of Padron, and were known as Patronus and Barcha,
‘the skipper and the boat.’

When the Moors had over-run the greater part of the peninsula, the small
remnant of Christians left in Galicia needed a war-cry in the Holy War which
they waged against the Saracens. They selected Santiago, or St. James, for
their patron, and his cult became associated in the minds of the natives with
the megalithic Padron or Patronus. In spite of many attempts by bishops
and others to dissociate the two cults, including the transference of the shrine
from Padron to Compostella, it was found impossible to do so, and the
traditional story of St. James gathered around itself many features - which
belonged to the original megalithic worship.

5. Hacavations in Cyprus in 1913.
By Professor J. lL. Myres and L. H. D. Buxton.’

These excavations were undertaken on behalf of the Cyprus Museum, with
funds granted by the Government of Cyprus, and were designed to supplement
existing evidence as to some of the more important problems in Cypriote
archeology, as follows :—

(1) In a Bronze Age necropolis at Lapathos on the north coast, a sequence
of tombs was obtained covering the ‘ Karly’ and ‘ Middle’ Periods of the Bronze
Age, and contributing many interesting details to our knowledge of the burial
customs and physical types. The usual datemarks showed that the ‘Middle’
period began not earlier than the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt.

(2) The late Bronze Age necropolis at Enkomi near Famagusta, already partly
excavated in 1895 for the British Museum, yielded few fresh tombs, but a good
deal of information as to the history of an Avgean colony on this site.

(3) The well-known ‘megalithic’ monument near Enkomi, popularly called
‘St. Catharine’s Prison,’ was shown to belong to the historic necropolis of
Salamis, and probably to its Greeco-Roman stage.

(4) The ‘Bamboula’ mound in the outskirts of Larnaca was shown to consist
of late Greek and Graeco-Roman stratified debris, overlying a fortification wall
and other remains of the Greco-Pheenician city of Kition. The earliest remains
here go back only to the beginning of the Early Iron Age, and the wall, which
overlies them, may be as early as the seventh century B.C.

(5) A sanctuary site at Levkoniko yielded a rich and continuous series of
Cypriote sculpture beginning in the seventh or eighth century 8.c., and passing
under successive Assyrian, Egyptian, Hellenic, and Greco-Roman influences.
The figures were those of male votaries carrying various emblems of a local
deity eventually identified with the Greek Apollo, and illustrating some difficult
questions of costume.

(6) The Byzantine site at Lampousa on the north coast near Lapathos yielded
only evidence of wholesale quarrying of the older settlements, during the Middle
Ages. The Hellenic town of Lapathos has thus been wholly destroyed, and its
Byzantine successor has been utterly ransacked by treasure-hunters.

The antiquities from these sites are exhibited in the Cyprus Museum. A
full report of the excavations has been delayed by the war, but will be published
shortly ; and also the results of Mr. Buxton’s anthropometric study of the ancient
and modern Cypriotes,

2 See Folklore, xxx, 3, pp. 208-226.
° See Journ. Anthropological Inst., Part I, 1920.”

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 289

6. The Anthropology of Cyprus. By L. H. Dupizy Buxton, M.A.

The enquiry into the anthropology: of Cyprus was undertaken in the autumn
of 1913, under the general direction of Professor J. L. Myres. During the course
of the enquiry 557 adult males were measured, and a small number of adult
females. A large number of observations on school children were also taken. A
number of skulls from bronze age and other sets were collected.

The villages in which measurements were made may be divided into four
groups, namely, Group I., the North Coast villages, Lapethos Karabas, Hagios
Ambrosios, Akanthar; Group II., Eastern Mesoaria villages, Crihomi Limnea,
Hagios Sergios; Group III., Levkoniko; Group IV., Nicosia, Kythria, and
various villages in the neighbourhood. Groups I. and II. may be taken as
typical groups. The mean head breadth of all groups is similar, viz. 149 mm.
In the cas2 of head length two subdivisions occur, viz. those groups with a head
length of 182 mm. (typical Group I. 220 males), and those with a head length of
178 mm. (typical Group II. 167 males). The mean head length for Cyprus (557
males) is 180 mm., which seems to show that these two subdivisions are equally
divided. It is not improbable that this division may suggest, in view of the
large number of observations, that two racial elements are re: lly present, as a
difference of 4 mm. appears to be significant. The two divisions do not, how-
ever, suggest the orthodox division into Mediterranean and Alpine types, but
the matter is not at present sufficiently certain.

It appears, as far as the few skulls examined at present can be counted as
evidence, that the ancient types closely correspond to the modern types. The
means for both the whole collection of crania and that of bronze age crania are
as follows : Cranial length, 177 mm.; cranial breadth, 140 mm. This gives a
differencs of 9 mm. in breadth between the living and the dead, and a difference
of 3mm. in length between the dead and the living in Cyprus as a whole, but a
difference of 5 mm. between the inhabitants of modern Lapethos and Karabas
and the ancient inhabitants of the same place. No great change is at present
therefore apparent. It is possible that when a greater number of crania are
available the two groups, if two groups there be, may be differentiated.

Tt should be noted in connexion with these facts that most of crania came
from places where the largest number of observations upon the living were made,
and also that the groups were selected not haphazard nor to fit the figures, but

on a geographical basis. It was only after the grouping was made that the

possibility of ethnologica] subdivisions became apparent.

With this series of anthropological measurements another gap in our know-
ledge of the ethnology of the Eastern Mediterranean has been filled. Several
gaps still remain, of which the most important appears to be Southern Anatolia.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Stonework and Goldfields in Papua. By E. W. PEaRson
CHINNERY.?

The following stone objects have been unearthed, many feet below the
surface of goldfields, in the mountainous districts of the interior of Papua by
European miners engaged in gold-digging :—

Pestles (some of them carved to represent birds with snake-like heads,
and some of them encircled by knobs).

os Mortar of granite (surrounded by knobs).

Axe head of. obsidian.
Natives have unearthed in one of these goldfields (Yodda) :—
Quartz objects of various shapes with holes pierced through them (these

were converted by the finders into stone clubs). :
Granite mortar (which holds rain water and is now used as a mirror).

1 See Journ. Anthropological Inst., Dec. 1919.

290 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

On the summit of a large hill in the vicinity of the Yodda goldfield is :—

Large mortar (which holds rain water and serves as a drinking place for
natives hunting in the vicinity).

Between the Yodda goldfield and its coastal region, in the Giriwu river :—

Human image (hands crossed on stomach, and forehead retreating to a
point at the back of head—unshaped below the waist).

And near the village of Gona on the coast of the Yodda region, in the vicinity
of the Giriwu mouth :—
Fragments of ornamented pottery (unearthed).

In the vicinity of Rainu (Collingwood Bay) :—
Fragments of ornamented pottery, obsidian objects, stone pestles, and
conus shells ornamented with incised designs (unearthed).

«

The origin of the above objects is not known to existing inhabitants.

On the South-east Coast, in the vicinity of the old Gibara (or Milne Bay) gold-
field, the following stone objects have been noted :—
Stones (with concentric circles chipped thereon).
Short standing stones (with markings thereon).
Circles of stone sitting-places (in some of which cannibal feasts were
once held by present inhabitants).

In his book on the Megalithic Culture in Indonesia (1918) Mr. W. J. Perry
deals with the movements of a stone-using people who evidently were acquainted
with gold-mining and who settled in districts where gold was found. These
people left, among other things, as a sign of their presence, terraced irrigation
and megalithic monuments.

The evidence of the stone objects in Papua shows that this country also was
visited at some time by stone-using people who differed in many respects from
the present inhabitants. It would appear from the distribution of the objects
that these stone-users had some interest in gold-bearing country; such an
intense interest, in fact, that they penetrated the very heart of the interior
and left their traces in the places some of which are the actual gold-workings of
the present day. Terraced irrigation has been noted in some of these districts.

If the early stone-using people of Papua can be associated with the stone
using immigrants of Indonesia we may reasonably suppose that the motive which
led them into the interior was gold-seeking, a similar motive to that which
induced the whites to penetrate the same country and overcome the tremendous
difficulties in the way.

If this assumption is correct the early prospectors possibly searched for
quartz with the object of extracting the gold it contained by a process of
crushing, to which use the pestles and mortars would be adapted.

Further investigation of this subject may help to clear up many of the
problems of the ethnology of Papua.

2. Some Balkan Antiquities Found during the Period 1915-1919.
By Stanuey Casson, M.A.

I, Macedonia.—Archeological discoveries in the Vardar, Struma, and Lan-
gaza valleys and on the Salonika littoral.

(a) The prehistoric mounds of Macedonia; their types and the pottery found
in them. Incised, pebble-polished and painted wares. Imported wares and
foreign influences. Stone and bone implements.

(6) Prehistoric burials and cemeteries. The Aivasil and Lower Struma
burials. The Chauchitsa cemetery.

(c) Classical town sites.

i. Lete.

u. Berga.

ili. Calindoea.

iv. Amphipolis

v. Thessalonica. The Roman and Greek cemeteries of Thessalonica.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 291

(d) Isolated discoveries of the classical period :

i. Sculptures.
ii. Inscriptions.
ili. Earthenware and bronze objects.

(€) Various discoveries of the Byzantine period.

ll. Z'hessaly.—A prehistoric site in the plain of Larissa near Chasambali.
III. Doris.—Dorian town sites in the Bralo area.
1V. Yurkey.—German excavations in Turkey during the war,

3. Recent Discovery of an Unrecorded Type of Circular Earthwork in
the New Forest. By H. Krpner.

The circular earthwork described in this report is situated on the west side
of Hatchet Moor, Beaulieu Heath, about 210 yards east of a trackway running
southwards from Pudding Barrow, where another trackway comes in obliquely
on the left and crosses (see O.S. map). The earthwork is of a type hitherto
unrecorded in the New Forest. The circular bank is slightly over 2 ft. high,
and 21 ft. wide; and is continuous the whole way round without gap for
entrance. There is neither outer nor inside ditch, nor central mound. Measure-
ment: Bank, 21 ft.+area 102 ft.+bank 21 ft.=144 ft. over all. Diameter of
area=34 yards; over-all diameter=48 yards.

The area surface is slightly lower than the ground level, as if depressed; and
whilst Iceland moss is found growing outside, none or scarcely any is seen
within the area.

Whence the material was obtained for constructing the bank is not apparent,
as the difference of level respectively of area and ground surface does not seem
to account for all the material. In three bowl-barrows on Ibsley Common
excavated by Mr. Sumner the nuclei were composed of white pipeclay brought
from a distance of a quarter or half a mile; and he suggests a similar transport
of material in the earthwork now reported.

The setting of the earthwork on the open moor in association with bowl-
barrows; the width, spread appearance, vegetation and consolidation of the
circular bank—all support the conclusion that it is of Bronze Age date. There
being no outer ditch nor any gap in'the bank for entrance negatives any idea
of its being either a camp or stockade of Norman, Saxon, or Roman times.

The earthwork is of the type described by Sir R. Colt Hoare as ‘ Pond
Barrows,’ and it differs from a typical disc-barrow in not having either inner
ditch or central mound. The writer suggests that the earthwork was primarily,
if not exclusively, intended for purposes of religious ritual, and only secondarily,
if at all, for sepulchral uses.

4. Hedenesbury or Hengistbury of Prehistoric Time. By G. BRowNEN.

On the western bank of the estuary of the rivers Avon and Stour are the
prehistoric (earthwork) northern defences of an important settlement com-
manding the waterways from the Solent and Channel to the hinterlands of
Wilts, Dorset and Somerset and their prehistoric sanctuaries, &c. Portions of
these fragmentary mounds have been roughly opened in modern times, with
insignificant results, but the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries
undertook the first systematic exploration of the site a few years since, and its
Report was published in 1915.

The township or settlement possessed a port just within the estuary with an
acropolis, and has afforded proof of trade with ancient Gaul more than two
millenia ago—chiefly by way of the Loire and Garonne. Its traffic reached
Marseilles.

Among the many and curious finds obtained was a hoard of some thousands
of coins—a few only being Roman and dating from the Republic nearly to the
Roman departure from Britain.

The great bulk of the discovered coinage was British and Gaulish in type,
and indicate an intimate connection or correspondence with this British port.

292 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H.

The coins mostly appear to have been in good or new condition when hidden,
but have become corroded by time, aided by marine and climatic influences
on or in the site in the valley.

As nearly all were found in or near one site, the hoard may probably be
regarded as belonging to trade, as in a banking establishment or as a subsidy
for help.?

One other matter arises out of this ancient entente cordiale—Are we now
able to give this British port a name?

In the Ravenna lists there is a port named Bolvelaunio, which would suit
this township very well. Mr. Baxter has placed it at Poole, about ten miles
west in Dorset. Gen. Pitt-Rivers locates it at Christchurch, about one mile
norfh on the same rivers. But these towns are English. Objections may be
raised to these conclusions in that these sites were not existent in the period
required, but later. On the other hand, the Ravenna geographer, who had
access to fuller records than we possess, indicates a well-known port township
and would harmonise better with the late Sir John Rhys’ selection of the river
Stour as the boundary line betwixt the Brython and Goidel.

The knowledge and usage of this West Hampshire port is now made evident
by these relics found within its area, and is the justification of the strong,
though fragmentary, ramparts still remaining on the site.

5. Report of Committee on Archeological Investigations in Malta.—
See Reports, p. 123.

6. Some Glimpses of Unknown Papua. By E. W. Prarson
CHINNERY.’

Within recent years many communities of woolly-haired people have been
discovered during administrative exploration in various swamp and mountain
regions of the interior of British New Guinea. It has been noticed that those
found in the mountains are distinctly shorter than those in the bush lowlands,
who in turn differ physically from the coastal people.

It will be found on further investigation that a Negrito-Papuan element, dis-
covered in the Mafula and described by Williamson, exists also in the tribes
of the Owen Stanley Range from Mount Chapman to Mount Obree, all of which
appear, physically, to be the results of a mixture between earlier stocks of short
and tall, light- (yellow) and dark-skinned peoples. The various languages
spoken by these peoples have been classified as Papuan.

Joint Meeting with Subsection I (Psychology), at which the following
Papers were read :—

7. Magic and Science. By Prof. Carvern Rrap.*

8. Primitive Art as a Means of Practical Magic.°
By Rey. H. J. Duxinrrsup Astiny, M.A., Litt.D.
Primitive Art includes the pictographic work of primitive man, whether in
the past or the present.
In the course of artistic history special attention may be drawn to the cave-

2 See Cesar IIT. 9, &c.

* Cf. Journ. Anthropological Inst., vol. 45, p. 69 (1915, with W. N. Beaver) ;
. 49, p. 86 (1919); AZan. vol. 17, p. 55 (May 1917); vol. 19, p. 72 -(Sept.,
1919).

* "The author has in preparation a book On the Origins of Man and his Super-
stitions, to include the subject of this paper.
®* To be published in Hibbert Journal, Jan. 1920.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 298

drawings of Northern Spain and the Dordogne ; to the ornamented implements of
the Magdalenian Age; to Neolithic Art as shown in the Kivik rock in Sweden ;
and at later stages to the art of prehistoric Egypt, and of Crete and Mycene.

Among the primitive races of modern times the drawings of the Ksquimaux

_ and the Bushmen may be noted for comparison.
The most life-like and truly artistic examples of the work of primitive man
are those produced by the Cro-Magnon people in the Aurignacian Period, and
must have been the result of long previous attempts, though we have no
specimens of these.

The Prophet Ezekiel describes artistic representations of a similar nature
which he saw in a vision displayed upon the walls of an inner chamber in the
ne at Jerusalem as an outcome of popular superstition among the remnant
_ of the people left in the city after its conquest by the Chaldeans.

Now primitive artistry varies from the highest perfection, as in the cave-
_ drawings of France and Spain, to examples that appear like the first efforts
of children, or to the petrifaction which is exhibited in the conventional art of
_ the historic period in Egypt. But none of the work was done for a purely
artistic furpose, or to gratify the wsthetic sense.

It is all based on sympathetic magic.

Thus, just as religion supplied a marvellous stimulus to art in Athens after
the Persian wars, and to Christendom in the Middle Ages, so magic, with a
more practical aim in view, supplied a similar stimulus to the artistic instinct
which is an inseparable factor in the complex nature of man.

It may be said, This will explain the drawings of animals and such-like, but
how explain such drawings, for example, as those of the Dancing Women in
the Cave of Cogul? The identical principle applies here also : To primitive man
the image or symbol is the same thing as the living actor, and what is repre-
sented as being done by the symbol is as though it were being actually performed
by the producer of it; compare the Ushabtis in Egyptian tombs and the magical
ceremonies of the Australian and other native tribes in the present day.

Tt is possible that we may find evidences of Totemism, as the basis of social
arrangements, either actual or decadent, throughout the peoples whose art we
are discussing.

294 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

Section I.—PHysioLoey.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: Professor D. Nori Paton, M.D., F.R.S.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

The President delivered the following Address :—

An Aspect of Protein Metabolism.

CONTENTS.

I. Introduction : : : ° é . : : A - 294
II. Protein Metabolism . J : : : : : : - 296
1. Proteins as a Source of Energy 5 e 6 : 5 : . 296

2. Proteins in Growth and Repair Z : : : : : - 297 |

3. Specific Action of Constituents of Proteins ¢ : : : . | 298 &

i. Sources. : . 2 : : - : . 298 @

ii. Methyl-quanidin a normal constituent of the body. ‘ . 299 —
iii. Physiological Action of Guamdin - : : ; : -, 299
iv. Detoxrication of Guanidin . : : : : “ - 300
Significance of Urinary Creatin . : ol : 3 ; : - 301
Creatin and Total Nitrogen in Muscle . - : : ; : - 303
Creatin asan Anabolite . ‘ - : - ; : : - 304

The Relationship of Creatin and Creatinin . : é : 3 . 805
Creatin Investigations Old and New. ‘ : : . : - 306

III. Conclusion 5 5 . > ; 5 C > : : - 306

I. INTRODUCTION.

Prruars at this, our first meeting after the Great War, I might be expected
to speak of the part which Physiology played, not only in the alleviation of
suffering among the combatants, but also in guiding the policy of the Govern- —
ment as regards the regulation of the supply of food for the civilian population
in those dark days when the submarine menaced our very existence.

But so much has already been said upon these matters, and the claims of ©
Physiology have been so amply established, that I have decided to refrain —
from elaborating them further, and rather to allow myself to forget these past —
horrors and to ask your consideration of one of these problems of physiology,
which is not at present of any apparent practical importance. .

I do so the more willingly because I think that at the present time the
utilitarian aspect of science is being allowed to take too predominant a posi-
tion. We are perhaps just now apt to forget that our prime function is the
pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. On this all real progress depends.

-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 295

To find oneself President of a Section of the British Association is an intima-
tion that one has joined the ranks of the veterans and a warning that one’s days
of active work are drawing to a close.

But, while one accepts the situation with some twinges of regret, one is
consoled by the thought that a long association with physiology has enabled one
to take a wider general survey than one did in one’s younger days, to see more
clearly the bearing of one part upon another and to recognise some of the
dangers to which we, as investigators and teachers, are exposed.

It has often been urged that physiology, the study of Life, cannot possibly
be an exact science in the same way as are physics and chemistry. My old
friend, Prof. P. G. Tait, used to twit me with the possession of a mind
‘debauched by the so-called science of biology.’

I am not quite sure what the charge that biology is not an exact science
really means. But if it means that in it direct methods of measurement are
not possible, then I am inclined to reply that in many of the phenomena of
molecular physics, including chemistry, such direct methods are still wanting,
or have only recently been devised, while in physiology the whole trend of
the science has been to devise graphic or self-registering methods, and to
exclude more and more the fallacies of observation through the senses.
It is only when our study of life involves, as it must often involve, the
consideration of consciousness, that we are thrown back upon observational
methods, that the personal element is introduced as a disturbing factor,
and that our results are open to many different interpretations. Of course
the same fallacy may invade the investigation of many of the vital mani-
festations not involving consciousness, but the fault then is in the observer.
It is so difficult to avoid forcing the interpretation which appeals to us. But
it should be recognised that the evidence, when set down quite simply and
without comment, should lead others to the same conclusion as that to which
we have arrived. We are not justified in dressing it up in order to secure
it more ready acceptance. In doing so, we cease to be scientific men and become
special pleaders.

Yet this dressing up of one’s view so as to make it convincing is one of
the most tempting of crimes—a crime which all-of us, usually unconsciously,
have doubtless committed in our time and will go on committing. And the
worst of it is that the abler the exponent, the greater is the harm done. Every
part of physiology affords startling examples of this. That which first occurs
to me is the theory of secretion of urine, upon which a recent writer frankly
takes up one hypothesis and with great ability defends it through many pages,
as a conclusion to be unreservedly accepted. It is so difficult to say, ‘ the
evidence is inconclusive, to give the verdict of ‘‘ Not proven.’’’ The same
thing is seen in the old fight between the exponents of the two main theories of
colour vision, neither of which is necessarily right. An attractive interpre-
tation, boldly stated by an able advocate, is apt to seize the imagination even
of a critical physiologist and to lead to an abrogation of judgment and a blind
acceptance. Especially is this the case when the work is not in our own special
line and when it is announced by a due flourish of trumpets and is supported
by the invention of more or less incomprehensible Greek words devised by some
classical colleague. Dangerous and unscientific as is this championing of one
interpretation of a series of observations or experiments, it has not infre-
guently helped forward the advance of knowledge. It has often stimulated
other workers and led to the true solution of the problem—witness_ the
fascinating work and the able deductions drawn from it by Heidenhain on
lymph formation which stimulated Starling to subsequent investigations thus
leading to a better understanding of the facts which Heidenhain had observed.
Witness too the admirable study of cutaneous sensibility by Head, Sherwen and
Rivers and their interpretation of the results, uncritically accepted by some, but
which stimulated others to restudy the subject and to indicate simpler interpreta-
tions of the observations, and these have reacted again to induce further work
upon the problems.

A consideration of these dangers in the physiological inquiry helps us to
understand: how seldom any line of investigation goes straight to the goal:
a zigzag forward progression is almost universal—at one time many points
off the straight line in one direction—at another just as many off in ae ia

AA

296 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

This devious mode of progress, perhaps more marked in the work of
previous generations, is still manifest in many of the modern lines of advance,
largely as a result of too ready acceptance of the conclusions arrived at from
insutticient experimental data. Witness the to-and-fro swing of our conception
of the significance of adrenalin in the body. The older workers were so ham-
pered by insufficient methods that many of the conclusions accepted as final
should have been taken as simply provisional.

II. Protrem Mrrasorism.

A consideration of the present position of our knowledge of the metabolism
of protein in the body, and of the way in which we have arrived at it, is a
striking illustration of this zigzag advance, what I have elsewhere described
as tacking to windward.

It was only towards the end of the eighteenth century that the true nature
of the nitrogenous constituents of plants and animals was recognised, although
Boerhaave in 1732 had indicated their identity. Fourcroy and Scheele and
Berthollet did much to advance our knowledge of their composition.

1. Proteins As A Source or ENeErey.

It was Liebig, early in the nineteenth century, who really first emphasised
the primary importance of the albuminous constituents of the body. It was he
who first clearly taught the value of these proteins as constituents of the food
in building up the living body. It was he who first pointed out that by their
combustion in the body the energy required for work is liberated—although he
made the mistake of concluding that it was all supplied by proteins.

Is it to be wondered at that in those days of inadequate knowledge of
physiology and of imperfect methods of investigation, he had to content himself
with a purely theoretical consideration of the subject, and that he failed to
disabuse his mind of the idea of the necessary co-operation of some vital force
or spirit to protect the albumin from oxidation during the resting state of
muscle? Physiologists even at the present day are too apt to seize upon such
metaphysical abstraction as a cloak for ignorance!

The formulation by Liebig of the theory that the oxidation of proteins is the
sole source of the energy liberated in muscular work is perhaps the most striking
example of the danger of the bold statement by a great scientific authority of a
conclusion unverified by experiment. For years it dominated all study of the
physiology of nutrition and to the present day it influences the practice of trainers
of athletes. It was in vain that Voit recorded his experiments, which showed that
muscular work does not increase the output of urea, which it should have done
had Liebig’s theory been correct. Certainly Voit’s experiments were themselves
imperfect, since he failed to carry his cbservations beyond the day in which
exercise was taken.

It is a striking commentary on the credulity of physiologists that the
experiment which struck the first blow at the general acceptance of Liebig’s
teaching was that of Fick and Wislicenus in their ascent of the Faulhorn, an
experiment which for years held a prominent place in every textbook of
Physiology, an experiment which every physiologist of to-day will agree was
absolutely worthless, inasmuch as these observers took protein food on the day
before the experiment and were excreting its products next day, inasmuch as
they stopped collecting the urine on the night of the ascent, and inasmuch as
their estimation of the work done left out of consideration the respiratory
disturbances in the ascent.

Still, I remember how, as a student, I was taught that this experiment had
overthrown the teaching of Liebig. Its influence is shown by the fact that
Pfliiger took up the defence of Liebig’s teaching. You all remember the
records of the very lean dog fed on the leanest horse-flesh in Bonn and doing
work in drawing a load the energy for which was liberated from proteins—.
because the dog had nothing else from which to liberate it!

You all remember the well-known experiment of Argutinsky by which he
thought to show that over 90 per cent. of the energy of the work of hill-
climbing came from proteins. At that time I ventured to point out that

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 297

Argutinsky was losing weight even before the exercise, that he was in a
condition of semi-starvation and that therefore, when any extra call for energy
was made, it had to be got from the protein of the body, since he was a lean
young man. The chief value of his work was in showing that any increased
excretion of nitrogen occurs, not on the day of the exercise, but on the two
succeeding days.

Since that time the methods of investigating the processes of metabolism
have enormously advanced, and the combination of the study of the respiratory
exchange with determinations of the excretion of nitrogen has enabled a definite
decision to be obtained as to the utilisation of the three proximate principles
during rest and during muscular work. As everyone knows, it has been demon-
strated that while carbohydrates must be considered as the most readily avail-
able food of the body, it is equally true that the direct or indirect oxidation
of the amino acids formed from the proteins of the food or of the tissues on
the one hand and of fats on the other are also valuable sources of energy.

2. PRoreEINs IN GROWTH AND Reparr.

The advance in our knowledge of the way in which protein is used in the
construction and repair of tissues shows a less devious course. First came the
recognition of changes of the crude protein of the food to more diffusible, and,
as was later shown, simpler molecules. Then came the discovery by Kutscher,
Seeman and Cohnheim of the more complete breakdown into the constituent
amino acids, a recognition of the purpose of the breakdown to yield the con-
stituent ‘‘ building stones ’’ for use as required by each tissue, and lastly the
elaborate work upon the special significance and potentialities of each of these.

Some of these amino acids must be supplied as such, and if certain of them,
which may occur only in minute amounts in the body tissues, are withheld,
growth is rendered impossible. They become the limiting factor.

Other amino acids, glycin for example, may be formed in the body.

Not the least important of the amino acids are the diamino acids, lysin,
histidin, and arginin, which are so-.abundant in the protein which is combined
with nucleic acid in the nuclei of cells. That lysin is essential for growth has
been for long well established. Histidin and arginin resemble one another
closely in the constitution of their molecules, but while histidin has the imina-
zole ring, arginin has the guanidin molecule as the end of the chain.

Experiments recorded by Ackroyd and Hopkins! tend to show that in the
absence of these two diamino acids growth of young white rats is arrested, and
that there is a loss of body weight, but that the addition of both or either of
them is sufficient to restore the rate of growth. Such observations seem to
indicate that they are among the amino acids which are essential and which must
be supplied in the food.

The fact that the addition of either one or other is sufficient to restore growth
led these investigators to suggest that in metabolism each can be converted into
the other. The safer conclusion apvears to be that both of them can yield some
substance which is necessary for growth and for normal metabolism.

The same workers further give experiments to show that in the absence of
these substances, the excretion of allantoin falls and that it is again increased
when one or other or both are added to the diet. They suggest that arginin
and histidin probably constitute the most readily available raw material for
the synthesis of the purin ring in the animal body. It must be remembered that
‘Abderhalden and Julius Schmidt failed to get evidence of the formation of allan-
toin from histidin in the dog. As yet the relationship of these bodies to purin
Metabolism cannot be considered as definitely established. Investigations upon
birds which excrete such large quantities of purin nitrogen shoyld yield more
conclusive results.

The possible source of creatin, methyl-guanidin acetic acid, from histidin
has been considered by Ditmann and Welcker on purely theoretical grounds
which need not now be considered.

__ Arginin is a much more abundant constituent of most proteins than is
histidin. The characteristic of the arginin molecule is the presence of guanidin.
it is guanidin-« amino 8 valerianic acid.

;

298 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

In the protein of ox-flesh it occurs to the extent of about 7 to 11 per cent., so
that taking the protein of muscle at 20 per cent., there is present in ox-flesh
some 2 per cent. of arginin. This contains about 40 per cent. of guanidin, so
that in the arginin alone there is no less than 0:8 per cent. of combined
guanidin and 5-07 per cent. guanidin nitrogen, or, taking the total nitrogen of
flesh at 3-7 per cent., some 15 per cent. of the total nitrogen, or on the lower
analysis about 11 per cent.

From cat’s muscle Miss Henderson? recovered an average of 0:56 per cent.
of total guanidin, z.e., 0-4 per cent. guanidin nitrogen, with 3-7 per cent. of
total nitrogen in the muscle. The guanidin nitrogen amounted to nearly 10-4 per
cent. of the total nitrogen.

8. Speciric ACTION OF CONSTITUENTS OF PROTEINS.

An important aspect of the metabolism of proteins is the physiological
activity of some of their products of disintegration.

Their specific dynamic action in stimulating the rate of metabolism and
increasing heat production, first demonstrated by Rubner, has been shown by
Lusk to be due to the action of their constituent amino acids.

Some of Mansfield’s work strongly suggests that this action may be con-
trolled by the thyroid gland, but into this question it is impossible to enter at
present.

The possible importance of one product of disintegration of protein, the
guanidin moiety of the arginin molecule, has so far received no attention.

i. Sources,

Its real significance has been too readily ignored on account of the demonstra-
tion of the formation of urea in the metabolism of arginin. But while Kossel
and Dakin * showed that this urea formation goes on in the liver, they did not
find the same evidence of the change in muscle. Thompson,‘ after the adminis-
tration of arginin by the mouth and subcutaneously to dogs, recovered very
varying amounts in the form of urea and got a marked increase in the excretion
of ammonia. He was forced to conclude that arginin stimulates nitrogenous
metabolism, in this way acting as the more recent work of Lusk has shown that
so Many amino acids act, and rendering any conclusion as regards the complete
conversion to urea impossible.

More recently Inouye,® in perfusion experiments through the liver and in
autolysis experiments, has observed an increase in creatinin after the addition
of arginin.

Thompson,® shortly before his tragic and untimely death, published a series
of experiments which proved fairly conclusively that arginin alone, and still more
markedly when given along with methyl citrate, distinctly increases the output
of total creatinin, mainly by increasing the output of creatin.

In the face of such experiments it must be concluded that a certain part at
least of the guanidin moiety of arginin escapes conversion into urea and
ultimately forms creatin.

That the guanidin in arginin, creatin and other substances may be primarily
formed from non-guanidin nitrogen was demonstrated by Burns? in the develop-
ing chick. He found that the amount of guanidin in the egg showed a steady
increase to the twelfth day of incubation and only after this date did creatin —
appear. In considering the possible origin of the guanidin thus formed, one is
almost forced to look to the cholin part of the lecithin molecule as the only
possible source. The formation of guanidin or at least of creatin, methyl-

guanidin acetic acid, from cholin is not purely hypothetical, for Riesser® has —

not only considered it on theoretical lines—that it can be produced by a union —
of cholin with urea—but he has actually adduced evidence to show that in —
rabbits the creatin of muscle is increased after administration of cholin. _-

Bavmann, Hines and Marker ® in a short note state that by perfusing with —
choline and urea in the dog, they got an increase of the creatin in muscle.

If cyanamid instead of urea took part in the reaction methyl-guanidin might A
be directly formed, the ethyl group of the cholin being oxidised away and two —
methyls removed.

=

a

Diqu ten ~* 3

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 299

Of course in mammals, and in the chick after hatching, the arginin, in the
protein of the food and the creatin in the flesh, when it is eaten, must serve as
an ample supply of guanidin, so ample in fact that probably a very consider-
able part of arginin is at once decomposed by arginase into urea.

ii. Methyl-quanidin a normal constituent of the body.

Methyl-guanidin is a normal constituent of flesh and of liver as was shown
by Smorodinzew. Miss Henderson '° found in the muscle of cats an average of
0:0839 per cent. of free guanidin or methyl-guanidin. It occurs in normal human
urine and in that of the dog and horse.'! In the blood of normal dogs
it is present in hardly detectable quantities. !*

In tetania parathyreopriva the increase in the guanidin content of the blood
is accompanied by an increased excretion in the urine, and a similar increase in
the urine has been found in the idiopathic tetany of children. In two cases of
tetany in adults Sharpe found guanidin as di-methyl-guanidin in amounts easily
demonstrable in the urine.

Methyl-guanidin like uric acid thus seems to be partly excreted as such and
partly, when in larger quantities, to undergo some change.

iii. Physiological Action of Guanidin.

Guanidin and its methyl derivative, which in future I shall speak of together
as guanidin, are substances of great pharmacological activity. Their action was
first investigated by Gergens and Baumann in 1876. They described in frogs
fibrillar twitching of the muscles due to a peripheral action and tonic extensor
spasms due to an action on the spinal cord. They point out that in mammals
the tonic spasms are more marked than the fibrillar twitching of the muscles.

Subsequent investigators have confined their attention chiefly to the peripheral
action and considerable discussion has arisen as to the exact point of action
of the substance.

When we were investigating tetania parathyreopriva, Burns was engaged
on a study, following up the suggestion of Pekelharing, of the possible relation
of the guanidin part of the creatin molecule to the tone of muscle. The extra-
ordinary similarity of the symptoms produced to those of experimental tetany
suggested to us the possibility that the condition of tetany might be related to
some disturbance of the guanidin metabolism, and led to a more careful investi-
gation of the action of guanidin and methyl-guanidin.

We have already arrived at the conclusion that tetany is due to a toxic
substance in the blood, since the symptoms can be temporarily removed by
bleeding and transfusing with normal sodium chloride solution, a fact which
cannot be explained on the view that the symptoms are due to a decrease in
the calcium of the blood as had been suggested by McCallum.

We found that the administration of guanidin and methyl-guanidin pro-
duced symptoms identical with those of parathyreoidectomy. There was the same
direct stimulation of the outgoing spinal neurons to the muscles leading to
tremors, jerkings and general convulsions and when large doses were directly
applied to the spinal cord a paralytic condition similar to that which some-
times supervenes in tetania parathyreopriva. There was the same increased
excitability of the nerves to electrical stimulation, followed, after large doses,
by a curare-like action, a condition also observed in clinical tetany after
convulsions.

Koch had described the occurrence of guanidin with other bases in the urine
of the dog after removal of the parathyreoids. In our series of experiments
Burns and Sharpe found a most marked increase in the guanidin or methy]-
guanidin content of the blood (loc, cit.). The method is long and tedious and
there is considerable chance of loss, although in test analysis it was found to
give a good return of the added base. But the differences between the guanidin
content of normal blood and of blood after parathyreoidectomy and in children
suffering from tetany was found to be very marked.

_ Wishart !° further found that the muscles of the frog immersed in the serum
from the blood of dogs and cats after parathyreoidectomy frequently mani-
fested the tremors and the characteristic change in contraction which are
produced by the action of guanidin. The possibility of using this biological

300 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

test is, however, limited by the fact that the muscles of frogs kept in confine-
ment for some time do not respond to guanidin as was shown by Langley.

The conclusion we draw from our experiments is that the parathyreoids
in some way as yet unknown regulate the metabolism of guanidin in the body
and that in doing so they may play a part in regulating the tone of the skeletal
muscles.

It is by the continued activity of the efferent neurons of the cord that this
tone is maintained, and it is upon these that guanidin acts. Possibly, when the
amount of guanidin is small, this action is facilitated by the increased excita-
bility of the nerve endings, and, when the amount is further increased, the
effect of its overaction upon the cord may be masked by the onset of the curare-
like action on the terminations. ,

This is not the place to discuss the question of the nerve channels by which
impulses concerned in the maintenance of tone reach the muscle.

iv. Detoxication of Guanidin.

As I have already indicated, guanidin remains active after methylation,
but when it, or its methyl compound, is linked to acetic acid, as in creatin,
it becomes inert. Burns has also found that linked to glucose it loses much of
its toxicity, and the Camis states that solutions of guanidin become inert when
rubbed up with muscle.

I have all along felt that the significance of creatin must be looked for in
its guanidin moiety. Creatin itself is inert, although Maxwell !4 has recorded
an exciting action in the cortex cerebri.

In spite of Pekelharing’s results I do not think that there is evidence that
the creatin content of muscles is associated directly with the maintenance of
muscle tone. Certainly when the nerve to a muscle is cut, the tone is at once
lost, and yet, until the marked structural changes of advanced degeneration
appear, Cathcart, Henderson, and Noél Paton? find that the creatin content
does not markedly decrease.

While freely admitting the validity of much of the evidence that an increase
in tone may be accompanied by an increase of the creatin content of the muscles
and an increased excretion of creatinin, there seems to me to be no indication of
how the increase in creatin modifies the tone. The administration of creatin
subcutaneously does not do so. And hence the only possible explanation must
be that the increased tone is associated with an increased amount of guanidin
in the blood and that the increase in the creatin is secondary to this—the
result of an attempt to remove any excess of guanidin. The evidence in favour
of this will be presently considered.

As regards the relationship of creatin to guanidin, two possibilities have to
be considered, either (1) that creatin is the source of free guanidin, or
(2) that creatin is formed to fix an excess of guanidin and to detoxicate it. It
may then be excreted as creatin or creatinin, or the creatin may be used in the
resynthesis of such molecules as arginin or histidin.

1. The view that creatin is a source of methyl-guanidin is favoured by the
case with which it is oxidised outside the body by HgO to methyl-guanidin.
But, on the other hand, there is no evidence that this occurs in the body. Even
in large doses creatin is non-toxic and I have found that when injected into
parathyreoidectomised animals it does not accelerate the onset of symptoms,
while the injection of even very small doses of guanidin does so. If creatin
were a source of guanidin it should act in the same way.

2. The second view that creatin fixes and detoxicates guanidin is supported
by the following evidence :

1. Miss Henderson !° finds that after parathyreoidectomy there is an increase
of the creatin content of the muscle and a decrease, not only of the free
guanidin, but also of the total guanidin along with the increase of free guanidin
in the blood recorded by Burns and Sharpe. The decréase in the free guanidin
corresponds closely with the increase in the creatin guanidin and suggests
that a process of linking is occurring. But on the other hand the more marked
fall which occurs in the total guanidin of muscle in proportion to the total
nitrogen seems to show that there is either (1) an increased elimination of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 301

guanidin from the muscle to the blood, or (2) a decreased taking up from the
blood. In either of these ways the concentration of guanidin in the blood
necessary to enable it to manifest its stimulating action on the central nervous
system might be brought about. These observations must be repeated as the
amount of muscle available for analysis was too small to give absolutely reliable
results as to the amount of guanidin. As is well known muscle takes amino acids
from the blood and stores them at a higher concentration. Folin has shown
that it also takes up creatin and urea, and Mrs. Cathcart has shown that it
even takes ammonia salts from the blood.

2. Jafie’* had shown that glycocyamin, guanidin acetic acid, is methylated
in the body and so converted to creatin. This was confirmed by Dorner.?® But
neither of these succeeded in getting an increase in the creatinin of the urine
after the injection of methyl-guanidin. As Riesser points out the toxicity of
this substance makes it difficult to get results in this way.

Thompson,'® however, got a distinct increase in the creatinin output in the
dog and in the creatin output in the duck after parenteral injection of guanidin
carbonate.

Some recent unpublished work by Wishart carried out this summer in my
laboratory shows that after injecting guanidin into dogs and hens the creatin
content of the muscle is markedly increased.

I give a tabular view of his results :

Creatin per cent. in muscles before and after injection of quanidin sulphate.

a Before After
Cat 2 ; 3 : ; -470 -566
mo’. 3 F : . -589 639
wo. : ; : P -D40 553
Dogl . 5 . : : 324 393
Control—
Hen! . 5 ; F ; 460 «20 No guanidin
injected
ae é : : A 522 “672
2 3 . . - . . == +643
an 4. ! : A : — +626

;

:

‘

f These observations seem to me to be of very great importance since they
; indicate quite clearly that creatin may be formed from guanidin.

This formation of creatin from guanidin may explain the failure to recover
all the base when it is injected even although it is a substance which resists
so strongly the action of oxidising agents.

Pommerenig found that guanidin given in small quantities was completely
excreted as such in thirty-six hours, but that in large doses only 30 per cent. was
recovered.

} Burns (loc. cit.) after the intra-muscular injection of 0:64 grm. of guanidin
_ hydrochloride, recovered in the next seventeen hours only about 25 per cent.,
more than half of which had become methylated.

; That the whole process of the formation of creatin is carried on in the
muscles and that the liver has absolutely nothing to do with it may now be
considered as quite definitely settled. Experiments recorded by Mackie and

_ myself 2° on the effects of exclusion of the liver from the circulation in geese and
ducks seem to be conclusive on this point, and they are confirmed by the result

3 of Towles and Voegtlin.?1

Tae

4

Significance of Urinary Creatin.

As Folin and others have clearly shown, the power of storing creatin in
_ Muscle is very limited, and any excess in the food is apt to appear in the urine
either as creatin or possibly to some extent as creatinin.

i ., i
5
f

802 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

In a man of 65 kilos, the skeletal muscles weigh about 30 kilos, with say
0-3 per cent. of creatin, in all some 90 grms. ; :
_ If anything like 1 grm. of creatin be given it tends to appear as such
in the urine.

The taking of even a moderate amount of flesh leads to the appearance of
creatin in the urine and although, as Orr and Burns? have shown, the creatin
is not necessarily all derived from the creatin of the flesh but probably from
some other precursor, nevertheless a considerable amount comes directly from
creatin. Evidently the power which the body possesses of dealing with
creatin is very limited.

At present I do not intend to discuss the question of the possible conversion
or non-conyersion of creatin to creatinin. It has been an unfortunate battle
because it has drawn attention from the much more important question—what
is the significance of creatin?—the question on which I have tried to throw a
fresh light in considering its relationship to guanidin, but one which has to be
further prosecuted in order to decide whether creatin is simply a waste product
on the way to excretion or whether it may be used in the body.

To me it seems that these questions may best be solved by their study in
animals in which they are least complicated by the creatin-creatinin controversy.
Fortunately in birds, as was long ago shown by Meissner, we have a group of
animals which excrete creatin as an end product and only at most traces of
creatinin. This I confirmed in 1910 7° and it has been further confirmed by
Thompson. Just as their power of changing uric acid to urea is small so that
most of their nitrogen comes away in the first form, so their power of changing
creatin to creatinin—if it is possessed by any animals—is negligible.

The results then obtained seemed to show that creatin injected subcu-
taneously does not undergo any change in the avian body, but that it is
excreted as such. In three experiments, creatin injected under the skin
appeared in the urine to the extent of 91 per cent., 109 per cent., 83 per
cent. ‘Such observations do not, however, prove that the creatin formed in the
ordinary course of metabolism is all excreted in this form.

Since creatin is at least ten times more abundant in muscle than in any
other tissue of the body, and since muscle so greatly exceeds all other tissues
in bulk, muscle must be considered the source of urinary creatin.

The amount of creatin daily excreted must be the result of the liberation
of so much creatin from the muscles, and since the amount of creatin in muscle
is so constant, this liberation must be covered by a corresponding formation, or
by a corresponding decrease in the bulk of muscle.

It is well known that in fasting mammals creatin appears in the urine.
and that in the fasting condition in man the combined excretion of creatin and
creatinin shows a comparatively small change in spite of the decrease in the
rate of protein catabolism as indicated by the excretion of total nitrogen.
In the rabbit on the other hand Dorner’s results show an increased total
protein catabolism with an enormous increase of the excretion of creatin and
creatinin due almost entirely to the creatin.

In geese and ducks I found that there is a rise in the excretion of creatin
during fasting which varies with the condition of nutrition of the bird, being
small where the nutrition is good at the beginning of the fast and larger where
the animal has been on a low diet and is thin before the fast starts. Thus in
a young, well-fed goose during a fast of three days there was practically no
change in the excretion of creatin, while in a poorly nourished bird fed on
maize the creatin excretion on the second day of the fast had increased
sevenfold.

Myers and Fine?‘ from their observations upon fasting dogs come to the
conclusion that the increased amount of creatin execreted during a fast is all
derived from the creatin which was in the flesh at the commencement of the
fast. They find in short fasts a slight increase in the creatin content of
muscle and in longer fasts a decrease. A series of unpublished analyses made
for me by Cathcart of the muscles of the salmon kelts and of feeding
salmon show that after the prolonged fast of many months the creatin is
increased in relation to the total nitrogen of the muscle.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 303

Creatin and Total Nitrogen in Muscle. Thick and Thin of Salmon.
5 Salmon (feeding).

Total Nitrogen. Creatin.
Thin. Thick, Thin. Thick,
3-57 3-61 0-241 0-224
Creatin T.N. 6-7 6-2

5 Kelts (prolonged fast),
3-13 3-18 0-241 0-279
Creatin T.N. 7:7 8

Myers and Fine’s conclusions have been severely criticised by Stanley
Benedict and Osterberg.?5

These investigators maintain that creatin is a material which is being
constantly formed during the course of a fast, that only that part which is not
metabolised is excreted and that the amount excreted is no index of the amount
of muscle tissue catabolised. They base their conclusions upon experiments upon
dogs rendered completely diabetic by phloridzin. Having shown that during
fasting such dogs excrete large amounts of creatin—as had been already demon-
strated by Cathcart and Taylor—they gave washed fibrin or washed flesh, both
creatin free, in sufficient quantity to nearly cover the loss of nitrogen, and
because the creatin excretion under these conditions was still maintained they
conclude that it is not the result of the breakdown of muscle tissue. Certainly
when these proteins are given an abundant source of the guanidin required for
creatin formation has been furnished, and it appears to me to be no proof what-
ever that in fasting the creatin in the urine is not the result of the catabolism
of muscle setting free a proportionate amount of creatin.

But it raises another and very interesting question: granting that the
creatin is liberated by muscle breakdown why does it appear in the urine in
the absence of carbohydrates and in conditions of imperfect oxygenation of the
blood? This question will be dealt with later.

In 1910 I looked upon creatin as part of the muscle molecule—if one may
be allowed to use such a term—and considered that the amount of creatin
excreted was a measure of muscular disintegration.

This view that creatin is an integral part of the muscle molecule and that it
is liberated only upon death has now been adopted by Folin.?°

The evidence is by no means conclusive. The only experimental work
recorded is that of Urano which cannot be considered as in any way satisfactory.

Some recent experiments as yet unpublished by Wishart tend to show that
the creatin exists as such in the muscles, and not as an integral part of its
substance. In these experiments a frog was killed by a blow on the head and
instantly one hind leg still in situ was frozen hard in a mixture of ice and
salt and the whole of the extraction process carried out near the freezing point
up to the hydrolysis of the filtrate. The difference in favour of the unfrozen
muscle was comparatively small. Further experiments on the subject are in
progress

Frozen. Unfrozen,
070 076
063 072
‘058 ‘O71

Folin’s demonstration of the accumulation of injected creatin in muscle
also seems to me to indicate that in part at least it may exist in a free state.

It may well be that in fasting, when the muscle proteins are used as a
source of energy or are carried to more essential organs, the free creatin may
be liberated proportionately to the break-down and excreted without the reduced
muscle tissue showing any percentage decrease.

In 1910 I argued against the possibility of there being an increased pro-
duction of creatin in fasting and I still think the argument is valid. Since the
creatin nitrogen must come from somewhere, any increase in the excretion of
ereatin should be accompanied by a decrease in the excretion of nitrogen in

304 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

other forms. This is not the case, in fact the relationship is in the opposite
direction—the increase of creatin being accompanied rather by an increase in
‘other nitrogen.’

On the other hand, I then failed to appreciate the possibility that the increase
in the créatin might be the result of a failure of its metabolism in some other
direction.

Neither Folin nor any other worker has found an immediate increase in the
nitrogen excretion after the administration of creatin, and it thus seems un-
likely that any metabolic change occurs in it when about to be excreted. But
its metabolism may be in the process of anabolism, and I shall later adduce
evidence that creatin may be used in the building up of the muscle material,
e.g., as a source of the guanidin in arginin.

But whether the increased excretion of creatin in fasting is due to its
liberation from muscle substance as it breaks down (Myers and Fine), or to its
being a product of the disintegration of muscle substance (Folin), or to there
being a failure to resynthesise the creatin into muscle substance, the amount
of creatin in the urine will indicate the amount of muscle disintegrated and not »
resynthesised, i.e., the actual break-down of muscle.

Three conditions may occur in the course of a fast:

1. The break-down may involve not only muscle but also the proteins in other
tissues of the body.

2. It may involve muscle almost exclusively.

3. It may involve muscle, but the nitrogenous constituents may be used for
the repair of other tissues, as is so well seen in the fasting salmon, where
materials from the muscles are transported to and laid down in the growing
ovary.

The first condition occurs in the early days of a fast, especially in well-fed
animals where the liver and other organs are rapidly losing weight.

The third condition appears later in a fast when all surplus protein has been
metabolised, and when the organs essential to life have to be kept going at the
expense of the muscles.

The muscles of the goose or duck contain about 0-134 per cent. of nitrogen
in creatin and 3:6 per cent. altogether. Hence, in the break-down of muscle,
one part of nitrogen must be in creatin for twenty-seven parts of total nitrogen.

If the nitrogen of the urine is in this proportion, it is muscle tissue which
is bearing the brunt of the disintegration due to fasting.

If the total nitrogen is above this proportion to the creatin nitrogen,
the protein-rich tissues other than muscle are taking their share in the cata-
bolic process. If the creatin nitrogen is above this proportion, then the con-
clusion seems inevitable that the nitrogen of the proteins of muscle is being
retained and used for the maintenance of non-muscular tissues. This method I
applied to the study of the metabolism in the course of fasting in geese and
ducks, and showed how it gave direct information of the condition of the ex-
changes in the body.

Its application to the study of the progress of protein metabolism in fasts
in man and other mammals does not necessitate the adoption of any theory of the
relationship of creatin to creatinin.

Folin’s most recent view26 of the sources of these two substances is that
creatinin represents the ordinary wear and tear of muscle, but that when
muscle tissue dies the creatin is set free as a post-mortem product, and that
in times of stress, e.g., in fever, fasting, etc., the break-down into creatinin is
accompanied by a break-down into creatin. He even admits the possible conver-
sion of small amounts of creatin to creatinin and vice versa.

Accepting this conception, it is manifest that the creatinin and creatin
excretion should in the mammal give the same index of the course of metabolism
in fasting, as the excretion of creatin alone does in the bird. This I illustrated
in 1910 by applying the method to the study of several recorded facts in man.

Creatin as an Anabolite.

The evidence as to whether creatin is a possible anabolite, whether it can
be used for the reconstruction of muscle substances, may now be considered.
It was Folin who first suggested that it may act in this way, or, as he put

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 305

it, may act as a sort of food. He arrived at this view on account of the dis-

appearance of creatin when fed by the mouth; but the demonstration by

Mellanby and Twort?? that creatin is broken down in the alimentary canal,

deprives these experiments of much of their value.

Lefmann2* after subcutaneous injection in dogs, recovered only a small

amount of creatin in the urine, and although his conclusion that there is no
conversion to creatin has been criticised by Van Hoogenhuyze and Verploegh,
there seems to me to be an increasing amount of evidence in favour of Folin’s
theory of the utilisation of creatin.

Cathcart? showed the important fact that the administration of carbo-
hydrates to a fasting man stops the excretion of creatin and that, where carbo-
hydrates cannot be used, as in diabetes, creatin appears in the urine.*°

The explanation that the result is due to the presence of diacetic acid is, as
Catheart and Orr’! showed, not tenable.

The work of Loewi in 1902, as Liithie pointed out, showed that while the
amino-acid products of pancreatic digestion of proteins when eaten along with
carbohydrates bring about an actual retention of nitrogen, when fed with fats
alone they fail to do so.

The indications, then, seem very clear that carbohydrates are essential for
the synthesis or re-synthesis of the protein molecule and, if creatin is a potential
anabolite yielding the necessary guanidin, the presence of carbohydrates is

_ probably essential for its use in this way and in their absence it must be
excreted.

: This view, as far as it concerns the total nitrogen and muscle, I ventured
_ to formulate as far back as 1887, and I then attempted’ to represent it
diagrammatically .®?

The adoption of this view does not invalidate the idea that the formation of
ereatin is primarily to de-toxicate an excess of free guanidin. The same thing
is seen in the behaviour of lecithin, which is manifestly an anabolite, but which
seems to have the power of rendering the toxic cholin innocuous.

Uhe Relationship of Creatin and Creatinin.

The importance of the lengthy and voluminous discussion on the relation-
ship of creatinin to creatin seems to me to have acquired an exaggerated
importance.

In the bird the creatin in the urine represents the ordinary overflow of the
creatin from muscle which is not used for reconstruction. In mammals this
is represented by creatinin, but when the disintegrative changes are increased
or the anabolic processes interfered with, then creatin appears along with
creatinin.

The non-conversion, or only small conversion of creatin injected or taken
by the mouth, to creatinin, does not appear to be opposed to the view that the
latter is formed from the former. The total formation of creatinin in man is
only about 1 grm. pér diem, one ninetieth of the total creatin in the body. If
this small conversion is all the body has daily to provide for, it is not to be
expected that the demand for a sudden increased conversion will be met,
and hence it is only natural that unconverted creatin should escape
if it is administered even in small amounts. The normal occurrence of creatin
in the urine of young children seems to indicate that its conversion to creatinin
is a function somewhat late in development.

There is some evidence that the power of conversion is different in different
individuals. Thus we found that after a pound of beefsteak with about
1-7 erm. of creatin expressed as creatinin, one member of the teaching staff showed
a rise of 0:53 grm. of creatinin and 0:2 grm. of creatin, another a rise of 0:49
grm. of creatinin and 0-177 of creatin,.while two others showed no rise in the
ereatinin, one showing an increase of 0°425 grm, and the other of 0°213 grm. in
the creatin excreted.

_ The question may be asked, why should the neutral creatin be converted
into the strongly basic credtinin? The relative solubility of the two substances
is a possible explanation of this. Creatin is about one-tenth as soluble as
atinin,

306 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

Creatin Investigations Old and New.

It is extraordinary how, in spite of the enormous amount of work which
has been done upon the subject, our knowledge of the significance of creatin
hhas advanced so little since Meissner’s really wonderful investigations in 1868,
now so entirely ignored. In spite of the unsatisfactory methods then available,
he concluded that in the bird creatin and not creatinin occurs in the urine, that
its amount is increased by giving meat or injecting creatin, that it is higher on
a protein rich diet such as liver than on a protein poor diet such as grain, and
that it is increased in fasting.

From his observations on mammals he concluded that urea and creatinin
have different origins, thus anticipating Folin’s theory of endogenous and
exogenous metabolism, and that, in the study of creatin metabolism, feeding
with meat must be avoided. He found that creatinin was excreted in the
smallest amounts in animals gaining weight on a protein poor diet.

The work upon creatin metabolism which has been carried on in many
laboratories during the past few years has been somewhat fragmentary and
difficult to combine into an organic whole, but I believe that it can be so
combined and that a more or less reasonable explanation can be given by the
recognition of the fact that its significant part is the guanidin nucleus, and
that it is in connection with this that its real meaning is to be found, that free
guanidin is detoxicated and rendered available for synthesis into muscle sub-
stance by the formation of creatin.

Folin’s method has made the investigation of creatin a very simple matter,
but so far no reliable and rapid method has been devised for the determination
of guanidin or methyl-guanidin. Hence our knowledge of the metabolism of
these substances is still very defective. Probably it will not be possible greatly
to enlarge it until better methods of analyses have been devised.

TII. ConciLustIon.

To look back upon the progress of knowledge of any branch of science, even
upon one so limited in range as that of protein metabolism, is like looking
back upon the records of ancient voyages of discovery. There are the same
dreams of enchanted islands far to the West—the islands of the Hesperides;
the same imaginary accounts of their position and of their characters, too often
accepted as all sufficing; the same spirit of scepticism driving some bolder
spirit to embark in his cockle-shell boat and sail forth on the ocean of
discovery, to find if these imaginings have any reality; the same picking up of
some small fragments of flotsam and jetsam, hinting that somewhere out there
the land is really to be found; the same failure to advance due to the badly
equipped ships or to imperfect seamanship; and again the imagination playing
round the few observations and reconstructing images as unreal as those which
they displace. Again, as the ships’ compasses and means of navigation improved,
another attempt pressed further and ending in the discovery of land indeed—-
but of some barren reef simply telling that not there lie the islands sought
for, and warning the next explorer that some other course must be laid.
Agvain the study of the records of past failures and the attempt to decide what
must be the next line of advance. Then the next voyage is started, the
course set south-west instead of north-west, till some fine morning another —
barren rock is sighted. But now the mariner starboards his helm and off
goes the ship on another tack till haply the promised island lies ahead—not one —
island but an archipelago, the exploration of which is to be the work of many
followers of the original discoverer. ‘

In the discovery of the true position and general features of the metabolism
of the proteins in nutrition Liebig, Voit, Pfliger, Zuntz, and Rubner have
been the great pioneers. To us is left the smaller task of exploring and charting
the archipelago they discovered, of investigating each separate island and of so
making complete the great work of our predecessors. And although the
voyages before us may be less arduous than theirs, it is still well before em-
barking to let our imagination play forward along our course, to consider the
difficulties and dangers of the voyage, and to see that our boat is adequately
equipped. Much of what I have said to-day must be considered as of this nature, —

+

Ps

British Association Report, Bournemouth, 1919.] [PuatTE IV.

ee hd

fs _4

Illustrating Dr. A. D. Waller's Paper ‘ The Measurement
of Emotion.’
{To face page 307

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 307

When we are once afloat, let us go forward in the spirit of true discoverers,
not obsessed with preconceived ideas of what we are going to find, but with
minds open to. all that may present itself so that, whatever happens as we go
onward, we may add some small trifle to the general store of knowledge.

And what af all those who have sailed forth and suffered shipwreck or
returned empty? Are they to be pitied? No, if they were of the real stuff, all
they asked and what they got was—

‘A tall ship and a star to steer her by;
And the wheel’s kick and the wind’s song and the white sail’s shaking,
And a grey mist on the sea’s face, and a grey dawn breaking.’

The joy of sailing upon the ocean of discovery—that to the man of science
is the real joy of life.

1 Biochem. Jour. 10, 1916, 543.

2J. of Phys. 52, p. 1, 1918.

® Ztsch. f. phys. Chem. 41, p. 321, and 42, p. 181, 1904.
4 J. of Phys. 33, p. 106, 1905-06.

5 Ztsch. f. phys. Chem. 81, p. 71, 1912.
& J. of Phys. 51, p. 347, 1917.

7 Biochem. Jour. 10, p. 263, 1916.

8 Ztsch. f. phys. Chem. 86, p. 435, 1913.
® J. of Biol. Chem. 24, p. 23, 1916.

10 J. of Phys. 52, p. 1, 1918.

11 Barger, Simpler Natural Bases, p. 79.
™ Quart. J. of Exp. Phys. 10, p. 315, 1916.
18 Loc. cit.

4 J. of Biol. Chem. 3, p. 21, 1907.

'° J. of Phys. 52, p. 70, 1918.

16 J. of Phys. 52, p. 1, 1918.

'T Zisch. f. phys. Chem. 48, p. 430, 1906.
18 Ztsch. f. phys. Chem. 52, p. 225, 1907.
19 J. of Phys. 51, p. 360, 1917.

20 J. of Phys. 45, p. 115, 1912.
21 J. of Biol. Chem. 10, p. 479, 1911-12.
22 Biochem. Jour. 10, p. 495, 1916.

°3 J. of Phys. 39, p. 485, 1910.

*4 J. of Biol. Chem. 15, p. 283, 1913.

°° J. of Biol. Chem. 18, p. 195, 1914.

°6 J. of Biol. Chem. 17, p. 500, 1914.

27 J. of Phys. 44, p. 43, 1912.

*8 Zisch. f. phys. Chem. 57, p. 476, 1908.
*” J. of Phys. 39, p. 299, 1909.

89 J. of Phys. 41, p. 276, 1910.
81 J. of Phys. 48, Proc. 1914.

82 J. of Phys: 33, p. 1, 1905.

The following Paper was then read?! :—

The Measurement of Emotion. By A. D. Watter, M.D., F.R.S.
(With Demonstration.)

[Prats IV.]

Any emotion, spontaneous or provoked, causes nerve impulses through
efferent channels to the skin—of the palm of the hand especially—which under-
‘gees a sudden diminution of electrical resistance, which can be demonstrated
and measured by galvanometer.

_ The hand of the subject—as quiescent as possible—is placed in the fourth
arm of a Wheatstone bridge. Balance having been established, the subject

' For transactions under the Subsection of Psychology, see p. 313.

t

£

308 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

is stimulated by a real or by an imaginary pin-prick, and a sharp deflection of
the galvanometric spot of light is seen about two seconds after the stimulus has
occurred.

The magnitude of the response can be measured in ohms, but is more con-
veniently expressed in terms of reciprocal megohms or ‘gemmhos.’ <A person’s
hand having an original resistance of, e.g., 50,000 ohms has a conductance of
20 gemmhos indicated by a galvanometric deviation of 20 mm. A painful
thought causes an augmented temporary deviation of, say, 5 mm. to 25 mm. or
*gemmhos,’ signifying a diminution of resistance of 10,000 ohms.

Any sudden discharge of nerve energy, such as, e.g., a cough or sneeze, is
attended by a sudden temporary augmentation of conductivity of the skin of
the palm of the hand; this augmentation begins two seconds aiter the muscular
contraction by which the discharge is signalled. The emotive change, as it
may be called, varies in magnitude in different persons under similar conditions ;
in the same person it varies in magnitude with the magnitude of its exciting
cause. It varies also in the same person with state of health and time of day.
It is most conveniently measured and studied by means of photographic records
of the galvanometric spot of light.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1. Discussion on the Réle of the Capillaries in the Regulation of the
Blood Flow. Dr. H. H. Daun, F.R.S., Professor W. M. Bayuiss,
F.R.S., Professor E. H. Sraruine, F.R.S., Professor A. D.
Water, F'.R.S., Professor D. Nort Paton, F.R.S.

The following Paper was then read :—

2. Butter and Margarine. By Professor W. D. Hauuipurton, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

Joint Meeting with Subsection of Psychology and with Section F,;
at which the following Papers were read :—

1. The Influence of the Siz-hour Day on Industria) Efficiency and
Fatigue. By H. M. Vernon, M.D.*

Lord Leverhulme suggests that, instead of the usual eight-hour shift system,
in which, as a rule, the machinery is running only forty-four hours a week, the
workers should be put on to two six-hour shifts every day, viz., from 7 A.M.
to 1.30 p.m., and 1.30 p.m. to 10 P.m., with half-hour breaks for meals. By this
means the machinery would be kept running for seventy-two hours per week,
and, as the overhead charges for machinery are often higher than the cost of
wages, it would still be possible to pay the workers as much for six hours’ work
as for eight hours’ work, even if their rate of production did not improve in
consequence of the shorter hours.

The available evidence does not indicate that there would be much improve-
ment of output in many industries. In the tinplate trade the millmen some-
times work eight-hour shifts and sometimes six-hour shifts, and their hourly

1 See Reports Nos. 1 and 5 of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, London,
1919 and 1920. 4

Memo.—No. 18 of the Health of Munition Workers’ Committee, London, 1917 —
(col. 8628).

;
: TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1. 809

output was found to be only 10 per cent. greater in the latter instance than
_in the former. In the iron and steel industry a reduction of shift from twelve
to eight hours caused no increase of hourly output from blast furnaces and
rolling mills, but 2 to 9 per cent. increase from open-hearth steel furnaces. In
the cotton-spinning mills of the United States a reduction of two or three
hours in the weekly hours of work caused an almost proportional decrease of
output. However, very different results were observed in certain munition
industries. Men engaged in the somewhat heavy operation of sizing fuse bodies
Bentreased their hourly output 39 per cent. when their nominal hours were
reduced from sixty-seven to fifty-six per week, and their actual hours of work
' from 58.2 per week to 50.6 per week, or their total weekly output went up 21 per
cent. Women engaged in turning aluminium fuse bodies on capstan lathes
improved their hourly output 56 per cent., and their total weekly output 15 per
cent., when their hours of actual work were reduced from 66.0 per week to
48.6 per week. The reason why reduction of hours causes such different effects
in different industries is because of the various degrees to which the work is
controlled by the personal element, and by machinery. In sizing fuse bodies,
the men are not dependent on any machinery whatever, and can speed up to
any extent they wish. In turning fuse bodies, the women are to some extent
limited by the speed of the machinery. In another operation known as boring
top caps, the youths employed fed the caps into semi-automatic machines
which could not be speeded up. Consequently their output could only be im-
proved by their keeping more closely to their work, and it was found that when
their hours of actual work were reduced from 72.5 per week to 53.1 per week,
‘their hourly output increased only 27 per cent., or was insufficient to balance
the reduction of hours, and in consequence their total weekly output fell off
‘7 per cent.

It is probable that in most industries the eight-hour day does not cause
‘more than a moderate amount of physical fatigue. The workers suffer rather
from monotony and boredom, as many of them are engaged on the same task
day after day and year after year. Especially on these grounds it is to be
hoped that some such scheme as Lord Leverhulme’s will gradually be adopted
in the industrial world, but it cannot come suddenly, as it might render us
unable to compete in the open markets of the world with other countries which
adopted, for instance, two seven-and-a-half-hour shifts per day, instead of two
six-hour shifts.

Lord Leverhulme suggests that, in addition to six hours’ factory labour, the
workers should spend two hours daily in educational and physical training.
There is much to be said for this plan.

»
7 2. Phystological Fatigue and Village Meeting Halls.
By Miss C. Surru-Rossin, Diplomate Royal Sanitary Institute.

a

5 Educational fatigue is always coincident with nerve exhaustion, This is
One reason why, Adult Evening Continuation Schools have not much success.
To make them successful the surroundings where they are held must be as tonic
s possible. In British villages this is difficult—hence reconstruction of the
British countryside is delayed. The best nerve tonic is to make the student
really desire to learn.

In Denmark after her disastrous war in 1848 things were everywhere on the
[point of ruin—thriftlessness, drink, and an apathetic peasantry were sending the

buntry drifting, Continuation Schools had no chance of success, the students
ere always ‘too tired’ to learn. They had their eyes blind by ignorance

BB

310 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

plans of the Continuation Classes are run in the same way. Not merely subjects
of trade or industrial progress being introduced, but so as to help forwards the
slow wmagination of the country dwellers and by: variety prevent that weariness
of learning which always falls on those who have worked hard and been meagrely
fed all their lives. Thus the system in Denmark contributes a factor towards the
solution of educational fatigue—viz. nerve stimulation.

Another factor of educational fatigue is any strained position of sitting,
especially in the case of working men and women whose muscles are not elastic.
The meeting halls of the Danish villages provide against this by the adaptation
of their chairs to adult needs. I shall not say: anything as regards the advan-
tages of full ventilation or freedom from the noxious fumes of carbon dioxide
due to unhygienic stoves, for this is well known to be a great cause of educa-
tional fatigue so far as physiology is concerned, but I may add that I have
known of very good village schools inspected by the authorities of England
and passed as satisfactory which were far from sanitary, in these matters. ‘lhe
fact is educational fatigue is passing all over our country except for money-
making projects, and this is the cause of mental slowness and want of fore-
sight in many classes. We all need the tonic stimulant of imaginations made
vivid by fuller courses of study, and this can never be achieved in villages
unless the Danish meeting halls with their steps upwards to the peasant—
Universities and broader views of education—are encouraged amongst us.

To reconstruct England these halls are needed unless all the great scheme
of the new Education Acts is not to be thrown away so far as the countryside
is concerned.

Measurement of the Energy Output of ‘Heavy Workers’ (Dock
Labourers). By A. D. Water, M.D., F.R.S. (With
Demonstration).

The most convenient and expeditious method of measuring the output of
mechanical energy taking place in the course of muscular work is to take
observations at convenient intervals of the rate at which CO, is expired—4.e.,
to take a record of successive COa ordinates (c.c.’s CO, per sec. for periods
of 30 + 2 secs.) during the working day.

B. Piece- Work. A. Time-Work.
T.K. Monpay, Dec. 16, 1918. | T.K. Wepnespay, Dec. 18, 1918.
j 2 5 : 5
© Coal eat ar S S © wp: dl eed seas S =
FE |EIE|E2/o| Ss HE [E|E|ER\o| og
~ _ =} a m —_ = HY
5 EA de [ioe Leet eas * Fr els Baas Vel
rs) 3 cs} °
8.0 a.m. | 60 | 21 | 350 | 2-2 7:70 || 8.0 a.m. | 60 | 15 | 250 | 2-0 5-0
9.0 30 | 20 | 666 | 2:0] 13-32 9.0 30 | 18 | 600 | 2-2] 13-2
10.0 30 | 21 | 700 | 2-3| 16-10 || 10.0 30 | 15 | 600 | 2-7 | 13-5
11.0 30 | 23 | 766 2-5] 19-15 |! 11.0 30 | 17 | 566 | 2-5) 14-1
11.45 30 | 21 | 700 }3-0| 21-0 | 11.45 30 | 19 | 633 | 2-8) 17-7
1.0 p.m. | 60 | 20} 333 | 2:5 8:32 1.0 p.m. | 60 20 333 | 2-2 7-32
2.0 30 | 19 | 633 14:0] 25-32 2.0 3 15 | 500 | 3-2 16:0
3.0 30 | 21 | 700 | 4:4] 30-0 3.0 30 | 18 | 600 | 3-5) 21-0
4.0 30 | 24 | 800 | 4-5| 36-0 3-45 30 | 18 | 600 | 3:8 | 22-0

The above are typical records taken upon a ‘heavy worker’ at the Hast
Surrey Docks by courtesy of the Port of London Authority—A of an average
day’s work (laying of a concrete pavement) by a first-rate labourer on time
pay; B of an extra heavy day’s work by the same labourer (coading) on
piece-work pay, of which the conditions are such as to secure maximum

=

. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. By |

physiological effort and maximum mechanical output. (The piece-work system
‘in force at the East Surrey Docks is as follows: A voluntary association of
labourers or ‘ gang’ of, say, six men contracts to shift 100 tons of coal at
so much per ton within n hours. The gang earns money in common; each
member works under observation of his mates, and works hard; there can be
no slacking.) What may be termed the calibration of a labourer is completed
when the hourly ordinates of his CO, exhalation per second have been taken
for the whole day (or for several days).

These ordinates can thereafter (or directly) be translated into calories per
hour by multiplying the caloric value of 1 c.c. CO, x 3,600, or assuming an

average caloric value of 1 c.c. CO, = at an average value of the Respiratory
. 360
ces CO2 Kalories
per sec 30-0 per hour
p 630 600
. 253
21-0
19:0
a 16-0 pa
. 13°3
5 Ilo 83
2 7-7 200
/.
Hl 8AM. 9 10 I 12 PMs 2. 3 4
,
i. 22:8
; 21:0
. 20 17-7 16-0 400
7-3 200
9 10 ul 12 IPM 2 2! 4
: Quotient = 0-90, the conversion can be made into kilo calories per hour by

ta ing the factor x 20 for the CO, ordinate—i.e., 1 c.c. CO2 per sec. =
20 calories per hour.

Averaging from the last three hours of two days for the labourer T.K. I
obtain (in rounded figures) :

For time work, 21 c.c. CO, per sec., 420 kilo calories per hour.
For piece work, 14 c.c. CO, per sec., 280 kilo calories per hour.

erwise expressed, the physiological cost of his labour to T.K. is

on time work 2

on piece work 3°

Due precautions against observational error must of course be taken; these
not, however, render the method at all cumbersome; the interruption of
rk is minimal and not objected to by men while working on the gang system,
‘hen each minute’s work by each member means money fo all members.

The method is best described by an actual demonstration of the determination
of the resting value of the CO, ordinate of any one of this audience.

‘The demonstration will be completed in three minutes, which I will fill in
acing on the board the figures obtained in an analogous observation made
his morning upon my daughter to ascertain in her case the physiological cost
BB2

312 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I.

of swimming. Two readings were taken: A, immediately after swimming
100 yards to the landing stage at the Bournemouth pier-head at a moderate speed—
viz., in 150 seconds; B immediately after swimming 20 yards to the landing stage,
pulling my inert body in accordance with life-saving drill. The following are
the results :

Time of Ventilation

COsz (gross) |
of Collection |} ——_——— leek WE
of expired ec. | C.c.8
hae Litres | per sec. Per mag pefinen:
100 yards (at 2 feet per sec.) .| 30secs. | 19 | 633 | 3:3 | 20 |
20 yards (life-saving) . .| 20secs. | 18 | 900%) Pah. a) open
Resting CO, = 3 ¢.c. per sec.
.. Net CO, for normal swimming = 17 c.c. per sec.

ty in life-saving drill mh ide leads
It is nothing more than a pure coincidence that these values have come out
very nearly in the relation for time work and piece work in the case of the
labourer T.K.
A second trial carried out on the next day at rather higher speed gave rather
higher figures, but in the same ratio—2 for simple swimming as compared with
3 for a life-saving swimming effort.

- !
F Ventilation Per cent. CO2
Bag dusts | Litres oT CO2 per sec.
7 25 | 21:8 | 872 3-0 26°16
8 20 TOD well” FOS colin co Bid 33:3
Resting CO. = 3 c.c. per sec.
Net CO, for swimming = 23 per sec.
A »» life-saving = 30 a
Time of 100 yards = 145 secs.
By 20 yards (life-saving) = 35 secs.

Objection has been raised to this method of work calibration to the effect
that the calorific exchange value of CO, fluctuates with fluctuations of the
Respiratory Quotient CO,/O,. As a matter of fact this value is rather higher
than normal during prolonged work, and does not sensibly fluctuate. If it did
fluctuate, it could do so only within the following limits : q

EQUIVALENCE OF | c.c. CO, AT R.Q. FROM 1:00 To 0-70.

R.Q. Calories Kilogrammetres Calories per hour

1-00 5-047 2-155 18-17
0-95 5-317 2-270 19-14
0-90 5-587 2-386 20-11
0-85 5-856 2-501 21-08
0:80 6-126 | 2-615 22-06
0-75 6-396 | 2-731 23-02
0-70 | 6-667 2-846 | 24-01

The factor x 20 used above for the conversion of c.c.’s CO, per second into
calories per hour postulates a CO,/O, quotient = 0-91. The calibration of a
labourer is essentially complete when his CO, ordinate has been recorded. The
CO, per second datum is converted into calories per hour per individual by

»% ee”

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION I. 818

the factor x 20. This figure per individual can be further converted into

_ calories per unit of weight or per unit of surface for the comparison of different

individuads. Thus, e.g., in the case of the labourer T.K. weighing 87 kilos with

a body-surface = 2 square metres, his energy emission per kilo body weight is
2 420

_ for time work * 7 or per square metre of body surface = 74

Mr. P. Sarncanr Fiorence, Prof. E. L. Cotis, and Sir Huan Bewu also took
_ part.

+

The following papers were then read :—

4. The Effect of Heat on the Antiscorbutic Principle in expressed Juices
of Fruits and Vegetables. By Dr. EK. M. Detr.?

5 The Effect of Preservatives on the Antiscorbutic Substance of Lemon
Juice. By Miss A. J. Davey.

6. The Pathology of Pellagra. By Dr. H. E. Roar.?

7. Measurements of Heat Loss and of Sun Radiation in Egypt and in
‘ Paiestine. By Dr. H. E. Roar.’

SUB-SECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.

Address by the Chairman, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, F.R.S., on
Psychology and the War.

=

£
4
t

i

The following Paper was then read :—

The Theoretical Interest of Industrial Psychology.
By Professor T. H. Prar.*

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
_ The following Papers were read :—

1. Industrial Overstrain and Unrest. By Dr. C. S. Mynrs.*®

1 A reference to the work dealt with in this paper is expected to be published

in The Lancet.

_ # To be published in Journ. Roy. Army Medical Corps.

® See Leonard Hill, F.R.S., Zhe Science of Ventilation and Open-Air T'reat-

ment, published by the Medical Research Board.

| 4 See Business Organisation and Management, Nov., 1919; also The Applica-
tion of Psychology to Industry, Manchester University Press, 1919, and ‘ Social

Psychology and the Industrial System’ in Hngineering and Industrial Manage-

nent, Sept. 25, 1919, by the author.

5 See Ways and Means, Vol. ii., No. 28, pp. 249-251.

$14 PRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 1.

2. Some Experiments on the Reproduction of Folk Stories.
By F. Barrvert.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

Joint Meeting with the Section and with Section F.—See above, p. 308.

PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Hypnotism and Mental Analysis. By Dr. W. Brown.'

2. Some Suggestions for a General Institute of Applied Psychology.
By Tuurxiwu Cooks,

This paper sets forth the raison d’étre and first elements of the scheme for
the foundation of a General Institute.

Such an Institute has been jong felt to be an urgent national need, and,
moreover, has been recently rendered imperative, in view of the increase of
psychological cases, both military and civil. These cases make their influence
apparent in every sphere of life, and contribute in no small measure to that
general restlessness and dislocation of the social order which is the natura]
reaction of war.

Objects.

According to the scheme, the objects of the required centre are :—

1. Psycho-physical Research.

2. The Application of Psychological Method to the Needs of Life.

In pursuance of this two-fold aim, it is proposed at first. to devote attention
to those departments in which the demand for reconstruction is most urgent,
e.g. education, law, medicine, and industry.

1. With regard to research, it is evident that any far-reaching change which
may be desired—as, for instance, in the educational or the penal system—must
depend not merely upon the general progress, but upon a special organisation
of science.

2. With regard to the application of method, here it is that, given a well-
equipped centre, immediate work may be done. To meet the situation, it is
essential that the initial work should be, in the main, diagnostic and educative.

Foundation Principle.

The proposed centre is a General Institute. It will be general both i
respect of its scientific method and, with the regulation specified hereunder
in respect of the material with which it will deal.

This feature is the basic principle of the scheme, and among the reason
for its adoption are :—

1. It is both the scientific and the practical requirement,

Scientific, because it is in accordance with the historic development
psychology, which is the product, not of one science, but of a number o
sciences ;

Practical, because all psychological data are more or less allied; the lin
of demarcation are not always, at first sight, distinct; and, in practice, n

1 See ‘Treatment of Shell Shock in an Advanced Neurological Centre,
Lancet, Aug., 1918; ‘War Neurosis,’ Lancet, April, 1919; ‘ Hypnotism, Su
gestion, and Dissociation,’ British Medical Journal, June, 1919.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION T. 315

useful end is served by trying to force them apart by artificial or arbitrary
distinctions.
2. Experience has shown (as in France, for example) that if any centre of
the kind, viz. an institute of applied psychology, is to prove a success, it must
be established upon a basis as broad and comprehensive as can be obtained,
_ pandering to no isolated interest, whether scientific cult or professional clique.

Constitution.

Briefly, and in substance, the proposals are :—

That this organisation shall comprise both an Institute and a Society ;

That the Institute shall consist of a number of laboratories, representing

_ the several branches of psycho-physical science, and of a number of sections,
representing the several departments of life to which that science will be applied ;

That the Society, consisting of President, Council, and Members, shall
interest itself generally in the scientific work of the centre, and shall constitute
the nexus between that centre and the external spheres which furnish its
material ;

__ That the Council of the Society shall act in the capacity of an Advisory
Committee to the Executive Committee of the Institute; and,

As a preliminary step in the organisation of the scheme;

That those persons shall be eligible, as members of the Advisory Committee,
who are duly qualified specialists in mental science, or some technica] branch
thereof, or who are authorities in one of those departments to which psycho-
logical method requires to be applied.

Regulation.

As only a fraction of the resources of modern psychology are as yet applied,
the prospective field of application is wide. In devoting attention to that
field, however, the General Institute will not undertake any form or quality
of work which may be, with more propriety, undertaken at a separate centre,

~or which does not wholly accord with its fundamental scientific aims. But,
with this proviso, it will endeavour to give assistance wherever sought with
the sanction of proper authority, and, in the solution of all practical problems,
will invite the harmonious co-operation of each department which its work may

a
Joint Meeting with Section H.—See Section H, p. 292.

316 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION: Sir Danrex Morris, K.C.M.G., M.A.,
Disc 7 Shs

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Iv was with a feeling of great responsibility that I accepted the invitation to
preside at the meeting of the Botanical Section of the British Association and
to follow in the footsteps of the distinguished men who have occupied this
position, and especially at this time when the circumstances of the country
and the Empire call so largely: for the co-operation of all interested in botanical —
research and the application of science to reconstruction after the war. It is well —
to bear in mind that while the justification of science depends upon its general
application to the affairs of life, we must not forget that the first conditions of
its assured progress is the recognition of the patient and exhaustive investi-
gations of the laws of Nature which are immutable. The consolation is that what
we wrest from Nature holds good for all time.

During the great war which has now happily been brought to a close it has
been made abundantly clear that in Botany, as in other applied sciences, we must
rely in future less on chance individual effort and initiative. We must co-oper- —
ate our efforts and organise them at every stage, bearing in mind that we shall —
always require the services of the worker in pure science to solve those larger
problems of national importance which confront us. We must be armed by
science, or we shall be placed at a great disadvantage in the great struggle now —
before us. We are told that it is absolutely necessary for the prosperity and —
safety of the country that the development of the resources of the Empire and
the production of our industries must be on a scale greatly in excess of anything
we have hitherto achieved. As an Imperial] people it is our duty to develop our —
resources to the fullest extent.

Fortunately, a great change is taking place in the attitude of the Government
and the State towards Science, and it ig noticeable also in the relations of Science —
to industry and commerce. ;

Since we last met we have lost a number of devoted workers in Botany.
Professor Daniel Oliver was the highly esteemed and valued coadjutor of both
the Hookers, and his conscientious devotion to duty and unrivalled knowledge of —
flowering plants raised him to a distinguished position among botanists of all
countries. :

Another Kew man, George Edward Massee, the well-known mycologist and_
pliant pathologist, has left an enduring mark on British mycology.

Clement Reid occupied a unique position in relation to geology and botany.
His book on ‘ The Origin of the British Flora’ was an important addition to
botanical literature. Jointly with Mrs. Reid he produced a quarto monograph
of the Pliocene Flora. Ethel Sargent, the President of this Section in 1913,
was one of the most gifted and distinguished workers in Botany. She was the
first woman to serve on the Council of the Linnean Society. Her name will long
be associated with the well-supported and well-reasoned theory of the origin of
Monocotyledons.

In the early part of last year another gap in the ranks of women botanists

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 317

occurred in the death of Dr. Ethel de Fraine. She investigated the seedling
structure of the Cactacez and the rare fossil stem Sutcliffia. She was also deeply
interested in ecological work, and correlated the structural features of plants with
morphological and ecological problems.

Professor Pearson, the founder of the Nationa] Botanic Garden at the Cape,
accomplished much valuable work in a short life. He was an exceptionally good
explorer, and his contributions to botany ranged over a wide field. His important
investigation of Welwitschia enabled him to amplify’ and extend Sir Joseph
Hooker’s classic memoir on that genus. He also threw much new light on the
Gnétales.

In the death of Philippe de Vilmorin the cause of science and genetics has
lost a good friend. He was the grandson of Louis de Vilmorin, one of the first
who had inklings of the work of heredity, and rendered great service in the
improvement of the sugar beet.

Mr. F. Ducane Godman, in his great work ‘Biologia Centrali-Americana,
comprising sixty-three large quarto volumes, for which he bore the whole expense,
has an enduring monument of his learning and generosity. He belonged to the
small but distinguished class of Naturalists who devote their time and resources
to promote research from pure love of Science.

Sir Edward Fry’s life-long interest in British Botany ranged in later years
over the wide field of cryptogamy. He is said to have ‘ wished, at times, that
men of science could be induced to state and argue the debatable matters with
_ all due forms and production of evidence as matters of fact are debated in a
court of law.’

Apart from those who have passed away in what may be called the course of
nature, a sad aspect of the losses sustained in the great war is the death of so
many brave young men for whom it was anticinated that a bright and successful
career was open in the domain of Science. Their names are inscribed on the
Roll of Honour, and we gratefully bear them in memory. I ask you to stand
for a moment to renew our fellowship with the immortal dead.

From the point of view of the scientific exploration of the resources of the
Empire it is satisfactory to note that the publications dealing with the floras of
tropical and wub-tropical countries have been continued. These involving, as
they do, so much labour and forethought are of more than passing interest from
the fact that they serve to reveal the distribution of plants that may eventually
prove of great economic value. A close investigation of tropical plants is neces-
sary, as allied species or varieties of one and the same species sometimes differ
greatly as regards their economic value. An instance of this kind has been
observed in the case of the so-called ‘ bastard lorwood’ of Jamaica. The botanical
characters of this are almost identical with those of the common logwood, but
its physiological properties are so different that it is worthless for commercial
purposes. A parallel case is furnished by Robinia pseudo-acacia, the wood of
which is described by Sargent as being reddish, greenish-yellow or white accord-
ing to the locality, but the yellow and white varieties occur side by side in at
least one locality. The carefully prepared ‘Flora Capensis,’ of which eight
volumes have been issued under the auspices of Kew, is now nearing completion.
' In this connection it is interesting to learn that the Government of the Union of
South Africa has recently appointed an Advisory Committee for a systematic
survey of the characteristic botany of that portion of the Empire. Another very
important contribution to systematic botany is the ‘Flora of Tropica] Africa.’
Of this six volumes have been published. The grasses, which will occupy the
ninth and last volume, comprise a description of 400 species, or a little over one-
third of the crass flora of tropical Africa.

In the Western Tropics the ‘Flora of Jamaica,’ containing a systematic
account, with illustrations, of the flowering plants of that interesting island and
published by the Trustees of the British Museum, is making good progress. A
“Flora of Bermuda,’ with all genera illustrated by text figures, as in the ‘ Flora
of Jamaica,’ was issued last year by Dr. N. L. Britton, of the New York Botanical
Gardens. About 8-7 per cent. of the total native flora of 709 species is regarded
as endemic.

To supplement Hooker’s great ‘Flora of British India’ the second part of
Gamble’s ‘Flora of Madras’ appeared last year. Duthie’s ‘Flora of the
Gangetic Plain” is still in hand. Of Maiden’s comprehensive monograph ‘ A

318 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.’ thirty-five parts, comprising 181
species, have, so far, been issued.

Digressing for the moment, I would mention that British Guiana, with an
area equal to that of Great Britain, on the mainland of South America, is full of
interest, but its rich and abundant flora, extending from an extensive coast line
to the high lands of the interior, with the Kaieteur falls and the remarkable
Roraima Mountain rising to over 8,000 feet, is little known to the world at
large. There is, also, the fertile and easily accessible island of Trinidad, at
the mouth of the Orinoco, which has been a British Colony for more than a
hundred years. Although the necessary material is conveniently at hand in the
local herbaria, brought together with great care during the last thirty years,
neither of these portions of the Empire has, as yet, published a handy working
flora from which their special botanical and economical resources might be
ascertained. In these days a systematic exploration of our tropical possessions
and the publication of the results in an accessible form should serve as the first
step in their fuller development.

Of interest from another point of view is a new supplement of ‘ Index
Kewensis’ now ready for the press. This invaluable work of reference was
originally prepared at the urgent request of Darwin, who undertook the cost of
producing it. The Bentham Trustees have lately issued a complete index to the
plates and names of plants that appear in the thirty volumes of ‘ Hooker’s Icones
Plantarum.’

Further, it is worthy of note that the Royal Horticultural Society is arranging,
with the help of Kew and the British Museum (Natural History), to undertake
to bring out a new edition of Pritzel’s ‘Iconum Botanicorum Index.’ The
original work, indispensable to a botanical and horticultural library, contained
107,000 entries. It is estimated that, at least, an additional 125,000 references
will appear in the new edition.

This may be an appropriate occasion to refer to the new branch of botany.
which has lately come into prominence as one of the results of the devotion to
nature study and the contemplation of the characteristic features of vegetation
as we find it distributed over the earth’s surface. Ecology is capable of enor-
mously extending the outlook of botany, and it has so largely added to the
interest of field work that we may: wonder that the phenomenon of vegetation so
long displayed before our eyes had not suggested its sociological aspects long ago.
Ecology has its Society and Journal, and it bids fair to fully establish itself in
the household of botany. It is hoped it will mitigate some of the admitted
drawbacks of purely laboratory work and revive the old Natural History
spirit of former days. As pointed out by Thiselton-Dyer, it is to this spirit that
we owe the Darwinian theory which rested on every point on a copious basis of
fact and observation made in field and forest.

In describing the principal forms of plant communities the first requisite
is to become familiar with the species and their distribution in relation to their
habitat. This neighbourhood is noteworthy for the opportunities it offers for the
study. of the natural vegetation of calcareous soils, of the heathlands of the
Bagshot sands, as well as of an interesting series of aquatic and marsh plants.
The presence of many of the Southern elements of the British flora enumerated
by Stapf is also of interest. Among these, to mention a few, are Simethis
bicolor, Lotus hispida, Gladiolus illyricus, Ludwigia palustris, Lobelia urens,
Erica ciliaris, and Pinquicula lusitanica.

The phenomenal spread of a comparatively new marsh grass (Spartina
Townsendii) along certain portions of the South Coast deserves careful study.
It is supposed to be a hybrid between S. stricta and S. alternifolia. Itis claimed
to be pre-eminent among halophytes on account of the extraordinary vigour with
which it spreads over mud flats and eventually forms meadows to be measured
by thousands of acres in the neighbourhood of Southampton Water and Poole
Harbour. It is a question whether it may not develop into a serious menace to
navigable waters. On the other hand, it may vrove capable of being utilised
in suitable localities as a reclaiming agent. Its economic value in providing
material for paper-making or as food for cattle mav also receive attention. It
is unnecessary to enter into further details, as Professor Oliver, who has kept
this grass under observation for many years, has kindly consented to give an
address summarising the results.

:
:
i
]
:
5

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 319

The critical study of British plants was supposed to be an exhausted field,
but with the necessary insight and careful and critical observation there is much
work still to be done. Exchange clubs are active, and additions to local floras
are continually being made. New species, varieties, and hybrids are published
from time to time. As an instance, Potamogeton upsaliensis, hitherto only
known in Sweden, has recently been found in this neighbourhood. Hybrid
orchids are being keenly studied, and the occurrence of hybrids in this and other
classes of plants opens a wide and interesting field of investigation.

A much-desired piece of work is a continuance of Starkie Gardner's interesting
investigation of the fossil flora of the Bagshot beds so well shown in the
Bournemouth and adjoining cliffs. Some of these have proved exceptionally rich
in remains of tropical and sub-tropical plants. Among the genera claimed to be
represented are Acacia, Smilax, Lygodium, Gleichenia, Myrica, Hucalyptus,
Araucaria, Diospyros, Nipadites, S»quota, and a palm (Zriartea), now only found
in tropical America. So far, in regard to these plant remains, we may say with
La Place : ‘ What we know is but little : what we do not know is immense.’

After an interval unprecedented in the history of the British Association we
meet once more under its high authority so that the leaders in science and men
of affairs with wide and deep experience may take council together and discuss
the latest results of scientific investigations. We have everything to gain from
a free exchange of experience and ideas. This is a time when science does well
to renew its touch with daily life both for its own sake no less than for the sake
of true progress. It is recognised that the enormous advance in the material
comfort and the prosperity of our race during the last century has been due to
the application of science. Nevertheless, in the newer times which we are now
entering upon we shall require all our energy and all available scientific know-
ledge to win through to success. It is encouraging to realise that since we met
at Newcastle in 1916 there has been a truly remarkable progress in every branch
of science. Also, a fuller recognition of the value of science and education as
means, whereby the material interests of the world may be enlarged.

My distinguished predecessor, whose work has been largely concerned with
the systematic and philosophical side of Botany, has rightly expressed the general
desire for a more cordial understanding between botany and its economic
applications. ‘It is certain,’ he said, ‘that our outlook must be widely different
atter the war, and the changed environment must find us ready to respond in
the interest of our country and mankind.’ :

With your permission, and acting on a suggestion made by my Committee, I
propose to travel a little outside the usual scope of previous addresses and review
the many, efforts that have been made, and are still being made, to promote the
interests not only of the home land but of the Empire as a whole. My own
activities have been more or less intimately connected with the Tropics. Their
productions are daily in increasing demand, and are becoming more and more
necessary to the inhabitants of temperate countries. Before the war it was
estimated there were about three million square miles of British territory within
the tropical zone. A portion of this area, including India, was already pro-
ducing commodities of the estimated value of 230 million sterling.

It is, therefore, in the national interest to keep closely in touch with the
conditions and prospects of our tropical possessions, in order that we may render
them still more capable of supplying the raw material so necessary to the main-
tenance of our commercial prosperity.

In recent times one of the most important steps taken in this connection was
the establishment, on the recommendation of a Royal Commission, appointed by
Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, of an Imperial Department of Agriculture in the West
Indies. The provision for the upkeep of the Department, approved by Parlia-
ment, was at the rate of £17,400 per annum. From the first special efforts were
made to bring the resources of science to bear on all matters relating to the
welfare of the Colonies concerned. The laboratories and the headquarters of
the Department were established at Barbados, together with a staff of University
men with special qualifications for research. The latter carried on their work
in co-operation with officers of a like standing at British Guiana, Trinidad, and
Jamaica.

When fully organised the Department made grants for teaching science at

320 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

colleges and secondary schools, and for the maintenance of agricultural schools,
botanic gardens, and experiment stations. Special attention was devoted to
research work in raising new varieties of sugar-canes and other plants, in
the investigation of diseases affecting crops, and the general amelioration of
the conditions under which they were grown. Further, py means of an efficient
stalt of travelling agricultural imstructors and an abundant supply of literature
the Department was brought into intimate touch with all classes of the com-
munity. At the end of ten years of strenuous effort it was noticeable, owinz
to the expansion and improvement of old industries and the introduction ot
new industries, tue general conditions in the West Indies were greatly umpcoved.
This may be illustrated by the fact that the public revenue of the Colonies had
increased from £2,546,724 in 1894 to £3,914,434 in 1911, while the total trade
during the same period had increased from £16,270,474 to £26,949,086. There
was thus an increase of 65 per cent. in the total revenue and of 60:5 per cent.
in the total trade. In reviewing the situation in the West Indies, as the result
of the activities of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, and those associated
with it, the late Prime Minister said ‘ the work of the Department was universally
and gratefully acknowledged by the planters to be largely responsible for the
improved state of affairs in all branches of agriculture, and he believed—and he
spoke with some experience—it would be difficult to find a case in which any
analogous experiment made by: the Home Government had attained such speedy
and satisfactory results,’

A gratifying proof of the value of the work of the Imperial Department of
Agriculture in the West Indies was the formation of several departments on
similar lines, first at Pusa in India in 1902, and subsequently in all the tropical
Colonies in the New and Old World. Further, twenty competent officers trained
in the West Indies are now in charge of Departments of Agriculture in Ceylon,
Mauritius, Federated Malay States, Fiji, and on the staffs of the Imperial
Department of Agriculture in India and the several Colonies in East and West
Africa. Another interesting feature of West Indian progress was the wider
appreciation of improved methods of cultivation and the value of science by
members of the planting community. For instance, in 1898 the aggregate amount
voted by the local legislatures for staffs, laboratories, and botanic and experiment
stations was at the rate of 14,000/. per annum. Apart from the funds of the
Imperial Department of Agriculture, it is probable that, directly or indirectly,
the total amount contributed locally for scientific services is now not less than
60,000/. per annum, It is also to be noted that during approximately the same
period the number of scientific and technical officers had increased from 67 to
142. This, however, is not confined to the West Indies, for in a list, published
annually at Kew, the number of scientific officers attached to botanical establish-
ments in various parts of the Empire had increased from 122 in 1892 to 332
in 1918.

There can be no doubt that not only in the West Indies but in all parts of the
Empire ‘enlightenment as to the objects, methods, and conditions of scientific
research is proceeding at a rapid rate.’ A review of the circumstances relating
to all the Overseas Dominions would be a task entirely beyond my province.
Perhaps the most interesting feature of the progress made is in connection with
the application of the laws of heredity to the improvement of such highly
important crops as sugar, wheat, and cotton. The problems associated with
these involve both scientific and economic considerations. As regards the scientific
side, it is fortunate that with the beginning of the twentieth century came the re-
discovery of Mendel’s facts and the stimulating energy of the genetic school
which has brought us an entirely new point of view in regard to the improvement
of field crops.

Great importance is attached to the improvement of the sugar-cane, as the
prosperity of many, of our possessions depends upon it. Further, the require-
ments of this country approach something like two million tons per annum.
The sugar-cane, although its origin is unknown, has been cultivated in tropical
and sub-tropical countries from remote ages. Up to a recent date its propa-
gation was purely vegetative, as it was supposed to have lost the power of pro-
ducing mature seed. Occasionally by bud variation a new cane wag obtained
possessing special merit. For instance, at Barbados in 1903 a ‘sport’ cane culti-
vated under normal conditions yielded at the rate of 8,070 pounds of sugar per

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Sai

acre as compared with 6,228 pounds yielded by the original cane. In Java, where
the white Cheribon was practically the only kind grown, a red cane suddenly
appeared. This was carefully multiplied by cuttings until a large area was
planted, with the result that a greater tonnage of canes was raised per acre and
the juice was richer.

Sugar-cane seedlings were observed at Barbados in 1858, but it was only in
1888 that Bovell and Harrison were in a position to utilise the discovery and
obtain thousands of self-sown seedlings for experiment purposes. Similar seed-
lings were also available in Java about the same time. As about this period the
standard canes in sugar-growing countries were showing signs of being severely
attacked by disease the discovery of seedlings was a fortunate circumstance.
In fact, in some cases it may be regarded as having probably saved the industry.
A careful examination of the floral characters of the best varieties of sugar-canes
disclosed the fact that in some cases the ovary was normal while the stamens
were infertile. Advantage was taken of this circumstance to secure cross
fertilisation by: planting selected canes of each type in alternate rows. By this
and other means, skilfully devised, several varieties of sugar canes of great
merit were raised.

The possibility of breeding sugar-canes by cross fertilisation under control
on Mendelian lines has so far not proved practicable. Partly on account of
the enormous number of florets in the panicles and their microscopic character,
but chiefly owing to the difficulty of manipulation in the field. Lewton Brain
and Stockdale made careful experiments in 1903 and 1905, but the results in both
cases were disappointing. In spite of this a large number of seedling canes
have been raised in cases where the seed-bearing parent only was known. In
others neither parent was known. The results, on the whole, have not been
unsatisfactory. Seedling canes in many cases have taken the place of the older
varieties, while larger returns per acre have been obtained. Further, owing
to careful selection there has been a marked diminution in the losses from
the attacks of insect and fungoid pests.

In British Guiana it is reported that in the crop of 1918 seedling canes occupied
83 per cent. of the total areas under canes. Similar results have been obtained
at Barbados, where Bovell has continued since 1888 in raising canes of great
merit. Also in the Leeward Islands, and more or less in Trinidad and Jamaica.
The best of the West Indian seedlings have been widely distributed to other
countries. The general policy adopted by Harrison in British Guiana as the
result of over thirty years’ experience in cane selection is briefly summarised
as follows: ‘ We raise as many seedlings as we can from varieties of proved
vegetative vigour, and select from those having both well-marked vegetative
vigour and relatively: high saccharine content.” He adds: ‘The characteristics
of seedling canes are not fixed, and in many instances characteristics which in
the earlier years promised to make a cane of high quality, both in the factory and
field, were the first to fail.’ Harrison’s experience suggests a special line of
research, viz., to ascertain the cause of the increase in vegetative vigour and yield
that follows a first cross, only to disappear in later stages.

In India there is probably a larger area under sugar-cane than in any other
country. Its production of sugar is over two million tons. The larger proportion
of this consists of a low-grade quality known as jaggery or gur. Palm-sugar is
also produced to the extent of half-a-million tons. The sugar-producing areas
in India consist of two main portions: A southern portion in Madras, Mysore,
and Bombay wholly within the Tropics, and a northern portion outside the Tronics
extending from Assam to the Punjab, a distance of one thousand miles. The
difference in soil and atmospheric conditions has a marked influence on the
character of the canes grown in the two regions. In Southern India the canes
are stout and usually. as productive in the irrigated areas as in other tropical
countries; but in the North the canes are more slender. grow in thick clumps,
and owing to the high percentage of fibre are much less productive in sugar.

Speaking generally. the sugar industry in India is not in a satisfactory con-

dition. Tn spite of the enormous area under cultivation India is obliged to

increase its considerable imports of sugar from Java and other countries. To

obviate this urgent steps are being taken to improve the character of the canes

and establish varieties adapted to local conditions and the circumstances of the

sugar growers. The latter are almost entirely of the peasant class or rayats. At

322 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

first it was sought to introduce better varieties of canes from other countries.
A sugar station was established for this purpose at Samalkola. It was soon
evident that the luxuriant canes of the Tropics were not suited to the special
conditions existing in Northern India. What was needed was a more hardy
type of cane capable of holding its own under the field conditions and the
resources of the cultivators. To obtain these they: had to be produced in India.
With this object in view a cane-breeding Research Station was established
in 1910 at Coimbatore, with Barber, an experienced scientific man, in charge.
The locality was regarded as favourable because canes were known to flower
there comparatively freely. At first the improvement of local canes by selection
and later by seedlings from parents of known vigour and high saccharine quality
received attention.

In raising seedling canes the chief difficulty was the irregular flowering of the
best canes. Barber arrived at the conclusion that until some control of the
flowering is obtained work on Mendelian lines was not practicable. In spite
of this a large number of selected seedlings are now being raised at the rate of
4.000 per annum. Some of these, lately, distributed to the experiment stations in
Northern India, have been reported upon as ‘ entirely satisfactory.’

Much more still remains to be done, but there is reasonable hope that a race
of superior hybrid seedlings will be produced that will eventually displace the
inferior local varieties hitherto cultivated. To ensure even moderate success in
this direction it is recognised that the work of cane-breeding must never slacken,
and further, that the means of distribution and the number of stations and capable
workers must be increased.

In the considerable literature of sugar-cane breeding in India Barber has
brought together a vast amount of information of singular interest and value.
In the few years that have elapsed since he has been in charge of the Coimbatore
Research Station he has laid the foundation of lines of inquiry that cannot fail to
prove of great value in the permanent improvement of the sugar industry in
India. It is a good augury: as regards the future that the Government of India
has lately formed an Imperial Sugar Bureau, whose duty it is to collect and
collate the scattered results obtained in various directions and keep closely
in touch with the sugar work done in India and in other sugar-producing
countries.

In his Presidential address in 1898 Sir William Crookes stated that the
prime factor in wheat production was a sufficient supply of nitrogen. As the
supply was then showing signs of exhaustion he warned wheat growers of the
peril awaiting them. Sir R. H. Rew has now shown that, thanks to the chemist,
who came to the rescue, there is practically no limit to the resources of nitrogen.
What he hoped for was that the future would see not only a larger acreage in
this country under wheat but also a substantial increase in the average yield.
During the great war the British people have realised under the stress of a fight
for existence that the question of food supply is the most vital of all national
interests. Both in this country and in India and in the Overseas Dominions great
progress is being made in raising new varieties of wheat yielding large returns
ner acre and possessing excellent milling and baking qualities. In the pre-
Mendelian days excellent work was done in wheat breeding by Saunders in
Canada and Farrer in New South Wales. Their work proved of enormous bene-
fit, as it not only provided varieties of superb quality, but also those that could
be successfully grown in districts where wheat growing for various reasons was
previously impossible. During recent years Biffen by his successful investi-
gations on Mendelian lines at the Plant Breeding Institute at Cambridge has
shown that the characteristics distinguishing the numerous wheats can be traced,
and the building up of a fresh combination of these characters was possible on
practical lines. As the losses caused by disease were so serious, sometimes
running to millions of quarters annually, Biffen devoted special attention to the
possibility of breeding rust-resisting varieties. He found that the power of
resisting the attacks of yellow rust, for instance, was an inheritable character.
By crossing ‘Gurka,’ a Russian disease-resisting wheat, with Square Head’s
Master, one of the most widely cultivated wheats in this country, Biffen
eventually produced ‘Little Joss,’ which, after trials extending over a period
of several years, is said to yield four bushels per acre more than any other
variety. Further, it possesses distinct disease-resisting qualities.

q

ix

te

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 323

Another of Biffen’s new wheats is ‘Yeoman.’ This was raised in order to
produce what are known as strong wheats. These are in great demand in this
country, as they produce a flour which is much superior for baking purposes to
the flour of English wheat. In pre-war days Canadian strong wheats com-
manded in the market 5s. more per quarter than the best English wheat.
‘Yeoman’ not only possesses the superior quality of Canadian wheat but com-
bines with it the high-yielding character of certain English wheats.

A well authenticated report, supplemented with full details, of the value of
‘Yeoman’ as a field crop was lately published.1 It was cultivated under normal
conditions, but without artificial manure, on three fields on a large farm near
Wye, Kent. The cropped area was a little over twenty-seven acres. The total
yield was 2,072 bushels, or an average of about seventy-seven bushels per acre.
One field, previously under beet, comprising three acres two rods and eight poles,
yielded 340 bushels, or an average of eighty-six bushels per acre. These results
may be compared with thirty-two bushels, the average yield of wheat in this
country:

Further, in another variety known as ‘ Fenman,’ Biffen has produced a wheat
with a short, stiff straw for the Fen country. This is able to withstand the usual
tendency of the ordinary sorts to grow tall and be beaten down and injured in
rainy seasons. A most desirable improvement in wheat growing in this country
is to obtain a spring wheat combining early, maturity with a yield approaching |
that of winter wheat. There is likely to be a difficulty in securing these most
desirable results, but what Biffen has already achieved in dealing with qualita-
tive and quantitative characters offers fair promise of success. The establishment
of a National Institute of Agricultural Botany for the further development of
plant breeding and the distribution of pure seed may be regarded as essential
to the welfare and safety of the nation.

Wheat growing is a very important industry in India. It was estimated in
1906-7 that twenty-nine million acres were under cultivation in wheat with a
yield of nearly nine million tons. Of this 90 per cent. was consumed in India.
A botanical survey of the Indian wheats was undertaken by the Economic
Botanists at the Imperial Research Institute at Pusa in 1910. In the following
years by the application of modern methods of selection and hybridisation high-
grain qualities were successfully combined with high-yielding power, rust resist-
ance, and stiff straw, so that wheats were produced which gave upwards of
forty-one bushels per acre.

Among the best of the new varieties are Pusa 4 and Pusa 12. Owing to an
organised system of distribution of seed it is estimated that the area under
Pusa 12 during the last wheat season (1918-19) was about 400,000 acres. The area
under Pusa 4 was about 100,000 acres. The increased yield of 25 per cent. over
the varieties formerly. grown in India as well as one shilling per quarter more
on the market, owing to the improved quality of the grain, are factors of great
value as regards the future of wheat growing in India. Pusa 4 and 12 are said
to possess the added advantage of being able to mature with less water than the
ordinary Indian wheats.

The important work carried on at Pusa by Howard and his accomplished wite
has followed closely on the methods found so successful at Cambridge. It is
interesting to note that in obtaining new kinds by hybridisation between Indian
wheats and rust-resisting forms in Northern Europe a difficulty, in regard to
flowering at different periods was overcome by sending the Indian parents to
Cambridge for spring sowing and by carrying out the actual crossing with
Biffen’s new hybrids in England. From the crosses thus obtained Howard
reports that a wide range of wheats has been evolved likely to prove superior to
Pusa 4 and Pusa 12.

The admirable work done by Biffen at Cambridge and the Howards in India
clearly demonstrates the value of thorough acquaintance with pure Botany as a
qualification for grappling with questions of economic importance.

In reviewing the gain to Indian wheat growers the Director of the Agricultural
Research Institute has recently stated that in view of the favour with which

« the new wheats have been received and the cordial co-operation of provincial

1 Journ. Bd, Agric. xxv., 1161.

324 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

organisations ‘it is a modest estimate to assume that in the course of a very
tew years the area under Pusa wheats will reach five million acres. This means
an increase in the near future in the value of the agricultural produce of India,
in one crop only, of 75 lakhs of rupees or five million sterling.’ Another crop that
has received attention is indigo. In regard to this a new method of growing
the seed has been worked out, and the cause of the destructive wilt disease has
been traced to the destruction of the fine roots and nodules during the monsoon
rains. The remedy in this case is the selection of surface-rooted plants which
are now in course being generally grown.

Considerable progress has also been made with rice, the chief ceredl food of
the people of India. Of this eighty, million acres are cultivated. A variety
known as ‘ Indrasail’ is being rapidly propagated. The yields of this in 1915-16
were 30 per cent. over the ordinary kinds. In 1918 two hundred tons of pure
seed were distributed in Bengal, which contains one of the great rice-producing
tracts of the world.

Some wheat breeding has been carried on in the Argentine by Backhouse,
formerly attached to the John Innes Institution. The conditions in that great
country extending from the Straits of Magellan to the tropic of Capricorn are
exceptional in the diversity of soil and climate. The wheat cultivated in such
widely scattered areas requires to be carefully adapted to local conditions, and

_ the work must take a long time. Confining attention to the dry districts of the
north, Backhouse found an interesting variety in general cultivation known as
Barletta, which, though mixed and heterogenous, was uniform in possessing a
non-shelling character. Further, during periods of drought it acquired the habit
of abandoning tillering and producing only one or two rows of ears. Its chief
defect was its liability to be attacked by Puccinia triticum (not P. glumarum).
In some years 20 per cent. of the crop was lost owing to this rust. It was
ascertained that European varieties immune to P. glumarum were susceptible
to the Argentine rust. ;

A Chinese variety taken out by Backhouse was found to be immune to P.
triticum. From this eventually was built up a form that combined some of the
best qualities of the Barletta with the immunity of the Chinese. Backhouse has
since endeavoured to increase the size of the grain, which is small in Barletta,
and improve the general yield. The adaptability of the Barletta, as a non-sheller,
to the conditions in the Argentine is due to the fact that the harvesting is done
there by an Australian machine which cuts off the ears and threshes them at the
same time. A non-shelling, or what is also known as a tight-glumed, wheat is
therefore essential.

As in wheat, so in cotton, this country is almost entirely dependent on foreign
supplies. The uneasiness caused by the excessive dependence of the great
Lancashire cotton industry, with exports of the annual value of over a hundred
million sterling, on supplies from abroad, and the occasional shortage, have led
to general action being taken to encourage the more extensive growth of cotton
within the Empire. Next to the United States, which in some years have
supplied seven-tenths of our imports, India comes second, but the Kast Indian
cotton is not well suited to the requirements of the English spinner. Egypt,
as the third producing country, supplies cotton of great strength and fineness.

The most valuable of all cottons is that known as ‘ Sea Island’ cotton owing
to its introduction and successful cultivation on the coastal areas in South
Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. With regard to this, it is interesting to learn
that in recent years Sea Island cotton has been introduced back again to the West
Indies, which was probably its original home.

This was effected by the Imperial Department of Agriculture in the West
Indies in 1902, when a pure strain of seed raised from plants immune to wilt
disease was obtained in quantity from James Island. This insured that the
industry from the first was placed on a firm basis, and with the hearty co-
operation of the planters an important West Indian cotton industry was success-
fully established. For some years the West Indian cotton has obtained a higher
price than the corresponding grades of cotton from the Sea Islands themselves.
The fine spinners in Lancashire are now practically independent for their sup-
plies of this cotton from the United States. Further, it is not improbable owing
to the serious attacks of the Mexican boll weevil on cotton plants in South
Carolina and Georgia the West Indies may become the only source of supply of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 325

fine Sea Island cotton. To enable the cotton industry to be established in the
west Indies it was necessary from the first to ascertain the best type of cotton
to grow in each Island, how to plant and cultivate it, how to protect it from
insect and fungus trouble, and how to maintain or improve the quality and
quantity: of the lint produced. The results so far obtained may be realised from
the fact that the value of the exports of Sea Island cotton from the West Indies
in recent years has reached a total of two million sterling. The general conditions
in the West Indian islands owing to their small size and comparative isolation
should enable them to maintain a high purity of cotton. In Egypt and other
cotton-growing countries with continuous areas contamination by natural crossing
leads to rapid deterioration of pure strains so that a system of continued seed
renewal is necessary. Harland, whose services in the West Indies have been
provided by a grant from the Imperial Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, has in hand important investigations with the view of placing the
work of cotton selection and breeding on scientific lines.

He has shown that the yield of lint per acre depends on a number of factors
of a morphological and physiological character. In a general way it may be said
that the yield is dependent on the climatic conditions, so an effort is bemg made
to produce varieties which will interact with the environment conditions to the
best advantage. Although Harland’s work so far is of a preliminary character,
he is able to suggest the conciusion that, following certain lines of selection and
breeding, and bearing in mind the relative importance of lint index and lint
percentage, it is possible to isolate a strain of Sea Island cotton with a weight
of lint per boll 31 per cent. greater than that of the ordinary sorts in cultivation.

Considerable losses occur in some seasons from the attacks of insect and
fungous pests. In some instance the Internal Boll disease is very destructive.
This is due to the puncture of the young bolls by cotton stainers (Dysdercus) and
green bug (Nezara) and the infection of the punctured locks or bolls by certain
specific fungi which cause either total loss or the staining of the lint, according
to the amount and time of infection. :

The green bug is naturaly controlled by egg parasites, but the cotton stainers
are subject to little or no control. In St. Vincent highly successful results
_ have followed the systematic cutting out, over the whole island, of two species
_ of trees (Seaside Mahoe and the Silk cotton) on the fruits of which the cotton
_ stainers breed during the period between the cotton crops. The investigation
_ of the Internal Boll disease has entailed wide research, and illustrates the great
complexity of problems in tropical plant pathology, as also the need of correla-
tion and the combination of knowledge obtained by simultaneous action from
several points of view.

__ A point of scientific interest is the inheritance of immunity in cotton from
the attacks of the Leaf-blister mite (Zriophyes gossypii). Harland believes he
has obtained this by crossing an immune type of native cotton with a susceptible
type of Southern Cross Upland cotton. In the F/3 generation all the plants
breed true to immunity.? This is important from an economic point of view,
for it may lead to the possibility of the production of an immune strain of Sea
Island cotton which has hitherto been very badly attacked by the Leaf-blister
mite. Another instance of immunity from insect attack is a hybrid of maize
(Zea indentata) and Teosinte mexicana, which is claimed to be totally immune
to the attacks of certain aphids.*
As already mentioned, India is the second langest producer of cotton. In
1906-7 it was estimated that there were about 20 million acres under cotton,
with a production of nearly 5 million bales. It is unfortunate that the quality
of East Indian cotton is not high in spite of the considerable efforts made in
Tecent years to improve if.

_ Cambodia cotton for a time proved successful in Southern India, and has
ly been introduced to Madras, but chief attention is directed to the im-
wernent by systematic selection of pure strains adapted to local conditions.
Madras in 1917-18 there were 250,000 acres under new varieties of cotton,
yielding increased returns to the rayats of the value of £416,000 per annum.
4 variety known as ‘roseum’ was planted in the Central Provinces in 1916-17 on

2 West Ind. Bull. xvii., 162.
* Rev. App. Entom. Ser. A., vi., 29.

326 TRANSAOTIONS OF SECTION K,

700,000 acres, with the result that the profits to the growers reached a value
of nearly one million sterling.

Leake’s research work in the United Provinces, carried on for many years,
is regarded as probably the most complete yet attempted with cotton in India.
A variety known as K.22 has been widely distributed, and the produce in 1916
sold at 31 rupees per maund when local cotton was 25 rupees. Further, the
ginning percentage has been raised from 33 to about 40, while the lint is of
superior quality.

Leake has also been successful in raising an early flowering form of cotton
on Mendelian lines. The new form differed from ordinary cotton cultivated
in the United Provinces in that it assumed a sympodial instead of a monopodial
habit. It not only yielded cotton of high quality, but it was found by its
early flowering habit to suit the special conditions of the United Provinces.

As Egyptian cotton comes next to Sea Island cotton in quality it may be
useful to refer to what has been done, or attempted to be done, on scientific
lines to safeguard the industry. Its importance may be gathered from the
fact that the area under cultivation is between a million and a-half and two
million acres. Balls has fully reviewed the scientific and other problems that
had to be solved in placing the industry on a satisfactory footing.

In the first place, as in all cotton areas, it had to be realised that it was
necessary to produce varieties on pure lines. An attempt to produce crosses
between American Upland and Egyptian cotton had to be abandoned. It was
then resolved to select strains cf individual Egyptian sorts and by the study of
heredity on Mendelian lines to raise new varieties of pure strain. It was
hoped by these means and by organising an effective system of seed distribu-
tion, year by year, to maintain the general purity of the crop. The chief
difficulty met with was in respect of the relatively small size of the unit areas
and the liability of the pure-strain plants being contaminated by pollen carried
by wind or by bees from the neighbouring areas. According to Balls, the high-
water mark of Egyptian cotton growing was from 1895 to 1899. Since that
time, although the actual area under cotton had been increased by 600,000 acres,
the benefit measured in terms of cotton alone was small. It is probable that
the attacks of the pink boll worm and other pests may have affected the
results, but Balls and his colleagues came to the conclusion ‘ that the falling
off in yield was due to a rise in the level of the sub-soil water, or water table
of the country brought about by the extension of the irrigation system during
the past decade.’ The roots of the cottcn plant were thus adversely affected
at a critical period of growth. This recalls what Howard discovered, that one
of the causes of the wilt disease in indigo in India was the destruction of
the fine roots amd nodules during heavy monsoon rains. This shows, as sug-
gested by Balls, how small was our real knowledge of the root functions of
plants, and in the experiments carried on by him and his colleagues in Egypt
they were ‘ semi-consciously building up a general scientific knowledge of root-
function worked out on the cotton plant as our material.’

Balls, while carrying out numerous investigations bearing on the production
of pure strains of Egyptian cotton, devised.a method of recording crop-develop-
ment by means of illustrative graphs likely to be adopted not only for cotton
but other crops. Incidentally, he proved that the close-planting method on
ridges adopted by the native cultivators in Egypt was more advantageous than
the wider planting adopted in the United States and other countries. It is a
sign of the times that a British Cotton Industry Research Association has
recently been formed at Manchester to promote a wide scheme of research
in connection with the production of cotton and its utilisation in industry.
It will employ a staff of scientific and skilled workers, and maintain scholar-
ships, and eventually a Cotton Research Institute is in contemplation. It also
proposes to establish research stations in the cotton-growing portions of ‘the
Empire for the investigation of the growth of cotton and the careful and com-
plete study of the scientific problems that may arise.

Probably the most remarkable instance on record of the successful combina-
tion of sclence and enterprise in the Tropics is the establishment of a cacao-
growing industry in the Colony of the Gold Coast, West Africa. Thirty years
ago no cacae of any kind was produced on the Coast. Owing, however, to the
foresight of the then Governor (Sir William Brandford Griffith), who sought

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 827

the powerful aid of Kew, cacao growing was started in a small way among
the negro peasantry, with eventually extraordinary results. After selecting
the locality for the experiments, seeds and plants were obtained through Kew,
and a trained man was placed in charge.* The first exports in 1891 amounted
to a value of £4 only. So rapid was the development of the industry that ten
years later the exports reached a value of £43,000. By this time both the
_ people and the Government had begun to realise the possibilities of the situation,
and systematic steps were taken to organise under scientific control a staff of
travelling agricultural instructors to advise and assist the cultivators in dealing
with fungoid and insect pests and improving the quality of the produce. In 1911
the exports had increased nearly fourfold, and reached a total value of
£1,613,000, while in 1916 what may possibly be regarded as the maximum
exports were of the value of £3,847,720.

It should be borne in mind that this Gold Coast cacao industry, now one
of the largest in the world, has been called into being and developed entirely by
the agency of unskilled negro labour, and on small plots from one to five or
ten acres in extent. The controlling factors were, first, the selection of suitable
land for cacao growing; next, the selection and supply of seeds and plants of
_ varieties adapted to local conditions; and, lastly, the tactful advice and assist-
ance of trained Europeans backed by the resources of science.

Coming nearer home, Henry, well known from his association with Elwes in
the production of ‘The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland,’ by historical
research and experiment has established the fact that many fast-growing trees
in cultivation as the Lucombe Oak, Common Lime, Cricket-Bat Willow, Black
Italian Poplar, Huntingdon Elm, etc., are hybrids. It was of high scientific
-importance to discover the origin of these valuable trees. Further, by artificial
pollination Henry has succeeded in raising new hybrids which display the extra-
ordinary vigour characteristic of the first generation cross. Perhaps the most
notable, so far, is a new hybrid Poplar (Populus generosa), which makes the
strongest shoots of all Poplars.

The astonishing vigour of hybrid trees is well illustrated in the case of the
-Cricket-Bat Willow, a natural cross between Salix fragilis and S. alba. ‘This
_oftens attains in fourteen or fifteen years, from the planting of sets, fifty to
sixty feet in height, with three and a-half to four feet in girth—a size suitable
for cleaving into bats.’ It is claimed in the case of many hybrid trees
“it is possible to produce much greater bulk of timber in a given time.’ The
common belief that quickly grown timbers are of inferior quality is said nof
to hold good in respect of any quality in Ash, Oak, and Walnut. In fact,
according to Dawson, ‘ with Oak, Ash, and Walnut the quicker their growth the
better their quality in every way. They are more durable, more elastic, and
less difficult to work. It is further claimed that by hybridising it may be
possible to produce disease-resisting varieties and varieties carrying with them
other desirable characteristics.

Difficulties are met with in hybridising trees in this country owing to the
variable climate and the absence of pollen and desirable sorts. To obviate these
and provide adequately for the work it should be undertaken on organised lines,
as in wheat breeding.

_ Henry has recently made an elaborate investigation into the history of the
sondon Plane (Platanus acerifolia).6 He has established the fact that this
e, never seen anywhere in the wild state, is intermediate in character
ween an American and a European species. He claims it has all the pecu-
rities of a first cross. As usual in hybrids of the first generation, its seeds
when sown produce a mixed and varied crop of seedlings, in which are
variously combined the characters of the two parents.

_ Henry’s researches show that the London Plane probably originated in the
Oxford Botanic Garden about the year 1670, when both the occidental and oriental
nes were established there. The finest and probably the oldest London
ane in Europe is growing in the Palace Garden at Ely. It was planted
by Bishop Gunning between 1674 and 1684. The vigour of the London Plane

4 Kew Bull. 1891. 169; 1895, 11.
5 Science and the Nation, 138.
® Proc. Roy. Irish Acady. XXXV. B.2.10.

328 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

is remarkable. It is extensively used for planting in London and other towns
jn this country, and also in Europe and North America, ‘as it has been found
to surpass all other trees in its powers of resistance to drought, smoke, and
other unfavourable conditions of soil and atmosphere.’

In the Tropics breeding experiments in the case of India-rubber trees are
likely to prove of great value. In the meantime, selection of seed from the
best trees is being carefully carried out in the hope of increasing the general
yield of the plantations. In Java the proportion of alkaloids in the bark of
introduced Cinchona trees (yielding quinine) have nearly doubled by careful
selection on these lines. In the case of rubber trees, which are known to
possess marked individuality in regard to the amount of latex which can be
drawn from them, it is suggested that seed for planting should be taken only
from trees selected for their high-yielding capacity. In fact, the selection of
seed bearers may play an important part in the future development and per-
manence of the rubber industry. Where good seed is not readily available
Lock has suggested that the best trees might be raised from cuttings.

Plant-breeding experiments with India-rubber trees have already been
attempted, but they are not likely to be of much value if they are confined
to empirical. and haphazard lines. It is suggested that they should be carried
on at well-staffed and well-equipped stations devoted to breeding and kindred
problems. Such stations should be established in each of the main rubber-
growing regions. Work of this kind must be lengthy and complex, but it is
absolutely essential to ensure the safety of an industry which is estimated to
be of the annual value in the Middle East of about fifty millions sterling. The
Agricultural Department in Ceylon, which is fully alive to the fundamental
importance of selection and breeding India-rubber trees, has already taken some.
action in the matter. For instance, at the Heneratgoda Gardens there are fifty
Hevea trees whose individual latex-yield has been recorded for every tapping
since June 1908. One tree marked No. 2 has yielded an amount of rubber far in
excess of any other tree. In 1912 seeds and stumps taken from this tree have
been established on a plot of three acres at the Experiment Station at Peradeniya.
When the trees are fit for tapping and the good yielders are determined the
others will be cut out and the remainder reserved for seed purposes.

Another investigation in hand is to determine whether the latex-yielding
quality of Hevea trees can be associated with any definite botanical characters
and to what extent such characters are transmittible. Twenty trees of the ~
same age growing in a four-acre block have been selected for differences —
in leaf and bark characters. These are all tapped on the same system, and ©
the yield of rubber from each tree is recorded separately for each tapping.” i

The value of these and other experiments of a like nature may be realised —
when, according to Varnet, quoted by Johnson, the yield of rubber from
different trees of Hevea growing under similar conditions in the same plantation
may vary as regards volume of latex from 4 to 48, and in percentage of weight
of dry rubber from 1.286 to 14.164.*

Bateson a few years ago expressed the opinion that nowhere is the need for
wide views of our problems more evident than in the study of plant diseases.
Hitherto, he said, ‘this side of agriculture and horticulture, though full of
possibilities for the introduction of scientific methods, has been examined only
in the crudest and most empirical fashion.”® Since then some advance has
been made in the morbid physiology of plants, but such work to be carried to a
successful and practical issue demands careful experiments carried on con-
tinuously by specialists for many years.

Keeble suggests that ‘‘the professional mycologist is accustomed to confine
his attention too exclusively to the active agent of the disease,’ while, on the
other hand, ‘the professional cultivator gives habitually great weight to the
possibility of preserving plants from disease by improving his methods of
cultivation. Both are right, yet neither is wholly wise, and there is much room
for 2 race of mycologists who not only discover how to cure plants but know

7 Kew Bull. 1917, 118.
8 Jour d’ Agric. Tropicale, 1907.
® Address, Section M., 1911.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 329

how to cultivate them.’ 1° As we have already seen, Biffen and others have shown
that under certain conditions the quality inherent in some varieties to resist
disease may be utilised to great advantage. The national importance of such
work is impressed upon us by the enormous losses sustained every year by rust
in wheat, mould in hops, and the widespread disease of potatoes. One of the
most striking instances in recent times was the destruction of the valuable
coffee plantations in Ceylon. The industry, an exceptionally valuable one,
was wiped out in a comparatively few years by the coffee-leaf disease (Hemileia
vastatriz). In the light of our present knowledge it is not improbable that
_ this disease may have been checked by seed selection or raising an immune
-vace of plants. Or, more probably, as suggested by Armstrong, by regulating
the use of essentially nitrogenous manures, which are known in some cases
_ to intensify the attacks of fungoid pests, and substituting the use of phosphates.
In the Malay States the life history of some of the more prominent diseases
of rubber trees has received close attention. Fomes lignosus, a root fungus,
is local in character, and as its effects quickly appear there is time to take
_ remedial measures before the neighbouring trees are affected. Ustulina zonata,
causing collar-rot, on the other hand, is slow in action, and therefore all the
more dangerous. A third rubber disease, Fomes pseudo-ferreus, spreads
entirely by the contact of the roots with diseased jungle stumps or roots of
other diseased rubber trees. As remedial measures are impossible in this
instance a clean-clearing policy is keing vigorously advocated, and under scientific

advice this may become the rule on all young rubber estates in the Kast. In
this country Salmon, who is undertaking a detailed study of the hop mildew
(Spheerotheta humili), has obtained seedlings which he states ‘have retained
immunity after four years’ trial in a hop garden under normal conditions of
cultivation and manuring.’ As the depredation of mildew, commonly known as
mould, causes great loss to hop growers, the research work carried on by Salmon
is watched with great interest. Progress is necessarily slow, but a hop immune
to mould would be a valuable acquisition in hop-growing districts. In the
successful treatment of the diseases of plants the field of work in the Empire
is realised as practically without limit; but it is one in which advance must be
made by the development of pure science, and by men with a broad outlook
and fully in touch with the practical as well as the scientific side.
__ As illustrating the occurrence of an incidental result arising from a purely
scientific investigation, mention may be made of the discovery of a remarkably tall
strain of flax at the John Innes Institution. This, if capable of being estab-
lished on pure lines, may prove of economic value. It is a hopeful sign that the
‘appreciation of the work done at this institution, under the stimulating energy
of Bateson, is increasing day by day. The broad-minded interpretation that has
been placed on the generous bequest made by Mr. Innes and the recognition
of the fact that an accurate knowledge of heredity must form the basis of the
bulk of the new work in horticultural breeding are full of promise. We have,
further, the assurance that recognition will be given to the principle that if
progress is to be made theory and practice must be closely interwoven. Amongst
other important investigations undertaken at the John Innes Institution, Miss
Ida Sutton has recently published a Report on Self-sterility in such fruit-trees
as plums, cherries, and apples. It has been recognised that failure in fruit
crops is not infrequently due to self-sterility. Two main questions were deait
with, (1) whether self-sterility is a simple Mendelian recessive character, and
(2) whether self-steriles are fertile wifh the pollen of any other variety. So
far, with regard to (1), the results show there is nothing which negatives the
view that the property of self-sterility may be recessive, and in regard to
2) what East has called ‘cross-incompatibility’’ is not confirmed by Miss
Sutton’s researches. The general conclusions arrived at by Miss Sutton are:
(a) that many important commercial varieties of fruit trees set little or nothing
ess cross-pollinated; (b) that for the pollination of these self-sterile kinds
inisers must be planted; (c) that provided a variety produces plenty of
en and flowers simultaneously with the variety which is intended to pollinate,
any variety, at least of plums and apples, will probably serve for this purpose,

10 Science and the Nation, 118.

330 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

apart from the special case of the Coe varieties of plums and their presumable
co-derivative, Jefferson. We may mention the great success which is attending
the establishment of a school of technical education and research by the Royal
Horticultural Society at Wisley. This is maintained by liberal funds, and
by means of its well equipped laboratories and extensive trial grounds it offers
unique facilities for solving problems of great value as affecting the future of
British horticulture. In sympathy with the work at Wisley private firms are
also setting up laboratories of their own and employing men of high standing
so that a just balance will be maintained between science and practice. By
such means research will be stimulated and encouragement given to individual
initiative which is recognised as fundamentally important in the advancement
of science.

In schemes of intensive cultivation so ably advocated in reference to food
production, it is well to bear in mind that it may be possible in some instances
to go beyond what is necessary to achieve the object in view. Russell is of
opinion that ‘the more intensive the cropping the greater the opportunity for
the various pests to live. . . Further, most pests have their parasites, and
wholesale sterilisation may help the pest by destroying the parasites. Imms
has recently noted two cases where this is said to have happened.'! I may add
a third instance cf this character in the case of the Moth Borer attacking sugar-
canes in the West Indies. For probably something like two hundred years the
moth borer had been regarded as the most destructive enemy ot the sugar-cane.
Its life history was unknown until Lefroy, then attached to the Imperial De-
partment of Agriculture, discovered the eggs which were deposited in a greenish
cluster on the back of the leaves of the sugar-cane. The egg clusters were so
inconspicuous that they had entirely escaped notice. The first steps were to
employ boys to cut off portions of the leaves with the eggs and burn them.
It was afterwards discovered that many of the eggs were parasitised, and the
planters were thus unknowingly destroying the parasite, and practically in-
creasing rather than diminishing the attacks of the moth borer. On the further
advice of Lefroy the leaves with the egg clusters were not burned but spread
out in the shade to enable the parasites to hatch out, with the result that in
the later stages of the crop nearly all the moth-borer eggs were parasitised, and
the loss in canes in that and the succeeding crop was largely reduced by
natural means.

The progress made in the elucidation of problems in tropical plant pathology
shows not only the necessity for well trained and experienced mycologists and
entomologists, but also for the correlation and combination of knowledge gained
in their several lines of study. It is suggested that research work should ke
organised on the broadest possible lines, and combine the biological services
of the whole Empire. We have a first step in this direction in the Imperial
Bureau of Entomology, with its headquarters at the British Museum. Those
acquainted with the efficient work done by this Bureau and the excellent pub-
lications issued by it will very heartily welcome the establishment of the
proposed Imperial Bureau of Mycology, to carry on its work on similar lines.

In this brief review I have endeavoured, however imperfectly, to place on
record some of the activities that have taken place in the domain of Botany
in recent years. It has only been possible to select a few of the most striking
incidents where progress has been made. This has been done in the hope of
arousing wider interest in work of prime importance as affecting the interests
of the home country and the Empire. Botany in its widest aspects affects so
largely the welfare of the human race that it is impossible to slacken our efforts.
Advance has necessarily been slow, but the creative impulse of science cannot
fail to bring in a large harvest of results. This may be possible by encourag-
ing mdividual efforts, by organising active co-operation and in associating with
us men who are practically grappling with difficulties that seem almost impossible
to solve. I have attempted to show in what vast fields of enterprise botanical
science has already rendered signal service. As regards the future, if we enlist
the best intellects imbued with the true spirit of progressive research, we shall
ensure a continuance of discoveries that have proved so effectual. We must also

11 Address, 1916, p. 17.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 331

call to our assistance some of that wonderful energy developed during the war
and divert it to the great work before us.

Certainly one of the outstanding features that emerges from a record of
botanical research during the last decade or two is the prominent position
occupied by plant-breeding on Mendelian lines. In proof of this we have the
numerous well-equipped plant-breeding institutes established and maintained
by Government and private funds. Plant-breeding is now in the forefront in
relation to the improvement of crops, and the value of it is officially acknow-
ledged as ‘a vital element in the national policy.’ According to the Secretary
of the Board of Agriculture, what we want ‘are new races of plants adapted
to intensify cultivation, and,’ he adds, ‘it is my deliberate opinion that an
increase in the production of our land is much more easily attainable in that
direction than in any other.’

The following Papers were then read :—

1. Orchids of Hants and Dorset. By Colonel M. J. Govrrey, F.L.S.

Malaxis paludosa Sw. New Forest, rare; only British orchid with epiphyllous
buds. Neottia ndus avis L. Infrequent; essentially subterranean, only throw-
ing up flowering stem to secure cross-fertilisation and dissemination of seed,
sometimes flowering underground. Jvzstera ovata Br. Common. JL. cordata Br.
Found near Branksome in 1895, perhaps introduced with pines. Spiranthes
autumnalis Rich. Not infrequent, chalk downs and limestone pastures, also
grows in sand. Sp. cestivalis Rich. Extremely rare, one locality in New Forest.
Cephalanthera grandiflora L. Not uncommon; self-fertilised, once seen visited
by Bombus lucorum. C. ensifolia Rich. Rare, absent from Isle of Wight.
Hpipactis palustris Cr. Not common, the only British Hpipactis fertilised by
hive-bees. Z. latifolia All. Not uncommon. #. wiolacea Dur. Dusq. Very
rare; both the latter fertilised by wasps. Platanthera chlorantha Rchb. Not
common, frequent in Isle of Wight. P. bifolia Rchb. Rather rare. Celo-
qlossum viride Hartm. Rare, abundant near Winchester. Gymnadenia conopsea
Br. Local, chalk downs, rarely in marshy ground; seeds protected from rain
by closing of capsules. Herminium monorchis Br. Rare. Ophrys aranifera.
Very rare. O. muscifera Huds. Rare; a hybrid with aranifera occurs in Kent.
O. apifera Huds. Generally distributed, near Winchester tends to vary in the
direction of 7’roilii.

Orchis mascula L.. Locally abundant, rarely white. O. morio L. Locally
plentiful ; a specimen with three lips throws doubt on Darwin’s theory that lip is
- compounded of one petal and two anthers. O. ustulata LL. Rave; is said to smell
like heliotrope. O. latifolia L. with ring-spotted leaves, O. preetermissa Druce,
unspotted, essentially marsh plants, occur also (sparingly) high and dry on
Winchester downs. OQ. incarnata L. Local, sometimes rose-pink fading white,
sometimes red purple, sometimes bluish purple with carmine spots. A white
variety is recorded from the New Forest. O. maculata L. abundant. 0.
-ericetorum Linton. Usually regarded as a variety of maculata, occurs on peat
bogs and damp heaths, has considerable claims to specific distinction. Anacamp-
_tis pyramidalis Rich. Frequent on the chalk, rarely pure white.

Natural Hybrids.—Most frequent in the genus Orchis, between incarnata,
latifolia, preetermissa, and maculata. The following occur in the Winchester
“marshes: incarnata x latifolia, incarnata x preetermissa, incarnata x maculata,
atifolia x pretermissa, latifolia x maculata, and preetermissa x maculata,
except imcarnata x maculata, which I have only seen in Anglesey, though it
‘probably grows near Winchester. Marsh orchids grow intermingled, and are
‘sufficiently similar for insects to visit them indiscriminately. Bi-generic
Hybrids.—On Winchester Downs occur:—Gymnadenia conopsea xX Orchis
naculata, Celoglossum viride x Orchis maculata, C. viride ~ Orchis latifolia
(probably found nowhere else in the world), and @. viride x Gymnadenia
conopsea remarkable as a cross between a very short-spurred and a very long-
Spurred orchid. Aceras anthropophora. Very rare if not extinct in Hants, has
been seen fertilised by Platychirus manicatus, visiting the flowers to lay eggs
amongst aphides. ‘

332 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

2. On the Desert Flora of Western Egypt.
By Capt. H. HamsHaw Tuomas.

During the spring of 1916 some months were spent in camp on the edge of
the Libyan desert, about; 25 miles north west of Cairo, and this afforded some
opportunity of observing the flora of the region and the exceedingly unfavourable
climatic conditions under which the plants grow. The winter rains are light,
but in the spring very heavy dews occur at night, while during the day the
pebbly soil becomes exceedingly hot. Vast stretches of gravelly desert occur,
which, unlike the sandy and rocky desert of eastern Egypt and Sinai, are almost
totally devoid of vegetation. A few individuals manage to grow in sandy
pockets, while a small ephemeral Hrodium succeeds in growing on the gravel.

On the sandy desert edge a number of dwarf tufted plants with stout tap
roots occur. A specimen of Calligonium comosum was dug up but did not
appear to confirm Volkens’ estimate as to the length of its subterranean root
system.

Attention is drawn to the effect of the peculiar sand-storms known as the
‘Khamseen,’ which occur in May and June just at the close of the growing
period of the vegetation. By an intensely dry and strong wind, together with
the eroding power of blowing sand, a large proportion of the younger shoots of
the plants are killed and broken off. The results of these storms are shown in
the dwarf, tufted habit of so many of the plants, especially in those lacking
stout thorny branches.

3. Mycorrhiza and the Hricacee. By M. C. Rayner, D.Sc.

Calluna vulgaris.

Experimental proof has been published in an earlier paper that the relation
between this plant and its mycorrhizal fungus is an obligate one.

The facts are as follow :

(a) The fungus present in the root-mycorrhiza is distributed throughout the
vegetative tissues of the shoot, and is present in the ovaries of the flower.

(b) Infection of the seed coats of the seeds takes place within the developing
fruit, and the seeds are shed carrying the fungus.

(c) Infection of the new generation takes place at germination of the seed.
Unless such infection occurs, the seedlings are unable to form roots and quickly
perish.

New facts are now presented bearing on the following :

(1) The existence of a similar condition of ‘obligate symbiosis’ in other
members of the Hricacec. The genus Vaccinium. se

(2) The bearing of the facts already known on the edaphic peculiarities of
Calluna.

(3) The biology of the relationship. Possibility: of nitrogen-fixation by the
fungus.

4. The Morphology of the Stele of Platyzoma microphyllum. R. Br.
By Joun McLean Tuompson, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.BR.S.E.

In the materials of Platyzoma so far examined the stele was an unbroken
medullated cylinder devoid of leaf-gaps or perforations. It possessed inde-
pendent outer and inner endodermal sheaths between which lay in centripetal
succession pericycle, outer phloém, xylem and inner parenchyma. The pith was
entirely isolated within the conductive cylinder having no ground-tissue con-
nection with the cortex. In leaf-trace formation and departure the inner
endodermis was in no way involved, and no point existed where the stele was
not entirely enclosed by an outer endodermis.

It has been suggested that the pith of Platyzoma is the result of confluence
and final isolation of a series of foliar ‘ pockets,’ and is in reality of extrastelar
origin, or is at least most reasonably interpreted as such, though, as a result of
stelar reduction, it no longer communicates with the cortex. The stele itself
has been considered reduced from an original solenostele by loss of internal
phloém and leaf-gaps. As an alternative interpretation it has. been suggested that

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 833

the medullated stele of Platyzoma may have been derived from a protostelic origin
by the direct formation of an independent intrastelar pith and inner endodermis.

The evidence so far advanced seems inadequate to allow of a confident opinion
regarding the nature and origin of the medullated stele of Platyzoma. For while
no evidence of the intrastelar origin of the pith and inner endodermis has emerged
to support the latter interpretation, the reduction theory has not been supported
by the demonstration of cortical ‘ intrusion ’ into the stele through stelar gaps, nor
by the presence of stelar gaps and a solenostelic condition.

A recent investigation of a number of specimens of Platyzoma showed neither
a solenostelic condition nor evidence of stelar gaps or inner phloém. On the
reduction hypothesis they might be considered evidential of the firm establishment
_ of the reduced condition. On the theory of upgrade intrastelar differentiation
they might be held to demonstrate how entirely intrastelar in nature as in location
are the pith and inner endodermis.

On the other hand, as the stele of a small but incomplete specimen was followed
forward from the broken base of the stem the pith and inner endodermis decreased
until the latter was narrowed to a vanishing point, so that a medullated protostele
was established locally. The pith again expanded and within it there arose
de novo an inner endodermis. Further forward the pith diminished and the inner
endodermis again narrowed to a vanishing point. For at least the second time
in the history of this plant a medullated protostele was established locally, and
on subsequent re-expansion of the pith, inner endodermis was again created
de novo, and was subsequently maintained to the apex of the stem as an unbroken
cylinder.

It is thus recognised that Platyzoma may become locally protostelic by reduc-
tion of the pith and loss of the inner endodermis. It may augment from within
the stele itself an attenuated pith. In like manner it may develop an independent
intrastelar endodermis.

Three definite states may exist in the stele of a fern.

(i) The original protostely may persist undisturbed throughout the entire
_ ontogeny.

(ii) The original protostely may be transformed at an early stage in the
ontogeny once and for all into one or other of the more elaborate stelar states.

(iii) The original protostely may recur in the ontogeny in ferns in which the
advanced stelar state is not yet permanently established.

; It is now suggested that Platyzoma provides an illustration of the third and

apparently exceptional state in which the protostelic structure of the ancestry
has not yet been definitely restricted to the ‘sporeling’ stages, but tends to
persist in the mature organism. The stelar structure of the small specimen may
be reminiscent of the steps taken in the initial transformation of the ancestral
_ protostele, namely, the growth of a pith within the stele itself, and the inclusion
of the bulk of this intrastelar pith within an independent internal endodermis
ereated de novo. On this view the present medullated conductive cylinder of
_ Platyzoma would be regarded as the high-water mark of stelar amplification so
far reached for this plant, neither inner phloém nor stelar gaps having been
evolved.

,

y

5. The Northern Invasions of New Zealand, with Special Reference to
Lord Howe Island. By J. C. Wiis, Sc.D., F.R.S.

Detailed study of the local distribution of species in New Zealand by zones
of 100 miles in width reveals the probability that, in addition to the invasions
at the north, from the Kermadecs, and from the south there was another
invasion from the west, which likely followed the ridge upon which stands
Lord Howe Island. By the usual method of prediction and subsequent verification
it is then shown that the Lord Howe flora consists mainly of the genera of the
three northern and western invasions; that the endemics of its flora are mainly
in the older families of these invasions, and in the larger (older) families and
genera of Howe; and that a large proportion of Howe species reach the
athams, which are opposite to the probable centre of the western invasion
of New Zealand.

334 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Relation of the Seed Plants to the Higher Cryptograms.
By D. EL Sseorn, i .8%

That the Seed Plants sprang from the Higher Cryptogams has been an accepted
doctrine ever since evolutionary ideas were first entertained. The discovery of
the Pteridosperms—Fern-like Paleozoic plants bearing seeds—hag led many
botanists to believe that the Spermophyta generally, or at least a great part of
them, were ultimately derived from the Ferns. Sometimes, however, greater
caution has been shown and only a ‘common stock’ postulated. Zeiller, always —
judicious, inclined to the latter hypothesis, but he, too, was much impressed by
the Fern-affinities of the Pteridosperms, which he called ‘ Fougéres a graines,’
seed-bearing Ferns.

A reconsideration of the question has suggested a doubt whether the
Pteridosperms ever were Ferns, and, further, whether the Seed Plants are not
as ancient a race as any known phylum of the Higher Cryptogams (leaving the
newly-recognised Psilophytales out of consideration). Though the point at issue
affects the position of the Spermophyta as a whole, the question turns on the
Pteridosperms, as they are the Seed Plants which bear the most manifest
resemblance to a definite Cryptogamic stock.

The doubt was first raised by Prof. Weiss’s observation that in the roots of
Lyginopteris oldhamia the xylem-plate of the diarch rootlet is parallel to the
axis of the parent root, as in Phanerogams, not at right angles to it, as in _
Pteridophyta. This, though a small point, seems to afford, so far as it goes, an
absolute distinction, showing that in this respect the typical Pteridosperm,
Lyginopteris, was a true Phanerogam.

Much stress has always been laid on the anatomical characters of
Pteridosperms as evidence of an intermediate position between Cycadophyta and
Ferns. It is remarkable, however, that no Pteridosperm is known to resemble
in its anatomy any contemporary group of Ferns. We may arbitrarily compare
Lyginopteris with Osmunda or Heterangium with Gletchenia, but these are mere
analogies, for no one can imagine that there was any affinity between the genera _
compared. With Paleozoic Ferns, whether Primofilices or Marattiales, there
seems to be little or nothing in common, from an anatomical point of view. The
evidence may indicate a certain parallelism of development, but by no means
supports filiation.

The resemblance in habit between Pteridosperms and Ferns is striking and
obvious; it deceived almost all botanists, even Hooker himself, down to our own
time. But in some cases, where the external likeness is greatest (e.g., between
Alethopteris and Pteris), we know that the internal structure was totally
different ; habit by itself is an illusory guide.

The seeds of Pteridosperms show no clear relation to Fern-sporangia, from _
which they are just as remote as those of Cordaiteew or even Cycads. This is
very different from the case of Lepidocarpon or Miadesmia, where the Lycopod |
relation is manifest. There is no reason to assume that the Pteridosperm-seed
ever was like a Fern-sporangium; attempts to correlate them have depended on
the aid of ingenious hypotheses with little basis of fact.

The pollen-sacs of Pteridosperms offer a better analogy with the sporangia
of Ferns; they have generally been regarded as practically identical with the
fructifications of Paleozoic Marattiales. We really, however know very little F:
about the microsporangia ; if they were bilocular, as there is some evidence to
show, they were very distinct from Fern-sporangia of any sort. 3

It is suggested that the Pteridosperms (and ea hypothesi the Seed Plants
generally) have always been distinct from any of the known phyla of Vascular
Cryptogams ; that they were not derived from the Primofilices of Arber or from
any other group of Ferns recognised as such. The writer’s object is to emphasise
the distinctness of the Pteridosperms as an independent phylum, parallel in
important respects to the Ferns, but of unknown and remote origin.

Zeiller thought that in the older Paleozoic rocks Pteridosperms were more

EMORY omrified/ ve

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 835

fumerous in proportion to Ferns; there is no reason why they should not be,
if both are equally ancient.

The enormous antiquity of highly organised Gymnospermous wood, e.g.,
Callixylon Trifilievi in the Upper Devonian, Palceopitys Miileri in the Middle
Vid Red Sandstone, suggests, if it does not prove, that Spermophyta go as far
back in geological history as any land plants of which the structure is known.
Hugh Miller, three-quarters of a century ago, rightly insisted that the Gymnogens
and Acrogens, as he called them, formed two parallel lines, running back into
the unknown past. We cannot but believe that the two lines converged some-
where, but it may weli have been at a point so remote that the common source
antedates the origin of the Pteridophyta as hitherto understand.

2. On some New Types of Statocyte occurring in Vascular Plants.
By Miss T. L. Pranxerp.

Further work has necessitated a slight modification of the definition of a
statocyte given to the Section in 1915, and I now propose to define the term as
a cell containing a body or bodies more or less free to move under the influence
of gravity. The varied types may be characterised as follow :—

(1) The statoliths, or moveable bodies, are starch grains (amylostatoliths),
simple or compound, larger than, smaller than, or the same size as the embedded
grains of other tissues.

(2) The statoliths are starch-containing chloroplasts (chlorostatoliths).

(3) The statolith is a crystal of calcium oxalate usually occurring singly in the
statocyte.

(4) Similar to (1), but the nucleus is differentiated in size and staining
capacity from the nuclei of adjacent cells.

(5) Similar to (1), but the nucleus occupies a definite position im the cell, and
though apparently free from the statoliths, moves with them.

(6) The nucleus is more or less united to starch grains, or starch-containing
chloroplasts to form a gravitational unit (nwcleostatolith).

(7) The statocyte is elongated in a vertical plane and contains a thick strand
of protoplasm attached at each end. ‘The strand contains embedded starch
_ grains and a central nucleus, and is capable of swinging to the lower side of the
_ statocyte should the latter be displaced.

Of the above (3), (4), and (7) are probably rare. The rate of movement varies
_ very considerably in different plants; by far the highest yet discovered is that
ot the crystal statolith in the wheat plant, which is 600 microns per hour, 2.e.,
at least three times that of any other known statolith.
Quite independently of any function which may be attributed to statocytes,
they are definite histological units, generally aggregated together into a tissue
(Statenchyma)—a no less definite feature in plant anatomy.

By Horace W. Moncrron, Treas.L.S., F.G.S.1

_ The present communication deals with the Thames Basin only. The flora

‘of the London Clay differs greatly from that on the other geological formations

et a district, more especially from the flora on the chalk or on the Bagshot
eds.

The sedges are taken as an illustration. About twenty-eight species, and
the hybrid Carex axillaris, grow on London Clay. Zleocharis palustris, Carex
wulpina, C. panicea, C. flacca, C. hirta, and species of the flava and riparia
mps are abundant. C’. pulicaris, C. stellulata, C. elongata, C. pallescens,
C. Pseudo-Cyperus, C. sylvatica, and C. vesicaria may also be mentioned.

In addition to the twenty-eight species referred to above, there are some
twelve others recorded from the London Clay area. These include Rynchospora,

t

so
3. The Flora of the District of the London Clay.

1 See ‘The Flora of the Bagshot District,’ in Journ. of Botany, Vol. 57,
tember, 1919.

386 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

some species of Scirpus, of Hriophorum, and of the Carex binervis group, but
these do not seem to occur where the London Clay forms the actual surface,
and it is noted that a very slight covering of gravel or sand, too slight to
mark on a geological map, is sufficient to alter the flora. Most of these twelve
species appear to belong to the district of the Bagshot Beds and to have trans-
gressed on to the London Clay area.

4. Monocotyledonous Features of the Ranunculacee with Special
Reference to the Floral Structure. By HK. J. SauisBury, D.Sc., F.L.S.

(a) Brief review of the vegetative and anatomical resemblances between the
Ranunculacee and allied families and the Monocotyledons in general and the
Helobiales in particular.

(6) Floral Structure.—The prevailing trimezy of the Monocotyledonous flower
and the occurrence of dimery as its norma] derivative. ‘I'he variation in Paris
quadrifolia. Perianth structure and meristic variation in Ranunculacee and
related families. The primitive character of the trimerous flower in the Ranales
and the origin of the quincuncial type from the 343 condition.

The character of the andrecium. The complete or concealed trimery in
Ranunculacee as exhibited by Aconitum spp.; Anemone spp.; Lranthis hyemalis ;
Helleborus fatidus; and Ranunculus hederaceus.

Dédoubiement in Alismacee and the frequency of this phenomenon on
Ranunculacee. The numerous stamens of Limnocharis and Hydrocleis. Peri-
pheral staminody in the male flower of Stratiotes. Extrorse dehiscence a feature
of both Ranunculacee and Alismacez.

The character of the gyneceum. Apocarpy and large number of carpels (¢.g.,
Alisma ranunculoides). Occurrence in both Helobiales and Ranales of achenes
and follicles. The special type of placentation in Butomus and Nymphea.
Nitzschke’s recognition that the embryo sacs of the apocarpous Nympheacez
resembled most closely those of the Helobiales.

Striking similarity of the meristic variation in the gyneceum of polycarpic
Alismacee and Ranunculaceze. Periodic character of the curves. Trimery as
exhibited by Anemone spp., Clematis vitalba, Ficaria verna, Ranunculus
aquatilis, &e.

The probable character of the primitive Ranalean flower.

Joint Discussion with Section L on the Teaching of Science, at which
the following Paper was read :—

5. Method and Substamce of Science Teaching: The Neglect of Biological
Subjects in Education. By Sypney Maneuam, M.A.

Those University teachers who are responsible for conducting classes in
experimental plant physiology will probably agree that one of the many diffi-
culties to be faced is the fact that students, during their first and even their
second year, frequently do not gain from their courses in chemistry and physics
sufficient of that type of instruction which is really helpful in their botanical
work. It would, of course, be unreasonable to ask teaching chemists and
physicists to keep in mind primarily the requirements of biology, but would it
not be possible for them to give the special needs of their biological colleagues
more adequate consideration ? Since all life exemplifies the operation of
chemical and physical laws, is it not in the best interests of a liberal scientific
education that all science students should come to realise the biological signifi-
cance of these laws? Is it absolutely necessary to labour the more formal and
mathematical aspects of physics and chemistry in the early terms of University
training? Could not a general and experimental treatment of such subjects
of biological and technological importance as diffusion, osmosis, capillarity,
surface tension and surface energy, adsorption, the colloidal state of matter,
enzyme action and the chemical nature and potential energy of sugars, starch,
fats, proteins, &c., be introduced into first-year courses without detriment to
the physical or chemical training of the student? More advanced, specialised

pe.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 337

and mathematical treatment could follow later, but the inclusion in the first
year of the above interesting and important topics, treated experimentally,
would ensure that students not proceeding further with biology would at least
have had their attention directed to some of the most fundamental considerations
_ applicable to the living world around them, while students continuing biological
courses would have received timely assistance for which they, and their teachers,
_ would have real cause to be grateful.
Clearly all that is necessary for the achievement of such a desirable object is
close and sympathetic co-operation between all University science teachers. As
far as individual colleges, &c., are concerned there is no valid reason why this
could not be secured almost immediately, for by occasional meetings of the full
staffs it could readily be ascertained what are the special aims, working re-
quirements, and points of contact of the several branches of science represente¢
or about to be represented, in the curriculum.

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion took place to Shell Bay.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,

The following Paper was read :—

Root Pressure. By Professor J. H. Primstiry, B.Sc.

An attempt is made to show that in the literature of this subject there already
exists the data for a theory of the mechanism of root pressure which would
appear reasonably adequate.

This theory would enlist the services in the mechanism of root pressure of
(1) osmosis for the diffusion of water from root hair to the parenchyma bordering
on the xylem; (2) the structure of the endodermis; (3) the behaviour of a colloid
gel in respect to its varying permeability towards water.

It is suggested that this theory should be acceptable for the moment as
embodying the least amount of unverifiable hypothesis, and it is pointed out
that it indicates the need for a considerable amount of further anatomical and
physiological research.

Joint Discussion with Section M on Forestry Problems, opened by the
following Paper :—

_The Afforestation of Water Catchment Areas.
By Professor Auaustins Henry, M.A.

The afforestation of water catchment areas is a hygienic measure as well as a

means of increasing the timber reserves of the nation. Many towns obtain their
water supply from catchment reservoirs constructed to impound the water falling
on upland and sparsely peopled tracts. Such gathering grounds in the Pennine
_ Yange supply most of the great centres of population in Lancashire, Yorkshire,
and Derbyshire. Other catchment areas are situated in Wales, Cornwall, and a
few other districts in England, and in many parts of Scotland. In many cases
he water authorities have only leased the water rights and have not acquired
the ownership of the gathering grounds. For the prevention of pollution of the
water, they have relied mainly on the 61st Section of the Waterworks Clauses

1 The subject of the afforestation of water catchment areas in Great Britain
and Ireland is fully treated in chapters vii.-xii. of Forests, Woods, and Trees
in relatton to Hygiene, by Professor Aug. Henry, published in November, 1919.

i

These chapters are illustrated with sketch maps, plans, etc.

338 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

Act of 1847, which makes it penal to lead sewage into or wantonly to defile the
reservoirs and the streams feeding them. This protection is inadequate, as any-
thing that happens to be on the gathering ground may be carried down into the
reservoir in time of floods or heavy rains. When houses or farms exist on the
gathering ground, serious impurities, such as the excreta from a typhoid case
or the contents of a cesspool on a farm steading, may be swept into the reservoir.
It has been found difficult in practice to compel farmers living near a stream in
a watershed to re-arrange their middens, cow-houses, &c. The diversion of
sewage from farms by drains is scarcely an adequate protection.

To prevent pollution of the water supply from these gathering grounds the
entire area over which rain is collected ought to be owned by the authority
responsible for the waterworks, and should be managed solely in the interest of
the water consumers.

There is one means by which water catchment areas can be effectually guarded
against pollution and at the same time be put to profitable use, and that is
afforestation. In considering the advisability of afforesting a watershed, it need
not be assumed that the entire area should be covered with trees. Questions of
aspect, depth and nature of soil, shelter from wind or exposure, must be taken
into account in determining where and what to plant. It is probable that the
proportion of any gathering ground that can be planted with advantage will be
found to vary from 10 to 70 per cent. of the total. On most catchment areas
which attain over 1000 feet elevation a combination of grazing and forestry must
be resorted to. Only the lower zone and the sites with favourable soil are suitable
for planting.

The main difficulty of afforestation on a large scale in England lies in the
necessity for the acquisition of the land by some corporation or State authority,
who would be bound to carry out the work on the only lines that would ensure
success, namely, the planting to be spread over a term of years, to be uninter-
rupted, and to be carried out in large blocks, in no case of Jess than 500 acres each.
It will be difficult to induce private landowners to undertake, out of their
diminished incomes, afforestation schemes on the large and continuous scale that
is essential to success.

In the case of water catchment areas belonging to corporations, the question
of continuous ownership is solved ; and the agreement entered into on August 18,
1914, by the Liverpool Corporation and the Development Commissioners is a
workable financial scheme that can be adopted generally. The Treasury provides
the money necessary for planting, while the Corporation gives the land and pays
the recurring annual expenses of management and taxes. In this partnership
the produce of the forest will be ultimately divided between the two parties in
the proportion of the capital invested by each. In this way the profit or loss
accruing from the plantation will be fairly shared between the State and the
Corporation. Afforestation should be imposed as a necessary duty on all the
water authorities who obtain their supply from gathering grounds; in other words,
each corporation ought to be compelled to carry out a planting scheme as soon
as the Government shall issue a loan for the initial expenses of planting.

The Forestry Reconstruction Committee in their Report say : ‘ We consider
it should be an invariable rule that on catchment areas all land which will produce
a crop of marketable timber should be afforested. Many of the corporations are
still engaged in meeting the capital outlay which their water-supply systems
necessitated, and for that reason are unwilling to place further burdens on the
present for the benefit of future generations.’ They recommend that the local
authorities be assisted by grants or by a scheme of proceeds-sharing. Mr.
Joseph Parry, long the engineer in charge of the Liverpool Waterworks, considers
the proceeds-sharing scheme to be less favourable than the Liverpool agreement
referred to above, and to be surrounded by conditions which he would not advise
any local authority to accept. In his opinion the Forest Authority should be
allowed to take over the whole business and pay the local authority a fair rent
for the use of the land.

Only in a few cases has the work of afforesting these gathering grounds been
taken up seriously. Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, and Birmingham have planted
on a considerable scale. The other municipalities have done very little.

The enormous extent of these gathering grounds has not hitherto been

| TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 339

recognised. Information obtained by an inquiry during the past two years by
Prof. A. Henry is summarised in the following table :

Total extent of Gathering || Extent owned by Local
Grounds Authorities
Country : Tas 7 Fs
Local Companies, | Local )

| Authorities &e. Acres Authorities | Actes
England and Wales . UBGiden v4} 14 591,336 64 140,305
Scotland . P P 78 — 243,624 16 27,829
Miirciand . . . 46 i 93,835 9 15,282
—_—— - —— el | —— —
Total x : 251 15 928.795 89 183,416

} To sum up, the water catchment areas still privately owned should be com-
_ pulsorily acquired, either by the Corporation or by the State, in order to preserve
the purity of the water supply. As soon as acquired they will form convenient
. centres for afforesting the hill grazing zone, which lies between the agrarian zone
utilised by agriculture and the moorland zone on which trees can never be
_ profitably planted. Legislation is about to be enacted which will enable the State
or the municipalities to acquire these gathering grounds at a reasonable price.
The splendid success of the plantations made during the last twenty years by the
Liverpool Corporation on their gathering grourid at Lake Vyrnwy can be rivalled
by other municipalities deriving their water supplies from gathering grounds
in the mountainous districts of Wales, Northern England, Scotland, and Ireland

In the afternoon a Sectional Excursion to the New Forest took place.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Joint Meeting with Section D—see p. 211—at which the following
Papers were read :—

1. The Development of the Bute Laboratory and Museum.
By L. P. W. Renour.

2. On a Graded Series of Forms in Matthiola. :
By Miss E. R. Saunpers.?

- Matthiola incana type is densely hairy throughout. Certain glabrous forms,
well known to gardeners as the wallflower-leaved strains, are absolutely devoid
hairs. Besides these glabrous strains there is a rare variety intermediate
tween them and the type. Matings between this half-hoary form and the
glabrous strains produce a number of intermediates, which with the parent forms
nd the type constitute a graded series as regards hairiness, in which the familiar
arden forms represent the end terms. All the partially hairy grades exhibit a
rogressive development of the hairy character, the range in one grade over-
ipping that of the next in the series. Each grade has a distinct genetic
haviour, but in one grade, and perhaps others, the appearance suggests that
ng physiological conditions may be in question. Inter-relations between
he grades are explicable on the supposition of multiple allelomorphs.

* To be published in Journ. of Genetics.

340 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K.

3. Mutational v. Recapitulatory Characters.
By R. Ruaeres Gates, Ph.D.

The cytological work on mutation has led to the view that each mutation is
the result of a nuclear change in a germ cell. In the last analysis this is either
a physical or a chemical change in the chromosomes. A chemical change in one
chromosome results in a new Mendelian character, which is handed down to
later generations just as the descendants of that chromosome are transmitted.
Mitotic cell division, by equally splitting all the chromosomes, ensures that the
change will be represented in every cell; and so a mutation, in plants at least,
usually affects every stage of the ontogeny. Mitosis may thus be looked upon as
an hereditary process.

In contrast to mutational or cell characters, which arise in the nuclei and
modify every stage of the ontogeny, we place recapitulatory characters, which
arise through the impress of the environment, usually involve adaptation to new
conditions, are gradually developed, and in becoming permanent involve the
principle of inheritance of acquired characters.

These two classes of characters therefore differ in (a) their manner of origin,
(6) their relation to organic structure, and (c) their relation to phenomena such
as recapitulation, adaptation, distribution, and inheritance. The theory of
antithetic alternation of generations, which is widely held as regards Archegoniate
plants, implies a gradual lengthening in the sporophyte through the addition of
cell divisions to its sub-terminal stages. This can hardly be supposed to have
resulted from an alteration in the cell unit.

Characters which show recapitulation, as in the seedlings of Gymnosperms,
or the innumerable cases in animal Jarve, imply a lengthening in the life cycle in
connection with adaptation to new conditions. Such characters could not have
arisen through a mutation, for that would modify every stage instead of adding
certain stages as it does. The attempts of many zoologists to explain away the
remarkable facts of recapitulation have not been markedly successful. The
apparent contradictions of von Baer’s law of animal development are partly due
to the occurrence of mutations in organisms which already show recapitulation.

Thus both mutational and recapitulatory characters are necessary to account
for the phenomena of evolution. The one is nuclear in origin and centrifugal
in effect ; the other, extrinsic in origin and ultimately centripetal in its effect in
the organism. The recognition of both types of characters involves the limitation
of the cell theory and the admission ef the neo-Lamarckian factor.

4. The Fungal Species. By Wiuu1am B. Brieruey.

In mycology the species group is at present conceived as ‘all those individuals
possessing an essentially similar morphological facies.’ This definition is based
on the following assumptions :—

1. The essential specific characters of an organism are of a morphological —
nature.

2. The morphological characters are constant and hereditary.

3. The essential morphological characters may be recognised and evaluated
by sight in one specimen of one generation.

It is, however, known that the Linnean species or ‘Linneon’ in fungi may
consist of a group of elementary species or ‘ Jordanons,’ and that each of the
latter may contain one or more true ‘species’ or pure lines. It has also been”
demonstrated that the morphological facies of a ‘species’ is only constant under
constant conditions, and that development in a changed environment may give
rise to different morphological characters. The morphological facies of a fungus”
is therefore merely the visible expression of the resultant of the interaction of
the physiological constitution of fhe organism, which ultimately is of physico-
chemical nature and of the physico-chemical factors of the environment. ¥

The true species concept is therefore physiological and not morphological, and
the species group is defined as ‘all those individuals possessing an essentially
similar physiological constitution.’ Y

The physiological constitution of fungi may only be ascertained and compared

*

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 341

by means of quantitative data obtained from the physiological and chemical
reactions of the organisms developing under standardised physico-chemical con-
ditions; and a species only has value if diagnosed in such terms.

There is no evidence free from doubt to indicate how species have arisen in
the fungi. The most weighty studies are those on the induction of heritable
alterations, but most of these are uncritical, and in the absence of knowledge
concerning the genetical constitution of the subject-organisms judgment must be
reserved in all cases.

‘lhe subsequent transactions were as follow :—

5. Lecture on Spartina and Poole Harbour.
By Professor F. W. Ontver, F.B.S.

6. Demonstration by Sir Danteu Morris of the Collection of Conifere
grown locally.

Informal Discussion arising out of Professor PrizsTLEy’s Paper on Root
Pressure.

Eahibit of Microscopic Preparations by Miss PRANKERD.

7. Report of Committee on Experimental Studies in the Physiology of
Heredity.—See Reports, p..124.

8. Report of Committee on Sections of Australian Fossil Plants.
See Reports, p. 124.

9. Report of Committee on Australian Cycadacee.
See Reports, p. 125.

10. Report of Committee on the Orgamsation of Research in Plant
Pathology in the British Empire.—See Volume for 1918, Reports,
p. 56.

ai Report of Committee on Training and Research in Horticulture.

12. Report of Organising Sectional Committee on the consideration of
matters relating to the War or Reconstruction after the War.

1919. DD

342 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Section L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION: Sir Napier SHaw, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.

TUESDAY, SEPY EMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Educational Ideals and the Ancient Universities.

A PresipentiaL AppRESS before the Educational Section of the British Associa-
tion is an undertaking that might fairly daunt the bravest of those who are
really acquainted with its difficulties; the vast range and variety of the
problems of education; the enormous amount of effort that is already expended
upon them; the torrents of advice and criticism that are offered by those
who are familiar with the details of the various curricula, who know how
things ought to be done; if I had had time and capacity to become acquainted
with all these things I suppose I must have avoided the duty of making an
address. It is, perhaps, the detachment of my present position from any
responsibility for details which gives me the courage to recall experiences, now
twenty years old, acquired during a lengthy service in various capacities at
Cambridge, and matured by twenty years of the consciousness of the dire —
need of educational discipline and training for those whose business it is to
use science in the service of the State.

With a certain amount of assurance I can even be glad that I am not in ©
touch with the educational controversies of the hour, and confidently trust
that my deficiencies will be made good by the contributions, of those who know,
to the discussions which will take place in the Section, but the difficulty that —
I cannot get over just now is that, from the unavoidable circumstances of the
present time, a presidential address is a ‘back number’ before it is delivered,
for the simple reason that, according to tradition, it must be printed in~
advance. In this particular year there is an almost immeasurable gulf of
experience between the time of my appointment in 1917 and the delivery of ~
this address; the President himself is in many ways a different person from
him who undertook the duty of addressing you two years and a half ago.

At that time I had been a good deal moved by the wearying controversy
about the relative merits of classics and science in education, because the
physical sciences as taught were such a doleful misrepresentation of the spirit
of inquiry about the Universe which has moved men in all ages and is as —
clamant to-day as ever. The mysteries of the firmament, the midnight sky,
the storm and calm, the earthquake and the thunder, the sunshine, the rain-
bow and the halo, the intolerabie heat and the pitiless cold, the mariner’s”
compass, the aurora and the mirage are still as wonderful as ever to the
wayfarer and the seafarer, and even the dweller in towns wants to know more —
about them. Yet our educational system, as I knew it, passed all these sub-
jects by and offered instead the determination of the specific heat of copper,
with other things that the specific heat of copper stands for. The same, I
believe, is true for many of the most interesting subjects of scholarship in

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 8438

ancient and modern civilisations, learning and languages. And if an inquirer,
young or old, should ask whether, if he went there, the great Universities
could tell him all about the things of wonder or of beauty that he is conscious
of, or about the reminiscences of past generations that he finds around him
as he travels through life, he could only be told that in consequence of the
perverse malignity of external circumstances they had no money to devote
to his enlightenment. The capacity would be there in abundance but not the
means. In three years they would put him in a position to pursue intelli-
gently for himself if he pleased any of the subjects in which his interest had
been excited but the facilities for education would extend only to the point
where his interest began.

So I wrote a little pamphlet on the ‘Lack of Science in Education with
Some Hints of What Might Be,’ and when I was invited to occupy this Chair
I thought I might be of some service to Education if I pressed the subject
further and endeavoured to show how, in spite of the goodwill of nearly every-
body concerned, the peculiar constitution of our chief Universities was really
standing in the way of the lofty ideal of higher education which must find
expression if the education which we all want is really to come to pass in
this country.

Circumstances have already vastly changed. Committees have sat upon
the Teaching of Science and the Teaching of Modern Languages. A great
Education Act has been passed and the poverty of the Universities has over-
stepped the limits of starvation, and a Commission of Inquiry is promised.
So we are now on the high road to making presidential addresses matters of
quite subordinate interest. Still, you may be interested to hear what I
wrote, two years and a half ago, in explanation of the peculiar difficulties of
our educational system, so here it is. It makes a good deal of play of a
certain scene in ‘The Merchant of Venice,’ which I shall beg you to regard,
for a few minutes only, as a satire upon the state of the Universities in the
spacious times of Queen Elizabeth, after a period of magnificent activity
on the part of founders and benefactors and after a succession of statutes
for the Universities made by successive monarchs for the governance of those
institutions which were then recognised as of the highest importance in the
State. Such a period of reconstruction seems to have come again in our time,
and the satire, if it be one, is in some important respects as true to-day as it
was three centuries ago.

I was arrested by the curious sentiment ‘ If to do were as easy as to know
what were good to do chapels had been churches and poor men’s cottages
princes’ paiaces.” I. wondered whether Shakespeare intended this passage to
convey to the subtle reader an idea of Portia’s youth and inexperience, or
perhaps to indicate that Portia was in fact intended to personify a liberal
education. For other subjects of human activity her statement is palpably
absurd. All the experience of the British race indicates to us that the acute |
divisions between people arise in discussions as to what were good to do; the
actual doing is easy if the preliminary question ‘what were good to do’ is
really decided. Can any one doubt that after our experience of the war?
For the most part it is only ingenuous youth that finds it easy to know what
were good to do, and perhaps there is also a note of the ingenuousness and
inexperience of youth in the sweeping desire for the conversion of chapels
into churches and poor men’s cottages into princes’ palaces.

But if it were education that Shakespeare was thinking about, chapels and
churches, poor men’s cottages and princes’ palaces are not inappropriate in
that connection; the sentiment stimulates the imagination. Certainly in educa-
tion to know what were good to do does seem in practice to be infinitely easier
than to do.

From time to time the newspapers are full of reports of conferences,
Meetings, congresses, and assemblies all fully assured that they know what
were good to do. Men of science justly claim to be humanists and recognise
the helpfulness of literary studies in their purpose; classicists recognise the
need of a knowledge of science; everybody is agreed that many things ought
to be done and yet very little happens: our scheme of education is still
unsatisfying ; why?

Dd2

344 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

That is the question which I propose for your consideration. Why is it
that all the pious opinions about education come to nothing or to so little?

First of all it must be noted that the resolutions and proposals are not
addressed to anybody in particular. Presumably they are intended to form
public opinion, but public opinion has no authoritative voice with those who
are in charge of the higher educational institutions. The resolutions are sent
out like wireless signals from a ship at sea. Any educational institution with
a receiver tuned to the proper wave-length can take them in, but if the
receiver is not tuned or the operator is inattentive nothing happens. Those
who are in charge of the administration of our justice when they want to
settle a disputed point do not hold a meeting and pass a resolution to be
printed in the ‘Law Times’ or other forensic journals. They put a yellow
paper in the post with blue lines drawn cross-wise over it, with somebody’s
name and address more or less legibly written thereon, and twopence in
addition to the postage. The postman does the rest. The recipient is
reminded of his duty by the laconic exhortation at the end ‘ Herein fail not.’
There is no such simple process with educational procedure. We are accus-
tomed to regard educational institutions as somehow in the aggregate respon-
sible for what we know as education, but there is no corporate responsibility
for the aggregate of our higher educational institutions. There is no door
at which a postman could deliver a registered letter of business.

We may, I think, agree that if we wish for ideals in education in this
country we must find them in the Universities. If the Universities give the
encouragement of their example and their licence to teach only to men and
women who are really educated in the best sense of the word their influence
will leaven the whole of education throughout the country; and, on the con-
trary, if when they leave the Universities the men and women who have to
teach, or to control teachers, are themselves imperfectly educated, it is hope-
less to expect a well- balanced living educational system. Among the Univer-
sities, for reasons good or ill, into which I need not enter, the older Universities
of Cambridge and Oxford have a preponderant influence.

And to my mind the outstanding characteristic of the organisation of the
older Universities is the want of any recognised door by which their corporate
responsibility can be reached. In each case the University is itself a corporate
educational institution which includes some twenty Colleges which are also
separate corporate educational institutions. You never can tell whether the
persons with whom you have business are the University or the Colleges, and
it is quite possible that when you think to address the one you find yourself
confronted with the other. The Universities in their corporate capacity are
constrained by statutes and traditions handed down by our forefathers to look
on in comparative impotence while their ideals are distorted or concealed by
the interplay of the interests of the many corporations of which they are com-
. posed. The whole complex scheme of management forms a sort of craft or
mystery which very few even of the initiated really comprehend.

In January of the year when I was writing (1917) I came across two delight-
ful examples of this. The Headmasters’ Conference (which consists of men
with some academic experience) passed a resolution to the effect that Greek
should no longer be required for the entrance examination of the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and thereupon the Master of University College,
Oxford, spent half a column of ‘The Times’ in explaining that the University
of Oxford had no entrance examination at all.

In the same newspaper Sir William Ridgeway, who is Professor of Archeology
at Cambridge, and might therefore be supposed to know something about
Oxford, wrote a column about Graduate Research, which brought a reply of
another column from Professor Percy Gardner, now of Oxford, formerly of
Cambridge, to say that so far as Oxford is concerned © Professor Ridgeway’s
letter is ‘nothing but a tissue of blunders.’ Writing about the same time the
Master of a Cambridge College explained to me that everything that appeared
in the newspapers about Cambridge was wrong.

This veil of incomprehensibility, the claim to a sort of impenetrable free-
masonry or mystery about matters of national concern, is very perplexing for those
who want things done in education but do not know the technicalities of the

ee ————————eEGEe_ =

a PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ° 845

Universities. It completely hides any door at which the reforming postman
might wish to knock. The people who want things done become shy, em-
barrassed, and intimidated by the people who ‘know.’ If you want anyone
to take in a suggestion you have to seek what an Italian dramatist has called
‘la porta di dietro.’ y

Somehow or other you must get at the Colleges as well as the University.
Otherwise you may find yourself addressing the Vice-Chancellor on a subject
which is the concern of the Colleges, or addressing the College tutor upon some-
thing over which he has no control. For those who know, of course, the
explanation is quite simple. The schoolmasters do not want Greek to be com-
pulsory in the entrance examinations of the Universities. We are told that at
Oxford, and it is equally true of Cambridge, the University has no entrance
examination at all, from which it would appear that the headmasters were at
least very ill-informed about the Universities whose practice they wished to
modify. Yet the headmasters know perfectly well that their boys, at any rate,
have to pass an entrance examination before they can be admitted to either
University.

What is true, for Cambridge at least, is that the University gua University
has no examination for entrance; it is obliged by its statutes to accept as a
member without any question anyone presented by the recognised authority
of a College, regardless altogether of his qualification or disqualification for a
University career. It is a very remarkable arrangement. The University makes
no inquiry as to a student’s fitness to profit by the educational system of the
University : it leaves all that to the Colleges, and many, if not all, of the Colleges
have an entrance examination. So I offer this paradox for the logician who
is interested in higher education.

The University consists of the members of its constituent Colleges and a
few others. At the discretion of the several Colleges, or the non-collegiate
students’ board, seventy-five per cent. of the mentbers of the University are
required to pass an entrance examination before they are accepted for presenta-
tion to the University for matriculation. There are at least four examinations
of the University which are accepted by Colleges on occasions in lieu of their
own entrance examinations. Yet there is no extrance examination for the
University.

And this does not end the matter. The University becomes a controlling
body rather than an educational institution with a definite purpose and pro-
gramme. The regulations for its students are nearly all of them of a negative
character. The discipline and the regimen of the University rest upon the
assumption that a student desires to secure from the University not so much
attainment as a stamp for his attainments. A member of the University can-
not be admitted to a degree unless he has satisfied certain conditions of residence
and also satisfies certain examiners; his name is not accepted for the final
examination unless he has satisfied certain other examiners. There is nothing
in the regulations or administration of the University to secure that a matricu-
lated student shall study, or aspire to take a degree. He might live on in
idleness and ignorance for the rest of his natural life; the University has
no choice in the matter so long as his College pays the periodical fees. It
trusts to the Colleges to see that idle or unsuitable undergraduates are invited
to go elsewhere.

Here we have one of the many instances of the division of jurisdiction
between the Colleges and the University which hides the ideals of our system of
higher education in an impenetrable fog.

The University is governed by the Colleges according to a system which goes
back to the time when the ‘ Merchant of Venice’ was written, so let us revert
to the conversation between Portia and Nerissa which expounds the lottery
of the caskets in the well-known scene. The position of the University in the
matter of the selection or rejection of its members is exactly that which Portia
bewailed to Nerissa. Let me invite you to regard the episode of the caskets
as a figurative representation of the lottery by which the University of Cam-
bridge selects those upon whom she bestows her inherited riches—‘lucem et
pocula sacra.’ Cambridge, like Portia, the heiress of all the learning of the
good and the great, bound by the fantasy of her ancestral tradition never to
choose for herself.

346 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

Let us think of Portia as the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cam-
bridge desiring above all things the advancement of learning and of Nerissa
as a Proctor whose duty it is, as representing the Senate, the collective body
of members of the Colleges, to see that the statutes and ordinances are duly
attended to. Listen to the conversation which begins with the exclamation,
‘ By my troth, Nerissa, my little body is aweary of this great world,’ a remark
with which I feel sure many a Vice-Chancellor has opened many a conversa-
tion with many a Proctor. In accordance with the usual practice in dealing
with classical literature I have added a few notes.

Dr1aLocue between Portia (Vice-Chancellor) and Nerissa (Proctor), the
representative of the Senate of the University through which the Colleges
exercise their control.’

Portia (V.C.)—‘ By my troth, Nerissa, my little body is aweary of this
great world.’

Nerissa (Proctor).—‘ You would be, sweet madam, if your miseries were
in the same abundance as your good fortunes are: And yet, for aught I see,
they are as sick that surfeit with too much as they that starve with nothing.?
It is no mean happiness, therefore, to be seated in the mean: superfluity
comes sooner by white hairs, but competency lives longer.’ ‘

Portia (V.C.).—‘ Good sentences and well pronounced.’ *

Nerissa (Proctor).—‘ They would be better, if well followed.’

Portia (V.C.).—‘ If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do,
chapels had been churches and poor men’s cottages princes’ palaces. It is a
good divine that follows his own instructions: I can easier teach twenty
what were good to be done, than be one of the twenty to follow mine own
teaching. The brain may devise laws for the blood, but a hot temper leaps
o’er a cold decree : such a hare is madness the youth, to skip o’er the meshes
of good counsel the cripple.* But this reasoning is not in the fashion to
choose me a husband. O me, the word ‘“‘choose!’’ I may neither choose
whom I would nor refuse whom I dislike; so is the will of a living daughter
curbed by the will of a dead father. Is it not hard, Nerissa, that I cannot
choose one nor refuse none? ’

Nerissa (Proctor).—‘ Your father was ever virtuous; and holy men at their
death have good inspirations : therefore the lottery, that he hath devised in
these three chests of gold, silver and lead, whereof who chooses his meaning
chooses you, will, no doubt, never be chosen by any. rightly but one who
shall rightly love. But what warmth is there in your affection towards any
of these princely suitors that are already come?’

Portia (V.C.).—‘I pray thee, over-name them; and as thou namest them
I will describe them; and, according to my description, level at my affection.’

We may omit the description of the suitors as they are none of them to
her taste, and pass on to Nerissa’s remark.

Nerissa (Proctor).—‘ You need not fear, lady, the having any of these
lords : they have acquainted me with their determinations; which is indeed
to return to their home and to trouble you with no more suit,® unless you
may be won by some other sort than your father’s imposition depending on
the caskets.’

_ Portia (V.C.).—‘ If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as

Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will.’ ®

As an additional note I should like to suggest that the successful suitor
Bassanio with his magnificent thoughtlessness is typical of the Public-School
boy for whom the University always plays a soft air when the caskets are
in view, but I feel sure my scholastic hearers would detect an anachronism.

I need hardly say that I should not spend so much time over what may

1 The scene is at Belmont, which is no doubt a poetic name for Market Hill,
adorned by the University Church in Cambridge.

2 The University has always been recognised as very poor,
Note the lapse into the sententiousness of the habitual examiner.
This is obviously a reference to University life.
The older Universities have often been thought to be too exclusive.
This is doubtless allusion to the exemplary patience with which the
University accepts the ‘non placet’ of the Senate.

on &

o* eat He. se eo =

a

.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 347

seem to many of you far-fetched, and perhaps unseemly jesting, if I did not
believe that this fantastic view of the lottery of the caskets contains the sug-
gestion of an element in the governance of our highest educational institutions
which deserves your gravest and most serious consideration. What I have in
mind at the moment is the unforeseen and undesired result of the competition
of the Colleges within the University itself as quasi-independent educational
institutions. It is this small matter, from some points of view of quite minor
importance, which, so far as I can see, prevents our great Universities from
taking the leading part which they might take in exemplifying the ideals of a
co-ordinated national system of education, and makes the success or failure of
those great institutions something of the nature of a lottery, They may offer
ten thousand different avenues from matriculation to a degree, and yet the
student may find himself imperfectly educated in the end.

One may, indeed one must, picture to oneself the idea of the Colleges as a
number of educational institutions co-operating in an avowed and transparent
common purpose of the University to display the highest educational ideals.
So I think if they were willing they might be, without any sacrifice of their
individuality or of those magnificent traditions which have fulfilled the high
purpose of their pious founders and benefactors. Let us keep that picture
for a while in mind.

I have taken out from the Cambridge University Calendar for 1918 a list
of subjects selected for teaching in the University and Colleges with the
number of Professors, Readers, Lecturers or Teachers assigned to the several
subjects. The numbers are given in an Appendix.

If any of my hearers has ever attempted a similar task he will agree with
me that the compilation of the list from the information given for the
Universities and Colleges is not by any means an easy matter, because the
specification in so many instances is indefinite in various ways; but I am not
less qualified than the average inquirer, not actually resident in the University,
to understand what the information means, and it is for the average inquirer
presumably that the Calendar is published. I am, however, not intending to
refer to small details, so I hope that the inevitable imperfections, even in so
imperfect a year as 1918, will not seriously affect what I have to say.

I find that there are 175 University teachers (professors, readers, lecturers,
ete.) and 176 College lecturers. These two classes are certainly not
mutually exclusive. In the natural sciences' particularly the same names
appear in both lists, but, be that as it may, I find that the 175 University
teachers between them deal with 73 subjects, an average of 24 per subject,
and are distributed between subjects in the following manner :—

Number of University teachers assigned for a subject

DOS GVtb 64) 63. 20

Number of subjects which have the number of teachers specified in the
upper line

23 14 1 38 8 10 42.

The 176 College lecturers deal with only 23 subjects, an average of 73 per-
subject. They are distributed as follows :— h
Number of College lecturers assigned for a subject

33 3023181710 5 3 21 ?

Number of subjects that have the number of teachers specified in the
upper line
(yl el as te de ee

Here we see at once a great difference between the educational systems.
The University is obviously striving to meet as far as possible its higher
educational responsibilities. There is great differentiation of duty; 42 teachers
are responsible each for a single subject; there are only two cases in which
a subject has so many as nine teachers. Whereas in the Colleges the tendency

is for the same subject to have a great number of exponents. The favoured
subjects are classics 33, mathematics and natural philosophy 30, history and
economics 23, natura! sciences 18, divinity 17. All those subjects are

provided for, to some extent at least, in the programme of the University.

348 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

There may be and indeed must be some differentiation within these totals, but
it is a differentiation which the College authorities do not think it necessary
to disclose. Whatever allowance may be made for that, I think it is obvious
that the Colleges tend to repeat many times over a stereotyped form and not to
distribute their energies over subjects which for lack of funds or some other
reason are not represented in the University list. The list of subjects in-
dicates that the Colleges select the commoner subjects, and are particularly
partial to those subjects which do not require any special provision as regards
accommodation or equipment. Three subjects appear in the College list and not
in the University list—namely, Modern Greek, Celtic, and Military History.
Why these subjects are so favoured we need not inquire, but we may be sure
that the 176 College lecturers are in themselves fully competent to represent
subjects of profound human interest which the University disregards for want
of means. That it is the system and not the lecturers that account for this
convergence upon a few subjects was evident enough during the war, when
Cambridge lecturers were to be found among the most proficient and successful
workers with their brains in many departments of activity. The needs of peace
are not less urgent than the needs of war; what we have learned in war we ought
to practise in peace.

No one can think that the distribution of teachers and subjects would be
what it is if the educational system of the University and the Colleges were
under the control of a single competent body bent upon manifesting a true
ideal of the use of educational endowments, whether in money or men.

Suppose, for example, that the Council of the Senate were recognised as
responsible to the country for the educational system of the University and
the Colleges jointly ; that, once appointed, they were freed from the referendum
of every item of their procedure to the lottery of a vote in the Senate. Imagine
what would happen if the University really had an entrance examination and
the Colleges had to select their members from among the successful candidates.
One may speculate upon what such a body would produce, but it is hardly
imaginable that they would plump for concentrating so much of the College
teaching in general terms upon classics, mathematics, history, and divinity.

And, in support of the contention that diversity of intellectual effort is a
pertinent consideration, I would point out that if recondite subjects are to be
studied at all it must be at our own great centres of learning. If there is any
part of the world where old customs are dying out, or interesting species becom-
ing rare or extinct, it is for highly centralised countries like ours, at a distance
from the scene of action, to take care that the subject is studied while there
is yet time. On the spot, where no doubt the material is available, people are
too much pre-occupied to notice the ultimate effect of their own personal
activity. If we should, for example, set about exterminating the vermin of
London houses (which, by the way, is above all things a most urgent question
of rehousing), it is not from any Londoner nor even from our near neighbours
in Cambridge, however interesting the minor horrors of war may be to their
biologists, that any protest will be raised about the outrage which the extermi-
nation would entail upon the province of natural history.

I have looked through that interesting volume ‘The Yearbook of the
Universities of the Empire 1914’ to see whether the other Universities of this
country «nd the Empire had a notably extended or different range of subjects.
The differences are mostly differences in name er in the differentiation of
medical and theological subjects. It is interesting to note the gradual forma-
tion of University teaching in new lands. It seems to begin with medicine
and theology, law, engineering, architecture, commerce, and banking; and next
to take in our old college friends mathematics, classics, and natural sciences,
but it seldom shows any particular characteristics of local scholarship or
specialised learning; but in the older institutions there are some suggestive
subjects as Assyrian and Babylonian archeology, classical archeology, African
languages (Swahili and Bantu), Irish language and literature, Dutch language
and literature, Japanese, Portuguese, Scandinavian languages and Thibetan,
phonetics, library science, ancient Indian history and culture, colonial history,
Irish history, Scots history, civic design and civic law, scholastic philosophy,
Zend philosophy, rhetoric and oratory, geodesies, acoustics, meteorology, and
epidemiology in various forms.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 849

Among the subjects which I have noticed in other connections as not repre-
sented by name in any of the Universities of the Empire, but still claiming
attention of those who would help to make the facilities for education complete,
there are in the first place the history of the various arts and sciences, and of
medicine, for which some provision has recently been made at Oxford under
Dr. Singer; oceanography, which, through the generosity of Professor Herd-
man, has now obtained a footing in Liverpool; geodynamics, for which Cam-
bridge wishes to make provision, historical geography and exploration; Malay
and Polynesian languages and antiquities, aerodynamics, meteorological optics,
‘now neglected in this country; terrestrial magnetism, seismology, climatology
(past and present) particularly of the Empire; illumination and photography,
metrology, the science of precision, British archeology and dialects; and per-
haps the technical subjects of radio-telegraphy, ballistics, and ventilation.
These are subjects with which alone a fully equipped University is competent
adequately to deal, and the country is ill-provided until the educational autho-
rities co-operate to supply between them what is needed. To secure this object,
I am not at all convinced that State aid is the only possibility. The pious
benefactor is no more extinct than he was in the days of Henry VIII. and
Queen Elizabeth, but while the Universities and their Colleges speak with two
voices and leave us uncertain as to their ideals, it is impossible that he should not
be discouraged.

The views which I have expressed were formulated and in great part in
manuscript while the war was still raging, and now we have celebrated the con-
clusion of peace. With the signing of the armistice came the demand for an
actual address this year. Never in my experience have circumstances been
so tragic as those which supervened. The stimulating drama of the war in
which good strove with evil gave place to the new conflicts which have the
characteristics of real tragedy. In the early part of the new year the hope
that the sacrifices of the war would secure an immediate peace was blasted with
disappointment. The whole connective tissue of civilisation seemed to he
destroyed. The representatives of many peoples great and small assembled
at Paris to make peace had first to find some modus vivendi for the future,
but after a foretaste of a league of nations we found ourselves in a welter of
jealousies, animosities, and struggles at home and abroad. Thousands were
threatened with distress or with misery by the withholding of the necessaries
of civilised life in order to secure the comfort of classes who regarded them as
Tivals and not comrades in the struggle for existence; the hard-earned savings
of industrious lives vanished in taxes to be scattered broadcast as largesse by
victorious politicians or grabbed by ruthless profiteers. Food and fuel were
obtainable under the strictest limitations and under conditions apparently
designed to be nearly intolerable; the aged and infirm were bereft of all the
kindly offices that carry the sacred name of service; teachers abandoned their
schools in order to settle a dispute about salaries.

We had just learned in the great school of experience that united self-
Sacrifice, and nothing short of it, could and did secure a victory over the
powers of evil; and thereupon the whole world seemed obsessed with the idea
that, the war being over, the time for sacrifice was done with; we could almost
hear the many-voiced assertions of nations, of unions, of commercial associa-
ions, and of men and women generally, that as their sons and brothers had
made the great sacrifice never again could they be expected to make another
in this world. The elements themselves seemed to play their part in pro-
mnging and deepening the gloom, and, as if impatient of the natural order, kept
the world dead, cold, and miserable, far beyond the limits of an ordinary winter
_ in those circumstances, doleful beyond expression, what could be said about

education. What ideals of education had led us to such a state of chaotic

conflict of wills. It seemed impossible that mankind could ever recover and
esume its sane and wholesome life of reciprocal give-and-take.
_ And in the midst of the gloom came a glimpse of Easter sunshine, and once
nore we heard the Easter words which have been the first audible sentence of
any a mournful scene, ‘I am the Resurrection and the Life.’ What do they
mean for us who have to try to live in this torn and distracted world? ‘ There
be no reconstruction and there can be no wholesome life for us or for
mybody else without the spirit of self-sacrifice.’ If the world takes the facile

350 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

view that self-sacrifice was over and done with when the last shot was fired at
Mons, we are lost. We knew well enough that, whatever we may have done
at home, without the sacrifice of our brothers at the Front and on the seas,
we should have perished, And after that have we to learn the law of life,
that we in our turn must go on bearing our part?

It is so obviously true. Look where you will, life is based on sacrifice
for some ideal of duty. If each of us does no more than is required for our
immediate necessities we cannot live. That is a commonplace of individual
life, but in large measure we seem to forget it or ignore it in a corporate capacity.
People will permit, as corporations or as a nation, inhumanities of which each
individual would be ashamed. The Hebrews have given us a decalogue for
individuals which at least satisfies the moral sense of the world. If it were
not given by inspiration it must have been supplied by the simplest process of
inductive reasoning. Without it social life is not possible. The sense of duty
to our higher selves and our neighbours is our only sure guide. But now we
want a decalogue for unions and corporations, for combines and nations.

To satisfy this imperative want we depend upon education. And therefore,
by a simple generalisation, the educational corporations ought to show us the
ideals of the principles and practice of a new code of conduct, And that is so
because, at least in education and educational affairs, self-sacrifice must be
obvious if there is to be real educational life. No teacher can ever teach any-
body anything worth having who does not carry the signs of sacrifice in
his teaching.

No body of teachers and no institution can really make a living education
unless they are animated by that spirit. The ideals of education are not
salaries and can never be attained by striking. I admit that when you are
dealing with corporations the language is difficult. I do not quite know what
a self-sacrificing county council would be, but I am perfectly certain that there
ean be no true social life which is based entirely upon the principle of in-
exorable contracts and has no room for humanity, for the give-and-take of
self-sacrifice.

But all this must be, not for vanity, but for an ideal of duty that commands
acceptance as true. Effective self-sacrifice does not mean non-resistance at all
times and in all circumstances. In a conflict of ideals, as we have learned from
the war, the most effective form of self-sacrifice may be to put one’s self in a _
position to kill as many of the enemy as one can. And, in so far as the ideals
have truth and vitality, they will evoke true loyalty. Consequently for all
educational institutions the most important consideration is that they should
manifest their ideals to be such as evoke from each the sacrifices which make —
for ordered life.

As one passes in review our own educational institutions one may judge of
their ideals by their results, Judging in that way and looking at the educa-
tion of our Public Schools we may fairly say that the social or ethical ideal
is splendid. It expresses the principle of excellence which I take to mean
success in fair competition. It is no doubt Hellenic rather than Christian,
it is based upon the literature of the ancient Greeks, and has still strength
enough to call forth the most devoted self-sacrifice. In the Universities also
the same ideal is quite easily recognised. There, if anywhere, you can see the
worship of success in fair competition developed into a real religion. For a
long time I have thought that we should be much nearer understanding our real
position in these things if we could persuade the classical scholars to do for
Greek religion what the compilers and translators of the Bible did for the
Hebrew. That is to collect together in the best available translation the litera-_
ture of the Greeks which formed the basis of their guides to conduct. The
appropriate contents of such a collection were sketched out by Dr. James Adam,
a College colleague of mine at Cambridge, whose untimely death is still
deplored, in his Gifford lectures on the Religion of the Greeks. With him the
subject was a source of unbounded enthusiasm, and his lectures are a series”
of sermons on the testament of the Greeks. But we ordinary readers, un-
learned in the Greek literature, are in the position of those who are offered —
sermons on the Old Testament instead of the Old Testament itself, If you
imagine where we should stand if the Old Testament were denied to us except
in the original Hebrew, you will understand the position the vast majority

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 851

of us must occupy with regard to Greek ethics, which are in fact the ethics
of our ruling classes in the old sense. Therefore I use this opportunity to
beg those who are enthusiastic for Hellenistic studies to give us such a testa-
ment. I feel sure it will enable us to understand the ideals of the Public
Schools and Universities and throw an entirely new light upon the supposed
conflict of classical and scientific studies, which is possibly only another phase
of the other perennial dispute about religious education,

The ethical ideals of our schools and Universities are clear, excellent in
themselves, and appreciated everywhere. They manifestly excite enthusiasm
d develop the spirit of self-sacrifice for their maintenance. But what of the
intellectual ideals? The subject is important because the cultivation of the
intellect is the avowed purpose of academic institutions, and is the part of
education which is necessary for carrying on the world’s work. Looking at
the actual practice of the Universities we can see that the intellectual ideals
are obscured, confused, and enfeebled by the very process of competition
between Colleges which is so eminently successful in developing the ethical spirit.

But the opportunity for strengthening and clearing our intellectual ideals
is now. It may require some sacrifice of prejudices and traditions as between
Colleges and the University, but the reward will certainly be great.

I suppose that a century ago the character of any distinguished educationalist
would be summed up in the words ‘ He spared not the rod’; and to-day per-
haps the highest praise is expressed by saying that ‘He spared neither the
vatepayer nor the taxpayer,’ but even that is not enough. Money without
motive power does not make education. We may reserve our highest praise for
those educational establishments of which it may be said that in the pursuit of
a true ideal they spared ‘ neither their prejudices nor their inherited privileges.’
It may sound sacrilegious, but it must be said—the Portia of our dreams will
not become the Alma Mater that the nation needs if she can never be obtained
except after the manner of her father’s will.

APPENDIX.

TABLE OF SuBJECTS oF LECTURES AND THE NUMBER OF PROFESSORS AND TEACHERS
} THEREIN IN THE UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGES OF CAMBRIDGE.

(Laken from the Cambridge University Calendar, 1918.)

| | University Teachers

{ ® i Z b> A ive] 3 cS n
Peerees and Bubiects os |eeegs| ae a5
562 |3095| #35 a3
eo dade, Ae | es
Ae |p soe po ee
= 2 4
M.A. Cer-

tificate . | Divinity . rs : A 5 1 6 aly

L.D., UL.B.,| Law (including International
M.A. Law) . : A ; 3 1 4 10
Indian Law 2 — 1 1 —

.. M.B., | Mrpicinr anp SuraqERY—

Physic and Medicine . 2 2 4 —
Vaccination "i 5 — 1 1 —
Anatomy . : 1 8 3) —
Surgery . z ; : 1 1 2 —
Pathology 5 1 3 4 —
Medical Chemistry — 1 it ee
Medical Jurisprudence _- 1 1 —
Medical Entomology . 1 1 —
| Pharmacolog : 5," - 1 1 —
: Tropical Medicine & Hygiene) = helen — _-
Carried forward . : 13 22 35 27

352 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

TABLE OF SuBJECTS OF LECTURES, ETC.—(continued).

University Teachers

Degrees and 4
Diplomas Subjects

Professors
and Readers
University
Lecturers and
University
Teachers

Total
| (University)

Brought forward.
Diploma . | PusLtic Heatran —
Hygiene .
Chemistry of Hygiene
Se.D., M.A. | PHILosopHy—
Moral Sciences—
Philosophy of Religion
Moral Philosophy
Mental Philosophy
Psychology -
Diploma . Psychological Medicine
Mathematics and Natural
Philosophy—
Mathematics
Astronomy
Statistics .
NATURAL SCIENCES
Physical Sciences—
Experimental Physics
Chemistry
Mineralogy
Metallurgy
Astrophysics
Geology
Diploma . Geography ‘
Biological Sciences— ,
Botany
Physiology
Zoology
Biochemistry
Anthropology
Genetics
LETTERS—
Classical Studies—
Classics
Comparative Philology
Paleography
Greek
Latin :
Ancient History
Archeology
Ethnology
Inalish—
Anglo-Saxon
English Literature ;
English 5 _-
Modern and Medieval Lan-
guages . 5 : — — 5 —_—
German . i A eatin 1 — 1 — #
a |

Carried forward. . | 47 80 | 132 | 118

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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 853

TABLE OF SupsEcts oF LecTURES, ETc.—(continued).

University Teachers

n ao) joe
mh bab ES
rees and : aS) [52 S's RS of
j Be eiomas Subjects 23 z Z z 3 3 z 2 Fi
oe |eees| ee | 3¢
ce pe ae aie hE
es ~
Brought forward 47 80 132 118
Romance . Zi : 1 — 1 —
French — — — =
Russian — 1 1 1
Italian — 1 1 —
Spanish . —- 1 1 —
Modern Greek — —- — 1
Celtic ' _: _ — 1
Oriental Languages—
Hebrew . : 2 1 3 5
Arabic and Turkish 2 1 3 —
Chinese 1 — 1 _-
Persian — 2 2 —
Indian Languages-—
Sanskrit i 1 2 —
Hindustani — 1 1 _—
Bengali — 1 1 —
Marathi — 1 1 —
Burmese — 1 1 —
Talmudic . — 1 1 —
Bibliography 1 — 1 —
History snp Economics Bi — 2 23
Keclesiastical History. 1 — 1 —
Indian History . — 1 1 —
Military History — — — 1
Political Economy 1 2 3 5
Music. , - 1 2 3 3
TECcHNICS—
Engineering 2 4 6 5
Mining Engineering _- — — —
Agriculture 3 2 5 —
Forestry 1 2 3 —
Education. — 1 1 —
Arr anp ARCHITECTURE—
Fine Art . 1 —— 1 —_
Lectureships with no Subjects
assigned c > — 1 1 6
Number of Teachers . - 67 108 176 145
Number of Subjects. j -— — (73) (23)

Discussion upon the Teaching of English.

Report on the Free-place System.

354 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Report was read, and Discussions took place :—

1. Report on Musewms.—See Reports, p. 125.

2. Discussion upon the Method and Substance of Science Teaching,
opened by Professor H. E. Armstrone, F.R.S. In the course of
the discussion the following Paper was read :—

Substance and Method of Science Teaching. By Sir Richarp GREGORY.

Science teaching in boys’ Secondary Schools usually begins with Nature _
Study and proceeds to Elementary Physical Measurements. Elementary Heat —
and Elementary Chemistry are then taken, followed by Systematic Chemistry
and, in the Public Schools, by General Physics. Light, Electricity, Sound and
Biology are studied by relatively few boys, and Astronomy, Geology, Natural
History and Archeology are almost unknown as school subjects.

In most girls’ schools, as in boys’, Nature Study represents the early stage
of instruction in science, and Botany is the main subject taught, but Physics,
Chemistry, Hygiene and Domestic Science are also started at an early age. The
Physics and Chemistry in some girls’ schools are taught on the same lines as_
in boys’; in others, these subjects are used as introductions to a course of
Domestic Science and Hygiene, or of Bctany. A course of Experimental Science
which embodies the rudiments of both Physics and Chemistry sometimes pre-
cedes the formal teaching of these separate branches of science in both girls’ and
boys’ schools, and may be carried through the curricula.

As regards the substance of science teaching in general, it may be said, there-
fore, that little attempt is made to provide pupils with courses which will give
them an intelligent interest in the things around them, whether natural or
artificial. The weak points of the instruction are insufficient attention to the
broader aspects of natural knowledge and to scientific discovery and invention
as human achievements, and failure to connect school work with the big applica-
tions of science by which mankind is continually benefiting. There is indeed
a tendency, as instruction in science proceeds in the school, for it to become
detached from the facts and affairs of life, by which alone stimulus and interest
can be secured.

The chief reason for the narrow character of most science courses in schools
is the small amount of time available and the demands made upon it in recent
years by laboratory and other practical work. The substance of instruction has
suffered from the concentration upon method, and the right adjustment of the
conflicting claims of the two in a truly educational course has yet to be found.

Experimental work is essential for acquiring an acquaintance with the nat
and meaning of scientific inquiry in the field of natural knowledge, and its
highest type is reached when the motive and purpose are part of the pupil’s
own understanding, as it is assumed to be in heuristic teaching. Exigencies of
the time-table, however, do not permit of much individual pondering upon
problems and their scientific examination; and organised drill in laboratory
exercises illustrating fundamental properties and principles constitutes the
experimental work undertaken. Most of the time allotted to science in schools
is taken up with this practical work, and what remains is devoted to the elucida-
tion of the subjects involved. The scope and rate of study are determined by
laboratory work, with the consequence that the outlook attained at the end of
a school course is very much restricted instead of being broad and catholic.

One way to avoid this unsatisfactory end is to separate the training in
experimental method from the substance of descriptive lessons and reading. Let
a broad general course of science be followed independently of the intensive
laboratory: work in particular branches, designed solely to create and foster the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. SDE

spirit of experimental inquiry by which all scientific progress is secured. In

this way it should be possible, even with the present limitations of time, to

provide training in method, as well as wide knowledge of substance, of science,

Before any reform of this character is possible, however, schools and examining

bodies must revise their syllabuses so that the school course can be complete in

itself and not, as seems generally to be assumed, merely preliminary work for
_ pupils who intend to proceed to science degrees in universities.

¢
_ In the course of the above discussion the Teaching of Botany was dealt
/ with m joint session with Section K (see p. 336).

ee
3. Joint Discussion with Section F wpon Business in relation to Kduca-
tion, opened by the following Paper :—
;

Business in relation to Hducation.
By Siw Herpert E. Moraan.?

Business and manufacture always include three elements—capital, labour,
direction. Importance of the directing, educated element in business: each
additional directing brain provides work for number of additional employees,
_ reduces unemployment, increases output, furthers national trade, uses capital
to best advantage.

Twofold theme of paper. (a) More and wider education for business men
present and prospective. (b) More of the liberally educated class to be attracted
to and prepared for business.

(a) Men little educated outside limits of business apt to be narrow. Narrow-
ness limits conception of business possibilities, hampers initiative. Also liable
to cause friction with labour: does not recognise needs and legitimate aspira-
_ tions of labour, necessity of adaptation to changed conditions of life.

Need for better commercial education of men and boys proposing to enter
_ business. Shorthand, typewriting, book-keeping not enough, except for quite
subordinate grades. Hitherto no method or standard of training for business
as for law or medicine. London University proposal for Degrees in Commerce
designed to change this. Importance to business men of foreign languages,
geography, history, economics, all studied with special reference to commerce.
Outline of proposed course. Applicable both to those about to enter business
and to existing business men. Business education will render available large
_ supplies of brain-power just demobilised and at present lying idle.

__ Business formerly looked down upon by University and public-school men.
_ Wrong ideas of business; not presented as attractively as learned professions :
regarded as simply sordid money-getting; national and Imperial aspects not
emphasised. Business achievements in the past: the flag follows trade. Possi-
bilities in future. Former prejudice by employers against University type :
regarded as wasters and unfitted, by their training, for business. Both pre-
{ judices already disappearing before war: war has hastened the process. Men
of this type now ready to turn to anything: shortage of personnel has led
_ business men to make experiments which have proved value of University
_ type.

h Pesca for business knowledge before offering services. Business training
shoald be in addition to, not substituted for, regular University course. Com-
mercial degrees needed at Oxford and Cambridge as at London University,
so as to graft sound business training on to admitted advantages of the older
Universities. Appeal from them for Government grants offers opportunity to
make provision for this.

Summary.—Great need of the day is largely increased production. This
is impossible without skilled direction. Educated men needed for direction, men
educated in the right way, with technical training added to sound general
knowledge and broad views. Boundless possibilities in business for both «elf-

¥ 1 See Ways and Means, 1919.

ra

356 TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION L.

advancement and national and social service. Fascination of business. Chance
for every young business man to win unique position for himself, emulate the
great achievements of the commercial explorers in days gone by, place himself
on a level with merchant princes of to-day. No limitations: no ruts: man’s
fortune is in his own hands.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Discussion took place, and Papers were read :—

1. Discussion upon Continuation Schools, opened by Sir Ropert Buarr.
The following Papers were read :—

Continuation Schools: The Problem of Works Schools.
By Dr. A. P. M. FLemina.

The Education Act of 1918 renders possible that intimate association between
education and industrial life that is so desirable, having regard to the fact —
that national life is dependent on industry. '

(1) The 1918 Hducation Act (England) in Relation to Industry.

So far as industry is concerned, the following are the main requirements —
of the Education Act, which become operative twelve months after the
appointed day :

(4) The raising of the school-leaving age to fourteen.

(6) Attendance at continuation classes during the daytime.

A. dual period is covered.

(1) As children attain the age of fourteen they are required to attend for
eight hours per week until the age of sixteen. This will continue for a period
of six years from the date the Act comes into operation. °

(2) After this period the ege of continuation-school attendance is extended
to eighteen.

The Act does not apply :

(1) To young persons over fourteen years of age on the appointed day,
except at the request of the young person.

(2) To University matriculants or those who possess equivalent qualifica-
tions.

(5) To young persons who are receiving efficient full-time or part-time
instruction in some other manner. Works schools are recognised under
this ruling, provided they are conducted to the satisfaction of the
Local Education Authority.

(2) History of Works Schools.

Prior to the Technical Instruction Act, 1891, several enlightened employers
provided technical instruction in classes on their own premises, but the majorit;
of the attempts were abandoned when technical schools were established by
Local Education Authorities.

While the technical schools provided admirable and necessary facilities fo
the training of boys capable of rising to the higher positions in industry
they were not well suited to the needs of the large majority of boys from th
primary schools who would become manual workers. To meet this latter nee
several works schools in various industries were established.

With the passing of the'1918 Education Act the scope of ‘works’ schoo
is substantially extended. The youth’s interest in his work, and his associa:
tion with industry, is desirable as the basis of a comprehensive system 0
education culminating in the complete development of the character of t
individual adolescent.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 357

(3) Criticism of Works Schools.

Works schools are criticised on the ground that they have a limited applica-
tion—only being possible in a large works—that no desirable form of educa-
tion can be administered in the environment of a works, and that the pro-
vision of education is a function, not of employers, but of the State.

(4) The Advantages of a Works School.

Properly conducted works schools possess many educational advantages, some
of the more important of which may be referred to as follows :

1. A close correlation can be established and maintained between the school
work of the adolescent and his practical training in the works, each of which
favourably reacts upon the other.

2. Teachers who are familiar with works life are most capable of taking
a more intelligent and sympathetic interest in the progress of the boy, both
in the school and in the works, and can effectively introduce into the class-room
the spirit required in continuation-school teaching.

Other features of the works school referred to below have an important

educational value.

(5) Works Schools as a Factor in Industrial Development.

Through the medium of works schools certain developments in industry
are greatly facilitated, and the social and economic advantages accruing from
these even outweigh their educational advantages.

1. Selection for employment and promotion of workers.—Latent ability can
be discerned, and its utilisation effected, only by teachers who are interested
in and closely identified with the youths in the works.

2. Training of Workers.—The systematic training of workers is a matter
of paramount importance in industrial development, and can be facilitated
through the medium of a works school.

3. Industrial Harmony.—The close contact between juvenile workers and
the teaching staff of the works school ultimately ensures harmonious relations
between management and workers.

4. Citizenship.—lt is of growing importance that adolescents should receive
some training in the practice of civic and economic principles, having regard
to the increasing opportunities for workers to share in the responsibilities of
industrial life.

Continuation Schools: The Problem of Urban Schools.
By C. A. Buckmaster, M.A.

Continuation Schools: The Problem in Rural Districts.
By G. F. Dantett, B.Sc.

Successful development of continuation schools in rural districts will add
greatly to national well-being. Such development is hindered by difficulties other
than those in urban districts.

(1) Scattered Population.—Distance between villages which individually are
of insufficient population to provide an economic number of young persons affects
every arrangement—e.g., choice of site, staffing, periods of opening, collabora-
tion with voluntary associations for social service. If young persons cannot be
compelled to attend unless the school is within two miles of their homes or
transport is provided, every available means of transport—bicycle, country carts,
motors (omnibus, lorry, agrimotor, or other) must be discovered and utilised.

(2) Educational retardation.—Speaking generally, continued education is in
a backward state. Even the extension of full-time schooling to 14 plus will
produce grumbling, although organised opposition is not to be feared. Every
village enthusiast for education should receive encouragement by visits from
L.E.A. headquarters staff, by sympathetic correspondence, and by giving finan-

1919. RE

358 TRANSAOTIONS OF SECTION L.

cial support to classes which would rightly be considered too small in towns.
Conferences with parents and employers are even more necessary in the country
than in the town.

(3) Dark roads and lanes.—Throughout the year in the towns, and during the
summer time in the country, it is not unlikely that the period 2 p.m. to 6 P.M.
or 6.30 P.M. will be the most valuable. But in country districts young persons
should not travel in the dark more than can be avoided. Schools should be as
near their homes as possibie, even though this will involve modest housing and
equipment, with teachers to a certain extent peripatetic. It would be wasteful
to arrange for less than a full day of seven or eight hours. This should include
a recreative period.

(4) Lack of rural employment.—Adapting the maxim of Pestalozzi, we must
‘study the young person.’ The adolescent is looking forward to the occupations
of manhood and womanhood, and on purely educational grounds part of the
instruction should be vocational in a broad way. But the majority of the young
persons will find employment not in the country but in the towns, and they
know it. Those already employed in the towns may find their continuation
scheol near their work rather than near their home, and thus further reduce
the numbers of the village continuation school. It would be well if the lads
attended a voluntary evening class in the village. The girls will presumably be
housed by their town employers, and the urban continuation schools will provide
for them.

(5) Staffing.—There should be a staff of full-time teachers (of whom many
must be cyclists, in some districts motor-cyclists), and the services of social
workers in the neighbourhood should be invited. To recruit teachers, one must
be able to say with some precision when posts will be open, what are the total
hours of work and how they are distributed; the pay and conditions of service.
It is much more difficult to answer the questions in the case of rural work, but
they must be answered before men and women will come forward to be trained.

Various possibilities.—Relations with village clubs and institutes should be
close ; a playing-field and meeting-hall used in common may prove durable links.
A good site of five or six acres should be acquired (a larger site would be better)
for recreation ground end buildings, the site being regarded as permanent, the
buildings should nevertheless be temporary or semi-permanent. Part of the
buildings may be reserved fcr educational, part for recreative purposes, and
part may serve both purposes. One of the recreation rooms may be reserved
for each sex. Local considerations will determine whether schocl one day per
week for forty weeks or a seasonal arrangement of attendance is preferable.
In the latter case the farmers must be prepared to pay wages during the school
sessions. Periods intermediate between cne day per week for forty weeks and
full time for eight weeks are, of course, possible. If there are three terms in
a year in the elementary school there will be six batches of fresh entries in the
two years of the present compulsory continuation course. Syilabuses of instruc-
tion may be in some subjects cyclic rather than consecutive, so that entrants
may begin a branch of a subject in the same class with those who have been
from one to five terms in the school. It is hoped that careful consideration will
be given to the possibilities of seasonal boarding-school arrangements, which would
meet the difficulties of thinly populated areas, while possessing such high educa-
tional advantages as to compensate the large initial outlay involved. There is
need for much thought, experiment, and pooling of experience, and as a contribu-
tion which may be helpful I submit a report on the Toy’s Hill Residential
Farm School held during the first four weeks of 1914.

The Toy’s Hill Experiment.—The course was voluntary, vocational, and no
grant was received from the Board of Education. Twenty boys attended.
Expenditure, 187/. 11s. 9d.; receipts: fees, 30/.; other receipts, 2/. 9s. 6d.
During the succeeding five years there has been evidence of the benefits derived
from the course, that of farmer-employers being very favourable. In any course
now proposed the duration would be eight or nine weeks, and a considerable
amount of non-vocationa]l instruction would be given.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION UL. 359

Continuation Schools: The Workers’ Educational Association.
By J. 8S. Ratner.

The policy of the Workers’ Educational Association in regard to Continuation
Schools comprises opposition to the recognition of ‘works’ schools.’ The
employer should be represented on advisory committees, but should have no
personal control. Existing works’ schools could be absorbed for the time being
into the continuation system. The W.E.A. working men distrust the employing
interest, as it is almost exclusively personal and mercenary. The size of classes
shall not exceed 25; provision for medical and dental treatment, as in the
elementary schools; adequate provision for physical training; subjects of study
to be correlated with the interests of the pupils, but not determined merely
by trade needs. The curriculum must aim at general culture, for ‘the life is
more than meat and the body than raiment.’

Continuation Schools. Remarks by the Rt. Hon. the Earn or
Matmessury, M.A., D.L., J.P.

(1) Heonomy.—The education problem in its present phase had been intro-
duced at a moment when there was the most serious need for the greatest
national economy, and it was almost impossible to see how the Chancellor of
the Exchequer and the local authorities would be able to meet it. The author
considered that in return for this expenditure full consideration should be given
to what could properly be termed a great national asset—namely, the spending
of money to the fullest advantage on boys and girls of exceptional and admitted
ability.

(2) Individualism.—Too little attention was paid in these days to the indi-
vidual character of the child. Educationalists had fallen into the great error
of placing the average intelligence on too high a basis, and imagining that
anyone could be turned into a scholar or scientist if sufficient money was spent
on him. This was not true; environment might have much to do with the
moulding of character. It was not everything; the natural bent would assert
itself. For example, many people born in the most favourable intellectual
environment could never rise to the fulness of their opportunities, and this
applied to all classes of society. The educational system ought to be dealt
with on the principle of a triangle with a very broad base for a sound elementary
education, but gradually through a series of layers narrowing down by careful
selection to the survival of the fittest.

(3) Materialism and Spiritualism.—It was difficult to say where materialism
should stop and spiritualism begin in our educational system. Materialism,
when kent within its proper bounds, was a national asset not to be lightly
disregarded.

(4) Conclusion.—It could not be denied that in the interest of the individual,
as well as of the State, each boy and girl should be educated in such a way as
would conduce to the carrying on of the world’s work, and a clear distinction
should be made between those who would be much more happy and successful
as manual workers and those whose natural bent was of a high intellectual order.

_ In regard to Continuation Schools. a scheme far more satisfactory, and
involving much less expenditure of public funds, would be the establishment
of Secondary School Centres, to which bv a process of careful elimination only
the more intelligent brains would find their way, and thence would reach the
top of the educational ladder.

_ The so-called ‘ intellectual’ was not usually in the end the most useful
citizen: man’s individual nature must ultimately triumph over the conven-
tionalism of a superficial educational system. Patriotism, personal obligations,
and good manners were almost wholly absent from our modern curriculum.

EE2

360 TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION La

2. Consideration of Proposals for promoting interchange of Students
between British and Scandinavian Countries. By Dr. VincENT
NZSER.

3. Educational Value of the Cinema. By Sir RicHarp Grecory.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Discussions took place :—

1. Discussion upon Training in Citizenship, in which the following
took part.:—

The Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Wetipon, D.D. : Everybody now is an educationist.
There is everywhere a demand for education—for an education such as will
in its results justify an annual expenditure of more than £25,000,000, and a
largely increased expenditure in the near future.

. The teaching profession, if it aims unitedly at an object, can attain
that object. It can create a nation of Huns. It can create a nation of
heroes. But the teaching profession seems to have lost something of its old
attractiveness, for not only are the most distinguished of the undergraduates
at Oxford and Cambridge less willing than they were 50, and even 25, years
ago to become masters in the public schools, but it is stated that double
the number of candidates for masterships and mistress-ships are needed to-day
in the elementary schools of London and the great provincial centres. The
law of citizenship as governing education prescribes that the teaching given
to children must be such as shall make the best possible use of the years
allotted to education. In elementary schools the proverbial three R.’s were
once regarded as constituting the sum of education. Men of business used
to tell me in Manchester that they would gladly sacrifice the so-called accom-
plishments of their clerks and typists for a sure basis of elementary knowledge.

It is practically certain that in the future not only boys and girls, but
men and women, will be educated together, irrespective of social standing ;
the universities will be more and more thrown open to poor students. Some-
thing must be done by co-operation or co-partnership to create a fellow-feeling
between capital and labour. The schools—and above all the elementary schools—
must teach an enlightened patriotism. The children, who will so soon be the
adult enfranchised citizens, must be made to understand the dignity, as well
as the history, of the Empire.

There is yet a final lesson which the schools must teach in the interest of
citizenship. It is the lesson of civic unity. Children whose parents possessed
divergent views, not only in politics but religion, must so far as possible be
educated together.

Sir Ropert Bapen-Powetu, K.C.B., LL.D.

The need of out-of-school training and environment, as auxiliary to education,
for producing efficient and human citizens.

This applies to girls equally with boys, their rapid social evolution having
putstripped their education.

The main need for such training seems to lie in the direction of

Character and Intelligence; Health and Physical Development; Handcraft
and Technical Skill; Service for the Community; Happiness through higher
ideals.

The method of such training should be preferably through education rather
than through instruction; through active desire from within to learn and to
express rather than from passive reception of ideas from without on the part of
the pupil.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 361

These points are met in what is known as ‘ Scouting,’ a training which has
evolved itself from the child’s point of view rather than that of the teacher.

Woodcraft with Nature-lore is its key-activity.

The training is adapted to the psychological stages of the adolescent life in
the Wolf Cubs, Scouts, and Rovers.

Individuality is developed and then harnessed for the betterment of the
community.

2. Discussion upon Fundamental Principles in Education, opened by
Professor A. N. Wuirreneap, F.R.S.:—

All education is the development of genius. Genius is the divine instinct

for creation, incident throughout life, a certain quality of first-handedness
accompanying and directing activity. An education mainly devoted to the
development of genius is the best education for eliciting common sense. The
three factors of genius are the habit of action, the vivid imagination, and
the discipline of judgment. Criticism is the antagonist of genius, though 1t
is essential for the discipline of judgment. The function of criticism is the
education of genius by the aid of knowledge.
. The acquisition of knowledge is the ultimate substratum of education. Know-
ledge and genius are the twin factors of effective personality, and the true
ultimate problem before the educator is how to impart knowledge so as to
stimulate genius.

A curriculum should start with obvious relevancy, and should progressively
widen as the field of relevancy expands—the subject-matter of early education
should issue quickly in securing some definite acquirement. The stimulus of
success is essential for any broad effectiveness of culture.

Literary education is of overwhelming importance. Language is essential.
The study of language has importance, relevancy, and the certainty of a large
measure of success. You can only spoil its effect by one procedure—namely,
by teaching a language which the pupils can never acquire, will never want
to use, and which is the vehicle of a literature whose relevancy is only imme-
diately obvious to a mature mind. You must not go on to a dead language
until a modern language has gripped the imagination. Classical learning is
the superstructure of a literary education, not the foundation. Classical learning
has had its chance with the well-to-do class, and has failed—failed to impress
on them that learning should mould life, a failure which originates in a lack
of relevancy in the subject-matter of education. The technical triumphs of
science in war and in industry have startled English thought back into
sanity, for it is sanity to believe in the importance of knowledge. Learning
is not advocated for the sake of mere utility, but utility for the sake of learning.
Knowledge should proceed from the concrete to the abstract. General educa-
tion, the basis of culture, should be compact of material which will enter into
the habitual lives of its recipients, a doctrine which applies alike to language,
literature, history, natural science, and to mathematics. Beyond this general
education every educated person should push on to a specialism dominated by
finer theory and by subtler ideas—for one it may be Greek, another scientitic
theory, for another mathematics. There can be no complete education without
specialism, but classical specialism is not general culture.

It is the demand of genius that it lives its own life in its own way. It is
the function of education to supply criticism and knowledge.

The one fundamental principle of education—that the pupils are alive, and
not mere portmanteaus to be neatly packed.

Fundamental Principles of ‘Education; The Interary Aspect of the
Question. By F. §. Preston, M.A.

The word ‘ humanistic’ is purposely avoided as being applicable to any subject
studied for its own sake. The object of a general education is not merely to
acquire knowledge, nor to provide a man with a commercial asset, still less to
bestow the label ‘ qualified’ as the result of an examination test, but to produce

362 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L.

the trained mind essential to a full member of a civilised community. (Exami-
nations, except as a test of individual progress, are a serious blot on education.)

The course of linguistic studies needs no defence, and the claims of scientific
studies are duly recognised by educationalists. The interdependence of the
two is confidently asserted.

There is the menace to a wide education from the Bolshevism of fanatics,
who would destroy the old because it is old. Such extremists are injuring their
own cause, and incidentally display an ignorance of the capacity and bent of
the average boy. They are possibly deluded by the phenomenon of a primitive
mechanical interest, which they mistake for a sincere scientific enthusiasm.

The present situation is critical for five reasons—the degenerate standard of
modern British taste in literature and the theatre, the importance of the growth
ot ‘Cosmopolitan’ ideas of brotherhood, the increase in the leisure time now
available to the less educated population, the demands of the new Education
Acts for extending the educational facilities of the majority, the general ignor-
ance of economics intensified by the complete ignorance of history.

Modern secondary education exhibits a reasonable division of the curriculum
between scientific and other studies. There is a danger in one-sided specialisa-
tion: in particular, the battle against an exaggerated vocational training must
be tought. A possible cause for present discontent is the starving of the
spiritual life and the imagination. The highest education is association with
great minds; through the medium of art and literature this is possible for all,
imagination and reason both must be developed: either is incomplete alone.
Science cannot provide both for all, nor can all be ‘scientifically’ educated at
first hand. A wise compromise is essential and desirable.

The writer is no linguistic fanatic nor desirous of ‘ subordinating progress
and the future to the realm of ghosts and nursery tales.”. From his own experi-
ence of the young mind he would emphasise the need of literary studies to
develop the imaginative and moral faculties. Mankind will never be satisfied
by an education limited to the finite or to demonstrable truths.

Fundamental Principles in Education: The Function of Examinations
in Education. By Prof. Marcus Harroa, M.A., D.Sc.

The methods of pedagogics may be roughly classified into Haposition, Study—
including set tasks, observation, and preparation by the pupil—and Hzamination,
which is not merely the test of the two former, but possesses training virtues
which are all its own.

Examinations may be oral or written; but, for the purposes of this paper, I
shall limit the term to the written, where the pupil answers set questions unaided
(and in the later stages in a limited time), and where the scripts are marked for
merit—sit venia verbo—by the examiner, and in the earlier stages form the
subject of a ‘lesson on the scripts,’ when they are commented upon by the
teacher, and, it may be, by the class. Examinations fall naturally into three
groups—Class, Grading, and Selective—for which some award is made, whether
it be place, prize or appointment. Where these are made on the result of
grading examinations, they acquire a selective character.

Class examinations begin as soon as the child has acquired some freedom of
expression in writing, and are continued through not only his school life, but
in many cases form part of academic teaching, from which the practice of the
best coaches only differs in their more constant utilisation. Together with oral
examinations they are the essential complement of exposition and study. The
method is invaluable for the teacher, since in réading the scripts he is enabled
to discover the weak points of his teaching and to amend them. To the pupil
it affords training in independent thought, unaided by the help of the teacher,
who can with difficulty restrain himself from helpful suggestions in an oral
examination. He learns the value of persistent concentration. ‘l'erseness and
directness of expression he gains, if only to avoid the tedious handiwork of hand-
writing. Precision and clearness of expression are insisted on by the teacher,
who will never tolerate fiuffiness or confusion of ideas. And clearness of under-
standing is needed, for answers wide of the mark—volunteered answers—are as
worthless here as at any later stage.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION L. 363

The judicious teacher will insist on every answer being a complete logical
predication, especially in the case of short answers: if a definition be asked for,
the answer must contain a statement as to the application thereon. Thus if the
question be ‘ Define the fulcrum of a lever,’ the answer, ‘ The fixed point on
which the lever turns,’ must be recognised as absolutely worthless.

Where questions of wider range are set, the pupil is given the opportunity
of acquiring both literary form and symmetrical logical order, of which the
importance must be demonstrated by the teacher. Composition is thereby better
taught than even by the classical method of ‘ Narration from memory.’ Here
I speak from the experience of five years’ examining in botany under the Irish
Intermediate Board. It is impossible that pupils, save of the most ungrateful
nature, who have had proper training by the method of class examination should
incur the oft-quoted censure of one great authority, who writes: ‘ That an exami-
nation candidate writes for a person who, in general, knows already what he has
to say, i.e. the examiner... may be trained unwittingly to express himself
obscurely and by allusion.’ The candidate who does this damns his teacher,
whether schoolmaster or coach : such modes of expression make for low scoring
everywhere.

Grading examinations are invaluable for giving method to teaching and
study and limiting its range in any given period to reasonable bounds. The
brilliant teacher and the brilliant student are ever in danger of covering more
ground than they can profitably survey. For the student who works alone the
graded course of examinations affords one shield for perseverance which it
would be stupid and Pharisaical to ignore. A man who studies ‘to improve his
mind’ is liable to be assailed by the temptations to accept lower aims, obsessed
by the jeers of his friends and family. But the pursuit of a University career
gives his pursuit that business-like character that cannot fail to impress Mrs.
Grundy. Herein lies the use of the ‘Examining University.’

3. Discussion wpon the Present Position of Private Schools.

364. TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION m.

Section M.—AGRICULTURE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTIoN: Professor W. Sommrvinue, D.Se.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Grass.

Durinc the past four years—or since the ploughing programme began to take
shape—grass land has been officially cold-shouldered in no small degree.
The cause was obvious and the reasons were good, The result of compulsory
and voluntary ploughing has been that whereas in 1914 the total area in Great
Britain under temporary and permanent grass (hay and pasture) was practically
214 million acres, it was barely 194 million acres in 1918, a reduction, namely,
of about 2 million acres. During the same period the arable area, other than
temporary grass, increased from about 105 million acres to 124 million acres.
In Ireland, during these years, the area under grass (permanent and temporary)
fell from about 1245 million acres to less than 11} million acres. The United
Kingdom at the present time comprises about 303 million acres of permanent
and temporary grass and 154 million acres of land under crops other than grass
and clover. This is over and above some 16 million acres of mountain land
used for grazing.

Tt is far from my intention to attempt to maintain that grass land is, as
compared with tillage, defensible from the point of view of national economy.
It has been proved conclusively by various writers, and by none more con-
vincingly than by Sir Thomas Middleton, that in respect of nutritive output,
and the utilisation of labour, and in its bearings on foreign exchange, arable
cultivation is much more attractive than pastoral farming. It is my sincere
hope that the Royal Commission now sitting will be able to formulate a, policy,
acceptable to the Government, which will result in the retention for tillage of
at least all that the plough has gained during the war, and, in my view, it
would be well for the country if a much larger area even than that could be
wrested from the grazier. But for the moment the tendency is in the other
direction, and under the stimulus of high wages, and increased costs generally,
a certain amount of land has already been resown to grass, and preparations
are being made for similarly dealing with an increased area next spring. It
would, therefore, appear that under any circumstances that can be conceived
the area of land under grass is likely to remain at a very high figure, and to
be well worth the consideration of this Section of the British Association.

A considerable proportion of the grass land of this country is of so high a
quality that any improvement, and certainly any economic improvement, is hard
of accomplishment. Satisfactory as are the high-class pastures of this country,
it by no means follows that there is nothing more to learn about them. Grazing
practice is in general agreement that the productive capacity of these pastures
is maintained by judicious stocking during the growing season, by the regular
mowing of thistles and other coarse weeds, by the maintenance of the drains
(if such exist), by the spreading of the droppings of cattle, by the avoidance
of winter grazing (at least in the case of land liable to ‘poach’), and, in many
cases, by the consumption of a certain amount of cake, at least during the
latter part of the season. On many of the high-class pastures no cake is used, so

wen

q PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 365

that the annual drain of nitrogen and minerals in the form of animal increase
must be balanced—if fertility is maintained unimpaired—by the nitrogen gained
in various ways from the air, and by the weathering of inert mineral matter in
the soil. As, however, 300 lb. of live weight ‘fattening’ increase per acre
per annum—which may be assumed to be about the maximum production of
high-class pasture—will contain only about 3 lb. of nitrogen and a similar
amount of mineral matter, the natural agents will have no difficulty in replacing
this loss. It would appear in fact that, but for the loss of plant food by
drainage and denitrification, even a fattening pasture should go on improving,
and this is the case so far as accumulated fertility is concerned, though not
in respect of current or immediate animal production. On a pasture of naturally
low quality, where leguminous herbage stimulated by phosphatic manuring is
the main factor of value, it has been proved at Cockle Park that the addition
of nitrogen either as artificial manure or in the form of cake residues has been
positively injurious or has produced a result disappointingly small, and one
would like to see this subject followed up experimentally in the case of
naturally rich pastures where cake is freely used. One would like to study in
detail the effects of phosphate and potash on such land, although where pro-
duction is naturally so high it is unlikely that it can be materially and
economically increased.

It is often very difficult to determine the factor or factors that go to the
making of high-class pastures. Such pastures are to be found on most of the
geological formations of this country; they are met with north, south, east,
and west; and even altitude, within the limit of at least seven hundred feet,
seems to have little effect. An immense amount of attention has been given
to the botanical composition of the herbage of the more famous of the pastures
of Britain. Notable in this connection is the work of Fream,! Carruthers,?
Hall and Russell,? and Armstrong.* The methods employed varied to some
extent with the investigator. Fream had turfs dug up and transferred to
_ Downton, where they were planted in the garden, the herbage being subse-
quently clipped over and separated; Carruthers, Hall and Russell relied partly
on enclosing representative areas and sampling the herbage when well grown,
_and partly on occular estimation; while Armstrong used a frame a foot square
divided by transverse strings into 144 square inches. This was placed on the
sward in situ and a note made of the percentage occurrence of the different
species of plant. The result that emerges most conspicuously from these
_ researches is that one may have a dozen pastures, which are about equal in
feeding value, and yet which may vary widely in respect of botanical com-
position. Thus Fream found that in the case of forty-eight English and eight
Trish pastures, each of which was the ‘best’ in the district selected, the
Graminee might be as low as 11 per cent. and as high as 100 per cent. ;
Leguminose might be entirely absent or as high as 38 per cent.; while of
miscellaneous herbage, most of which would be designated as ‘weeds,’ there
might be none or up to 89 per cent. As regards individual genera and species,
Fream found for instance, that Agrostis was almost always present and on five
occasions was the most abundant plant; while Holcus lanatus gave an almost
identical result. By a different method Carruthers arrived at a very similar
conclusion. The latter also found that Hordeum pratense was the most
abundant species on what is perhaps the finest grazing in England, namely,
Pawlett Hams, near the mouth of the Parret in Somerset. This investigator
even found that on one of the ‘Famous Ancient Pastures of England’ the pre-
dominant grasses were Fiorin and Hassock, and in this connection makes the

.

1 W. Fream, ‘The Herbage of Old Grass Lands,’ Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.
Hingl., vol. xxiv., 2nd Series, p. 415; and ‘The Herbage of Pastures,’ Jour.
Roy. Agric. Soc. Hngl., vol. i., 3rd Series, p. 359.

* W. Carruthers, ‘The Composition of Some of the Famous Ancient Pastures
of England,’ Jour. Roy, Agric. Soc. Engl., vol. i., 3rd Series, p. 751.

* A. D. Hall and E. J. Russell, ‘On the Causes of the High Nutritive Value
and Fertility of the Fatting Pastures of Romney Marsh and other Marshes
‘im the 8.E. of England,’ Jour. Agric. Science, vol. iv., p. 339.

_ *§. F. Armstrong, ‘The Botanical and Chemical Composition of the
Herbage of Pastures and Meadows,’ Jour. Agric. Science, vol. ii., p. 283.

366 j TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

following remark, ‘In this field the hassock-grass, which made up a large
proportion of the pasture, was freely eaten, and the cattle were in good con-
dition.’

In Hall and Russell’s investigations Agrostis and Holcus might on occasion
each exceed 20 per cent., and it is stated that ‘Wherever Holcus lanatus occurs
it is more abundant on the fatting fields.’ Even miscellaneous herbage could
bulk over 29 per cent. on a pasture so good that it could fatten five bullocks
on four acres without cake. Armstrong found in a field representative of ‘ the
richest type of old grazing land found in the Market Harborough district’
that, amongst grasses, Poa annua came second (12-3 per cent.) in point of
abundance; while in two meadows, also in Leicestershire, the one representa-
tive of ‘the choicest meadow land of the neighbourhood,’ and the other ‘a
meadow of above the average quality,’ the grasses were 41-5 per cent. and
70:3 per cent. respectively, in the second case Agrostis amounting to 12-7 per
cent. There will be general agreement in this audience that four of the grasses
just mentioned, Fiorin, Yorkshire Fog, Squirrel Tail, and Hassock are
accounted ‘bad,’ and yet it is hard to apply this term to plants which are
the most abundant constituents of some of the finest pastures in England.
While there is much that is disconcerting in these investigations, some facts
do emerge with satisfactory consistency, (1) that the great majority of high-
class pastures contain a large proportion of perennial ryegrass and white clover,
(2) that crested dogstail is almost always present though rarely predominant,
(3) that meadow fescue is practically negligible, and (4) that of the two Poas,
pratensis and trivialis, the former is very rare, while the latter is very common.

The obvious deduction to be drawn from these investigations is that the
quality of a permanent pasture is only in a minor degree determined by the
relative abundance of its constituent plants, or, in the words of Hall and
Russell, ‘We can only conclude that the feeding value of a pasture is largely
independent of the floral type.’ Factors of much greater weight are depth
and physical character of the soil, soil moisture and temperature, density of
the herbage, and the natural or induced composition of the soil as regards
plant food, and especially in respect of phosphoric acid.

That much seems to have been proved, but, such proof notwithstanding, I
cannot think we are justified in going so far as Carruthers, when he says, ‘ The
composition of the pastures shows the fallacy of seeking in natural pastures
the standard for laying down arable land in permanent grass. The adoption
of such a standard is to reverse the whole practice and principles of modern
farming.’

It seems to me that the lesson that may be learned from a study of the old
pastures of England is that we need not include in a seeds mixture for permanent
purposes plants which never bulk to any considerable extent in old grass land,
but that we should include all of those which are usually naturally abundant.
Take, as an illustration, the case of perennial ryegrass. In the eighties of
last century, when much interest was taken in the subject of the best way
to lay down land to grass, an almost violent controversy arose over the desira-
bility or otherwise of including perennial ryegrass in a seeds mixture for
permanent pasture. The main opponehts of ryegrass were Faunce de Laune
and Carruthers, who would have excluded this species under all circumstances.
The work of Lawes, published under the title ‘The History of a Field newly
laid down to permanent grass,’ * also tells against ryegrass, though it is to be
noted that the field in question, sown down in 1859, was mowed every year,
and there is some reason to believe that this grass is more persistent in a
pasture than in a meadow.* On the other hand, we have the evidence of a
series of experiments laid down by myself in Huntingdonshire in 1900 and
reported on in 1905 by Biffen? and Middleton,’ which shows that under certain

5 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Hngl. 1889, p. 1.

6 R. G. Stapledon and T. J. Jenkin, ‘Pasture Problems’; Jour. Agric.
Science, vol. viil., p. 53.

7 Cambridge University Department of Agriculture Guide to Experiments,
1907, p. 104. |

8 T. H. Middleton, ‘The Formation of Permanent Pastures,’ Jour. Board —
of Agric., vol. xii., pp. 385 and 449.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 367

circumstances (in this case Oxford clay) perennial ryegrass does maintain and
even improve its position. It is, however, a common experience of those who
have laid land away to grass with ordinary commercial seed that perennial
ryegrass does not persist,® but neither, for the matter of that, does white clover.
And the probability is that the cause in both cases is to be found in the same
direction. Both these plants, as usually grown in this and other countries for
seed, are the progeny of a long line of cultivated ancestors, grown under some-
what forcing conditions which may be said to undermine the ‘ constitution.’
They have adapted themselves to their artificial environment, and such adapta-
tion has taken the form of early maturity and the production of a large yield
of ‘ bold’ seed which is easily marketed. Gilchrist has, of late years, directed
attention to the merits of wild white clover,’® which, as regards persistency,
is on an altogether different plane from the cultivated or Dutch white. The
price that farmers are willing to pay for the seed of wild white clover is the
best proof of the sharp distinction which they draw between the two varieties.
What we now want is similar work on grasses, and particularly on perennial
ryegrass, and it is satisfactory to know that such work has actually been started.

Other lines of investigation associated with the creation of permanent
pasture that might repay research are the relative nutritive values of the more
important pasture plants when grown under precisely similar conditions, as
also under conditions of soil and climate with which they are naturally associated,
and when subjected to the actual process of grazing. In 1853 Way published
an account of his analysis of grasses, clovers, and other pasture plants, a
line of inquiry that was again followed by Voelcker’2 some thirty years later.
In the former case the plants were collected as they grew naturally in the
field, while in the latter they were specially grown in plots. A comparison
of the two sets of figures does not reveal any consistent agreement, a result
that seems to support the view that, in respect of nutritive value and mineral
contents, grasses are very sensitive to soil conditions and other factors of the
situation. The difficulty of determining the feeding value of pasture by
means of chemical analysis was experienced in a marked degree by Hall and
Russell, who thus express themselves 1% : ‘The only general conclusion one can
draw is that the method of food analysis as ordinarily practised gives no
measure of the feeding value of such material as grass. It fails to reveal
anything to correspond to the very marked differences in habit of the fatting
and non-fatting grasses, and none of the results can be interpreted so as to
show which of the grasses were poor and which valuable food. . . . Although
the difference in feeding value was known to be great, the differences revealed
by the ordinary methods of chemical analysis were very small. The ordinary
methods are clearly inadequate for dealing with pasture grasses.’ It would
therefore appear that if further attempts are to be made with a view to
differentiating between the various pasture plants in respect of nutritive value,
resort will have to be had to the digestive track of animals on lines suggested
by the Tree Field Experiments at Cockle Park. Areas large enough to provide
grazing for a sufficient number of sheep, and, a fortiori, of cattle, present a
serious difficulty, and the idea suggests itself that perhaps guinea-pigs or rabbits
could be utilised as the medium in small-scale experiments. I should also
like to see a test made of the effects of sowing the mixed seed derived from
the herbage of good grass land fortified with a pound per acre of the seed
of wild white clover, in contrast with a mixture of seeds compounded on the
most so-called scientific principles. Nearly twenty years ago I took over a
heavy farm on the Weald and created as good pastures as, I believe, the land
could carry by applying 7 cwt. of basic slag to the foul stubbles without the

® Stapledon and Jenkin, op. cit., p. 26.
10D. A. Gilchrist, ‘Trials of Wild White Clover.’ Jour. Board of Agric.,

mevol. xxii.

,/

4 J. Thomas Way, ‘On the relative Nutritive and Fattening Properties of
different Natural and Artificial Grasses,’ Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Engl., vol. xiv.,

p. 171.

2M. J. Sutton, ‘Permanent Temporary Pastures,’ 1st Ed., 1886.
3 Op. cit., pp. 369 and 370.

368 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

addition of any seed whatever. I have seen a field of excellent pasture so
uniform throughout that no one in a company of farmers and scientific agricul-
turists could tell any difference between one side and the other, and yet one
part of the field was seeded with the most perfect mixture which a leading
seedsman could devise, while the other part got no seed at all. The whole
field, however, had been well dressed with basic slag. I have still a vivid
recollection of sowing down 46 acres to grass in the spring of 1901 on
the University Farm at Cambridge. The seed '4 was put in with a thin cover
crop of peas and oats, and the weather subsequently proving extremely unsuit-
able for germination and growth. In July the whole area was a mass of weeds,
and few, if any, of the grass and clover plants introduced as seed had persisted.
A more derelict-looking piece of ground it would be hard to imagine, and the
mowing machine was run over it to. clear up the rubbish. But from such
an unpromising beginning an excellent pasture has resulted, in my opinion
phosphatic manuring, not the primary seeding, being the determining factor.

These are the kind of results that cause one ‘furiously to think’ whether
it is not worth while to investigate along the lines indicated, even if these
appear to conflict with conventional practice. For this suggestion I hope I
may claim the support of Stapledon and Jenkin, who say, in connection with
white clover, ‘On many types [of soil] phosphatic manure [is] all that is
necessary to hasten the appearance of the indigenous plant,’ and, further,
‘Undoubtedly when putting land down to long duration grass as much or more
can be done by making the habitat as suitable as possible to the desirable
indigenous species, as by including their commercial counterparts in the
mixture.’ 75

Important as is the position of the fine old pastures of England in the
agricultural economy of the country, and interesting though it may be to
examine questions of seeding, a much more important line of inquiry is opened
up by the problem of the improvement of our second- and third-rate pastures.
What proportion of the grass land of the country falls into the lower categories
it is impossible to say, but the most superficial acquaintance with rural England
is sufficient to carry conviction that the aggregate area of such land is enormous.
Most of the poor grass land of the country is associated with the heavier
classes of soil, and has been abandoned to grass on account of the high costs
of cultivation, including, in many cases, the necessity of drainage. It is, for
arable purposes, essentially wheat land, with an occasional crop of beans, and
the regular intervention at comparatively short intervals of a bare fallow.
Other areas of poor pasture, smaller in aggregate extent than the clays, but
still of much importance, are to be found on all the geological formations of
the country. Of the 145 million acres of permanent grass in England and
Wales, 70 per cent. is under pasture and only 30 per cent. under hay, and of
the poorer classes of grass land it is certain that the proportion that is grazed
is still greater. It is evident therefore that the improvement of pasture is
relatively a more urgent matter than the improvement of meadows, though with
over 44 million acres of permanent grass made into hay in England and Wales
during 1918, the latter problem is also one of enormous importance. The most
famous experiments on the effects of manure on permanent hay are those
started in 1856 by Lawes and Gilbert on the Meadow at Rothamsted, and con-
tinued ever since on the lines originally laid down. The results have thrown
a flood of light on the principles of manuring, which has been of the greatest
assistance in the elucidation of problems in agricultural chemistry and soil
physics. They have also shown unmistakably the effects of the more im-
portant elements of plant food on the yield of hay and on its botanical com-
position, but even supported as they were by elaborate chemical analysis of the
produce, they leave us uncertain in regard to the feeding value of the herbage.

A very large number of experiments have been carried out which had for
their object the determination of the quantitative results attributable to the
use of manures, singly and in combination. In many cases these experiments
were supported by a botanical and not infrequently by a chemical analysis of

** Cambridge University, ‘Guide to Experiments at Burgoyne’s (University)
Farm,’ 1906, p. 72.
*S Op. cit., pp. 61-62.

al PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. - 369

the resultant herbage, but it was felt that we were still in a state of much
| uncertainty in respect of the quality of the hay, that is to say, its effect on
animals consuming it. This induced Middleton '* in the winter of 1900-1 to
carry out a feeding experiment with sheep at Cockle Park, and in 1905-6 and
1907-8 Gilchrist 17 continued and amplified this work. The sheep were accom-
-modated in a special house. The various lots of sheep all got equal quantities
of roots, cake, and hay. The hay employed was the produce of variously
manured plots on old grass land which I laid out in 1897. The soil is a clay
loam on a boulder clay subsoil. This set of experiments includes the eight-plot
test, and it may be interesting to see what influence nitrogen, phosphoric acid,
and potash respectively have on the produce. The quantitative figures refer
to the average annual yield for 21 years, 1897-1917, while the figures which
indicate the relative values of the produce, as determined by the live weight
increase of sheep, are based upon the feeding tests already specified. The
hay from the unmanured plot, No. 6, is assumed to be worth 4/. per ton.
The results are set out in the accompanying table.

Plot M . Average Annual value P nie nok
co) anurin er acre per annum (ae aes ay as aeter-
He Fi Yield of Hay | mined by feeding
ewt.
6 Unmanured : 3 : : 194 80/-
7 30 1b. Nin Sulphate of Ammonia . 23 72/-
8 50 lb. P.O; usually in Basic Slag . 26 93/-
9 50 lb. K,O in Muriate of Potash . 16 80/-
10 30 lb. N+-50 lb. P.O; . 5 : 30} 84/-
LE 30 lb. N+-50 lb. K,0 . ‘ : 21 72/-
12 50 Ib. P20;++-50 lb. K,0 ‘ ft 26 101/9
13 30 lb. N+-50 1b. P20;+501b.K,0 . 304 89/2

Nitrogen derived from sulphate of ammonia, and used at the rate of 30 lb.
per acre per annum, has consistently increased the yield and as consistently
reduced the quality. When used alone the nitrogen has increased the crop by
3% cwt. per acre, and reduced the feeding value of the hay by 8s. per ton.
When added to phosphates the nitrogen has increased the yield by 44 cwt. and
reduced the quality by 9s. per ton. When nitrogen was added to potash the
yield has been raised by 5 cwt. per acre, and the value lowered by 8s. per
ton When used as an addition to both phosphates and potash the nitrogen

_ The behaviour of potash is rather peculiar. It has quite distinctly reduced
the yield when used alone or when used in combination with nitrogen only,
while under both these sets of circumstances it has had no influence one way
or other on the quality of the hay. When added to phosphates it has proved
powerless to increase the yield, but it has raised the feeding value of the hay
by 88. 9d. per ton. When added to both nitrogen and phosphates the potash
las been practically inoperative so far as yield is concerned, but it has improved
the quality by 5s. 2d. per ton.

_ These results show that very erroneous conclusions may be reached if, in
ex perimental work on meadow hay, attention is only given to the weights of

4 16 Sixth Annual Report on Experiments . .. at Cockle Park, 1902, p. 19.
| 17 Bulletin No. 8 of Northumberland Education Committee, 1906, p. 69;
ind Guide to Experiments at Cockle Park for 1916, p. 30.

370 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

produce secured. Thus, in these Cockle Park experiments, on the average
of 21 years, if quantity alone be regarded, sulphate of ammonia used by itself
has involved an annual loss of 6s. 4d. per acre, whereas, if the reduced quality
of the hay be taken into account, the loss is increased to 15s. 7d. per acre. On
the other hand, a quantitative gain of 4s. 2d. per acre per annum from the use
of phosphate and potash is raised to one of 32s, 5d. owing to the superior
quality of the hay. While there is a certain relationship between the chemical
composition, the botanical analysis and the feeding value of the hay there will
probably be general agreement with Middleton when he says that ‘ Without
an appeal to the animal the relative values of samples grown under different

treatment cannot be measured.’ In my view this form of research may, with

advantage, be largely extended.

It is unnecessary to attempt to abstract the numerous permanent hay experi-
ments which have been a prominent feature of field-plot trials, especially
during the past thirty years. These show unmistakably that farmers of
meadow land have an attractive opportunity for the judicious expenditure of
capital on artificial manures. It is an opportunity which most progressive
farmers have embraced, though the condition of wide areas of meadow land
shows how much still remains to be accomplished. Broadly speaking, phosphates
are the foundation on which manuria] improvement is most surely laid, supple-
mented in most cases by nitrogen, and in many cases by potash. There are
numerous instances throughout the country of phosphates alone producing the
maximum return, in profit and quality, and sometimes even in weight. Thus
on a field in Kast Suffolk, ‘of very poor, heavy land that had been untenanted
for some years at Rendham and apparently grew nothing but wild carrots and
a little rough grass,’1® quarter-acre plots were laid down in the autumn of

1900. ‘The hay crop of 1901 was so poor that it was not considered worth —

weighing.’ But in the subsequent five years the results were very remarkable,
the average yield on the unmanured area being 8 ewt. of hay, as contrasted
with 35 cwt. on the plot which received a single dressing of 10 cwt. of basic

slag. Taking hay at 2/. per ton, and therefore making no allowance for the ©

superior quality of the produce, or for residues, the slag gave a return, after
deducting its cost, of 127. per acre.!2 But the apparent lack of the need of
phosphates for support from added nitrogen is usually associated with the
earlier years of such experiments, and such need disappears later. Hall accounts
for the superior early action of the phosphate as follows: ‘It is not uncommon

to find cases where the application to grass land of a phosphatic manure, like —

super-phosphate or basic slag, is followed by a great increase of crop, the
addition of the phosphoric acid to the dormant nitrogen and potash in the

soil having supplied the missing element in a complete plant food. ...A

nitrogenous manure alone is often thought exhausting, but probably a phosphatic
manure used singly will even more quickly impoverish the soil.’?° I agree that
this argument applies to tillage land growing non-leguminous crops, but it
seems to be put too strongly in the case of permanent grass land. In my view
the more marked effects of phosphates in the earlier years is due to the fact
that when one applies phosphates one is indirectly applying nitrogen as well.

But after the first great flush of clovers, and of Leguminose generally, this

class of plant becomes less abundant, and consequently the fixation of atmospheric
nitrogen by the herbage is reduced, and the crop requires and responds to
nitrogenous manures. | Where, however, there are abundant natural supplies
of potash in the soil the stage of marked reduction in fertility of a hay field
may be long delayed. Thus on Palace Leas, at Cockle Park, the plot which
for over twenty years has annually received nothing but phosphates is showing
a larger increase in the hay crop on the average of the last five years than it
did on the average of the first five. And not only so, but the addition of

18 Report, East Suffolk County Council, ‘ Field Experiments, How very
poor heavy land Pasture may be improved.’ ‘

19 Cambridge University Department of Agriculture, ‘Guide to Experi-
ments,’ 1907, p. 150. s

20 A.D. Hall, ‘ The Manuring of Grass Land,’ Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Engl.,
1903, p. 76.

7

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. yal

sulphate of ammonia had distinctly more influence in the first five than in the
last five years, and this not only when used alone, but also when it was added
to phosphates only, to potash only, or to phosphates plus potash. It would
appear, therefore, that here at least—and there must be many other instances—
the persistent use of phosphates has not only not tended to exhaust the soil
of nitrogen, but has positively increased it. By way of measuring the extent
of the stored-up fertility in grass land that has been treated with phosphates,
I carried out a series of pot experiments on the following lines: Five lots of
soil and turf from treated and untreated land from the same fields were placed
in pots in which five crops of cereals and mustard were subsequently grown, when
it was found that on the average the yield was increased by 27 per cent. This
result was quite in conformity with the increase of nitrogen in the soil as
disclosed by chemical analysis.*+

Turning now to the improvement of pastures, as contrasted with meadows,
it may be remarked that while no sharp line can be drawn between these two
classes of grass land in respect of ameliorative treatment, there are certain
distinctions which must be kept in view. In a meadow the plants are allowed
to grow up to full maturity, whereas in a pasture they are cut over daily, or at
least very frequently, by the grazing of the animals. It is difficult to arrive
at a decision as to whether a larger gross weight of dry material is got from a
given area treated as pasture, in contrast to being hayed, but the probability
is that the aggregate quantity is greater. Take the analogy of a patch of
lucerne. Cut three or four times in the season it may yield six tons of dry
matter per acre, cut once it would certainly yield much less. Or take the case
of cocksfoot; this springs so quickly in the aftermath that the foliage may shoot
up six inches almost in as many days, whereas there would be no such growth
were the hay not cut over. It is a matter of observation, too, how quickly
red clover springs up after cutting, and trees and shrubs which may be grow-
ing only a few inches annually when unrestrained may send up stool shoots
several feet in length if cut over. It is difficult, however, to bring the question
to the test of figures. I have tried to do so by cutting over an area at short
intervals by means of a lawn mower, but the presence of extraneous matter,
especially worm-castings, vitiated the results.

If there is any doubt as to the greater weight of dry matter produced under
a system of grazing, there can be none in respect of its digestibility. This
would appear to be the reason why sheep and cattle will fatten on a pasture,

_ whereas the animals would only remain in store condition on the herbage if made

into hay.

At one time experiments on the improvement of pasture took the form of
temporarily enclosing an area, to which different methods of treatment were
applied and of determining the results in terms of hay. Supplementary to such
quantitative determination, chemical analysis and botanical separations were
often made, but it is evident from the work of the investigators already quoted
that the results so obtained may be a very unreliable index of the feeding value
of the herbage. In any Case the competition between the various classes of
plants may be very different in a hay field and in a well-grazed pasture. Again,
in a hay field the produce is reaped and cleared off with all the plant food which
it contains. In a pasture, on the other hand, there is the daily conversion of

_ vegetable substance into manure and its immediate return to the land. Reflec-
tions of that sort induced me in 1896 to arrange a series of experiments where

|
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14

a direct appeal was made to the animal. We all know that in a lot of animals
there are certain individuals which possess idiosyncrasies which result in their
thriving better or worse than the others. By careful selection, however, and
especially by keeping them under observation for a probationary period, this
objection may be largely eliminated. The greater the number of animals the
more completely is any disturbance due to individual peculiarities got rid of,
and for this reason sheep are usually employed in preference to cattle. No one
who looks into the details of these ‘manuring for meat’ experiments can doubt
that, not only in broad outline, but even in the finer details, the results are per-

*1 “Accumulated fertility in Grass Land in consequence of phosphatic

| -manuring,’ Jour. Board of Agric., September 1914 and March 1916.

I>

379 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

fectly reliable. Involving as they do considerable outlay on fencing, water,
weighing machines, etc., and necessitating the use of large areas of uniform land,
such experiments were not likely to be undertaken with great frequency, but I
have been able to find reports of nine in England,?? twelve in Scotland,?* two
in Ireland,?4 and one in New Zealand.?° Two of them are situated at Cockle
Park, of which the original in Tree Field has now completed its twenty-third
season, while the other in Hanging Leaves has a record of sixteen years.

I propose now to make a brief general survey of the more salient results of
this work. ;

The outstanding feature of these experiments is the great and profitable
effect of phosphates. In this material the farmer is placed in possession of an
agent of production whose effects on the output of meat, milk, and work from
the pastures of this country are only limited by the supplies. In many cases
the increase of meat is trebled and even quadrupled, with a return on the
original outlay that runs into hundreds per cent. As between the various
sources of phosphate there is unmistakable evidence that basic slag is the most
effective, not only in respect of aggregate yield of meat, but also, and more
particularly, when the net financial return is considered. This conclusion is
also reached by Carruthers and Voelcker in a long series of pasture experiments
carried out in 1896-9 for the Royal Agricultural Society of England.2® In these
experiments, however, the effects were only estimated by occular inspection.
The primary effect of phosphates is due to the marked stimulus that they give to
the growth of clovers and other Leguminose, and as these plants revel in a
non-acid soil the alkaline character of basic slag appears exactly to suit their
requirements. It seems highly desirable that a ‘manuring for meat’ experi-
ment should be conducted with raw phosphates, whose effects on pasture seem
distinctly hopeful. Gilchrist dressed a pasture in Northumberland with equal
quantities of phosphoric acid derived respectively from basic slag, Belgian and
Algerian phosphate, and two and a half years later he reported from occular
observation ‘that when such mineral phosphates are as finely ground ag basic
slag the phosphates they contain may be equally effective. It must be said,
however, that this opinion is hardly borne out by the quantitative results
obtained on an adjoining meadow where the weight of hay produced by basic
slag was distinctly greater than that grown on the plots dressed with the other
two phosphates. 27

In regard to the quantity of phosphatic manure that can most effectively be
employed per acre, it would appear that in the case of inferior pasture a heavy
initial dressing, say 200 lb. of phosphoric acid or more per acre, is likely to be
nearly twice as effective as half this dressing, and therefore actually much more
profitable. To secure the best results the Leguminose must be rapidly brought
up to their maximum vigour, so that they may fully occupy the ground before
the grasses have had time to react to the effects of the accumulated nitrogen.

One of the most striking results of these pasture experiments is the long
period over which the action of phosphates persists. Even at the end of nine
years the meat-producing power of half a ton per acre of basic slag is far from
being exhausted. It is not suggested that this persistent action of slag—and no
doubt this applies also to any other effective phosphate—is due to unappro-
priated residues. It is much more probably due to two other causes ; (a) to the
fact that on a pasture in contrast to a meadow manurial elements are kept in

2*Guide to Experiments at Cockle Park for 1918’ (Bulletin No. 27).
Jour. Bath and West Soc. 1910. Cambridge Guide to Experiments, 1907.
Supplement No. 5 to Jour. Board of Agric., 1911. Wakerley, ‘Manuring for
Milk’; Midland Agricultural and Dairy Institute, 1912.

*8 Trans. High. and Agric. Soc. 1905 and 1908. Wright, 6th and 10th Reports
on Experiments, West of Scot. Agric. Coll. 1905 and 1911. Greig, Bulletin
No. 16 of Aberdeen and North of Scot. Coll. of Agric.

*4 Journal of the Department of Agric. for Ireland, September 1919.

°° New Zealand Journal of Agriculture, 1919, p. 15.

*° Carruthers and Voelcker, 2nd Report on the Grass Experiments con-
ducted by the Society, Jour. Roy. Agric: Soc. 1900, p. 116.

*7 Gilchrist, Jour. Newcastle Farmers’ Club, 1917.

er.

~

I

—_—

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Sia

circulation from the soil to the plant, and from the plant to the animal, and so,
to a large extent, back to the soil again; and (6) to the accumulation of nitrogen
in the form of humus. Poor unprofitable grass is chiefly associated with clay,
and it is fortunate that it is precisely on such land that clover responds so
markedly to phosphatic manuring. But conspicuous results have alsobeenobtained
on deep peat,?® on light stony loam,?® on thin chalk,*® and on chalk covered by
clay with flints.?4 Middleton has very fully discussed the conditions under which
phosphatic dressings may be expected to give results °* and ascribes an important
place to soil moisture, on which white clover is directly very dependent. The only
conspicuous case of failure of phosphates to improve pasture was encountered in
Norfolk, where a ‘manuring for mutton’ experiment was started in 1901. The
soil at that station was a hot dry sandy gravel containing 60 per cent. of sand,
and there both basic slag and superphosphate were unable to produce any
improvement. Wood and Berry attribute this result partly to the presence of
abundant natural supplies of citric soluble phosphoric acid, but chiefly to lack
of moisture.*? In reporting on the R.A.S.E. experiments Carruthers and
Voelcker in 1900 had already called attention to the dependence of basic slag
on soil moisture.*4,

We may now look at the effect of supplementing phosphates with certain
other substances. And, first of all, as regards potash. At most of the
manuring-for-mutton stations both in England and Scotland there was a plot
devoted to the elucidation of the effect of this substance, and although in the
great majority of cases the phosphates-plus-potash plot has shown more live-
weight increase than phosphates alone, it is only in very rare instances that the
gain has been a profitable one. Even on thin soil overlying chalk potash has had
little action on pastures. There are several rather conspicuous instances of
quite moderate dressings of potash doing positive harm. Thus, at Cockle Park,
whereas potash gave an appreciable increase in live weight in the first nine years,
it proved positively and progressively injurious during the next two six-year
periods. Even on a ‘light stony loam’ in Perthshire Wright found that
although in the first two years potash when added to slag gave a conspicuous
return, in the next three years ‘the advantage was wholly with the slag alone
plot.” The most notable beneficial effect of potash was obtained in Dumfries-
shire on a station where the mineral soil was overlaid by ten feet of peat.%5
There the use of kainit supplying 100 lb. of potash per acre at the beginning
of the experiment has in seven years produced 70 per cent. more meat than
phosphate (slag) alone, while the financial gain has been improved by nearly
50 per cent.

Potash has had great influence both on the yield and composition of the hay
on the meadow at Rothamsted, and ‘it would seem that this substance has more
effect on a meadow than on a pasture. The reason is probably to seek in the
fact that in a pasture the top layers of the soil are constantly being enriched
by the potash brought from the subsoil by plants and returned through their
excreta. In any case, pasture plants on clay soil are in possession of abundant
supplies of potash, and it is only where pasture occupies sandy, gravelly or
peaty soil that this manurial element need be seriously considered.

Lime as an addition to superphosphate was tested at the three original
manuring-for-cotton experiment stations, a total of 30 cwt. per acre being applied.

28 Wright, Report on Experiments on the Improvement of poor permanent
pasture by manuring, Bulletin No, 54, West of Scot. Coll. Agric. 1910, p. 173.

aehbtd.; p. 187.

*° Somerville, ‘Poverty Bottom,’ an Experiment in increased Food Produc-

_ tion, Miscellaneous Publications of the Board of Agriculture, 1918.

*1 Somerville, ‘Influence on the Production of Mutton of Manures applied
to Pasture,’ Suppl. Jour. Board of Agric. 1911, p. 11.

*® Cambridge University Dept. of Agric., 5th Annual Report on Hxperiments,
p. 13; and the ‘Improvement of Poor Pastures,’ Jour, Agric. Science, vol. i.,

88 Wood and Berry, ‘Soil Analysis as a Guide to the Manurial Treatment
of Poor Pastures,’ Jour. Agric. Science, vol. i., p. 114.

34 Op. cit., pp. 131-2.

eetin No. 54 of the West of Scotland Coll. of Agric., 1910.

374 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

in three dressings in nine years. A noticeable effect was produced at all
stations, and at two of them the gain was a profitable one. The effects of lime
can be followed for twenty-one years at Cockle Park, where the soil naturally
contains 0:59 per cent. of calcium carbonate. During that period an aggregate
of five and a half tons per acre was applied in seven dressings, the phosphate

to which it was added being superphosphate in the first nine years and basic.

slag in the next twelve. The area receiving the lime was the same throughout.
The action of the lime has proved to be a progressively decreasing one. On the
average it produced an annual increase of 22 lb. live weight in the first nine
years, and of 8 lb. in the next six years, whereas in the concluding six years
of the period it has actually caused a reduction in live weight of 8 lb. per acre
per annum. From these figures it would seem that lime has had more effect
when used with superphosphate than when basic slag was employed. But
already at the end of the ninth year, up to which time superphosphate was
alone employed, the effects of lime were noticed to be declining at all the
stations, a fact to which I called attention in reporting in 1911 on the influence
on the production of mutton of manures applied to pasture,*® where it is stated
‘that in the penultimate and last years [of the first nine] the beneficial action
of lime seems to be on the wane,’ and where the opinion is expressed ‘ that
the lime is acting rather as a liberator of inert nitrogen than as a direct plant
food.’ It would appear that this conclusion is confirmed by the experiences
of later years. It would seem therefore that Wood and Berry’s suggestion in
the case of poor pastures is justified—namely, that ‘the limit for calcium
carbonate below which liming may be expected to be profitable is probably below
0°25 per cent.’ $7

The action of lime on grass land is a. large subject, too large, in fact, to be
exhaustively pursued here. But I may call attention to a series of experiments
which I started on meadow land in Cumberland in 1895, and which have been
reported on on several occasions.** At certain stations the use of 500 lb. per
acre of caustic lime five times in eight years as an addition to a ‘ complete’
manure has markedly decreased the hay crop, and it would appear that this
dressing has exceeded the necessities of these soils in respect of ‘lime require-
ment’ in the sense of the term as employed by Hutchinson and Maclellan,** and
that the stage of ‘partial sterilisation’ has been reached. Against the validity
of this suggestion, however, there is the fact that the depressing influence of
the lime was manifest in the first year. While there is evidence that lime as
an agent in the improvement of pasture is a substance to be used with caution,
it would appear that where there is a large accumulation of sour humus it is
only through the use of lime that this can be got rid of, and the way thereby
prepared for further improvement by the use of phosphates.

The addition to superphosphate of moderate dressings of nitrogen in the
form of sulphate of ammonia or of nitrate of soda was tried at the three main
manuring-for-mutton stations, and at two others. There is no need to go into
a detailed discussion of the results. The evidence is overwhelmingly against
the use of nitrogen on pastures. It undoubtedly stimulates the vigour of the
non-leguminous herbage, but this reacts on the growth of the clovers, with the
result that the production of meat is sometimes, as at Cockle Park, actually
and substantially reduced.

At the three original stations dissolved bones were also tried, the comparison
being with equal quantities (200 tb. per acre in nine years) of phosphoric acid
derived respectively from basic slag and superphosphate. The dissolved bones
supplied in addition from about 30 to 40 lb. of organic nitrogen. All manures
were applied as to half of the first year, and, as to the other half, at the com-
mencement of the fourth season, the experiment being continued for nine years

36 Supplement No. 5 of the Jour. Board of Agric., p. 50.
37 Op. cit., p. 117.

38 Somerville, Highth Annual Report on Experiments, in the Counties of

Cumberland, Durham and Northumberland, p. 28. T. H. Middleton, Z'enth
Annual Report, p. 87. D. A. Gilchrist, Hleventh Report, p. 26.

39 H. B. Hutchinson and K. Maclellan, Jour. Agric. Science, vol. vi., p. 302,
and tbid., vol. viil., p 73.

; PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 375

at Cockle Park and Sevington (Hants) and for eight years at Cransley
(Northants). At Cockle Park slag acted substantially better than dissolved
: bones, though the latter surpassed the effect of superphosphate; at Sevington
_ dissolved bones proved inferior to both the other manures; while at Cransley

the position was reversed. But when the cost is considered there is no question
of the superior merits of basic slag. This superiority is continued and emphasised
at Cockle Park where the experiments are now at the end of their twenty-third
year. A similar result was also obtained in the series of pasture experiments
conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of England already referred to.
There dissolved bones or bone meal was tried at ten centres, with the result
that ‘in Herefordshire some benefit was observed. but in the other places no
real improvement could be detected as compared with the unmanured part of the
field. : So far as these investigations go, therefore, they indicate that no further
experiments need be made with bones on pasture land.’4°

With these results before us it is needless to pause to consider whether the
comparative failure of bones, dissolved or raw, is due to the inferior quality
of their phosphate, or to the fact that they supply the land with nitrogen.

A form of pasture improvement which has had, and still has, much support
amongst farmers is feeding with cake. The manure applied to the land through
cake residues is a ‘ general ’ manure, supplying nitrogen, phosphates, and potash,
of which that which has the highest value attached to it is the nitrogen. At
eleven of the stations in England and Scotland reported on in the Supplement to
the ‘Journal of the Board of Agriculture’ in 1911,41 linseed or cotton cake,
or a mixture of these cakes, was used for two, four, or five years, and at every
one of them the live-weight gain secured was insufficient to pay for the outlay,
the debit balance per acre per annum being in one case nearly a pound. In con-
nection with the improvement of pasture, however, it is the residual effect
of the cake that has most interest. This matter was put to the test at eight
of the manuring-for-mutton stations in the following manner. At the three
original stations cake was fed all through the season for two years, and none
given for the next four. At the other five stations cake was fed for two or four
years, and was then suspended for one, two, or three years. In this way the im-
provement of the herbage effected during the years when cake was fed had an
opportunity of manifesting itself in the form of live-weight increase in the
years immediately succeeding, when no cake was given. In every case the
residual effect was found to be appreciable, having a money value per ton of
cake consumed of as much as 4l. 14s. at one station, and 3/. 11s. at another,
the average for the three stations where the residues were followed for four
years being fully 37. per ton, a figure which is of the same order as, though
somewhat higher than, those adopted by Voelcker and Hall in their revised
table of 1902.42

At Cockle Park on Tree Field the question of the immediate and residual
effects of decorticated cotton cake has been pursued through twenty-one years.
After the first stage of nine years, cake was fed for three years, and its residues
tested for the succeeding three years, and similarly in the next period of six
years. In this connection I cannot do better than quote from Gilchrist’s
Reports. Commenting on the second six-years period, he says, ‘ Decorticated
cotton cake fed to the sheep on plot 1 in the first three years gave a small
gain in these years, but throughout the six years the average annual gain
amounts to only 9d. an acre.’ ** As to the third period of six years he reports,
“Decorticated cotton cake fed to the sheep on plot 1 in the first three years
has resulted in an annual loss of 11s. 9d. an acre. . . . It is notable that the
cake has not given a profitable return from the sheep in the years when it was
fed to them, and it has had little unexhausted value in the later years.
Nitrogen from the cake has had the same effect on the herbage of this plot as
nitrogen from the nitrate of soda on plot 9, and the herbage is still of a coarse
and benty character.’ 4* This, on land which has had about 2! tons per acre

a i te cell ae

£05 Oniteite. Dail35.

41 Op. Cite, ps(22.

“2 Jour, Roy, Agric. Soc. Engl., vol. 36, p. 111.
“° “Guide to Experiments for 1917,’ p. 13.

“« “Guide to Experiments for 1918,’ p. 15.

FFQ2

376 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

of a rich cake fed at intervals during twenty-one years is a poor showing, and
justifies the conclusion that as an ameliorative agent cake occupies a low position
as compared with an effective phosphate like basic slag. : ; ;

A method of improvement of poor pasture that deserves notice consists in
scattering the seed of a ‘renovating’ mixture over the surface, usually with
concurrent harrowing, rolling, and manuring. This procedure was practised in
the series of experiments conducted by the Royal Agricultural Society of
England, the seed mixture consisting of four natural grasses in addition to white
clover and yarrow.*® In their final report Carruthers and Voelcker stated that
re-seeding had not been successful, a result which they thought was ‘ entirely
due to the prevalence of dry seasons, the germinating plants being killed before
they could get hold of the soil.’ A more successful result is reported by
Middleton,4® who on a poor pasture on clay soil in Essex, sowed, in the spring
of 1903, 12 lb. per acre of wild white clover seed, with and without basic slag,
kainit, and lime, this treatment being unaccompanied by harrowing. There
were no Leguminose naturally present in the field. Helped by abundant rain
in the summer of 1903, when in the London area in June ‘rain fell without
cessation from midday on the 13th to midnight on the 15th; and at Camden
Town the total in fifty-eight hours amounted to nearly 33 inches,’4? the seed
germinated well, and ‘in i904 the results were very marked.’ It was, how-
ever, only when the seeding had been accompanied by basic slag that ‘there
was the luxuriant growth which one expects in pastures where Leguminosz
are present.’

Middleton came to the conclusion that 3 lb. per acre of white clover seed
would have been enough, and that ordinary white clover seed, as contrasted
with seed from the wild plant, would serve the purpose. Middleton carried
out this experiment in the early days of ‘wiid white,’ and probably he would
now agree with the suggestion that this variety possesses properties which mark
it off rather sharply from the cultivated variety, and that the two, for perma-
nent purposes, are not interchangeable. I also have reported on an experiment
where renovating a thin poor pasture with 6 lb. per acre of wild white clover
seed was entirely successful, and here, too, the beneficial effects were only
secured in the presence of basic slag.*®

It would appear, therefore, that where the herbage of a pasture is thin, so
as to permit of a considerable proportion of the seed reaching the soil, and
especially in the absence of natural Leguminose, renovation through the agency
of wild white clover seed, with concurrent phosphatic manuring, is likely to be
successful. Drought, however, at a critical stage of the growth of the young
plants may prove fatal, but such a contingency will be best avoided by seeding
in early autumn rather than in spring.

The many experiments, and ordinary farming experience, show clearly how
poor pastures may be profitably improved in the first instance, but an important
matter still remains to be discussed—namely, the means to be adopted to main-
tain the improvement.

When a responsive pasture is treated, for the first time, with say half a
ton of basic slag per acre, the effects reach their maximum usually in the
third season. .From then onwards there is a steady diminution in the yield,
though even after nine years from the time of the initial dressing the improve-
ment is far from being exhausted. At Cockle Park, for instance, the plot
dressed once with half a ton of slag was, at the end of nine years, producing
three times as much mutton as the continuously unmanured ground, while at
Sevington and Cransley the yield, at the end of nine and eight years respec-
tively, was 70 to 80 per cent. greater. None of the other stations was carried
on for so long a period, but up to the end of the sixth year most of them show
residual fertility which is as great as the original rental value of the land.*?
That is a very important result, but in the interests of the country it is still

45 Jour. R.A.S.E., 1898, p. 148.

46 Jour. Agric. Science, vol. i., p. 136.

ST hbtd.2 1913, so eAlb eee

*8 “ Poverty Bottom,’ p. 6.

4° Supplement No. 5 to Jour. Board of Agric., 1911, p. 28.

i

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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 377

more important to endeavour to secure that the level reached at the period
of maximum productivity shall be maintained. ;

Some information on this point is furnished by the three manuring-for-
mutton stations at Cockle Park, Sevington, and Cransley. At each of these
places a plot was dressed with 100 lb. of phosphoric acid derived from slag,
and for the fourth season thereafter the dressing was repeated, nothing more
being applied for the succeeding six years. At each of the stations there was
an immediate response; at Cockle Park the repeated dose acted considerably
better than the first; at Cransley the effects of the two dressings were prac-
tically identical, only at Sevington was the effect of the first dressing con-
siderably better than that of the second.®° This subject can be followed for
twenty-one years at Cockle Park, where, since the end of the ninth year,
10 ewt. of slag per acre (200 lb. P,O.) are applied every six years to Plot 3, as
contrasted with 5 cwt. (100 lb. P,O_) every three years to Plot 4, another plot
receiving at the same time 100 lb. P,O. in the form of 7 cwt. of superphosphate.
The information we want is as to whether these dressings of phosphates have
been able to maintain the high state of productiveness which we know was
secured by the initial doses of these substances. The figures bearing on this
point are brought together in the accompanying table.

Average annual Live-Weight increase per acre for the same 3-year periods.

x 5 ewt. Slag ever 7 cwt. Super. ever
NeManure 3 weaeeel i 3 sears ?

Actual Actual Gain due Actual Gain due

Increase | Increase to Slag Increase | to Super.

lb. L.W. | lb. LW. | lb. L.W. | Ib. L-W. | lb. L.W.
1st dose of manure 46 90 44 88 42
2nd re 36 131 95 126 90
3rd i 23 115 92 106 83
4th ” 24 86 62 98 74
5th “6 : 20 98 78 103 83
6th ” 23 108 85 101 78

Average annual Live-Weight increase per acre for the same 6-year periods,

No Manure 10 ewt. Slag every 6 years®?
Actual Increase | Actual Increase | Gain due to Slag
lb. L.W. Ib. L.W. lb. L.W
1st dose of manure 41 137 96
2nd 33 23 117 94
3rd ne 22 112 90

Tt will be seen, in the first place, that the production of the unmanured plot
has manifestly declined from the earlier years, a result partly due to the lighter
stocking and partly to the shorter grazing season. Confining attention for the
moment to the upper section of the table, it may at once be said that the
high level of productivity induced by the second dressings both of slag (5 cwt.)
and superphosphate (7 cwt.) has not been maintained, the cause being probably
due, in large part, to a six-year interval occurring between the second and third
doses. But there is a distinct tendency for the live-weight increase to rise in the
later stages, and, on the whole, it may be said to be conclusively demonstrated

°° Supplement No. 5 to Journ, Board of Agric., 1911, p. 36.
51 The 5 cwt. slag and 7 cwt. super. were applied every 3rd year, except that

_ there was an interval of 6 years between the 2nd and 3rd doses.

*2 The slag was applied every 6th year, except that there was an interval of
9 years between the lst and 2nd doses.

378 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

that on this particular class of land fertility has been well maintained by
moderate dressings ‘of slag or superphosphate at three-year intervals.

As regards the larger dressing of slag (lower section of table) it will be
seen that here also absolute productivity is not maintained at the high level of
the earlier years, though as between the ninth and fifteenth years the reduction is
very slight. But comparing the production on the manured and unmanured
land it will be seen that in these three tests the proportionate increase of meat
as a result of repeated doses of phosphates is actually greater at the end of
21 years than it was in the beginning, the ratio rising from 2-3:1 to 41:1.
in other words, for every pound of meat produced on the unmanured land 5 lb.
are being produced on the manured ground, and not only so, but the enhanced
production ig being secured at a cost which leaves a very large profit on the
improvement.

The power of repeated moderate dressings of slag to maintain the improve-
ment produced by a large initial dressing of this substance is well illustrated
in another series of experiments commenced at Cockle Park in 1903. <A field
(Hanging Leaves) of poor pasture on clay was equally treated in 1898 with about
6 cwt. ot slag per acre. No further treatment was given till 1903 when 4 plots,
each 10-1 acres in extent, were fenced off, and to all of them 10 cwt. per acre
of slag was given. Since that time a supplementary, dressing of 5 cwt. per acre
ot slag has been given to Plot 1 every 3 years, with the result that at the end
of 15 years of this treatment the production of live-weight increase (in this
case both cattle and sheep) is nearly as high (200 lb. per acre, average 3 years
1915-17) as at the stage of maximum production (206 lb. per acre, 1906-8). Here,
as on Tree Field, under the influence of slag the meat produced is nearly five
times as great as on the untreated ground.®?

Another plot, No. 2, is concerned with the question as to whether cake can be
profitably: fed to cattle and sheep on land which has first been graded up with
a liberal dressing of basic slag. Both Plots 1 and 2 have had the same amount
of basic slag since 1898 (36 cwt. per acre) applied at the same time, the only
difference in the treatment being that the stock on Plot 2 have since 1904
consumed 3 cwt. of rough cotton cake per acre, except in 1917 when a mixture
of palm-kernel and earth-nut cakes was substituted. The quantity consumed
up to the end of 1917 is thus practically 2 tons per acre. The cake has in the
aggregate in 14 years added about 470 lb. to the live-weight increase per acre
produced by slag alone. This increase at present-day rates is valued at less
than 9/., to secure which the expenditure on cake is estimated at about 26/.,
so that the direct and indirect effects of the cake have been extremely, unprofit-
able. As a matter of fact, whereas slag alone gives an annual profit of more
than 2/. per acre, the use of cake on slagged land reduces the profit to less than
ll. Clearly, therefore, cake-feeding on this class of land, which is receiving
basic slag, is not a commercial success.

Another aspect of the same problem is dealt with on Plot 3. Both this plot
and No. 1 received the same initial dressing of slag—namely, 4 ton per acre for
1903—the differential treatment since that year consisting in No. 1 receiving
every 3 years 5 cwt. of slag, whereas No. 3 has had 3 cwt. per acre per annum
of rough cotton cake fed upon it. The comparison, in fact, is between the
feeding value (indirect) of 5 cwt. of slag and the feeding value (direct and
indirect) of 9 cwt. of cotton cake. The results, with those on the other plots,
are shown in the table on page 16.

For the first two years, when no supplementary slag had been applied, the
cake appeared to give a good account of itself, but the first supplementary
dressing of slag distinctly reduced the difference in the two sets of live-weight
figures, after which the output of Plot 1 (slag) steadily improved, while that of
Plot 3 (cake) as steadily, and more markedly, declined, until in the period
1915-17 the slag was producing 55 lb. per acre per annum more animal increase
than the cake. It would appear therefore that the accumulated cake residues
have had a positively injurious effect on the pasture, and that this effect is
being accentuated as time goes on. s

The fourth plot is concerned with the question as to the value of organic
nitrogen in fish meal as compared with the nitrogen in cake residues. Plots 2

53 Gilchrist, ‘ Cockle Park Guide,’ 1919, p. 17.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 379

Cockle Park, Hanging Leaves Haperiment (All Plots received per acre about
i 6 cwt. Slag for 1898 and 10 cwt. for 1903).

Plot 1. Plot 2. Plot 3. Plot 4.
Slag (4 cwt.) and Fish Meal
(85 ewt.), supplying P26;
and N equal to that con-
tained in the Cake
and Supplementary Slag
of No. 2

Same as Plot 1,
— 5 ewt. Slag but also 3 ewt.
: every 3 years Cotton Cake
fed annually

Same as No. 2,
but no Supple-
mentary Slag

Average L.W. | Average L.W. | Average L.W.

| —— | gainperacre | gain per acre | gain per acre | Average L-W. gain per |

acre per annum |

} per annum per annum per annuni
| | 1904-5 151 [* 307 204 158
| 1906-8 206 251 227 295
' | 1909-11; 187 213 161 187 /
| | ieret4 189 | 210 150 190
1915-17, 200 227 145 | 179
1918 218 tied) 142 167

fi -— - 2 — att a

and 4 got the same initial dressing of slag (10 cwt. per acre) for 1903, since
_ which year the stock grazing on Plot 2 have eaten 3 cwt. per acre per annum oz
cotton cake. In addition, this plot has every 3 years (commencing with 1906)
received 5 cwt. per acre of slag. Plot 4 has every 3 years received 4 cwt. per acre
of slag and 33 cwt. of fish meal, the slag and fish meal combined being estimated to
supply P.O; and nitrogen equal to these substances contained in the 5 cwt, of
slag and 9 cwt. of cotton cake given every 3 years to Plot 2. The cake plot
_ (No. 2) has yielded in the aggregate of 14 years about 470 Ib. more live-weight
increase, but as the cost of doing so has been about 14/. the balance of profit is
much in favour of Plot 4. As in the case of Plot 3 (cake alone after initial
~ dressing of slag) the productivity of Plot 4 is distinctly on the down grade, and
both as regards the live-weight increase and net returns it compares very
unfavourably with Plot 1, which received the same initial treatment as regards
slag, and subsequently was dressed at 3-year intervals with 5 cwt. of slag, instead
of 4 cwt. of slag and 34 cwt. of fish meal. It seems to be quite clearly proved,
; therefore, that on such pasture land as Cockle Park the addition of nitrogen to
_ phosphates is most detrimental, and no doubt for the reason that it encourages
grass to the disadvantage of clover.
. From this rapid survey of grass-land experiments the following conclusions
may legitimately be drawn :—

1. That the quality of a pasture is not primarily dependent on its botanical
composition, though, as a rule, the presence of white clover and other
Leguminose is indicative of high feeding value.

2. That poor pastures, especially on clay soil, can be rapidly and profitably
improved by the use of phosphates, especially basic slag.

3. That, as a rule, phosphates alone are sufficient to effect and maintain the
improvement, and that, of supplementary substances, potash and lime are
occasionally worthy of attention.

4. That the improvement of poor pasture is very dependent on the presence
of Leguminosie, and especially of white clover.

5. That renovating with the seed of wild white clover may, in the absence
of natural Leguminose, be a necessary preliminary or concurrent operation.

6. That cake can rarely be used at a profit, and that, as an agent in improving
poor pasture, it occupies an unsatisfactory position.

7. That nitrogen, whether in the form of artificial manure, or as cake
residues, when added to phosphates for pasture, is always unnecessary and
frequently detrimental.

8. That, in the case of hay on permanent grass land, equal weights of produce
may have very different feeding values. ‘

9. That few forms of agricultural expenditure are more certain in their results

380 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

than the judicious use of manures on grass land, and that the meat and milk
producing capacity of the country can be largely and rapidly. increased, with
great pecuniary gain to the farmer, and still greater economic advantage to the
nation. .

The following Papers were then read :—

1. The Past Neglect and Future Improvement of Live-Stock in British
Husbandry. By K. J. J. Macxenzim, M.A.

No serious well-wisher to the future of home farming should fail to note
that, while the pedigree breeders of Great Britain supply the rest of the world
with live-stock of transcendent quality, the husbandman of the home country
has often to be satisfied with animals that are as bad as any the civilised world
can produce.

The cause of this is not far to seek. Pedigree live-stock, wanted for food
or cloth-production by the overseas exporter, had to be specimens of their kind
supremely useful as begetters of animals capable of thriving upon uncultivated
soil. Animals demanding assistance from the cultivators of land were not
required by those whose object was to secure all possible gain from vast areas
of land without more effort than is required in turning out animals to fend for
themselves. The circumstances overseas were better adapted for this class of
land robbery than those found in our own country, and it came about that
better prices could be obtained for breeding stock suitable for the overseas
market than for those fulfilling the requirements of such cultivation as was
going on at home. Consequently these latter were neglected by the breeder
seeking adequate remuneration for his enterprise.

If it be determined that there is to be a change in the national programme,
and that our husbandmen are to be encouraged to work for greater production
and not be left to obtain such profit as any unintensive system of farming may
yield, consideration of their requirements as regards live-stock must be given
precedence over those of the customer coming from overseas—Hducation,
Research, and Co-operation must be harnessed to serve the interests of the
farmer, who requires suitable animals to further his efforts whilst working in
close proximity to our great industrial areas, so that he may win from the land
of the United Kingdom food which will be at hand in any hour of need.

2. The Value of Lupins in the Cultivation of Poor Light Land.
By A. W. Oupersuaw, M.B.E., B.Sc.

Lupins grow with remarkable luxuriance on very light land, poor in lime.
At the present time, owing to economic conditions, there is grave danger that
considerable areas of this type of land will go out of cultivation. It would
appear that an extended growth of lupins offers one of the simplest methods of
rendering economically possible the cultivation of this land, and possibly of
reclaiming what is already derelict.

Owing to their deep-rooting habit, and their powers of assimilating the free
nitrogen of the air, lupins greatly enrich the soil, and whether ploughed in
green, folded with sheep, or harvested for seed, leave a considerable quantity
of residue upon the ground, which is of great value to the succeeding crop.
Very heavy crops of rye are being grown this year after lupins, on land actually
adjoining the heath.

When folding, care must be taken not to allow the sheep to eat too much
or they will suffer from paralysis owing to lupin poisoning. Suffolk flockmasters
fold their sheep on lupins with confidence, and do not regard the risk as serious.
Sheep take some time to get accustomed to the bitter flavour of lupins, but
thrive remarkably well once they have become used to them. They cannot live
satisfactorily on lupins alone, but must have access to other food.

1 Sec. Journ. Board of Agriculture, Dec., 1919; also Modern Farming,
Dec., 1919,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION m. 381

There is often some difficulty in disposing of lupin seed, owing to the fact
that it contains some poisonous substance, and is very bitter. In (Suffolk lupin
grain is fed to sheep at a rate not exceeding half-a-bushel per day per 100
sheep, and the feeding must commence gradually. If too much is fed the sheep
become paralysed. It is claimed in Holland that a method has been discovered
whereby the poisonous principle can be extracted, and the grain rendered fit
for stock-feeding purposes. If this could be done it would give a great stimulus
to lupin-growing, and would be a considerable advantage to light-land farmers,
as lupins might then occupy the same place on light land as is occupied by beans
on heavy land.

3. The Composition of Linseed recovered from a Flax Crop.
By T. W. Fagan, M.A.?

The demand for flax fibre during the war has resulted in a great revival of
the ancient practice of flax cultivation in Scotland, and in 1918 over a thousand
acres were sown in the county of Fife. Although grown for fibre the seed was
also saved and the opportunity taken of obtaining samples of the seed for
analysis, particularly for the determination of their oil content.

The seed supplied was of Dutch origin and a sample taken from bulk con-
tained 39-20 per cent. of oil; the seed was sown at the rate of 126 to 140 lb.
per acre in loamy soils that varied from light to heavy and ranged in altitude
from 100 to 560 feet above sea-level. The yield of seed in Fife was on the
average 7 cwt. per acre.

The samples received for analysis were of two kinds : (1) Linseed cleaned with
the usual appliances of a farm; (2) properly cleaned and dressed linseed.

Percentage of Oil
(1) (2)
Average of 20 samples. 2 32°5 3615

The oe was due to the high percentage of weed seeds in the uncleaned
sample.

Flax having the reputation of being an exhausting crop, determinations were
made of the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the seed, the capsules
de-seeded, and the stem and roots. :

As careful records of the whole crop were kept, the amounts of each of
these ingredients removed per acre by the crop were found to be as follows :—

-———_ Lb. per acre

a
Phosphoric
Nitrogen Acid Potash
Flax seeds, 7 cwt. é ‘ ; : 28 ll 9°87
Flax capsules, 7 ewt. . - 8 35 11-00
Flax stem and roots, 27 cwt. , 3 7 Teall 17:23
43 22-2 38°10

It will be seen that the amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash
removed is very similar to that taken up by an ordinary cereal crop.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following papers were read :—

1. War-time Food Production in England and Wales.
By Sir T. H. Mippueron, K.B.E., C.B.

* See Scottish Journ. of Agriculture, Vol. ii., No. 4, Oct., 1919,

382 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION mM.

2. On Increased Food Production in Scotland.
By J. M. Cate, M.A., B.Sc., B.L

An essential difference in the agricultural conditions under which the schemes
for increased food production were undertaken in Scotland, as compared with
those prevailing in England, is exemplified by the following figures relating to
the year 1917:

Percentage of Total Cultivated Area under

Country ee : =
Permanent Grass Rotation Grass
Scotland é ; " { 30% 31%
England ay| 58% 9%

The increased cropping was therefore to be secured much less by ploughing
up old grass land and more by a shortening of the rotations on arable farms
than was the case in England.

A certain increase was obtained in 1917, but the most active campaign was
in respect of the 1918 crop.

The Board of Agriculture for Scotland acted through sixty-five District
Agricultural Executive Committees, who were asked to arrange for a total
increase of 350,000 acres, the area for 1918 being 317,450 acres. This repre-
sented approximately 74 per cent. of the area under permanent grass and 17} per
cent. of that under rotation grass.

In 1918 an actual increase of 241,000 acres was obtained in the area under
grain (wheat, barley, and oats), beans, and potatoes, amounting approximately
to 75 per cent. of the extension aimed at. The increase consisted chiefly of
18,300 acres of wheat, 198,600 acres of oats, and 21,600 acres of potatoes. The
area under barley was diminished by 5,800 acres, and that under turnips and
swedes by 17,800. The decrease in permanent grass was 107,000 acres, or
7s per cent., and in rotation grass 136,000 acres, or 9 per cent.

It is a notable fact that the increased cropping was obtained without any
appreciable reduction in the numbers of horses, cattle, and sheep, while the
decrease of 4 per cent. in the number of pigs was probably due mainly to other
causes, such as the increased cost of feeding stuffs.

The method of administration of the food-production scheme differed, to
some extent, in Scotland from that in England, as the general principle adopted
was that the increased cultivation should be undertaken as far as possible on a
voluntary basis, compulsory orders under the Defence of the Realm Regulations
being resorted to only where occupiers were unable or unwilling to do what the
Board, acting in consultation with the Committees, thought might be reasonably
required of them. The Board accordingly did not delegate their powers under
these Regulations to the Committees, whose function, very successfully fulfilled,
was to obtain definite promises from occupiers, and, failing these, to report
cases to the Board for further negotiation and, if necessary, the issue of orders.
In the vast majority of cases so reported, these further negotiations achieved
the desired results. In the two years 1917 and 1918 less than 200 orders were
issued for the whole of Scotland; under fifty-seven of these land was entered
on and taken possession of, under 113 the occupiers were required to cultivate
in accordance with stated requirements, while in only nine cases was it necessary
to terminate tenancies. Prosecutions for failure to cultivate as required—all
followed by conviction—numbered eleven.

It is believed that a noteworthy feature of the schemes for increased food
production in Scotland will be their relatively low cost to the State. No special
Food Production Department of the Board was set up; the number of officials
attached to the Committees was kept down to a minimum (usually one, or at
most two, to each Committee, many of them being officers of the Agricultural
Colleges) ; the small number of compulsory orders will correspondingly limit
the total claims for compensation thereunder; and already a large proportion of
the Board’s tractors and implements have been disposed of at satisfactory
prices.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M. 383

Some general considerations will be submitted as to the effects on Scottish
agriculture of the movement for increased food production, and particularly of
the greater intervention of the State in the control of the industry.

3. War-time and Post-war Problems of Crop Production.
By E. J. Russew, O.B.H., D.Sc., F.R.S.

4. The Outlook in Dairying. By J. Macxintosu.

5. The Hiectrical Treatment of Seeds. By Dr. A. M. Buackpurn.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Classification of Cattle Foods. By J. Auan Murray, B.Sc.}

Object of classification.—To bring together in natural groups those foods
that are of similar character and quality, irrespective of the concentration of
the nutrients in them.

The customary arrangement.
1. Fresh products—roots, grasses, clovers, leaves, &c.
Coarse—straws, hays, &c
. . 3 &
2. Dry foods Fine—grains, meals, cakes, &c.
Though convenient for certain purposes, this is not a scientific classification,
and does not accomplish the object in view.

U'he criterion of quality is the amount of available energy or starch equivalent
per lb. of dry matter; and this should be made the basis of classification. If
the foods are arranged in this order the distinction between fresh and dry
vanishes, and no sharp line of demarcation between coarse and fine can be
drawn, but the foods can be arranged in groups according to quality, and then
may ‘be sub-divided according to the amount of digestible protein.

The more important foods in the main natural groups are as follows :

. Cereal and pulse straws.
. Inferior hays. :
. Grasses and clovers in flower, good hays, undec. cotton cake.
. Mangels, pasture grass, wheat bran, brewers’ grains.
. Swedes, molasses, cabbages, oats, pollards, rape cake.
. Potatoes, barley, sharps, peas, beans, decort. cotton cake.
7. Locust beans, rye, wheat, middlings, cotton seed, maize germ cake, palm-
nut cake, linseed cake.
8. Maize, maize meal, gluten meal, gluten feed.

Ow Whe

I'he thesis accounts in a satisfactory manner for the proved productive
efficiency of roots, for the differences in productive value of pastures, and,
probably, also for the improvement in grass due to application of phosphatic
manures.

Practical conclusions.—Hay should be cut early; pastures should be closely
grazed; nitrogenous manures should be used sparingly, and phosphatic manures

1 The subject of this paper is also referred to in an article on ‘ The Nutritive
Value of Feeding Stuffs’ in Science Progress, No. 54, Oct., 1919.

— 384 TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION M.

freely, on grass lands; silage is not an efficient substitute for roots; roots may
be substituted to a large extent for purchased meals and cakes, and considerable
pecuniary economy may be thereby effected.

Joint Meeting with Section K.—See Section K., p. 337.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Sectional Excursion to Iwerne Minster.

ON GAUSS’S THEOREM FOR QUADRATURE, ETC. 385

On Gauss’s Theorem for Quadrature and the approximate Evalua-
tion of definite Integrals with finite Limits. By Prof. A. R.
Forsyty, F.R.S.

(Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.)

1. Most of the rules commonly used for the mechanical quadrature
of smooth non-re-entrant curves require the measurement of ordinates
at equal distances apart; the greater the number of ordinates, the closer
the approximation. The same remark applies to the approximat
evaluation of definite integrals. If, in particular, » ordinates are used
the process can fairly be described as taking the ordinate of the curve
or the subject of integration, at the value x as equal to

O +aet+... + 4,-,2" 4,

and implicitly determining the m constants a by means of the magnitudes
at the n places.

There is, however, a remarkable theorem due to Gauss whereby the
accuracy of the approximation can be nearly doubled. The ordinates are
to be measured at places, not equally distant apart, but at selected
positions in the range. These selected positions do not depend upon the
special curve or upon the form of the subject of integration. For an
assigned number of ordinates, the division of any range is exactly similar
to that of any other range. and depends only upon this assigned number.
So far as is known to me, the rule or rules derived from the theorem !
are not applied in ordinary practice; and my purpose in this note is to
recall attention to the utility of these rules, by giving them in a form
that requires nothing more than numerical substitution.

The theorem can be enunciated as follows :—

The approximate value of the integral : f(w)dz can be made as

qd
accurate as though 2n—1 equidistant ordinates are measured, if only »
ordinates are measured at the places given by the roots of the equation
a” is i
oe —f)" — = 0.
sn @—B)" (@—9)

The mathematical statement of the theorem can be simplified by
substituting

z= (pt+q)+3(p—a)y,
f(@) =$(y).

1 Tn its original form, the theorem was stated and proved by Gauss in his memoir
Methodus nova .... iwveniendi (1814), Ges. Werke, iii., pp. 163-196. A different
proof was given by Jacobi, Ges. Werke, vi., pp. 3-11; and it is reproduced in
Moulton’s edition of Boole’s Finite Differences (p. 52). Part I. of the second volume
of Heine’s Kugelfunctionen may be consulted.

But, as already remarked, the theorem is not applied in ordinary practice, although
its theory has received considerable additions. :

and taking

386 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The integral becomes
‘1
b(p—a) | $(v) dy.
—1
The equation giving the positions of the selected ordinates is
d" 2 n = -
ip {PY f=05
that is, the positions are given by the roots of
where P,, is the Legendre function (the Zonal Harmonic) of order n.
All the 7 roots are known to be real, and they lie between +1 and —1.

If is even, the roots are equal and opposite in pairs. If mis odd, one
root is zero and the remaining roots are equal and opposite in pairs.

9. Let a, ... , 4, be the roots of P, (y) =0; then
P,, (y) =N He (y aT a,);
where the constant N is immaterial to our purpose. The Lagrange
formula of interpolation now is

Pr (a,) Y—a, :
and so

[| #(y) dy =34.9(0),

where

yeti | P,(y) dy
" |_, ya, P,'(a,)
Two cases arise, according as 7 is odd or is even.
(i) Let be odd and equal to 2n+1, where p is an integer. The
roots of P,(y)=0 are y=0, and y=+a, (for 7=1, . . . , p); 80
P,, (y) = Ny (y’—a,") (y?—ay”) . . « (y?—a,").

P,’ (0) =N(—1)?a,2a.?.. . 0,2,

Z

Thus

124 (a,) = 2Na,? Tl(a?—a,2),

where II denotes the product of a,?—a,?, a,?—a,”, . . . , a,?—a,”,
with the omission of the factor a,?—a,?; and

P,! (—a,) = 9No2 I(a,?—o,2).
The value of Ag, corresponding to the root y=0 of P,,(y)=0, is

ON GAUSS’S THEOREM FOR QUADRATURE, ETC. 397

The value of A, corresponding to the root y=a, of P,,(y)=0 is

| ; Yly +44) Hy" = 90 ly,
5 2a,” II(a,?—a,?)

But the integral

1 8

| y I(y?—a,") dy

is zero, because the subject of integration is an uneven function of y
consequently

Bite an ater ergo oo
a? (2,30) (2p+1 2-1 2-8

where, in the sums, § denotes that a,? must not occur.
The value of A ‘corresponding to the root y= —a of P (y)=0is

[ y (y—4,) I (y? es UE
=l Yas Il (a,?—a,”)
Because of the vanishing integral
1 s
| vit@?—a2) ay,
—J

the value of this coefficient A is

* 8
Sa? Sa,? ay? “i

{ shee : 1
a, It (a,2—a,) hie ae mae iy

that is, it is equal to A,.
Thus we have

| #@)dy=A.9) +2, {4 (a) +4 (—a) },

with the stated values of Aj, A,,..., A,, in the case when 7 is equal
to the uneven integer 2p+1.
It should be noted that

A +23 A,=2:

an immediate inference from the simplest form of ¢(y) taken as a
constant.
Reverting to the earlier integral with the z- range from p to q, we
write
a 3 2(D+q),
Hp+q)+3(p— — 1) Ass
2(P+q)—2(P—q)e ;

388 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1919.

then
h(a) =f(e), O(— a) =f (6),

and we finally have
[' #(o)dz=1(P—4) [Sof ead +3 A 176) +.£(6) |

(1i) Let 2 be even and equal to 2g, where q is an integer. The roots

of P,(y) are y=+ 6, (for r=1, 2 ~.. ; @g); so Py) 1s equal sto
M (y? — b,”) (y?—,7) . . . (y?—8,”).
Thus

P,/(b,) =2M 3, Il (62—6,/),
and
P,/(—b) = — 2Ma, 1 (b2—b2).
The value of constant A, corresponding to the root y= 6, of P,,(y)=0, is
1 T (7/2—]2
| (y+5,) Hy? 52) 5,
-. 26,0 (b,2—b/)
which, for the same kind of reason as before, is equal to
1 2. 2
| Belay,
- I1(b,?— 6)

that is,
1 1 3b? 3b,”
1 et as ke ne
The value of the ccnstant A, corresponding to the root y= —6, of

P,, (y)=6, is (on evaluation) the same as that of the constant A,. Thus,
as before, but with these values of the constant A,, we have

[fe ae=H—o[ 24,4 F (6+ $06) § }

with the same literal significance for c, and c¢,’, viz.,
C= 3(P +9) + 3(P—Don :
ce; =3(pt+q)—3(p—q)b.
It should be noted that, in this expression,
>A,=1.
8. Some of the simplest cases will now be taken.
I. Let n=8, so that p=1. The equation P;(y)=0 gives
5y3—38y=0
30 that a,2=3. Then

ON GAUSS’S THEOREM FOR QUADRATURE, ETC. 389

and therefore
ho? ,
pang | SOP | Fle) +87 (00) 45/(0,)},
, q
where
¢,' =3(p+q)—35(p—4) (3)'=3(p +9) —"3873(p—q),
Co =3(p+4q);
¢, =3(p+q)+3(p—q) (3)'=3(p+q) +8873 (p—q).
As an example, let it be required to find the value of
9, 1 te
Al dz

approximately. We have
2

'
¢'="1127 , c,2=0127, e~"! =-9874,

Co = 5 cpt 25 ye ~-=-7788,

2
¢, ='8878 , c,2="7873 , e~°! =-4551;
then

2.
/ 2
Bs(5e-8! +80 4. 5e~"1) = 7468.

Multiplying by 7 , we find as the approximate value ‘84268.

l 2

The value of wa e-” dw as given in the tables is *84270; the ap-
TSO

roximation in this example is closer than in other examples and must

be affected by the special form of the subject of integration.

Il. Let n=5, so that p=2. The quantities a,” and a,? are the

63¢?—70é +15=0,

nd we take
68a,2=35 + (280), 68a,?==85 —(280)*
Further,
Ay=- - {boat +a") $0,240" i
1" Ap
_198
~ 295°
ey pees | 2
a(a2—ay) Diy
161 91
450 45(280)*
wien et Za kagee

450 " 45(280)!
1919. . GG

tion y?=t.
roots are

390

and so

1
ps

} [ f@ac= © F(c,)

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919

1A {F(n)+F(e1) |
+4A0 { f(c.) +/(e2) b,

where

Co=3(pt+4),

C1, ¢,'=3(p+g)+3(p—Q)a,,

Cy, Co! = 3(ptq+3(p— —q) a.
value of

As an example, let this rule be required to find an approximate

10 da
fe
that is, of log.10. Here
1
S(Co)=-; ih
fle)= eae
a 3a = — a,’
1 Py, 1
f (62) 114 $a,’ f(62')
find approximately

ee
9}, 2

1__2q, ;
when these are substituted in the formula, and reduction is effected, we

C? = -0517 + 0957 +°1078
—-2552,

roots of

The accurate value to the same number of places of decimals is 2°3026
so that the error is about ‘25 per cent
Ill. Let » = 7, so that p = 3

and therefore the approximation, given by this rule, for log,10 is 22968

The quantities a,, ay”, a3? are the
42923 —698t? + 815t—35=0

a,2=*90081 .

ne
arising out of P;(y)=0.on the rejection of the root y=0 and the substitu-
When this cubic equation is solved by Horner’s method, its
» + 5 G97 — pl ueE

a,='9491 .

b)

, a32='16471 .
d= "7415

>

az=> ‘4058 .

ON GAUSS’S THEOREM FOR QUADRATURE, ETC. 391

Now
2 : : -
Ao= 9 a { 4—$(a;? +49? +43”) +3(a,7a9? +0203” + a370,*)
1 °A2° a3"
ae @7a970.3” ; ’
A= 4— } (ay? +43”) + 40570,”
sd 5 rs 5 ’
a(a,?—ay”)(a,? —a”)
A,= mremPacy ta 1 35 oa)
a3”(a”—ay”)(a9” 4 a”)
A on Acs Nn Ta

a3°(a3?— a,”)(a3” 7 a”) ;

When the foregoing values of a7, a)”, a;? are substituted in each of the
quantities A,, A., A3;, and the symmetric functions of a,”, a5”, a,” are
substituted in Ay, and when reductions are effected, it is found that an

approximate value of the integral
=, | fea
= x)dx
mie

is given by the expression
2090 (c,) +0647 { Fes) +f (er’) \
+1399 { f(c.) +F(cz!) } +1909} (es) +/(cx) },

where
Co=3(P+q);
C, ¢)'=3(pt+q+3(p—Qa,
Coy Cy'=3(p+q)+3(P—|)a25
C3, C3 =3(p+q)+5(p—Q)as.

As an example, the rule was applied to a carbon print of a steam
indicator diagram ; and other rules were applied to other carbon prints of
the same diagram. The measurements were made for me by Mr. F. Lord,
a demonstrator in my department in the Imperial College of Science and
Technology. And a planimeter measurement of these prints was made
for me by Mr. W. E. G. Sillick, a lecturer in the same department. The
results were as follows :—

The Engineers’ rule of the ten mid-ordinates, whereby the diagram
is divided into ten compartments of equal breadth and the mid-ordinates
are measured, gave *452 L square inches as the area, where Lis the breadth
of the diagram. The planimeter measure of the same print of the
diagram gave ‘455 L as its area.

The Weddle rule for another print of the diagram gave ‘445 L as the
area. The planimeter measure for this print gave ‘455 L as its area.

» The first of the preceding Gauss rules (with only three ordinates)
gave ‘44 Las the area of a third print. The second of the preceding
Gauss rules (with five ordinates) gave practically ‘460 L as its area, the
last place of decimals being very slightly appreciated. The third of the
Gauss rules gave ‘460 L as its area, there being no appreciation in the

GG2

392 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

last place of decimals. The planimeter measure of the print gave ‘458 L
as its area. :

A steam indicator diagram is small; and so, in using a planimeter,
considerable skill is required to obtain good results. The first of the
Gauss rules gives a fairly good result, seeing that only three ordinates
are measured; and it may be regarded as sufficient for some practical
purposes. The second of the Gauss rules, with five ordinates, give as
accurate a result as can be obtained in the ordinary circumstances of the
degree of accuracy of measurements. But for the approximate value of
an integral, much greater accuracy is often desirable; and so the Gauss
seven-ordinate rule would be more effective, seeing that it gives as
accurate a result as would be obtained by taking thirteen equidistant
measures of the subject of integration.

It should be pointed out that a steam indicator diagram possesses
the smooth quality assumed by the analysis which is used in establishing
Gauss’s rule. Buta Diesel diagram often does not possess this quality ;
and so the rules cannot always be expected to give similarly satisfactory
results for Diesel diagrams. A skilful use of the planimeter is, of course,
effective.

4, The preceding examples arise from the cases when the order of the
Legendre function is odd. A single example will suffice to indicate the
form when the order is even. We shall take m=-4.

The places where the ordinates are to be measured are given by the
roots of the equation P,(y)=0; that is, if y?=¢, we have

352?—30¢+3=0,
and therefore
35a,2=15+ (120), 35a,?=15—(120)'.

Then
A : (3 —ay”)
a 2a? Para
5
=} 3q90)~ 34785,
1 2
a eG
RES LSI ST
>" 8(120)!

We then have, by this rule,

pag | AeA {Fed +F (er) } +440 | Fea) +Mle0) |»

where

C1, C)/=3(ptgq) + 5(p—qai,
Cn Oy =3(ptq+5 L:

ON CHEMICAL WARFARE. 393

Chemical Warfare. By Brigadier-General H. Hartuey, C.B.H., M.C.
(Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.)

One of the most striking contrasts between the late war and those which
preceded it is the rapid development of scientific and mechanical methods of
warfare, which resulted from the concentration of most of the scientists and
engineers of the world on war problems. Of the new developments none was
more far reaching in its effects on land than the introduction of gas and smoke,
and on the sea smoke played an important part in naval tactics.

The object of this paper is to sketch the development of gas warfare, to show
the ways in which gas proved itself a valuable weapon, and to describe the nature
of the problems with which British chemists were confronted and their success
in solving them.

First Use of Gas by the Germans.

Gas was employed during the war in two ways, in cylinders and in projectiles.
In the first method of attack, a gas such as chlorine, which could be liquefied at
atmospheric temperatures by a moderate pressure, was compressed in large steel
cylinders from which it could be discharged rapidly just as from a soda-water
syphon. These cylinders were taken into the trenches and large numbers were
discharged on a continuous front when the wind would carry the gas over the
enemy’s lines. In the second method, part of the explosive charge of a shell
was replaced by gas, which could thus be used independently of the wind
direction. Both methods were introduced by the Germans almost simultaneously
in April 1915.

Two reasons have been given to explain their introduction of gas into warfare.
Firstly, when the German supplies of high explosives were found to be insuffi-
cient after the battle of the Marne, they began to consider the possibility of
increasing their total output of shell by using gas which could be manufactured
without interfering with the production of high explosives. Secondly, pre-
liminary bombardments with H.E. and shrapnel had failed to guarantee the
success of an infantry attack; the need was felt of some new types of shell to
supplement the action of the old. But there was another and more powerful
reason for the introduction of the new weapon—the knowledge of the advantage
to be gained by a surprise use of lethal gas contrary to the Hague Convention.

The first German cylinder attack was made by means of chlorine on April 22,
1915, against the French on a frontage of about four miles in the north of the
‘Ypres salient. The effect of a cloud of chlorine on unprotected troops is easily
imagined : for some distance behind the line all were killed or rendered incapable
of offering any resistance. It was a great opportunity for a decisive stroke,
but the Germans failed to take advantage of it. The quantity of gas used was
too small to make it effective to a great distance, the front of discharge was com-
‘paratively short, and the Germans failed to exploit the partial success they gained.
‘Two days later a second cloud attack was made on the British front against the
Janadians with similar results. In May four more attacks took place, but in
these our troops were protected partially with hastily improvised respirators
and suffered much less severely. After May no more cloud attacks were made
the British front until December 19, 1915, when an attack of a more formidable
ture was made to the N.E. of the Ypres salient. Cylinders were used con-
ining a mixture of phosgene and chlorine, and a much higher concentration of
s was obtained. However, our troops were equipped with a respirator that
gave adequate protection, and only those who were surprised or who failed to
adjust their respirators properly, became casualties. Five similar cloud attacks

394 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

took place in 1916, each consisting of a short discharge of a very high concen-
tration, so as to obtain the maximum effect of surprise. No serious attempt was
made to follow up any of these later discharges with an infantry attack, as our
troops were now fully protected and the opportunity for a ‘break through’
offered by the earlier gas attacks was not likely to occur. The last German
cloud attack on the British front was on August 8, 1916.

British Use of Cloud Gas.

Immediately after the first use of gas in April 1915, steps were taken for
effective reprisals on our part. The Special Companies R.E. were formed under
the command of Major (later Brigadier-General) C. H. Foulkes, C.M.G., D.S.O.,
R.E., consisting largely of chemists who were specially enlisted as corporals for
this purpose. After seven weeks’ training in France they carried out our first
gas attack with chlorine cylinders at Loos on September 25, 1915. After that
date cloud attacks were carried out frequently by us as we had the advantage
of the direction of the prevailing wind, and the operations of the Special Com-
panies proved so successful that they were soon expanded into a Special Brigade
R.E. in which many of the original chemical corporals received commissions.
By the end of the war the Brigade had carried out 768 gas operations in which
5,700 tons of gas were liberated. Twenty-five per cent. of these operations were
cloud discharges, the remainder being trench mortar or projector attacks. In
addition the units of the Brigade were frequently employed in producing smoke
clouds which played an important part in infantry attacks.

Abundant evidence exists both in captured documents and in prisoners’ state-
ments of the heavy casualties and loss of morale which the enemy suffered as a
result of the operations of the Special Brigade, and their enterprise and gallantry
were repeatedly mentioned in despatches by the Commander-in-Chief.

German Use of Gas Projectiles.

The Germans employed shell containing gas on the British front at the same
time as their first cloud attack, the contents of the shells being crude brominated
xylene or brominated aliphatic ketones. Both substances cause considerable in-
convenience owing to their lachrymatory effect on the eyes, but have not a high
toxic value. As the wind was usually unfavourable for the German use of cloud
gas, their efforts were mainly directed to the development of the gas shell. —
Employed in this way gas is a much more flexible weapon than in cylinders as its
use is far more independent of atmospheric conditions, and a much wider range —
of substances can be used with properties suited to different tactical purposes. —
Certain little-known organic compounds were selected as being most suitable,
and thanks to the technical resources of the German dye industry, a monthly
output was soon obtained amounting to several hundred tons of organic deriva-
tives, which prior to the war had only been prepared in small quantities in the
laboratory. 4

_In the summer of 1916, chlormethyl chloroformate, a liquid (B.P. 105° C.)
with toxic properties similar to those of phosgene, was used against us in large
quantities during the battle of the Somme. Later this was replaced by
trichlormethyl chloroformate, a similar liquid (B.P. 128° C.), which was used
until the end of the war as the well-known Green Cross shell filling. The use of
phosgene in trench mortar bombs also began in 1916. . a

In April 1917, during the Arras battle, a variant of the Green Cross filling
appeared containing 50 per cent. of chlorpicrin (B.P. 112°C.), a lachrymator
with asphyxiant properties against which the P.H. Helmet offered no protection,
but, as our troops were already equipped with a box respirator, the new filling —
had no advantage over the old. a

In July 1917, just before the third battle of Ypres, Yellow Cross and Blue
Cross gas shells (so named after their markings) were introduced, each of which 4
had novel properties. Yellow Cross shell contained dichlorethyl sulphide —
(B.P. 217° C.), commonly known as ‘ Mustard Gas’ on account of its smell, or as
Yperite. The properties of this substance make it a most effective battle gas.

: ON CHEMICAL WARFARE. 395

_ Owing to its slight smell it is less easily detected than other gases, and, although
it produces no immediate sensations of discomfort, exposure to a very low
concentration is sufficient to put a man out of action owing to the effects of the
; gas on the eyes and the lungs. As the liquid has a low vapour pressure at
atmospheric temperature and reacts very slowly with water, it may remain for
days on the surface of the soil and continue to produce a dangerous concentration
of gas. In addition to its effects on the eyes and lungs, serious blisters are
produced either by splashes of the liquid or contact with any objects con-
taminated with it. Blue Cross shell contained bottles of diphenylchlorarsine, a
: solid melting at 46° C., which when finely divided causes sneezing, irritation of
the nose and throat, nausea and intense pain. The bottles of this substance were
embedded in high explosive, and it was expected that the burst of the shell
_ would scatter the arsenic compound as a fine dust, which would penetrate our
_ respirators and cause such violent sneezing as to make the wearing of the mask
impossible. However, the Blue Cross shell failed almost entirely to achieve its
object, and in 1918 diphenylcyanoarsine (M.P. 23°C.) was substituted for
diphenylchlorarsine without any noticeable changes in the efficiency of the shell.
It is probable that favourable results had been obtained with these substances
in the laboratory, which could not be reproduced under field conditions. The
failure of the Blue Cross shell, many millions of which were fired, is a striking
proof of the necessity of having an experimental station at which thorough
_ field trials of any new developments can be carried out before these are put into
service use.
Two other substances were used in large quantities by the enemy, phenyl-
_ carbylamine chloride, a strong lachrymator (jB.P. 209°C.), first used in
_ September 1917, and dichlorethyl arsine (B.P. 156° C.), first used early in 1918,
which causes irritation of the nose and throat, headache, and temporary loss of
feeling in the extremities.
Thus by the beginning of 1918 the Germans had a number of different gas
_ shells which could be divided into two main classes from the point of view of
_ their tactical employment :—

(a) Those containing liquids such as dichlorethyl sulphide which persist for
c long periods in the soil and can therefore only be used on ground which it is
not intended to attack or occupy.
(6) Those containing relatively volatile liquids such as trichlormethyl chloro-
formate or ethyl dichlorarsine, or solids such as diphenylchlorarsine, which can
be used immediately before an attack.

In his preparation for the offensive of March 1918, the enemy relied to a
considerable extent on the use of gas projectiles, which had never been used before
in such large numbers. Eighty per cent. of the ammunition allotted for some

purposes contained gas, and it was estimated that several million rounds of gas
shell were fired on March 21. From that date until the end of the war a large
proportion of gas shell was used by the enemy in all offensive and defensive
operations.

British Use of Gas Projectiles.

Gas shell and trench mortar bombs containing lachrymators were first used
by the British during the battle of the Somme, but it was not until the battle
of Arras in April 1917 that our supplies of gas shell were sufficient to make
_ them effective. Large quantities both of lachrymatory and of lethal shell were
used for harassing purposes during the night before the attack at Arras, and
_ their success in interfering with artillery fire and in preventing the movement
of troops and transport is described in the following extract from a confidential
report, dated 11.4.17, from the General Commanding the First German Army, on
‘Experiences in the Battle of Arras’ :—

The enemy made extensive use of gas ammunition against our front
positions as well as against batteries. It has not yet been established
whether they employed a new gas. Our gas masks afforded complete pro-
tection ; however, the fighting resistance of the men suffered considerably from
wearing the mask for many hours. Horses were greatly affected by the gas—

396 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

in many cases the failure of the ammunition supply is to be attributed to
this. Krom the same cause it seems that the timely withdrawals of batteries
could not be effected. Artillery activity seems to have been paralysed by
the effect of the gas.

During the later months of 1917, especially during the third battle of Ypres,
we continued to use gas shell with increasing effectiveness, as was proved by the
material results, by numerous captured documents and by prisoners’ statements.
It happened repeatedly that the enemy’s artillery fire ceased abruptly when
their batteries were fired on with gas shell, and prisoners admitted that
batteries were put out of action in this way. Most of the movement immediately
behind the lines necessarily took place during the night, and the gas shelling
of tracks interfered seriously with ration parties and reliefs moving over muddy
ground composed mainly of deep shell holes full of water. Prisoners often said
that ration parties had been compelled to abandon their journey owing to the
difficulty of moving in the dark when wearing a gas mask, and the following
extract from a prisoner’s statement is typical of the difficulty of carrying out a
relief :—

A dense cloud of gas with a strong irritant action. lay across the route
of the relieving Battalion. The 5th Company attempted to pass through it
at a slow double without putting on their masks, since owing to the number
of shell holes in the road, the men would have been unable to make their
way along if wearing masks. On reaching the gas cloud some of the men
tried to put on their masks, with the result that they fell into shell holes; the
others were affected by the gas, and finally the whole company went back in
disorder to their starting-place.

‘Mustard Gas’ was first used by us in September 1918 in the successful attack
on the Hindenburg line. The French had used it three months earlier, and the
results obtained showed that the enemy was taken completely by surprise and
suffered heavy casualties. Apparently the Germans had not thought it possible
that the technical resources of the Allies would be capable of producing this
substance in large quantities in so short a time, and their first idea was that
the French had filled shells with liquid taken from their ‘blinds.’ Examination
in the laboratory showed that it had been made by a method entirely different
from their own, and at the date of the Armistice they were considering the
possibility of adopting the Allies’ method of manufacture.

In October, 1916, the ‘Livens Projector,’ a new type of trench mortar for
firing gas bombs, invented by Major W. H. Livens, D.S.0O., M.C., R.E., was used
for the first time, and in 1917 it developed into one of the deadliest weapons of
trench warfare. By means of the ‘projector’ large numbers of bombs con-
taining 50 per cent. of their weight of gas could be fired simultaneously on to —
important targets, producing very high concentrations of gas without any warning
beyond the flash and noise of the discharge and the bursting of the bombs. The ~
following extracts from a telegram from German General Headquarters dated —
August 8, 1917, and from two reports on the ‘projector’ attacks show the
effectiveness of the new method of discharging gas :— ;

ke

The English have achieved considerable success by firing gas-mines :.
simultaneously from a considerable number of projectors on to one point. —
The casualties occurred because the gas arrived without warning and because
its concentration was so great that a single breath would incapacitate a man. $
>

Merris on May 23-24, 1918.

Shortly after midnight the enemy carried out a heavy surprise bombard- _
ment with H.E. ammunition, at the same time a projector attack was made
with phosgene drums. The recognition of the nature of the bombardment
was made extraordinarily difficult for the troops. The garrison was taking
cover, and only a few of them noticed the bright flash of the projector
discharge.

Even though the British have so often violated the technical laws of gas’

Extract from Report of Fourth German Army on a Projector Attack at :

ON CHEMICAL WARFARE. 397

warfare as regards wind conditions, it is still surprising that they should
have carried out a gas attack on the night im question... .

Casualties : 11 men killed.
121 men gassed (including 2 officers).

To the credit of the troops it must be emphasized that their good
discipline and skill in the use of their masks enabled them to avoid even
greater losses.

Extract from Divisional Report on Projector Discharge at Ablainezeville,
June 18-19, 1918.

Only part of the garrison saw the flash of the discharge, and the flash and
the ensuing explosion were mistaken for an enemy ammunition dump going
up. Direct hits in or close to dug-outs led to the rapid development of such
a concentration of gas that the occupants could not get their masks on in
time. The installation of projectors had ‘been suspected, and all regiments
had been warned, so that the troops were not taken unawares,

Casualties: 2 officers killed.
57 other ranks killed.
66 other ranks gassed.

The following extract from an order from the Seventeenth German Army
shows that the effect of surprise had not been lost even as late as July 1918 :—

Owing to the severe losses we have suffered and to the impossibility of
providing our troops with a more convenient form of protection the Army
Commander is obliged to resort to more stringent precautions.

(2) On all nights when it is neither raining heavily nor blowing hard
special sentries are to be posted over all dug-outs.

(6) On such nights all ration parties and working parties will make
the last 1000 yards of- their journey to the front line with respirators
adjusted.

(c) Respirators will be adjusted at every burst of artillery fire.

Value of Gas as a Weapon.

The above extracts from German documents illustrate some of the ways in
which gas proved itself effective, and some of the reasons which make it such
a valuable addition to existing weapons.

It has added many complications to war. The possibility of its use compels
everyone to carry a respirator, which means additional weight and additional
training. When a man wears a respirator his fighting efficiency is diminished
owing both to the interference with his vision and to the additional fatigue, and
a respirator cannot be worn for an unlimited period, as it must be removed to
enable a man to eat and drink. The introduction of gas imcreased in many
ways the strain on troops in the trenches. Elaborate precautions are necessary
to ensure a gas alarm being given promptly, many additional sentries being
necessary for this purpose, and much extra work has to be done, for example,
in rendering all dug-outs gas proof. In addition there is the moral effect of
gas, due no doubt largely to ignorance and to am exaggerated notion of its
possibilities, but an effect that must always be reckoned with. The Germans
tried to exploit this before their attack at Verdun in 1916 and their offensive in
1918 by circulating rumours of the terrible effects of the new gases they intended
to use.

Gas shell differ in their effects from other types of shell and can be made to
supplement them in many ways. For instance, although deep dug-outs give
complete protection against H.E. and shrapnel, gas will enter quickly unless
the entrance is protected, and the burst of a gas projectile near the entrance often
proved fatal to the occupants. Then again the effects of a bombardment may
be prolonged for many hours or even days by the use of a persistent gas, and
important areas may he rendered untenable for long periods except to troops

398 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

wearing respirators. Owing to the economy of ammunition effected by means
of a persistent gas shell, results can be obtained which would be impossible
with any of the older types.

The effects of gas shell are not so much limited by a rigid trajectory as those
of other projectiles, e.g., H.E. shell are often of little value unless direct hits
are obtained, while any gas shell bursting to the windward of a target will affect
it, if they fall within a certain distance of it, depending on the calibre of the
shell.

Under suitable atmospheric conditions the results obtained with gas shell are
often more certain than those with other projectiles. For instance, troops
marching along a road shelled with shrapnel might escape with small losses if
they were fortunate, while if shelled with gas they would be compelled to wear
respirators, thereby hampering their movements, and any lack of precautions
would lead inevitably to casualties.

The general impression that gas is an inhumane weapon is derived partly from
the German breach of faith in using it contrary to the Hague Convention, and
partly from the nature and number of casualties in the earliest cloud attacks which
were made against unprotected troops. Under the stress of a long war the
individual is apt to forget the physical and mental sufferings it involves, unless
he is in daily contact with them, but a dramatic occurrence such as that of the
first gas attack forces on the imagination the brutal significance of war—the
struggle for victory by killing—and the new weapon is judged as inhumane,
like gunpowder in the fifteenth century. If we accept war as a possibility, the
most humane weapon is that which leads to a decision with the smallest amount
of human suffering and death. Judged from this standpoint, gas compares very
favourably with other weapons during the period when both sides were fully
equipped for offence and defence. The death-rate among gas casualties was
much lower than that among casualties from other causes, and not only was the
death-rate lower, but a much smaller proportion of the injured suffered any
permanent disability. There is no comparison between the permanent damage
caused by gas, and the suffering caused to those who were maimed and blinded
by shell and rifle fire. It is now generally admitted that in the later stages of
the war many military objects could be attained with less suffering by using
gas than by other means.

The judgment of future generations on the use of gas may well be influenced
by the pathetic appeal of Sargent’s picture of the first ‘Mustard Gas’ casualties
at Ypres, but it must not be forgotten in looking at that picture that 75 per cent.
of the blinded men he drew were fit for duty within three months, and that had
their limbs and nerves been shattered by the effects of high explosive, their
fate would have been infinitely worse.

Work of British Chemists in Connection with Gas Warfare.

Offensive Research.

The foregoing sketch of the development of gas warfare gives some indication
of the urgency and importance of the problems with which British chemists were
confronted in 1915. Their solution on the offensive side required a research
organisation for studying the toxic properties of known substances and for
producing new ones that were likely to be more effective, for devising means
for their employment and for testing their value under field conditions, and for
working out methods of production on a large scale.

Offensive research was carried out originally under the advice of the Scientific
Advisory Committee and later of the Chemical Advisory Committee of the
Ministry of Munitions, while defensive research was done in the Anti-Gas Depart-
ment of the War Office. This separation of offensive and defensive research was
unfortunate, as many of the problems were common to both sections. In
October 1917 the two organisations were united in the Chemical Warfare Depart-
ment of the Ministry of Munitions under the controllership of Major-General
H. F. Thuillier, C.B., C.M.G., who had been the first Director of Gas Services
in France. The department was expanded rapidly to mect the increasing
demands on it, and at the date of the Armistice it employed 189 research chemists,

=

—————— LCC CC

ON CHEMICAL WARFARE. 399

in addition to a large number of chemists who were giving part of their time to
chemical warfare problems.

Laboratory researches on the offensive side were carried out mainly in the
Universities, and we owe much to the professors and their assistants for their
patriotic devotion to work which was never pleasant and usually involved
considerable risks.

Field trials were carried out at an experimental station organised by
Lieut.-Col. A. W. Crossley, C.M.G., F.R.S., where all appliances were tested in
the various stages of their development. The tasks of the observers necessarily
involved frequent exposure to dangerous concentrations of gas, and their
gallantry and devotion to duty were important factors in the progress of the
work and in the efficiency of the appliances sent to France.

The manufacturing situation was difficult owing to the lack of suitable plant
and of technical resources. In April 1915 there was only one plant in the
country producing liquid chlorine, with an output of seven tons a week. But
the energy of the manufacturers enabled our first gas attack to be made in
September 1915, and by December 31, 860 tons of gas had been sent to France.
Subsequently the production increased continuously, the output of gas in each
year being :—1915, 860 tons; 1916, 5,150 tons; 1917, 18,500 tons; 4918 (ten
months), 15,500 tons.

Considering our unpreparedness, this was a fairly satisfactory result. But a
comparison with the nature and amount of the German output, which was made
possible by the peace resources of their dye factories, shows the necessity of
developing our organic chemical industry, otherwise we may find ourselves at
the mercy of any Power which has developed its resources in this direction and
is prepared to take full advantage of them on the outbreak of war. The military
value of the chemical industry is likely to be so great in the future that any
country which dominates an important section of it, as Germany did before the
war, is liable to become a standing menace to the peace of the world.

Defensive Research.

The defensive problems of gas warfare were of even greater importance than
the offensive, for, although the nation which has the better gas possesses an
advantage over its opponent, it is not necessarily overwhelming. While if troops
are equipped with a respirator that fails to give protection in a gas attack, the
situation of April 1915 is repeated and offers an opportunity that might easily
be made decisive.

it is hard therefore to over-estimate the value of the work of the Anti-Gas
Department under the direction first of Brigadier-General Sir William Horrocks,
K.C.M.G., C.B., and afterwards of the late Lieut.-Col. E. F. Harrison, C.M.G.,
thanks to which our troops were always provided with adequate protection.
Harrison was one of the great discoveries of the war. It is often stated that
he was the inventor of the box respirator, but this he would have been the
first to deny. His great merit was as an organiser. He gathered round him an
enthusiastic group of young chemists and physicists, and the box respirator
represents the joint result of their researches, carried out under his inspiration
and controlled by his admirable practical judgment. He organised the manu-
facture of the respirator on a large scale, and it is a great testimony to his
foresight and energy that in spite of all the difficulties of production the
supplies promised to France never failed. Fifty-five million respirators were
produced by the department, and of these nineteen million were box respirators.

Speed is essential in gas warfare either to avoid or to effect surprise, and it
was fortunate that, so far as defensive appliances were concerned, research,
design, inspection and manufacture were all under one department controlled
by a man of Harrison’s ability. If they had been separated delays would have

_ been inevitable, and might have led to very serious consequences. The following

incident illustrates both the need for rapid changes to meet possible developments,
and for such flexibility of large-scale production as was made possible by the
organisation of the Anti-Gas Department. A certain modification of the

_ Tespirator was considered necessary in France, and officers were sent home to

explain what was needed. Within forty-eight hours of their arrival arrangements

400 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

were made to modify the respirators, and within a few weeks the fighting troops
had been re-equipped with the new pattern. Less than three months after the
change had been recommended three attacks were made by the Germans which
would certainly have had very serious consequences if our troops had not been
in possession of the improved respirator, as the older pattern would not have
withstood the concentration of gas employed.

This was only one of many changes that were made in the respirator to meet
new developments, with the result that our troops always found themselves fully
protected, and the confidence they placed in the respirator became an important
factor in the success of our gas defence.

Development of the Respirator.

The respirator sent to France a few days after the first gas attack consisted
of a pad of cotton wool which was to be dipped in a solution of sodium
thiosulphate and sodium carbonate and held over the mouth. This was super-
seded in May 1915 by the ‘black veil’ respirator composed of a pad of cotton
waste impregnated with the same solution, with the addition of glycerine, and
enclosed in black veiling by which it could be tied over the mouth. By this
means protection against a low concentration of chlorine was obtained for a short
time, provided that the pad was carefully adjusted.

By the end of May the manufacture of the ‘Hypo Helmet’ was begun.
This consisted of a flannel bag impregnated with a solution of sodium thio-
sulphate, sodium carbonate and glycerine, and provided with a small celluloid
window. The bag was worn over the head and tucked in under the collar so
that the inspired air was freed from chlorine by passing through the fabric. The
protection, however, was limited to chlorine and strongly acid gases, and the
‘P Helmet’ was adopted for use in July 1915, and issued to the troops in August,
in view of the possible employment of phosgene and hydrocyanic acid by the
enemy. It was a bag similar to the ‘Hypo Helmet,’ made of flannelette
impregnated with a solution of sodium phenate, sodium hydroxide and glycerine.
In order to prevent the carbonation of the alkali by the passage of expired air
through the fabric, the helmet was provided with a mouthpiece and rubber outlet
valve through which air was exhaled, and it was consequently known sometimes
as the ‘Tube Helmet.’ Phosgene was first employed by the enemy in the cloud
attack on December 19, 1915, four months after the new helmet had been issued.

Early in 1916 it was thought necessary to increase the protection against
phosgene in case clouds of higher concentration should be used, and the ‘ P.H.
Helmet’ was issued in February 1916, in which hexamethylene tetramine
(hexamine) was added to the phenate solution. Hexamine reacts rapidly with
phosgene, and the new helmet gave a greatly improved protection against this gas.

However, by this time the possibility of the employment of a wide range
of chemical substances in gas warfare had been foreseen, and it was recognised
that a more general type of protection was needed than that which could be
obtained by means of a helmet impregnated with various solutions. The limita-
tion of the helmet was seen in its failure to keep out lachrymatory gases such as
xylyl bromide, in consequence of which the ‘P.H.G. Helmet’ was introduced
shortly after the ‘P.H. Helmet,’ containing rubber sponge goggles to be worn
over the eyes to protect them against any traces of lachrymator that might
penetrate the helmet.

A large box respirator, giving a high degree of protection against all gases
likely to be employed, had already been devised for the use of the Special
Brigade, who always ran the risk of being exposed to high concentrations of gas
when they were carrying out operations. This had to be reduced in size to make
it suitable for general issue to the troops, and a satisfactory design was obtained
in, June, and issued to the troops in August, 1916. The respirator consisted
originally of a metal container filled with layers of animal charcoal and of the soda-
lime permanganate granules devised by Major Bertram Lambert at Oxford in
June 1915, as an absorbent for chlorine, phosgene, hydrocyanic or other acids,
and arsine. The container is carried in a haversack on the chest, and is con-
nected by a corrugated rubber tube to a mouth-piece attached to a mask made
of material impervious to gas and fitted with glass eyepieces. The mask is

pei

~e
>

ON CHEMICAL WARFARE. 401

held-in position by elastic bands over the head so as to make an airtight joint
round the face. The wearer breathes in and out through the mouthpiece, the nose
being closed by a clip attached to the mask. Air is drawn in through an inlet
valve at the bottom of the container, and any poisonous gas is absorbed during
its passage through the charcoal and granules. The expired air passes out
through an exit valve, the inlet valve closing in order to prevent expired air
passing out through the container and causing deterioration of the contents.

The type of box respirator adopted by the Germans differs from ours, as the
box containing the chemical absorbents is attached directly to the mask and no
mouthpiece is used. The efficiency of the appliance depends therefore on the
tightness of the joint between the face and the edge of the mask,: and on the
good condition of the latter material. If the mask does not fit the face or if
it has been punctured, air containing gas passes direct to the lungs of the wearer
and he becomes a casualty; whereas if the British mask is damaged the wearer
continues to breath through the mouthpiece and tube, and he is safe except
for the possible effect of the gas on his eyes. Also the British method of
carrying the box of chemicals in a haversack on the chest, instead of attaching
it directly to the mask, enabled us to use a larger: box which gave a higher
standard of protection, and it was a comparatively simple matter to add an
extension to the British respirator if necessary. For instance, in April 1917
a small metal extension containing cotton wool was added at the bottom of each
container to give increased protection against. smoke particles such as those
produced by the vaporisation of stannic chloride in air.

In August 1917 this extension was embodied in the improved ‘ N.C. Con-
tainer’ in which specially activated wood charcoal was substituted for animal
charcoal, and layers of cellulose wadding added to stop smoke particles. The
“N.C. Container’ continued in use until the Armistice, and its standard of pro-
tection was so high that there were no instances of men being gassed owing to the
failure of a respirator which was in a serviceable condition. Whereas the
earliest pad respirators only gave protection for a: few minutes against concen-
tration of chlorine of the order of one part in 10,000 parts of air, the ‘N.C.
Container,’ when new, protects its wearer for half-an-hour or longer against one
part of phosgene in 100 parts of air.

Work of the Gas Services.

In addition to the chemists who were working during the war in the research
and supply departments and in the Special Brigade, a considerable number were
employed in the various theatres of war and at home in advising commanders
on technical matters connected with gas warfare, and in training and instructing
the troops in gas defence. Their work, which was essential to our success in
gas warfare, has not hitherto beert generally known or appreciated. The problem
of gas defence is not solved by devising a suitable respirator. It is necessary
to train men very carefully in its use, and to give them sufficient information
about the behaviour of gases, in order to make them understand the best methods
of protecting themselves against gas, and to remove the ignorance which is the
chief cause of their alarm. The instruction given at the many gas schools which
were formed during the war was of vital importance in giving men confidence
and in reducing the number of casualties, and enabled us gradually to reduce the
disadvantage under which we suffered in consequence of the general lack of
scientific training among all ranks.

, In France the Chemical Advisers and Divisional Gas Officers had particularly
responsible posts. In addition to their advisory and instructional duties, they
played an important part in the organisation of the gas defence of their
formations. It was their duty to investigate every enemy gas attack, to devise
means of improving our defence, to collect blind gas shells for examination,
and to collect evidence of the results of our own gas operations. All new
appliances were sent to them for trial before they were adopted, and the rapid
progress of our defensive measures would have been impossible without their
criticism and advice, as they were in constant touch with front-line conditions,
and could see how far the appliances were likely to meet present and future

needs,

402 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The organisation of the Gas Services in France enabled the use of any new
gas by the enemy, the adoption of new gas tactics, or the occurrence of any
new type of gas casualty to be investigated immediately, so that information
could be sent rapidly to all parts of the front, thereby diminishing greatly the
chances of a further surprise. As speed was of the utmost importance, a
laboratory was organised at General Headquarters in April 1915 for the
examination of enemy material and for the investigation of urgent problems that
were met with in the field. The work of the Central Laboratory contributed
greatly to the efficiency of the Gas Services, thanks to the mechanical ingenuity
and the critical ability of the late Lieut.-Col. W. Watson, C.M.G., F.R.S., its
first Director, and to the resourcefulness of his successor, Lieut.-Col. B. Mouat
Jones, D.S.0., who was mainly responsible for the chemical investigations.

Thus in consequence of the introduction of gas in war, British chemists were
called upon to perform the most varied duties and to face many difficult problems,
which involved research in many new directions, the organisation of manufacture
on a vast scale, and the instruction and training of the troops. To all those
who took part in this work it must be a source of great satisfaction that, thanks
to their efforts, not only were our forces protected against a very serious menace,
but they were enabled to make effective reprisals against the enemy. The true
measure of their success can be gauged by the general impression, confirmed by
the statements of many German prisoners, both officers and men, that had the
enemy foreseen the results of their treacherous use of gas in April 1915 the new
weapon would never have been employed.

‘ps

ps

ON WAVE MOTION. 403

Report on Wave Motion.
By Sir G. Greenuiot, F.R.S.
Part I,
(Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso.)

Previous Reports to be consulted are by :—

GeErRstNER, Theorie der Wellen, Prague, 1804.

Scort RussExu, Report to the British Association on Waves, 1844,
' reprinted in his treatise on Naval Architecture, I., chap. xxvi.
q 1865.

Arry, Tides and Waves, in the Encyclopedia Metropolitana, 1848.
; Rankine, The Trochoidal Wave, Phil. Trans. 1862.

W. M. Hicks, Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics.
British Association, 1882.

Lams, Wave Motion, in the Encyclopedia Britannica.

O. Heavisipg, Collected Papers, ITI., Waves on Deep Water.

— —

And various mathematical papers in the Proceedings of the Royal
Society and the London Math. Society, by Lord Ketvin, Lord Rayne,
Burnsipe, Love, Macponaup, Hover, Havewock.

W.H. WHEELER, Tides and Waves, 19V6.
Dovuatas WiLson JoHnson, Shore Processes and Shore Line
Development.

(These last two for fuller list of references.)

Report on Wave Motion in Water.

The waves may be divided into two classes :—

1. Surface waves, visible as moving waves or rollers (Atlantic), or
stationary waves when seen reflected at a wall, or inside a tank, or along
a pier or breakwater, important in harbour design.

2. Long flat tidal waves, propagated through the depth of the ocean,
not revealed except in the tide of an estuary, past the shore, as in a
ground swell.

== Om Pe a et a ail ES — |

=
e

a
ad

For a visible representation of actual experimental wave motion of
the surface of water, capable of numerical measurement, a deep reet-
angular tank may be employed, provided with a front wall of glass as in

|

4

404 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

an aquarium, say 2 feet 6 inches long by 3 feet deep, to make the water
beat time with a half-second pendulum, taken as 10 inches long or
25 centimetres in round numbers, in a wave 5 feet long, double the
length of the tank.

Placed on a lecture table this will be visible to the audience, to illus-
trate Lord Kelvin’s definition of Wave Motion, as the passage of periodic
motion through matter, in this case water or other liquid.

On a smaller scale, for mere illustrative action, any small vessel will
serve, such as a basin, dish, tumbler, saucer, or water bottle of moderate
size.

Colonel Russo, of the Italian Navy, has constructed an experimental
tank where the motion of the water is kneaded by appropriate flexible
diaphragms, and he shows the effect in a series of moving pictures, such
as those he brought before the Institution of Naval Architects, 1916.

In our tank the walls are rigid, and, the water being initially at rest,
the wave motion may be set up bya slight tilt of the vessel, or by a paddle
passed through the water.

In the theoretical discussion the motion is supposed started by a
variable impulse pressure applied suddenly over the surface; no motion
would be set up if the pressure was uniform; and assuming the water
incompressible and sound velocity through it practically infinite (really
about 1,450 metres per second), this impulse pressure will be propagated
instantaneously and uniformly down inside the water, and taken up with
no reduction by the bottom and sides of the tank.

We may suppose this pressure applied as in the Humphrey pump by
the explosion of a charge of petrol gas.

But any variation of the impulsive pressure over the free surface will
set up an internal commotion, resulting in a wave motion of the water.

1. Take an origin O in the middle of the rectangular free surface of
the water, and coordinate axes of reference, Ox, Oy, Oz; Ow vertically
downward, Ox and Oy in the surface, Ox parallel to the length of the
tank.

Suppose a variation of the applied mean uniform impulsive pressure
A is given by the term B sin ms, so the total impulse over the surface is

A+B sin mz,

with a wave length L, such that mL=27, but using m in the work for
economy of printing. The term A is retained, so as to avoid the idea of
a negative pressure, practically impossible.

When the tank length is half the wave length, $l, a pure stationary
half wave will be set up, as in Colonel Russo’s experiments ; and this is
the longest wave in the tank, say 5 feet long.

The coefficient B will not remain uniform down in the water; it will
be found on the theory of the Equation of Continuity that at a depth z it
will have diminished to b, some function of z; and if the tank is deep
enough for the motion to be insensible at the bottom, b dies out at
compound discount with the depth z according to the law

b=Be-™.

This with our tank 3 feet deep, and z=3, L=5, mz=$n, say 3°7,
e-™—0-025, say 2°5 per cent. at the bottom, which we take as insensible.

| ON WAVE MOTION. 405

A table in W. H. White’s Naval Architecture, p. 197, gives a series

of other values, based on taking oo” 9 e7™=—29—512, very nearly,
really 536.

| |
: Z 0 | 1 2 | 3 Hee it SNe 6 ee P28 1
: L 9 | 9 9 | 9 y 9 Biss) 9 )
: teen fend bal oevigue
: = 1 1 1 1 Z 1 1
em: A ars } = 4 — = — ; =<
yey 4 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 ay beer
pls. | : rape teul
A wave motion is set up by the variable impulse, in which the wave-
length L in feet, the period T in seconds, and c the velocity of moving
waves or rollers in feet per second (f/s), or K in knots, are connected on

the subsequent theory by

er iyene why) hgh
(1) Oe A/a c= nan /h.

For measurement in wave motion, the easiest quantity to observe is
the period T, or its reciprocal when T is short, the number of waves
in the second, or else the length / of the simple pendulum which beats
5 T seconds, or revolves conically in T seconds; and then L and c can
be determined from

2
(2) m. ca ‘= ci = 2 L = Qrl.
is

Wave Length and Velocity.

2. For these rollers, surface waves advancing over water of practically
unlimited depth, the landsman employs simple rules in his foot-second
units, such as

(1) c=; C=5), (=at2

connecting the velocity c in f/s of surface waves of length 1 feet and
eriod ¢ seconds, over deep water.
Taking the formula c?= » this implies that oe is replaced by 5 in
7
round numbers instead of the more exact value 5:12, but within
per cent.

The sailor employs the cosmopolitan unit of the geographical or
autical mile, which he divides into 1,000 fathom, so that his fathom is
feet and a little over, say, 6-08 feet.

Then if R denotes the radius of the earth in nautical (N) miles, the
ircumference

2rR=860 x 60=21600, making R=3488—cosec 1,
e number of minutes is the radian.

1919. HH

406 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

He takes the hour as the unit of time and longitude, and his unit of
velocity is the knot, a speed of 1 N mile/hour.

This makes the velocity of a point on the equator, due to the diurnal
rotation, that is the velocity of the equilibrium tide at the equator,

21600—24=900 knots.

In these nautical units g would appear as an unfamiliar awkward
number; so it is replaced by G, the velocity of a satellite grazing the
equator 17 times a day, on the assumption that the pure g of gravity is
diminished by one part in 289 by the centrifugal force of the diurnal
rotation.

The period of the grazing satellite could also be deduced on Kepler’s
Law III, from the observed distance of the Moon, 60 semi-diameters of
the earth, and its period of 27:3 days.

Then if the grazing satellite makes N circuits a day,

27-3N = (60)3.
60=al 1-782
603=al 2:6673
27°3=al 1:4867
N=al 1:2304=17.

At a distance one.9th of the Moon, with a lunar period taken as 27
days the period of the satellite would be one day, and the satellite would
be stationary in the sky overhead, though moving with velocity 6,000
knots. The circumference of the Moon’s orbit is 60 x 21600=1,276,000
miles, with velocity 2,000 knots.

The relative velocity of the Earth round the Sun is 60,000 knots,
with the distance of the Sun 24,000 R, in a year of 360 days.

Turn the velocity of the grazing satellite vertically upward through a
right angle and the body will reach a height R and return to the ground

ay
again in i ea Ba of the period round the earth.
T T

So, too, if the velocity of the moon was turned up through a right
angle away from the earth, the moon will recede to a distance 120 R,
1
Dar

These cosmopolitan numbers do not work out so well on the metric
system, because sexagesimal time is always employed. Centesimal
time, required for completeness in navigation and astronomy with
centesimal angle, never came into use, as it would involve the destruction —
of the existing stock of clocks and watches, and the sailor sticks to
sexagesimal time and longitude, and is not prepared to throw his chrono-
meter into the sea, for the sake of a sentimental theory.

and reach the surface of the earth again in 3+ — of the lunation.

‘
Thus pes ip in nautical units (knots an hour), where

R
G=17 x 900=15,300 knots.

ON WAVE MOTION. 407

Then for surface rollers over the ocean, L miles long, and period
T hours, the velocity is K knots, given by

2_9L_G*L_ GL
(2) fs Qr 2rR 21600’
j ne K .@
(3) > Tor"
With the period given in ¢ seconds, t=8600 T,
a meg onic = 8) ee
! G aaa 900) ’

making K=3¢, if 17?=289 is replaced by 288, near enough on the
accuracy of the numerical data; and then

(5) K=10800T, L=10800T?, K?=10800L.
Measuring the length of the wave by / feet, six to the fathom,

6) x2 10800,_ 9

= 6000 = l= . 81.

For the long flat tidal waves through the depths of an ocean / fathom
deep, the formula to employ is

: h G2 h

o aon —
(7) K’=9 7500 B i000’ S2Y 88"
ih G=17x 900, R=3438, Rosia 1’=0-00029,
(8) h=0-0147K2, K=8-25/h; or K=GV/,

for a depth the fraction f of the radius of the Karth.
Thence a table for ocean tidal waves, where the result is given to the
nearest round number.

Depth in Fathom Velocity in Knots tele rane fe Sabor
12,000 ; 900 4
(12 miles) ;
3,000 450 48
1,900 360 60
(earthquake velocity)
750 225 96
200 120 180
ike 100 216
4 165 Bw
15 10 =

HH 2

408 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Group Velocity.

3. Waves over the sea are not pure waves, but a blend of different
wave lengths; just as white light is a blend of the monochromatic parts
of the spectrum.

A simple pure wave of length \, and period T, advancing with
velocity V, is given by

(1) y = b sin = (e—V#) = b sin (ma—nt),
writing m for a and m for Le = = for economy in space of printing.

This pure wave is replaced, in Stokes’ explanation, by a blend of
two such waves, nearly equal,

(2) y, = b, sin (m,z—n,t+«,), Yo = by sin (Mae — Not +5).
Their resultant, at the same time, ¢, and same place, x, is given by

(8) yy #Yo = 4 (0, £),) [sin (mya—n,t+e,) + sin (me— nyt + €2)]
= (db; +), si . 7 BL M— My) &— (Ny; —N») t+e,—€9]
= nae [(m, +79) L—(N, +g) t+ €) +5]

of which the second factor represents a wave of length

Bk Ue) 2
A=m, +My Ady
: A, Ae
the harmonic means of the wave lengths A, and A;, moving with velocity

Min (M2
N+. _ Xr +A

my+m 1d
nab,

(4)

and when the two waves are nearly equal, this is equivalent to the pure
wave motion of (1), with V, = V,.=V, A, =A, =.

The first factor represents a wave motion of long period T and great
length L, the equivalent of Scott Russell’s primary solitary wave, in
which

Yr

eZ Wo GAY ea Dir. od a ae (p-5)
(5) maa Ny) =7 (2 on Lae My) = 7 ar

advancing with velocity

Na Va

G= gh He = A, As

(6) M,— Ms ie i
sa:

———————————————— Ss —<—_— -—

aa ll Lae. - -

Saves

ON WAVE MOTION. 409

and this is the growp velocity, when the wave length, 4, and Ay, and
velocity, V, and V,, is so nearly equal, that we take

dn ay dV
(7) G=3,,= ~=V- a:
dx

and 5. is the number of waves per unit of time, 5. is the number of
us T

waves per unit of length.

The effect is to make the amplitude of rise and fall at one spot to
diminish, and then increase again, in the long period T.

This is observed when we follow with the eye the crest of a particular
wave of the sea. After a maximum height, it is seen to die down
gradually, and meanwhile another wave has been growing up behind it.

Group velocity of sea waves was known to the sailor of all time, in
his proverbial formula of every tenth or third wave a big one, dexaxupw'o.
or tpixvuia, according to the fetch of the sea, great or small, across the
Ionian or inside the Aigean.

Ovid records it on his voyage into exile across the Ionian Sea.

“Qui venit hic fluctus, fluctus supereminet omnes,
Posterior nono est, undecimoque prior.”’
“ Vastius insurgens decime ruit impetus undae.”’

Thus in sea rollers, where \ varies as V?, if every nth wave is a big one,
between the n—1 and ~+1th (Ovid’s nine and eleven, with n=10),

\ as aes ee 1 «Et 1
Nn-1 Ant oo Vik nv fs, a 1
6) Gritpepp rime PE AC ar

x, re Veeis P bl eats 4 Pas 7 Ligam
half the harmonic means of V,_; and V,,,,.
When Vis assumed to vary as some power, q, of A,

dV Vv
(9) nd y S= (1-9) V-

Thus in deep water waves, rollers over the sea, when the velocity
varies as the square root of the length, q=4, G=4V.

In short capillary waves, Scott Russell’s tertiary waves, produced by
drawing the point of a stick through water, g=—}4, as also in the waves
of lateral vibration of a bar, and then G=3T, and the group velocity is
not observed, except when a stone is thrown into water, in the dark
streaks of reflexion seen overtaking the capillary waves.

In his Report on Waves to the British Association, 1844, Scott
Russell quotes Homer’s simile, of the waves on a cornfield as well as the
sea (Iliad 11 144, xx 227), imitated by Shelley, but incorrectly, in

‘the ripe corn under the undulating air undulates like an ocean.’

But here each cornstalk vibrates or undulates independently in the

410 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

same period, like Osborne Reynolds’ series of independent pendulums, so
that V varies as A, g=1, G=0; and the appearance is explained of the
stationary patches in the waves of the cornfield in a wind, compared by
Homer to the stage crowd of the public assembly in the market-place.

Echelon Waves.

4. These waves have been described and illustrated by W. Froude
(Trans. Institution of Naval Architects, I.N.A., 1877), and an explanation
was given by Sir W. Thomson, reprinted in his Popular Lectures ; also
by R. EK. Froude, on Ship Resistance (Greenock Philosophical Society,
1894), and Hovgaard (I.N.A., 1909).

They are seen stretching aft from the bow wave in a line of echelon,
and at sea on a calm day they can be watched from the deck of a steamer
till they disappear over the horizon, sifted out as pure waves with no
group velocity effect. On a small scale the wake of a duck will exhibit
the echelon waves quite clearly, or of a stick drawn through the water.

The effect is explained by a combination of interference and group
velocity ; the following geometrical construction is submitted to replace
previous long analytical calculations.

The bow wave is thrown off in a hump at O in fig. 1, with the
crest OK at an angle 6 with the beam, and it is followed by the next
wave BO, thrown off at B on the side OB of the ship.

Looking along BC, a hump is seen at C on the wave, and this is
followed by a series of equidistant humps on the line OC, showing
a series of waves following the ship in echelon, but with the crest
parallel to the bow wave at O; the problem is to calculate the angle ¢
which OC makes with the beam.

The perpendicular OA on BC is the wave length A, between the
parallel crests OK, BC; and representing the speed of the ship, K knots,
by the vector OK, and drawing KV perpendicular to AO produced, then
OV is the vector representing the wave velocity, V knots.

The hump at C is produced by the interference of the wave A’C, of
slightly different length OA’, \+d), and velocity OV’, V+ dV, at a small
angle AOA’; and then in the figure

(1) VK . Vou, @¥e OD) OA de
AC..\, Aa. Vda, WV EK OVE”
and drawing OF perpendicular to OA,

@) AB_OE_AdV BO_,_AaV_6@
AG. 4: OB 4 Vea ...AOB Vdd oi
G denoting the group velocity of the waves.
When V varies as the gth power of A,
(3) G=(1—9)V,
(4) = = se = tan 6 tan (¢—6) = ; = =

ON WAVE MOTION. 411

Thus, in deep-water waves, where

(5) vV=,/%, q=}, G=3V, BC=}0F=08.
qr
In short capillary waves, seen round the stem, g=—4, and no

echelon waves are discernible.
Sound waves in air are propagated with the same velocity for all
wave lengths, otherwise music would be impossible and could not exist ;

Hig. I.

the q=O, d=86, and the echelon waves are merged in the wave front.
This is revealed in the bullet photograph, where the bow and stem wave
are taken very clear and distinct in the air. With the very sharp point
of the new bullet, the head is seen penetrating the bow wave, as on the
sharp bow of a steamer.

5. Sound waves ave due to vibration of the air, propagated with
velocity about 1100, f/s, and generated for music by a vibrating body,
such as a violin string, a piano wire, the voice, or an organ pipe (fig. 1),

412 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The motion is visible in a taut cord or chain, as a rope, hawser, or
cable, and it is realised experimentally with ease in this way, for theo-
retical illustration, not requiring the complication of a tank of water.

An elementary and exact treatment can be submitted, where the
motion is not restricted to be small, if the wave motion in the rope is
helical, and appears progressive, each particle whirling round the axis
in a circle with the same velocity, linear and angular.

A stiff wire, wound into some convolutions of a uniform helix, is
useful in elementary explanation. Suspended vertically from a point in
its axis and revolved, the advance of the waves is seen in the helix, as
well as in the shadow on a wall or the floor.

Take a half length, $L, measured axially, of a helical wave of the
equivalent flexible rope, wound on a cylinder of radius b, so that if a is
the angle of the helix with the axis, 27b=L tan a.

Suppose the rope weighs w, lb/ft, and is stretched to a tension or

pull P, lb, so that h= called the tension length, is the length of rope
hanging vertically to produce tension P.

Projected on a plane perpendicular to the axis, the half wave appears
w

as a semicircle, of line density =
= a

, lb/ft; and it is in equilibrium

under the transverse component tension Psin a at each end, and the
centrifugal force (C.F.) of the rotation », radians,second, equivalent
2
to an internal pressure” . ae ree 2 lb/ft, acting radially over
Hig “9” Usin'a' Sf
the semicircle, putting g=J/n, so that / is the height of the equivalent
conical pendulum.

The resultant C.F. thrust over the semicircle is the same as
the thrust over the diameter, 2b, due to the same pressure, and

2
so is 2. ose 2b; so that for equilibrium
sma g
(1) OP kine ep
sina g
2 2
h sin? a=” =" ( 2) tan? a,
g \2ar
gh = emily?
(2) 17, cos? a=th cos? a= 5”) .

Denoting by A the length of rope for one radian angle of turn,

5 = cos a, the relation reduces to,the simple form
—

(8) lh=X2.

alee ee PS ee eee eS E—E eee

i =

ON WAVE MOTION. 413

In the period of revolution, T=" , the wave advances L, and so with

(4) c?=gh cos*a, reducing to c?=gh,
when the rope is taut, and a=0, as in the usual elementary theory.

If the stiff helical wire is passed through a corkscrew hole, like a
screw through a fixed nut, the helix advances as it turns, and passes
through its own shape, so as to appear stationary as a fixed curve.

In the flexible rope of the same shape, the velocity of advance is c,
and the velocity of the helix through the nut is v==c sec a, so that the
relation above becomes v?=gh. This is in accordance with the general
result for any flexible rope or chain, of any invariable shape through
which it is passing with tangential velocity v=./(gh) ; seen sometimes
in heaving the lead, or in the helical curve of the life-line drawn out
by the life-saving rocket of the coastguard.

With the axis of the helix horizontal and passing perpendicularly
through a nut in the wall, or else with the helix revolving about the axis,
the projection shadow thrown on the wall by a horizontal ray aslant is a
trochoid, fixed or moving, visual realisation of Rankine’s trochoidal wave,
stationary or advancing.

The shadow thrown by rays at right angles to the axis will be a
sinusoid; but this cannot represent a wave motion of the rope unless the
curve is very flat.

6. To give an elementary demonstration of the condition of a stationary
wave, revolving bodily, as on a musical cord fixed at the ends, the method
must be restricted to the taut chain, of length a=4L, displaced into a
flat sine curve, taken as given by

(1) y=6 sin ma, mL = 2r,
with a slope mb at each end; and the 2Pmb balances the C . F.
The average value of y in the half wave is = so that the C. F. is
97

n?,. 0 wn?
(2) w 5 oe gm =P™,
P Jo 2 ee
(3) gh=q =~ =" as

as before; and the number of revolutions, cycles, or double vibrations
per second, is !

bE ag 3 h h
4 eed J = Khe
(4) T 7 J/ L? ae
For a revolving slack chain, such as a skipping rope, the curve would
be given by the elliptic function
(5) g=bsn ma.

To realise a plane sine curve of finite amplitude, the rope would
require to be of variable linear density, such that the axial distribution
of density was uniform,

414 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The velocity c=,/ (gh) is that acquired in falling freely under gravity
through 3h, half the tension length, analogous to long flat tidal waves
in water of depth h. But in surface waves, rolling over deep water,

= fs x =,/ gil, where / is the equivalent conical pendulum length.

Other physical results may be stated in a similar manner.

Thus the velocity of longitudinal waves in an elastic cylindrical rod
is due to half the elastic length k, where the length ek hanging vertically
will produce extension e, provided the tension is under the elastic limit,
so that e is small.

And the bursting velocity of the rim of a flywheel, treated as a
circular wire filament, is due to half the tensile breaking length of the
material.

A comparison is made between the waves of vibration of a taut hawser
or piano wire, and the slack helical waves, or the plane waves of finite
amplitude seen in laying a cloth or shaking a blanket, or heaving the
lead, and firing a life-line rocket.

7. Tie a knot on the chain, to represent a weight attached, and
investigate in this way the reflected and transmitted wave, and the
mechanical illustration of the Pupin coil on a telephone wire.

Suppose the knot or weight is the equivalent of a length a of the
chain, of line density o, stretched to a tension P, and represent the
incident, transmitted, and reflected waves by
(1) y= sin (nt+ mz), y; =, sin (nt+ma—e,), Yo=b, sin (nt—my—«).

The geometrical condition at the weight, z=0, is
(2) yt+y.=y1, 6 sin nt—b, sin (nt—e€,)+b, sin (nt—«,)=0,

for all values of ¢; so equating to zero the coefficients of sin mt and
cos nt,
(3) b—b, COS €, +b, cos €5=0, b sin €) —b, sin €,=0.

The dynamical equation of the weight at =O is, in gravitation
units,

(4) pp Wh 4 p Wa _ og ots = 0, with 2 =o,
leading to
(5) bcos nt—b, cos (nt—e,)—b, cos (nt—«,)+mab, sin (nt—e,) =0,
(6) b—b, cos e,—b, cos «,—mab, sin e, = 0,
(7) —b, sin «;—b, sin e,+mab, cos «; = 0.
Thence from these equations
(8) 4ma = tan e, = —cot €, €.=4t7+«,
5, =b cos ey, b,=6 sin «.
(9, Y, = 0 cos «, sin (nt+mn—e,).

(10) y+y,=2b sin max cos nt+b cos €; (cos nt—mar+e,).

ON WAVE MOTION. 415

Fasten the chain at two points A, B in the same horizontal line,
OA=c,OB=c,, and revolve the weight and chain round bodily, in steady
motion, to imitate a transversal vibration.

The chain being taut, at tension P=oh,

(11) ets, y= ob sin Tay y, = 6; sin wri
and at
g—= 0, Y= b sin —°_=}, sin“,
J lh WAT
At the weight
d d 4
(12) pY_pdtitoaY =o,

leading to the condition

c _e; _aa h na (Ih)
ae) <TR OTT SR oe, © SE en
with V the wave velocity along the chain,

14 a oe «
( ) p V2 v2

(To be continued.)

416 EVENING DISCOURSES.

EVENING DISCOURSES.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The Palace of Minos and the Prehistoric Civilisation of Crete.
By Sir Anruur Evans, F.B.S.

Civilisation might perhaps be defined as a social condition inherited from
long experience of life in an ordered State. Our own civilisation was in a
principal degree taken over from the Greco-Roman. It came in a direct line
from Ancient Greece, together with elements taken as we know from Semitic
and other Oriental sources. But how did the highly developed civilisation of
Ancient Greece itself, on which our own is based, come into being? Was it
indeed an exception to all rules, a kind of Wnfant de Miracle? Such till lately
was the tacitly accepted view. A rude shock to this complacent assumption was
indeed given by Schliemann’s discoveries at Mycenae, but even the finest of these
were explained away as due to ‘oriental’ derivation. Still, the earliest traditions
of Greece were not at fault on the matter. They pointed consistently to Crete
for the source of Greek civilisation. There Minos had founded his great sea
Empire, there in ‘broad Knossos’ his craftsman Daedalos had built him a —
marvellous palace. There, on the sacred mountain from the hands of its God—
like Moses—he had received the law. The other mythical stories are well known.
The palace became a Labyrinth, where dwelt the Minotaur, half man half bull
and devoured the captive children, till Queen Ariadne—in whom an old Cretan ~~
Goddess is thinly disguised—supplied the clue to her champion, Theseus, who
slew the monster and delivered his victims. :

Well, it has nearly all come true. Visiting the island first in 1895, and the
subsequent year, I made preliminary investigations with a view of attacking the ~
problem of its pre-history. At Knossos itself—the fabled site of the ‘ Palace of
Minos ’—where an early wall and magazine had already come to light, I obtained
on the spot a variety of evidence—including the actual indication of a prehistoric
system of writing—which encouraged me to make every, possible effort to carry
gut excavation there. But, though in the year of this first visit I secured the
actual proprietorship of a part of the site, the difficulties of the times were such
that it was not till 1900 that it was possible to begin excavation there. Its results
have shown that the old tradition was essentially true, In successive years the —
spade brought out the remains of a great palace, rich beyond all expectation in
treasures of art and culture—including whole archives of written docaments—and
unfolding in fact an early European civilisation going back two thousand years
before that of Hellas. The immense amount of materials brought to light has
made it impossible to publish any full account of the discoveries. Supplementary —
researches made in 1913 put me at last in the position to attempt a general
view of the results in a collective work on the ‘ Palace of Minos,’ but the diffi-
culties caused by the War have delayed its publication, and it is as much as I can
hope to bring out the first volume before the end of this year.

The materials brought out at Knossos have been supplemented by other rich —
finds made by my colleagues of the British School at Athens and of the Italian —
Mission, in various parts of the island. -A whole new vista of early civilisation —
has opened out, involving an entirely new classification as a preliminary to its *

5
de.

ioe

a POLES IEE 4 Fat

scientific treatment. At a former meeting of the Association I had the honour of

zs

ee — EeEeEeEEEE—eEeEEEEE——

EVENING DISCOURSES. 417

laying before it a preliminary scheme for such a classification. I ventured to
give the culture as a whole the name of ‘ Minoan,’ and divided its whole extent
into three main Ages, the ‘arly,’ ‘ Middle,’ and ‘Late,’ each in turn sub-
divided into three Periods. I am glad to say that this system, which I have
since been able to elaborate further, together with the name of ‘ Minoan,’ has
now received a general acceptance in this country, on the Continent, and in
America.

Tt is, of course, on this occasion only possible to give a very brief and frag-
mentary conspectus by means of lantern slides, but some of these may have a
special interest as representing results and restorations only now arrived at after
many years of work in which I have received the greatest assistance from my
collaborators, Dr. Mackenzie, the two architects of the excavation, Mr. Theodore
Fyfe, and Mr. Christian Doll, and from many other fellow-workers.

As a preliminary, to the remains of the Minoan Age proper a section was
shown of the Neolithic Strata, going down nine metres below the Palace at
Knossos, and displaying characteristics which enable it to be subdivided into
Upper, Middle, and Lower Neolithic stages. .An extraordinary family of clay
female idols brought to light from these deposits must be recognised as proto-
types of a Cretan Mother Goddess, and wide oriental parallels to these figures
were passed in review.

In illustrating the ‘ Harly Minoan Age’ (c. 3500-4000) an overwhelming mass
of evidence was adduced demonstrating connections with Egypt from the late
prehistoric Period onwards. Among the proofs of this was the discovery at
Knossos of imported diorite and syenite vases of the early dynasties, together
with their Cretan imitations. Egyptian seals and copper vessels were also shown
to have been copied. For the first time a direct connection of the earliest
European civilisation with that of the Nile Valley was thus established. Speci-
mens were also shown of beautiful] Early Minoan gold work, some of it distantly
foreshadowing that of Mycenae.

The ‘Middle Minoan Age, dating from c 2200 to 1580 B.c. was roughly
contemporary with the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, and gave evidence of con-
tinued inter-relations. An Egyptian Twelfth Dynasty monument was actually
found in the Palace. It is from the beginning of this Period that the foundation
of the existing Palace dates. Towards its close a great restoration took place to
which the Domestic Quarter of the Palace belongs—with its grand staircase and
halls and modern sanitary arrangements. Illustrations were given of the fine

_ polychrome ceramic art of this Age, and of the marvellous ‘egg-shell’ pottery,

}

Much of it was shown to imitate vessels in precious metals, the prototypes of
those of the Mycenae graves. Proof was afforded of a curious link with the
Libyan shores, the use of ostrich ege vessels for libations from which orginated
a whole family of clay and stone forms. Lamtern slides were also exhibited
illustrating the earlier class of Fresco paintings and the beautiful faience figures
found in the shrine of the Snake Goddess.

The ‘Zate Minoan Age’ from c. 1580 presents in its earlier phase the acme
of naturalism in art, of which examples were given in the high reliefs of painted
stucco, belonging to agonistic and bull-grappling scenes. Further illustrations
were shown in an ivory figure of a ‘taureador’ and a stone vessel in the form
of an ox’s head. To this time belonged the most developed form of dinear
seript, of which several documents were reproduced. The extraordinary modern

_ stvle of the civilisation appears from the miniature frescoes of the Court ladies

and restorations were given, warranted in almost all details by the existing
temains of the ‘ Room of the Throne’ and the Queen’s Chamber or ‘ Megaron,’

with the frescoes on the walls. The constantly recurring bull-grappling scenes

remains of which, in painted stucco, were found by the North Gate, and a maze
pattern, that had covered the walls of a corridor by the Water Gate of the

Palace. helped to explain the actual genesis of the old stories of the Minotaur

and Labyrinth.

418 EVENING DISCOURSES.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The Gyroscope Compass. By Stoney G. Brown, F.R.S.

Tue lecturer spoke at some length of the magnetic or mariner’s compass,
showing its construction; on the variation; on secular changes in the earth’s
magnetism; on changes in the ship’s magnetism during a voyage; on the weak
directive action of the earth which was further very greatly reduced in an iron
ship; on the necessary corrections and their insufficiency; on the damping of
vibrations which caused the compass to go round with the ship so that the course
was sinuous and the length of a passage lengthened even with the most careful
steering. Even in a calm sea the ship often headed seven degrees on either side
of the true course. A magnetic compass was of no use in a submarine. He
showed a new phenomenon, that a magnetic compass of very slow period, sup-
ported on gymbals, even when the dynamic balance recommended by, Evans and
Smith in 1881 (Phil. Trans.) was perfect, might go greatly wrong if it had a
wobbling motion such as may be produced on a rolling, pitching ship, and is
quite common on an aeroplane. This was explainable mathematically ; what

ood mathematicians had not yet explained but what he would vouch for as a
Fact, was that if the compass were carried round in a horizontal circle without
wobbling, the same and even more curious errors took place.

In an experiment here he showed a body, free to rotate about a vertical axis ;
the lecturer gave a small rotation.to the body, and asked the audience to observe
that it would continue to rotate during the whole time of the lecture. He said he
had proved that the solid friction was nearly infinitely small. It was this kind
of support that made it possible to get an accurate gyro-compass, and he would
describe it later.

To illustrate some gyroscopic phenomena experimentally, the lecturer used a
case in which a 4-inch wheel,weighing 44 pounds, was revolving at 15,000 revo-
lutions per minute, the same as he used in the gyro-compasses which were exhi-
bited and would be described. The wheel was kept rotating at constant speed by a
three-phase electric motor fixed inside the case. The rotating part was therefore
not touched by brushes. The three-phase currents came from a small motor-
generator fed from ordinary electric light mains, the current being steadied by
a set of small accumulators. As being necessary for the simple explanation of
the compass, later, he made it clear that when the axis of the wheel was free
to turn in azimuth, a weight which tended to tilt the axis did not tilt the axis
but caused the axis to precess in azimuth ; whereas a force tending to turn the
axis in azimuth did not do so but altered the tilt. If the axis of the wheel is
kept horizontal but is free to turn about a vertical axis, as the earth is con-
tinually tilting the axis of the wheel in space, this axis precesses until in
the N.S. direction. When in this direction the rotation of the earth no longer
tilts the axis or causes motion ‘in azimuth. Vibrations were well damped so that
this compass having been displaced several times returned quickly to the north
every time. This proof of the earth’s rotation was first described by Foucault
fifty-five years ago. It is an experiment which has never succeeded before in
front of an audience because, until now, there has never been a free frictionless
vertical support for a heavy body. The lecturer said that when this compass
pointed east and west the directive action of the earth was so small a force as
to be only the weight of one grain with a leverage of 12 inches. When the
compass pointed one degree from the north the directive action was only one grain
with a leverage of one-fifth of an inch. Left to itself in any position this heavy
compass, weighing altogether about 7 lb., reached the north in about one minute,
and seemed to be right with a probable error of one-tenth of one degree.

Such a compass would be of service on land, but on a ship it needs to be
carried like a pendulum on gymbals, and its periodic time of vibration is greatly
lengthened. The rotation of the earth does not now act directly on the gyro
wheel but through gravity, by means of the pendulous weight.

The lecturer spent some time in giving a popular explanation of what occurs,
but it cannot be given in a short abstract. If at any instant the angle of tilt
is T and the deflection from the north is A, the above experiment shows that

EVENING DISCOURSES. 419

the effect of pendulum gravitation which is proportional to T produces a_pre-
cession proportional to T, and the earth’s directive action which is proportional
to A produces a rate of decrease of T which is proportional to A. ‘I'he result is
a vibratory motion. We find that T is usually very small compared with A. We
find that A is at the end of its swing when T is zero and vice versa. A is
alternately west and east of north. Now it is necessary that the compass should
get to the north in diminishing swings and come to rest there; that is, the swings
must be damped. We cannot directly damp the azimuthad motion, because as in
the magnetic compass of our Navy the support and damping medium are carried
round by the ship. Anschiitz, in his early form of compass, by the use of an air
blast gets rid of this connection with the ship. The air blast was arranged to
oppose the movement in azimuth when the wheel tilted, and thus he obtained
good damping. The strength of the air blast which varies proportionately to
the tilt should be nothing when the compass is at rest on the north, that is whey
the tilt is nothing, and this would be true with the compass at the equator. In
other latitudes, however, the compass sets itself with a tilt still remaining. The
wheel has a tilt because it is trying to set itself due north, and this leaves a
residual air blast producing a constant error im azimuth. There is always this
latitude error if we introduce forces in azimuth proportional to the tilt. It is
therefore preferable to damp the swings by acting on the tilt motion, because in
this case there will be no latitude error. How this is done wil be described later.
There are three forms of gyro-compass now in use. The Auschiitz (German), the
Sperry (American), the Brown (British).

In the Anschiitz the instrument is supported by a bath of mercury (as
originally suggested by Lord Kelvin). There is a quasi-solid friction about the
vertical axis, however clean the mercury may be, and this introduces error. In
the ‘Sperry’ the gyro is supported by a wire, the twist when it occurs being
taken out by a ‘follow-up’ motor through an electric contact which switches
on the current to the motor. In the ‘Brown’ the lower end of the vertical
spindle acts as the ram of a pump and stands upon a column of oil. The oil is
under great pressure (some 500 lb. to the square inch), and is kept pumping up
and down, and thus raising and lowering the vertical axis continually, some
180 times per minute. The continual movement of the spindle results in a
vertical support which has an inconceivably small amount of solid friction.
A ship has an angular motion of one revolution in one day. If she sails north
at, say, 20 knots, she has another angular motion of one revolution in forty-tive
days. A gyro-compass on the ship is sensible of both these angular motions, and
sets itself to make a compromise between them, and so points, not to the true
north, but one or more degrees west of the true north ; this deviation is the north
steaming error. Knowing the latitude and north speed of the ship we have tables
to allow for this error, and a special form of repeater was exhibited by
Brown in which the card can be set eccentrically so that the correction may be
automatically applied without further reference to the tables. Acceleration or
change of north speed will have another effect on the compass, as it acts on the
pendulous weight, and so starts an oscillation which may be called the ballistic
error.

A little mathematics shows that if the period of the compass is eighty-five
minutes, the compass takes its new position without oscillation, or, as we say,
as if it were dead beat, and there is no ballistic error. But im actual practice it is
found that when a ship turns in its course, and especially when it describes
a quadrant or semi-circle, an oscillation is set up in any gyro-compass. Mr. Brown
discovered this to be due to the methods of damping employed, and mathematics
shows that this is the case. This he calls the damping error. That this error
is due to damping and may therefore be got rid of in a simple way was now
published for the first time. On a merchant ship the damping error is of little
moment, but in a war vessel which is manceuvring it may be serious, as it may
swing the compass off its correct reading by several degrees.

Mr. Brown said that his difficulties had been endless. As soon as he had
what he thought to be a perfect compass an error would be discovered, and
months or years were spent in correcting it. The other inventors, who were more
or less satisfied with their own results, had no doubt met with the same diffi-
culties, but these errors were unknown not merely to new inventors but even to

420 EVENING DISCOURSES.

Admiralty compass experts in all countries. The lecturer considered that he
was doing general good, and was not doing himself much harm in disclosing the
knowledge he had spent so much time and money in obtaining.

The greatest of these errors was what he called the quadrantal error; its
elimination has had more to do with drastic changes of design in all forms
of gyro-compass than anything else. When a ship’s course is neither N. nor S.
nor W. nor E., but between these directions, and particularly N.W. or N.E.
or §.W. or S.E., and if she rolls steadily, the compass gradually gets away
from the north, setting itself sometimes with an error of 20°. Mr. Brown’s
popular explanation of this phenomenon and its remedy are too long for an
abstract. They may be briefly put as follows: It has long been known (see
Evans and Smith, 1881, Phil. Trans.) that to avoid this error there must be
dynamic balance (that is the moment of inertia A of the gyro about OA, the
axis of the wheel, must be equal to the moment of inertia B about OB, a horizontal
axis at right angles to the first).1_ Auschittz certainly knew this in 1911, but he
tried in vain to get dynamic balance, and his use of many gyroscopes in one
compass was an attempt to get round the difficulty, but it resulted in great com-
plexity. Mr. Brown saw that it-was impossible to get dynamic balance, because
although B was fixed and definite, A depended upon the rate of rolling of the
ship. If there were absolutely no friction at the pivots of the wheel the inertia
of the wheel would form no part of A and balance would be possible, but there
is always some such friction, and the inertia of the wheel is more or less added
to A, so that A is variable and its balance is impossible. But a careful study
of terms usually, neglected in the mathematical theory showed that whatever A
and B might be, there would be no quadrantal error if the vibratory angular
motion about OA could be made to differ in phase from the motion about OB
by a quarter period. Before he had a mathematical reason for this he had
constructed a form of gyiro-compass quite different from what he had hitherto
been trying, and by intuition and good fortune he found that it had no
quadrantal error. Later, he found that it fulfilled this mathematical condition.
But the intuition and success came before the mathematics. It is always wise,
however, to get as good dynamic balance as possible by a symmetricad disposition
of masses, and also to minimise both the angular motions. This discovery of

. the cause of the quadrantal error and its correction are here made public for the
first time.

Besides well-known simple apparatus, Mr. Brown exhibited his master compass
which had been turned quite away from the north before the lecture. There
were two very visible repeaters, and there might have been many more, which
faithfully copied the master compass. One of these repeaters drew a well-
damped curve showing how the master compass was gradually getting into its
proper north position where it would remain so long as the wheel rotated.
One of the repeaters, called the steering repeater, had a compass card in which,
near the lubber line, the divisions of the card were four times as large as usual ;
in fact, one degree was really represented by four degrees, giving four times as
much accuracy in steering, besides giving less strain on the eyes. Its construction
and the construction of the other exhibits were easy to understand by mere
inspection. The lecture was illustrated by many lantern slides. As the readers
of this abstract cannot see the master compass (Mr. Brown exhibited one detached
from its binnacle) here is a brief description. Instead of letting gravity, act as
with a pendulous weight, Mr. Brown has two bottles connected by a horizontal
tube and containing oil. The wheel in its case is really a blower, and air comes
under pressure to a valve to establish a pressure difference between the bottles,
which is proportional to the tilt, so that the difference of weights of oil in the
bottles is proportional to the tilt. The action is just the same as that of a
pendulous weight. Another, smaller, pair of bottles is acted upon in just the
opposite sense, so as to oppose the first pair, but the tube connecting these
smaller bottles is greatly constricted ; it results that the oscillations are damped,

+ Mr. Brown illustrated dynamic balance by suspending a child’s hoop by a
string and swinging it to the north and south. The hoop sets itself with its
plane east and west. Then he fixed a similar hoop at right angles to the first
and swung the combination to show that it did not tend to set itself in any
direction. It is now in dynamic balance.

ae

EVENING DISCOURSES. 421

and the curve drawn during the lecture by one of the repeaters showed how very
effective the damping is. : :

The gyro case and bottle system is supported on knife edges (on the level of
the centre of gravity) on a vertical ring which is supported below on a friction-
less mounting (the oil pump), and above carries the compass card. The whole is
carried on gymbals and an outer row of springs to take up shock.

A second air jet is employed to work the repeaters. It acts upon a pair of
contact-making vanes, and these contacts, through the agency of ‘ the controller,’
which is fixed on the switchboard, work the repeaters and a step-by-step motor
which forces round a follow-up ring to keep the contact-making vanes always
opposite the air jet. When the compass is fixed to a rolling table which imitates
the rolling of a ship it is interesting to see that the motion of the oil in the larger
bottles is a quarter period behind the roll, whereas the pendulous motion
synchronises with the roll. This is the reason, why there is no quadrantal error.

The idea of a gyro-compass is old, but Anschiitz deserves great credit for
first carrying out the idea. He knew that the directive action of the earth
was exceedingly feeble, and he had amazing courage in placing the instrument on
a rolling, pitching, plunging ship. One of the Brown compasses on a flagship
in stormy weather in the North Sea about a year ago was subjected to particularly
accurate observation, and it was found never to depart more than one degree
from the true direction.

The reader of this abstract is under the disadvantage that he cannot see
the experiments or lantern slides, or the whole compass or its parts, and at two
places short explanations by the abstractor have been given instead of the longer
popular illustrated explanations of the lecturer.

422, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. W. Wuitaker, F.R.S. (Chairman), Mr.
WILFRED MARK Wess (Secretary), the Rev. J. O. Bevan,
Sir EpwarRD BRABROOK, Sir H. G. ForpHam, Mr. A. L.
Lewis, the Rev. T. R. R. Stepsinc, Mr. Mark Li. SyKzs,
and the PRESIDENT and GENERAL OFFICERS of the Association.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE Committee reports that the following are the officers of the Con-
ference of Delegates, to be held at Bournemouth: President, Lorp
Montacu or Beauuigeu; Vice-President, Mr. Witiiam Dauz, F.S.A.;
and Secretary, Mr. Witrrep Marx Wess, F.L.S. ; and that the follow-
ing programme has been arranged :—

“Atmospheric Pollution of Towns,’ suggested by the Rochdale
Literary and Scientific Society, and introduced by Dr. J. S.
Owens, M.D., A.M.I.C.E.

“The Measurement of Rain,’ suggested by the Hertfordshire
Natural History Society, and introduced by Mr. Care
SALTER.

“The Importance of including Geography in the Curriculum for
Higher Education,’ suggested by the Manchester Geographi-

cal Society, and introduced by Mr. T. W. F. Parxryson,
M.Sce., F.G.S.

The Geologists’ Association has been admitted as an Affiliated
Society, and the Blackburn Naturalists’ Society as an Associated
Society.

The Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of 501.

Report of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies, held
at Bournemouth on Thursday, September 11, and Friday, Septem-
ber 12, 1919.

President: Lorp Monraau or BEAULIEU.
Vice-President: Wuiuuu1am Dats, F.S.A.
Secretary: WiLFRED Marx Wess, F.L.S.
The President welcomed the delegates to Bournemouth, and called upon Mr. —
Whitaker to propose a vote of condolence to Mrs. Hopkinson on the death of
Mr. John Hopkinson which reads as follows :—
The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies desires to express
its condolence with Mrs. Hopkinson and her daughters on the death
of Mr. John Hopkinson.

i eee eee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 423

He was the founder of this Conference, and its first Chairman, in 1880, ever
since which time he has aided greatly in its progress and organisation,
and he was President in 1917.

This was seconded by the Rev. J. O. Bevan and carried.

The Secretary, reported that the Kent’s Cavern Committee had met, that
Sir W. Boyd Dawkins had been added to this number, that over £100 had been
received as donations, and that steps were being taken to ascertain what was
feasible in the matter.

The President then read his Address as follows :—

Roads Ancient and Modern. By Brigadier-General Lorp Monvaau,
AJ.C.E., A.M.1I.C.E. (Member of the Road Board, Adviser on
Mechanical Transport Services in India).

I make no excuse for selecting roads as the subject of my address to you
to-day. Roads are now, as ever, a good general test of the degree of civilisation
to which a nation has attained, and at the moment in the United Kingdom com-
pared with railways they are of equal, if not of greater, importance to the
country.

I do not propose in this address to deal at any length with the comparative
merits of roads ard railways, or with recent controversies in regard to the new
Ministry of Transport, more than to say that amongst the majority of road
lovers and road users, the placing of roads under the domination of a Ministry
composed almost entirely of railway officials is a retrograde step. In reference
to this point it should be remembered that railways have only existed for the
short period of about eighty to ninety years. Now, with much altered conditions,
especially with the recent increase in the cost of labour employed by railways,
and therefore the cost of handling of goods, it is doubtful whether railways can
without artificial help given in the form of subsidies or otherwise, hope to
retain a considerable proportion of the traffic which they have been accustomed
to carry. -For many purposes road transport in this small island of ours will
be in the future the cheapest and most convenient method of carrying passengers
and goods. We are, however, in a transition stage, and nothing but practical
everyday experience and economic facts can decide how much traffic is to be
road borne or railway borne. It is to be hoped that the new Ministry will show
signs of rising above the pro-railway bias with which it is credited, and realise
not only the nature of roads and road transport, but the political and social
importance of roads as compared with other means of transport.

The history of road development is long and interesting. In the earliest
historical times, the means of communication were probably mere foot tracks
across deserts, through jungles, and over mountains. In many cases the tracks
of large wild animals, such as elephants, buffalo, and deer, formed the only
path along which the human being could go, and proof of this is to be seen
to-day in certain countries where thick jungle still exists, and where these
animal-made paths form regular paths for human beings as well. This may be
considered to be the earliest and first stage in the history and development of
roads and locomotion upon them.

The second stage may be said to have begun when pack animals began to be
used, and horses, donkeys, mules and oxen were driven along the footpaths by.
primeval man, who had tamed these animals and made them useful in the
conveyance of himself and his goods. ‘These early pack roads were often made
over swampy places by means of logs or brush wood, and primitive bridges over
streams consisted of the trunks of fallen trees. Then there were roads over rocky
passes, like the Buddhist paths in Northern India, which were made by heating
the rock underneath by: wood fires and then pouring water upon it so that
it split and disintegrated. Some of these early paths hewn out of the rock—
the Malakand path, for instance—can be seen to-day, well engineered with
a more or less even gradient, leading from one valley over the watershed to
another, or up to the remote forests of the higher Himalayas.

After this period we come to the third stage in roads, when it occurred to
man to place upon the path or track stones or gravel, or earth, taken from near

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494 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

by to fill up the holes in the road and to make a firmer footing for man or beast
passing over.

The fourth stage may be said to have begun with the coming of the wheel.
What suggested the use of the wheel first can only: be conjectured, but the rolling
of a log down a hillside, the ease with which a circular stone will jump over
obstacles may have been the germ of the idea. and when the wheel came every
road used by wheeled traffic began to assume a far greater importance. Probably
the earliest record of wheeled traffic is to be found in the Bible in the constant
references to chariots throughout the Old Testament, about 4000 years ago.
There is probably no record of wheeled vehicles older than this, for the most
ancient nations with which we are acquainted, the Assyrians and the Egyptians,
both used pack animals, horses, donkeys or camels, for crossing the deserts which
surrounded their countries. There was also much use of water carriage on their
rivers, such as the Nile, and the Euphrates and the Tigris which ran through the
middle of Egyptian and Assyrian territory.

We may consider that the fourth stage in road development began in Roman
times. when towards the end of that Empire an effort was made to make a road
of solid blocks of stone, such as we see in the still existing remains at Pompeii
to-day. The original track of some of these roads still exists to-day: all over
Europe, as well as in this country. In those Roman days, roads were largely
influenced. as indeed thev have been in recent times in the case of many
continental powers, by military considerations. For instance, roads were made
in Roman times not along valleys, but along the ridges of hills, in order that
the troops using them might always have the advantage of being on the higher
ground. There was also probably an engineering reason for taking the roads
along the uplands. in that the higher ground was the better drained, the less
liahle to flood. and provided a firmer road bed. Instances of this characteristic
of Roman roads are to be seen in Watling Street, which teads from the direction
of Edinburgh to the direction of Durham. This old road went over the summits
of most of the hills in between, such as the Cheviots. Again, the old Roman
way between Winchester and Silchester crossed some of the highest points of the
Hampshire Downs in a direct line. There are other roads on the Continent made
in a direct line, ignoring the desirability of better gradients. and refraining
from using valleys as the naturally graded means of access between watershed
and watershed. These Roman roads and their consequential effects formed one
of the most important direct results of Roman civilisation. This influence lasted
right through the earlier periods of European history. Through the Middle Ages
no particular attention was paid to roads for vehicles except when military
requirements were urgent. The use of pack horses was the rule; roads the
excention.

The fifth stage came when our ancestors floundered over roads which were
in winter often nothing better than semi-morasses. Thus thev remained until
the coaching era began, some 150 years ago, when the necessity for conveying
mails and passengers at what were considered then high speeds—an average of
eicht to ten miles a» hour—bronght about revolution in road construction.

The sixth stage began with the work of Telford and Macadam in the middle
of the nineteenth century and their influence exists till to-day. It is a curious
and interesting fact that just when roads in 1830-40 were beginning to be put
into order and road traffic was coming into its own, and the earliest motor-cars
were being tried, the railway era should ‘at that moment have commenced. One
cannot fail also to see the modern parallel, when roads and transport upon
them are once more just reaching a very high state of development that a
Ministrv composed almost entirely of railway officials should have been allowed
by Parliament to control the future destinies of the road.

Maradam’s principle. which has stood the test of time, was that no broken
stone larger than could be passed through a 2$-in. ring should be used in road
making. He also urged that there should be adequate foundation on which the
broken stone should be placed, that the whole should be consolidated by
rolling, and the road should be nlanned with a camber sufficient to drain its
surface. All these points were thought out and insisted upon by Macadam,
who may be justly called the pioneer and father of modern road engineering.
It is also interesting to note that it has lately been recognised that the permanent

Syop

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 425

way: of railways should be constructed on much the same principle, namely, made
of broken stone on which the sleepers are laid. Railway companies, in this
respect many years behind the proved practice of road experts, are now
beginning to realise that a permanent way so made provides a better road bea,
costing less to keep in order, and one that diminishes the strain and wear upon
locomotives and rolling stock. In other works, the principles of Macadam are
being tardily applied to the road bed of the principal railways nearly 100 years
after Macadam’s era, and the old-fashioned system of ballasting with anything
handy, such as water gravel, sand, or even clay or common earth, is being
abandoned.

The seventh stage of road development may be said to have commenced with
the advent of the motor-car in 1897, some twenty-two years ago. As one ot
the pioneers of those days, I can remember when many of our main roads twenty
years ago were partly covered with grass which had invaded the metalling
and was growing year by year towards, and even in, the centre of the road.
In those days the through traffic to be met in a day’s Journey along many miles
of main road through the Midlands and the South of England and Scotland and
Wales was almost nil. Roads and road transport by horse vehicle had been
killed by railway competition and by neglect. Wherever railways were available
for use, horse-drawn traffic had ceased to exist, at any rate for distances exceed-
ing fifteen miles. It was too slow and inconvenient to be much used for dong dis-
tances, and therefore mechanical vehicles in the early years of this century found
many important roads deserted and neglected. About the year 1900 the more pro-
gressive and far-seeing among road surveyors began to realise that the coming
of the mechanical vehicle must mean the revival of public interest in roads,
the increased use of roads, and the necessity for further investigation as to how
it might be possible to make roads more durable. Bituminous roads, water-
proofed yet somewhat elastic in their surface, were tried, and after initial
experiments this system began to prove itself. Gradually all over the United
Kingdom, to say nothing of the more progressive nations of the Continent, the
use of tar and bituminous substances greatly increased. To-day, the main roads
of thig country are for the greater part of them composed or surfaced with
either a bituminous material or are tarred at regular intervals to preserve the
crust, and keep down dust and reduce expenditure on maintenance. A good
bituminous road, once made, is undeniably cheaper than the old-water-bound
road to maintain. In towns the diminution of scavenging required, and the non-
filling up of drains with the detritus of the road, have also saved much extra
expense in the maintenance of a bituminous over an ordinary water-bound sur-
face. Upon main roads in country districts where the wear on the road is
much less than in a town, the durability of the bituminous surface, though it
has not yet been scientifically ascertained, is undoubtedly greater than was for
a long time supposed. Once more in this instance economy and efficiency have
gone hand in hand.

The modern idea of direct through road communication, that is, roads between
important points far apart, such as London and Edinburgh, London and Holy-
head, London and Bristol, was originated in this country by Telford, who was
at one time employed by, the Government Commissioners charged with making
Highland roads. Telford and his pupils rightly planned main roads to avoid
minor towns and villages, and, after the manner of the great Napoleonic roads
in France, main roads went as straight as possible between towns of importance.
The Great North Road is an example of this between London and the northern
end of Leeming Lane on the borders of County Durham. Ample width was
another feature of these main roads, the waste of the highway, as it was called—
that is, the portion of the highway outside the metalled portion of it—being
used in those days by horsemen, and nowadays for the deposit of road metal for
repair purposes. In some cases this waste was used for the purpose of extracting
from beneath suitable metal for repair, thus cheapening the cost of maintenance
of the road at a time when carts, horses and men were no doubt keenly occupied
in agriculture and difficult to obtain for road-making purposes.

It is a scandalous but undeniable fact that since the days of Telford and
Macadam no new main roads have been made in this country, neither has any
considerable mileage of secondary road been constructed. And it is not as if

426 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919,

during the last twenty, years development of the country by-roads had not been
needed socially and commercially. The old crooked lanes of our forefathers,
which had perforce become the main roads in many cases, full of dangerous
corners, were seldom direct routes between important points. But some of these
have endured till to-day. All over the country, it can be said with truth,
hundreds of miles of unnecessary road mileage are to-day in use owing to the
fact that new main roads have not been constructed, suitable for tratlic and
leading direct from place to place.

I may mention here that the Road Board, whose ten years of good and useful
work has just come to an end in consequence of the formation of the Transport
Ministry, had several schemes for the construction of new main roads in hand,
especially in and near London. The revenues of the Road Board, which this
year would probably have amounted to over three and a-half millions sterling,
derived from taxes on carriages and on motor spirit, would also have helped
much in new road construction. These revenues have now been taken away from
the Road Board and absorbed into the Exchequer. The war has justified many
things, but the breaking of the Parliamentary, bargain made in 1908, by which
the taxes on mechanical and other vehicles and on motor spirit were to be used
for road purposes, is entirely unjustifiable. This three to four millions a year
was improving the roads at no cost to the ratepayer or the State, and it was
but mere justice that those who were using the roads were helping to pay for
them. This sound practice should be revived at the earliest possible moment,
but as Parliament has recently allowed the subordination of roads to railway
interests in the recent Transport Bill, it can only be by the steady work of those
who believe in the future of roads that Parliament can be brought to see once
more the importance of road questions.

As to the future of roads in this country, had it not been for this recent
regrettable step on the part of the Government, it would have been possible
to speak in hopeful terms. The daily increasing importance of the scientific
investigation of problems of road transport and of road construction is obvious.
But it is to be feared now that politics will begin to affect road questions.
Hitherto the Road Board has not been influenced in giving grants by any
political consideration. But in future, here as in some other countries, road
grants will undoubtedly be used as bribes by unscrupulous candidates and
members of Parliament. Soon we may; live to read: ‘ Vote for So-and-so, who
has promised to secure larger grants for docal roads!’ Members of Parliament
will very soon find out that the votes of ratepayers can be influenced by the
making or non-making of new roads out of public moneys, by the amount of
grants given for the maintenance or improvement of existing roads, and the
building of wider and stronger bridges. They will be tempted to use their
opportunities of political pressure in Parliament to gain votes at the expense of
road efficiency or proper road policy. In the early railway days members of
Parliament often tried to please their constituencies by supporting or opposing
construction of railways. It is to be feared that roads will be used in the future
in the game of party politics. ‘Graft’ instead of merit will, I fear, often decide
future questions concerning roads and road transport, just as railway policy in
some countries is one of the chief planks in the programmes of political parties.

There is another aspect of roads which is more attractive than that just
discussed. ‘ How is the road of the future likely to be made?’ Quite recently
several new forms of artificial or treated road-stone have been the subject of
experiments. Some of these are merely improved forms of slag or hard stone,
heated and then immersed in a bituminous substance ; others are made artificially,
like wood blocks, stone setts, etc., and are intended to be dressed and laid down
in varying fashions. Some of these consist of rough glass blocks, which promise
’ to-provide a durable kind of surface, far less slippery than wood blocks or
asphalte, and wear-resisting in a high degree. With a road made of this kind
of material the camber need be very slight, a point of great advantage to all
traffic, especially horse-drawn. Some of these new road materials also provide
an outlet for the use of by-products now wasted. Kleimflaster, as used on the
Continent and now to be seen on the Chelsea Embankment, is worthy of a more
extended trial. Then there is the road made of small stone setts carefully laid
on sand or other foundation, as in France, now to be seen on the new direct

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 427

road between Paris and St. Germains. There are also new possibilities in metal
plateways, with lengths of steel plate laid down, one set for the up and the
other for the down traffic, on main roads, over which various types of mechanical
vehicles would run. All these are efforts to get away from road surfaces which
present great resistance to the passage over them of wheels. The barbaric
system of spreading loose stones and leaving them to be crushed in by, the
traffic itself is, I hope, dying out even in remote country districts. Then, also,
the dirt and wastefulness of roads made with water-bound material is being
realised. Broken stone or gravel consolidated by water and traffic only leads to
speedy deterioration by: weather and wear, and, in addition, there is the inevit-
able constant scavenging to remove dust and mud inseparable from non-water-
proofed roads.

Nearly everyone talks of the wear of the road without realising what the
expression means. The wear of the road is not caused, as many people think, by
the wheels merely rolling over the surface of it, though on weak roads heavy
loads on too narrow tyres crush the materials of which the surface is composed.
The main cause of the wear of the road comes from what is called the ‘inter-
attrition’ of the stones beneath the surface. When the surface yields to the
horse’s hoof or to the weight caused by the loaded wheel, something has to move
beneath, and the stones which lie between the surface and the foundation are
thus rubbed one against the other. The result is that their edges are ground
away, a process which produces dust and mud, which in their turn come up
through the interstices of the stones to the surface. It is an interesting fact
that stones taken out from below the surface of the road often show signs of
wear greater than those actually on the surface, owing to this grinding action.

As regards the evolution of the road vehicle of the future, in a few years’
time, except for agricultural purposes, the horse-drawn vehicle as a means of
conveyance of goods will, in my opinion, be extinct. The horse will, nevertheless,
always exist for riding purposes, and to a certain extent for agriculture, but as
an animal he is unfitted by nature for draught purposes, and his range and
mileage is very limited compared with the mechanically propelled vehicle.
More and more, too, will the use of mechanical transport on roads be regarded
with favour, owing to the immense advantage of the conveyance of passengers
and goods from place of origin to destination effected by this and by no other
means. The railway station is rarely the place of origin or the destination of
either passengers or goods. You have to move yourself or your goods to a
station by means of the road or road transport, and from the station by like
means. There are thus at least ten to twelve stages in the progress of a parcel
from a shop in London to a house in the country. Constant transference by
human hands means much cost, especially with the high price of all labour of
to-day. Moreover, while railway transport is essentially suitable for goods in
large quantities or for very: heavy or very fast traffic, it is eminently unsuitable
for cross-country journeys or for short distances and for conveyance from manu-
factory to the ship, or from producer to consumer. In this country, too, where
distances are comparatively small to the ports from inland producing centres,
there is hardly any great manufacturing district which is beyond the reach of a
single day’s run with a mechanical road vehicle. From Birmingham to Tilbury,
125 miles, probably is the longest distance from an important commercial to an
important shipping point. The great manufacturing centres of Lancashire and
Yorkshire are close to their ports of Hull on the one side and Liverpool on the
other, for England is here not more than seventy miles broad. The initial
advantage of railway transport, namely, the ease of hauling, requiring, say, the
small tractive force of 12 to 15 lb. per ton, with a clean steel wheel on a clean
steel rail is in itself largely neutralised by the immensely increasing cost of the
labour required to operate the railway and handle the goods. On the other hand.
on a well-made road the tractive force may be taken at about 45 lb. tractive force
per ton, three times as much as that of a steel wheel on a steel rail. But in
these days the cost of this extra power produced by steam or gas or motor spirit
is insignificant in comparison to the cost of increased labour. The initial
advantage therefore of transport on rails is now largely neutralised. It is not too
much to say also that railway transport must become year by year dearer. unless
radical changes in the methods of operation are introduced, such as the adoption

428 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

of Mr. Gattie’s scheme, or some genius arises in the railway world who will
reorganise and think out afresh on an enirely new basis, methods of railway
operation. There is no sign whatever of such a genius at the moment, and
Government control or other form of nationalisation will as in other cases tend
to stifle progress and discourage valuable inventions.

The coming of the new road transport era will, I fear, be hampered by, the
threatened establishment of a Government monopoly of transport. But even
governments and ministries, however bureaucratic, must bow in the course of
time to facts. As a general rule, it may be said that railways tend to concen-
trate population, while the growth of road transport tends to diffuse population.
Railways naturally dislike being bothered with small country stations, and the
expense of providing small centres of production with expensive stations, staffs,
sidings, etc., is often not justified from a purely financial point of view. Road
transport, on the other hand, being available wherever there are roads, good,
indifferent, or even bad, can go anywhere. In Normandy and Brittany before
the war, from farm lane to farm lane, from smal] holding to small holding, and
from village to village, mechanical road transport picked up produce and left
goods in return, with an ease and cheapness impossible to railways. Light rail-
ways are from their fixed nature and high cost of operation inferior to mechanical
road transport for country districts. Road transport alone possesses the advan-
tage of carriage from door to door without intermediate handiing, no time-table
is necessary, nO expensive junctions, no signalling, no platforms, no expensive
bureaucratic staffs, and the amount of capital required to start a local road
transport company is represented by a few hundred pounds compared with
hundreds of thousands required for railway—even light railway—development.
The number of tons per hour which can be conveyed over a good main road
compared with the tonnage over even a double line of railwayi is greater, and
from point of origin to destination and faster. In short, railways will have to
meet the competition of road transport more and more, and it is interesting
to note that Mr. Robert Williams, Secretary of the National Union of Railway-
men and National Transport Federation, in an article in a recent book called
‘The Limits of State Industrial Control,’ foresees and appears to regret that road
transport competition will be severe in regard to railways, and therefore dis-
advantageous to his union. ‘If the railways are nationalised,’ he says, ‘the
State will be faced with the competition of road transport,’ and he deprecates
the possibility of this occurring. In other words, natural and scientific evolution
in regard to transport is to be barred, in order that railways may be run for the
benefit of certain unions or of a theory of State control. The interests of the
producer and consumer are to be ignored, that abstract entity, the State, is to
operate if necessary at a loss, and the development of competition is to be limited,
if necessary, by law. Further discussion of this aspect of the question would be
out of place on a scientific occasion such as this.

I cannot conclude my address without some reference to the romantic, poetical
and artistic aspects of the road. In the Old Testament the road is always the
symbol of something beautiful and useful. Throughout the Old and New
Testaments the most famous and moving incidents have all taken place in or
near the road—roads which we picture to ourselves from youth up. It is along
the road that we go to be christened, married and buried. Roads winding over
hills and through dales are not only means of travelling but emblems of one of
the conquests by man over natura] forces, and roads over the face of the world
show forth all the extraordinary intelligence and industry of the human race.
It was Ruskin who held that the making of a road was the finest work and
monument which a man could leave behind him. If we may parallel the well-
known saying that ‘the man is worthy of his country who makes two blades of
grass grow where one grew before,’ one might say to-day that he who makes
roads twice as good as they, have been. who makes them fit for the transport of his
country, is as great a benefactor as he who produces more out of the soil. There
is something wonderful but indefinable in the charm of a great road which can
never be understood by those who have not felt it. It suggests adventure; it
stimulates imagination; it brings at eventide the idea of homecoming, of repose
after work. Coeval with the earliest civilisation and coeternal with mankind,
roads in the future will be valued more and more by the community. Roads will

‘

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8

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 429

in the future as in the past form a just criterion of the intelligence and
civilisation of every country.

It is hoped therefore that every. citizen will prize the freedom of the road,
will be zealous in insisting on a higher standard of construction and maintenance,
and resist any attempts by whomsoever made to subordinate to political or rival
interests the future development and use of our highways. ;

Sir Epwarp Brazsroox, C.B. (Balham Antiquarian and Natural History
Society), proposed a vote of thanks to the President for his eloquent and in-
teresting address. He also congratulated Lord Montagu on his share in a
patriotic movement that had done much to restore to public enjoyment the
beauties of the roads of the country, and of the scenery which they opened up.

Mr. Wim Waitaxer, F.R.S. (Croydon Natural History and Scientific
Society and Essex Field Club), seconded the motion.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club) suggested that
an expression of sympathy should be given to the President in regard to the
anxiety he must feel at the serious illness of Lady Montagu.

The motion was carried unanimously.

Mr. H. M. Prarnaver (Museums’ Association) pointed out that at present
there was too much very heavy traffic on our roads, mostly hauled by traction
engines, which was spoiling the roads and seriously shaking small houses. All
such traffic, he said, should be put upon rails.

Dr. F. A. Barner, F.R.S. (Wimbledon Natural History Society) asked the
President to express his opinion as to the value of tramways as road-users in
comparison with other forms of road transport.

Mr. THomas SuHepparRD (Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union and Hull Geological
Society) proposed that the following resolution from the Conference should be
forwarded to the Chancellor of the Exchequer :—

That the Conference of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies of the
British Association asks that the taxes derived from motor spirit and
carriages should once more be ear-marked for the improvement of the roads,
and urges that} in future these taxes be entirely devoted to road
improvement.

Mr. James E. Lipprarp (Bournemouth Naturalists’ Science Society) seconded
the motion, which was carried.

The Presipent said that omnibuses were cheaper to run than tramways,
but that much money was invested in the latter, and that they could not be
scrapped, and that all means of transport which would bring workers in and out
of towns must be utilised.

Dr. J. Owens (Honorary Secretary to the Advisory Committee on Atmo-
spheric Pollution) then read a paper on ‘ Atmospheric Pollution.’

Atmospheric Pollution.

It is hardly necessary to devote much time to bringing out the importance
of the subject of Atmospheric Pollution; it may be well, however, to indicate
briefly a few of the aspects of the question which make it one we cannot afford
to neglect. Perhaps the most important effect which atmospheric pollution
produces is on the health of people. We are not designed to breathe impure
air; although provision is made in the respiratory apparatus for discharging
solid impurities, this is not capable of coping with the large quantities of
impurity present in the air of some of our cities.

It is now well recognised that all transmissible diseases are conveyed by
means of solid particles, and, speaking generally, it may, I think, be said that
the importance of solid suspended matter in the atmosphere is vastly greater
than that of gaseous impurities. Arising out of this, the need for reconsidering
the basis upon which the air required for ventilating buildings is fixed should

_ be recognised.

Other important effects to be considered are: The obstruction of light due
to suspended impurities, and the effect on buildings and vegetation of the deposit
from the air.

In relation to aviation, the question of visibility is of vital importance, as

_ well as the effect in producing fogs, and these aspects of the question call for
careful investigation.

430 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

In Pamphlet No. 34, published by the Ministry of Reconstruction, on page 13
it is stated that the smoke from a single factory chimney, about 20 miles to
the west of London, could be traced and recognised as far as 30 miles to the
east of London, i.e., 50 miles from its source. The smoke from this chimney
formed one of the most conspicuous landmarks in the South of England for
, flying machines. This shows the importance of even a single source of impurity.

Again, there is the fuel-economy side of the question. As will be seen later
from the composition of the deposit, a large proportion of the impurity of the
air is derived from incomplete combustion of fuel and represents waste.

I do not propose to delay further over this aspect of the question, as its
importance from different points of view has already been brought out, and is,
I think, fairly well recognised. It may be well, hawaver before proceeding
further to get some definition of what we mean by atmospheric pollution.

Normal air may be regarded as consisting of a mixture of various gases in
the following proportions :—

Oxygen . : - . : P . 20°94
Nitrogen . 5 ; : ; , pepeces i)
Argon ‘ . : j : 3 . 0°94
Carbon Dioxide 5 ; : ‘ . 0:03
Helium, Krypton, Neon, etc. : . traces

100-00

There also exists a varying proportion of watery vapour, and the term pollu-
tion may be regarded as applying to anything that disturbs the above-described
constitution of the air. But in the present connection pollution is interpreted
as relating only to such matter, solid, liquid or gaseous, as is not included
in the above list of components.

There are certain elements of pollution deposited from the air which may be
regarded as entirely foreign to the atmosphere. These are tarry matter, car-
bonaceous matter derived from smoke, and sulphates. Other impurities, such as
organic matter of vegetable or animal origin, mineral matter derived from dust
stirred up by the wind, chlorine from sea-spray, and ammonia from decaying —
vegetable matter, or possibly other sources, can hardly be regarded as abnormal
impurities. At any rate, in the present connection the impurities which we
shall devote most attention to are those which are of artificial origin.

By far the largest proportion of such are derived from incomplete combustion
of fuel, although there are other sources, such as road dust, fumes from chemical ~
factories, and the like, which contribute their quota.

For the purpose of comparison it will be best to take the air of some country
station far removed from sources of pollution as representing what we may
regard as practically pure air. Although doubtless there are other places which
would fulfil the necessary conditions, the only one at which observations are
being taken is Malvern Wells, and it will be seen from the figures in this paper
what a difference there is between the purity of the air there and in most of
our cities.

Work of the Committee.

It is impossible to devote more time to the general aspects of the question,
so I propose to describe in this paper the work of the Advisory Committee on
Atmospheric Pollution, and to bring out some of the results obtained during the
last five years of its operations.

This Committee was formed in 1912, and has published four Annual Reports,
commencing in 1914, the fifth Report being now at the printers. To avoid
misunderstanding it must be stated clearly that the function of this Committee
has been to investigate and measure only, with a view to providing accurate —
data on the question of degree of pollution; it has been no part of the Com-
mittee’s work to consider methods of prevention. The Committee is now work-
ing under a grant from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
and the method adopted is briefly as follows :—

The work of devising methods of investigation and of co-ordinating inquiry, —
as well as compiling and reporting upon results, has been the duty of the

=

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 431

Advisory Committee. The actual work of taking observations at the different
stations has been done by or under the local sanitary authorities. The Committee
have now about twenty-five stations scattered over different parts of the country,
from each of which monthly reports are received upon the quantity of impurity
deposited in a standard gauge. Blank reports are sent to each station for filling
in, and these are returned monthly to the Committee’s office for filing.

There have been three main lines of investigation followed :—

(1) The measurement of deposited impurity.
(2) The measurement of suspended impurity.
(3) The measurement of acidity.

Most of the data accumulated by the Committee up to the present have been
on deposited impurity. The investigation of suspended impurity and acidity
of the air is not in such an advanced state, and the Committee are at present at
work upon the problem of the best methods of investigation to adopt.

Deposited Impurity.

The special standard gauge devised by the Committee for the measurement
of deposited impurity consists of a circular gauge vessel of cast iron, coated
with a vitreous enamel, supported in a suitable stand. This vessel exposes a
catchment area of about four square feet, and receives the total deposit from
the air, which, together with the rain, is passed into bottles fixed underneath the
gauge vessel.

At the end of each month the gauge vessel is washed down with some of
the water collected, and the water and deposit collected in the bottles during
the month is removed for analysis. The insoluble matter is filtered off or
allowed to deposit, and the soluble matter estimated separately. A complete
analysis of the deposit is not aimed at, but it is divided into the following
constituents :—

Rainfall; insoluble matter, which is sub-divided into tarry matter soluble
in CS2, carbonaceous matter other than tar, and ash; soluble matter, which is
sub-divided into loss on ignition, and ash. The sum of the soluble and insoluble
being returned as ‘total solids.’

Although a complete analysis is not made of the soluble matter, certain of
its constituents are further estimated. These are sulphates as SOs, chlorine as
Cl, and ammonia as NHs.

All the constituents of the deposited matter are returned as shown in the
blank report form herewith. The volume of water is given in litres and mm.
of depth. Other constituents are shown in grammes, percentage of total solids,
and in metric tons per square kilometre, the latter form being chosen in view
of the Committee’s hope that the investigation will become international.

In the following table the composition of the deposit at four representative
stations is given.

This table speaks for itself, and shows the great variation in the quantity and
composition of the deposit at different places.

A second table is included which shows for the last five years the total im-
purity: deposited from the air at different stations; the figures give mean monthly
deposits in metric tons per square kilometre. This table shows only the total
impurity, as this will be sufficient for the present purpose.

The division of the year into summer and winter has been adopted in all the
Committee’s Reports, as it was felt that this was a somewhat natural division
which should be followed.

Referring to Table II, we may compare the deposit at the different stations
with each other, and we may examine the figures for any variation from year to
year,

Although the War has interfered with the continuity of the observations at
many of the stations. and the blanks in Table II. are caused by the suspension
of observation at different places, the Committee has been fortunate in being
ble to carry on work during the whole period at about 25 stations. Observa-
_ will be renewed shortly at some at least of the places which suspended
work.

432 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1919.

No. of Report 00.000.
Meteorological Office, London.

Apvisory CoMMITTEE ON ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION.

REPORT. OF OBSERVATIONS FOR MONTH ENDING......---2----------------0-e-ee---> 10 eee
Gauge Not. 2 eet Renee on
Bencrec. eee Ae USE (ate APOE IA © Pe EOL Be: ‘
Factor ‘ F’ for gauge...
Collector............. F hae nay pee aaibborremereh 3: tered ahs Su Se.
Volume of Water collected. .............c.sccccccecceoeenecetceneeeeeees litres =e Millimetres of rainfall
Total Solids dissolved ....... Sek A hace EME as OMS Dk Pe ae grammes
dried @ 100° C.
Potalinsoluble ahatter Ie80o 7 -viley Talis A to aleewe
Total Solids collected ............0.2....-. grammes=............. tons per sq. kilometre
x of Total Metric Tons -
Grammes. | “golids per Square
P Kilometre.
CoMPOSITION oF UNDISSOLVED MATTER :—
Soluble in CSo (tarry matter) oi. c.eessesssssssecscee|[-eneeneceeneceeeeenens =o eae Fase ae KC
Combustible matter insoluble in CSo...---.....)| en ees oe i tea 4

Total undissolved matter.........

ComposITION oF DissoLvED MATTER :—

Sulphate/as(SOg: see ee Ae eee ee

Chlorine:as'C].._ epee Ree A

Ammonia as NHs

REMARKS :—

433

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

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CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 435

Referring to Table II, we find the highest mean monthly deposit recorded was
35 tons per square kilometre, or about 90 English tons per square mile at Rochdale
during the winter of 1917-18. The summer of the same year gave 34-62 tons per
square kilometre at Rochdale.

Oldham during the winter of 1914-15 gave a mean monthly deposit of 34-7 tons
per square kilometre.

The lowest deposit recorded was at Malvern and amounted to 1:69 tons per
square kilometre during the summer of 1915. The Malvern gauge is situated in
the open country at Malvern Wells, and may be taken as indicating what we
expect our country air to be like if uncontaminated artificially by the smoke and
dust of cities. Doubtless Malvern receives some pollution from the cities sur-
rounding, so that, strictly speaking, the air is not absolutely pure, but for our
present purpose we may regard it as representing country air.

During the winter of 1917-18, when Rochdale gave 35 tons per square kilometre,
St. Helens gave 21 and Malvern 2:12; thus the Rochdale deposit was over sixteen
times that of Malvern Wells, whilst St. Helens deposit was about ten times.

When we examine the table for evidence of improvement or otherwise we get
the following results, excluding the stations with only two years’ record :—

The Coatbridge figures show clear evidence of increasing impurity, as the rise
in Sergei of deposit during the five winters recorded ig very regular and
marked.

Glasgow shows a considerable drop in the amount of deposit in 1918-19 when
compared with previous years, and we may say, on the whole there is a tendency
there towards improvement,

Greenock, observing for three years only, showed a steady deterioration in
its air.

Leith, also for three years, indicated a steady, deterioration.

The other stations give no clear indication of improvement or deterioration
in the air over them. There are, of course, variations from year to year, but it
is impossible to say at this stage if a change in the 1918-19 figures represents
the beginning of a steady move in either direction.

It would seem from these figures that the shortage of coal and the rationing
‘order has not produced any very marked effect in purifying the air.

To get an idea of the relation which the different constituents of the deposited
impurity bear to each other, curves have been prepared for several years, giving
the average deposit of each element of pollution for each month for a group of
stations varying in number from year to year. These have been published in
the Comnuittee’s Reports.!

The scales for the different curves are not all the same; but a good idea of the

relationship of the different elements can be obtained from these curves. It
will be seen that the soluble impurities tend to vary together and have a distinct
elation to the amount of rainfall. In these curves the ordinates represent tons
per square kilometre except in the case of the rainfall, which is given in deci-
metres. These are plotted above the months, and so the seasonal variation is
brought out also. In all these curves it will be observed that the insoluble
ash is the only one showing a tendency towards a summer maximum ; for example,
nthe year ending March 31, 1919, insoluble ash made its highest deposit in May
and its lowest in August or September.
In dealing with the impurities deposited from the air we have to remember
that this does not tell us the whole story. There are suspended particles of
such small dimensions that they practically do not deposit and are carried over
very wide areas by the winds before suitable conditions for deposit are attained.
The measurement of deposited matter does, however, tell us what amount of
impurity is received from the air on buildings, plants, agricultural land, etc. The
more finely divided and permanently suspended impurity is, however, of great
mportance, and the investigation cannot be regarded as complete unless this
he also taken into account.

a First to Fifth Annual Reports, Advisory Committee on ‘ Atmospheric
oo obtainable from the Honorary Secretary, 47 Victoria Street, London,

436 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

It is probable that the larger particles of soot and dust are deposited com-
paratively near their source, and indeed there is some indication of this in the
quantity of matter deposited in the central] areas of cities as compared with
the suburbs.

Relation of Deposit to Rainfall.

There has been a suspicion for some time that a relation would be found
between the amount of deposited impurity and the quantity of rain. To
elucidate this question the deposit has been divided for several years into soluble
and insoluble matter, and these have been plotted for a group of stations against
rainfall. Curves for three years bearing on this point were exhibited.’
It was found that no regular relation could be discovered between the deposit
of insoluble matter and rainfall, whereas from the first there was indication
of some relationship between soluble deposit and rain.

In the curve for the year ending March 31, 1917, the soluble and insoluble
matter are both shown plotted over the rainfall, and it will be seen that there is
a tendency for the soluble matter to vary with the rainfall, the insoluble varying
independently.

This aspect was further dealt with by reducing the deposit at all stations
to a figure showing the quantity per 100 mm. of rain, and it was found that
such reduction did not produce any greater uniformity in the figures, but rather
the reverse, particularly for the insoluble constituents.

In the curve for the year ending March 31, 1918, three groups of stations
are plotted : Group A is for sixteen stations scattered over the country ; Group B
for three London stations; and C for nine Glasgow stations. In this case the
soluble matter only has been plotted, and it will be seen that there is still
the same indication of a direct relationship with the rainfall.

The line aB has been drawn throagh the points on the curve which fairly
represent the relationship, and this is given by the equation shown on the
curve, 1.e., calling soluble deposit in tons per square kilometre § and rainfall
in mm. R, the equation is

S = 0-058 R + 25.
For the year ending March 31, 1919, a similar curve was plotted, and a some-
what similar relationship appeared. The equation for this year was
S = 0:069 R + 2.
Again, for a group of four years plotted together an equation
5 = 0-081 R+ 1:5
was found to hold.

There is a general similarity between all these equations, but they are not
identical; all of them indicate, in the absence of rain, that there is a certain
amount of soluble deposit, represented by the constant at the end of the equation,
and that the total amount is some function of the rainfall plus this constant. Of
course, the amount brought down must also depend upon the quantity present
in the air; hence it is not to be expected that the relationship would be the
same for each year, and unless we could be sure that the conditions as to
quantity present were constant, we could not hope to establish a definite
relationship in this way.

Suspended Impurities.

The measurement of the suspended impurities has been the subject of —
considerable investigation by the Committee, and many methods have been
experimented with in order to obtain some suitable means of estimation With- —
out going through the various steps of the investigation, we shall simply consider
the methods as finally evolved up to the present.

It was found that the quantity of suspended matter present in the air was —
so very small as to preclude the possibility of any method involving weighing. —
We found that in London on an average day the suspended impurity varied
from about 15 to 30 mg. per 1,000 cub. ft. Taking the lower figure—that is,
15 mg. per 1,000 cub. ft. for London—the method used should be applicable
also to the country, where the quantity would be not more than about one-third —
of this. It was concluded, therefore, that an apparatus to give a reasonably
accurate result by weighing would have to handle a volume of air of at least —

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 437

2,000 cub. ft. Hence some other method was sought for, and this took the
form of a small filter, consisting of a pair of aspirating bottles, by which
two litres of air could be drawn through a disc of white filter paper g inch in
diameter ; a discoloured mark was left upon the disc, the depth of discoloration
depending upon the amount of impurity in the air. A standard filter was got
out on these lines, with which a record can be taken in about fifteen minutes,
and the quantity of impurity estimated by the aid of a scale of shades, which
scale has been calibrated by weighing, as described in the Committee’s third
Report for 1916-17.

As the nature of the impurity in cities is sufficiently alike, it was felt that
the records thus obtained would give a reasonably correct idea of the amount
of suspended impurity.

The subsequent development of this instrument took the form of an automatic
filter on the following lines :—

in this apparatus an aspirating vessel is provided, into which water is
admitted through a regulating cock at the bottom. A syphon is fixed inside
the vessel, which causes the water-level to oscillate at regular intervals between
two fixed levels in the vessel; thus, while the water is rising, air is driven out
of the vessel, and while it is falling air is aspirated into the vessel.

On the top of the instrument an entrance for air is provided of a fixed
diameter, over which revolves a disc of filter paper. Provision is made by
which this disc is held against the entrance during the time the air is being
drawn into the vessel. The disc is caused to revolve by a weight and string,
but the rate of its revolution is regulated by a stop which follows the hour hand
of a small clock placed above the disc. The force for clamping the disc is
obtained by a pressure-operated flexible diaphragm acting through a lever. The
records are given upon a disc of paper upon which the hours have already been
marked similarly to a clock-face, and each record is placed automatically
opposite the time at which it is taken. Thus the interval between records is
unimportant, although this is easily adjustable.

A sample of the latest form of this instrument was exhibited, and it is hoped
that useful information will be obtained by its use. Owing to war conditions,
it has not been possible to complete the automatic filter until this month; but
it is now ready, and the Committee hopes that it will be put to extensive use.

The calibration of the automatic filter is the same as the single-record instru-
ment, as both operate with a volume of two litres of air and filter this through
a $-inch disc of paper. The scale of shades enables the observer to read directly
the quantity of impurity in milligrams per cubic metre, as each unit of shade
number represents 0:32 mg. per cubic metre.

Acidity.

A special investigation into the acidity of the air has been undertaken, and
is being carried out by the Committee’s Research Chemist, Mr. G. M. Watson,
B.Se. The experimental work carried out is fully described in the Committee’s
fifth Report for the year ending March 31, 1919, which will shortly be published.

The great difficulty again has-been the small quantity of acid to be measured,
so that the ordinary methods of chemical analysis were not directly applicable.
A special instrument was, however, designed in which a solution of methy!
orange in distilled water is used as an indicator. A few cubic centimetres of
this solution are placed in a-specially designed absorption tube and a measured
quantity of air bubbled through it. If this solution be absolutely neutral to
begin with, which it rarely is, and the air is acid, then the colour change in the
methyl orange commences at once, and it passes gradually from yellow to red as
the air is bubbled through it. ‘The amount of colour change is estimated by
means of a tintometer tube placed beside the absorption tube, both being so
designed as to permit one to look through the liquid vertically from the tops of
the tubes. It was found that the degree of colour change was proportionate to
the amount of acid in the air, and that, using the same solution of methyl orange
in the tintometer tube, its colour could be matched to the changing liquid in
the absorption tube by varying the thickness of the layer of methyl orange
solution in the former, as it was found that as the layer looked through was
imereased in thickness, so viewed in this way the colour changed from yellow

1919. as

438 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

to red. The instrument is illustrated diagrammtically. It will be seen that
the colour change in the observation tube can be measured in units of depth of
liquid in the tintometer tube, and it only remains to calibre the latter to provide
a measure of the acidity. Methyl orange as an indicator has the advantage
that it is not sensitive to CO,, which is a normal constituent of the air.

I will not delay you further by a technical description of the difticulties
encountered in this investigation, as they will be fully described in the Com
mittee’s Report; but I may say that the measurement of the acidity of the air
was taken in hand at the express wish of the Department of Scientific and
Industrial Research. : 3 ’

In concluding, there are two special points which I wish to lay special
emphasis upon. The first of these is the need for further observing stations,
not merely in cities, but in places where there is believed to be little pollution of
the air, such as seaside health resorts. It is very important to know what
standard of purity we may expect in the air. I feel sure, also, that in some at
least of our health resorts, which have developed into large cities, the air
would be found to be considerably polluted.

The second point is the need at this stage for extending the work of investi-
gation and measurement so as to include not only the nature and degree ot
pollution but means for prevention. I suggest that this be dealt with from the
present point of view rather than as a side-issue of a fuel-economy research.
Incomplete combustion is a chief source of impurity, but there are other sources
to be considered, such as road dust, chemical fumes, destructor fumes, and the
like, and it has also to be remembered that from a fuel-economy point of view
alone it might not pay entirely to do away with smoke.

Mr. T. SuHepparp (Hull Scientific and Field Naturalists’ Club) referred to
the conditions obtaining in Hull.

Sir Naprer SuHaw (Director of the Meteorological Office) pointed out that
Dr. Owens had not represented fully the service which the Advisory Committee
for Atmospheric Pollution had rendered to the community, and particularly
had omitted to notice the extent of his own share. The standard gauge was
criticised by persons accustomed to laboratory work because it only represented
the atmospheric pollution collected during the month. But the standard gauge
represented the first practical attempt to measure the amount of pollution that
falls in an open space, and as a first contribution it is of great value, although,
like all other observational work, it does not necessarily answer precisely the
question one would like to put. The automatic filter, which was taken in hand
spontaneously by the Committee at the same time as the standard gauge, is
now completed according to Dr. Owens’ original designs, and may be recom-
mended for inspection as a masterpiece of ingenuity. ‘che research in acidity
was conducted by Dr. Owens with an assistant, Mr. Watson, who was trained
at the Imperial College of Science. The chief part of the work of the Com-
mittee is carried out by Dr. Owens with valuable assistance in the technical
details of the chemical processes used in analysing the products.

Mr. T. W. Sowersurts (Manchester Geographical Society) asked whether
the increase of pollution during the past four years might not have been due
to a considerable extent to the great difficulty during the War which manufac-
turers and other, users of coal have experienced in obtaining the fuel most
suitable for their requirements, with the result that much unconsumed smoke
has been allowed (partly through the leniency of magistrates) to vitiate the
atmosphere.

Professor LEA said that not enough pressure was put on to the users of fuel
who would get more power and economy under scientific control, while pollution
would be lessened. He gave an instance where the services of a scientific
student were put at the disposal of a paper mill, with the result that five
thousand pounds worth of coal was saved in one year.

Dr. J. R. AsHwortH (Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society) referred to ;

the enormous deposit from the atmosphere which takes place in Rochdale,
amounting to nearly one thousand British tons per square mile in the course of a
year, and pointed out that it was likely that a good deal of this might be
carried into the town from South-East Lancashire by the prevailing west winds,
the Pennine Hills to the east of the town, acting as a barrier to passage of

baton Pee far At

a

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 439

smoke-laden air. The difficulty was to test this view. Recently a wind screen,
such as Dr. Owens described, had been put up in Rochdale in the hope that 1t
would give some indications as to the direction from which most of the pollution
came. A more satisfactory plan would be to have a chain of gauges in a
direction east and west, if authorities could be induced to put them up. More
gauges, simple and easily recording, were much needed all over the country
if any improvement was to be effected. No one local authority can do much
alone, and to have concerted action pressure must be brought to bear from the
Government.

He also drew attention to the fact that since coal-rationing came into force
there had been a marked reduction in the amount of tar in the atmospheric .
deposit of Rochdale, which showed that, with a more careful consumption and
combustion of coal, a great improvement in the state of the atmosphere might be
brought about.

Professor W. W. HatpaNe Ger said that Bournemouth in September was
the wrong place to study air-pollution, which appeared to be a minimum. In
large towns such as Manchester air-pollution was a very serious problem. He
suggested that the time was opportune for the Advisory Committee on Atmo-
spheric Pollution to turn its attention to a study of the methods for preventing
the contamination of the atmosphere. At Manchester, the Advisory Board
on Air Pollution of the City Council is directing researches relating to domestic
heating, with a view to lessening air-pollution and effecting fuel economy.

With reference to the study of pollution, assistance would be given by the
increase of the number of gauges, which might at the same time be employed
to measure rainfall.

Mrs. Extis Cuapwick pointed out that air-pollution of the atmosphere is
of the utmost importance to women, as they have the task of getting rid of
the dirt which finds its way into the house. It also prevents the housekeepers
from having open windows, as what should be fresh air is often dirty air.
Window curtains and clothing suffer much more in some districts than others,
on account of the uncleanliness of the atmosphere, and it is very necessary
that we should have clean air to breathe from the question of health.

Dr. Owens replied as follows: Professor Lea raised the question whether
polluted air was unhealthy. It has been shown that the incidence of fogs in
cities has a great effect on the death-rate from respiratory diseases, and he
thought that there need be no question as to the injurious effects of breathing
impure air. Both Professor Lea and Professor Gee spoke of the importance
of a policy of prevention, and suggested directions in which to look for improve-
ment. He thought, however, that it would be a mistake to suspend the
measurement of impurity in the air, as, whatever steps were taken in the
way of prevention, we should require some means of ascertaining whether they
were successful or not. Dr. Ashworth asked how the straight line drawn
through the curve of rainfall and soluble deposit was fixed. It was drawn by
eye, as it was recognised that it could only be an approximation; in fact, it
must be some form of curve which approaches a limiting value for high rainfalls,
and not strictly speaking a straight line. Professor Gee’s suggestion of a com-
bined rain and deposit gauge seemed to be a very good one, and should be
considered carefully.

At the second meeting of the Conference, held on Friday, September 12,
the President again took the chair, and Mr. M. de Carle 8. Salter (Superinten-
dent of the British Rainfall Organisation) read the following Paper :—

The Exposure of Rain Gauges. By M. ve Carte S. SALTER
(Superintendent, British Rainfall Organization).

The measurement of rain is commonly described as the most simple of all
meteorological observations, and from the point of view of the actual operation
the statement is no doubt justified. It is fortunate that this is so, for the
phenomenon of rain, in regard to its distribution in space and time, is in
some respects so capricious and irregular that in order to study it successfully.
ebservations are required from a far greater number of points than suffice

KK 2

440 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

for any other meteorological element. Moreover, the records which are of the
greatest scientific value are frequently those made in sparsely inhabited regions ;
it is therefore often necessary to depend upon the assistance of uneducated,
and sometimes illiterate, observers. The process of observing must therefore
be reduced to its simplest terms, and instruments must be devised as far
as possible ‘fool-proof,’ and free from all complication.

The evolution of the standard rain gauge as we now know it? was a slow
and laborious piece of work. The several long series of elaborate experiments
conducted at the inspiration, and under the guidance, of the late Mr. G. J.
Symons, F.R.S., and described in the earlier volumes of British Rainfall, bear
eloquent testimony to the care and labour expended on the subiect. The reasons
for the rejection of non-standard types of rain gauge are cogently set forth
by Dr. H. R. Mill in his paper, ‘The Best Form of Rain Gauge, with Notes
on other forms’ (Q.J.R. Met. Soc., vol. xxxili., 1907, pp. 265-272), and it is
not necessary to recapitulate them afresh.

Whilst by no means assuming that the last word has been said on the subject
of improving the standard rain gauge, it is a matter of great interest to note
that observations made by means of this gauge in nearly every instance satisfy
the extremely severe tests imposed by Dr. Mill’s cartographic methods of
working with rainfall records in a far more satisfactory manner than do those
derived from non-standard gauges. These tests have been so extremely
numerous and so unmistakably conclusive that the question of the superiority
of the standard gauge over other patterns up to the present devised may be
regarded as settled.

The adoption of the standard rain gauge marked an important step in the
solution of the problem of accurate rainfall recording, and its substitution
for obsolete forms has steadily progressed during the last fifty years, but the
fact that by far the majority of rainfall observers in this country are voluntary,
and equip themselves, makes it impossible to ensure the entire suppression of in-
ferior patterns. Unfortunately, the comparative simplicity of construction of a
rain gauge induces certain makers, with no interests beyond the sale of their
goods, to continue to put on the market gauges of undesirable patterns, sometimes
inaccurately graduated, and these are often purchased in good faith by the
uninstructed on the word of a salesman that they are ‘of the usual kind.’
It is necessary continually to counteract this tendency by the free issue of
the pamphlet, ‘Rules for Rainfall Observers,’ describing the approved gauge,
where it can be obtained, and the methods of using it. The issue of certificates
of accuracy in respect of non-standard gauges has been discontinued.

The adoption of the standard hour (9 h. G.M.T.) for the observation of
rainfall was another of the organizing triumphs of Mr. Symons. The difficulty
lay Iess in the selection of a convenient hour than in the task of bringing about
the nearly complete uniformity of practice which was secured, bearing in mind
that it was, and still is, impossible to insist upon compliance in the vast majority
of cases. The unquestioning acceptance of advice on this point has been of
immense assistance in simplifying the study of daily rainfall, it being now
possible to plot several thousand daily records on a map in complete confidence
as to the identity of the period under observation in all but a small number of
instances, which as a rule declare themselves at once. During the last few
years this uniformity has been to some extent marred by the introduction of
‘ summer-time.’

The satisfactory outcome of the adoption of uniform instruments, methods,
and hours by so large a proportion of the corps of 5,000 observers now at work
in the British Isles, removes some of the most serious difficulties which confronted
those who first set themselves to study the subject, or rather reduces these
difficulties to comparatively manageable proportions. It is still necessary con-
tinually to urge more complete uniformity, and every approximation towards
this end improves the utility of the observations as a whole.

2 The standard rain gauge is at present made in three principal patterns—
the Meteorological Office pattern, the ‘Snowdon,’ and the ‘ Bradford ’—differing
essentially only in the size of the funnel and in capacity. A common feature
is the vertical rim above the funnel.

—-——-— i - ™

ee Oe

yen

q CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 441

A more difficult problem, and one up to the present only partially solved,
lies in the most suitable method of exposing a rain gauge so that it shall give
as true as possible an account of the amount of rain falling. The earlier attempts
to solve this problem suffered from an incomplete appreciation of the real nature
of the difficulty. Numerous experiments, among the most elaborate of which
were those carried out at Rotherham from 1868 to 1890,* confirmed the previously.
observed fact that with practically no exception, rain gauges exposed at a con-
siderable height above the ground caught an amount of rain diminishing with
elevation. An extraordinary volume of discussion took place as to the reason
of this, and it was many years before it was at all generally recognized that
as a matter of fact the variations observed depended not upon the amount of
rain falling in the vicinity of the gauge, but solely upon the proportion of that
amount which the gauge was capable of intercepting. Much attention was
devoted to quantitative observation of the variations, largely wasted labour,
for subsequent experience has shown that different conditions of exposure to
wind produce entirely different variations, the diminution of catch depending
entirely upon wind and little, if at all, upon mere elevation.

The practical outcome was, however, eminently useful, the experiments
leading directly to the adoption of one foot above ground as the standard height
for the top of the funnel of a rain gauge. This rule, once decided upon, was
rapidly brought into general use, and at the present day a very large percentage
indeed of the rain gauges in use in the British Isles are placed at one foot above
ground. It is to be observed that the British practice in this respect is at
variance with the Continental, exposure at 1:5 metre being recommended in most
countries of Europe. So far as I am aware, the only valid objection which has
been urged to the exposure of gauges at one foot is that in case of deep snow the
instrument may be completely buried. Whilst the risk of this occurring on
rare occasions is no doubt obviated by elevating the gauge, it appears to have
been overlooked that the loss of catch occasioned ‘by elevating a gauge is, as
a rule, far greater in snow than in rain, and except possibly in localities where
deep snow frequently falls, or in which drifts are of common occurrence, the
remedy is worse than the disease.

The advantage of placing gauges with the rim comparatively close to the
ground lies entirely in the fact that when a gauge is freely exposed to the
sweep of the wind, eddies are apt to be set up round the funnel, which prevent
raindrops from entering. Close to the ground wind movement is at a minimum,
and the rain falls more nearly vertically than at greater elevations. In a
sufficiently sheltered site, such as a walled garden, no diminution of catch
will be observed, even if the gauge is raised to several feet above the ground,
the requisite wind check being provided. The greater relative loss in elevated
gauges during snow is due to the greater facility with which snow-flakes are
carried by wind than are rain-drops. In confirmation of the fact that it is
over-exposure and not mere elevation which causes the diminution of catch with
height, it will be found that a gauge placed on a flat house roof, provided with
parapets to break the wind, will indicate as much as one on the ground, whereas
if there are no parapets the catch will be reduced by from 20 to 40 per cent.
The formation of wind-eddies is very much aggravated if a gauge, in addition
to being exposed to wind, is placed on a site sloping downwards in the direction
of the prevailing wind. Land sloping to the windward is highly detrimental
even if a considerable distance from the gauge whilst the latter stands upon
level ground, unless some effective wind-screen intervenes. Thus a gauge should
not be placed on a hillock or on a terrace. A sloping house-roof is an extremely
bad position.

I have frequently seen rain gauges placed on the ridges of high hills for
the purpose of ascertaining the rainfall at the summit. Such gauges, owing
to the sweep of wind, almost invariably indicate smaller falls than the valley
gauges on both sides, although the actual rainfall at the top is, as a rule, greater.
The frequency of snow in these exposed situations adds to the inaccuracy.

The defect in the catch of rain in the case of gauges exposed under con-
ditions such as those described, increases with increase in the average wind

3 See British Rainfall, 1868 to 1890.

449, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

velocity, and thus sites which would, ceteris paribus, be tolerable in a sheltered
valley may be extremely unsuitable near the sea or in a high, windy situation.
At inland and not unduly windy stations a gauge may often be placed on
level ground with no artificial shelter from wind at all, but with increasing
wind velocity increasing shelter, especially on the side of the prevailing wind,
is imperative. The diminution in catch observed in gauges placed at more
than one foot above the ground becomes increasingly greater as the position is
more exposed. Should the gauge used be of non-standard pattern, with shallow
funnel, all defects due to wind-eddies are aggravated, and in extreme cases

the record becomes quite useless. : hah

Except in very wind-swept localities the loss of catch due to wind-eddies
is almost entirely confined to the winter months. In our paper on ‘ Isomeric
Rainfall Maps of the British Isles’ (Q./.R. Met. Soc., vol. xli., 1915, pp. 1-25),
Dr. H. R. Mill and I established the fact that on the average of a number
of years the percentage of the annual total rainfall occurring in any month
does not vary appreciably at adjacent stations, even though these are at
greatly different altitudes (e.g., Fort William and Ben Nevis Observatory),
depending upon geographical and not upon orographical factors. It follows
that the percentage of the summer rainfall to that of the winter in the same
neighbourhood, on the average of several years, is a constant. Frequent
examinations of the records from unsuitably exposed rain gauges have shown
that the percentage of the summer rainfall observed during the winter is always
smaller than that found at properly exposed stations. When computing
annual average values it is often advisable to ignore the records for the winter
months and to substitute for them values computed from the summer rainfall
by applying a ratio derived from neighbouring sound records. By this means
one is able to arrive at a reasonably accurate annual average for stations with
defective exposures. This method has been utilized extensively in constructing
annual average rainfall maps, and has been found to yield satisfactory results.

Over-exposure of rain gauges is probably the most fruitful source of error
in rainfall observing, and far too little attention has hitherto been paid to it
in selecting sites for rainfall stations. It is extremely difficult to lay down
any simple instruction which will entirely meet the case. A system of inspection
by officials thoroughly conversant with the varying requirements of each
locality would do much to remedy the defect, but some time must elapse before
any such scheme could be put into effective operation.

The opposite pole of danger in respect of faulty gauge exposure—viz., over-
shelter—is much easier to avoid. Whilst it is true that a degree of shelter
which would be harmful in one case would be much less so in another,
broadly speaking, the conditions are similar everywhere. It is usually safe to
suggest that the top of any object, such as a wall or other building, should
never subtend an angle greater than 45° with the gauge. In windy positions,
when the rain commonly falls at an acute angle, 30° is preferable to 45°. In
the case of growing plants, shrubs, or trees, the angle should in no case be
greater than 30°, that is to say, the distance of any such object should be
at least twice its height. This allows for growth, which is apt to be overlooked
as it takes place. It should be noted that whilst the error introduced by undue
shelter by a wall or building is always caused by the interception of part of
the rain, that caused by trees or shrubs may be either positive or negative,
mterception occurring under certain conditions, whilst at other times water-drops
hanging on leaves may be blown into the gauge, or drip from overhanging
branches.. I have come across at least one instance in which a gauge was
placed by a careless observer actually under. trees, with the result that the
positive and negative errors practically balanced, and, until the gauge was
inspected, no fault in exposure was suspected. I do not recommend this method
of obtaining accurate records!

One of the greatest difficulties in securmg rainfall records free from the
defects which I have described—and this applies with most force to errors
due to over-exposure—lies in the fact that in any individual reading the amount
of the error is usually smaller than the difference from the reading at a neigh-
bouring station which may arise naturally. A systematic error becomes more
apparent when the totals for a considerable period are compared, but, even

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 443

then, it is apt to be mistaken for a geographical variation. The only method of
which I am aware, which has given completely satisfactory results in detecting
faulty records, is the cartographical method elaborated by Dr. Mill and used
largely by the British Rainfall Organisation. In the course of ordinary routine,
we have constructed maps, mostly based upon several thousand records, for
individual days, months, years, and for the average of a long period of years.
As I have shown in my paper on ‘ The Relation of Rainfall to Configuration,’ 4
an individual day’s rainfall may, or may not, according to its origin, show any
conformation to the land configuration; a month’s rainfall is nearly always
more or less dependent on the configuration (a winter month’s rainfall always) ;
whilst the total for a year, or the average for a period of years, is always
very intimately related. In drawing rainfall maps it is common to find certain
records exhibiting a want of harmony with others in this respect. Sometimes
one record will appear out of harmony month after month. The range of
variation which can be safely overlooked as fortuitous diminishes with increase
of period. Thus in a single month a variation of, say, 25 per cent. might be
due to some local thunderstorm, and in a month when thunderstorms are known
to have occurred it would not be safe to assume that an even larger variation
was due toerror. Ina map of the rainfall of a year a variation of 10 per cent.,
not explained by the configuration, should give rise to suspicion, and in the
case of a map of average rainfall for thirty or forty years a 5 per cent. variation
would almost certainly indicate error. In a very large number of cases records
showing want of harmony in this way have been made the subject of special
investigation. In practically every case the gauge has been found to be faulty,
either in construction or exposure in one of the ways described. It is true
that a very small number of cases of persistent variation remain unexplained,
and that the subject is far from fully investigated, but from a body of experi-
ence gained during about twenty years devoted to the subject, in co-operation
with Dr. Mill, I have confidence in putting forward the opinions expressed in
this paper.

The PresipEnT pointed out that in Hampshire there was a marked difference
between the rainfall on the sea coast and that a few miles inland, the cool winds
blowing from the sea keeping away thunderstorms coming from the north and
during the summer months north-west.

The Rev J. O. Brvan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club) said that local
Societies should be encouraged to increase the number of rain gauges.

Dr. J. 8S. Owrns (Honorary Secretary to the Advisory Committee on Air Pol-
lution) said that Mr. Salter referred to the need for increasing the number of
observing stations for measuring rainfall. The Advisory Committee on Atmo-
spheric Pollution experienced the same need for a multiplicity of stations for
measuring deposit of impurities. It appeared therefore that now would be a
suitable moment for considering) whether the rain gauges and deposit gauges
could be combined in one instrument. This suggestion was made by Professor
Gee and is well worth careful examination, especially as now both the rainfall
and deposit of impurity measurements came under the control af the Meteor-
ological Office. The deposit gauge now used was really of the nature of a large
rain gauge with four square feet catchment area, the large size being necessary
if any estimate of the proportion of tar and ammonia present is to be made;

useful information could be obtained from a smaller and cheaper gauge which

would receive the rainfall and impurities; the latter might then be separated
into soluble and insoluble matter instead of making a more elaborate analysis.
His object in speaking was to suggest that the possibility of combining the two
measurements of rain and impurity should be carefully gone into before new
stations were set up.

The PresipEnT mentioned that in India at a height of seven or eight thousand
feet the first rain often brought down a muddy deposit.

Mr. Witson L. Fox (Royal Polytechnic Society of Cornwall) asked how the
measurement of the soluble and insoluble matter could be carried out in prac-
tice by amateur rainfall recorders.

Professor W. W.*Hatpanr Grn said that a serious demand came from hydro-

“ Proc. Inst, Water Engineers, vol. xxiii., 1918, pp. 45-91.

444 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

logists to increase the number of rain gauges. At present adequate calculations
relating to water power could not be made in this country owing to the lack of
rainfall data. Rain gauges could be so designed that they would also be suitable
for observations relating to air-pollution.

Mr. pE Carte Satter, in reply, cordially endorsed the suggestion of Mr. Bevan
that local scientific societies should endeavour to encourage the recording of
rainfall. With regard to Dr. Owens’ suggestion he would be very glad of the
opportunity to co-operate. He was somewhat doubtful, however, whether the
conditions of exposure of the ordinary, rain gauge and of the atmospheric pollution
gauge were identical. If this obstacle could be overcome there appeared to be no
difficulty in combining the functions of the two gauges. He thought, however,
that it would be found preferable to place the two side by side, especially in
view of the cheapness of the standard gauge. Dr. Gee made a very, important
point in connection with rainfall observing in mountainous areas whence water
supplies and water power must be drawn. It was only by the provision of
such records that we could hope to study successfully the relation of rainfall to
configuration, the most important factor in this connection.

The Presipent at this point went away to take part in a discussion in the
Botanical Section, and the Vice-President took the chair.

Mr. T. W. Sowrrsutrs (Secretary of the Manchester Geographical Society)
read the following paper by Mr. T. W. F. Parkinson, M.Sc., F.G.8., on

Geography in the Curriculum of Higher Education.

Some years ago geography had no place in the great Public Schools. The
textbooks were bad, and consisted of names and statistics which bored the
teacher and made the subject hateful to the pupil. Much had to be learnt by
heart, or maps had to be drawn for homework because they were easily marked.
It would be difficult to say how often the map of Palestine, showing various
features, the chief towns, the tribes, etc., or the journeys of St. Paul was
produced. These were often set at the week-end so that no sin would be
committed by drawing them on the Sunday.

The elementary schools had a hard grind at facts. Names were crammed
in, and heights of mountains, depths of seas, lengths of rivers, and sizes of
lakes were known. A boy of ten was supposed to know every county in England
and its capital. A lot of useless information made the subject despised.

During the last twenty years a great change has taken place in this country,
and five years ago we could say that the teaching of geography was better in
the elementary schools of England than in any country in Europe. It had
become more scientific. The causes were given to explain the facts. Writings
of travellers, explorers, and traders were used in many schools. Good maps
showing the physical features were used instead of maps crowded with names.
Apparatus was obtained or made by the teacher to explain the facts he taught.

Even to-day our elementary schools—urged on by enthusiasts both in the
profession and out of it—have a curriculum of geography second to none, and
the thanks of teachers to the Board of Education for their admirable scheme
of geography for these elementary schools is not grudgingly given.

It is not so, however, in the higher schools. True, the Board demand a
certain amount of geography in every secondary school receiving Government
grants, but in many cases it is the minimum which the pupils receive. Nor
is geography always as well taught in these schools as might be desirable.
In our Public Schools the upper forms receive little or no instruction in
geography in many cases.

Until a few years ago geography was not compulsory in the training colleges
for elementary teachers, in spite of the enthusiasm for the subject in the
elementary schools. It was usually coupled with history, and in one paper
which the author saw the geography was complete in the following question :
‘Draw _a map of England and mark the sites of the chief battles in the War
of the Roses.’ This has now been changed.

In the Universities geography has some place, but there are few professors,
the lecturers are usually badly paid, the equipment is faulty, there are not
‘honours’ courses in all the Universities, and hence geography suffers. How-

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 445

ever, the Board of Education has recently advocated what are known as
advanced courses in the best secondary schools. English, mathematics, science,
classics, modern languages, have a place, but at first geography was excluded,
and even now is only regarded as an advanced subject under very special con-
ditions.

These facts are not good for education as a whole, nor for the subject of
geography in particular. The President of the Board of Education wrote the
President of the Manchester Geographical Society stating that there were not
sufficient geography specialists to warrant the Board in advocating advanced
courses in geography. Rarely are teachers prepared for a subject which does
not exist. Let the Board sanction the advanced courses in geography and
there will be an adequate supply of teachers in a short time.

Probably there never was a time in the history of man when geography was
so necessary as at present. No country is self-contained. Each is necessary for
all and all are necessary for each. This is especially true for the British nation.
We have the largest empire the world has ever seen. We boast that the sun
never sets on the British Empire, and that it is always summer in one part or
other of the British Empire. We control the lives of more people than have ever
formed one empire before, and these have different languages, different manners,
customs, dress, and show all grades of civilisation and culture. Unless we know
more of this empire, and this is geography, we are unworthy of the trust which
is imposed upon us.

How can we expect the respect of Canadians, Australians, South Africans,
and Hindus when we know so little of them and their countries and make such
small efforts to know more?

The time seems ripe for a great step forward in the teaching of geography.

The Great War has brought home to us the size and importance of our Empire,
but we are now in danger of falling back into the old groove. Even at the
Peace Conference, peoples, towns, and countries were discussed and settled
when some of the members had never heard of either the places or the people.
Boundaries have been drawn without any regard to the geographical conditions.

Geographical conditions alone made India a garden protected by the moun-
tains and the sea for a time, but when men had learnt to navigate the seas and
to negotiate the mountain passes, India lost her natural protection and fell a
prey to invading hordes who envied the natives their rich land. Mesopotamia,
owing its greatness to its position near great rivers, rose and declined, but will
rise again by a study of its climate and by the application of science to its
agriculture. Egypt—that fertile strip in the desert—became a great land
through geographical conditions. Greece, Rome, and Spain all rose because
favourable conditions prevailed, but failure to keep pace with the times led
to their decline.

Is it not also possible that our own Empire may fail when it has the power
to be the greatest factor in the world’s progress? Every statesman should know

‘his geography well. Every official in our Government Departments should have

had a thorough training in the school of geography. It may be truthfully said
that not 1 per cent. of the officials in the Higher Civil Service have ever
studied geography seriously since their school days. Not long ago the subject
was not even among those for examination. Map-making has been left to the
Army and Navy Ordnance Survey Departments. The Board of Trade officials
should be expert geographers. There should, without doubt, be a geographer
at the Ministry of Transport.

Our trade is carried on with every country in the world. We have been
nicknamed ‘a nation of shopkeepers,’ and it is a marvel to any thinking ‘man
how we have acquired our markets, and especially how me manage to keep them.

Surely there is a great field for geography teaching in the upper part of the
secondary school and in the University, and the tendency to make the subject a
branch of history or of commerce is not altogether advisable. It is necessary
for commerce, but is not really a part of it. Geography may be called a
synoptic science, since it obtains much of its data from other sciences, and it is
as old as man himself. The relationship between man and his environment
made the study of geography a necessity. Man was, in fact, ‘controlled’ by
geography, and only by a study of the subject can man suit himself to this

446 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

control. Land forms and climatic conditions, and the vegetation resulting from
these, have accounted for all the differences of the races, for the rise of industry
and the developments of commerce. It is only in proportion to our power to
overcome the disabilities of our environment that we rise above the level of
the savage.

Surely it is necessary to study geography if a right conception of our obliga-
tions is to be obtained. Practically all historical teaching should have a geo-
graphical basis, and if commerce is to be carried on in a less spasmodic fashion
than in the past, a knowledge of geography must be acquired by all our great
commercial leaders,

It appears necessary that an honours course in Geography be established in
all our Universities, with professors and ‘lecturers like the other leading subjects
of a University course. Until this is done the secondary schools will never
supply the students in geography except as teachers in elementary schools, or
where the subject is compulsory, as in most of our schools of commerce.

One of His Majesty’s inspectors once said that any boy could acquire all
the geographical knowledge he required. Could not this be said of any subject
with equal truth? His point was that there was no call for the subject, since
there were no scholarships at the Universities, and no schools there to which a
student with geographical inclinations could attach himself. The schools could
gain no ‘éclat’ by passing boys through a geographical course. As he said, ‘the
subject leads nowhere.’

At the present moment geography needs a man of strong ideas—an enthusiast
who could make his ideas acceptable to others. Whether this man be an official
of the Board of Education, a leader in our Universities, or a common teacher,
he has a task which would well repay his efforts. He has a subject which is
bound to be of importance in the next few years. Geography will determine
the boundaries of States, the Governments of peoples, the development of trade
and commerce, and the rise of new industries.

The opening of new trade routes and the improvement of the old also calls
for attention from the geographer. Mr. Fairgrieve has said that geographical
control is no less potent because it is obscure, hence the necessity of a skilled
geographer in almost all our great commercial undertakings,

From the standpoint of examinations some change is desirable. As an ex-
aminer in University and scholarship examination, together with many years’
teaching experience in secondary schools and training colleges, the author can
claim some knowledge of the baneful effect of present-day examinations in
geography. j

Most secondary schools prepare pupils in the upper forms for the matricu-
lation examinations of some University. Would it not be possible to have a
more wniform syllabus for all the Universities. It is practically impossible to
prepare a mixed class for the Matriculation, the Preliminary Certificate, and
the Oxford Senior in the subject of geography.

But even if there were no examinations and no scholarships and no degrees’

for the students of geography, the subject has a fascination for most boys and
girls in the upper forms of a secondary school. It is not so difficult as the
classics or mathematics, and many will take a keen interest in a geography
course when there is no examination in view. But it cannot be left for anyone
to teach. Geography is a synoptic science. It touches on so many different
subjects, and forms a meeting-ground for these. Only the specialist can be
allowed to determine the boundaries of the subject of geography. He may not
be called upon to verify the laws which he uses to support his facts, but he
alone can know how to use these laws for his particular work so as to produce
a harmonious relationship between man and his environment.

It is the very fact that geography encroaches upon so many subjects that
makes it such a valuable school subject. Our outlook upon the world depends
upon our culture, and the mightiness of our Empire must inevitably depend upon
our power to recognise that geographical factors have controlled the rise and
the fall of great empires even before our day.

Mr. Sowersurts then added the following remarks on his own account :—

I should like to emphasise what, in my opinion, is required. We want
more men (and in this connection, of course, man embraces woman) with the

ey

os

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. | 447

unbounded enthusiasm and activity in the cause of Geography, as exemplified
by the late Professor Herbertson.

If we could capture some wandering Carnegie, and persuade him to endow
Chairs of Geography at the various Universities, as required, with an adequate
number of chloe the problem might be solved; but, in the absence
of such a benefactor or benefactors, is it not the duty of the Government to
ensure that the teaching of so important a subject is adequately provided for
and properly encouraged, so that in our schemes of reconstruction one great
drawback to our economical, political, and commercial progress may be remedied ?
For, depend upon it, a full and scientific knowledge of Geography will be more
than ever necessary in the immediate future.

If Professor Fleure had not, unfortunately, had to return home yesterday,
he would have been here this afternoon. ‘He has authorised me to suggest on
his behalf that the Minister of Education should be pressed to appoint a
Departmental Committee on Geography, as he has already done in the case
of History and other subjects.

Professor Myres and Mr. Peake also desire me to state that it is only their
duties in another part of the building which prevent their being present to
support very strongly the views here laid before you.

Mr. C. B. Fawcerr (Leeds University, and Secretary of the Geographical
Section), in starting the discussion, said that the citizen who knows nothing
of the countries of the world cannot give a sensible vote on any question. He
pointed out that two-thirds of original exploration is carried out by English-
speaking men. When it came to giving details of the countries, half was done
by Germans, a quarter by Frenchmen, and much less by Englishmen.

He thought that there was a danger of arousing unnecessary opposition by
claiming too much for Geography—e.g., to talk of geographical ‘ control’ as
if geographical factors were the sole factors affecting human development.
They are vital factors in that development, but Geography is not the whole.

Geography aimed at studying the relations and reactions between human
societies and the earth on which they live, and on which they depend for all
the material bases of their existence. This study was evidently of such vital
importance to all citizens that it should be unnecessary to insist on its recognition
in all the educational institutions of this Empire. It had been fully recognised
in German Universities and Government Departments since the early years of
last century, and the knowledge of Geography, which was widespread there,
counted considerably in the unexampled expansion of that empire.

The study of Geography had been emphasised in relation to the British
Empire. The fundamental factor in Geography was that the world is the unit
for human endeavours and human organisation. Hence every intelligent inhabi-
tant of the world should have some knowledge of it, and those concerned in
any wide-ranging organisation should know as much geography as possible.

Colonel A. Burton Brown (Hastings and St. Leonards Natural History
Society), in order to show the ignorance of Geography, told a story of a Cabinet
Minister who, when Colonel Brown mentioned the Sultan of Sulu, said that
he did not know that Colonel Burton Brown had been in Africa, and did
not think that the Zulus had a Sultan.

Mr. Cutsuorm (Vice-President of the Geographical Section) urged the
importance of being quite clear as to what Geography is. He mentioned that
a year or two previously he had been invited by the Civil Service Commission
to attend a meeting of a committee appointed ‘to define and delimit the subject
of Geography.’ As soon as the committee met, the opinion was expressed that
it would be better not to define it, and in the end the committee determined,

with Mr. Chisholm as sole dissentient, to define the subject simply as

‘Geography’ as understood at the Universities.
Mr. Sowersvrts briefly replied, and expressed belief that Mr. Parkinson’s
paper had proved a success.
The following resolution was carried unanimously :—
‘That the Council of the British Association be requested to suggest that
the Board of Education should hold an inquiry on the teaching of
Geography similar to those which have been held on other subjects.’

Mr. James E. Lipprarp (Bournemouth Natural Science Society) said that

448 REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919

as an old Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and a traveller in most
parts of the world, he had often been surprised at the amount of ignorance of
this great subject so frequently displayed, and had continually urged the im-
portance of more thorough instruction in geography for the widening of the
outlook of our people, and for giving to them a fuller knowledge of the worid,
that they might be better fitted for the use of the great trust of the Empire
that had been placed in their hands.

Dr. VAUGHAN CornisuH spoke of the need of geography to members of various
professions, and maintained that education should be built up on a study of
Nature.

The Rev. J. O. Bevan (Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club) suggested: that
three subjects naturally hang together—viz., Geography, History, and HKcono-
mics. If there were left out another important factor—viz., the anthropological
element—he would say fhat there was a danger in accentuating geography. In
fact, attention was being paid by teaching and examining bodies to general
teaching of the kind desiderated. The Society of Arts examined candidates for
a commercial certificate. The College of Preceptors had started an examination
on the same subject, and one of our Universities had arranged for a Degree in
Commerce. It was also important to note that the textbooks in geography had
improved in late years. Finally, he deplored the fact that the survey of the
British Empire was very incomplete as regards boundary, regional, and other
like matters which furnished the initial bases of geographical knowledge.

Sir E. Brasroox (Balham and District Antiquarian and Natural History
Society) observed that the study of geography was a necessary foundation for
that of anthropology. The circumstance that so eminent a geographer as Mr.
Chisholm bore the title of Reader in Geography at the University of Edinburgh,
instead of that of Professor of Geography, showed that that great University,
like many others, had not formed an adequate conception of the importance
of the subject.

Dr. Hoxie (Cardiff Naturalists’ Society) expressed the opinion that the
question was ultimately one of finance, and the best solution would be the
establishment of a few well-paid Chairs of Geography in the Universities.

Mr. Epwarp C. Barron, coming from Queensland, where the University
matriculation examinations have been altered at the instigation of the schooi
authorities, almost to include geography, felt that some definition of geography
is much wanted in order to limit the demands of the enthusiastic geographer,
and thereby disarm those who would relegate geography to a secondary place
in education. It was to be hoped that some authority would give us such a
definition, and also define geographical education so that it may tend more
towards preparing the mind of the young for assimilating and using geographical
data and less towards filling that mind with facts. Especially must the enthu-
siast refrain from the inclusion of more astronomy, geology, meteorology, history,
or other charming cognate branches of science than are absolutely necessary to
the understanding of geography in its bold outlines.

449

SOCIETIES.

CORRESPONDING

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REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

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POTS:

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=

454 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Catalogue of the more important Papers, especially those referring to
Local Scientific Investigations, published by the Corresponding
Societies during the year ending May 51, 1919.

*,* This Catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the
volumes or parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent
to the Secretary of the Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A—MArTHEMATICAL AND PuHysicaAL SCIENCE.

ALEXANDER, Parrick Y. Aerial Communication. ‘ Report Royal Cornwall Poly-
technic Soc.’ tv. (N.s.) 79-83. 1918.

Ausop, J. C. Summary of Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Tables,
1918. ‘ Report Marlb. Col. N.H. Soc.’ No. 67, 43-54. 1918.

Asur, A. .A New Incandescent Light for Microscopical Illumination. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ xtv. 1-4. 1919. f

Bassrerr, Rey. H. H. Tinney. Returns of Rainfall in Dorset in 1917. ‘ Proc. Dorset
N.H.A.F.C.’ xxxix. 76-84. 1918.

CamppBeELL, J. W. The Deviations of Falling Bodies. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x1. 202-209. 1918.

CAMPBELL-BAyAaRD, Francis. Report of the Meteorological Committee, 1917.
‘Trans. Croydon N.H. Sci. Soc.’ vu. 175-184, and Appendices, 66 pp. 1918.
Cannon, J. B. The Orbit of Boss 1082. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’

x1. 210-213. 1918.

Cannon, J. B. The Spectroscopic Binary Boss 1275. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ xm. 55-56. 1919.

Cant, C. A. The Solar Eclipse of June 8, 1918 : Observations at Matheson, Colorado.
“Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xir. 339-349. 1918.

—— Andrew Elvins (1823-1918). ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x1m. 98-131.
1919.

Curuz, Dr. C. Terrestrial Magnetism in relation to Mine Surveying. ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ ty. 223-248. 1918.

Cortuss, R. Meteorological Instruments and how to use them. ‘ South-Hastern
Naturalist for 1918,’ 58-71. 1918.

Craw, JamMus Hewat. Weather Notes, 1917. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’
Xx. 432. 1919.
—-— Amount of Rainfall in Berwickshire during the year 1918. ‘ History Berwick-
shire Nat. Club,’ xxim. 458. 1919. ;
Der Lury, Rater E. Simultaneous Variations in Solar Radiation and Spectroscopic
Determinations of the Solar Rotation. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’

xi, 437-441. 1918.

—— Spectroscopic Measurements of the Solar Rotation at the Equatorial Limbs and
at Points Midway between them and the Centre of the Solar Disc. ‘ Journal
Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x1. 422-446. 1918.

Donan, G. BuancuarD. The Geodetic Comparator of the Dominion Lands Surveys
Laboratory. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xm. 271-307. 1918.

ee

a7, ]

A

*

i

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 455

Dopar, G. BuancuaRD. Magnetic Results, 1917. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ xm. 183-184. 1919.

Dyson, Sir F. W. The Determination of Stellar Distances. ‘ Journal Royal Astr.
Soc. Canada,’ x1. 195-210. 1918.

Farrsroturr, Cuarites J. (N. England Inst. Eng.). Record of Gas-pressure from
a Borehole. ‘ Trans. Inst. Eng.’ tvt. 6-8. 1918.

Fox, Witson Luoyp, and Josnua Bata Pumurrs. Report of the Observatory
Committee of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, with Meteorological Tables
and Tables of Sea Temperature for the year 1917. ‘ Report Royal Cornwall
Polytechnic Soe.’ Iv. (N.s.) 18 pp. 1918.

Franxuin, A. V. The Moon and the Glacial Period. * Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x11. 450-452. 1918.

GarrortH, Sir Witt1Am (Midland Inst. Eng.). High Temperatures in Deep Mines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ty1. 127-133. 1919.

Harper, W. E. Nova Aquile No. 3. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x11.
268-270. 1918.

—— The Orbit of the Spectroscopic Binary h Draconis. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.,
Canada,’ x1. 447-449. 1918.

—— The Spectrum of Nova Aquilew, No. 3. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’
xi. 494-510. 1918.

—— Nu Geminorum, a Long Period Binary. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc, Canada,’
xm. 179-182. 1919.

Hassarp, A. R. Astronomy in April. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xu.
214-216. 1918.

—— Venus, Jupiter, and Other Things. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x11.
363-366. 1918.

Hopeson, Ernest A. Location of Epicentres for 1916. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x11. 251-267. 1918.

Hunter, A. F. Some Special Forms of Halos. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’
xu. 427-436. 1918.

Jackson, W. E. W. The Montreal Centre of the Royal Astronomical Society of
Canada. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xu. 453. 1918.

Kotz, Orro. Observatories in Canada. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xm.
217-224. 1918.

Light Pressure. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xm. 357-362. 1918.

—— The Dominion Astronomical Observatory at Ottawa. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ xm. 1-15. 1919.

Lawson, GrauAm C. Meteorological Report. ‘ Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’ ru. 131-134.
1918.

Lixern, J. Steru. v. p. Notes on Radiation Patterns. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. South
Africa,’ vir. 59-63. 1918.

_ Marxuam, Caristornmr A.,and R. H. Primavest. Meteorological Report. ‘ Journal

Northants N. H. Soc.’ x1x. 151-154, 173-176, 192-196. 1918, 1919.
Marriorr, Major R. A. The Astronomical Clue to the Age of the Stone Implements
in Kent’s Cavern. ‘ Journal Torquay N.H. Soc.’ m1. 257-270. 1919.

Martin, E. A. Nature’s Air-Raids: A Chapter in ‘ Meteoritics.’ Presidential Address.

“Trans. Croydon N.H. Sci. Soc.’ vit. 151-159. 1918.
Minier, A. F. Observing Mars with a Small Telescope. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x1. 191-194. 1918.

_—— Nova Aquile, No. 3. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xm. 479-493. 1918.

—— A Review of Astronomy during 1918. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x1.
81-97. 1919. :

_Mornerwert, R. M. Nova Aquile, No. 3. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,’

xi. 16-17. 1919.

Mor, Sir Tuomas. Note on the Expansion of the Product of Two Oblong Arrays.

“Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vit. 15-17. 1918.

—— Note on the Resolvability of the Minors of a Compound Determinant. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vir. 97-102. 1918.

Note on the Adjugate of Bezout’s Eliminant of Two Binary Quantics. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vir. 199-202. 1919.

Neitson, Epwarp M. The Binocular Microscope. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’
xm. 429-436. 1918.

—— A New Form of Polariser. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xtv. 19-22. 1919.

LL&

456 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Pickerine, W. H. Distances of Two Star Clusters. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x11. 225-228. 1918.

PuaskeTT, J. 8. Notes on the Spectrum of Nova Aquile, No. 3. ‘ Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. Canada,’ x1. 350-356. 1918.

—— The Spectroscopic Binary H. R. 8170. ‘ Journal Royal Astr. Soc. Canada,
xm. 174-178. 1919.

Ricr, James. Discontinuity in the Phenomena of Radiation. ‘ Proc. Belfast N.H.
Phil. Soc.’ 1917-1918, 43-80. 1919.

SatTrERiy, Jonn. Radiation and the Temperature of the Sun. ‘Journal Royal
Astr. Soc. Canada,’ xm. 33-44. 1919.

Stramann, E. T. The Torsion Problem for Bodies of Revolution. ‘Trans. Royal
Soc. South Africa,’ vit. 147-180. 1919.

Sutton, Dr. J. R. A Lunar Period in the Rates of Evaporation and Rainfall ?
‘ Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vi. 103-109. 1918.

Swinton, A. E. Meteorological Observations in Berwickshire for the year 1917.
“History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxmt. 457. 1919.

Youne, Reynotp K. The Spectroscopic Binary 12 Lacerte. ‘ Journal Royal Astr.
Soc. Canada,’ xi. 45-54. 1919.

Section B.—CuHEMIstTRY.

DRAKELEY, THOMAS JAMES (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Relation between
the Calorific Values and the Ash Yields of Coal-samples from the same Seam.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tyr. 45-56. 1918.

EMBREY, GEORGE. Mineral Waters in and near Gloucester, with some Suggestions
as to how the important Constituents have been formed. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold
N.F.C.’ xx. 29-43. 1919.

Granam, J. Ivon. The Origin of Blackdamp. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ty. 294—
303. 1918. ;

Mor, Dr. James. Colour and Chemical Constitution: A Study of the Phthaleins
and related Compounds. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vit. 5-14. 1918.
Colour and Chemical Constitution. . Part 11.—The Spectra of the Mixed Phtha-
leins and of the Sulphone-phthaleins. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vin.

111-116. 1918.

Colour and Chemical Constitution. Part ITI.—Derivatives of the Unknown
Ortho-paraphenolphthalein. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vit. 123-128.
1918.

—— Spectrum-Phenomena in the Chromium Compounds. ‘Trans. Royal Soe.
South Africa,’ viz. 129-130. 1918.

--— Colour and Chemical Constitution. Part IV.—The Remaining Phthaleins.
‘Trans. Royal Soc. 8. Africa,’ vi. 183-188. 1919.

Section O—Grotoay.

Baker, B. A. Report of the Geological Section, 1917. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’
v. (Ser. 4) 13. 1919.

Barke, F. Geological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F.C.’ ti. 127-130. 1918.

Bates, G. F. Inaugural Address. [The Rocks found in the Bore at the Water-house,
completed during the Summer of 1912.] ‘ Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ v1.
CCXVII.—CcxxIv. 1919.

Beut, Aurrep. Fossils of the Holderness Basement Clays, with Descriptions of
New Species. ‘The Naturalist for 1919,’ 57-59.

Briton, Epitu. Lower Coal Measures in relation to Fossil Plants and Animals.
‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ v. (Ser. 4) 30-38. 1919.

CoarK, J. The Dry Valleys and Underground River Courses of the Staffordshire
Mooriands. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs. F.C.’ tu. 25-33. 1918.

Davison, Ernest H. The Great Perran Iron Lode. ‘ Report Royal Cornwall
Polytechnic Soe.’ Iv. n.s., 68-78. 1918._

Gitican, Dr. Atgert. Note on the Soil below the Peat on Moughton Fell. ‘ The
Naturalist’ for 1918, 309-311.

chee ee eh ah Pe eee eee ee

00M OF PeeF et 20

mh Ap aeedy

LN
A
Ps
i
+
.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 457

Gmxican, Dr. ArsERT. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Petrography of a Sedimentary
Rock, with special reference to the Carboniferous System. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ tvn. 1-S. 1919.

’ Grindley, Rev. H. E. The Gravels of the Basin of the Lower Lugg, and their
relation to an Earlier River System. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1914-1917,
227-230. 1918.

Lisrmr, J. H., and J. T. Stopgs. Additional Erratics from the Woodhead Coal of
Cheadle, North Staffordshire. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F.C.’ yi. 93-95. 1918.

Martin, Epwarp A. The Brighton Rubble-Drift Formation. ‘ Hastings and East
Sussex Naturalist,’ m1. 64-67. 1918.

Mor, J. Rem. The Flaking and Flake Characteristics of a pre-Red Crag Rostro-
_Carinate Flint Implement. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ 1m. 524-530.
1918.

—— The Fracturing of Flints by Natural Agencies in Geological Deposits. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ m. 575-578. 1918.

Prax, A. E. Surface Palxolithic Implements from the Chilterns. ‘ Proc. Pre-
historic Soc. East Anglia,’ m. 578-587. 1918.

PickrerinG, A. J. Flint Implements from the Ploughlands of South-West Leicester-
shire. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ 11. 549-563. 1918.

Ricnarpson, L. The Geology (Lias and Superficial Deposits) of the Cheltenham-
Stratford-on-Avon Railway (G.W.R.). ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1914-1917,
137-153. 1918.

—— The Lias at the Gas Works, Gloucester. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1914-
1917, 154-157. 1918.

SuEepparp, T. Bibliography. Papers and Records relating to the Geology and
Paleontology of the North of England (Yorkshire excepted) during 1917 and 1918.
‘The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 198-201; for 1919, 97-101, 141-142.

Sippatt, C. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Instantaneous Outburst of Coal and
Gas at Bedford Collieries, Leigh. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ty. 210-217. 1918.

Sinetron, THEopoRE (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.). The Search for Petroleum in
Derbyshire now in progress. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tvu. 25-34. 1919.

Surron, J. B. Kimberley Diamonds: especially Cleavage Diamonds. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. South Africa,’ viz. 65-96. 1918.

Wooxracort, Dr. Davip. On Sections in the Lower Permian Rocks at Claxheugh
and Down Hill, Co. Durham. ‘ Trans. N. H. Soc. Northumberland, ete.’ v. 155-
162. 1918. :

Section D.—Zooroay.

Ausop, J.C. Report of the Malacological Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N.H. Soe.
No. 67, 135. 1919.

Report of the Ornithological Section. ‘Report Marlb. Coll.’ No, 67, 36-38. 1919.

Asnororr, Lieut. R. W. Allotment Pests. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist’ for 1918,
72-87. 1918.

Bacor, A. Mosquitoes and the Danger of Malaria in England. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xvul. 241-263. 1918.

Barcoay, W. Annual Address. ‘Proc. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vi. exci.—ce.
1919.

Bartiert, Cuartes. Report of the Entomological Section, 1917. ‘ Proc. Bristol
Nat. Soc. v. (Ser. 4), 14. 1919.

Brrston, H. Methods of Collecting Minute Mollusca. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1918,
377-379.

Bratuwayt, Rev. F. L. New Species of Birds observed in Dorset since the Publi-
cation of Mansell-Pleydell’s ‘ Birds of Dorset,’ 1888. ‘ Proc. Dorset N.H.A.F.C.’
XXxIx. 45-52. 1918.

Bostock, E. D. Entomological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs.’ rm. 117-119. 1918.

Bouteneer, Dr. G. A. On Rana fuscigula and R. angolensis. ‘Trans. Royal Soc.
South Africa,’ vi. 131-137. 1918.

Brapr-Birxs, Hmpa K., and Rey. S. GranaM BrapE-Birks. Notes on Myriapoda.

xv. Miscellanea. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvur. 4-5. 1919. |

Brown, James Merkie. Apterygota from Yorkshire and Derbyshire. ‘The

Naturalist ’ for 1918, 185-187.

458 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCTENCE.—1919
Brown,!} James Mertxun. The Apterygota of Yorkshire and Derbyshire. ‘The
Naturalist ’ for 1919, 63-66.
Burkitt, J. F. Some Notes on Birds, especially the White-throat. ‘ Irish Natural-
ist,’ xxvu. 140-147. 1918.
BurrerFietp, E. P. Former Status of the Common Starling in Britain. ‘The
Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, etc., for the year 1917.
1918.
Thely Naturalist,’

Naturalist’ for 1918. 311-313.
‘ Proc. Somersetshire

BUTTERFIELD, W. RosKIn.
‘ Hastings ‘and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m1. 74-84.
CaRPENTER, Prof. Gzrorar H. The Importance of Rats and Mice
1919.

1918.

xxvit. 49-50. 1919.
Joc.’ Lxm. 162-170. 1918; Lxry. 86-91
On the Reproduction of the Common Garden Snail, Helix
“The Naturalist,’ for

CHARBONNInR, H. J. Notes on the Diptera of Somerset
N. H. A. Soe. ;
CoLean, NATHANIEL. i
aspersa. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 165-170
Corsert, H. H. Doncaster Natural History Notes for 1917
1918, 262-263.
—— Aculeate Hymenoptera of a Doncaster Sand Pit. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1919
158-160. ¢
Corton, Dr. Jonn. Presidential Address : The Collecting Grounds round Liverpool.
‘Proce. Lancashire and Cheshire Ent. Soc. 1916,’ 18-26. 1918.
Curtis, W. Parkinson. Phenological Report on First Appearance of Birds, Beasts,
Insects, ete., and the First Flowering of Plants in Dorset during 1917. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F.C.’ xxxtx. 85-96. 1918.
‘The Naturalist’ for 1918, 189-191, 224-226,’
Mesioma antarcticum (sp. nov.) from Bloemfontein. ‘ Trans,

Day, F. H. Westmorland Coleoptera.
285-288, 389-391 ; for 1919, 77-79

Dreyer, Dr. T. F stoma an icw :
Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vir. 1-4. 1918.

Epwarps, Stantey. Annual Address: Economic Entomology and its bearings
on our Nation. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. Soc.’ 1918-19, 36-46. 1919.
Fatconrer, Wm. The Spiders of Yorkshire. * The Naturalist’ for 1918, 195-197,

253-257, 321-324, 351-354; for 1919, 21-25, 137-140.
Astatus stigma Panz. in Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1918,
ict. j

edt ee me

‘The Naturalist ’ for 1919

ForpuHam, W. J.
189.
—-— Notes on the Entomology of the Bubwith District
13-16, 70-71.
—— Yorkshire Coleoptera in 1918. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 102-104
GarRsTANG, Prof. W. Nature and Man. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 89-96, 123-134
Gincurist, Dr. J. D. F. Luminosity and its Origin in a South African Earthworm
‘Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vir. 203-212. 1919.
Iceland and its Birds. ‘ Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’
Report of the Entomological Section.

Pe a en en PR OEE

= LOL:
Some Subsidiary Wing-Organs of

(Chilota sp. ?) I
Gorpon, J. G. MoH.
vi. 187-201. 1919.
GrRremnnamM, W. D. W., and C. B. Lows
‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 67, 30-34
GRIFFITHS, GEORGE C. Presidential Address .
Insects. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soe.’ v. (Ser. 4), 22-29. 1919.
GYNGELL, W. Notes on the Nesting, Singing, and some other Habits of the Common
Wild Birds of the Scarborough District. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1918, 258 261
325-328, 355-357 ; for 1919, T7_ 20, 72-74, 105-106, 174-176.
‘Trish Naturalist,’
‘Trish Naturalist,

J. N. The Convolvulus Hayle Moth in Ireland.
: A Com-

HaLBee7,
xxv. 81-85. 1918.
—— Lepidoptera collected in Ireland by Lieut. R. FE. He Os
XxXvitl. 57-71. 1919.
Hauttert, H. M. The Sandhills at Wallasey and Porthcawl (Glameaaae
parison. “ Proc, Lancashire and Cheshire Ent. Soc.’ 1917, 1-4. 1918.
Harrison, Dr. J. W. Hestor. The Geographical Distribution of the Moths of the
Sub-Family Bistoninw. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 259-291; for 1919, 192-194
—— Notes on the Spiders of North Yorkshire. ‘'The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 316-317.
Huaars, H. C. The Limnaez of the Alpine Lakes in the Glengarrift District, West _
Cork. ‘Irish Naturalist,’ xxvi. 119-128. 1918. i
Huu, Rev. J. E. Terrestrial Acari of the Tyne Province. ‘ Trans. N. H. Soc.,
Northumberland,’ etc. v. 13-88. 1918.
"A New Marine Departure. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 277-279

Irvine, Dr. Joun.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 459

James, Russert KE. A Spring and Summer at Oxshott. ‘ Trans. London N. H. Soc.’
1917, 24-35. 1918.

Jounson, Rev. W. F. Some more Irish Ichneumonide and Braconide. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxvir. 106-109. 1918.

Aculeate Hymenoptera irom the Counties of Donezal, Fermanagh, and Armagh.

‘Trish Naturalist,’ xxvit. 6-8. 1919.

—— Entomological Notes from Donegal, Fermanagh, and Armagh. ‘ Irish Natural-
ist,’ xxvitr. 20-23. 1919.

—— Trish Ichneumonid and Braconids. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvii. 33-37. 1919.

JourpDatN, Rey. F.C. R. On the Breeding of the Honey Buzzard in Essex. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ xvii. 238-240. 1918

—— Critical Notes on Staffordshire Ornithology. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs. I. C.’ ta. 97-
101. 1918.

KeEnDALL, Rev. C. E. Y. Irish Pisidia from Windermere. ‘The Naturalist’ for
1918, 284.

Lonpon Natura History Society. Report on the Birds of Epping Forest for the
year 1917. ‘ Trans. London N. H. Soe.’ 1917, 36-42. 1918.

Mansprincr, Wm. Suburban Collecting. ‘ Proc. Lancashire and Cheshire Ent.
Soc.’ 1916, 1-4. 1918.

—— Report of the Recorder for Lepidoptera for 1915. Proc. Lancashire and
Cheshire Ent. Soc., 1917, 5-7. 1918.

—— Micro-Lepidoptera in Wharfedale. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 135-136.

Masrriritp, J. R. B. Zoological Report. ‘Trans. N. Staffs. F. C.’ x1. 111-116,
1918.

Mortry, B. The Cause of the Attraction in the Pairing of Lepidoptera. ‘The
Naturalist ’ for 1918, 292-293.

PraEGer, R. Lu. Derc-Ferna: The Cave of Dunmore. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvit.
148-158. 1918.

Ricwarpson, Newson M. Anniversary Address. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’
xxxix. 1-19. 1918.

Scuarrr, R. F. The Irish Red Deer. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvu. 133-139. 1918.

Scuuescn, Hans. List of Marine Mollusca of Iceland. ‘ The Naturalist’ for 1918,
342-346, 385-388.

—— Notes on Arctic-Alpine Mollusca. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 29-32.
Setous, EpMunp. Ornithological Observations and Reflections in Shetland. ‘ The
Naturalist ’ for 1918, 294-296, 317-320, 347-350, 381-383 ; for 1919, 167-168.
Stcn, Atrrep. A Beginner’s Remarks on the Toriricina. ‘ Proc. South London
Ent. N. H. Soc.’ 1918-19, 11-14. 1919.

—— Variation in the Genus Cerostoma (Auct.). ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H.
Soc.’ 1918-19, 15-21. 1919.

Sworn, JosrerpH. The Hearing Organs of Fishes. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 60-62,
169-173.

Soar, Coartes D. Hydrocarina: The Genus Oxus Kramer. ‘ Journal Quekett
Mic. Club,’ xtv. 29-34. 1919.

SoutH-EastrerRn UNION oF ScrenTIFIC SocintIns. Report of the Mosquito Investi-—
gation Committee. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist ’ for 1918, rm.-ny. 1918.

Srutrox, A. W. Notes on the Lake-forms of Limnaa pereger. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’
xxvin. 9-12. 1919.

Stines, M. H. The Diatom-Flora of Martin Beck, Yorks. ‘The Naturalist’ for
1918, 281-283.

Taytor, J. W. Conchological Classification, Variation, and Nomenclature. ‘ The
Naturalist ’ for 1918, 249-252.

Scent Glands in Lepidoptera : their Character and Functions. ‘ The Naturalist’
for 1918, 313-315.

TrurMan, Dr. A. E. The Common Banded Snail: A Study in Variation. ‘ The
Naturalist ’ for 1919, 5-9, 67-69.

Turner, Hy. J. Ematurga atomaria, L. ‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.’
1918-19, 1-10. 1919.

—— A few Notes on Japanese Butterflies. ‘ Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.’
1918-19, 22-28. 1919.

Von Bonpr, W. Note on the Abnormal Development of the GenitalfOrgans of

Jasus lalandii (Milne Edw.). ‘Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ va. 119-121.
1918.

4.60 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Wats, HE. F. The Breeze Fly or Clegg. ‘ Journal Northants N. H. Soc.’ x1x. 155-
169. 1918.

Warkins, Rev. 8. Cornisu. Bramblings in North Herefordshire. ‘Trans. Wool-
hope N. F. C.’ 1914-1917, 57-58. 1918.

—— Report on Ornithology, Entomology, and Mammalogy, 1917. ‘ Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C.’ 1914-1917, 282-285. 1918.

Weester, G. V. The Flight of Birds. ‘ Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ 11.
47-63. 1918.

West, Prof. G. 8. A further Contribution to our Knowledge of the Two African
Species of Volvox. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xmr. 425-428. 1918.

West, Lronarp. Presidential Address: Some Aquatic Insects. ‘ Proc. Lancashire
and Cheshire Ent. Soc.’ 1917, 38-68. 1918.

Wuecer, Rey. G. The Variation of Epinephele Nthonus, L. ‘ Proc. South London
Ent. N. H. Soc.’ 1918-19, 29-35. 1919.

Wiciesworts, Dr. J. The Little Owl (Athene noctua) in Somerset. ‘Proc.
Somersetshire N. H. A. Soc.’ tx. 152-161, 1918.

—— The Heronries of Somerset. ‘ Proc. Somersetshire N. H. A. Soc.’ uxtv. 68-85.
1919.

Woop, J. H. Two Additions to the Herefordshire Lepidoptera. ‘Trans. Woolhope
N. F. C.’ 1914-1917, 20-21. 1918.

YeERMoLorr, Sir Nichotas. Notes on some Intermediate Forms of the Genera
Navicula and Cymbella. ‘Journ. Quekett Mic. Club,’’ xt. 407-424, 1918.

Section H—GnocraPHy.

SomervAtL, JAMES A. Presidential Address: The Disused Beds of Border Rivers.
‘ History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxm. 415-420. 1919.

Section F.—Economic Scrpnck AND Sratrstics.

Berti, Sir Hueu. On the Rights and Responsibilities of Capital. ‘Trans. Man-
chester Stat. Soc.’ 1917-18, 131-150. 1918.

Capmany, Prof. Sir Jonny. (N. Staffs. Inst. Min. Eng.) Presidential Address. [The
Position and Prospects of the Coal-Mining Industry.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
LvI. 37-44. 1918.

Dantets, G. W. The Cotton Trade at the Close of the Napoleonic War. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soe.’ 1917-18, 1-30. 1918.

Hitt, Sir Norman. The British Mercantile Marine in its relation in the past to the
State. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1917-18, 107-130. 1918.

McLaren, Ropert (Min. Inst. Scotland). Presidential Address: The Industrial
Unrest of the Present Day. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ ivi. 70-73. 1919.

Mittin, 8. SHannon. Our Society: Its Aims and Achievements (1847-1919).
* Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland.’ 7-22. 1919.

Naruan, Ertc B. Lancashire Vital Statistics as disclosed by the 1911 Census.
“Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1917-18, 81-106. 1918.

Orcuarp, A. J. A. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Presidential Address. [The
Effect of War Conditions on the Working of Collieries.] ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ tyr. 169, 173. 1919.

Pocock, Very Rev. Mons. Certain Influences affecting the National Rate of
Population. ‘Trans. Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1917-1918, 31-58. 1918. a

Rostnson, Mrs. ANNotT. The Substituted Labour of Women, 1914-1917. ‘ Trans.
Manchester Stat. Soc.’ 1917-18, 61-79. 1918.

Section G.—EHNGINEERING.

CuarLton, Wiuutam (S. Staff. and War. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address: [The
Question of Output.] ‘* Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ Lyi. 13-23. 1918.

Cuzune, W. P. (N. England Inst. Eng.). Coal-cutting by Electricity and Timbering
at Cannock Chase Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst, Min. Eng.’ tym, 101-103, 1919.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 461

Cotquuoun, W. (Mid. Inst. Eng.) Some Economie Considerations in Coke-oven
Practice. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tyr. 61-79. 1918.

Coorrr, J. (Min. Inst. Scotland) An Electric Head Lamp. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ tym. 58-62. 1919.

FLETCHER, CLEMENT (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Separation-doors at the Bottom

‘of the Upcast Pit, worked Automatically by Tubs attached to Endless-rope
(Under-tub) Haulage. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ bv1. 173-175. 1919.

Harpwick, I. W. (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Training of Students in Coal-mining
with Special Reference to the Scheme of the Engineering Training Organisation,
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tyr. 94-101. 1918.

Luoyp, W. D. (Midland Inst. Eng.) The Effect of Coal-mining on the Overlying
Rocks and on the Surface. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ nvm. 74-95. 1919.

Mirron, H. Kusracr (Mid. Count. Inst. Eng.). Presidential Address: [The Investiga-
tion of Inferior Fuels.] ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tym. 14-20. 1919.

Mossay, P. A. (Min. Inst. Scotland) Cooling of Electric Motors, with Special Refer-
ence to Totally Enclosed Machines. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tyr. 103-115.
1918.

Raw, Grorce (N. England Inst. Eng.). Notes on the Overhead Keepe Winding
Plant at Plenmeller Colliery, Haltwhistle, Northumberland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ ty. 170-186. 1918.

Rusnton, A. (Manchester Geol. Min. Soc.) Sprayer for Stone-dusting in Mines.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tv. 219-210. 1918.

Storrow, Joun T. The Flow of Air through Small Coal and other Broken Material :
Report to the Doncaster Coal-owners’ Committee. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
Ly. 313-319. 1918. ;

Yeapon, J. A. (Min. Inst. Scotland). The Economy of Briquetting Small Coal.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ tyr. 31-34. 1918.

Section H—AwntHRoPOLoGY.

Ausop, J. C. Anthropometrical Report. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N.H. Soc.’ No. 67,
55-70. 1919.

Austix, Rovanp. Notes on a Romano-British Burial Ground (Sepulcretum) at
Barnwood, near Gloucester, with Note on Pottery found there, by St. Cuair
BappeLry. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold N. F. C.’ xx. 59-62. 1919.

Bapve.ey, Sr. Cram. The Crickley Hill (Birdlip) late Celtic finds of 1879. ‘ Proce.
Cotteswold N. F. C.’ xx. 21-28. 1919.

Craw, JAMES Hewar. On the Occurrence of a Flint Axe in the Parish of Foulden.
“History Berwickshire Nat. Club,’ xxi. 456. 1919.

Duptry, Harotp E. Neolithic Settlement near Scunthorpe, Lincolnshire. ‘The
Naturalist ’ for 1918, 215-218.

Hitt, Major J. D. Surface Implements of a Late Paleolithic Site. ‘Proc. Prehis-
toric Soc. East Anglia,’ 1. 519-521. 1918.

Kenpat, Rev. H. G.O. More about Windmill Hill, Avebury, and Grime’s Graves.
“Proc. Prehistoric Soc. Hast Anglia,’ 1. 563-575. 1918.

Lawtor, H. C. The Giant’s Ring. ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1917-1918,
13-28. 1919.

M‘Intosn, Carnes. Note on a Stone Cist found at Dalguise. ‘Trans. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vz. 206. 1919.

McLaren, Tuomas. Note ona Stone Cist found at Kildinny, near Forteviot, Novem-
ber 1917. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vr. 201-203. 1919.

Bronze Age Burial Urns and other Remains found at Sheriffton, near Scone,
December 1917. ‘Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vr. 203-205. 1919.

Mor, J. Rem. The Ancestry of the Mousterian Paleolithic Flint Implements.
“Proc. Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ 1m. 508-519. 1918.

Moysry, C. F. A Flint Implement Factory Site near Milverton, Somerset. ‘ Proc.
Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ 1. 521-523. 1918.

Surpparp, T. Bronze-Age Weapons in the Doncaster Museum. ‘The Naturalist ’
for 1918, 219-223.

—— More Bronze-Age Relics from Scarborough. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 280.

—— Implements of the Bronze Age in the Whitby Museum. ‘The Naturalist’ for
1918, 59-61.

462 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919

Turner, Hy. J. Annual Address: Some Possible Steps in the Evolution of Man.
‘Proc. South London Ent. N. H. Soc.’ 1917-18, 13-21. 1918.

Smiru, Reatyatp A. Presidential Address: Our Neighbours in the Neolithic
Period. ‘ Proc. Prehistoric Soc. East Anglia,’ m. 479-507. 1918.

Watxix, HueH R. Norse Standards of Measurements found locally in Architecture
of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. ‘ Journal Torquay N. H. Soc.’ m. 297-
304. 1919.

Section I.—Puysionoey.

Exner, H. V. Note on the Structure of the Genital Organs of a True Hermaphrodite.
‘ Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vir. 181-182. 1919.

Hatpane, Dr. Joun Scotrr. The Effects of Dust-Inhalation. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min
Eng.’ ty. 264-273. 1918.

Ross, Sir Ronatp. Mosquitoes and Malaria in Britain. ‘South-Eastern Naturalist’
for 1918, 52-57. 1918.

Section K.—Borany.

Ausop, J. C. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘ Report Marlb. Coll. N.H. Soc.’
No. 67, 21-28. 1919. ;

BuLLocKk-WEBSTER, Rey. Canon G. R. A New Nitella. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxym.
1-3. 1919.

CotGaNn, NATHANIEL. Notes on some Alien Plants of County Dublin. ‘Irish Natural-
ist,’ xxvii. 86-90. 1918.

Datiman, A. A. Some Zoocecidia of South Denbighshire. ‘The Naturalist’ for
1919, 164-168.

Darwiy, Sir Francis. The Effect of the Cold Spring of 1917 on the Flowering of
Plants. ‘ Proc. Cotteswold N. F. C.’ xx. 11-20. 1919.

Done, Dr. Ernzet M. South African Perisporiacez. II., Revisional Notes. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. 8. Africa,’ vi. 193-197. 1919.

DRABBLE, Dr. Eric, and Hinpa DrapsiE. Notes on the Flora and Fauna of North-
East Derbyshire. ‘ The Naturalist’ for 1919, 10-12.

Evans, I. B. Potz. Notes on the Genus J'erfezia, a Truffle from the Kalahari. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soe. South Africa,’ vil. 117-118. 1918.

—— and Avert. M. Bortomuey. On the Genera Diplocystis and Broomeia. ‘ Trans.
Royal Soc. South Africa,’ vi. 189-192. 1919.

Fatconer, Wm. Botanical Notes—Mainly from the Colne Valley. ‘ The Naturalist ’
for 1918, 379-380.

— Plant Galls from the Bridlington District. ‘The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 384.

Gunn, W. F. Some Irish Mycetozoa. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvmm. 45-48. 1919.

Hares, J. W., and H. H. Knicutr. Botanical Notes, 1918. ‘Proc. Cotteswold
N. F. C.’ xx. 65-68. 1919.

Harrison, Dr. J. W. Hestor. A Survey of the Lower Tees Marshes and of the
Reclaimed Areas adjoining them. ‘ Trans. N. H. Soc. Northumberland,’ etc. v.
89-153. 1918.

Hetie, R. L. The Rosewood. Tree of the Andamans. ‘ Journal Torquay N.H.
Soe.’ m1. 271-275. 1919.

Himton, A. E. Observations on Capillitia of Mycetozoa. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ xtv. 5-12. 1919.

Jounson, Rev. W. A valuable Addition to the British Lichen-Flora. ‘ Trans.
N. H. Soc., Northumberland,’ &e. v. 163. 1918.

Luss, F. ARNotp. The Floral Sanctuary of a Meanwoodside Garden. ‘ The Natu-
ralist ’ for 1918, 373-376.

Lister, Miss Guitirtma. A Short History of the Study of Mycetozoa in Britain,
with a List of Species recorded from Essex. A Presidential Address (concluded).
‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvi. 233-237. 1918.

—— A List of Herbals and Ancient Books on Botany exhibited at a Meeting of the
Essex Field Club, October 27, 1917; with Notes from Mrs. Arber’s ‘ Herbals.’
‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvi. 286-291. 1918. :

—— The Haunts of the Mycetozoa. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvi. 301-321. 1918.

_

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 463

Marsuatt, Rey. E. 8. Report of the Botanical Section: Some Somerset Plant
Notes for 1918. ‘ Proc. Somersetshire A. N. H. Soe.’ uxiv. xlvii-li. 1919.

Morris, Sir Dante. Presidential Address: A Chapter in the Geographical Distr1-
bution of Plants—the Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds by Ocean Currents and Tides.
‘South-Eastern Naturalist ’ for 1918, 1-31. 1918.

Pauxtson, R. Notes on the Ecology of Lichens, with Special Reference to Epping
Forest. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ xvi. 276-286. 1918.

Pearson, W. Hy. Cephalozia fluitans (Nees) Spruce in Mid-West Yorks. ‘ The
Naturalist ’ for 1919, 160.

Prruysriver, Dr. Gzorar H. Heterocarpy in Picris echioides. ‘Irish Naturalist,’
XxXvuI. 25-32. 1919.

Prazger, R. Lioyp. Botanical Notes from Inistioge. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvi.
103-105. 1918.

—— Some County Down Plants. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 116-118. 1918.

—— Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum var. acutum. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvim. 13-19.
1919.

Renpie, Dr. A. B. Presidential Address : Some Cases of Adaptation among Plants.
‘ Journal Quekett Mic. Club,’ xtv. 23-28. 1919.

Ringe, W. T. Boypon. Botanical Report. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs. Ff. C.’ Li. 122-126.
1918.

Ropmr, Ina M. Local Coast Erosion and its Cure. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soe.’ v.
(Ser. 4), 46-51. 1919.

Scu6ntanp, 8. A Summary of the Distribution of the Genera of South African
Flowering Plants. ‘ Trans. Royal Soc. South Africa,’ viz. 19-58. . 1918.

ScuLtty, Reamvatp W. Reappearance of Lathyrus maritimus in Kerry. ‘ Irish
Naturalist,’ xxvi. 113-115. 1918.

Sourn-Eastern Union or Sorentiric Societies. Report of the Botanical Section.
* South-Eastern Naturalist ’ for 1918, xtv.-xxu. 1918.

Wats, T. E. The Use of Amylic Alcohol and Sandarac in Microscopy. ‘ Journal
Quekett Mic. Club,’ xiv. 13-18. 1919.

Wart, Rev. W. O. Report on Botany. ‘Trans. Woolhope N. F. C.’ 1914-1917,
286-288. 1918.

West, Grorare. Amphora inflexa, a rare British Diatom. ‘ Journal Quekett Mic.
Club,’ xiv. 35-40. 1919.

Waits, Jas. W. Bristol Botany in 1917. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ tv. (Ser. 4), 39-
45. 1919.

Section M—AGRICULTURE.

Satmon, E. S. Potato Spraying. ‘Hastings and East Sussex Naturalist,’ m1. 68-
73. 1918.

OBITUARIES.

Barnes, Ricuarp. By C. A.C. ‘ The Naturalist’ for 1919, 44-45.

BuapeEn, W. WELLS. ‘ Trans. N. Staffs. F. C.’ ur. 103-105. 1918. -

Boyp, Wittiam Brack. By Rev. J. J. M. L. Aiken. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ xx. 423-425. 1919.

Carter, W. Lowrer. By T. S[heppard]. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1918, 232-233.

CunnineHam, Ropert Oxiver. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvu. 128-129. 1918.

Drake, H.C. By T. S[heppard]. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 107-109.

Gisss, Tuomas. By E.S. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 177-180.

GREENWELL, Rev. Wittiam. By J. C. Hodgson. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ xxm. 426-427. 1919.

JULIAN, Hunry Forspus. By Mrs. Hester Forbes Julian. ‘ Journal Torquay N.H.
Soc.’ m. 276-290. 1919.

Kane, WILL14M FRANCIS DE VismES. By Prof. G. H. Carpenter (with Bibliography
compiled by J. N. Halbert). ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxv. 97-103. 1918.

McDaxry, Capt. 8. G. ‘ South-Eastern Naturalist ’ for 1918, vu. 1918.

MoGrecor, James StEwart, of Glenisla. By Peter Baxter. ‘ Trans. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ vr. 183-187. 1919.

Mur, James Narrer. By A. W. Stelfox. ‘ Irish Naturalist,’ xxvm. 129. 1918.

464 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

NorTHUMBERLAND, DukE or. By J. C. Hodgson. ‘ History Berwickshire Nat.
Club,’ xxi. 425-426. 1919.

PaRKIN, GEoRGE. By E.G. B. ‘ The Naturalist ’ for 1919, 75-76.

Pearson, Henry Harotp Weutcw. By I. B. P. E. ‘Trans. Royal Soc. South
Africa,’ vit. 139-145. 1918.

PICKERING, EpDwarp CuarLes. By Edward 8. King. ‘Journal Royal Astr. Soc.
Canada,’ x11. 165-173. 1919.

Rorsuck, WitL1AmM Denison. By J. W. Tfaylor}]. ‘The Naturalist’ for 1919,
143-149.

SaRa@ant, Miss Ernen. By G. 8. Boulger. ‘ South-Eastern Naturalist ’ for 1918,
LYII.-Lyu. 1918.

Smiru, Dr. Grorer Munro. By C.K. Rf{udge]. ‘ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ v. (Ser. 4)
19-21. 1919.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 465

Stress Distribution in Engineering Materials.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. Perry (Chairman),
Professors E. G. Coker and J. E. Prraven (Secretaries),
Dr. A. Barr, Dr. CHAs. CHREE, Mr. GILBERT Cook, Pro-
fessor W. E. Datsy, Sir J. A. Ewine, Professor L. N. G.
Finon, Messrs. A. R. Futton and J. J. Gusst, Dr. B. P.
HatcH, Professors J. B. HENDERSON, F. C. LEA, and
A. E. H. Love, Dr. W. Mason, Professor A.. ROBERTSON,
Dr. F. Rogers, Mr. W. A. Scope, Dr. T. E. Stanton,
Mr. C. E. STRoMEYER, and Mr. J. S. Wimson, to report on
certain of the more complex Stress Distributions in Engineer-
ing Materials.

[Puates V.—VIII.]

Introduction.

Durine the last five years many of the questions which had occupied
the attention of the Committee have proved to be of considerable practical
importance in connection with aircraft construction and engine design,
and they have formed the subject of careful investigations initiated y
the Air Board and the Navy.

At the present date much of the information is still regarded as con-
fidential, but it is hoped to include a summary of this work in a subsequent
report of the Committee.

The accurate determination of crippling load of struts is an important
factor in the correct design of an aeroplane. Information is required
with regard to struts of variable section, of uniform strength with or
without lateral or eccentric loads. The questions have been treated
theoretically by Barling, Cowley, Levy, Southwell, and Webb, and experi-
mentally by Coker, Dalby, Lea, Robertson, and Scoble. Important
investigations on the vibration of shafts and propellers have been made
by Berry, Fage, Griffith, Jeffcott, Kerr, Morley, Southwell, and Webb,
and methods of calculating the critical speed in complex cases have been
solved.

Investigations on repeated stress have been carried out by Fulton and
Lea, and also, in connection with several special problems, by various
members of the N.P.L. staff. The question of the distribution of stress
in wing structures of aeroplanes has also formed the subject of several
papers ; a summary of the work of Filon and Low is included in the present
report.

In 1917 a very ingenious method of evaluating torsional and shearing
stress by means of soap films was developed by Taylor and Griffith, which
is an important advance on the carlier work of Prandtl; some details of
this are given below.

During the war a number of systematic inquiries into cases of failure
of various engine parts have been carried out by the R.A.F. A discussion
of the information obtained will, it is understood, be published in due

466 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

course: the effect of surface scratches on the torsional strength of a shaft
is of special interest. In connection more essentially with airscrew con-
struction, the elastic constants of wood in the three principal directions
have been determined, and the complex stresses arising in an airscrew
due to thrust and centrifugal force have been studied by Berry, Griffith,
and Hague.

The present report includes the following contributions :

‘The Strength of Tubular Struts.’ By Andrew Robertson, Major R.A.F., D.Sc.
Mc.).
‘ Investigations of Stresses in Aeroplane Wing Frameworks.’ By Professor L. N. G.
Filon, D.Sc., F.R.S.

‘The Soap Film Method of Stress Estimation.’ By A. A. Griffiths.

‘ Eccentric Loading in Tension and Compression Tests.’ By W. A. Scoble.

‘ Experiments on the Effect of Alternations of Tensile Stress at Low Frequencies
on the Elastic Properties of Mild Steel.’ By Angus R. Fulton, M.B.E., B.Sc., A.M. Inst.
C.E., Temp. Major R.A.F.

‘The Strain-energy Function and the Elastic-limit.’ By B. P. Haigh, M.B.E.,
D.S8e.

The Strength of Tubular Struts.
By Anprew Rosertson, Major R.A.F., D.Sc. (Mc.).

The problem of the strength of a tubular strut differs from that of a solid
strut in that there may be a condition of elastic instability in the wall of
the tube under direct uniform compression. The theoretical analysis of
Southwell ! for this condition leads to the formula

t me
=H ayglacinas
ee 3(m?—1)

where p = collapsing load per sq. in.
t = thickness of tube.
R = mean radius of tube.

= Poisson’s ratio.

EK = Young’s modulus.

This formula applies only to cases in which the load per sq. in. is
less than the elastic limit of the material, so that it cannot be expected to

: : Lit,
apply to any tube in which Rs greater than Se For a
Hyi/ it al
3(m’?—1)
mild-steel tube having an elastic limit of 20 tons per sq. in., a must

Meierod, 1
be less than 400° if p= 100. R must be greater than 4”. Such tubes

are never met with in practical work, so that the analysis suggests that
all practicable tubes should sustain an average stress equal to the elastic
limit before collapsing by wrinkling (the term used to denote the type

1 R. V. Southwell, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Series A, vol. 213.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 467

of failure characteristic of tubes under compression, in which either
wrinkles are produced in the walls or the wall ‘ caves in’ in several places
round the circumference).

When proper precautions are taken to secure accurate loading, experi-
ments lead to the following conclusions for tubes of mild stcel in
which the elastic limit and yield are nearly identical.

; : fas, :
(1) For tubes in which R 38 greater than 0:006, yield precedes collapse
by wrinkling.
: shat, bigs :

(2) For tubes in which R 8 greater than approximately 0:044, complete
collapse occurs at higher stresses than the yield, whilst thinner tubes
sustain the yield stress and collapse immediately by the walls ‘ caving
in.

It has been shown by the author that the yield stress in compression
is the upper limit of strength for a strut of ductile material; hence it

follows that the strength of a tubular strut in which a > 0006 is the same

5 ’ L :
as that of a solid strut having the same = and the same yield stress pro-

K
vided the end connections are satisfactory.
In all struts the strength is decreased by the effects of eccentricity
of loading and initial curvature. For struts having free ends these can
be readily allowed for by the following modification of Perry’s formula :

shy Ost NP, 75 eRe aa
Bi lites false and Gn EMP GE A
p = average stress.

p, = yield stress in compression.
p. = Kuler value.

ca
oe pt
a = distance of the extreme fibre from the centre of area of the cross-
section.

« = radius of gyration in plane of bending.
€ = equivalent curvature = ¢, + si.

c, = initial curvature = distance of the centre of area of the middle
section from the line through the centres of area of the ends.
h = initial eccentricity of loading.
An alternative formula can be obtained by replacing the curvature
term by an eccentricity term of the same amount, as suggested by
Southwell, and using Smith’s formula

4 Py
Dita 08 Ty eee
hp S€C 5 LS

8 = equivalent eccentricity = h + ¢,.

468 REPORTS ON THE-STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.
From the examination of a large number of commercial tubes, Major
Wylie suggests that reasonable values would be

j— internal dia. ; __ Length
40 “600

Both the above formule agree well with the results of the author’s experi-
ments.

Investigations of Stresses in Aeroplane Wing Frameworks.
By Professor L. N. G. Fiton, F.R.S.

A series of interesting experiments were carried out during 1918, in
the Engineering Laboratory at University College, under the auspices of
the Air Ministry. The experiments were carried out by Mr. Chakko and
Air-Cadet McGowan, under the general supervision of Major A. R. Low,
R.A.F., and Major L. N. G. Filon, R.A.F. An account of these experiments
has been given by Major A. R. Low in the Aeronautical Journal for Novem-
ber 1918. The object of the investigation was to test a theory, due to
Mr. Harris Booth and Mr. Harold Bolas, and further developed by Mr.
Arthur Berry, for calculating the stresses in the frameworks carrying
aeroplane wings. This theory, of which an account is being published
in the Transactions of the Royal Aeronautical Society, contains an extension
of Clapeyron’s well-known theorem of Three Moments, so as to include
the effects of bending moment due to end-thrust.

The fundamental assumption made in this theory is that the nodes of
the framework, originally collinear and horizontal, remain collinear and
horizontal when the load is applied, so that we can treat them, for mathe-
matical purposes, as fixed points. The second half of the assumption—
namely, that the nodes remain horizontal—is not essential, for we can,
without sensible error to the order of approximation considered, measure
deflections from the line of nodes. But the first assumption—namely,
that the nodes remain collinear—is of primary importance. It really
implies, unless a peculiar complex of values for the elastic constants of
each element of the framework is postulated, that these elements, although
capable of bending, cannot be materially stretched or compressed length-
ways, so that, considered as a node-system, the framework is practically
undeformable. Of course, if this were the case it would necessarily
involve the truth of the other assumption, that the nodes remain horizontal.

The frameworks, considered generally, consist of two parallel hori-
zontal continuous wing spars, connected, by jointed struts and cross-wires,
as shown in fig. 1, which is a photograph of the model actually used in
the investigations. Of the cross bracing wires, only one-half really come
effectively into play, the other half being reserved for use in peculiar
conditions of flight, when for some reason the lifting surfaces of the wings
are reversed, or to take the kinetic reactions on landing. Owing to the
obliquity of these wires, discontinuities in the end thrust, as well as in
the shear, are introduced at each node, but it is assumed that the bend-
ing moment is continuous as we pass through a node, and also that the
central line of the beam is also continuous. The latter assumption is

British Association Report, Bournemouth, 1919. ] [PuatTE Y.

Hic i:

Fia. 3.

Illustrating the Report on Stress Distribution in Engineering Materials.
[To face page 468.

<\54 MUSE
nae

(“os
4 a ro |

UN STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 469

generally made by engineers. It has been shown (L. N. G. Filon, Phil.
Trans. A, vol. 201, pp. 84-86) to be mathematically incorrect; a certain
definite amount of change of direction is introduced in a continuous
beam as we pass a point of concentrated load, over and above that due
to the Kuler-Bernouilli curvature, but the deflection thus introduced is
not equal to the so-called ‘deflection due to shear’ which is sometimes
appealed to by engineers.

Neglecting, however, such changes in the slope of the central line and
assuming the nodes fixed in position, consider a bay A, B (fig. 2), of
length 1, between two nodes.

(0204) _ Ww -dac

Let P be the thrust in this bay and let S, M be the shear, and bending
_ moment at any point Q of the spar, « units to the right of A, at which
the deflection is y.
| Then, E being the Young’s modulus and I the moment of inertia of
the cross-section of the spar, w the load in lbs. weight per foot run, which
will be assumed uniform, we have the following fundamental equations :

: BIg =M (1)
| sy Poy (2)
| e=—w (3)
_ whence

; gti Bi 4)

where P/EI =n?
The solution of (1) and (4) is

w
M=asin nx+ feos ne+ 2
>

EI. y=, sin na— FE cos ne oo S18:

7

where a, 8, y, 5 are arbitrary constants: these are determined from the
_condit-ons that M = M, when a= 0, M= Ms when z =/1, y=0 when
a —0 and « = I.

1919. MM

470 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

We find
M, — M, cos nl -—- (1 —cos nl)
a= 3
sin nl
B = M, a7 bad
n
] wl
y= 5M ax M,) In?
-M68)
n n
Also

dy ae
a(t) =

_M — a a (2 cos ni — sin nl

nl sin nl nl sin nl

w .
teen lt —cos nl)—In sin nl] (5)
If we now consider the bay immediately to the left, of which the end points
are, say, B’ and A, and the length J’ and in which the end thrust is Pe
we have in general a new 7’. If we suppose that the cross-section of the
spar remains the same in each bay, we have, changing m into n’ and
linto —l’
EI (54) = _M, (Ser n’ et on ‘cos n‘l’—sin nl’

(n’Pl’ sin nl (n’PV’ sm nV’

Fe wa saa? [2(1 —cos n’l’)—I'n’ sin 1] (6)

and since (5) and (6) must be the same,

(sin nl — ml) yeti _ me)
(nV sin nt

» nl sin nl

4M nl cos nl—sin nl , nl’ cos n/l’—sin n/I’
nl sin nl (n’)7l’ sin nV’

\ 2(1—cos nl)—In sin nl _, 2(1—cos nV’)—l'n’ sin nV]
ai [* 2n* sin nb igh 2(n’)? sin 01’ THe @

which is the modified equation of the three moments. If we neglect

end thrusts, that is make P and P’ approach zero and therefore also n and
n ’ approach zero, then (7) approaches the limit

IM,-+1’M,--+-2M,(1-+41’) =" (PLT)

which is the theorem of three moments. (See Love’s ‘ Elasticity,’ p. 381.)
This modified theorem of three moments, together with the thrusts
obtained by the ordinary theory of pin-jointed frameworks, enables the

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 471

bending moment and shear at each cross-section to be calculated, and
hence the maximum tension and pressure in the spar.

A paper published by Messrs. Cowley and Levy (‘Critical Loading of
Struts and Structures,’ R.S. Proc., Sec. A, vol. 94, pp. 405-422) gives an
extension of the method of Booth, Bolas, and Berry to the case where the
nodes are not all in one straight line, but makes the same assumption that
the nodes remain fixed in position when the load is applied.

In the experiments described by Major Low, a model of a wing frame-
work was constructed to scale, with the top and bottom spars of xylonite
and the struts and cross-wires of steel. This model was then loaded by
suspending a set of equally spaced leaden weights from the spars (see
fig. 3, which shows the modelloaded). Five amounts of total loading were
employed—10, 20, 30, 35, and 40 lbs. weight. The stresses and deflections
were calculated from the theory set forth above, in every case, save when
the load was 40 Ibs. weight, for which load the length of the bay considered
exceeded EHuler’s limiting length for the ideal strut (P/?/ EI>7°). It has,
however, been previously pointed out by Major Low himself (‘A eronautical
Journal,’ April 1914, p. 144) that the true criterion for instability in the case
of a continuous beam is given by the length of spar between two successive
points of inflexion lying in the same bay; Cowley and Levy, in their
paper of 1918 (loc. cit.), merely state that the fact of Huler’s length being
exceeded in any one bay does not necessarily involve elastic instability,
and this has been known for some time to other workers in this subject.
Major Low’s attention was called recently to this point, and he had his
1914 criterion applied to the example in question.” He then found that
elastic instability had been theoretically reached for his greatest total load
of 40 lbs., although the observations gave no evidence of any abrupt
change of type in the equilibrium configuration. It has to be remembered,
however, that in the experiments referred to the elastic-limit was passed
before this value of the load was reached. The theory was then tested
in two distinct ways :—(1) by measuring the actual deflections of the
central line, calculating from these the curvatures and obtaining from the
latter the bending moments and the stresses, (2) by direct observation of
the stress, using the optical method described in the B.A. Report, 1914.°

The results are shown in Figs. 4-8, which are taken from Major Low’s
paper. The curves giving the calculated and observed deflections show
significant discrepancies, especially for the higher loads. These dis-
erepancies become striking when the deflection is measured from the line
joining the nodes instead of from the horizontal. If this is done, the
maximum deflection in the second bay is actually of opposite sign for the
observed and calculated cases. Major Low suggests, on p. 31 of the paper
referred to, that this is probably due to the fact that the inner bay of the
upper spar was more severely strained and stressed than any other, with

2 The criterion then becomes identical with that for elastic instability of a single
strut, under uniform transverse load, whose terminal points coincide with the points
of inflexion. It has been shown by Professor Perry (Phil. Mag. March 1892) and by
Arthur Morley (Phil. Mag. June 1908) that for such a strut Euler’s formula gives the
condition of instability.

8 ‘Experimental Determination of the Distribution of Stress and Strain.’ By’
Professors Filon and Coker, B.A. Report, 1914, pp. 201-210.

MM 2

1919.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

472

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ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 473

the result that the discrepancies in this bay were of the same order as
the total deflection in the second bay, and it was therefore not surprising
that the serious percentage difference between observed and calculated
results in the first bay should be transmitted to the second bay in the form
of discrepancies of the same order as the total deflection in the latter bay.
He, therefore, limits his detailed comparisons to the first bay alone, and
the curves of figs. 6, 7, and 8 refer exclusively to the stresses in this bay.

STRESS IN BAY ‘A” DUE TO BENDING

: MOMENT ONLY, 35 LBS. LOAD.
hd e ;
8 1p
8 ! 3
: :
Pin s
ae &
Ss
Ooi te WS
88) WS f | Opucal Values ———
R& Rt000\\ ss. 4 {Calculated Values -——-
gs a =-27 Wataes from Curvature --=—
WK 8 —— , &
x /X:292' is the Point at which
3Y-0 when there ts nolenswon
SN (5709) or Compression tn the Spar.

Fia. 8.

Even over this restricted range, the stresses determined by the three
methods disagree among themselves to a considerable extent. It 1s not
easy to see why there should be this disagreement between the values given
by the optical method and those given by the curvatures. The obvious
explanation, that the discrepancy is due to the spars having been over-
strained (and that this undoubtedly occurred was shown by the ‘ creeping ’
or increase of both deflection and stress with time, without the load being
increased, which was shown in both curvature and optical observations)
is, unfortunately, disposed of by the following considerations :—

If we consider a rectangular strip under pure flexure of curvature

Top OI
Spar

(6020.0)

Fia. 9 (A). Fic. 9 (B).

1/R, the stretch at distance z from the neutral axis is z/R. Hence, the
stress, calculated from the curvature is Hz/R.

Let AOB (Figs. 9 (A), 9 (B)) represent the trace of the cross-section
of the spar on the central vertical plane of the beam.

A474 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF 8CIENCE.—1919,

O gives the position of the unstretched fibre which is inside the spar in
fig. 9 (A) and outside it in fig. 9 (B). Owing to the existence of thrust,
this may be anywhere. OL’‘N’ is the curve obtained by erecting, at each
point of AOB, an ordinate representing the stress at that point. OLN is
the tangent at O, to this curve, 7.e., it would represent the stress, if Hooke’s
law held throughout. L, L’, N, N‘, are the intersections of this tangent
and the curve, respectively, with the top and bottom of the spar. M, M’
are the projections of the L, L’ upon the opposite face of the spar.

Then : MN = greatest stress due to bending moment only, as calcu-

lated from the curvature ; : M’ N’= greatest stress due to bending moment

only, obtained from direct observations of stress in the extreme fibres,
the usual law of stress across the section being assumed. It was in this
way that the stress due to bending moment plotted in figs. 6, 7, 8 was
obtained, viz. :—by taking the algebraic half difference of the stresses in
the extreme fibres.

Now, owing to the well-known characteristics of the usual stress-
strain diagram, the slope of the line L’ N’ is always less (whether in the
case of fig. 9(B) or that of fig. 9(A)) than the slope of the lime LN. It
follows that M’N’ is always less than MN, that is, the stress calculated
from the curvature should always be greater than the stress obtained
directly from the optical observations. The exact opposite has apparently

DEFLECTIONS OF NODES OF TOP SPAR.

been observed, except precisely for the least of the loads for which curves
are given.

Another conceivable explanation would be that the Young’s modulus
used in computing the stresses from the curvature was not correct. But
this supposition is also negatived by the fact that some curves show the
‘ optical ’ in excess of the ‘ curvature ’ stress and others show it in defect.

It is most important that further experiments should be undertaken
to resolve this discrepancy. Of course, it has to be borne in mind that the
determination of curvature from a number of observations of deflection is
necessarily very imperfect : at the same time, it is interesting to note that
in the determination of the points of inflexion, where the curvature vanishes,
the method of deflections and the optical method give results which agree

British Association Report, Bournemouth, 1919.} [Puate VI.

Neg N° 346%

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Illustrating the Report on Stress Distribution in Engineering Materials.
[To face page 475.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 475

closely. A point of inflexion is very readily determined by the optical
method, the appearances in such a case being as shown in fig. 10. A
wrong calibration factor for the test piece used in the optical measurements
might account for the discrepancies of figs. 6 to 8, but this, again, seems
unlikely, as it would involve a progressive variation of this calibration,
which is hardly reconcilable with a numerical oversight.

Passing now to the discrepancies with the theory, Major Low has
given (fig. 11) a diagram showing the observed deflections of the nodes :
this makes it clear that the fundamental assumption of the theory, that
the nodes remain collinear, is not tenable, and this is probably quite suffi-
cient to account for the observed divergencies, about which—especially
as regards the shift of the point of inflexion—there seems to be no doubt.

Note on the Principle of Dynamical Similarity applied to Deformable
Elastic Structures.

By Professor L. N. G. Frnon, #.B.S.

1. General case of structure of finite thickness.

Consider any deformable structure subjected to stram. Let a mechani-
cal model of this structure be made accurately to scale, but of different
material. We will investigate the relations which have to be satisfied
by the elastic constants and the stresses applied if the deformations of the
original system and of the model are to be geometrically similar. Let k&
be the ratio of similarity of the model and the original, so that if J be any
length in the original, k/ is the corresponding length in the model.

If x, y, z are the co-ordinates of any point of the original (kz, ky, kz)
are the co-ordinates of the corresponding point of the model.

If (u, v, w) are the displacements at (x, y, 2), (ku, kv, kw) are the. displace-
ments at (kx, ky, kz).

The strains 8. du, 8 Ov s__Ow
x Oxy Oy 2 Oz

o Ov dwa dw 04 o Ou, dv

202 t ay’ ze Ox | Oz’ xy og Oe

are identical in i model and original.

The stresses are ne by

a)
a = — ie (+ gt ee cei ) + 2p 3 and two similar equations

- 0
Y2 = pp os = sv) ; and two similar equations, X and p, being the

elastic constants of Lamé.

Thus, in general, for dynamical similarity, all the elastic constants have
to be altered in the same ratio g, and the applied stresses must be altered
also in the ratio q.

476 REPORTS ON-THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

2. Framework of thin rods.
In the case of thin rods forming part of a plane framework under stress

in its own plane, we have, if T be the total tension and M the bending

moment at any point of a rod, and T’, M’ the corresponding quantities in
the model,

T — HAs;
T’— H’A’s’,
when s, s’ are the longitudinal strains of the rod in the full size and model,
respectively.
EK, E’ are the Young’s Moduli, A, A’ the cross-sections of the rods.
Now s = s’ by geometrical similarity,
Hence T: T’—EHA: B’A’ (1).
Further
EI
R
where I is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of the rod about its

neutral axis and R is the radius of curvature of the rod.
Similarly

M—

where clearly R’ = kR by geometrical similarity. Also, let p be the
ratio of forces (not stresses) in the model and full size.
Then M’ = Mpi, ie.,

HT’/R’ = pk (EI/R)
and H’l’/EI = pk’. (2)
But from (1) since T’ = pT

EA =p. (3)

wales eal (4)

Let K be the swing radius of the cross-section of any rod in the full size,
and K’ in the model.
Then f= Kx
V = (K’).’
(4) then gives (K’)?/K? = k?
or K’ = kK (5)
That is, although the cross-sections need not be geometrically similar

(the rods being thin), the radii of gyration of the cross-sections must be
in the ratio of geometrical similarity k.

ee

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 477

~ This condition being once satisfied, equation (3) shows that the moduli
B’A’, EA for the rod, as a whole, must be im the ratio of dynamical
similarity p, 7.e., in the ratio of the applied forces.

Now &k will usually have to be fixed beforehand ; k being known, the
radius of gyration K’ in the model is fixed.

The materials of the model are also usually not at our choice. Thus
E’ is fixed. But A’ can be varied within large limits, and this without
altering k. An easy example of this is when the bars of the model are
rectangular in section.

Kviz Neutral. Axis

(6020.6)

Fie. 12.

The height of the cross-section = K’ “12 and is therefore fixed. But the
breadth 2b is at our disposal and can be varied, so that A’ satisfies
equation (3).

An important particular case occurs when certain rods or ties of the
full size are practically unyielding or inextensible, at any rate, in com-
parison with the others. In this case, E is infinitely great and EK’ must
also be infinitely great. All that is necessary then is to make the corre-
sponding bars of the model likewise unyielding or inextensible in com-
parison. Provided this is done, we need only trouble to satisfy the condi-
tions for the ‘ yielding ’ or soft parts of the model and full size.

Tf the model and full size are made up of two kinds of material only—a
‘yielding,’ and an ‘ unyielding ’—it will usually be convenient to satisfy
equation (3) by adjusting p, the ratio of dynamical similarity, that is,
by applying suitable loads to the model instead of altering the cross-sections
to the right ratio.

(3) Safety conditions for the model.

The question of breaking stress on the model is one of fundamental
importance. For we have to be careful that the stresses imposed in con-
serving similarity shall not be so great as to cause the model to collapse.

We have, y and y’ being the distances from the neutral axes of the
outermost fibres in full size and model respectively, the greatest stresses
as follow :—

E
R
E

Ks + (full size) ;

_ (model) ;

(numerically positive values being taken for each quantity).
Now s’ = s, R’ = kR; but 7 is not equal to ky in general.

E’s’ +

478 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

As, however, K’ = k K, in the case of rectangular bars y’ = ky accurately,
and it is not unreasonable to suppose that y’ will generally be of the order
ky. (Note for similar sections y’=ky also.)
Thus, we may take the case of rectangular bars as fairly typical.

ave then ¥ — ¥

We have then RP and
greatest stress in model: greatest stress in full size

=H’: HE.
That is:
greatest strain in model = greatest strain in full size.

Hence, the greatest strain to which the material of the full size is
subjected in the case considered must not break down the material of the
model.

If the model is made of much more yielding material than the full size,
the material of the model will, as a rule, stand a much greater strain than
that which would break material of the corresponding full-sized member.

Xylonite is a much more yielding material than wood. So that if the
full-size spar is of wood and the model of xylonite, the conclusions of the
last paragraph hold good. Loads on the xylonite model will still usually
be well within the safety limit, even when the corresponding loads on the
full-size wooden member exceed the safety limit, a point of great value in
investigating dangerous stresses.

The Soap Film Method of Stress Estimation.
By A. A. GRIFFITHS.

The use cf soap films in the determination of elastic stresses and strains
depends on the mathematical similarity between certain forms of the
general equations of elasticity and the equation of the surface of a soap
film slightly displaced from a plane. F

The latter equation may be taken to be

Oterviokg RM:

dx Tt Opt as
where the plane is that of a, y, p is the pressure difference between the two
sides of the film, and s is the surface tension. Any two-dimensional
elastic problem in which the dilation, or the sum of the principal stresses,
is a known function of # and y may, by known mathematical methods, be
made to depend on the solution of an equation of this type. This is the
most general form of elastic problem which can be solved directly by means
of soap films.

The solution is obtained by forming a film, which satisfies the conditions
of the problem, and taking the required measurements from it by means
of special appliances. The most useful of these are

(a) The spherometer, which is a needle, moistened with soap solution,
which can be moved at will in any desired plane parallel to the plane of
x,y. This is caused to touch the film at a series of points, whose positions
are recorded by a simple copying mechanism. In this way a complete
contour map of the film surface may be obtained.

British Association Report, Bowrnemouth, 1919.| [Prats VIT

~ ~

Fic. 13. EXTENSOMETER.

Illustrating the Report on Stress Distribution in Engineering Materials.
[70 face page 479.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 479

(b) The auto-collimator, which measures the slope of the film at any
desired point by an optical reflection method.

The most important practical problem which may be solved by this
method is that of the torsion of a cylinder, or beam of uniform cross-section.
In this case, the dilation is zero, and the appropriate soap film may be
formed on a hole, in a flat plate, of the same shape as the cross-section
of the beam. The film is slightly displaced from the plane of the plate
by maintaining a small excess of pressure on one side of it. The slope
of the film at any point is proportional to the stress at that point, the
direction of the contour lines is the direction of the stress, and the volume
between the film and the plane of the plate is proportional to the torsional
stiffness of the beam. The constants of proportionality are obtained
by comparison with a circular film under the same pressure difference.

Sections of any shape whatever may be dealt with, but in the case of
hollow beams the inner boundary or boundaries must be parallel to, but
not coincident with, the outer one. The proper relative positions may
be found by measuring auxiliary soap films.

A further problem of considerable practical importance, which may be
solved by the soap film method, is the determination of the shearing
stresses ina bent beam. In this case, the hole representing the boundary
inust be cut in a curved plate, the shape of the elevation of the edge being
calculated from the dimensions of the section. This film is not blown up.
The components of shearing stress are calculated from the components
of the slope of the film, in the directions ov and oy respectively. The twist
of the beam, under a load applied at any given point, may also be found.

The following papers deal with the subject :

(1) ‘The Use of Soap Films in Solving Torsion Problems.’ Proc.
Inst.Mech.E., December 14, 1917.

(2) Reports of the Advisory Committee for Aeronautics :—
R. & M. 332, R. & M. 334, T. 1040, T. 1076, T. 1275.

Eccentric Loading in Tension and Compression Tests.
By Waurer A. SCOBLE.

The earlier tests were made to determine the degree of variation of
stress across the section of a specimen subjected to tension or compression.
Different arrangements for the application of the load were tried, and the
specimens were prepared from various materials.

The effect of the eccentric loading was surprisingly pronounced, and
a further series of experiments was made on different metals to estimate
the effect on the test results of the unequal stress distribution across the
section of the specimen.

A distinction must be drawn between the two series of tests. The
first set represents conditions which are realised in practical testing, but
for the second series the load was occasionally purposely made eccentric
to yield evidence of the effect of bending on the behaviour of the metal
under test.

The extensometer used (fig. 13) consisted of two independent clamps
attached to the specimen by pointed screws. The lower clamp carries

480 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

four self-contained, double-lever, strain-measuring units. ,A_ scale
division represents about three-millionths of an inch change of length of
the specimen, but less sensitive elements are used for materials which
have low values of ‘ K.’ The test length is usually 1:5 inches.

Three measurements are sufficient to allow the strain distribution
across the section of the test piece to be calculated, but the fourth intro-
duces no further complication and allows a useful check to be made, or
avoids the scrapping of a series of readings if one element deflects beyond
the limit of its scale.

Typical plottings of the four measurements against the loads are given
in fig. 14 as an example of very eccentric loading, and in fig. 15 to show the
best result realised in practice.

Variation of Strain across the Section of a Test Piece.

The first results are collected to indicate the variation of the strain across
the section of a specimen. The usual precautions were observed for the
type of test considered. The strain distribution usually alters somewhat
with the load, so the figures tabulated have been taken for the region of
the elastic limit, or, when the load was not taken so high as this, for the
greatest load applied.

Tension Tests. Solid Specimens.

Maximum Strain

Number Material Condition Method of Loading Mean Strain
82. 2 Mild steel Not annealed Wedge grips 1-242
SC. 1 ” ” 2 ” ” ” 1-214
SC. 5 ” ” ” ” ” ” 1-170
HP. 28 38 ton steel - =a x = 1-158
HP. 35 ” ee 2? ” ” ” 1-016
S.1. 4 Cast steel is 3 9 Py 1-086
8.1. 5 ” ” ” ” ”? ” 1-160
S.1. 10 29 or) ” ” ” oF) 1-137
SC.4. 1 Mild steel Annealed zs Be 1-620
SC.4. 2 2? ”° 2? ”° 2” 1-585
BAI. 6 2” ” 2” ” ” 1-104
BAI. qj 29 ”? 2? ”? 9 1-273
82. 3 2 ” ”? ” 29 1-328
82. 6 2” ” 2? ” ” 1-415
82.7 ” ” 2” ” 2? 1-533
SC. 2 ne a 3¢ Screwed ends 1-161
BAI. 1 ” 2” EE) ” 2” 1-068
BAI. 8 ” ” 2” ” ” 1-106
82. 5 ” ” ” 2? 2” 1-062
SI. 2 Cast steel én Wedge grips 1-018
$1.7 Be skis 2 % i 1-162
BC. 1 Brass rod Serewed ends 1-080
BC. 2 2° ” Wedge grips 1-261
AB. Al Aluminium bronze As cast Screwed ends 1-127
AB. A.2 ” ” ” ” 2” 2” 1-100
AB. B.1 ce) ” 9 Er) 2? ” 1-360
AB. B.2 99 99 33 °° 99 9 1-390
100 A.2 Aluminium alloy = »» - Robertson’s Ball Loading 1-052
100 A.3 39 99 99 39 9° 99 99 1-140

100 A.4 . “4 a ks i 3 1-077

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS.

3 =
5 = =
ce

Fig. 14.

Elon lh ay
Fie. 15.

481

482, REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Tension Tests of Tubes.

Maximum Strain

Specimen Method of Loading Mean Strain

Steel tube #inch 22g. Coned tube grips 1-156

” ” 99,299 > 2” 2» ” 1-155

Aluminium #3 ,, 16g :: ys 1-187

” ” ” ” ° ” ” 1-090

sa Linch l6g Ends flattened, wedge grips 1-160

Steel streamline. ee ie At aw 1-454
1k x 2 Xx 209

Aluminium alloy #-inch Coned tube grips 1:055

Compression Tests.

Maximum Strain

Material Form Method of Loading Mean Strain
Spruce Tube o.d. 1-36 inch Through ball on steel cap 1-205
Ae ba tS
Aluminium Solid 1-44 inch diam. Through ball on turning centre 1-055
alloy
a BS ule tae 0 Through ball on steel cap 1-706
9 9° 99 > 99 99 99 99 99 1-110
Mild steel Solid, annealed Through ball on turning centre 1-142
‘78 inch diam.
Aluminium Solid 1-07 inch diam. af Priagtins Bs a 1-095
alloy
” 2” ‘70 9 9 ” ” ” ory Pry 1-352
Steel Streamline Tube Through ball on steel cap 1-362

The results show that the variation of strain, and therefore of stress,
across the section of a test piece is usually appreciable and is sometimes
of considerable magnitude.

For plain ended, tension specimens of mild steel held by wedge grips,
the maximum exceeds the mean strain by an average value of 16 per cent.,
reaching 24:2 per cent. in one case. For cast steel, similarly gripped, the
corresponding figures are 12°8 and 16 per cent. The serrated wedges
appear to bite more deeply into annealed mild steel, and the figures rise
to 40:8 and 62 per cent. This inequality is so great that it is rather
startling, but it is reduced for similar specimens to 9°9 and 161 per cent.
by the adoption of scrs>wed ends. There is no evidence of a corresponding
inaccuracy due to wedge grips after a high carbon steel is annealed.

Rod brass and aluminium bronze gave results which are in general
agreement with thos: summarised above, but in one case the bronze
with screwed ends showed maximum strains 36 per cent. and 39 per cent.
greater than the mean. It appears probable that here the mequality
is due rather to lack of homogeneity of the material than to eccen-
tricity of loading, and the same explanation may be given to account for
the variations with the accurately constructed Robertson loading device
used in some of the experiments.

The Effect of Eccentric Loading on the Elastie Linut and Yield
Point.
Eccentric loading would be of no importance if it did not affect the
test results. The elastic-limit, yield-point, and maximum stresses should
all be considered to determine the effect upon them. It may be noted

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 483

that if there is appreciable yield betore fracture it is to be expected that
the stress on a section of a tension or compression specimen is equalised,
and that the mean maximum stress is not appreciably affected by a pro-
bable amount of eccentricity in the loading.

The test results are tabulated below, according to the material, to
compare the stresses at the elastic-limit, yield-point, and maximum load.
The elastic-limit stress, calculated by dividing the load by the area of the
cross-section, is also corrected in the ratio of the maximum to the mean
strain.

Maximum
Strain, Elastic Limit Stress Yield Maximum
Annealed Mean Direct Corrected Stress Stress
Specimen or not Strain tons/s.inch tons/s.inch tons/s.inch tons/s-inch
Mild Steel not
$2.2. Bs 1-242 21-1 26-2 21-1 25-6
SC. 5 ae 1-170 14:9 17:45 15-5 21-9
HP. 28 33 1-158 25-0 28-95 26-7 38-7
HP. 35 35 1-016 23-66 24-04 26-6 38:5
Mild Steel Annealed
SC. 2 a5 1-161 11-16 12-97 12:5 20-6
SC. 2 aa 4-40 4:56 20-1 11-9 20-75
SC. 4 53 1-620 8-55 13°85 12-65 ==
SC. 4 39 1-585 9.32 14-78 14:05 20:8
BAI. 1 5 1-068 10°04 10-72 10-04 20-8
BAI. 6 BA 1-104 14-31 15:83 17-55 23:6
BAI. 7 HS 1-273 13-48 17-15 17°35 23:8
BAI. 8 ae 1-106 15:24 16-86 17-17 24-0
A233 5 1-328 9-06 12:03 10-07 20-9
$2.5 on 1-062 10-03 10-66 10-30 22:0
$2. 6 5 1-415 8-52 12-05 12-49 21-9
$2.7 A 1-533 7-41 11-35 11-73 21-7
Cast Steel not
Sl. 4 3 1-086 18-14 19-7 26:3 51-5
$1.5 a 1-160 23-5 27-2 23°5 51:8
S1. 10 es 1-137 20°44 23°22 24-0 53-0
Cast Steel Annealed
$1.2 a3 1-018 19-0 19-3 19-6 46-9
S1. 7 “ 1-162 16:9 19-65 19-8 —
Steel Tube $-inch 1-156 15-6 18-03 _- 44-]
a> 5 KE 1-155 15-62 16:04 — 43-6
Aluminium tube 1-187 6-69 7:93 — 13-1
*4 i 1-090 5:68 6:19 — —
me 1-160 6-40 7-42 — 12:8
Cast
Aluminium Bronze A 1-127 13-10 14:75 — 40-4
ss 3 1-100 12-73 14:0 — 41-7
“4 Bronze B 1:36 4:46 6:06 — 30-7
As + 1:39 6-10 8-50 — a
Rod Brass BC. 2 1-261 9-64 12-15 — 34-4
1 1-08 11-07 11-95 34:8

99 39 ”

In order to judge whether the stresses should be corrected in the ratio
of the variation of strain, the values at the elastic limit for the same mate-
rial can be compared amongst themselves, and with the yield point stresses.

The adjustment is not justified for unannealed mild steel. In the case
of $2. 2 the elastic-limit and yield-point coincided. The correction makes
the elastic-limit greater than the maximum stress. For Sc. 5 and HP. 28

484 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919,

the corrected E.L. stresses are much greater than those at the corresponding
yields.

There is no doubt that inaccurate loading lowers the mean elastic
limit stress in the case of annealed mild steels, and that its true value
varies somewhat. The two samples SC. 4 show approximately the same
stress distribution, but the E.L. stresses are 8-55 and 9-32 tons per sq. in.
before correction. BA. 1, 6, and 7 afford an even better example because
the higher E.L. accompanies the lower Y.P. stress.

Evidently the measured E.L. stresses need some correction to give
true values, but it seems that that indicated by the strain distribution
is too drastic if the eccentricity of loading be large, e.g., SC steel. Of
the BA specimens 7 and 8 agree fairly well after correction with each other
and with the yield stresses, but for 6 the value is still low. The S2 steel
shows similar inequalities, 3 and 5 are over-corrected, but for 6 and 7
the results are fairly good.

It is desirable to remark that too close agreement cannot be expected
between values for stresses at the elastic limit, nor at yield when the stress
is unequally distributed. In general, the stress-strain curve does not
diverge greatly from a straight line at first, and, since small errors of
observation arise, it is not easy exactly to locate the required point.

Cast steel as supplied m the bar gives results which are not improved
by the suggested correction, but the annealed specimens need it.

The values for aluminium and the bronzes are in no better agreement
after the adjustment.

Only two specimens of brass rod are included, but these show the best
agreement of all between the corrected E.L. stresses.

Unfortunately, it is not possible to draw many general conclusions
from the data available. Only in the cases of annealed steels and brass is
the proposed correction of the elastic limit stress, in the ratio of maximum
to mean strain, at all justified, and then the factor is too large if the in-
accuracy of loading is considerable.

The degree of eccentric loading which is likely to arise in tension-
testing has less effect on the yield point stress than the differences which
are found along the same bar, and, as was expected, there is no evidence of
the maximum stress being affected.

Should the elastic limit of a steel or the yield point of other material
be required, it is necessary to take precautions to ensure that the loading
is accurate, and thus minimise the necessity for correction, which latter
cannot be applied in any case with certainty.

Experiments on the Effect of Alterations of Tensile Stress at Low
Frequencies on the Elastic Properties of Mild Steel. By Aneus R.
Futton, M.B.E., B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E., Temp. Major Royal Air
Force.

The work was carried out in the Engineering Laboratory of University
College, Dundee. It was directed to several points raised in the investiga-
tions into the theory of failure due to repetitions of stress by Reynolds
and Smith, Stanton and Bairstow, and others, which appeared to require
further examination.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 485

The points referred to are, briefly stated, as follows :—

(1) The effect of the variation of tensile stress as distinguished from
a variation of stress from tension to compression.

(2) The variation of the maximum limit when combined with a fixed

lower limit of range of stress.

(3) The limiting range of stress and its relation to the maximum stress,
its effect on the elastic properties of the material, and the
connection between complete recovery and perfect elasticity.

(4) Any indications given by the crystalline structure as to whether
failure is likely to occur.

The testing machine was specially designed for the setting up of tensile
stresses only by the late Professor T. C. Fidler, M.I.C.E., and was con-
structed in the Engineering Department of University College, Dundee.
The load is applied by means of hydraulic pressure acting on the underside
of a piston to which is attached through a spherical bearing joint the upper
end of the test piece, the lower end being similarly connected to a fixed
eross-head. The number of alternations of pressure is capable of being
varied from 10 to 18 per minute.

A special feature of the machine is its ability to take test pieces of the
same dimensions as those ordinarily used in a Wicksted Machine with a
length sufficiently great to allow of the use of a Ewing’s Extensometer.

The material used in the first test pieces was Siemens Martin Steel,
and, under static load showed a yield stress of 15 tons per sq. in. and a
maximum stress of 26-4 tons on the original section with an ultimate
elongation of 32°8 per cent. on an 8-in. length. The later specimens,
in order to fit im with the scheme of research framed by the Engineering
Committee of the British Association on Complex Stresses, were of specially
supplied Dead Mild Steel (-12 per cent. Carbon), yield stress 15-5 tons per
Sq. iIn., maximum stress 23-4 tons, and elongation 33:7 per cent.

In the series of tests, in which alternations of tensile stress only were
given, it was found that :—

(1) After ordinary yield is exceeded and permanent elongation has
taken place, the limits of the proportionality of stress and
strain are raised. The extent of this elongation for any
maximum stress depends on whether the stress has been
applied in one stage or with a sufficient number of repetitions
at each of several stages.

(2) The range of stress over which this proportionality is maintained
is limited ; once established it is independent of the number
of cyclical repetitions to which it is subjected.

(3) The range of stress may be again varied by further elongation,
but to this there is a limit.

(4) Failure under repetitions of tensile stress occurs by the move-
ment of the crystals relatively to one another, consequent
on the existing range of stress being exceeded, ox during the
transition period when one range is being changed to another.

(5) Failure frequently originates by the range of stress, or even
the maximum static stress of the material, being exceeded
in parts of a section, and is due to mechanical flaws in the
material or to non-axial loading.

1919. NN

486 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

The Strain-energy Function and the Elastic-limit.
By B. P. Haicu, M.B.E., D.Sc.

Introduction.

The elastic-limit of a ductile metal is usually defined as that limiting
intensity of stress beyond which permanent strain is first produced ; or
alternatively, beyond which stress and strain are no longer proportional.
The same definition may be adopted for complex stresses, the intensities
of all three principal stresses being then required to specify the elastic-
limit.

Several hypotheses, based on direct experiment and empirical in nature,
have been advanced with the object of establishing a direct relation
between the elastic-limits for simple and complex stresses ; and certain of
these are now in general use, yielding reliable results in particular circum-
stances. In what follows, reference will be made to three hypotheses—
due to Lamé and Rankine, to de Saint Venant and to Tresca, Darwin,
and Guest. According to different hypotheses, the maximum principal
stress or strain, or the maximum tangential stress, or the latter together
with internal friction, may be regarded as the criterion of elastic failure.

In studying these alternative hypotheses, it occurred to the author
that a more general relation between the elastic-limits under simple and
complex stresses might be found by directing attention to the energy
absorbed by the material in virtue of its elastic stram. This view was
based upon thermo-dynamic considerations ; but, in this paper, only the
experimental aspect of the question will be discussed. On another occasion
the author hopes to deal with the theoretical results obtamed by applying
the principles of thermodynamics to the current theory of ductile strain ;
the process of strain being regarded as one in which crystalline metal is
converted to the harder vitreous state in a manner that is thermodyna-
mically reversible although associated (like every thermal process) with
actions that are irreversible.

The mechanical energy absorbed by a body stressed within the elastic-
range is variously termed the ‘straim-energy ’ or ‘resilience.’ The term
‘limiting strain-energy ’ will now be used to signify the quantities of energy
that can be absorbed per unit volume of material uniformly strained to
its elastic limit by the application of specified combinations of principal
stresses. The immediate object of the investigation is to find how nearly
constant is this quantity, for any one material, independently of the
nature of the simple or complex stress applied. No new experiments will
be quoted because the data available in published records afford ample
scope for a preliminary investigation; but it is hoped that the results
may encourage other investigators to study the stram-energy function
when analysing further experiments.

Strain-energy Functions.

The mean strain-energy of a test-piece, initially free from internal
stress and then uniformly strained under complex stress, is readily ex-
pressed in terms of the three principal stresses, X, Y, and Z, and the elastic

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 487

constants of the material. Under a single principal stress, X, the strain
energy depends only on Young’s modulus E. Thus:

2

Strain-energy=W.=| xX wax? /2K

Similarly, under simple shear-stress Q with modulus of rigidity C; or
under bulk-stress P with compressibility modulus K—the values are

W, = Q7/2 C or W, = P3/2K
Under two-dimensional stress, represented by two finite principal stresses
X and Y, the elongation in the direction of either principal stress is the
algebraic sum of two components produced by the two stresses, thus

é, = (X —cY)/E

where o is Poisson’s ratio. Integrating the sum of the products Xde,
and Y.de,, to find the mean strain-energy W,,, we have

2E.W,, = (X2 + Y? — 20.X.Y)
Taking 2E.W,, as constant, this quadratic equation expresses the relation
between two principal stresses varied in such a manner that the strain-
energy W,, is constant. This equation is plotted in fig. 16 for different

Fia. 16. NNQ2

488 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

values of Poisson’s ratio from 0.50’ to 0.25 (m = 1/0 = 2, 24, 31, and 4).
The ellipses have been plotted to pass through the points (X = +1,
Y =0 and X =0, Y = + 1) representing the elastic-limits under simple
longitudinal pull and pushes in different directions. The major and
minor axes of the ellipses, at 45° to the axes of X and Y, are as given
below :—

Value of m 2:0 2:5 30 34 35 4-0

Semi-major axis 1414 1-291 1:225 1195 1183 1-153

Semi-minor axis O817 0845 0:867 0:879 0-882 0-895

On the hypothesis that the limiting strain-energy is constant and inde-
pendent of the nature of the applied stress, these ellipses indicate the varia-
tions of the limiting principal stresses for the elastic-limit under two-dimen-
sional stress. For example, the elastic-limit under simple shear-stress
(X = —Y) should be somewhat more than half the tensile elastic-limit.
Also, under combinations of similar principal stresses, e.g., two pulls in
perpendicular directions, the elastic-limit should be increased by the in-
fluence of the second stress when the latter is of moderate intensity ; and
reduced when the two stresses approach equality. The square A, B, C, D,
in the same diagram, represents Rankine’s hypothesis that the elastic-
limit depends solely on the principal stress—the limits under pull and
push being here assumed to be equal. The six-sided figure A, H, G, C,
F, E, A likewise represents Guest’s law, that the elastic-limit is determined
by the maximum tangential stress.. Parallelograms, e.g., T, W, V, U,
represent de Saint Venant’s hypothesis that elastic failure depends on
the maximum principal stram. These latter parallelograms circumscribe
the ellipses representing constant strain-energy, being tangent to the ellipses
at the points E, F, G, H. It will be observed that this diagram affords a
convenient means of comparing the results of experiment with the indica-
tions of the several hypotheses: sections of the diagram will be used for
this purpose in subsequent figures.

For combinations of three finite principal stresses, the mean strain-
energy may likewise be expressed,

9E.W,,, = (KX? +- Y? + Z*) — I.(Y.Z + ZX + X.Y)

Other forms of the energy function, based on the three principal stresses
and two independent variables expressing the elasticity of isotropic mate-
rials, have been given by Lamé (1852) ; but the above is well known and,
probably, the most convenient and fundamental.

For the more general case of non-isotropic crystals, Green (1837) estab-
lished an expression in which 21 independent variables appear. It is
important to observe that the simpler expressions are rigorously applicable
only for isotropic materials ; and that, being applied to ordinary crystalline
metal composed of large numbers of non-isotropic grains with axes oriented
in different directions, they give only the mean strain-energy for the gross
mass under uniformly applied stress. The quantities of energy absorbed
by individual crystalline grains may vary above or below this mean value ;
and may vary for different parts of individual grains according to the con-
figuration of the boundaries. Evidence of this non-uniformity may be
observed by studying the disposition of slip-bands within particular grains,

Aw \ - MUSE

British Association Report, Bowrnemouth, 1919.] {[Puate VIII.

Illustrating the Report on Stress Distribution in Engineering Materials.
[To face page 489.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 489

Instead of expressing the strain-energy in terms of the three mutually
perpendicular principal stresses, we may adopt the method introduced by
Kelvin, and express the state of stress in terms of a single bulk stress P
and two mutually perpendicular shear stresses, Q,, and Q.,. The bulk
stress is the algebraic mean of the three principal stresses,

P=35(K+Y+D)

while the two shear-stresses are equal to the two smaller of the three
residuals obtained by subtracting the bulk stress from the principals. For
example, if the residual (Y — P) is numerically greater than (X — P)
and (Z — P)—hbeing equal and opposite to their sum (X + Z— 2P)—the
two shear-stresses are

Q. = (X — P) = (@X/3 — Y/3 — 7/3)
and Q,, = (Z —P) = (22/3 — X/3 — Y/8).

In terms of these fundamental stresses, the mean strain-energy is
simply the sum of the quantities due to the three independent stresses,
viz. :—

Waye = (P?/2K + Q?,,/2C + Q?,,/2C)

On substituting K = H/3 (1 — 2c) and C = E/2 (1 + o), and the values
of the principal stresses, this expression naturally reduces to the form
already quoted, giving the strain-energy in terms of X, Y, Z, EH, and o.

Figure 17 shows a model constructed to visualise the quadratic equation
in the three stresses X, Y, and Z, every point on the surface having the same
strain-energy. The symmetrical ellipsoid passes through the points
X=+1, Y =Z=0, etc., representing the elastic-limits under simple
pull and push in different directions and is oriented so that its major
axis coincides with the lime X = Y = Z. The form of the model varies
for different values of Poisson’s ratio, the ratios between the semi-major
axis and the elastic-limit for simple pull or push being as given in the
following table :—

Value ofratiosemi- 2°0 2-5 30 34 a5 4-0
major axis to
elastic-limit in
tension Infinity 2-235 1:732 1582 1528 1-414

The equal minor axes are identical with those of the ellipses shown in
fig. 16; these being the traces of the model with the plane of projection,
Z=0. In the case of an incompressible substance (K = infinity, m = 2°0)
the model becomes a cylinder.

The lines drawn on the (glass) planes of projection represent the co-
ordinates of the elastic-limits under simple pull and push. The markings
on the surface of the ellipsoid represent particular combinations of stress,
e.g., the three-dimensional stresses in thick and thin tubes subjected to
internal fluid-pressure. The circle drawn round the minor axis is the
locus of points representing combinations of shear-stresses without bulk
stress. Bulk stress alone is represented by the major axis, X = Y = Z.

490 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

Analysis of published experimental results.

The following diagrams represent a summary of the results cf numerous
determinations cf the elastic-limits of different metals under two- and three-
dimensional stresses. The diagrams for experiments with two-dimensional
or nearly two-dimensional stresses have been drawn up on the following
principle : The intensities of the principal stresses, under which permanent
strain was observed, have been expressed as ratios to the single principal
stress, which, acting alone as simple pull, produced permanent elongation.
The values of these ratios, X and Y, have been taken as the co-ordinates
of the points marked on the diagrams. Thus each pomt represents a
comparison between two experiments, one under complex stress and the
other under simple pull. The positions of the points record the stress-
ratios only, not the absolute values of the stresses. When ascertainable,
the elastic-limits of the test-pieces have been used as the basis of comparison,
but in several instances the yield points have been compared in the same
manner.

The diagrams also show the ellipses representing constant limiting
strain-energy, and the figures corresponding to other hypotheses. The
positions of the experimental points, relatively to these loci, afford a
convenient and direct check on the validity of alternative hypotheses.

Figure 18 reproduces that part of the two-dimensional stress diagram
which relates to pull, X, combined with a perpendicular pull or push, +Y.
The majority of the experimental points represent Guest’s experiments 4
on steel, brass, and copper tubes subjected te combinations of tension and
torsion (quadrant XO = Y), or combinations of tension and internal
pressure (quadrant XOY). In the latter experiments, the metal was
subjected to three finite principal stresses; but as the radial pressures
that constitute the third stress are small in comparison with the tensions
produced in thin-walled tubes, the third stress may be neglected ; or the
points may be regarded as slightly in relief above the plane of the paper.

The values of m quoted for the steel tubes, deduced from determinations
of E and C, vary between 2°36 and 3:50—a somewhat wide range ; but
it is recognised that this method of measuring Poisson’s ratio, although
convenient and theoretically correct, is liable to give erroneous values
when even small errors are present in the determination of the moduli.
The values quoted for the brass and copper tubes are respectively 2-0 to
2-2 and 2:3. Ellipses have been plotted corresponding to m = 2:0, 2:5,
and 34.

Inspection of the diagram indicates that the points approximate to
the ellipses, at least as closely as to any of the straight-line loci. The
points. lie outside the square HAEO where the two stresses are both
pulls but the one substantially greater than the other; and fall within
the square near the corner A, where the stresses approach equality. And
in the same quadrant XOY, the change from steel to brass or copper is
accompanied by a general movement in the outward direction, as would be
anticipated on the assumption that the limiting strain-energy is constant.
In the lower quadrant, the points are widely distributed but generally

* J.J. Guest, Phys. Society, May 25, 1900.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 491

lie between the lines representing constant maximum principal and tangen-
tial stresses, in the region occupied by the ellipses.

The thin steel tubes employed in Guest’s experiments being of moderately
high tensile material, with elastic-limits under simple tension from 15 to
27 tons per sq. in., it is inferred that the constant strain-energy hypothesis
is reasonably applicable for ordinary steels although their microstructional
features are too complex to admit of any complete theoretical treatment,
such as would be required to apply thermodynamic principles.

Figure 18 shows, also, five experiments by Crawford’ on flat steel plates

++ Steel Tubes :I.J.Guest,I900

sece Brass ” ” 7 ted

oor ‘es e oa m

lomparadn. S01 Plates; W.J. Crawford, 9M,

| ompared.. Steel Tubes: R.G.C.BatsongH7.
(Qon ELL

6020.)

Fig. 18.

of circular profile, clamped at the edges and subjected to fluid pressure on
one side. Crawford concludes that, for such plates, de Saint Venant’s
hypothesis (represented by the straight lines H V and H V’ for m = 2°5 and
34) is more applicable than Rankine’s hypothesis of constant maximum
principal stress. The value of m for these plates, experimentally deter-
mined, was3-19. Asde Saint Venant’s lines lie, in this part of the diagram.

5 W. J. Crawford, Proc. R.S.Hdin. (1911-12).

492 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCEH.—1919.

only slightly outside the ellipses which they touch at H, it follows that
this and other evidence that supports de Saint Venant’s hypothesis may
be regarded as giving almost equal support to the hypothesis of constant
strain-energy. When the two principal stresses are more nearly equal,
as in rotating discs, de Saint Venant’s hypothesis overestimates the elastic-
limit and cannot be regarded as reliable.

Tests by Batson,* on two mild-steel tubes, are also represented in the
same diagram. In these tubes, which were tested in torsion and in tension,
the ratio between the elastic-limits is somewhat different from that between
the yield-points. This may have been due to the comparatively thick
walls of the tubes, the ratio between the internal and external diameters
being 0:72. These results were described as supporting Guest’s hypothesis,
but are more closely in agreement with the hypothesis of constant limiting
strain-energy.

+++ Mason.1909.
+20 1906.

Scoble.

Fic. 19.

Figure 19 shows the portion of the diagram relating to combinations
of pull and push ; particularly with equal intensities, producing simple
shear. Three experiments, described in detail by Mason,’ are represented
by points close to the ellipses ; and a number of other experiments on steel
tubes, more briefly mentioned in the same article, give points between the
ellipses and the straight line HG. A number of points represent other
experiments on steel tubes in torsion and pull, by Turner.8 The ratio
between the two elastic limits varies widely in the different specimens
tested ; but analysing the observations by the theory of probabilities—
as applied in problems of external ballistics—Sears 9 showed that the

6 R. G. C. Batson, Proc. Inst.Mech.Eng., 1917.
7 Wm. Mason, Engineering, December 24, 1909.
8 Professor Turner, Engineering, February 1909.
9 J. E. Sears, Engineering, February 19, 1909.

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 493

probable limit in torsion was 64 per cent. greater than half the elastic
limit in tension. Several comparative tests by Scoble! are also represented
in the same diagram. These were carried out on solid unannealed test-
pieces subjected to combined bending and torsion, and the yield-points
were quoted as the bases of comparison. The limits under combined
stress appear unusually low in this series, lying well within the straight
line HG.

Experiments with Combination of three Finite Principal Stresses.

For combinations of three finite principal stresses, the above method
of comparison is less convenient than that adopted by Cook and Robertson!
in their investigation of the elastic-limit of thick-walled tubes subjected
to internal fluid-pressure. In this investigation, a number of tubes were
tested under gradually increasing pressure, producing hoop-tension, axial-
tension and radial pressure in the material of the inner layer. By varying
the ratio, k, between the external and internal diameters of the tubes, the
relative magnitudes of the three principal stresses were varied widely,
affording a direct comparison of the effects of different complex stresses.
The elastic-limit of the material under simple tension, F, was also measured
and the limiting internal pressure, P, was expressed as a fraction of this.
Since the lengths of the tubes were great enough to render the influence
of the ends negligible, Lamé’s method of calculating the principal stresses
could be applied with confidence. These stresses are :

X = hoop tension = P (k? + 1) + (kh? — 1)
Y = axial tension = P ~ (kh? — 1)
Z = radial pressure = P

Cook and Robertson showed that, for each of the current hypotheses,
the limiting internal pressure, P, could be expressed in terms of the elastic-
limit, F; thus :—

On Rankine’s hypothesis P/F = (k2 — 1) + (k? + 1)
On Guest’s hypothesis P/F = (k? — 1) + 2k?
On de Saint Venant’s (with m = 4) P/F = 4 (k? — 1) ~ (5% + 2).

Figure 20 shows these expressions plotted, as functions of k, for tubes
of different thicknesses. Cook and Robertson’s experimental values are
also plotted and lie well below graphs I and II, representing the Rankine
and St. Venant hypotheses, but above the third graph, III, which repre-
sents Guest’s hypothesis of constant maximum tangential-stress. The
author has added two graphs, IV, giving the values of the ratio, P/F,
corresponding to the hypothesis of constant strain-energy; and it is
observed that these follow the experimental points very closely.

According to the hypothesis of constant strain-energy the relation

10 W. A. Scoble, Phil. Mag. ii. 1906.
1 Cook and Robertson, Engineering, December 15, 1911.

494 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.—1919.

between P/F and & is deduced in the following manner, which may be
regarded as typical of the methods applicable wherever the ratios between
the principal stresses are known. In the general equation for strain-
energy
deeper 1
e al Soe 2 2 reed ae
Wey on * + Y’+ 2?) wp) 2124+ 2x)

substitute the expressions for the principal stresses,

HP)? * {a[e—1+(B-+14+1]

*[—(e 1) —(e-H1y(e— 1)-+(#-+1)] \

~m

ane —ay 2-5) 240+ 5) | aay Leto

Hquating this quantity to the strain-energy in simple tension,
W,=F’/2E, we have

Des te ee ale
F? 3(1—20)+2i4(1-+c)

whence, substituting m = 1/0 = 4, we have
P 2(k#—1)
F-76108
which expression gives one of the two graphs, IV, plotted in the diagram,
The validity of the constant limiting strain-energy hypothesis, as a

Principal Strain Constant:
WM: Tangential dtress Ges.
IW -Luntiing Strain Energy Constant,

iW; Marked Powus +++. Indicate Cook&Ro 705
Sio__Baperimen tad Rasilis Bethe Sooke Robertso
pa? +3 z LG 30 25 4?
Go2ae) Ratio fo- Haterncl/Ieternal Dic:meter of Tabe.

Fic. 20.

serviceable approximation to a law that is doubtless more complex,
may be inferred not only from scientific investigation of cases, such as the
above, that admit of exact calculation and measurement, but also from

ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 495

observation of phenomena that do not admit of exact treatment. The
process of wire-drawing is a case in point. In drawing, wire is subjected
to three dimensional stresses in the dies, viz., axial tension and two-dimen-
sional compression—a combination which, in the model shown in fig. 20, is
represented by the region at the rear of the upper right-hand quadrant,
where the (vertical) tension is comparatively low. Approximate calcula-
tions, based on the hypothesis of constant limiting stram-energy, indicate
that the pull required to give 7} per cent. reduction in dies of ordinary
proportions should vary from 30 to 50 per cent. of the tensile strength ;
whereas, in practice, it is found that the actual pull required seldom
reaches half the tensile strength. Although the influence of friction is
too uncertain to admit of accurate calculation, the agreement is, at least,
within the limits of uncertainty.

It may be noted, also, that strain-energy limits are already used in
practice, to a limited extent, in connection with calculations relating te
springs. The energy that can be stored per unit volume of solid round
wire, wound free in a closely-coiled helical spring, with maximum shear-
stress g is W = (49°/C), where C is the modulus of rigidity. . As q varies
from about 40 to 86,000 lbs. per sq. in. and C is approximately 12,000,000,
W runs from 320 to 1,300 inch-lbs. per cubic inch.. In a spring required
to carry a concentrated load P with an elastic deflection 8, the total
stored-energy is ($P 6); hence the volume of metal required is simply
(4P 6 = W). The hypothesis that the limiting strain-energy per unit
volume is the same, in torsion and bending, leads to the conclusion that
the helical spring should be capable of storing 50 per cent. more energy
than a well-designed coach-spring of equal volume (with constant maximum
stress along its many leaves) ; the expressions for the mean strain-energy
being respectively (4q?/C) and (§f?/E), which are in the ratio 6:4. It may
be observed that this conclusion is roughly endorsed by experience of the
endurance of such springs under comparable conditions of service.

496

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References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.

An asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.

The mark t indicates the same, but that a reference is given to the Journal
or Newspaper where the paper is published in extenso.

FFICERS and Council, 1919-20, iii.
Rules of the Association, v.
Trustees, General Officers, &c., xxi.
Sectional Presidents and Secretaries
(1901-16), xxii.
Evening Discourses (1901-16), xxxi.
Public Lectures (1912-16), xxxii.
Chairmen, Presidents, and Secretaries of
Conferences of Delegates (1901-16),
XXXiii.
Grants of money for scientific purposes
(1901-18), xxxiy.
Bournemouth Meeting, 1919 :—
General Meetings, xlii.
Sectional Officers, xliii.
eos of Conference of Delegates,
xliv.
Report of the Council, 1918-19, xlv.
Report on the working of the Asso-
ciation, xlix.
General Treasurer’s Account, liv.
Attendances and Receipts at Annual
Meeting, lvi.
Analysis of Attendances, lviii.
Research Committees, lx.
Communication ordered to be printed
in extenso, Ixxv.
Resolutions referred to the
lxxiii.
Synopsis of Grants of Money, Ixxi.
Caird Fund, Ixxii.
Public Lectures in Bournemouth and
vicinity, Ixxyv.

Council,

Address by the President, Hon. Sir
Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S., 3.

y+Acwortu (W. M.), transport policy, 248.

Aerial route, an, some of the conditions
governing the selection of, by Col.
Towler, 230.

Aerofoil theory, the application of, to
the heating of buildings, by Prof. G.
H. Bryan, 274.

*Aeropiane photo surveys in the East,
by Capt. H. Hamshaw Thomas, 231.
1919.

*Africa, colonisation in, by Sir Alfred
Sharp, 230.

Agricultural Section, Address by Prof.
W. Somerville to the, 364.

*Air photography, by Col.
botham, 231. ;

Atrey (Dr. J. R.) on the calculation of
mathematical tables, 43.

Airships, by Wing-Commr. T. R. Cave-
Browne-Cave, 265.

Alkylarylamines, the intermolecular re-
arrangement of the, by Dr. Joseph
Reilly and Wilfred J Hickinbotiom,
169.

ALLEN (Rev. F. A.), traces of Polynesian,
Melanesian, and Australoid elements
in primitive America, 283.

America, primitive, traces of Polynesian,
Melanesian, and Australoid elements
in, by Rev. F. A. Allen, 283.

Anthropological Section, Address by
Prof. A. Keith to the, 275.

Antiscorbutic principle, the, in expressed
juices of fruits and vegetables, the
effect of heat on, by Dr. E. M. Delf,
313.

Aqueous solutions of related organic sub-
stances, distillation of, by Dr. J. Reilly
and W. J. Hickinbottom, 170.

Archeological discoveries in the Channel
Islands, recent, by Dr. R. R. Marett,
285.

Archeological investigations
report on, 123.

Argentine ant, the life history of the,
Dr. M. C. Grabham on, 209.

Argon and helium, the ionisation of, by
electron collisions, by Prof. F. Horton
an Miss A. C. Davies, 153.

* ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.), on the method
and substance of science teaching,
354.

Aromatic amines, addition compounds,
of, and their nitro-derivatives with
metallic salts, by Dr. Joseph Reilly,
LANs

Winter-

in Malta,

oo

502

Asupy (Dr. T.) on archeological investi-
gations in Malia, 123.

Astiry (Rev. H. J. D.), primitive art as
a means of practical magic, 292.

Atmospheric electricity new experi-
ments in and their possible connection
with terrestrial magnetism, by H. A.
Reeves, 231.

Atmospheric pollution, Dr. J. Owens on,
429,

Australia, report on the establishment of
a solar obvervatory, in, 96.

Ausiralian cycadacee, final report on, 125.

Australian fossil plants, final report on,
124.

*Automatic filter, an, for measuring the
suspended dust in the air, by Dr. J. 8.
Owens, 171.

Aviation, the scientific progress of, during
the war, by L. Bairstow, 266.

Badaga clans, by I. J. Richards, 287.

Baven-Powntt (Sir Robert), on training
in citizenship, 360.

Baiury (Miss D.), and Prof. F. Horton,
the production of luminosity in helium
by electron collisions, 153.

Batrstow (L.), the scientific progress of
aviation during the war, 266.

Balkan antiquities found during the,
period 1915-1919, by Stanley Casson,
290.

Batrour (H.) on archeological investiga-
tions in Malta, 123.

*Bauy (Prof. E. C. C.), the molecular
phase hypothesis, a theory of chemical
reactivity, 171.

Barr (Dr. A.), on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

*BaRTLETT (1".), some experiments on
the reproduction of folk stories, 314.

Bateson (Prof.), on experimental studies
in the physiology of heredity, 124.

Batuer (Dr. F. A.), 07 zoological biblio-
graphy and publication, 122.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 125.

*BatTtye (A. Trevor), the static power
of melting ice, 230.

*____ Crete, 230.

Beazuey (Lt.-Col. G. A.), surveys in
Mesopotamia during the war, 221.
Berpson (Prof. P. Phillips), Address to

the Chemical Section, 161.

BEHARRELL (Lt.-Col. Sir J. G.), the value
of full and accurate statistics, as shown
under emergency conditions in the
transportation service in France, 248.

Bett (Sir Hugh), Address to the Section
of Economic Science and Statistics, 232.

Brvan (Rev. J. O.), on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 422.

INDEX.

Bryaery (G.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 111

*BLACKBURN (Dr. A. M.), the electrical
treatment of seeds, 383

Brackman (Dr. F. F.), on experimental
studies in the physiology of heredity, 124.

*Bnain (Sir Robert), on continuation
schools, 356.

Bouton (H.), on the character, work, and
maintenance of museums, 125.

Bone (Prof. W. A.) on fuel economy, $7.
Bonney (Dr. T. G.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 111.
*BosweE zt (Prof. P. G. H.), geochemistry

and the war, 168.

Botanical Section, address by Sir Danie]
Morris to the, 316.

Bournemouth, the tertiary beds of, and
the Hampshire basin, by Dr. William
T. Ord, 187.

——, the chines of, by Henry Bury, 191.

——, the geographical position and site
of, by C. B. Kaweett, 222.

—— area, the, the post-tertiary deposits
of, by Reginald A. Smith, 192.

—- Bay, the erosion of, and the age of its
cliffs, by Dr. William T. Ord, 196.
—— district, the mesozoic rocks of the,

by Sir Aubrey Strahan, 190.

Boys (C. Vernon) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

BraBsrook (Sir Edward), on the work of

the Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee, 422.

BRigRLEY (William B.), the fungal
species, 340.

Brigut, (Sir Charles), inter-imperial
communications, 250.

Briton, the physical characteristics
of the modern, by Prof. F. G.

Parsons, 283.

Brown (Sidney G.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 40.

the gyroscope compass, 418.

+Brown, (Dr. W.), hypnotism and mental
analysis, 314.

Browne (Rev. H.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums, 125.

BrowneEn (G.), Hedenesbury or Hen-
gistbury of prehistoric times, 291.

Bryan (Prof. G. H.), sound emission
from airscrews, 267.

—— the application of aerofoil theory to
the heating of buildings, 274.

Buckmaster (C. A.), on the character,
work, and maintenance of musewms, 125.

*___ continuation schools; the problem
of urban schools, 357.

Bury (Henry), the chines of Bourne-
mouth, 191.

Business in relation to education, dis-
cussion on, 355.

—— Sir H. E. Morgan on, 356.

INDEX, 503
*Bute laboratory and museum, the , CLuss (Dr. J. A.) on the character, work,
development of the, by L. P. W. and maintenance of museums, 125.

Renouf, 339.

*Butter and margarine, by Prof. W. D.
Halleburton, 308.

Buxton (L. H. D.), the anthropology of
Cyprus, 289.

—— and Prof. J. L. Myres, excavations
in Cyprus in 1913, 288.

Catz (J. M.), on increased food production
in Scotland, 382.

Canada, Central, the pre-Cambrian of,
by Willet G. Miller, 192.

*Canadian weather, some unsolved prob-
lems of, by Sir Frederic Stupart, 155.

*Capillaries, the role of the, in the regu-
lation of the blood flow, discussion on,
308.

Casson (Stanley), some Balkan antiqui-
ties found during the period 1915-1919,
290.

Cattle foods, the classification of, by J.
Alan Murray, 383. .

Cave-Browne-Cave (Wing-Commr. T.
R.), airships, 265.

Central Asia, history and ethnology in,
by Miss M. A. Czaplicka, 282.

CuapMAn, (Dr. S.), on geophysical dis-
cussions, 81.

*Characteristic fossils, interim report on
the preparation of a list of, 189.

Cuaunpy (T. W.) on the calculation of
mathematical tables, 43.

—— on the determination of gravity at
sea, 83.

Chemical Section, Address by Prof. P.
Phillips Bedson to the, 161.

Chemical warfare, by Brig.-Gen.
Hartley, 393.

*Chemistry and the war, by Sir Wm. J.
Pope, 167.

Cuinnery (E. W. P.), stonework and
goldfields in Papua, 289.

——- some glimpses of unknown Papua,
292. f

H.

_ Cree (Dr. Chas.) on radiotelegraphic in-

tad ee

vestigations, A0.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

—— on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 465.

*Cinema, the educational value of the,
by Sir Richard Gregory, 360.

Circular earthwork, an unrecorded type
of, recently discovered in the New
Forest, by H. Kidner, 291.

Citizenship, training in, discussion on,
360.

—— Rt. Rev. J. E. C. Welldon on, 360.

—— Sir R. Baden-Powell on, 360.

Ciose (Col. Sir C. F.) on geophysical
discussions, 81.

*Coal measures (Yorkshire and Cumber-
land), types of faults in the, by Prof.
P. F. Kendall and Dr. A. Gilligan, 196.

*Coal seams, the geology of, interim report
on, 189.

Coxesr (Prof. E. G.) on stress distribution
in engineering materials, 465.

Continuation schools, discussion on, 356.

*____ by Sir Robert Blair, 356.

—-— the problem of works schools, by
Dr. A. P. M. Fleming, 356.

*—— the problem of urban schools,
by C. A. Buckmaster, 357.

—— the problem in rural districts, by
G. F. Daniell, 357.

—— the Workers’ Educational Asso-
ciation, by J. S. Rainer, 359.

—— the Earl of Malmesbury, on, 359.

Coox (Gilbert) on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

Cooxe (Thurkill), some suggestions for
a general institute of applied
psychology, 314.

Cornisu (Dr. Vaughan), the geography
of imperial defence, 226.

Corresponding Societies Committee :—
Report, 422.

Conference at Bournemouth, 422.

List of Corresponding Societies, 449.

Papers published by Corresponding
Societies, 454.

Corti (Rev. A. L.) on the establishment
of a solar observatory in Australia, 96.

—— the progressive spectra of Nova
Aquile, 1918-19, 147.

CorrineHam (E. T.) and Prof. A. §.
Eppineron, photographs taken at
Principe during the total eclipse of the
sun, May 29, 156.

*Crete, by A. Trevor Battye, 230.

CromBre (Dr. J. E.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

Crook (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 111.

CrooKxE (W.), the cults of the mother
goddesses in India, 287.

*Crop production, war-time and post-war
problems of, by Dr. E. J. Russell, 383.

*CroziER (Lt.-Col. C. D.), high explo-
sives, 167.

Crystals, models of, devised by Miss
Nina Hosali, exhibition of, 160.

*Cycadacer, Australian, report on, 341.

Cyprus, excavations in, in 1913, by Prof.
J. L. Myres and L. H. D. Buxton, 288.

—— the anthropology of, by L. H. D.
Buxton, 289.

CzarLicka (Miss M. A.), ethnic versus
economic frontiers of Poland, 224.

—— history and ethnology in Central
Asia, 22.

002

504

*Dairying, the outlook in, by J. Mackin-
tosh, 383.

Datpy (Prof. W. E.) on stress distri-
bution in engineering materials, 465.
DanreLt (G. F.), continuation schools :
the problem in rural districts, 357.
Darwin (Sir Horace) on seismological

investigations, 35.

—— on the determination of gravity at
sea, 83.

*Davey (Miss A. J.), the effect of pre-
servatives on the antiscorbutic sub-
stance of lemon juice, 313.

Davip (Prof. T. W. Edgeworth)
Australian fossil plants, 124.

Davies (Miss A. C.) and Prof. F. Horton,
the ionisation of argon and helium
by electron collisions, 153.

Davison (Dr. C.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

Death ritual in Eddystone Island of
the Solomons, by A. M. Hocart, 286.
+Detr (Dr. E. M.), the effect of heat on
the antiscorbutic principle in expressed
juices of fruits and vegetables, 313.

+Denvy (Prof. A.), grain pests and the
storage of wheat, 211.

*Desca (Prof. C. H.), metallurgy during
the war, 168.

Desert flora of Western Egypt, the, Capt.
H. Hamshaw Thomas on, 332.

Devolution in England, some _ geo-
graphical aspects of, by C. B. Fawcett,
228. :

Devonian rocks of North Devon, the,
the correlation of, with those of other
localities, by Dr. J. W. Evans, 194.

D’Eyncovurt (Sir E. T.), account of
the British tanks used in the war, 263.

Diamonds in the Gold Coast, British
West Africa, the discovery of by A. E.
Kitson, 197.

Diffraction of electric waves, the, by
Dr. G. N. Watson, 152.

— — Dr. B. van der Pol on, 152.

Discussions :—

On thermionic tubes, 148.

On relativity, 156.

On geographical aspects of evolution,
228.

*On the role of the capillaries in the
regulation of the blood flow, 308.

On the teaching of science, 336.

On forestry problems, 337.

*On the teaching of English, 353.
On the method and substance of science
teaching, 354. ,
Qn business in relation to education,
355.

On continuation schools, 356.

On training in citizenship, 360.

On fundamental principles in education,
361.

on

INDEX.

*On the present position of private
schools, 362.

Distillation of aqueous solutions of related
organic substances, by Dr. Joseph
Reilly and Wilfred J. Hickinbottom,
170.

Dixry (Dr. F. A.), Address to the
Zoological Section, 199.

Dodecanese, the, by O. H. T. Rishbeth,
225.

DurrFieLp (Prof. W. G.) on the deter-
mination of gravity at sea, 83.

—— on the establishment of a solar
observatory in Australia, 96.

Dynamical similarity, the principle of,
applied to deformable elastic structures,
by Prof. L. N. G. Filon, 475.

Dyson (Sir F. W.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations, 40.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

e/m, a wireless method of measuring,
by Dr. R. Whiddington, 149.

Eccentric loading in tension and com-
pression tests, by W. A. Scoble, 479.

Eccuzs (Prof. W. H.) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 40.

—— on thermionic tubes, 148.

—— and F. W. Jorpan, a method of
using two triode valves in parallel for
generating oscillations, 270.

Echinus miliaris, further experi -
ments in the artificial production of a
double hydrocele in the larve of,
by Prof. E. W. MacBride, 207.

Economic Science and Statistics, Address
to the Section of, by Sir Hugh Bell, 232.

Epprneton (Prof. A. 8.) on radio-
telegraphic investigations, 40.

—— on the determination of gravity at
sea, 83.

—— and E. T. Cortinenam, photo-
graphs taken at Principe during the
total eclipse of the sun, May 29, 155.

Education, fundamental principles in,
discussion on, 361.

—— —— Prof. A. N. Whitehead on, 361. ~
————— the literary aspect of the —

question, F’. S. Preston on, 361.

—— —— the function of examinations
in education, by Prof. M. Hartog, 362.

Educational Section, Address by Sir
Napier Shaw to the, 342.

Egypt, Western, the desert flora of,
Capt. H. Hamshaw Thomas on, 332.

Electric waves, the diffraction of,
by Dr. G. N. Watson, 152.

Dr. B. van der Pol on, 152.

*Blectrical treatment of seeds, the, by
Dr. A. M. Blackburn, 383.

arb,

INDEX.

Elliptic functions, mathematical tables cf
the, report on, 43.

Emotion, the measurement of, by Dr.
A. D. Waller, 307.

Energy output of ‘heavy workers’
(dock labourers), measurement of
the, by Dr. A. D. Waller, 310.

Engine power, the variation of, with
height, by H. T. Tizard, 267.

Engineering Section, Address by Prof.
J. E. Petavel to the, 256.

*English, the teaching of, discussion on,
353.

*Equilibrium in the system NaNO,—
NH,C1—NaC1—NH,NO,, by Drs.
T. M. Lowry and E. P. Perman, 168.

Ersxktve-Mourray (Dr.) on radiotele-
graphic investigations, 40.

Eyawns (Sir Arthur), the palace of Minos
and the prehistoric civilisation of
Crete, 416.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 422.

Evans (E. V.) on fuel economy, 97.

Evans (Dr. J. W.), Address to the Geo-
logical Section, 172.

——- the correlation of the Devonian rocks
of North Devon with those of other
localities, 194.

Evolution, geographical aspects of, dis-
cussion on, 228.

*Evolution theory, the, and palon-
tology, by D. M. S. Watson, 211.

Ewing (Sir J. A.) on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

Examinations, in education, the function
of, by Prof. M. Hartog, 362.

Faqan (T. W.), the composition of lin-
seed recovered from a flax crop, 381.

Fawcett (C. B.), the geographical
_ position and site of Bournemouth, 222.

—— some geographical aspects of devo-
lution in England, 228.

Finon (Prof. L. N. G.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 43.

—— on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 465.

—— investigations of stresses in aero-
plane wing frameworks, 468.

—— note on the principle of dynamical
similarity applied to deformable elastic
structures, 475.

Finnie problem, some notes on the,
by Harold Peake, 282.

_ f¥Fishes, larval and post-larval, the food
of, by Dr. Marie V. Lebour, 210.

Fiemme (Dr. A. P. M.), continuation

schools: the problem of works
schools, 356.
Fueming (Prof. J. A.), on radiotele-

graphic investigations, 40.

505

Fuerr (Dr. J. 8.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

| Fixure (Prof. H. J.), a comparison of

an ancient and a surviving type of
man, 284,

Fora of the district of the London clay,
the, by Horace W. Monckton, 335.
*Folk stories, some experiments, on the
reproduction of, by F. Bartlett, 314.
Food production, increased, in Scotland,

by J. M. Caie, 382.

*—_. war-time, in England and Wales,
by Sir T. H. Middleton, 381.

Forpuam (Sir H. G.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Conumittee,
422.

Forestry problems, discussion on, 337.

Forsytu (Prof. A R.) on Gauss’s theorem
for quadrature and the approximate
evolution of definite integrals with
finite limits, 385.

Fortrscur (Prof. C. L.), the three-
electrode thermionic valve as an
alternating current generator, 270.

*Freshwater fishes, the geographical
distribution of, with special reference
to the past history of continents, by
C. Tate Regan, 211.

Fuel economy, secord report on, 97.

Fuuron (Angus R.) on stress distribution
in engineering materials, 465.

—— experiments on the effect of alter-
ations of tensile stress at low frequencies
on the elastic properties of mild steel,
484,

Fungal species, by W. B. Brierley, 340.

GaRwoop (Prof. E. J.) on collection of
photographs of geological interest, 111.
—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 125.

Gaseous ignition by hot wires, by Prof.
W. M. Thornton, 272.

Gates (Dr. R. Ruggles), mutational v.
recapitulatory characters, 340.

Gauss’s theorem for quadrature and the
approximate evolution of definite integrals
with finite limits, Prof. A. R. Forsyth
on, 385.

*Geochemistry and the war, by Prof.
P. G. H. Boswell, 168.

Geodetic Committee, report of, 28.

Geographical Section, Address by Prof.
L. W. Lyde to the, 212.

Geography in the curriculum of higher
education, by T. W. I. Parkinson, 444.

Geological Section, Address by Dr. J.
W. Evans to the, 172.

*Geology of coal seams, interim report on
the, 189.

Geophysical discussions, report on, 81.

506

*GILLIGAN (Dr. A.) and Prof. P. F.
KENDALL, types of faults in the coal
measures (Yorkshire and Cumber-
land), 196.

*Glass manufacture at the end of the
war, by Dr. M. W. Travers, 168.

GLAZEBROOK (Sir R. T.) on seismological
investigations, 35.

Goprrey (Col. M. J.), orchids of Hants
and Dorset, 331.

Gold standard, the, by R. G. Hawtrey, 252.

+Goopricu (EH. S.), phagocytosis and
protozoa, 210.

Gorpon (Dr. W. T.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

GrRapaam (Dr. M. C.), iridomermyx
humitis, a contribution to the life
history of the Argentine ant, 209.

Grain pests and the storage of wheat,
by Prof. A. Dendy, 211.

Gravity at sea, the determination of,
second report on, 83.

Gray (Prof. A.), Address to the Mathe-
matical and Physical Section, 135.
Gray, (W.) on the collection of photo-

graphs of geological interest, 111.

GREEN (Prof. J. A.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of musewms, 125.

GREENHILL (Sir G.) on the calculation of
mathematical tables, 43.

report on wave motion, 403.

Grecory (Sir Richard) on the method
and substance of science teaching, 354.

the educational value of the
cinema, 360.

GRIFFITHS (A. A.), the soap film method of
stress estimation, 478.

Gus&rRtn (Col. T. W. M. de), recent dis-
coveries in prehistoric archeology in
Guernsey, 286.

Guest (J. J.) on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

*Gullane, the lower carboniferous flora
at, interim report on, 189.

*GwynneE (Comm. A. L.), submarine
mining, 272.

Gyroscope compass, the, by Sidney G.
Brown, 418.

———s

Happon (Dr. A. C.) on archeological
investigations in Malta, 123.

—— on the character, work, and mainten-
ance of museums, 125.

HapFrep (Sir Robert) on fuel economy,
97.

Haiau (Dr. B. P.) on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

—— the strain-energy function and the
elastic-limit, 486.

*HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.), butter and
margarine, 308.

INDEX.

Harrison (H. 8S.) on the character, work,
and maintenance of museums, 125.
Hartuety (Brig.-Gen. H.), chemical war-

fare, 393.

Hartog (Prof. Marcus), fundamental
principles in education; the function
of examinations in education, 362.

Hawrrey (R. G.), the gold standard, 252.

{Heat loss and sun radiation in Egypt
and in Palestine, measurement, of
by Dr. H. E. Roaf, 313.

Hedenesbury or Hengistbury of pre-
historic times, by G. Brownen, 291.
HELE-Suaw (Dr. H. 8.) on fuel economy,

Mic

Helium, the production of luminosity in,
by electron collisions, by Prof. F.
Horton and Miss D. Bailey, 153.

Helium and argon, the ionisation of
by electron collisions, by Prof. F.
Horton and Miss A. C. Davies, 153.

Henverson (Prof. J. B.) on stress dis-
tribution in engineering materrals, 465.

Henrict (Major E. O.) on the determin-
ation of gravity at sea, 83.

Henry (Prof. Augustine), the affore-
station of water catchment areas, 337.

Herpman (Prof. W. A.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
422. .

Heredity, the physiology of, report on
experimental studies in, 124.

HeERoN-ALLEN (E.) on zoological biblio-
graphy and publication, 122.

Hicxinzporrom (Wilfred J.) and Dr.
JOSEPH REILLY, the mechanism of the
‘n-butyl alcohol and acetone’ fer-
mentation process, 168.

-—— —— intra-molecular rearrange-
ment of the alkylarylamines, 169.

— distillation of aqueous solu-
tions of related organic substances,
170.

Hicxire (Dr. G.) on the excavations of
critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

*High explosives, by Lieut.-Col. C. D.
Crozier, 167.

Hitt (M. D.) o7 the character, work,
and maintenance of museums, 125.
Hit (Prof. M. J. M. on the calculation

of mathematical tables, 43.

Hitton (Prof. Harold) on certain types
of plane algebraic curve, 155.

Hinvtez (Dr. E.), sex inheritance in lice,
209.

i a i i

Horson (Prof. E. W.) on the calculation —

of mathematical tables, 43.
Hocart (A. M.), death ritual in Eddy-
stone Island of the Solomons, 286.

Horne (Dr. J.) on the excavation of —

critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

INDEX.

*Horticulture, training and research in,
report on, 341.

Horton (Prof. F.) and Miss D. Barry,
the production of luminosity in helium
by electron collisions, 153.

—— and Miss A. C. Davizs, the ionisation
of argon and helium by electron
collisions, 153.

Hosaxt (Miss Nina), models of crystals
devised by, 160.

Hovston (Dr. R. A.), the ether and the
perihelion of Mercury, 154.

—-— the interpretation of the quantum,
154,

Howe (Prof. G. W. O.) on radiotele-
graphic investigations, 40.

Hoyte (Dr. W. Evans) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 122.

—— on the character, work, and main-
tenance of museums, 125.

Hourcurson (A.) on fuel economy, 97.

+Hypnotism and mental analysis, by
Dr. W. Brown, 314.

Imperial defence, the geography of, by
Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 226.

Income tax, Royal Commission on,
summary of evidence submitted on
behalf of the British Association, 253.

*Industrial bacteriology, by Dr. C. A.
Thaysen, 168.

*Industrial councils and their possi-
bilities, by T. B. Johnston, 248.

fIndustrial overstrain and unrest, by
Dr. C. 8. Myers, 313.

fineuis (Prof. C. E.), portable military
bridges, 264.

*Inheritance in silkworms, report on, 211.

*Interchange of students between
British and Scandinavian countries,
proposals for the, Dr. V. Naeser on,
360.

Inter-imperial communications, by Sir
Charles Bright, 250.

International rivers of Europe, the, by
Prof. L. W. Lyde, 212.

Tridomermyx humilis, a contribution to
the life history of the Argentine ant,
by Dr. M. C. Grabham, 209.

JacKson (Rt. Hon. F. Huth), the national
alliance of employers and employed,
245.

Jackson (G. E.), unemployment in
Eastern Canada, 254.

Jeans, (J. H.) on geophysical discus-
sions, 81.

*Jounston (T. B.), industrial councils
and their possibilities, 248.

507

Jounston (W. J.) and Sir JosmpxH
Larmor, the limitations of relativity,
158.

Jones (H. Rodwell), the site of West-
minster, 229.

JORDAN (F. W.) and Prof. W. H. Eccrzs,
a method of using two triode valves
in parallel for generating oscillations,
270.

Keeste (Prof.) on experimental studies
in the physiology of heredity, 124.

Kerru (Prof. A.), Address to the Anthro-
pological Section, 275.

*KEnDALL (Prof. P. F.) and Dr. A.
GILLicaN, types of faults in the coal

measures (Yorkshire and Cumber-
land), 196.
Kennepy (G.) on the calculation of

mathematical tables, 43.

Kupner (H.), recent discovery of an un-
recorded type of circular earthwork in
the New Forest, 291.

Kinston (Dr. RB.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

—— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest, 111.

Kirson (A. B.), the discovery of diamonds
in the Gold Coast, British West Africa,
197.

Kwyorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
observations, 35.

Lame (Prof. H.) on seismological investi-
gations, 35.

Lane (Prof. W. H.) on Australian fossil
plants, 124.

*Lapwortn (Prof. A.), latent polarities
in the molecule and mechanism of
reaction, 171.

Larmor (Sir Joseph) on seismological
investigations, 35.

how could a rotating body such as
the sun become a magnet ? 159.

——and W. J. Jonnston, the limita-
tions of relativity, 158.

Lawson (Prof. A. A.) on Australian
cycadacew, 125.

Lua (Prof. F. C,) on stress distribution in

' engineering materials, 465.

yLezsour (Dr. Marie V.), the food of
larval and post-larval fishes, 210.

*Lemon juice, the antiscorbutic sub-
stance of, the effect of preservatives
on, by Miss A. J. Davey, 313.

*Leptospira ictherohemmorrhagie from
the kidney of local rats, by Dr A. C,
Coles, 208.

Lewis (A. 8.) on the work of the Corres-
ponding Societies Committee, 422.

508

Lice, sex inheritance in, by Dr. E.
Hindle, 209.

fice and their relation to disease, Prof
G. H. F. Nuttall on, 211.

Linseed recovered from a flax crop, the
composition of, by T. W. Fagan, 381.

Lithological succession, the, in the
Avonian of the Avon-section, Clifton,
by Dr. 8S. H. Reynolds, 188.

Live-stock in British industry, the past
neglect and future improvement of,
by K. J. J. Mackenzie, 380.

Lockyer (Dr. W. J. 8.) on the establish-
ment of a solar observatory in Australia,
96.

Longe (Prof. Alfred) on the calculation of
mathematical tables, 43.

Loper (Sir Oliver) on radiotelegraphic
investigations, 40.

—— on a possible theory of vision, 152.

Louis (Prof. Henry) on fuel economy,
ile

Love (Prof. A. E. H.) on seismological
investigations, 30.

—— on the calculation of mathematical
tables, 43.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

—— on the determination of gravity at
sea, 83.

on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 465.

*Lower carboniferous flora at Gullane,
interim report on, 189.

*Lowry (Dr. T. M.) and Dr. EH. P.
PERMAN, equilibrium in the system
NaNO, = NH,Cl — NaCl — NH,NO,,
168.

Lupins, the value of, in the cultivation of
poor light land, by A. W. Oldershaw,
380.

Lypse (Prof. L. W.), Address to the
Geographical Section, 212.

Lyons (Col. H. G.) on geophysical dis-
cussions, 81.

MacBrarpe (Prof. E. W.), further ex-
periments in the artificial production of
a double hydrocele in the larve
of Hchinus miliaris, 207.

MacCunan (F.) on the establishment of a
solar observatory in Australia, 96.

Macponatp (Prof. H. M.) on seis-
mological investigations, 35.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations,
40.

—— on the calculation of mathematical
tables, 43.

McKay (R. F.), the paravane, 273.

Macxenziz (K. J. J.), the past neglect
and future improvement of live-stock
in British husbandry, 380.

INDEX.

Mackie (Dr. W.) on the excavation of

critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

*MacxIntosu (J.), the outlook in dairy-
ing, 383.

Magic and science, by Prof. Carveth
Read, 292.

Matmessury (the Earl of) on continua-
tion schools, 359.
Malta, archeological

report on, 123.

Man, a coniparison of an ancient and a
surviving type of, by Prof. H. J.
Fleure, 284.

Maneuam (Sydney), method and sub-
stance of science teaching,: the neglect
of biological subjects in education, 336.

Maretr (Dr. R. BR.) on archeological
investigations in Malta, 123.

recent discoveries of archeological
interest in the Channel Islands, 285.

*Margarine and butter, by Prof. W. D.
Halliburton, 308.

Mason (Dr. W.) on stress distribution in
engineering materials, 465.

Mathematical and Physical Section,
Address by Prof. A. Gray to the, 135.

Mathematical tables, the calculation of,
report on, 43.

Mathematical tables of the elliptic yunc-
tions, report on, 43.

Maturws (Prof. G. B.).on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 43.

Matthiola, on a graded series of forms
in, by Miss E. R. Saunders, 339.

Measurement of emotion, the, by Dr.
A. D. Waller, 307.

Mercury, the perihelion of, and the
ether, by Dr. R. A. Houston, 154.
Mesopotamia, three years with the statf
and two months’ excavation in, by R.

Campbell Thompson, 220.

—— surveys in, during the war, by
Lt.-Col. G. A. Beazley, 221.

Mesozoic rocks of the Bournemouth
district, the, by Sir Aubrey Strahan,
190.

*Metallurgy during the war, by Prof.
C. H. Desch, 168.

*MIDDLETON (Sir T. H1.), war-time food
production in England and Wales, 381.

Miers (Sir Henry) on the character, work,
and maintenance of museums, 125.

Mitier (Willet G.), the pre-Cambrian
of Central Canada, 192.

Minos, the palace of, and the pre-
historic civilisation of Crete, by Sir
Arthur Evans, 416.

Mircnett (Dr. P. Chalmers) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 122.

*Molecular phase hypothesis, the, a
theory of chemical reactivity, by
Prof. E. C. C. Baly, 171.

investigations in,

INDEX.

*Molecule and mechanism of reaction,
the latent polarities in, by Prof. A.
Lapworth, 171.

Moncrton (Horace W.), the flora of the
district of the London clay, 335.

Monp (Robert) on fuel economy, 97.

Montagu (Brig.-Gen. Lord),
ancient and modern, 423.

Morean (Sir Herbert E.) on business
in relation to education, 355.

Morris (Sir Daniel), Address to the
Botanical Section, 316.

Mother goddesses in India, the cults of
the, by W. Crooke, 287.

Murray (J. Alan), the classification of
cattle foods, 383.

Museums, the character, work, and
maintenance of, interim report on, 125.

Mutational v. recapitulatory characters,
by Dr. R. Ruggles Gates, 340.

Mycorrhiza and the ericacew, by Dr. M.
C. Rayner, 332.

7Myers (Dr. C. S.), industrial over-
strain and unrest, 313.

Myres (Prof. J. L.), on archeological
investigations in Malta, 123.

—— and L. H. D. Buxton, excavations in
Cyprus in 1913, 288.

roads

*Nagser (Dr. Vincent) on proposals for
the interchange of students between
British and Scandinavian countries,
360.

Narier (Lt.-Col. G. 8. F.), Persia, 231.

_ National alliance of employers and em-

ployed, the, by Rt. Hon. F. Huth

Jackson, 245.

Nationality and internationalism, some

geographical aspects of, by Dr. Marion
I. Newbigin, 224.

“n-butyl alcohol and acetone’ fermenta-
tion process, the mechanism of the,
by Dr. Joseph Reilly and Wilfred J.
Hickinbottom, 168.

New Zealand, the northern invasions of,
with special reference to Lord Howe
Island, by Dr. J. C. Willis, 333.

Nerwatt (Prof. H. F.) on geophysical dis-

cussions, 81.

Newserry (Prof. P.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums, 125

Newsiem (Dr. Marion I.), some geo-
graphical aspects of nationality and
internationalism, 224.

Nicnotson (Prof. J. W.)
telegraphic investigations, 40.

—— on the calculation of mathematical
tables, 43.

'-*Nitre and pitch, the recovery of, from

_ smoke candles, by Major E. R.
Thomas, 168.

on radio-

509
Norman (Sir H.) on
investigations, 40.
Nova Aquile, the progressive spectra of,
1918-19, by Rev. A. L. Cortie, 147.
Noya Geminorum, the spectrum of,

by J. F. M. Stratton, 146.
tNurrart (Prof. G. H. F.), lice and their
relation to disease, 211.

radiotelegraphic

Old red sandstone rocks of Kiliorcan,
Ireland, report on the excavation of
critical sections in, 110.

OtpERsHAw (A. W.), the value of lupins
in the cultivation of poor light land,
380.

*OLiveR (Prof. F. W.) on spartina and
Poole Harbour, 341.

Orchids of Hants and Dorset, by Col. M.
J. Godfrey, 331.

Orp (Dr. William T.), the tertiary beds
of Bournemouth and the Hampshire
basin, 187.

—— the erosion of Bournemouth Bay
and the age of its cliffs, 196.

Osporn (Prof. T. G. B.) on Australian
fossil plants, 124.

—— on Australian cycadacee, 125.

*Ownns (Dr. J. S.), an automatic filter
for measuring the suspended dust in
the air, 171.

——- on atmospheric pollution, 429.

*Palzontology and the evolution theory,
by D. M. 58. Watson, 211.

*Paleozoic rocks of England and Wales,
interim report on the excavation of
critical sections in, 189.

Papua, stonework and goldfields in, by
E. W. P. Chinnery, 289.

—— unknown, some glimpses of, by E.
W. P. Chinnery, 292.

Paravane, the, by R. F. McKay, 273.
Parkinson (T. W. F.), geography in the
curriculum of higher education, 444.
Parsons (Hon. Sir Charles A.), Presi-

dential Address, 3.

Parsons (Prof. F. G.), the physical
characteristics of the modern Briton,
283.

Patcue yt (W. H.) on fuel economy, 97.

Paton (Prof. D. Noel), Address to the
Physiological Section, 294.

Pracu (Dr. B. N.) on the excavation of
critical sections in the old red sandstone
of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

Peake (Harold), some notes on the
Finnic problem, 282.

Santiago; the evolution of a patron
saint, 288.

7Pear (Prof. T. H.), the theoretical
interest of industrial pathology, 313.

510

Pectinaria Koreni, Mgr., the building
habits of the, by Arnold T. Watson,
210.

*Pellagra, the pathology of, by Dr. H.
E. Roaf, 313.

*PpRMAN (Dr. E. P.) and Dr. T. M.
Lowry, equilibrium in the system
NaNO; — NH,Cl — NaCl — NH,NO;,
168.

Perry (Prof. J.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 422.

—— on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 465.

Persia, by Lt.-Col. G. 8. F. Napier, 231.

PETAVEL (Prof. J. E.), Address to the
Engineering Section, 256.

—— on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 468.

Phagocytosis and protozoa, by E. 8.
Goodrich, 210.

Photographs of geological interest, the
collection of, nineteenth report on, 111.

Photographs taken at Principe during
the total eclipse of the sun, May 2%,
by Prof. A. $8. Eddington and E. T.
Cottingham, 156.

Physical and Methematical Section,
Address by Prof. A. Gray to the, 135.

Physical sciences for which world-wide
observations are invportant, report on,
27.

Report of Geodetic Committee, 28.
Seismology after the war, by G. W.
Walker, 32.

Physiological fatigue and village meeting
halls, by Miss C. Smith-Rossie, 309.
Physiological Section, Address by Prof.

D. Noel Paton to the, 294.

Plane algebraic curve, certain types
of, Prof. Harold Hilton on, 155.

{Plant pathology, the organisation of
research in, im the British Empire,
report on, 341.

Platyzoma microphyllum, R. Br., the
morphology of the stele of, by Dr. John
McLean Thompson, 332.

Prummer (Prof. H. C.) on seismological
investigations, 35.

Prummer (W. E.) on seismological in-
vestigations, 35.

eee marine laboratory, report on,

Poland, ethnic versus economic frontiers
of, by Miss M. A. Czaplicka, 224.

*Pope (Sir Wm. J.), chemistry and the
war, 167.

{Portable military bridges, by Pref. C.
E. Inglis, 264.

Post-tertiary deposits of the Bourne-
mouth area, the, by Reginald A.
Smith, 192.

*REGAN

INDEX.

Povitoy (Prof. E. B.) on zoological
bibliography and publication, 122.

Prankerd (Miss T. L.) on some new types
of statocyte occurring in vascular
plants, 335.

Pre-Cambrian of Central Canada, the,
by Willet G. Miller, 192.

Prehisotric archeology in Guernsey,
recent discoveries in, by Col. T. W.
M. de Guérin, 286.

Preston (KF. S.) on fundamental
principles of education: the literary
aspect of the question, 361.

Price-fixing, with special reference to
Australian experience, by Hon. Sir
C. G. Wade, 246.

PrriestLeEY (Prof. J. H.), root pressure,
337.

Primitive art as a means of practical
magic, by Rev. H. J. D. Astley, 292.
*Private schools, the present position of,

discussion on, 363.

Protein metabolism, an aspect of, by
Prof. D. Noel Paton, 294.

{Protozoa and phagocytosis, by E. 8.
Goodrich, 210.

*Psychology and the war, Dr. W. R.
Rivers on, 313.

Psychology, applied, some suggestions
for a general institute of, by Thurkill
Cooke, 314.

+Psychology, industrial, the theoretical
interest of, by Prof. T. H. Pear, 313.

Quantum, the interpretation of the,

by Dr. R. A. Houston, 154.

Radiotelegraphic investigations, report on,
40.

Raver (J. §.), continuation schools;
the Workers’ Educational Associa-
tion, 359. ;

Ranunculacee, monocotyledonous fea-
tures of the, with special reference
to the floral structure, by Dr. E.
Salisbury, 336.

Rarasone (Herbert R.) on the character, —

work, and maintenance of museums, 125.

RAyNER (Dr. M. C.), mycorrhiza and the —

ericacew, 332.
;Reap_ (Prof.
science, 292.
Reeves (E. A.), new experiments in at-
mospheric electricity, and their possible
connection with terestrial magnetism,
231.

Carveth), magic

(C. Tate), the geographical

tl ¥

-

and ©

7

distribution of freshwater fishes, with
special reference to the past history of

continents, 211.

=

INDEX.

Rerp (A. 8.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 111.

Reiizy (Dr. Joseph), addition compounds
of aromatic amines and their nitro-
derivatives with metallic salts, 171.

——and Wilfred J. Hickxrnsorrom, the
mechanism of the ‘n-butyl alcohol
and acetone’ fermentation process,
168.

—— —— intermolecular rearrangement
of the alkalarylamines, 169.

——: —— distillation of aqueous solu-
tions of related organic substances,
170.

Relativity, discussion on, 156.

—— Prof. Eddington on, 156.

—— the limitations of, by W. J.
Johnston and Sir Joséph Larmor, 158.

*Renour (L. P. -W), the development
‘of the Bute laboratory and museum,
339.

*Replacement of men by women in in-
dustry, the report on, 250.

Reyno.ps (Prof. 8. H.) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest,
wy,

—— the lithological succession in the
Avonian of the Avon section, Clifton,
188.

Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, the old red sand-
stone of, report on the excavation of
critical sections in, 110.

Ricnarps (F. J.)(, Badaga clans, 287.

Risnpetu (O. H. T.), the Dodecanese,
225.

*Rivers (Dr. W. H. R.), on psychology
and the war, 313.

Roads ancient and modern, by Brig.
Gen. Lord Montagu, 423.

*Roar (Dr. H. E.), the pathology of
pellagra, 313.

+—— measurements of heat loss and of
sun radiation in Egypt and in Pales-
tine, 313.

Rozertson (Prof. Andrew) on stress
distribution in engineering materials
465.

—— the strength of tubular struts, 466.

Rosiyson (Capt. J.), wireless navigation
for aircarft, 269.

*Ropinson (Prof. R.), the conjugation
of negative and positive valencies,
171.

Rogers (Dr. F.) on stress distribution
in engineering materials, 465.

Root pressure, by Prof. J. H. Priestley,
337.

Rotating body such as the sun, how
could it become a magnet? by Sir
Joseph Larmor, 159.

*RUSSELL (Dr. E. J.),war-time and post-
war problems of crop production,
383.

511

Santspury (Dr. E. J.), monocotyle-
donous features of the ranunculaceze
with special reference to the floral
structure, 336.

Sampson (Prof. R. A.) on seismological
investigations, 35.

Sankey (Capt. H. R.)
graphic investigations, 40.

Santiago; the evolution of a patron
saint, by Harold Peake, 288.

SaunDerRS (Miss E.R.) on experimental
studies in the physiology of heredity,
124.

——on a graded series of forms in
matthiola, 339.

ScuusrgER (Prof. A.)
investigations, 35.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations, 40.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

—-— on the determination of gravity atsea,
83.

on radiotele-

on seismological

on the establishment of a solar
observatory in Australia, 96.

Science, the teaching of, discussion on,
336.

Science teaching, method and substance
of: the neglect of biological subjects
in education, by Sydney Mangham,
336.

—— discussion on, 354.

*—___ Prof. H. E. Armstrong on, 354.

—— Sir Richard Gregory on, 354.

Scope (Walter A.) on stress distribution
inengineering materials, 465.

—— eccentric loading in tension and
compression tests, 479.

Scort (D. H.), the relation of the seed
plants to the higher cryptogams,
334.

Seed plants, the, the relation of, to the
higher cryptogams, 334.

Seismological investigations, twenty-third
report on, 35.

Seismology after the war, by G. W. Walker,
32

SrwarD (Prof. A. C.) on Australian
fossil ptants, 124.

—— on Australian cycadacee, 125.

*Suarp (Sir Alfred), colonisation
Africa, 230.

SHaw(J. J.) on seismological investigations,
35.

Ssaw (Sir Napier)
investigations, 35.
—— on radiotelegraphic investigations,

40.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

—— Address to the Educational Section,
342.

SILRERSTEIN (Dr. L.), spectrum emission
of atomic systems containing a
double or more complex nucleus,
157.

in

on seismological

512

*Silkworms, inheritance in, report on,
211.

Six-hour day, the influence of the, on
industrial efficiency and fatigue, by
Dr. H. M. Vernon, 308.

Smitu (Reginald A.), the post-tertiary
deposits of the Bournemouth area,
192.

Smita (Major
telegraphy during the
years of the war, 158.

Smrru-Rosstz (Miss C.), physiological
fatigue and village meeting halls,
309.

Solar observatory ir Australia, report
on the establishment of a, 96.

SoMERVILLE (Prof. W.), Address to the
Agricultural Section, 364.

Sound emission from airscrews, by Prof.
G. H. Bryan, 267.

T. Vincent), wireless
first three

*Spartina and Poole Harbour, Prof.
F. W. Oliver on, 341.
Special taxation of business profits,

the, in relation to the present position
of national finance, by Dr. J. C.
Stamp, 251.

Spectrum emission of atomic systems
containing a double or more complex
nucleus, by Dr. L. Silberstein, 157.

*Spirocheta (? n. sp.) from guinea-pig,
208.

Sramp (Dr. J. C.), the special taxation
of business profits in relation to the
present position of national finance,
251.

Stanton (Dr. T. E.), the determination
of the viscosities of liquids at high
pressures, 158.

—— on stress distribution in engineering
materials, 465.

*Static power of melting ice, the, by
A. Trevor Battye, 230.

Statistics, full and accurate, the value
of, by Lt.-Col. Sir J. G. Beharrell,
248.

Statistics and Economic Science, Address
to the Section of, by Sir Hugh Bell,
232.

Statocyte occurring in vascular plants,
some new types of, by Miss T. L.
Prankerd, 335.

Strepstna (Rev. T. R. RB.) on the work
of the Corresponding Societies Committee,
422.

Steep landing and short run by wind
tunnel investigation, the problem
of, by R. Rolleston West, 268.

Srranan (Sir Aubrey) on geophysical
discussions, 81.

—— the mesozoie rocks of the Bourne-
mouth district, 190.

Strain-energy function, the, and the
elastic limit, by Dr. B. P. Haigh, 486.

INDEX.

Stratton (F. J. M.), the spectrum
of Nova Geminorum, 146.

Stress distributions in engineering mate-
rials, certain of the more complex,
report on, 465.

Stress estimation, the soap film method
of, by A. A. Griffiths, 478.

Stresses in aeroplane wing frameworks,
investigations of, by Prof. L. N. G.
Filon, 468. é

Strompyer (C. E.) on stress distribution
in engineering materials, 465.

*Stupart (Sir Frederic), some unsolved
problems of Canadian weather, 155.

{Submarine mining, by Comm. A. L.
Gwynne, 272.

Sykes (Mark L.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 422.

Tanks, the British, used in the war,
by Sir E. T. D’Eyncourt, 263.

TATTERSALL (Dr. W. M.) on the character.
work, and maintenance of museuns,
125.

Tray (Sir J. J. H.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 111.

Tempe (Sir Richard) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums,
125.

Tensile stress at low temperatures, experi-
ments on the effect of alterations of,
at low frequencies, on the elastic pro-
perties of mild steel, by A. R. Fulton,
484.

Tertiary beds of Bournemouth, the, and
the Hampshire basin, by Dr. William
T. Ord, 187.

*Tuaysen (Dr. C. A),
bacteriology, 168.

Thermal conductivity of solid insulators,
the, by Prof. W. M. Thornton, 274.

Thermionic tubes, discussion on, 148.

—— Prof. W. H. Eccleston, 148.

Tuomas (Major E. R.), the recovery of
nitre and pitch from smoke candles,
168.

Tuomas (Capt. H. Hamshaw) on the
character, work, and maintenance of
museums, 125.

*— aeroplane photo surveys in the
East, 231.

—— on the desert flora of Western
Egypt, 332.

THompson (Dr.

industrial

John McLean), the

morphology of the stele of platyzoma —

microphyllum, R. Br., 332.

Tompson (R. Campbell), three years
with the staff and two months excava-

_ tion in Mesopotamia, 220.

THorNTON (Prof. W. M.), gaseous igni-
tion by hot wires, 272.

Peers

INDEX.

THorNnTON (Prof. W. M.), the thermal
conductivity of solid insulators, 274.
Three-electrode thermionic valve, the,
as an alternating current generator,

by Prof. C. L. Fortescue, 270.

Tizarp (H. T.), the variation of engine’

power with height, 267.

Tower (Col.), some of the conditions
governing the selection of an aerial
route, 230.

Transport policy, by W. M. Acworth,
248

*Travers (Dr. M. W.), glass manufacture
at the end of the war, 168.

Triode valves, a method of using two
in parallel for generating oscillations,
by Prof. W. H. Eccles and F. W.
Jordan, 270.

Tubular struts, the strength of, by Prof.
A. Robertson, 466.

Turbines, geared, the development of,
for the propulsion of ships, by R. J.
Walker, 264.

Turkey, the future of, by H. Charles
Woods, 223.

TurNeER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigations, 35.

—— on radiotelegraphic investigations,
40.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

—— on the determination of gravity
at sea, 83.

—— on the establishment of a _ solar
observatory in Australia, 96.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 442.

Unemployment in Eastern Canada, by
G. E. Jackson, 254.

*Valencies, negative and positive, the
conjugation of, by Prof. R. Robinson,
171.

VAN DER Pot (Dr. B.) on the diffraction
of electric waves, 152.

Vernon (Dr. H. M.), the influence of
the six-hour day on industrial efficiency
and fatigue, 308.

Viscosities of liquids at high pressures,
the determination of, by Dr. T. E.
Stanton, 158.

_ Vision, a possible theory of, Sir Oliver

Lodge on, 152.

Wane (Hon. Sir C. G.), price-fixing, with
special reference to Australian experi-
ence, 246.

Waker (Dr. G. T.) on seismological
investigations, 35.

513

WaLEER (Dr. G. W.), seismology after
the war, 32.

—— on seismological investigations, 35.

—— on geophysical discussions, 81.

Waker (R. J.), development of geared
turbines for the propulsion of ships,
264.

Water (Dr. A. D.), the measurement of
emotion, 307.

—— measurement of the energy output
of “heavy workers ’’ (dock labourers),
310.

Waxton (Sir Joseph) on fuel economy,
97.

*War, matters relating to the, or recon-
struction after the war, report on,
341.

*War-time food production in England
and Wales, by Sir T. H. Middleton,
381.

Water catchment areas, the afforestation
of, by Prof. Augustine Henry, 337.

Watson (Arnold T.) on the building
habits of the polychete worm, Pectin-
aria Koreni, Mgr., 210.

Watson (Dr. D. M.S.) on the excavation
of critical sections in the old red sand-
stone of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, 110.

*—— paleontology and the evolution
theory, 211.

Watson (Prof. G. N.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 43.

—— the diffraction of electric waves,
152.

Warts (Prof. W. W.) on fuel economy,
97.

—— on the collection of photographs
of geological interest, 111.

Wave motion, report on, by Sir G. Greenhill,
403.

Wess (W. Mark) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 422.

WessteR (Prof. A. G.) on the calculation
of mathematical tables, 43.

Weiss (Prof. F. E.) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums,
125.

We tcu (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 111.

West (R. Rolleston), the problem of
steep landing and short run by wind
tunnel investigation, 268.

Westminster, the gite of, by H. Rodwell
Jones, 229.

Wuippineton (Dr. R.), a wireless method
of measuring e/m, 149. ,

WuitakeR (W.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest, 111

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 422.

Wuitrt (Dr. Jessie) on the character,
work, and maintenance of museums,
125.

514

Woaitrnrap (Prof. A. N.) on funda-
mental principles in education, 361.

Wits (Dr. J. C.), the northern invasions
of New Zealand, with special reference
to Lord Howe Island, 333.

Witson (J. 8.) on stress distribution
in engineering materials, 465.

*WINTERBOTHAM (Col.), air photography,
231.

Wireless navigation for
Capt. J. Robinson, 269.

Wireless telegraphy during the first
three years of the war, by Major T.
Vincent Smith, 158.

Woops (H. Charles), the future of Turkey,
223.

aircraft, by

INDEX.

WorpineHamM (C. H.) on fuel economy,
97.

Workers’ Educational Association, the,
by J. S. Rainer, 359.

Yarss (H. James) on fuel economy, 97.

Zoological bibliography and publication,
report on, 122.

*Zoological organisation, report on, 211.

Zoological Section, Address by Dr.
F. A. Dixey to the, 199.

*Zoological station at Naples, report on
the occupation of a table at the, 211.

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BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE

1919-20

LIST OF MEMBERS

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

AND

INSTITUTIONS RECEIVING THE REPORT

CORRECTED TO MAY 1, 1920

LONDON :
BURLINGTON HOUSE, PICCADILLY, W.1

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THOU GAT BAR VION PAOTEDI ie

OF if VAM OF OS Toahaod

or HOVE: oF
hs x ebbtiC 519 Tee KOT DUNS

‘ s

Dl

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL,

1919-20

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
Tue Hon. Str CHARLES A. PARSONS, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

Their Worships the MAyors or BoURNEMOU'TH,
CHRISTCHURCH, and POOLE,

The Right Rey. the Lorp BIsHoP oF WINCHESTER,

The Right Rev. the Lorp BISHOP OF SALISBURY.

The ,Most Noble the MARQUESS OF SALISBURY,
K.G., G.O,V.0O.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF SHAFTESBURY,
K.0.V.0., K.P.

The Right Hon. the EARL OF MALMESBURY, M.A.,

The Right Hon. the EARL or NORTHBROOK,

The Right Hon. the EARL OF SELBORNE, K.G.,
G.C.M.G., P.C., D.C.L., LL.D., J.P.

The Right Hon. Lonp WIMBORNE, P.O.

Field-Marshal Lorp GRENFELL, P.C., G.C.B.,
G.O.M.G.

Brigadier-General the Right Hon, J. BE. B, SEELY,
P.O., 0..B., O.M.G., D.S.0., M.P.

The Right Hon. Sir Wint1AM Marner, P.O., LL.D.
J.P.

Sir E. Ray LANKESTER, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D , D.Se.,
F.R.S.

Sir DANTEL Morris, K.0.M.G., M.A., D.Se., D.C.L.
LL.D.

Sir Merton Russeyy Cores, J.P., F.R.G.S.

ARTHUR RANSOME, Esq., M.A., M.D., P.1.S.

ALEX. HILL, Esq., 0.B.E., M.A., M.D.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor W. A. HERDMAN, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. the LorD Mayor or CARDIFF
(Councillor G. F. ForspIks, J.P.).

The Most Noble the Marquis or BuTE.

The Right Hon. the EARL of PLymMourH, P.O.
(Lord-Lieutenant of the County of Glamorgan).

Major-Gen, the Right Hon, Lorp TREOWEN, C.B.,
C.M.G. (Lord-Lieutenant of the County of
Monmouth).

The Right Hon. Lorp ABERDARE, D.L.

The Right Hon Lorp TreDeEGar, D.L.

KE. H. Grirriras, D.Sce., F.R.S.
Sir J. HerBERT Oory, Bart., M.P.

| Principal A. H. Trow, D.Sc. (Principal of Uni

versity College of S. Wales and Monmouthshire ;
President, Cardiff Naturalists’ Society).

J. Dyer LewIs (President, South Wales Institute
of Engineers).

R. O. SANDERSON (President, Cardiff Chamber of

The Right Hon. Lorp Pontyprinp, D.L. | Commerce),

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor JOHN Perry, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W. 1,

GENERAL SECRETARIES,
Professor H. H. TURNER, D,Sc., D,O.L., F.R.S. | Professor J. L. Myrus, M.A., F.S.A.

ASSISTANT SECRETARY,
0. J. R, Howarra, 0.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

_CHIEF CLERK AND ASSISTANT TREASURER.
H. O. STEWARDSON, Burlington House, London, W. 1.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

ARMSTRONG, Dr, E. F. Kurru, Professor A., F.R.S.
Bonk, Professor W. A., F.R.S. KELTIE, Sir J. Scott.

OLERK, Sir DUGALD, F.R.S. | KURKALDY, Professor A, W.
DENDY, Professor A., F.R.S. | Morris, Sir D., K.0.M

G.
Dixy, Dr. F. A., F.R.S. PERKIN, Professor W. H., F.R.S.
Dyson, Sir F. W., F.R.S. Rivers, Dr. W. H. R., F.R.S.
Fow ter, Professor A., F.R.S. RUSSELL, Dr, E, J., 0.B.E., F.R.S.

GREGORY, Sir R. A.

Gririt#s, Dr. E. H., F.R.S.
HADFIELD, Sir R., Bart., F.R.S.
HaARMER, Sir S. F., F.R.S.
JEANS, J. H., F.R.S., K.B.E.

SAUNDERS, Miss E. R.

Scott, Professor W. R.
STARLING, Professor E. H., F.R.S.
STRAHAN, Sir Aubrey, F.R.S.
WHITAKER, W., F.R.S.
Woopwanrb, Dr, A. SMrrH, F.R.S.

[P.T.0.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
ARCHIBALD BROWN. | Sir THomAs E. Watson.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT CARDIFF.
Crcit G. Brown, Town Clerk of Cardiff.
W. EvANS Hoyte, M.A., D.Sc.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President and Vice-Presidents for the year, the

President and Vice-Presidents Elect, past and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past

Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local shige ed and Local Secretaries for the ensuing Annual
eeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Major P. A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Sir ARTHUR EvANs, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Sir A. Geikie,K.0.B.,0.M., F.R.S. |Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S. | Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.

Sir James Dewar, F.R.S. F Sir J.J. Thomson, 0.M., Pres.R.S. Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S.
Sir NormanLockyer,K.0.B.,F.R.S. | Professor T.G. Bonney, F.R.S. _ Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S,
Arthur J. Balfour, O.M., F.R.S. Sir E. Sharpey Schifer, F.R.S. | Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S.

Sir E.Ray Lankester,K.0.B.,F.R.S

PAST GENERAL OFFIOERS OF THE ASSOOIATION.

Professor T. G. Bonney, F.R.8. Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. Major P. A, MacMahon, F.R.S.
Sir E. Sharpey Schiifer, F.R.S. Dr. J. G. Garson. Professor W. A. Herdman, C.B.E.,
F.R.S.

HON. AUDITORS.

Sir EpwARD BRABROOK, ©.B. l Professor A. BOWLEY.

———e eC Cr CC CC

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1919-20.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
M indicates members subscribing under new scheme, entitled either to
attend Annual Meeting or to receive Report.
MR indicates members subscribing under new scheme, entitled to
attend Annual Meeting and to receive Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant Secretary,
Burlington House, London, W.1.

Year of
Election.

1905. *i-Ababrelton, Robert, F.R.GS., F.S.S. P.O. Box 322, Pieter-
maritzburg, Natal. Care of Royal Colonial Institute, North-
umberland-avenue, W.C. 2.

1919. §Abbott, A. J. 23 Westby-road, Bournemouth.

1914. {Abbott, Hon. R. H. S. Rowan-street, Bendigo, Victoria.

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Marquis of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo House, Aber-
deen.

1885. tAberdeen, The Marchioness of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1873. *Apnuy, Captain Sir W. pz W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
(Pres. A, 1889; Pres. L, 1903; Council, 1884-89, 1902-05,
1906-12.) Measham Hall, Leicestershire.

1877. *Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Walwood, Banstead,
Surrey.

1894. *AcLanD, anes Dy«gz, F.G.S., F.S.A. Chy-an-Mor, Gyllyngvase,
Falmouth.

1877. *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.D. 19 Bryanston-square, W. 1.

1904. tActon, T. A. 41 Regent-street, Wrexham.

1898. tAowortu, W. M., M.A. (Pres. F, 1908.) The Albany, W. 1.

1915. tAdam, Sir Frank Forbes, C.I.E., LL.D. Hankelow Court, Audlem.
1919.

6

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election,

1887.
1901

1908.
1913.

1890.
1899.
1908.
1912,

1908.

1902.
1871.

1909.
1914.
1911,

1895.
1901.
1884.
1905.
1886.
1913.
1900.
1896.

1905

1888.
1910.

1898.

1883.
1883.

1914.
1901.
1904.
1879.
1898.

1891.
1915.
1919.
1907.

1912.
1887.

1915.
1883.

tApam1, J. G., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

§Apams, Jonn, M.A., B.Sc., LL.D. (Pres. L, 1912), Professor of
Education in the University of London. 23 Tanza-road.
Hampstead, N.W. 3.

*Adamson, R. Stephen. The University, Manchester.

tAddison, W. H. F. Medical School, The University of Penn-
sylvania.

tApenny, W. E., D.Sc., F.C.S. Burnham, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

*Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 136 Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

§Adkin, Robert. Hodeslea, Meads, Eastbourne.

fAfanassieff, Apollo, Physical Institute, Imperial University,
Petrograd.
*Agar, W. E., M.A. Natural History Department, The University,

Glasgow.

tAgnew, Samuel, M.D. Bengal-place, Lurgan.

*Ainsworth, Sir John Stirling, Bart., M.P. Harecroft, Gosforth,
Cumberland.

*ArRp, Sir JOHN. Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

tAirey, J. W. Barooma, Vernon-street, Strathfield, Sydney.

§Airey, John R., M.A., D.Sc. The Training College, Beckett’s Park,
Leeds.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke Howse, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

tAitken, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. County Buildings, Cupar-Fife.

*Alabaster, H. Milton, Grange-road, Sutton, Surrey.

tAlbright, Miss. Finstal Farm, Finstal, Bromsgrove, Worcestershire.

*Albright, G. S., C.B.E. Broomsberrow Place, Ledbury.

tAlbright, W. A. 29 Frederick-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Aldren, Francis J.. M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 39 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W. 1.

*Alexander, J. Abercromby, F.R.G.S. Waverley, Rossmore-avenue,

Parkstone, Dorset.
*Alexander, Patrick Y. 3 Whitehall-court, S.W. 1.
*Alexander, W. B., B.A. Western Australian Museum, Perth,
West Australia. Temp. Undercroft, Reigate.

*Alford, Mrs. Gertrude. Tréhill, 294 Edward-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

{Allan, Edward F., B.A. 37 Wattletree-road, Malvern, Victoria.

*Allan, James A. 21 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

*Allcock, William Burt. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. 34 Lensfield-road, Cambridge.

§Atien, E. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Ply-
mouth.

tAllen, H. A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1.

*ALLEN, J. E. 6 Market-square, Saffron Walden, Essex.

§Allen, W. H. Bromham House, Bromham, near Bedford.

*Allorge, M. M., L. és Se., F.G.S. Villa St. Germain, Louviers,
France.

*Allworthy, S. W., M.A., M.D. The Manor House, Antrim-road,
Belfast.

tAlward, G. L. Enfield Villa, Waltham, Grimsby, Yorkshire.

tAmbler, Clement. 34 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford.

tAmery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

DN eEOEEEEEeEEEeEeEEeEeEEEEEEEeeerreee

ere

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. q

Election.

1909,
1884.

1914.
1910.
1905.
1908.
1885.
1914.
1901.
1899.
1888.
1914.
1901.
1908.
1911.
1907.
1909.
1895.
1914.
1909.
1912.
1886.
1917.
1919.
1901.
1904.

1913.
1913.

1894.
1909.

1909.

1883.
1908.

1903.
1873.

1909.
1905.

tAmi, H. M.,M.D. Ottawa, Canada.

fAmr, Henry, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa,
Canada.

tAnderson, Miss Adelaide M. Home Office, S.W. 1.

tAnderson, Alexander. Tower House, Dore, near Sheffield.

*Anderson, C. L. P.O. Box 2162, Johannesburg.

tAnderson, Edgar. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

*AnpERSON, Huau Kure, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Caius College,
Cambridge.

tAnderson, J. R. V. School of Mines, Bendigo, Victoria.

*Anderson, James. 166 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.

*Anderson, Miss Mary Kerr. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 5 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

tAnderson, Valentine G. 31 Victoria-avenue, Cantcrbury, Victoria,
Australia.

*Anderson, Dr. W. Carrick. 7 Scott-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.

tAnderson, William. Glenavon, Merrion-road, Dublin.

*ANDRADE, EK. N. da C. 18 Keyes-road, Cricklewood, N.W. 2.

tAndrews, A. W. Adela-avenue, West Barnes-lane, New Malden,
Surrey.

jAndrews, Alfred J. Care of Messrs. Andrews, Andrews, & Co.,
Winnipeg, Canada.

tAnprews, CHartes W., B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W. 7.

tAndrews, HK. C., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Branch, Department of
Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.

tAndrews, G. W. 433 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Angus, Miss Mary. 354 Blackness-road, Dundee.

tAnsell, Joseph. 27 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Anthony, Charles, F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. Vieytes Gorriti, Bahia
Blanca, Argentine.

§Anthony, Harvey Mitchell, Director of Vocational Education.
Muncie, Indiana, U.S.A.

tArakawa, Minozi. Japanese Consulate, 1 Broad Street-place,

9

*ArBER, Mrs. E. A. Newest, D.Sc., F.L.S. 52 Huntingdon-
road, Cambridge.

tArcher, J. Hillside, Crowcombe, West Somerset.

*Archer, R. L., M.A., Professor of Education in University College,
Bangor. Plas Menai, Bangor.

tArchibald, A. Holmer, Court-road, Tunbridge Wells.

tArchibald, Professor E. H. Chemistry Department, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C., Canada.

tArchibald, H. Care of Messrs. Machray, Sharpe, & Dennistoun,
Bank of Ottawa Chambers, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton.

{tArmstrong, E. C. R., M.R.LA. F.R.G.S. 73 Park-avenue.
Sydney-parade, Dublin.

*ArmsrRonG, E. FRANKLAND, D.Sc., Ph.D. (Council, 1917- .)
Greenbank, Greenbank-road, Latchford, Warrington.

*ArmsTRonGa, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1885,
1909; Pres. L, 1902; Council, 1899-1905, 1909-16.)
55 Granville-park, Lewisham, S.E. 13.

tArmstrong, Hon. Hugh. Parliament Buildings, Kennedy-street,
Winnipeg, Canada.

tArmstrong, John. Kamfersdam Mine, near Kimberley, Cape
Colony.

8

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Gleotion.

1915. {ARNoLD, J. O., F.R.S., Hast Grove House, Broomsgrove-road,
Sheffield.

1915. tArnold-Bernard Pierre. 662 West End-avenue, New York
City, U.S.A.

1904. {Arunachalam, P. Ceylon Civil Service, Colombo, Ceylon.

1870.
1903.
1909.
1916.

1907.

1919.
1915.

1920.
1915.
1903.

1914.
1890.
1915.
1916.

1875.

1905.

1908.

1919.

1898.
1894.

1906.
1881.

1919.
1906.

1907.
1912.

1914.
1909.
1914.

1883.
1919.

1887.
1903.
1907.

*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

*AsHBy, THomas, M.A., D.Litt. The British School, Rome.

tAshdown, J. H. 337 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

tAshley, Miss Anne, M.A. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

JAsHLEy, Sir W. J., M.A. (Pres. F, 1907), Professor of Commerce in -
the University of Birmingham. 3 Yateley-road, Edgbaston,

Birmingham.

§AsHLING, HERBERT. (Local Sec. 1919.) Municipal Offices, Bourne-
mouth.

*Ashton, Miss Margaret. 8 Kinnaird-road, Withington, Man-
chester.

M Ashton, Percival John. 83 Avenue-chambers, W.C. 1.

{Ashworth, Arthur. Ellerslie, Walmersley-road, Bury.

*Ashworth, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 69 Braid-avenue, Edinburgh.

*Ashworth, Mrs. J. H. 69 Braid-avenue, Edinburgh.

tAshworth, J. Reginald, D.Sc. 55 King-street South, Rochdale.

{Ashworth, John. 77 King-street, Manchester.

*Ashworth, John H. The Bungalow, 151 St. Andrew’s-road South,
St. Anne’s-on-Sea.

*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Nyali Sisal Estates, Mombasa, East
Africa.

tAssheton, Mrs. Grantchester, Cambridge.

§Astizey, Rev. H. J. Duxinriecp, M.A., Litt.D. East Rudham
Vicarage, King’s Lynn.

§Atkins, William. 40 Wimborne-road, Bournemouth.

*Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. 5 Pembroke-vale, Clifton, Bristol.

*Atkinson, Harold W., M.A. West View, Eastbury-avenue, North-
wood, Middlesex.

tAtkinson, J. J. Cosgrove Priory, Stony Stratford.

tArkrnson, Roperr Wit1AM, F.C.S., F.1.C. (Local Sec. 1891.)
10 North Church-street, Cardiff.

§Atkinson, William. 142 Tweedale-street, Rochdale.

tAupEen, G. A., M.A., M.D. 42 Lordswood-road, Harborne, Bir-
mingham.

§Auden, H. A., D.Sc. 52 Calthorpe-street, Garston, Liverpool.

*Austin, Percy C., M.A., D.Sc. Heathside, 17 Talbot Hill-road,
Winton, Bournemouth.

tAvery, D., M.Sc. Collins House, Collins-street, Melbourne.

tAxtell, S. W. Stobart Block, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Baber, Z., Professor of Geography and Geology in the University
of Chicago, U.S.A. ar 4 (

*Bach-Gladstone, Madame Henri. 147 Rue de Grenelle, Paris.

Thee Age Frederic, M.A., M.I.M.E. University College,
araln,

*Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.

{Baden-Powell, Major B. 32 Prince’s-gate, S.W. 7.

ee ee W. F., Assoc.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Verecroft,
evizes.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 9

Year of
Rlection.

1914.
1914,
1908.

1905.
1883.
1883.

1887.
1905,
1914,
1905.
1894.
1878.
1914.

1919.

1905.
1913.

1910,

1886.
1914.
1907.
1904.

1894.

1905.
1875.

1838.
1905.
1905.
1905.
1908.
1883.
1920.

1914.
1917.

1909.
1912.
1898.
1890.
1915.
1860.
1902.
1902.

{Bage, Charles, M.A., M.D. 139 Collins-street, Melbourne.

{Bage, Miss Freda. Women’s College, Brisbane, Australia.

*Bagnall, Richard Siddoway, F.L.S. Penshaw Lodge, Penshaw,
Co. Durham.

tBaikie, Robert. P.O. Box 36, Pretoria, South Africa.

{Baildon, Dr. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Bailey, Charles, M.Sc., F.L.S. Haymesgarth, Cleeve Hill 8.O.,
Gloucestershire.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Edenmor, Kinlochleven, Argyll, N.B.

*Bailey, Harry Percy. Montrose, Northdown, Margate.

{tBailey, P.G. 4 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

tBailey, Right Hon. W. F.,C.B. Land Commission, Dublin.

*Baity, Francis Gisson, M.A. Newbury, Colinton, Midlothian.

tBatty, Watter. 4 Rosslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

{Bainbridge, F. A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in the
University of Durham, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Bairstow, Leonard, C.B.E., F.R.S., 63 Holmesdale-road, Hampton
Wick.

*Baker, Sir Augustine. 56 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Baker, = B., B.Sc. Frontenac, Donnington-road, Harlesden,
N.W. 10.

{Baxsr, H. F., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1913), Lowndean Professor
of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of Cam-
bridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Baker, Harry, F.I.C. Beacon Field, Weston-road, Runcorn.

{Baker, R. T. Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.

{Baldwin, Walter. 382 Brunshaw Top, Burnley.

{Batrour, The Right Hon. A. J., O.M., D.C.L., LL.D., M.F.
F.R.S., Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. (PRr-
SIDENT, 1904.) Whittingehame, Prestonkirk, N.B.

tBatrour, Henry, M.A. (Pres. H, 1904.) Langley Lodge,
Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Balfour, Mrs. H. Langley Lodge, Headington Hill, Oxford.

tBatrour, Sir Isaac Bayitey, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.. F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1894; Pres. K, 1901),
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inver-
leith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Lady I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

{Balfour, Mrs. J. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

tBalfour, Lewis. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Balfour, Miss Vera B. Dawyck, Stobo, N.B.

{Ball, T. Elringiton. 6 Wilton-place, Dublin.

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

MR Ballard, P. B., M.A., D.Lit. 148 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick,

W. 4.
{Balsillie, J. Greene. P.M.G.’s Department, Melbourne.
{tBaly, E. C. C., C.B.E., M.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Inorganic

Chemistry in the University of Liverpool.

{Bampfield, Mrs. E. 309 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.
*Bancroft, Miss Helen, D.Sc., F.L.S. 260 Normanton-road, Derby.
{Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.S.A. 4 The Waldrons, Croydon.
*Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
{Barctay, R. Norton. 35 Whitworth-street West, Manchester.
*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesdon, Herts.
tBarcroft, H., D.L. The Glen, Newry, Co. Down.
{Barcrort, Josrpu, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cambridge.

10

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1911.

1904.

~ 1906.
1899,

1882.
1910.

1913.
1909.
1889.

1885.
1881.
1904.
1907.

1915.

1909.
1913.

1881.

1904.
1872.

1874.
1893.

1913.
1913.
1913.
1908.
1884.
1890.
1890.
1909.
1909.
1919,
1914.
1893.

1908.
1904,
1888.

1891.
1866.

{Barger, George, M.A., D.Sc.. I'.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Holloway College. Malahide, Englefield Green.
Surrey. /

§Barker, B. T. P., M.A., Professor of Agricultural Biology in the
University of Bristol. Fenswood, Long Ashton, Bristol.

*Barker, Geoffrey Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham, Suffolk.

{Barker, John H., M.Inst.C.E. Brackendale, Farquhar-road,
Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Barker, Miss J. M. Sunny Bank, Scalby, Scarborough.

*Barker, Raymond Inglis Palgrave. Henstead Hall, Wrentham,
Suffolk.

{Baruine, Dr. GinBert, C.B. Blythe Court, Norfolk-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.

{Barlow, Lieut.-Colonel G. N. H. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co..
16 Charing Cross, S.W. 1.

{Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. The Park Hospital, Hither
Green, S.E. ;

*BarRLow, WILLIAM, F'.R.S., F.G.S. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

*Barnard, William, LL.B. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. 2.

{Barnes, Rev. EH. W., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. The Temple, H.C. 4.

{Barnes, Professor H. T., Sc.D., F.R.S. McGill University,
Montreal, Canada.

§Barnes, Jonathan. 301 Great Clowes-street, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

*Barnett, Miss Edith A. Holm Leas, Worthing.

§Barnett, Thomas G. The Hollies, Upper Clifton-road, Sutton
Coldfield.

tBarr, ArcutBaLD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1912.) Caxton-
street, Anniesland, Glasgow.

{Barrett, Arthur. 6 Mortimer-road, Cambridge.

*BaRRETT, Sir W. F., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A. 31 Devonshire-
place, W. 1.

*Barrington-Ward, Rev. Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. The
Rectory, Duloe 8.0., Cornwall.

*Barrow, GrEorGE, F.G.S. 202 Brecknock-road, Tufnell Park,
N. 19.

{Barrow, Harrison. 57 Wellington-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham:

t{Barrow, Louis. 155 Middleton Hall-road, King’s Norton.

{Barrow, Walter. 13 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Barry, Gerald H. Wiglin Glebe, Carlow, Ireland.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

{Bartleet, Arthur M. 138 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Bartlett, C. Bank of Hamilton-building, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Bartlett, F. C. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Barton, E. C. City Electric Light Company, Brisbane, Australia.
*Barron, Epwin H., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Ex-
perimental Physics in University College, Nottingham.
{Barton, Rev. Walter John, M.A., F.R.G.S. Epsom College,

Surrey.

*Bartrum, C. O., B.Sc. 32 Willoughby-road, Hampstead,
N.W. 3

*Basser, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport.
Berkshire.

tBassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.
*Basszert, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N. 1.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 1]

Year of

Election.

1911. *Basszrr, Hunry, jun., D.Sc., Ph.D. University College, Reading

1889. {BasraBLE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1894.)
52 Brighton-road, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

1912. {Bastian, Staff-Surgeon William, R.N. Chesham Bois, Bucking-
hamshire.

1883. {Barmman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G. Woodhouse, Wimbledon Park, S.W.

1905. *Bateman, Mrs. F. D. The Rectory, Minchinhampton.

1907.

1914.
1884.

1914.

1881.
1915.

1906.
1904.
1909,
1913.

1912.
1912.

1914.
1876.
1887.
1914.

1919.

1905.
1889.

1905.
1905.

1916.

1900.
1885.

1914.
1887.
1904.
1885.

1911.

1915.

1904.
1891.
1878

1901.

*Bareman, Harry. ‘Thorp College of Technology, Pasadena,
California, U.S.A.

tBates, Mrs. Daisy M. 210 Punt-road, Prahran, Victoria.

{Barsson, Professor Wint14m, M.A., F.R.S. (PRestpent, 1914;

Pres. D, 1904.) The Manor House, Merton, 8.W. 19.

{Bateson, Mrs. The Manor House, Merton, S.W. 19.

*BatTuer, Francis Arraur, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. British
Museum (Natural History), S.W. 7.

{Batho, Cyril, Professor of Applied Mechanics in McGill University,

Montreal.

{Batty, Mrs. Braithwaite. Ye Gabled House, The Parks, Oxford.

{Baugh, J. H. Agar. 92 Hatton-garden, E.C. 1.

{Bawlf, Nicholas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Bawtree, A. E., F.R.P.S. Lynton, Manor Park-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

*Baxter, Miss Evelyn V. Roselea, Kirkton of Largo, Fife.

*Bayuiss, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1915), Professor of
General Physiology in University College, London, W.C. 1.

{Bayly, P.G. W. Mines Department, Melbourne.

*Baynes, Ropert B., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. E 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Beach, Henry, J.P. Clonesslea, Herbert-street, Dulwich Hill,

ydney.

*Beadnell, H. J. Lhewellyn, F.G.S. Hafod, Llandinam, Mont-
gomeryshire.

{Beare, Miss Margaret Pierrepont. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

§Brarn, Professor T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. The
University, Edinburgh.

}Beare, Mrs. T. Hudson. 10 Regent-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Beattie, Professor J. C., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South African College,
Cape Town.

*Beatty, Richard T., M.A., D.Sc. Physics Laboratory, Queen’s

University, Belfast.
{Beaumont, Professor Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. The University, Leeds.
eons W. W., M.Inst.C.E. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,
,C32.

{Beaven, E. S. Eastney, Warminster.

*BrecoxettT, JonN HamppEN. Corbar Hall, Buxton, Derbyshire.

§Beckit, H.O. Cheney Cottage, Headington, Oxford.

{BrpparpD, Frank E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Prosector of the
Zoological Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

{Beddow, Fred, D.Sc., Ph.D. 2 Pier-mansions, Southsea.

§Bedford, Fred, Ph.D., B.Se. Dovercourt, Heslington-lane, York.

*Bedford, T. G., M.A. 13 Warkworth-street, Cambridge.

{Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

§Brpson, P. Patuiies, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Pres. B. 1919; Local Sec.
1889, 1916), Professor of Chemistry in Armstrong College,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Brinsy, Sir G. T., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1905.) 11 University-

gardens, Glasgow.

12

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election.

1905.
1914.
1891.
1916.
1909.

1894.

1883.
1919.

1915.

1888.
1914.
1919.
1908

1904.
1913.

1893.

1916.
1901.
1909.
1909.
1903.

1901.

1914.
1887.
1898.
1904.

1905.
1919.
1896.
1919.
1894.
1905.
1906.
1894.
1908.
1908.
1904.
1914.

1905.
1916.

1913.

tBeilby, Hubert. 11 University-gardens, Glasgow.

§Belas, Philip E., B.A. University College, Cork.

*Belinfante, L. L., M.Sc., Assist. Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W. 1.

tBell, Alfred Ernest. Low Gosforth House, Gosforth.

{BE t, C. N. (Local Sec. 1909.) 121 Carlton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tBett, F. Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall,
S.W. 1.

*Bell, John Henry. 102 Leyland-road, Southport.

*Brtt, Sir Huaeu, Bart., C.B., D.L., J.P. (Pres. F. 1919.) Rounton
Grange, Northallerton.

§Bell, S. B. Carrara House, Lytham-road, Ashton-on-Ribble,
Preston.

*Bell, Walter George, M.A, Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

tBell, William Reid, M.Inst.C.E. Burnie, Tasmania.

*Bellamy, Miss E. F. University Observatory, Oxford.

*Bellamy, Frank Arthur, M.A., F.R.A.S. University Observatory,
Oxford.

tBellars, A. E. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

*Belliss, John, M.I.M.E. Darlinghurst, Carpenter-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

*Bremrosz, H. H., Sc.D., F.G.S. Ash Tree House, Osmaston-
road, Derby. ;

§Bennett, Arthur, J.P. Market-gate Chambers, Warrington.

tBennett, Professor Peter. 207 Bath-street, Glasgow.

*Bennett, R. B., K.C. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

{Benson, Miss C. C. Terralta, Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

§Benson, D. E. Queenwood, 12 Irton-road, Southport.

*Benson, Miss Marcarer J., D.Sc. Royal Holloway College,
Englefield Green.

tBenson, W. Killara, Sydney, N.S.W.

*Benson, Mrs. W. J. 5 Wellington-court, Knightsbridge, S.W. 1.

*Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W. 1.

{Benriey, B. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in the University of
Sheffield.

*Bentley, Wilfred. Inglewood, Edgerton, Huddersfield.

§Berg, Count Frederick. 18 Florence-road, Boscombe.

*Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Cork.

§Beringer, Dr. J. Care of Sidney Chambers, Esg., 25 Waldegrave-
road, 8.E. 19.

§BerxeLey, The Earl of, F.R.S., F.C.S. (Council, 1909-10.)
Foxcombe, Boarshill, near Abingdon.

*Brernaccut, Lieut.-Com., L. C., O.B.E., F.R.G.S. 54 Inverness-
terrace, W. 2.

*Bernays, Albert Evan. 3 Priory-road, Kew, Surrey.

*BreRRIDGE, Dovatas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

“Berridge, Miss Emily M. Dunton Lodge, The Knoll, Beckenham.

*Berry, Arthur J. 14 Regent-street, Cambridge.

§Berry, Professor R. A., F.1.C. West of Scotland Agricultural
College, 6 Blythswood-square, Glasgow.

iBerry, Professor R. J. A..M.D. The University. Carlton, Mel-
bourne. :

{Bertrand, Captain Alfred. Champel, Geneva.

§Bestow, C. H., F.R.M.S. Melford House, Upper Clapton-road,
E. 5.

{Bethune-Baker, G. T. 19 Clarendon-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

tet i

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 13

Year of
Election.

1880.

1884.
1913.

1903.

1870.

1888.
1911.

1898.
1901.
1908.
1910.

1915.
1913.
1904.

1919.

1906.
1910.
1886.
1914.
1909.

1901.

1916.

1916.

*Buvan, Rev. James Ontver, M.A., F.S.A., F.G.S. Chillenden
Rectory, Canterbury.

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. The Shrubbery, Scole, Norfolk.

tBewlay, Hubert. The Lindens, Moseley, Birmingham.

{Bickerdike, C. F. 1 Boverney-road, Honor Oak Park, S.E. 23.

{Bicketon, Professor A. W. 18 Pembridge-mansions, Moscow-
road, W. 2.

*Bidder, George Parker, D.Sc. Cavendish Corner, Cambridge.

{Brmzs, Sir Joun H., LL.D., D.Sc. (Pres. G, 1911), Professor of
Naval Architecture in the University of Glasgow. 175 West
Georze-street, Glasgow.

{Billington, Charles. Heimath, Longport, Staffordshire.

*Bilsland, Sir William, Bart., J.P. 28 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Bilton, Edward Barnard. Graylands, Wimbledon Common, S.W.

*Birchenough, C., M.A. 103 Tonbridge-road, Maidstone.

*Birley, J. Harold. Cambridge-street, Manchester.

{Birtwistle, G. Pembroke College, Cambridge.

{Bishop, A. W. Edwinstowe, Chaucer-road, Cambridge.

*BisHop, Ep. EH. Fashoda, Cherminster-road, Bournemouth.

{Bishop, J. L. Yarrow Lodge, Waldegrave-road, Teddington.

{Bisset, John. Thornhill, Insch, Aberdeenshire.

*Bixby, General W. H. 508 Federal-building, Chicago, IIl.,
U.S.A

*Black, S. G. Glenormiston, Glenormiston South, Victoria,
Australia.

{Black, W. J., Principal of Manitoba Agricultural College, Winnipeg,
Canada. ;

§Black, W. P. M. 136 Wellington-street, Glasgow.

*Blackburn, Miss K. B., M.Sc. Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.
tBlackett, Lieut.-Colonel W. C. Acorn House, Sacriston, near
Durham.

. *Buacxman, F.F., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1908.) St. John’s

College, Cambridge.

. }Brackmay, Professor V. H., M.A.,Sc.D., F.R.S. Imperial College

of Science and Technology, 8.W. 7.

. *Blackwell, Miss Elsie M., M.Sc. 16 Stanley-avenue, Birkdale,

Southport.

. [Blaikie, Leonard, M.A. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-

gardens, W. 1.

. *Blair, Douglas P., M.B. 40 South Methven-street, Perth.

. tBlair, Sir R., M.A. London County Council, Spring-gardens, S.W. 1.
. {Blake, Robert F., F.I.C. Queen’s College, Belfast.

. tBlakemore, Mrs. D. M. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood, N.S.W.
. [Blakemore, G. H. Wawona, Cooper-street, Burwood, N.S.W.

M Blakiston, C. H. Eton College, Windsor.

. {Blamires, Mrs. Bradley Lodge, Hudderstield.

. [Blano, Dr. Gian Alberto. Istituto Fisico, Rome.

5. Bland, J. Arthur. Thornfield, Baxter-road, Sale.

. *Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading. :
. *Bles, Edward J., M.A., D.Sc. Elterholm, Madingley-road, Cam-

bridge.

. *Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

. Blofield, Rev. S., B.A. Saltley College, Birmingham.

. {Blount, Bertram, F.I.C. 76 & 78 York-street, Westminster, S.W. 1.
. tBloxsom, Martin, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Lansdowne-road, Crump-

sall Green, Manchester.

14 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1909. {Blumfeld, Joseph, M.D. 35 Harley-street, W. 1.

1887. *Boddington, Henry, J.P. Pownall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

1908. tBorppickrr, Ortro, Ph.D. Birr Castle Observatory, Birr,
Treland.

1915. {Bohr, N. Physical Laboratory, The University, Manchester.

1887. *Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

1915. Bolivar, Mrs. Anna de. 75 Clarendon-road, High-street, Man-
chester.

1911. {Bolland, B. G. C. Department of Agriculture, Cairo, Egypt.

1898. §Boxron, H., M.Sc., F.R.S.E. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol. —

1894. §Botton, JouN, F.R.G.S. 22 Hawes-road, Bromley, Kent.

1919. §Bolton, R. A. R. 60 Ranelagh-gardens, §.W. 1.

1898. *Bonar, Jamus, M.A., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1898 ; Council, 1899-1905.)
The Mint, Ottawa, Canada.

1909. {Bonar, Thomson, M.D. 114 Via Babuino, Piazza di Spagna,
Rome.

1912. *Bond, C. I., C.M.G., F.R.C.S. 10 Springfield-road, Leicester.

1914. {Bond, Mrs. C. J. 10 Springfield-road, Leicester.

1909. {Bond, J. H. R., M.B. 167 Donald-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1908. {Bonn, Professor W. A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1915; Council,
1915- .) Imperial College of Science and Technology,
S.W. 7.

1871. *Bonnzny, Rev. THomas Groras, Sc.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.S.A.,
FE.G.S. (Presiprnt, 1910; Srormrary, 1881-85; Pres. C,
1886.) 9 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.

1911. {Bonny, W. Naval Store Office, The Dockyard, Portsmouth.

1893. {Boot, Sir Jesse, Bart. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Notting-
ham.

1883. {Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

1910. {Booth, John, M.C.E., B.Sc. The Gables, Berkeley-street, Haw-
thorn, Victoria, Australia.

1883. {Boothroyd, Benjamin. Weston-super-Mare.

1912. tBorgmann, Professor J. J., D.Ph., LL.D. Physical Institute,
The University, Petrograd.

1882. §Borns, Henry, Ph.D. 5 Sutton Court-road, Chiswick, W. 4.

1901. t{Borradaile, L. A., M.A. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

1903. *Bosanquet, Ropert C., M.A., Professor of Classical Archeology
in the University of Liverpool. Institute of Archeology,
40 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

1896. {Bose, Professor J. C., C.:I.E., M.A., D.Sc. Calcutta, India.

1916. §$Boswect, P. G. H.,O.B.E., D.Se., F.G.8., George Herdman Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of Liverpool.

1881. §BotHamiEy, CHartes H., M.Sc, F.LC., F.C.S., Education
Secretary, Somerset County Council, Weston-super-Mare.

1871. *BorroMLey, JAMEs THomson, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E.,
F.C.S. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1892. *Bottomuny, W. B., M.A., Professor of Botany in King’s College
Strand, W.C. 2.

1909. {Boulenger, C. L., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Birmingham.

1905. {Boutunasr, G. A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1905.) 8 Courtfield-
road, 8.W. 7.

1905. {Boulenger, Mrs. 8 Courtfield-road, 8.W. 7.

1993. §Boutron, W. 8., D.Sc., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1916.), Professor of
Geology in the University of Birmingham.

1911. tBourdillon, R. Balliol College, Oxford.

1883. {Bourne, Sir A. G., K.C.LE., D.Sc., F.B.S., F.L.S. Middlepark
Paignton, South Devon.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 15

Year of
Election.

1893. *Bournes, G. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1910 ; Council,
1903-09 ; Local Sec. 1894), Linacre Professor of Comparative
Anatomy in the University of Oxford. Savile House, Mans-
field-road., Oxford.

1904. *Bousfield, E. G. P. 7 Harley-street, W.

1913. {Bowater, Sir W. H. Elm House, Arthur-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1913. {Bowater, Captain William. 20 Russell Mond, Moseley, Birming-
ham.

1881. *Bower, F. O., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1898,
1914; Council, 1900-06), Regius Professor of Botany in the
University of Glasgow.

1898. *Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Whitehill, Wrotham, Kent.

1898. {Bowxry, A. L., M.A. (Pres. F, 1906; Council, 1906-11.) North-
court-avenue, Reading.

1880. tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester.

1887. {Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.

1899. *Bowman, Herpert Lister, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor ol
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. Magdalen College,
Oxford.

1899. *Bowman, John Herbert. Greenham Common, Newbury.

1887. §Box, Alfred Marshall. 14 Magrath-avenue, Cambridge.

1919. *Boyd, Professor D. R. University College, Southampton.

1901. tBoyd, David T. Rhinsdale, Ballieston, Lanark.

1915. *Boyd, H. de H. Care of Southern Cotton Oil Con:ipany, Trafford
Park, Manchester.

1892. {Boys, Coartes Vernon, F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1903 ; Council, 1893-99,
1905-08.) 66 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

1872. *BraBrook, Sir Epwarp, C.B., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1898; Pres. F,
1903 ; Council, 1903-10, 1911-19.) Langham House, Walling-
ton, Surrey.

1894, *Braby, Ivon. Helena, Alan-road, Wimbledon, S.W.

1915. {Bradley, FY. E., M.A. Bank of England-chambers, Manchester.

1893. {Bradley, F. L. Ingleside, Malvern Wells.

1904, *Bradley.e Gustav, Borough Surveyor, Bridlington.

1903. *Bradley, O. Charnock, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.E. Royal Veterinary
College, Edinburgh.

1892. {Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham,

1863. {Brapy, Guorce S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Park Hurst, Endeliffe,
Sheffield.

1911. §Brace, Sir W. H., K.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1913-17),
Professor of Physics in the University of London. Uni-
versity College, W.C. 1.

1905. §Brakhan, A. 6 Montague-mansions, Portman-square, W. 1.

1906. {Branfield, Wilfrid. 4 Victoria-villas, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

1885. *Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Lancaster Park, Harro-
gate.

1905. {Brausewetter, Miss. Roedean School, near Brighton.

1909. §Bremner, Alexander. 38 New Broad-street, E.C, 2.

1905. {Bremner, R. 8S. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool,

1905. {Bremner, Stanley. Westminster-chambers, Dale-street, Liverpool.

1913" *Brenchley, Miss Winifred E., D.Sc., F.L.S. Rothamsted Ex-
perimental Station, Harpenden, Herts.

1902. *Brereton, Cloudesley. 7 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

1909. *Breton, Miss Adela C. 15 Camden-cresent, Bath. To be forwarded.

1908. {Brickwood, Sir John. Branksmere, Southsea.

1907. *Bridge, Henry Hamilton. Fairfield House, Droxford, Hants.

16

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.

1913.
1919.

1904.

1909.
1908.
1893.

1904.
1905.
1879.
1905.
1907.
1915.
1883.
1903,

1913.
1904.
1906.
191].

1915.
1883.
1883.
1886.

1905.
1863.

1905.
1914.

1903.
1914.
1870.

1881.
1895.
1882.

1901.
1908.
1905.
1910.
1912.
1884.
1908.
1912.
1906.

tBridgman, F. J., F.L.S. Zoological Department, University
College, W.C. 1.

{Brierley, Leonard H. 11 Ampton-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Brierley, W. B. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden,
Herts.

*Briggs, William, M.A., LL.D., F.R.A.S. Burlington House, Cam-
bridge.

*Brigos, Mrs. William. Burlington House, Cambridge.

tBrindley, H. H. 4 Devana-terrace. Cambridge.

tBriscoe, Albert E., B.Sc., A-R.C.Se. The Hoppet, Little Baddow,
Chelmsford.

tBriscoe, J. J. Bourn Hall, Bourn, Cambridge.

§Briscoe, Miss. Bourn Hail, Bourn, Cambridge.

*Brittain, W. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.

{Brock, Dr. B. G. P.O. Box 216, Germiston, Transvaal.

{Brockington, W. A., M.A. Birstall, Leicester.

tBrocklehurst, F. 33 King-street, Manchester.

*Brodie-Hall, Miss W. L. Havenwood, Peaslake, Gomshall, Surrey.

tBroprick, Haron, M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1903.) 7 Aughton-
road, Birkdale, Southport.

+Brodrick, Mrs. Harold. 7 Aughton-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Bromwich, T. J. PA., M.A., F.R.S. 1 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

tBrook, Stanley. 18 St. George’s-place, York.

§Brooke, Colonel Charles K., F.R.G.S. Army and Navy Club, Pall
Mall, S.W. 1.

{Brooks, Colin. 7 Cedar-street, Southport.

*Brooks, F. T. 31 Tenison-avenue, Cambridge.

*Brough, Mrs. Charles 8S. 13 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea.

{Brough, Joseph, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Philosophy in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

tBrown, A. R. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Brown. ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RS.E..
V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1874; Local Sec. 1871.) 8 Belgrave.
crescent, Edinburgh.

§Brown, Professor Ernest William, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn., U.S.A. 5

{Brown, F. G., B.A., B.Sc. Naval College, North Geelong, Victoria,
Australia.

{Brown, F. W. 6 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

{Brown, Rev. George, D.D. Kinawanua, Gordon, N.S.W.

§Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1899 ; Council,
1904-11.) 52 Nevern-square, S.W. 5.

*Brown, John, M.D. Liesbreek-road, Mowbray, Cape of Good

Hope.
*Brown, ae Charles. 39 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Notting-
ham.
*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Liesbreek-road, Mowbray, Cape of Good
Hope.
+Brown, R. N. Rudmose, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.
SBrown, Srpney G., F.R.S. 52 Kensington Park-road, W. 11.
§Brown, Mrs. Sidney G. 52 Kensington Park-road, W. 11.
*Brown, Sidney J. R. 52 Kensington Park-road, W. 11.
{Brown, T. Graham. The University, Liverpool.
{Brown, W. G. University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.
{Brown, William, B.Sc. 48 Dartmouth-square, Dublin.
{Brown, Dr. William, D.Sc. 14 Welbeck-street, W. 1.
§Browne, Charles E., B.Sc. Christ’s Hospital, West Horsham.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. 17

Year of
Hlection.

1900.
1908.

1896.
1879.

1905.
1918.

1883.
1912.
1893.

1900.

1897.
1886.

1919.
1894.
1884.

1909.

1902.
1890.
1902.

1905.
1909.
1914.
1913.
1884.

1904.
1919.

1893.
1913.
1913.

1916.
1909.
1914.

1905.
1905.
1881.

1905.
1913.

1919.
1913.
1894.

*BrowNer, FRANK Batrour, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S. Oaklands,
Fenstanton, St. Ives, Hunts.

}Browne, Rev. Henry, M.A., Professor of Greek in University
College, Dublin.

*Browne, H. T. Doughty. St. Bernards, Caterham.

{BRowng, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 45 Hans-
place, S.W. 1.

*Browne, James Stark, F.R.A.S. Hanmer House, Mill Hill
Park, W. 3.

{Brownen, George, F.G.S. Talnas, Grove-road, Christchurch,
Hants.

{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

+Brownine, T. B., M.A. 18 Bury-street, Bloomsbury, W.C. 1.

{Bruce, Witt &., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Scottish Oceanographical
Laboratory, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

*Brumm, Charles. Edendale, Whalley-road, Whalley Range, Man-
chester.

*Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

*Bryan, G. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bangor.

*Bryan, Miss M. A. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

tBryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

*Bryor, Rev. Professor Gzrorer, D.D., LL.D. Kilmadock, Winni-
peg, Canada.

{Bryce, Thomas H., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Glasgow. 2 The College, Glasgow.

*Bubb, Miss E. Maude. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

*Bucuanan, Miss Fiorencz, D.Sc. University Museum,
Oxford.

{Buchanan, Hon. Sir John. Clareinch, Claremont, Cape Town.

tBuchanan, W. W. P.O. Box 1658, Winnipeg, Canada.

tBuck, E. J. Menzies’ Hotel, Melbourne.

{Buckland, H. T. 21 Yateley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. 16 Heathfield-road,
Mill Hill Park, W. 3.

tBuckwell, J.C. North Gate House, Pavilion, Brighton.

§Bulfin, Ignatius. Tramways Office, Lansdowne-cresent, Bourne-

mouth.

§BuLtEID, ArTHour, F.S.A. Dymboro, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

*Bulleid, C. H. University College, Nottingham.

*Buller, A. H. Reginald, Professor of Botany in the University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg.

{Bulman, H. F. Moss Garth, Portinscale, Keswick.

{Butyza, The Hon. G.H. V. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

{Bundey, Miss KE. M. Molesworth-street, North Adelaide, South
Australia.

tBurbury, Mrs. A. A. 15 Melbury-road, W. 14.

{Burbury, Miss A. D. 15 Melbury-road, W. 14.

{Burdett-Coutts, William Lehmann, M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Picca-
dilly, W. 1.

{Burpon, E. R., M.A. Ikenhilde, Royston, Herts.

{Burfield, Stanley Thomas. Zoology Department, The University,
Liverpool.

§Burgess, H. F. J., F.R.G.S. 62 Thornbury-road, Isleworth.

*Burgess, J. Howard. Shide, Newport, Isle of Wight.

tBurke, John B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

R

1919.

18

Year

BRITISIT ASSOCIATION.

of

Election.

1884

1915.

1904.
1909.
1914.
1908.

1919.
1909.

1910.

1919.

1909.
1911.
1892.

1904.
1906.
1887.
1899.
1895.
1908.
1910.

1916.

1913.

1915.
1884.

1919.
1899.

1913.
1913.
1892.
1913.

1913.
1912.
1901.
1907.
1897.

1911.
1916.
1914.
1911.

1857.
1909,

. *Burland, Lieut.-Colonel Jeffrey H. 342 Sherbrooke-street West.
Montreal, Canada.

§Burlin, Adolph L., Ph.D. The Abbey Laboratory, Burton-on-
Trent. :

{Burn, R. H. 21 Stanley-crescent, Notting-hill, W. 11.

{Burns, F.D. 203 Morley-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Burns, Colonel James. Gowan Brae, Parramatta, N.S.W.

{Burnside, W. Snow, D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni.
versity of Dublin. 35 Raglan-road, Dublin.

*Burrell, Mrs. T. Gaze. Keydon Lodge, Poole-road, Bournemouth.

{Burrows, Theodore Arthur. 187 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

{Burt, Cyril. L.C.C. Education Offices, Victoria Embankment, W.C. 2.

*Burton, Mrs. Alice. 143 Whitehall-court, S.W. 1.

{Burton, E. F. 129 Howland-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{Burton, J. H. Agriculture Office, Weston-super-Mare.

+Burton-Brown, Colonel A., R.A., F.G.S. Royal Societies Club, St.
James’s-street, S.W. 1.

{Burtt, Arthur H., D.Sc. 4 South View, Holgate, York.

{Burtt, Philip. Swarthmore, St. George’s-place, York.

*Bury, Henry. Mayfield House, Farnham, Surrey.

{Bush, Anthony. 43 Portland-road, Nottingham.

{Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S.W. 7.

*Bushell, W. F. Rossall School, Fleetwood.

{ Butcher, Miss. 25 Harl’s Court-square, S.W.

§Butler, George Grey, J.P. Ewart Park, Wooler, Northumberland.

*Butler, W. Waters. Southfield, Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Butterworth, Charles F. Waterloo, Poynton, Cheshire.

*Butterworth, W. Carisbrooke, Rhiw-road, Colwyn Bay, North
Wales.

§Buxton, Captain L. H. Dudley. University Museum, Oxford.

{Byles, Arthur R. ‘ Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Cadbury, Edward. Westholme, Selly Oak, Birmingham.

tCadbury, W. A. Wast Hills, King’s Norton.

{Cadell, H. M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Linlithgow.

{Cadman, Sir John, K.C.M.G., D.Sce., Professor of Mining in the
University of Birmingham. 67 Wellington-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

{Cahill, J. R. 49 Hanover Gate-mansions, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

§Caine, Nathaniel. Spital, Cheshire.

{Caldwell, Hugh. Blackwood, Newport, Monmouthshire.

{Caldwell, K. 8. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, E.C. 1.

{CaLLenpar, Hoven L., C.B.E., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1912:
Council, 1900-06), Professor of Physics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, S.W. 7.

{Calman, W. 'T., D.Sc. British Museum (Natural History), Crom-
well-road, S.W. 7.

{Calvert, Joseph. Park View, Middlesbrough.

tCambage, R. H., F.L.S. Department of Mines, Sydney, N.S.W.

tCameron, Alexander T. Physiological Department, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg.

{CameERon, Sir Cuanues A., C.B.,M.D. 61 Pembroke-road, Dublin.

{Cameron D.C. 65 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 19

Year of
Election,

1896.

1909.

1901.

1897.
1909.

1909.

1902.
1912.

1890.

1904.
1911.
1894.

1887.
1896.
1913.

1914.
1913.

1913.

1902.

1906.

1905.
1912.
1910.
1893.
1906.
1889.
1911.
1867.
1886.
1899,
1914.
1919.
1919.
1896.
1878.

1870.

§Cameron, Irving H., LL.D., Professor of Surgery in the University
of Toronto. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Cameron, Hon. Mr. Justice J.D. Judges’ Chambers, Winnipeg,
Canada.

§Campbell, Archibald. Argyll Lodge, 62 Albert-drive, Pollokshields,
Glasgow.

tCampbell, Colonel J.C. L. Achalader, Blairgowrie, N.B.

*Campbell, R. J. Holdenhurst, Hendon-avenue, Church End,
Finchley, N. 3.

{Campbell, Mrs. R. J. Holdenhurst, Hendon-avenue, Church
End, Finchley, N.3.

{Campbell, Robert. 21 Great Victoria-street, Belfast.

gga si Robert. Geological Department, The University,

inburgh.

tCannan, Professor Epwin, M.A., LL.D., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1902.)
11 Chadlington-road, Oxford.

{Capell, Rev. G. M. Passenham Rectory, Stony Stratford.

{Capon, R. S. 49a Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{CappEr, D.S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C. 1.

tCarstiox, J. W. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Carden, H. Vandaleur. 19 Kenilworth-court, Putney, S.W. 15.

tCarlier, E. Wace, M.Sc., M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Birmingham. The University, Edmund-
street, Birmingham.

{Carne, J. E. Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

§Carpenter, Charles. 157 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

*Carpenter, G. D. H., M.B. 19 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

{Carpenter, G. H., B.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Royal College
of Science, Dublin.

*Carpenter, Professor H. C. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., 30 Murray-
road, Wimbledon, 8.W, 19.

{tCarpmael, Edward, F.R.A.S., M.Inst.C.E. The Ivies, 118 St.
Julian’s Farm-road, West Norwood, S.E. 27.

*Carr, H. Wildon, D.Litt. 107 Church-street, Chelsea, S.W. 3.

{Carr, Henry F. Broadparks, Pinhoe, near Exeter.

tCarr, J. Westey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

*Carr, Richard E. Sylvan Mount, Sylvan-road, Norwood, 8.E.19.

tCarr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

{Carruthers, R. G., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 33 George-
square, Hdinburgh. :

{Cazruruers, WituiaM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. D, 1886.)
44 Central-hill, Norwood, 8.E. 19.

{Carstakz, J. BarHam. (Local Seo. 1886.) 30 Westfield-road,
Birmingham.

tCarstaw, H.S., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Sydney, N.S.W.

§Carson, Rev. James. The Manse, Cowper, N.S.W.

§Carter, A. J. The Haven, Millbrook-road, Southampton.

§Carter, William. The Oaks, Parkstone, Dorset:

tCartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street-chambers, Bryanston-
square, W, 1.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Oakdene, Boynewood-road,
Tunbridge Wells.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I. Albion-place, Bury,
Lancashire.

B 2

20

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

dlection.

1862. tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Rosehill-street, Derby.

1894. {Carus, Dr. Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

1913. §Carus-Wilson, Cecil, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Altmore, Waldegrave-
park, Strawberry Hill, Twickenham.

1901. {Carver, Thomas A. B., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Springfield-
road, Dalmarnock, Glasgow.

1899. *Case, J. Monckton. Department of Lands (Water Branch),
Victoria, British Columbia.

1919. §Casson, 8S. 8 Bedford-park, Chiswick, W.

1908. *Cave, Charles J. P., M.A. Ditcham Park, Petersfield.

1919. *Cave-Browne-Cave. Commander T. R. Burnage, Streatham
Common, 8.W. 16.

1910. {Chadburn, A. W. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.

1905. *Challenor, Bromley, M.A. The Firs, Abingdon.

1905. *Challenor, Miss E. M. The Firs, Abingdon.

1910. *Chalmers, 8. D. 13 Ribblesdale-road, Hornsey, N. 8.

1913. {CHAMBERLAIN, NEvILLE. Westbourne, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1914. §Chamberlin, Dr. R. T. Geological Department, University of
Chicago, U.S.A.

1913. {Chambers, Miss Beatrice Anne. Glyn-y-mél, Fishguard.

1901. §Chamen, W. A. South Wales Electrical Power Distribution
Company, Royal-chambers, Queen-street, Cardiff.

1905. {Champion, G. A. Haraldene, Chelmsford-road, Durban, Natal.

1881. *Champney, John E. 27 Hans-place,'S.W. 1.

1908. {Chance, Sir Arthur, M.D. 90 Merrion-square, Dublin.

1916. *Chance, C. F., M.A. 12 Arthur-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1888. {Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. St. George’s, Cecil-road, Boscombe.

1907. *Chapman, Alfred Chaston, F.I.C. 8 Duke-street, Aldgate, E.C. 3.

1919. §Chapman, Arthur. W. 68 Geraldine-road, S.W. 18.

1902. *Chapman, D. L., M.A., F.R.S. Jesus College, Oxford.

1914. §Chapman, H. G., M.D. Department of Physiology, The Uni-
versity, Sydney, N.S.W.

1910. {Chapman, J. E. Kinross.

1912. *Chapman, Sydney, M.A.. D.Se., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1899. {Cuapman, Str Sypney J., K.B.E., C.B. (Pres. F, 1909), Board

of Trade, Great George-street, S.W. 1.

1916. {Charlesworth, Dr. J. K. Queen’s University, Belfast.

1905. {Chassigneux, E. 12 Tavistock-road, Westbourne-park, W. 11.

1904. *Chattaway, F.D., M.A., D.Se., Ph.D., F.R.S. 151 Woodstock-road,
Oxford.

1886. *Caartook, A. P., D.Sc. Heathfield Cottage, Crowcombe,
Somerset.

1904. *Chaundy, Theodore William, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

1913. {Cheesman, Miss Gertrude Mary. The Crescent, Selby.

1900. *Cheesman, W. Norwood, J.P., F.L.S. The Crescent, Selby.

1874. *Chermside, J.ieut.-General Sir Herbert, R.E., G.C.M.G., C.B.
Pepper Arden, Northallerton, Yorkshire.

1908. {Cherry, Right Hon. Lord Justice. 92 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

1910. {Chesney, Miss Lilian M., M.B. 381 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

1919. §Chibnall, A. C. Cedar House, Chiswick Mall, S.W. 4.

1911. *Chick, Miss H., D.Sc. Chestergate, Park-hill, Haling, W. 5.

1908. {Chill, Edwin, M.D. Westleigh, Mattock-road, Ealing, W. 5.

1833. {Chinery, Edward F., J.P. Lymington.

1919. §Chinnery, E. W. Pearosn. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

1894. t{CaisHorm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1907.) 12

Hallhead-road, Edinburgh.

——

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. PAL

Year of
Election.

1899.
1899.
1904.
1882.
1909.
1893.

1913.
1900.
1875.
1903.
1901.

1905.
1907.
1877.
1902.
1881.

1909.

1908.
1908.
1919.
1901.
1907.
1902.

1889.

1909.
1909.

1914.

1915.
1861.

1905.
1905.
1902.
1904.

1909.
1861.

1906.

1914.
1919.
1883.

1914.
1912.
1891.
1911.

§Chitty, Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

+Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Sonnenberg, Castle-avenue, Dover.

§Chivers, John, J.P. Wychfield, Cambridge.

tChorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

{Chow, H. H.,M.D. 263 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

*CuREE, Caaries, Sc.D., F.R.S. Kew Observatory, Richmond,
Surrey.

{Christie, Dr. M. G. Post Office House, Leeds.

*Christie, R. J. Duke-street, Toronto, Canada.

*Christopher, George, F.C.S. Thorncroft, Chislehurst.

{Clapham, J. H., M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

§Clark, Archibald B., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Clark, Cumberland, F.R.G.S. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W. 11.

*Clark, Mrs. Cumberland. 22 Kensington Park-gardens, W. 11.

*Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

{Clark, G.M. South African Museum, Cape Town.

*Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. Asgarth, Riddlesdown-road,
Purley, Surrey.

{Clark, J. M., M.A., K.C. The Kent Building, 156 Yonge-street,
Toronto, Canada.

tClark, James, B.Sc., Ph.D. Newtown School, Waterford, Ireland.

{Clark, John R. W. Brothock Bank House, Arbroath, Scotland.

*Clark, L. H. 3 Cinque Port-villas, Rope Walk, Rye.

*Clark, Robert M., B.Sc., F.L.S. 27 Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

*Clarke, E. Russell, C.B.E. 11 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C. 4.

*CLARKE, Miss Litian J., D.Sc., F.L.S. Chartfield Cottage, Brasted
Chart, Kent.

*CLaypen, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. 5 The Crescent, Mount Radford,
Exeter.

§Cleeves, Frederick, F.Z.S. 120 Fenchurch-street, E.C. 3.

fCleeves, W. B. Public Works Department, Government-buildings,
Pretoria.

§Clege, Mrs. Florence M. Burong, Sussex-street, Ballarat, Victoria,
Australia.

tClegg, John Gray. 22 St. John-street, Manchester.

{Ciutanp, Joun, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Drumclog, Crewkerne,
Somerset.

tCleland, Mrs. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

{Cleland, Captain J. R. Drumclog, Crewkerne, Somerset.

{Clements, Olaf P. Tana, St. Bernard’s-road, Olton, Warwick.

§CLzrk, Sir Ducatp, K.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G,
1908 ; Council,1912- .) 57 and 58 Lincoln’s Inn-fields,W.C. 2.

tCleve, Miss. EH. K. P. 74 Kensington Gardens-square, W. 2.

*Cuirton, R. Bretiamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 3 Bardwell-road.
Banbury-road, Oxford.

§Crosx, Colonel Sir Cuaruzs, R.E., C.M.G., I'.R.S., F.R.G.S, (Pres.
E,1911; Council, 1908-12.) Ordnance Survey Office, South-

ampton.
{Close, J. Campbell. 217 Clarence-street, Sydney, N.S.W.
§Clougher, Nugent M. 20 Craven-street, W.C. 2.
*CLowEs, Professor Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1893.)
The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, S.E. 21.
iClowes, Mrs. The Grange, College-road, Dulwich, S.E. 21.
§Clubb, Joseph A., D.Sc. Free Public Museum, Liverpool.
*Coates, Henry, F.R.S.E. Corarder, Perth.
§Cobbold, E. 8., ¥.G.S. Church Stretton, Shropshire,

ae, BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election

1908. *Cochrane, Miss Constance. 'The Downs, St. Neots.

1901. {Cockburn, Sir John, K.C.M.G., M.D. 10 Gatestone-road, Upper
Norwood, S.E.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1913. tCodd, J. Alfred. 7 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

1898. {Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

1896. *Coghill, Perey de G. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1914. {Coghill, Mrs. Una. Monomeath-avenue, Canterbury, Victoria,
Australia.

1887. {Cohen, Professor J. B., F.R.S. The University, Leeds.

1901. *Cohen, R. Waley, B.A. 11 Sussex-square, W. 2.

1919. §Coignon, Miss C. 31 Ibbertson-terrace, Hyde Park, W.

1906. *CogkEr, Ernest Groran, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres.
G, 1914.) Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering,
University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

1914. {Coker, Mrs. 3 Farnley-road, Chingford, Essex.

1895. *Colby, William Henry. 80 Coldharbour-road, Redland, Bristol.

1913. {Cotx, Professor F. J. University College, Reading.

1893. §CoLz, GRENVILLE A. J., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1915), Professor of
Geology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1903. {Cole, Otto B. 551 Boylston-street, Boston, U.S.A.

1897. §CotEmAN, Professor A. P., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. C, 1910.)
476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

1899. {Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N. 4.

1912. {Collett, J. M., J.P. Kimsbury House, Gloucester

1887. {Cot.ie, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic Chemistry
in the University of London. 16 Campden-grove, W. 8.

1913. {Collinge, Walter E., M.Sc. The Gatty Marine Laboratory, The
University, St. Andrews, N.B.

1916. §Collingwood, Arthur B. Lilburn Tower, Alnwick, Northumberland.

1861. *Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 8 Oakley-road, Canonbury, N. 1.

1910. *Collins, S. Hoare. 9 Cavendish-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1902. {Collins, T. R. Belfast Royal Academy, Belfast.

1917. {Collis, E.L., M.B. Factory Department, Home Office, 8.W. 1.

1914. tCollum, Mrs.Anna Maria. 18 Northbrook-road, Leeson Park, Dublin.

1892. {Colman, Dr. Harold G. 1 Arundel-street, Strand, W.C. 2.

1910. *Colver, Robert, jun. Graham-road, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

1910. *Compton, Professor Robert Harold, B.A. National Botanic
Gardens, Kirstenbosch, near Cape Town.

1912. §Conner, Dr. William. Solent Cliffs, Bournemouth.

1902. {Conway, Professor A. W., M.A., F.R.S. 25 Coliemore-road, Dalkey,
Dublin.

1903. {Conway, R. Seymour, Litt.D., Professor of Latin in Owens College,
Manchester.

1898. {Cook, Ernest H., D.Sc. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1913 §Cook, Gilbert, M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Engineering Department,
The University, Manchester.

1876. *CookE, Conrap W. The Pines, Langland-gardens, Hampstead,

N.W. 3.
1911. {Cooke, J. H. 101 Victoria-road North, Southsea.
1919. §Cooke, Thurkill, B.A., Director of the Psychological Section
of the Inventors’ Union, 21 Spital-square, E.C.
1914. {Cooke, William Ternant, D.Sc. Fourth-avenue, East Adelaide,
South Australia.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 23

Year of
Election.

1915.
1916.
1914.
1888.
1899.

1903.
1901.
1919.
1911.
1912.
1904.

1909.
1904.
1909.

1894.
1916.
1915.

1901.
1893.

1889.
1884.
1900.
1905.

1909.
1910.
1911.
1908.

1874.
1908.
1908.

1919.
1911.

1908.
1872.

1903.
1915.

1900.
1914.
1895.
1899.
1913.

1909.

{Cookson, A. Ellis. 14 Hargreaves-buildings, Liverpool.

*Cookson, Clive. Nether Warden, Hexham.

t{Cookson, Miss Isabel C. 154 Power-street, Hawthorn, Melbourne.

{Cooley, George Parkin. Constitutional Club, Nottingham.

*Coomaraswamy, A. K., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.8., Keeper of Indian
Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., U.S.A.

tCooper, Miss A. J. 22 St. John-street, Oxford.

*Cooper, C. Forster, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Cooper, Ernest. 100 Old Christchurch-road, Bournemouth.

§Cooper, W. E. Henwick Lodge, Worcester.

{Cooper, W. F. The Laboratory, Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

*CopEMAN, S. Moncgton, M.D., F.R.S. Local Government Board,
Whitehall, S.W. 1.

{Copland, Mrs. A. Johns. Gleniffer, 50 Woodberry Down, N. 4.

*Copland, Miss Louisa. 10 Wynnstay-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Corbett, W. A. 207 Bank of Nova Scotia-building, Winnipeg,
Canada.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. Rotherfield Cottage, Bexhill-on-Sea.

{Corder, Percy. 1 Collingwood-terrace, Newcastle-on-T'yne.

§Corker, James S. Care of Macintosh & Co., Ltd., Cambridge-
street, Manchester.

*Cormack, J. D., C.M.G., D.Sc., Professor of Civil Engineering and
Mechanics in the University of Glasgow.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. Abbotsford House, Waverley-
street, Nottingham.

{Cornisu, Vaueuan, D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Woodville, Camberley.

*Cornwallis, F. 8. W., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

§Cortt#, Rev. A. L., 8.J., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

tCory, Professor G. E., M.A. Rhodes University College, Grahams-
town, Cape Colony.

*Cossar, G. C., M.A., F.G.S. Southview, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

tCossar, James. 28 Coltbridge-terrace, Murrayfield, Midlothian.

{Cossey, Miss, M.A. High School for Girls, Kent-road, Southsea.

*Costello, John Francis, B.A. The Rectory, Ballymackey, Nenagh,
Ireland.

*CoTTERILt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Hillerest, Parkstone, Dorset.

{Cotton, Alderman W. F., D.L., J.P. Hollywood, Co. Dublin.

{Courtenay, Colonel Arthur H., C.B., D.L. United Service Club,
Dublin.

§Cousins, W. J. 2 Dorlcote-road, Wandsworth, §.W. 18.

tCouzens, Sir G. E.,K.L.H. Glenthorne, Kingston-crescent, Ports-
mouth.

tCowan, P. C., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. 33 Ailesbury-road, Dublin.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Sutherland House,
Clevedon, Somersetshire.

tCoward, H. Knowle Board School, Bristol.

{Coward, H. F. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research,
16-18 Old Queen-street, Westminster, S.W. 1.

{Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

tCowburn, Mrs. Dingle Head, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowELL, Pamir H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 62 Shooters Hill-road,

7 Blackheath, 8.E. 3.

tCowper-Coles, Sherard. 1 and 2 Old Pye-street, Westminster,
S.W. 1.
¢Cox, Professor A. Hubert, Ph.D., F.G.S. University College,

Cardiff.
tCox, F, J.C, Anderson-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada,

24

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1905.
1912.

1911.

1908.
1884.

1906.
1908.

1906,

1905.

1906.

1905.
1905.

1910.

1890.
1883.

1919.

1876.
1887.

1908.

1905.
1890.

1878.

1913.

1903.
1901.

1914.

1916.
1887.

1898.

1897.
1909.
1905.
1894.
1904.

1905.

1904.

1908.

1897.

1920.

1890.

1910.

1910.

tCox, W. H. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

tCraig, D. D., M.A., B.Sc., M.B. The University, St. Andrews, N.B.

tCraig, J.I. Homelands, Park-avenue, Worthing.
tCraig, James, M.D. 18 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
§Crataiz, Major P. G., C.B., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1900; Council,
1908-15.) Lympstone, Devon.

{Craik, Right Hon. Sir Henry, K.C.B., LL.D., M.P. 5a Dean’s-
yard, Westminster, S.W. 1.

*CramMeR, W., Ph.D., D.Sc. Imperial Cancer Research Fund,
Queen-square, Bloomsbury, W.C. 1.

tCramp, William, D.Sc. 33 Brazennose-street, Manchester.

*Cranswick, W. F. P.O. Box 65, Bulawayo, Rhodesia.

tCraven, Henry. (Local Sec. 1906.) Greenbank, West Lawn,

Sunderland.
{Crawford, Mrs. A.M: Marchmont, Rosebank, near Cape Town.
{Crawford, Professor Lawrence, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. South
African College, Cape Town.

*Crawford, O. G. 8. Tan House, Donnington, Berkshire.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N, 4.

*Crew, F. A. E., M.B. 5 Lauriston-park, Edinburgh.

*Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. Whitstead, Barton-road, Cam-

bridge.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Spurs, Styall, Handforth, Manchester.

{Crocker, J. Meadmore. Albion House, Bingley, Yorkshire.

§Croft, Miss Mary. Quedley, Shottermill.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Egmont, St. James’-lane, Winchester, Hamp-

shire.

*Croke, John O'Byrne, M.A, Clouncagh, Ballingarry Lacy, Co.

Limerick. ;

§Crombie, J. E., LL.D. Parkhill House, Dyce, Aberdeenshire.

*Crompton, Holland. Oaklyn, Cross Oak-road, Berkhamsted.

{Cromrron, Colonel R. E., C.B., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1901.)

Kensington-court, W. 8.

tCronin, J. Botanic Gardens, South Yarra, Australia.

tCrook, C. W., B.A., B.Sc. 10 West Bank, Stamford Hill, N. 16.

tCroox, Henry T., M.Inst.C.E. Lancaster-avenue, Manchester.

§CrookE, Wittiam, B.A. (Pres. H, 1910; Council, 1910-16.) Lang-

ton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

*CROOKSHANK, HE. M., M.B. Saint Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

tCrosby, Rev. E. H. Lewis, B.D. 36 Rutland-square, Dublin.

{Crosfield, Hugh T. Walden, Coombe-road, Croydon.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C. Undercroft, Reigate.

§Cross, Professor Charles R. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,

Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

§Cross, Robert. 13 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

*CrossLEY, Professor A. W., C.M.G., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.
British Cotton Industry Research Assoc., 108 Deansgate,
Manchester.

{Crossley, F. W. 30 Molesworth-street, Dublin.

*Crosweller, Mrs. W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

MR Crow, William Bernard, B.Sc., F.L.S. University College,
Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. Sollershott W., Letchworth.

{Crowther, C., M.A., Ph.D. | Olympia Agricultural Co., The Bury,

Offchurch, Leamington. .

*CROWTHER, JAMES ARNOLD, Sc.D. St. John’s College, Cam-

bridge.

bo
Qn

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919.

Year of
Election.

1911.
1916.
1883.
1883.
1914.
1914.
1911.
1911.
1861.
1861.
1905.
1882.
1905.

1911.
1900.

1916,
1912.

1914.
1914.
1913.
1908.

1892,

1902. t
1912.

1915.
1907.

1913.
1913.

1910.
1914.
1898.

1889.
1919.
1906.

1907.

§Crush, 8. T. Care of Messrs. Yarrow & Co., Ltd., Scotstoun West,
Glasgow,

tCullen, W. H. The Castner-Keliner Alkali Company, Limited,
Wallsend-on-Tyne.

*CULVERWELL, Epwarp P., M.A., Professor of Education in Trinity
College, Dublin.

tCulverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

*Cuming, James. 65 William-street, Melbourne.

*Cuming, W. Fehon. Hyde-street, Yarraville, Victoria.

tCumming, Alexander Charles, D.Sc. Chemistry Department,
University of Edinburgh.

§Commins, Major H. A., M.D., C.M.G., Professor of Botany in
University College, Cork.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

{Cunningham, Miss A. 2 St. Paul’s-road, Cambridge.

*CuNNINGHAM, Licut.-Colonel ALnan, R.E., A.L.C.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W. 8.

{Cunningham, Andrew. Larlsferry, Campground-road, Mowbray,
South Africa. ’ :

{Cunningham, E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Cunnington, William A., M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S. 25 Orlando-road,
Clapham Common, S.W. 4.

{Cunnison, James. Penzance, Bristol-road, Selly Oak, Birmingham.

§CunyneHameE, Sir Henry H., K.C.B. (Pres. F, 1912.) Kingham
Lodge, Kingham, Oxford.

tCunynghame, Lady. Kingham Lodge, Chipping Norton.

{Curdie, Miss Jessie. Camperdown, Victoria.

tCurrall, A. E. Streetsbrook-road, Solihull, Birmingham.

{Currelly, C.T., M.A., F.R.G.S. United Empire Club, 117 Picca-
dilly, W.1.

*Currie, James, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Wardie-road, Edinburgh.

Curry, Professor M., M.Inst.C.E. 5 King’s-gardens, Hove.

§Curtis, Charles. Field House, Cainscross, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

{Curtis, Raymond. Highfield, Leek, Staffordshire.

{Cusuny, ArtHuR R., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1916), Professor of

’ Pharmacology in the University of Edinburgh.
tCutler, A. E. 5 Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
{Czaplicka, Miss M. A. Somerville College, Oxford.

fDaxwy, Dr. W. J., Professor of Biology in the University of Western
Australia, Perth, Western Australia.

{Dakin, Mrs, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western
Australia.

*Datsy, W. E., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1910),
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the City and
Guilds Engineering College, Imperial College of Science and
Technology, 8.W. 7.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. Garth Cottage, Oxford-road, Cambridge.

§Dale, H. H. 140 Thurlow Park-road, S.E. 21.

§Dale, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. The Lawn, Archer’s-road, South-
ampton.

{Dateuiesu, Ricuarp, J.P., D.L. Ashfordby Place, near Melton
Mowbray.

26

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

lection.

1904. *Dauton, J. H.C.,M.D. The Plot, Adams-road, Cambridge.
1862. {Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.
1905. {Daniel, Miss A. M. 3 St. John’s-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.
1901. *Danrext, G. F., B.Sc. 4 Albion-place, Maidstone.

1914,
1896.
1897.
1903.
1916.
1905.
1904.
1882.

1878.
1894.

1910.
1916.

1880.
1884.
1914.

1904.
1913.

1909.
1912.
1912.

1902.
1914.
1887.
1904.

1906.
1893.

1896.
1870.
1896.
1910.
1905.
1885.
1886.
1912.

1864.

1885.

1901.
1905.

{Danks, A. T. 391 Bourke-street, Melbourne.

§Danson, F. C. Tower-buildings, Water-street, Liverpool.

{Darbishire, F. V., B.A., Ph.D. Dorotheenstrasse 12, Dresden 20.

+Darsisuire, Dr. Orro V. The University, Bristol.

{DarNeLL, E. Town Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Darwin, Lady. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Charles Galton. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Sir Francts, M.A., M.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S.
(PrEsipENT, 1908; Pres. D, 1891; Pres. K, 1904; Council,
1882-84, 1897-1901.) 10 Madingley-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Sir Horacz, K.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. The Orchard,
Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Major Lzonarp, F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1896; Council,
1899-1905.) 12 Egerton-place, South}Kensington, 8.W. 3.

{Dauncey, Mrs. Thursby. Lady Stewert, Heath-road, Weybridge.

*Davey, Miss Alice J.. M.Sc. 1 Henderson road, Wandsworth
Common, 8.W. 18.

*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. Conaways, Ewell, Surrey.

{David, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C. 4.

{Davip, Professor 'T. W. Eparworth, €.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S.
The University, Sydney, N.S.W.

{Davidge, H. T., B.Sc., Professor of Electricity in the Ordnance
College, Woolwich:

§Davidge, W. R., A.M.Inst.C.E., Housing Commissioner for London.
Wellington House, Buckingham-gate, S.W. 1.

{Davidson, A. R. 150 Stradbrooke-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Davidson, Rev. J. The Manse, Douglas, Isle of Man.

{Davidson, John, M.A., D.Ph. Training College, Small’s Wynd,
Dundee.

*Davidson, 8. C. Seacourt, Bangor, Co. Down.

{Davidson, W.R. 15 Third-avenue, Hove.

*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.

§Davies, Henry N., ¥F.G.S. 26 Lower Church-road, Weston-super-
Mare.

{Davies, 8S. H. Ryecroft, New Earswick, York.

*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Semitic
Languages in University College, Bangor, North Wales.

*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Davis, A.S. Stanmore, Shrubbery-road Worcester.

*Davis, John Henry Grant. Dolobran, Wood Green, Wednesbury.

{Davis, Captain John King. 9 Regent-street, S.W. 1.

{Davis, Luther. P.O. Box 898, Johannesburg.

*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. 18 Alexandra-road, Gloucester.

{Davison, CHARLES, D.Se. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.

{Dawkins, Miss Ella Boyd. Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

{Dawxmns, Sir W. Boyp, D.Sc., F.RB.S., F.8.A., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1888 ;
Council, 1882-88.) Fallowfield House, Fallowfield, Man-
chester.

*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hurtlington Hall, Burnsall,
Skipton-in-Craven. i

*Dawson, P. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

{Dawson, Mrs. The Acre, Maryhill, Glasgow.

bo
+I

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919.

Year of
Election.

1912.
1906.
1859.
1900.
1909.

1915.

1901.
1914.
1893.

1911.
1878.
1915.

1908.

1914.
1902.

1914.
1913.

1908.
1889.

1909.
1874.

1907.
1919.

1868.

1881.
1919.

1889.

1914.

1916.

1904.
1881.
1887.

1902.

1913.
1908.

1901.

*Dawson, Shepherd, M.A., B.Sc. Drumchapel, near Glasgow.

{Dawson, William Clarke. - Whitefriargate, Hull.

*Dawson, Captain W. G. Abbots Morton, near Worcester.

{Deacon, M. Chase Cliffe, Whatstandwell, near Matlock.

§Dean, George, F.R.G.S. 14 EKvelyn-mansions, Queen’s Club-
gardens, W. 14.

tDean, H. R. Pathological Department, The University, Man-
chester.

*Deasy, Captain H. H. P. Cavalry Club, 127 Piccadilly, W. 1.

{Debenham, Frank. Caius College, Cainbridge.

*Deeley, R. M., M.Inst.C.H., F.G.8. Abbeyfield, Salisbury-avenue,
Harpenden, Herts.

tDelahunt, C. G. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

[{Deany, Very Rev. Witi1am, LL.D. University College, Dublin.

{Delepiné, Sheridan. Public Health Laboratory, York-place,
Manchester.

*Delf, Miss E. M. 96 Underhill-road, §.E. 22.

tDelprat, G. D. EHquitable-building, Collins-street, Melbourne.

*Drnpy, ArtHur, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. D, 1914; Coun.
cil, 1912- ), Professor of Zoology in King’s College,
London, W.C. 2.

{Dendy, Miss. Vale Lodge, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

*Denman, Thomas Hercy. 17 Churchgate, Retford, Nottingham-

shire.

{Dennehy, W. F. 23 Leeson-park, Dublin.

{Denny, Atrrep, M.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Sheffield. Cliffside, Ranmoor-crescent, Sheffield.

§Dent, Edward, M.A. 2 Carlos-place. W. 1.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Junior Carlton Club,
Pall Mall, S.W. 1.

*Desch, Cecil H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Professor of Metallurgy in the

University of Sheffield.

§Devine, Alexander. Northwood Park, Winchester.

*Derwak, Sir Jamus, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S.,
Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution,
London, and Jacksonian Professor of Natural and Experi-
mental Philosophy i in the University of Cambridge. (Prust-
DENT, 1902; Pres. B, 1879 ; Council, 1883-88.) 1 Scroope-
terrace, Cambridge.

{Dewar, Lady. 1 ad bin -terrace, Cambridge.

§D’Eyncourt, Sir E. H. T., K.C.B. The Admiralty, Great George-
street, S.W. 1.

{Dickinson, A. H. 52 Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Dickinson, Miss Desiree. Menzies’ Hotel, Melbourne.

tDickinson, Miss M. EKastern House, 159 Marine-parade, Brighton,

Dickson, Right Hon. Charles Scott, K.C., LL.D., M.P. Carlton
Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1.

{Dickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. Claughton House, Garstang,
R.8.0., Lancashire.

§Dicxson, H. N., C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1913;
Council 1915-19), Muirhead’s Guide-books, 44, Bloomsbury-
square, W.C. 2.

§Dickson, James D. Hamilton, M.A., F.R.S.E. 6 Cranmer-road,
Cambridge.

*Dickson, T. W. 60 Jeffrey’s-road, Clapham, S.W.

{Dines, J. 8. Pyrton Hill, Watlington.

§Dines, W. H., B.A., F. R. S. Benson, Wallingford, Berks.

28 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1905. §Dixny, F. A., M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1919; Council,
1913- .) Wadham College, Oxford.

1899. *Drxon, A. C., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
University, Belfast. Hurstwood, Malone Park, Belfast.

1874, *Drxon, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in University College,
Cork.

1900. {Dixon, A. Francis, Sc.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University
of Dublin.

1915. *Dixon, Miss Annie, F.R.M.S. Broadwater, 43 Pine-road, Didsbury.

1905. {Dixon, Miss E. K. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumberland.

1908. {Dixon, Edward K., M.E., M.Inst.C.E. Castlebar, Co. Mayo.

1888. {Dixon, Edward T. Racketts, Hythe, Hampshire.

1908. *Drxon, Ernest, B.Sc., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, S,W. 1.

1900. *Dixon, Lieut.-Colonel George,M.A. Fern Bank, St. Bees, Cumber-
land.

1879. *Drxon, Haroxp B., C.B.E., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B. 1894;
Council, 1913-17), Professor of Chemistry in the Victoria
University, Manchester.

1914. {Dixon, Mrs. H. B., Beechey House, Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester.

1902. {Drxon, Henry H., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Dublin. Clevedon, Temple-road, Dublin.

1913. {Dixon, S. M., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering in
the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London,
S.W. 7.

1908. *Dixon, Walter, F.R.M.S. Derwent, 30 Kelvinside-gardens, Glasgow.

1907. *Drxon, Professor Waurnr H., F.R.S. The Museums, Cambridge.

1914. {Dixon, Mrs. W. KE. The Grove, Whittlesford, Cambridge.

1902. {Dixon, W. V. Department of Agriculture, Dublin.

1896. §Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Eccleston Park, Prescot. '

1890. {Dobbie, Sir James J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of the .
Government Laboratories, 13 Clement's Inn-passage, W.C. 2.

1885. §Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

1902. {Dobbs, F. W., M.A. Eton College, Windsor.

1914. {Docker, His Honour Judge E. B., M.A. Mostyn, Elizabeth Bay,
Sydney, N.S.W.

1917. *Docker, Frank Dudley, C.B. The Gables, Kenilworth.

1908. {Dopp, Hon. Mr. Justice. 26 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

1876. {Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1912. {Don, A. W. R. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, Forfarshire.

1919. §Don, John, M.A., B.Sc. Gardenrose, Maybole.

1904. {DoncastER, Leonarp, M.A., F.R.S., Denby Professor of Zoology
in the University of Liverpool.

1896. {Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

1901. {Donnan, F. G., C.B.E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry ;
in University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1. ‘

1915. §Doodson, Arthur T., D.Sc. The Tidal Institute, The University,
Liverpool.

1905. §Dornan, Rev. 8. 8. P.O. Box 106, Bulawayo, South Rhodesia,
South Africa.

1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. 26 Grange-road, Eastbourne.

1909. {Douglas, A. J., M.D. City Health Department, Winnipeg, Canada. z

1909. *Douglas, James. 99 John-street, New York, U.S.A. ;

1912. {Doune, Lord. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

1884. *Dowling, D. J. Sycamore, Clive-avenue, Hastings. f

1881, “Dowaae J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. Landhurst Wood, Hartfield, 6
ussex. A

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 29°

Year of
Election.

1913.

1892.
1912.

1905.

1906.
1906.
1908.
1893.

1909.
1918.

1889.
1907.
1892.
1919.
1856.

1920.
1870.
1900.
1914.

1912.
1904.

1890.
1899.

1911.
1914.
1909.
1916.
1916.
1918.

1876.
1916.
1884.

1893.
1891.
1885.
1911.
1914.
1914.

1905.
1910.

tDracopoli, J. N. Pollard’s Wood Grange, Chalfont St. Giles,
Buckinghamshire.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. Greenwood, Pollokshields, Glasgow.

§Drever, James, M.A., B.Sc., D.Phil. Combe Department of
Psychology, The University, Edinburgh.

tDrew, H. W., M.B., M.R.C.S. Mocollup Castle, Ballyduff, S.0.,
Co. Waterford.

*Drew, Joseph Webster, M.A., LL.M. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

*Drew, Mrs. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham.

{Droop, J. P. 11 Cleveland-gardens, Hyde Park, W. 2.

§Drucez, G. Craripes, M.A., F.L.S. (Local Sec. 1894.) Yardley
Lodge, 9 Crick-road, Oxford.

*Drugman, Julien, Ph.D., M.Sc. 117 Rue Gachard, Brussels.

§Drummond, Miss Isabella M. 31 Ravenscroft-avenue, Golder’s
Green, N.W. 5.

{Drummond, Dr. David. 6 Saville-place, Newcastie-on-Tyne.

{Drysdale, Charles V., D.Sc. Queen Anne’s-chambers, 8.W. 1.

{Du Bois, Professor Dr. H. Herwarthstrasse 4, Berlin, N.W.

*Duchesne, M. C. Farnham Common, Slough, Bucks.

*Duciz, The Right Hon. Hunry Jonn Reynotps Moreton, Earl
of, G.C.V.O., F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W. 1.

MR Duckham, Sir A. McD., K.C.B., M.Inst.C.E. 231 Strand, W.C. 2.

{Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. 7 Grey Friars, Chester.

*Duckworth, W. L. H., M.D., Se.D. Jesus College, Cambridge.

{Duffield, D. Walter. 13 Cowra-chambers, Grenfell-street, Adelaide,
South Australia.

§Duffield, Francis A., M.B. The University, Liverpool.

*DUFFIELD, Professor W. Grorrrey, D.Sc. University College,
Reading.

{Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Dugdale-Bradley, J. W., M.Inst.C.E. Westminster City Hall,
Charing Cross-road, W.C. 2.

tDummer, John. 85 Cottage-grove, Southsea.

tDun, W. 8. Mines Department, Sydney, N.S.W.

Duncan, D. M., M.A. 83 Spence-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Dunkerley, G. D. 124 Mildred-avenue, Watford.

tDunn, Dr. J.T. Fellside, Low Fell, Gateshead.

*Dunn, Walter, Secretary Institution of Gas Engineers. 39 Vic-
toria-street, S.W. 1.

{Dunnachie, James. 48 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Dunning, James HE. 3 Lombard-street, H.C. 3.

§Dunnington, Professor F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottes-
ville, Virginia, U.S.A.

*Dunstan, M. J. R., O.B.E., Principal of the South-Eastern Agri-
cultural College, Wye, Kent.

{Dunstan, Mrs. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Dunstan, WynpHam R., C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.GS.
(Pres. B, 1906; Council, 1905-08), Director of the Imperial
Institute, S.W. 7.

{Dupree, Colonel Sir W. T. Craneswater, Southsea.

§Du Torr, A. L., D.Sc. Irrigation Department, Pretoria, South
Africa.

tDu Toit, Mrs. Irrigation Department, Pretoria, South Africa.

§Dutton, C. L. O’Brien. High Commissioner’s Office, Pretoria.

{Dutton, F. V., B.Sc. County Agricultural Laboratories, Rich-

; mond-road, Exeter.

30

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

flection.

1895. *DwerryHouse, ArtHuR R., T.D., D.Sc., F.G.S. St. Michan’s,
Deramore Park South, Belfast.

1911. {Dye, Charles. Woodcrofts, London-road, Portsmouth.

1895. {Dymond, Thomas S., F.C.S. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W 1.

1905.

1910.

1912.
1919.
1899.

1909.

1893.
1906.
1909.
1903.

1908.

1870.
1911.
1911.
1884.
1887.

1883.
1888.
1901.

1914.

1915.
1899.

1913.
1901.
1909.

1909.
1907.
1890.
1913.

1901.

1915.
1904.

1904.
1905.
1883.

*Dyson, Sir F. W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1915; Council,
1905-11, 1914— ), Astronomer Royal. Royal Observatory,
Greenwich, 8.E. 10.

t{Dyson, W. H. Maliby Colliery, near Rotherham, Yorkshire.

{Harland, Arthur, F.R.M.S. 34 Granville-road, Watford.
*Wast, Charles H., M.D. St. Clare, Great Malvern.
tEast, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology,

Dover.
*Easterbrook, ©. C., M.A., M.D. Crichton Royal Institution,
Dumfries.

*EKbbs, Alfred B. Tuborg, Plaistow-lane, Bromley, Kent.

*Ebbs, Mrs. A. B. Tuborg, Plaistow-lane, Bromley, Kent,

{Eccles, J. R. Gresham’s School, Holt, Norfolk.

*Eoctrs, W. H., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds
of London Technical College, Leonard-street, Finsbury, H.C. 2.

*Hddington, A. 8., M.A., M.Se., F.R.S., Plumian Professor of Astro-
nomy and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Cambridge. The Observatory, Cambridge.

*Kddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.

*EHdge, 8. F. Gallops Homestead, Ditchling, Sussex.

*Hidgell, Miss Beatrice. Bedford College, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A. Beckley Rectory, East Sussex.

§Eparworts, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1889 ; Council,
1879-86, 1891-98), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Oxford. All Souls College, Oxford.

tEdmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.

*Hdmunds, Henry. Moulsecombe-place, Brighton.

*HDRIDGE-GREEN, F. W., C.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.S. 99 Walm-lane,
Willesden Green, N.W. 2.

{Edwards, A. F. Chemical Department, The University, Man-
chester.

{tEHdwards, C. A. 26 Lyndhurst-road, Withington, Manchester.

§Edwards, es J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 3 Spencer-road, Wandsworth,
S.W. 1

§Kdwards, i J. Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

tEggar, W. D. Eton College, Windsor.

{tEggertson, Arni. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Khrenborg, G. B. 1 Dean-road, Croydon.

*Hiderton, W. Palin. 24 Mount Ephraim-road, Streatham, S.W. 16.

tElford, Perey. 115 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Elkington, Herbert F. Clunes, Wentworth-road, Sutton Coldfield.

*Elles, Miss Gertrude L., D.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

§Kllinger, Barnard, F.S.8S. 28 Oxford-street, Manchester.

tElliot, Miss Agnes I. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

fElliot, R. H. Clifton Park, Kelso, N.B.

tElliott, C. C., M.D. Church-square, a3 Town.

*Kiuiotr, Epwrn Barry, M.A., R.S., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure revit ie in the University of Oxford,
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

_—

EO a

i pee ee ee

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 31

Year of
Election.

1912.

1906.
1875

1906.
1891.
1906.
1910.

1911.
1884.

1905.
1894,

1914.

1887.
1887.
1911.

1897.

1889.
1905.
1870.

1919.
1908.

1887.
1905.
1913.
1910.

1905.
1910.
1865.
1909.

1902.

1883.
1914.
1881.

1913.

1913.
1876.

1914.
1884.

1912.

1906.

1901.

§Elliott, Dr. W. T., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 21 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

*Ellis, David, D.Sc., Ph.D. Royal Technical College, Glasgow.

*Ellis, H. D. 6 Clinton-terrace, Budleigh Salterton.

Suis, Herbert. The Gynsills, Groby-road, Leicester.

{Ellis, Miss M. A. Care of Miss Rice, 11 Canterbury-road, Oxford.

{Exiuurrst, Coartes E. (Local Sec. 1906.) 29 Mount-vale, York.

tElmhirst, Richard. Marine Biological Station, Millport.

tElwes, H. J., F.R.S. Colesborne Park, near Cheltenham.

tEmery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

tEpps, Mrs. Dunhurst, Petersfield, Hampshire.

{Erskine-Murray, J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 4 Great Winchester-street,
E.C. 2.

tErson, Dr. E. G. Leger. 123 Collins-street, Melbourne.

*Estcourt, Charles, F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

*Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.I.C. 5 Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

{Eruerton, G. Hammonp. (Local Sec. 1911.) Town Hall, Ports-
mouth.

*Evans, Lady. Care of Union of London and Smiths Bank,
Berkhamsted, Herts.

*Hvans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

tEvans, Mrs. A. H. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

*Kvans, Sir AntHuR Joun, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. (PRust-
DENT, 1916-19 ; Pres. H, 1896.) Youlbury, Berks, near Oxford.

§Evans, C. Lovatt, D.Sc. Lister Institute, Chelsea-gardens, 8.W.

{Evans, Rev. Henry, D.D., Commissioner of National Education,
Treland. Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

*BHvans, Mrs. Isabel. Cranford, East Beach, Lytham.

tEvans, Ivor H. N. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Evans, J. Jameson. 41 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

*HVANS, JOHN W., D.Sc., LL.B., F.R.S., F.G.S8. (Pres. C, 1919.'
Imperial College, of Science and Technology, S8.W. 7.

tEvans, R. O. LI. Broom Hall, Chwilog, R.S.O., Carnarvonshire.

{Evans, T. J. The University, Sheffield.

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

tEvans, W. Sanrorp, M.A. (Local Sec. 1909.) 43 Edmonton-
street, Winnipeg.

*Everett, Perey W. Oaklands, Elstree, Hertfordshire.

tEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge.

{Ewart, Professor A. J., D.Sc. The University, Melbourne.

tEwarrt, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1901), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Edinburgh.

*HweEn, J. T. 104 Kine’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Hwen, Mrs. J. T. 104 King’s-gate, Aberdeen.

*Ewina, Sir J. AnFRED, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.8.1.,
M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1906), Principal of the University of
Edinburgh. 16 Moray-place, Edinburgh: :

§Ewing, Mrs. Peter. 6 Glenan-gardens, Helensburgh, Glasgow.

*Eyerman, John, F.Z.S. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A

{EyrRgE, ‘Dr. J. Varcas. South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye,

Kent.

*Faber, Sir George D., C.B., M.P. 14 Grosvenor-square, W. 1.
*Fairgrieve, M. McCallum 37 Queen’s-crescent, Edinburgh.

32

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

Year of
Election ®

1919.
1910.

1908.
1896.
1902.

1907.

1902.
1892.

1905.
1919.
1913.

1913.
1890.
1906.
1900.

1902.

1911.
1909.
1901.

1910.
1905.

1900.
1904.
1919.
1914.
1901.
1863.
1910.
1905.

1914.
1873.
1909.
1919,
1915.
1913.
1897.

1919.
1907.

§Fairweather, Miss N. M. Eldon Cottage, Seabourne-road, Bourne-
mouth. ;

{Falconer, J. D., M.A., D.Sc. Care of Postmaster, Naraguta,
Northern Nigeria.

tFalconer, Robert A., M.A. 23 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

§Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Cheshire.

§Fallaize, E. N., B.A. Vinchelez, Chase Court-gardens, Windmill-
hill, Enfield.

*Fantham, H. B., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the School
of Mines and Technology, University of South Africa, Johannes-
burg.

tFaren, William. 11 Mount Charles. Belfast.

*FaRMER, Professor J. BRETLAND, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K.,
1907; Council, 1912-14). South Park, Gerrard’s Cross.

{Farrar, Edward. P.O. Box 1242, Johannesburg.

§Farrow, E. P., M.A., D.Sc. Limehurst, Spalding, Lincolnshire.

tParrow, F. D. Rhodes University College. Grahamstown,
South Africa.

*Fawcert, C. B. The University, Leeds.

*Fawcett, F. B. 1 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

§Fawcett, Henry Hargreave. Thorncombe, near Chard, Somerset.

{Fawcert, J. E., J.P. (Local Sec. 1900.) Low Royd, Apperiley
Bridge, Bradford.

*Fawsitt, C. E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Sydney, New South Wales. Temporary—Coneypark, Bridge
of Allan, Stirlingshire.

*Fay, Mrs. A. Q. Chedworth, Rustat-road, Cambridge.

*Fay, Charles Ryle, M.A. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

*Frarnsipes, W. G., M.A., F.G.S., Sorby Professor of Geology

in the University of Sheffield. 10 Silver Birch-avenue,
Fulwood, Sheffield.

*Fearnsides, Mrs. 10 Silver Birch-avenue, Fulwood, Sheffield.

{Feilden, Colonel H. W., C.B., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. | Burwash,
Sussex.

*Fennell, William John. 2 Wellington-place, Belfast.

tFenton, H. J. H., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. 19 Brookside, Cambridge.

§Fenwick, Dr. E. 43 Porchester-road, Bournemouth.

tFerguson, E. R. Gordon-street, Footscray, Victoria, Australia.

{Ferguson, R. W. 16 Linden-road, Bournville, near Birmingham.

*Fernie, John. Box No. 2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

*Ferranti, S. Z. de, M.Inst.C.E. Grindleford, near Sheffield.

*WerRAR, H. T., M.A., F.G.8S. Care of A. Anderson, Ksq., St.
Martin’s, Christchurch, New Zealand.

{Ferrar, Mrs. Care of A. Anderson, Esq., St. Martin’s, Christchurch,
New Zealand.

{Ferrier, Sir Davip, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 34 Cavendish-

square, W. 1.

{Fetherstonhaugh, Professor Edward P., B.Sc. 119 Betourney-
street, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Ffennell, E. B., M.D. West Heath, Southbourne, Bournemouth.

{Field, A. B. Kingslea, Marple, near Stockport.

tField, Miss E. E. Hollywood, Egham Hill, Surrey.

tField, George Wilton, Ph.D. Bureau of Biological Survey,
Washington, U.S.A.

§Field, L., F.C.S. Northampton Institute, E.C. 1.

*Fields, Professor J. C., F.R.S. The University, Toronto, Canada,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 33

Year of

Election.

1906. §Finon, L. N. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics
_in the University of London, 11 Nottingham-road,
Croydon.

1905, §FinpLay, AvexanpeER, M.A., Ph.D., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Aberdeen.

1904. *Findlay, J. J., Ph.D., Professor of Education in the Victoria
University, Manchester. Ruperra, Victoria Park, Man-

} chester.

1912. {Finlayson, Daniel, F.L.S. Seed Testing Laboratory, Wood
Green, N.

1902. {Finnegan, J.. M.A., B.Sc. Kelvin House, Botanic-avenue,
Belfast.

1909. {Fisher, James, K.C. 216 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada,

1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

1887. eas gues H., D.Sc. 47 Dartmouth-road, Willesden Green,
N.W. 2.

1871. *Fison, Sir Freperick W., Bart., M.A., F.C.S. Boarzell, Hurst
Green, Sussex.

1885. *FirzaERALD, Professor Maurice, B.A. (Local Sec. 1902.) Fair-
holme, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1894. {Firzmauricer, Sir Maurice, C.M.G., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. London
County Council, Spring-gardens, 8.W. i.

1888. *Firzparrick, Rev. Tomas C., President of Queens’ College,
Cambridge.

1904. {Flather, J. H., M.A. Camden House, 90 Hills-road, Cambridge.

1915. tFleck, Alexander. Blenheim-avenue, Stepps, near Glasgow.

1915. *Fleming, Arthur P. M. West Gables, MHale-road, Hale,
Cheshire.

1913. {Fleming, Professor J. A., D.Sc., F.R.S. University College,
Gower-street, W.C. 1.

1892. tFletcher, George, F.G.S. Mona, Shankhill, Co. Dublin.

1888. *FLuurcuer, Sir Lazarus, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S., F.G.S., F.C.S.
(Pres. C, 1894.) The White House, Ravenstone-dale, vid
Penwith.

1908. *Fletcher, W. H. B. Aldwick Manor, Bognor, Sussex.

1901. {Flett, J. S., O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Geological
Survey Office, 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

1906. *FLEuRn, H. J., D.Sc., Professor of Zoology and Geology in Uni-
versity College, Aberystwyth.

1905. *Flint, Rev. W., D.D. Houses of Parliament, Cape Town.

1913. *Florence, P. Sargant, B.A. Caius College, Cambridge,

1889. {Flower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W. 7.

1890. *Fiuox, A. W., M.A. Board of Trade, Gwydyr House, White-
hall, S.W. 1. .

1914. {Flynn, Professor T. Thomson. University of Tasmania, Hobart.

1877. tFoale, William. . The Croft, Madeira Park, Tunbridge Wells.

1911. {Foran, Charles. 72 Elm-grove, Southsea.

1906. §Forbes, Charles Mansfeldt. 14 New-street, York,

1914. tForbes, E. J. P.O. Box 1604, Sydney, N.S.W.

1914. t{Forbes, Mrs. E. J. P.O. Box 1604, Sydney, N.S.W.

1873. *Forszs, Groras, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 11 Little
College-street, Westminster, 5.W. 1.

1883. {Forses, Henry O., LL.D., F.Z.S. Redcliffe, Beaconsfield,

Bucks.
1905. {Forsus, Lieut.-Colonel W. Lacuian. Army and Navy Club, Pall
Mall, S.W. 1.
1919. §Forder, B. C. The Down Wood, Blandford, Dorset.
1919. ©

34

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1875.
1909.
1915.
1902.
1883.
1911.
1901.
1903.
1905.

1909.
1912.

1919.
1883.
1904.
1904.
1905.
1883.
1900.
1909.
1908.

1881.

1887.

1913.
1911.

1911.

1911.
1916.

1906.
1909,
1912.

1905.
1886.

1887.
1906.
1912.

*FORDHAM, Sir GEoRGE. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts.
tForerr, The Hon. A. EK. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada,
§Forrester, Robert B. Marischal College, Aberdeen.

*Forster, M. O., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions,
8.W. 1.

{Forsyru, Professor A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1897,
1905 ; Council, 1907-09.) Imperial College of Science and
Technology, South Kensington, S.W. 7._

{Foster, F.G. Ivydale, London-road, Portsmouth.

{Foster, Sir T. Gregory, Ph.D., Provost of University College,
London. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

{Fourcade, H. G. P.O., Storms River, Humansdorp, Cape
Colony.

§Fowlds, Hiram. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Fowlds, Mrs. 65 Devonshire-street, Keighley, Yorkshire.

{Fow er, A., F.R.S., Professor of Astrophysics in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, S.W, 19 Rusthall-avenue,
Bedford Park, W. 4.

§Fowler, Dr. Frank. 29 Poole-road, Bournemouth.

{Fox, Sir Coartes Dovatas, M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1896.) Cross
Keys House, 56 Moorgate-street, H.C. 2.

*Fox, Charles J. J., B.Sc., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the
Presidency College of Science, Poona, India.

§Fox, F. Douglas, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 19 The Square, Ken-
sington, W.

{Fox, Mrs. F. Douglas. 19 The Square, Kensington, W.

{Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

*Fox, Thomas. Old Way House, Wellington, Somerset.

*Fox, Wilson Lloyd. Carmino, Falmouth.

{Foxley, Miss Barbara, M.A., Professor of Education in University
College, Cardiff.

*FoxwELL, Hursert §., M.A., F.S.S. (Council, 1894-97), Professor
of Political Economy in University College, London. St.
John’s College, Cambridge.

*PRANKLAND, Percy F., C.B.H., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B.
1901.) House of Letterawe, Loch Awe, Argyllshire.

§Franklin, Cyril H. H. Milford House, Canon-street, Shrewsbury.

{FRASER, fe A. Mzarns. (Local Sec. 1911.) Town Hall, Ports-
mouth.

{Fraser, Mrs. A. Mearns. Cheyne Lodge, St. Ronan’s-road, Ports-
mouth.

{Freeman, Oliver, B.Sc. The Municipal College, Portsmouth.

tFreire-Marreco, Miss Barbara. Peter’s Croft, Woodham-road,
Woking.

§French, Fleet-Surgeon A. M. Langley, Beaufort-road, Kingston-
on-Thames.

{French, Mrs. Harriet A. Suite E, Gline’s-block, Portage-avenue,
Winnipeg, Canada.

§French, Mrs. Harvey. Hambledon Lodge, Childe Okeford,
Blandford.

{French, Sir Somerset R., K.C.M.G. 100 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

{FrussrietD, Dovetas W., F.R.G.S8. (Pres. E, 1904.) 1 Airlie-
gardens, Campden Hill, W. 8.

*Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

tFrirscu, Dr. F. E. 77 Chatsworth-road, Brondesbury, N.W. 2.

{Frodsham, Miss Margaret, B.Sc. The College School, 34 Cathe-

dral-road, Cardiff.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 35

of

flection.

1892.
1868.
1911.
1887.
1908.
1905.

1898.
1872.
1912.
1913.

1910.

1863.
1906.

1885.
1875.
1887.
1905.
1913.
1888.
1911.
1899.

1898.
1911.

1912

*Frost, Edmund, M.D. Chesterfield-road, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P., D.L., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire

tFrost, M. E. P. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 55 Kensington-court, W. 8.

tFry, M. W. J., M.A. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Fry, Sir William, J.P., F.R.G.S. Wilton House, Merrion-road,
Dublin.

tFryer, Alfred C., Ph.D. 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, S.E. 26.

tFulton, Angus R., B.Sc. University College, Dundee.

*¥yson, Philip Furley, B.A., F.L.S. Elmley Lovett, Droitwich.

{Gapow, H. F., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1913.) Zoological Labora-
tory, Cambridge.

*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

tGajjar, Professor T. K., M.A., B.Se., F.C.S., Techno-Chemical
Laboratory, The Lines, Surat.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

t{Gattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

*Galpin, Ernest E. Naboomspruit, Transvaal.

{tGamsBLE, F. W., D.Sc., F.K.S. (Local Sec., 1913), Professor of
Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the University of
Birmingham. Scarsfields House, Alvechurch, Worcestershire.

*GAMBLE, J. SyKus, C.I.E., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Highfield, East
Liss, Hants.

tGarbett, Rev. C. F., M.A. The Vicarage, Fratton-road, Ports-
mouth,

*Garcke, E. Ditton House, near Maidenhead.

tGarde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

{Gardiner, C. I., M.A., F.G.8. 6 Paragon-parade, Cheltenham.

§Gardiner, F. A., F.L.S. 12 The Ridgeway, Golder’s Green, N.W. 4.

1905. tGardiner, J. H. 59 Wroughton-road, Balham, S.W. 11.

1900.

1887.
1882.
1912.
1912.

1915.
1913.

1905.

}Garprver, J. Sranuey, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge,
Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge.

{Garpines, Watrer, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. Awdreys, Hills-
road, Cambridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, East-
bourne:

a Wittovucnusy, F.L.S. Y Berlfa, Deganwy, North
Wales. :

§Garfitt, G. A. Cartledge Hall, Holmesfield, near Sheffield.

§Garforth, Sir William, M.Inst.C.E. Snydale Hall, near Pontefract.

*GaRNETT, Principal J. C. Maxweut, M.A. (Local Sec. 1915.)

College of Technology, Manchester.

. [Garnett, Mrs. Maxwell, F.Z.S. Westfield, Victoria Park, Man-

chester.

1887. *Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,

1882

Lancashire.
. tGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Victoria Em-
bankment, W.C. 2.

1883. {Garson, J. G., M.D. (Assist. Gzn. Sxo. 1902-04.) The War

Hospital, Ewell,
o2

36

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
lection.

1903.

1903.
1894.

1874.
1889.
1905.
1905.
1906.
1913.
1911.
1916.
1912.
1905.
1885.

1887.
1867.

1913.
1898.

1882.

1905.
1919.

1912.
1902.

1899.

1884.
1917.
1909.
1905,
1912.

1916.

1914.

1916.

1915.
1901.
1912.
1916.
1912.

tGarstang, A. H. 64 Torridge-road, Thornton Heath.

*Garstang, T. James, M.A. Dunhill House, Petersfield, Hampshire.

*Garstana, WatrzR, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology
in the University of Leeds.

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., M.R.I.A., F.S.A. Sraganstown,
Castlebellingham, Ireland.

tGarwoop, E. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1913), Professor of
Geology in the University of London. University College,
Gower-street, W.C. 1.

tGaskell, Miss C. J. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Gaskell, Miss M. A. The Uplands, Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Gaster, Leon. 32 Victoria-street, 8. W.

*Gates, R. R., Ph.D., F.L.S. University of London Club, 21 Gower-
street, W.C. 1.

tGates, W. ‘Evening News’ Office, Portsmouth.

tGauat, J. B. Rutherford College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Gavin, W., M.A. Coombe House, Coombe, Oxon.

*Gearon, Miss Susan. 26 Oakdale-road, Streatham, S.W. 16.

{GuppzEs, Professor Patrick, F.R.S.E. Outlook Tower, Edin-
burgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Oak Lea, Whalley-avenue, Sale.

tGerein, Sir ArcuraLtp, O.M., K.C.B., LL.D., D.Se., F.B.S.,
E.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Prusrpent, 1892; Pres. C, 1867, 1871,
1899; Council, 1888-1891.) Shepherd’s Down, Haslemere.
Surrey.

§Geldart, Miss Alice M. 2 Cotman-road, Norwich.

*GuMMILL, JAMES, F’., M.A., M.D., Professor of Natural History
in the University of Dundee.

*GunesE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Aberystwyth.

tGentleman, Miss A. A. 9 Abercromby-place, Stirling.

§George, A. D. Chewton Lodge, Highcliffe, Christchurch, Bourne-
mouth.

*George, H. Trevelyan, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. 33 Ampthill-
square, N.W. 1.

*Gepp, Antony, M.A., F.L.S. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W. 7.

*Gepp, Mrs. A. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W. 7

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 208t. John-street, Oxford.

tGibbons, A. J. F. Montpellier, Cobo, Catel, Guernsey.

tGrppons, W. M., M.A. (Local Sec. 1910.) The University, Shef-
field.

tGibbs, Miss Lilian S., F.L.S. 22 South-street, Thurloe-square,
S.W. 7

tGibson, A. H., D.Sc., Professor of Engineering in University
College, Dundee.

§Gibson, Alfred Herbert. Presville, Kent-road, Harrogate.

t{Gibson, A. J., Ph.D. Central Sugar Mills, Brisbane, Australia.

“Gibson, Professor C. §., O.B.E. The Egyptian Government School
of Medicine, Cairo, Egypt.

§Gibson, Charles R. Lynton, Mansewood, Pollokshaws, Glasgow.

§Gibson, Professor George A., M.A. 10 The University, Glasgow.

tGubson, G. H., Ph.D., BSc. 16 Woodhall-terrace, Juniper Green.

{Gibson, John E. 8 The Terrace, Riding Mill.

*Gibson, Miss Mary H., M.A., Ph.D. Cheshire County Training
College, Crewe.

— ee —<—v_ll

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. Vi

Year of
Election.

1896.

1889.
1893.
1898.
1883.
1884.

1916,

1895.
1896.

1911.
1902.

1908.

1913.

1919.
1913.
1892.

1907.

1913.
1913.

1893.

1904.

1886.

1883.
1871.

1881.
1818.
1919.
1915.
1915.
1878.
1879.
1908.
1914.
1906.
1910.

1913.
1890.

1909,

tGrsson, R. J. Harvny, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany in the
University of Liverpool.

*Gibson, T.G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.0., Northumberland.

{Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1.

*Gifford, J. William, F.R.A.S. Oaklands, Chard.

{Gilbert, Lady. Park View, Englefield Green, Surrey.

*Gilbert, Philip H. 63 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Gilchrist, Douglas A., M.Sc., Professor of Agriculture in Armstrong
College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tGicouaist, J. D. F., M.A., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.L.S. Marine Biologist’s
Office, Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.

*GiLcHRIsT, Percy C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.—. Reform Club, Pall
Mall, S.W. 1.

{Gill, Rev. H. V., S.J. Milltown Park, Clonskea, Co. Dublin.

{Gill, James F. 72 Strand-road, Bootle, Liverpool.

{Gill, T. P. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction
for Ireland, Dublin. :

*Gillett, Joseph A., B.A. Woodgreen, Banbury.

§Gilligan, Albert, D.Sc., F.G.S. The University, Leeds.

Gillmor, R. EH. 57 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B., F.Z.S. Saffronhall House, Windmill-
road, Hamilton, N.B.

{Gilmour, 8S. C. 25 Cumberland-road, Acton, W.

§Gilson, R. Cary, M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

{tGimingham, C. T., F.1.C. Research Station, Long Ashton,
Bristol.

*Gimingham, Edward. 144 Clapton Common, E. 5.

{Ginn, 8. R., D.L. (Local Sec. 1904.) Brookfield, Trumpington-
road, Cambridge.

*Gisborne, Hartley, M.E.I.C. Yoxall, Rural Route No. 1—Lady-
smith, British Columbia, Canada.

*Gladstone, Miss. 46 Ladbroke-grove, Notting Hill, W. 11.

*GialsHEr, J. W. L., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (Pres. A, 1890 ;
Council, 1878-86.) Trinity College, Cambridge.

*GLAZEBROOK, Sir R. T., K.C.B., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1893 ;
Council, 1890-94, 1905-11). Coton End, 63 Grange-road,
Cambridge.

*Gleadow, Frederic. Brook Bank House, Malton, Yorkshire.

§Glew, F. H., M.B.E. 156 Clapham-road, S.W.9.

tGlover, James. Lowton House, Lowton, Lancashire.

§Godlee, Francis. 8 Minshull-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. Wakes Colne Place, Essex.

tGopwin-Austen, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.Z.S.
(Pres. E, 1883.) Nore, Godalming.

*Gotp, Ernest, D.S.0., M.A., F.R.S. 8 Hurst Close, Bigwood-
road, Hampstead Garden Suburb, N.W. 4.

{Gold, Mrs. 8 Hurst Close, Bigwood-road, Hampstead Garden
Suburb, N.W. 4.

{Goxtprz, Right Hon. Sir Groraz D. T., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
(Pres. E, 1906 ; Council, 1906-07.) Naval and Military Club,
94 Piccadilly, W. 1.

{Golding, Captain John, D.S.0., F.I.C. University College, Reading.

tGolding, Mrs. University College, Reading.

*Gonner, Ki. C. K., M.A. (Pres. F, 1897, 1914), Professor of Econo-
mic Science in the University of Liverpool. Undercliff,
West Kirby, Cheshire.

tGoodair, Thomas. 303 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

38

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.
1907.

1908.
1884.

1904.
1884,

1909.
1909.
1909.
1911.
1871.

1893.
1910.
1912.

1881.
1873.

1908.
1886.
1909.
1909.
1914.
1875.
1904.

1896.
1914.

1908.
1914.

1890.
1864.
1919.
1881.
1903.
1904.
1887.
1901.

1866.
1910.

1904.

§Goodman, Sydney C. N., B.A. Quentrells, Hillbury-road, Tooting
Bec Common, 8. W. 17.

§Goopricu, EK. S., M.A. F.R.S., F.LS. 53 Banbury-road,
Oxford.

tGoodrich, Mrs., D.Sc. 53 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. P.O. Box 36, Coleraine, Minnesota,

U.S.A.

tGoodwin, Professor L. F., Ph.D. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Canada.

{tGoodwin, Professor W. L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

iGordon, Rev. Charles W. 567 Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

{tGordon, J.T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tGordon, Mrs. J. T. 147 Hargrave-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Gordon, J. W. 113 Broadhurst-gardens, Hampstead, N.W. 6.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s-mansions, West-
minster, 8.W. 1.

tGordon, Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie, D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Vivian. Avonside Engine Works, Fishponds, Bristol.

§Gordon, W. T., D.Sc. Geological Department, King’s College,
Strand, W.C. 2.

tGough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

tGoyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

*GraBHam, G. W., M.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 178, Khartoum,
Sudan.

tGrabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira.

tGracz, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

{Graham, Herbert W. 329 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

tGraham, Mrs. Dolland, Clonsilla, Co. Dublin.

tGRawameE, JAMES. (Local Sec. 1876.) Care of Messrs. Grahame,
Crums, & Connal, 34 West George-street, Glasgow.

§Gramont, Comte Arnaud de, D.Sec., Memb. de l'Institut de France,
179 rue de I’ Université, Paris.

{Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada.

tGrant, Kerr, M.Se., Professor of Physics in the University of
Adelaide, South Australia.

*Grant, Professor W. L. Upper Canada College, Toronto, Canada.

tGrasby, W. C. Care of G. J. W. Grasby, Esq., Grenfell-street,
Adelaide, South Australia.

{Gray, AnpREw, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. A, 1919),
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

*Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

§Gray, C. L. C. Berkeley House, Hay Hill, W. 1.

tGray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

§Gray, Ernest, M.A. 104 Tulse-hill, S.W. 2.

tGray, Rev. H. B., D.D. (Pres. L, 1909.) 91 Warwick-road, Ealing,

W. 5.

tGray, Joseph W., F.G.S. 6 Richmond Park-crescent, Bourne-
mouth.

tGray, R. Whytlaw. University College, W.C. 1.

*Gray, Colonel Witt1am. Farley Hall, near Reading.
tGreaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby
*Greaves, R. H. Research Dept., Royal Arsenal, Woolwich,
8.E. 18.
*Green, Professor A. G., M.Se,, F.R.S. Municipal School of
Technology, Manchester.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 39

of

Election.

1904.
1914.
1906.

1909.
1882.
1905.
1915.
1913.

1898.

1906.

1915.
1915.
1894.

1896.

1914.

§Green, F. W. 5 Wordsworth-grove, Cambridge.

tGreen, Heber, D.Sc. The University, Melbourne.

*Green, J. A., M.A., Professor of Edueation in the University of
Sheffield.

tGreenfield, Joseph. P.O. Box 2935, Winnipeg, Canada.

{GREENHILL, Sir Grorce, M.A., F.R.S. 1 Staple Inn, W.C. 1.

+Greenhill, William. 64 George-street, Edinburgh.

tGreenhow, J. H. 46 Princess-street, Manchester. .

*Greenland, Miss Lucy Maud. St. Hilda’s, Hornsea, East Yorkshire.

*GREENLY, EDwaRD, F.G.S. 15 Madeira-road, Clevedon, Somerset.

tGreenwood, Sir Hamar, Bart., M.P. National Liberal Club,
Whitehall-place, 5.W. 1.

§Greenwood, William. 35 Belgrave-road, Oldham.

tGreg, Henry P. Lode Hill, Styal.

*Gruaory, J. WauTER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1907), Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of Glasgow.

*GrREGORY, Professor Sir R. A., F.R.A.S. (Council, 1916- 5)
17 Grosvenor-road, Westminster, §.W. 1.

{Gregory, Miss U. J. The University, Glasgow.

1919. §Greves, E. H., M.D. 19 Poole-road, Bournemouth.

1914.

1919.

1894.
1908.

1884.
1884.
1908.
1888.

1914.
1894.

1894.

1913.
1869.

{Grew, Mrs. 30 Cheyne-row, 8.W.

*Grier, Miss Lynda. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Griffith, C. L. T., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Gayton Corner, Harrow.

§Griffth, Sir John P., M.R.I.A., M.Inst.C.E. Rathmines Castle
Rathmines, Dublin.

{Grirrirus, E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1906; Pres. L,
1913; Council, 1911-17.) 5 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

tGriffiths, Mrs. 5 Selwyn-gardens, Cambridge.

{Griffiths, Thomas P., J.P. 101 Manchester-road, Southport.

*Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. St. Stephen’s Club, West-
minster, S.W. 1.

{Grinley, Frank. Wandella, Gale-street, Woolwich, N.S.W.

t{Groom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.S. North Park, Gerrard’s Cross,
Bucks.

tGroom, T. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Care of Professor Sollas,
48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

{Grove, W. B., M.A. 45 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Grouss, ae Howagp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Aberfoyle, Rathgar,
Dublin.

1913. §Gruchy, G. F. B. de. Manoir de Noirmont, St. Aubin, Jersey.

1897. {Griinbaum, A. S., M.A., M.D. School of Medicine, Leeds.

1910. {Grundy, James. Ruislip, Teignmouth-road, Cricklewood,
N.W. 2

1919.
1913.

1915.

1887.

1905.
1909.

1909.

*Gubbay, Mrs. Amelia. Penrallt, Kingskerswell, South Devon.

{Guest, James. J. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

§Guilleband, Claude W. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Gourmtemarp, F. H.H.,M.A.,M.D. The Mill House, Trumpington,
Cambridge.

*Gunn, Donald. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street, S.W. 1.

{Gunne, J. R., M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada.

{Gunne, W. J.. M.D. Kenora, Ontario, Canada.

1894. {Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1880.
1904,
1916.

1902

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.

*Gurney, Sir Eustace. Sprowston Hall, Norwich.

tGurney, Miss L. Mary. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. *Gurney, Robert. Ingham Old Hall, Stalham, Norfolk.

40

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

of

Election.

1914

. [Guthrie, Mrs. Blanche. 1844 Ladbroke-grove, W. 10.

1906. *Gwynnz-VauGcHan, Mrs. Heven C. I., O.B.E., D.Se., F.LS. 93

Bedford Court-mansions, W.C. 1.

1905. t{Hacker, Rev. W. J. Idutywa, Transkei, South Africa,

1908.
1916.
1881.

1914.
1911.
1888.

1913.

*Hackett, Felix E. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

tHacking, Thomas. 33 Bowling Green-street, Leicester.

*Happon, ALFRED Cort, M.A., Sc.D., F.B.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. H, 1902-
1905; Council, 1902-08, 1910-17.) 3 Cranmer-road, Cam-
bridge.

tHaddon, Mrs. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridzge.

*Haddon, Miss Kathleen. 3 Cranmer-road, Cambridge.

*HADFIELD, Sir Roxpert, Bart., D.Met., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.
C.E. (Council, 1919- ). 22 Carlton House-terrace, S.W. 1.

tHadley, H. E., B.Sc. School of Science, Kidderminster.

1915, {Hapow, Sir Henry, C.B.E., D.Mus., Principal of Armstrong

1911.

1906.
1894,

1919.
1911.
1899.
1909.
1914.
1879.
1854.
1884.
1908.
1913.
1873.
1888.

1905.
1904.
1919.

College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{tHaigh, B. P., B.Sc. James Watt Engineering Laboratory, The
University, Glasgow.

tHake, George W. Oxford, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Hatpanr, Jonn Scott, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1908.)
Cherwell, Oxford.

§Hatzy, C. R. Municipal Buildings, Bournemouth.

tHalket, Miss A. C. Bedford College, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

{tHau., Sir A. D., K.C.B., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. M, 1914; Council,
1908-15.) Board of Agriculture, 4 Whitehall-place, S.W. 1.

tHall, Archibald A., M.Sc., Ph.D. Armstrong College, Neweastle-
on-Tyne.

tHall, Dr. Cuthbert. Glenrowan, Paramatta, Sydney.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

*Hatt, Hue Ferrers, F.G.S. Cissbury Court, West Worthing,
Sussex.

tHall, Thomas Proctor, M.D, 1301 Davie-street, Vancouver, B.C.,
Canada.

*Hall, Wilfred, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 9 Prior’s-terrace, Tynemouth,
Northumberland.

{Hall-Edwards, J. The Elms, 112 Gough-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Hauiert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

§Hatiipurton, W. D., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1202 ; Council,
1897-1903, 1911-19), Professor of Physiology in King’s College,
London. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W. 1.

tHalliburton, Mrs. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, N.W. 1.

*Hallidie, A. H. 8. Avondale, Chesterfield-road, Easibourne.

*Hallsworth, Professor M. Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-
Tyne

1886. tHambleton, G. W. 109 Ramsden-road, S.W. 12.

1908.
1883.
1915.
1906.

1909,
1902.

*Hamel, Egbert Alexander de. Wigginton Lodge, Tamworth.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton Hall, Tamworth.

{Hamer, J. St. James’-buildings, Oxford-street, Manchester.

ae John Molyneux, M.A., M.B. 14 South-parade, Chiswick,
V. 4

tHamilton, F. C. Bank of Hamilton-chambers, Winnipeg,
Canada. :
{Haminton, Rey. T., D.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 41

Year of
Election.

1909.

1899.
1919.
1905.
1918

1912.
1911].
1906.
1904.

1914.

1909.
1902.

1892.

1877.
1894.

1913.

1909.

1890.

1914.

1896.

1875.
1877.

1899.
1913.
1868.

1881.

1906.
1913.
1842.

1909.

1903.

1904.
1904.
1892.

1915.
1892.
1901.
1919.
1911.

fHamilton, T. Glen, M.D. 264 Renton-avenue, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Hanbury, Daniel. Castle Malwood, Lyndhurst, Hants.

§Hanby, Wilfred. 24 Nelson-street, Rotherham.

*Hancock, Strangman. Kennel Holt, Cranbrook, Kent.

{Hankey, Norman Frederick. The Town Hall, Merthyr Tydfil.

tHankin, G. T. 150 Whitehall-court, S.W. 1.

tHann, H. F. 139 Victoria-road North, Southsea.

§Hanson, David. Salterlee, Halifax, Yorkshire.

§Hanson, E. K. Woodthorpe, Royston Park-road, Hatch End,
Middlesex.

tHappell, Mrs. Care of Miss E. M. Bundey, Molesworth-street,
North Adelaide, South Australia.

{Harcourt, George. Department of Agriculture, Edmonton, Alberta,
Canada.

*Harpoastie, Miss Frances. 3 Osborne-terrace, Newcastle-on-

'yne.
*Harpen, Artaur, Ph.D., D.Sc. F.R.S. Lister Institute of
Preventive Medicine, Chelsea-gardens, Grosvenor-road, S.W. 1.

{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

{Hardman, 8. C. 120 Lord-street, Southport.

tHardy, George Francis. 30 Edwardes-square, Kensington, W. 8.

Samat W. B., M.A., F.R.S. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-

ridge,

*Harxker, ALFeep, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1911.) St. John’s
College, Cambridge.

tHarker, Dr. George. The University, Sydney, N.S W.

tHarker, John Allen, 0.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Alston, Queen’s-road,
Teddington, 8.W.

*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

*Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

{tHarman, Dr. N. Bishop, F.R.C.S. 108 Harley-street, W. 1.

{Harmar, Mrs. 102 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

*Harmer, F. W., M.A., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford,
Norwich.

*HARMER, Six Srpney F., K.B.E., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1908 ;
Council,1916- _), Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British
Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road, 8.W. 142 Crom-
well-road, S.W. 7.

tHarper, J. B. 16 St. George’s-place, York.

tHarris, F. W. 132 and 134 Hurst-street, Birmingham.

tHarris, G. W. Millicent, South Australia.

tHarris, J. W. Givic Offices, Winnipeg.

{Harris, Robert, M.B. Queen’s-road, Southport.

*Harrison, Frank L., B.A., B.Sc. Grammar School Cottage, St.
John’s, Antigua, B.W.I.

tHarrison, H. Spencer, D.Sc. The Horniman Museum, Forest
Hill, 8.E.

Harrison, Joun. (Local Sec. 1892.) Rockville, Napier-road,
Edinburgh.

tHarrison, Launcelot. Quick Laboratory, Cambridge.

fHarrison, Rev. S.N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

*Harrison, W. E. 17 Soho-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Harrison, W. H. Branksome Hall, Bournemonth.

{Harrison-Smith, F., C.B. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth.

42

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1885.

1909.
1903.
1907.
1911.
1893.

1905.
1886.
1887,

1862.

1893.
1911.
1903.

1904.
1903.

1889.
1903.

1904,

1908.

1904.

1917.

1887.
1864.

1887.

1916.

1913.
1913.

1919.

1885.

1900.
1903.

1913.
1903.

1896.

1883,
1882.

1909.
1902.
1898.

1909.
1883.
1913.

{Hapr, ColonelC. J. (Local Sec.1886.) Highfield Gate, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tHart, John A. 120 Emily-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Hart, Thomas Clifford. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

{Hart-Synnot, Ronald V. O. University College, Reading.

*HartTLanp, E. Sipney, F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1906; Council, 1906-13.)
Highgarth, Gloucester.

tHartland, Miss. Highgarth, Gloucester.

*Harroa, Professor M. M., D.Sc. University College, Cork.

tHartoa, P. J., B.Sc. University of London, South Kensington,
8.W. I.

*Harwood, John. Woodsleigh, Heaton, near Bolton.

§Haslam, Lewis. 8 Wilton-crescent, S.W. 1.

*Hassé, H. R. The University, Bristol.

*Hastie, MissJ.A. Care of Messrs. Street & Co., 30 Cornhill, E.C. 3.

*Hastines, G. 17 Welbury-drive, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tHastings, W. G. W. 2 Halsey-street, Cadogan-gardens, S.W. 3.

{Harcg, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.S. 15 Copse-hill, Wimbledon. S.W. 19.

tHathaway, Herbert G. 45 High-street, Bridgnorth, Salop.

*Haughton, W.T.H. The Highlands, Great Barford. St. Neots.

§Havetock, T. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Applied
Mathematics in Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Rockliffe, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Havilland, Hugh de. Eton College, Windsor.

§Hawkes, Mrs. O. A. Merritt, M.Sc, B.Sc. 405 Hagley-road,
Birmingham. ;

*Hawkins, William. Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*HawxksHaw, JOHN CiaRKH, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. (Council,
1881-87.) 22 Down-street, W. 1.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

{Haworth, John. The Employers’ Parliamentary Association, 15
Cross-street, Manchester.

tHaworth, John F. Withens, Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

tHaworth, Mrs. Withens. Barker-road, Sutton Coldfield.

§Hay, Alexander. East Anglian Institute of Agriculture, Chelms-
ford.

*Hayorsrt, JOHN Berry, M.D., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Physiology in University College, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H.,C.LE., F.R.S.,F.G.S. Geological Survey, Calcutta,
India.

*Haydock, Arthur. High-street, Settle.

§Hayward, Miss. 7 Abbotsford-road, Galashiels, N.B.

{Hayward, Joseph William, M.Sc. Keldon, St. Marychurch,
Torquay.

*Haywood, Colonel A. G. 8 Carson-road, West Dulwich, S.E. 21.

tHeape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale.

*Heape, Walter, M.A., F.R.S. 10 King’s Bench-walk, Temple,
K.C. 4.

{Heard, Mrs. Sophie, M.B., Ch.B. Carisbrooke, Fareham, Hants.

tHeath, J. W. Royal Institution, Albemarle-street, W. 1.

tHxraru, R. 8., M.A., D.Se., Vice-Principal and Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Birmingham.

{Heathcote, F.C. C. Broadway, Winnipeg, Canada.

tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

§Heaton, Howarp. (Local Sec. 1913.) Wayside, Lode-lane,
Solihull, Birmingham.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 45

Year of

Election.

1892. *Hearon, Winttam H., M.A. (Local Sec., 1893), Principal of and
Professor of Physics in University College, Nottingham.

1888. *Hmawoop, Epwarp, M.A. Briarfield, Church-hill, Merstham,
Surrey.

1888. *Heawood, Percy J., Professor of Mathematics in Durham Univer-
sity. High Close, Hollinside-lane, Durham.

1887. *HEepeus, Kintrnawortn, M.Inst.C.H. 10 Cranley-place, South
Kensington, 8.W. 1.

1881. *Hre-Saaw, H. 8., D.Se., LU.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.K. (Pres. G,
1915.) 64 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

1901. *HeLter, W. M., B.Sc. Education Office, Marlborough-street,

ublin.
1911. tHellyer, Francis EK. Farlington House, Havant, Hants.
1887. {Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. City-chambers. 2 St.

1908.
1899.
1905.
1905.

1891.

1905.
1907.
1906.

1909.

1916.

1880.

1911.

1904.

1910.
1910.

1906.
1909.

1916.

1892.
1904.
1909.

1914.
1902.

1887.

1893.
1909.

Nicholas-street, Bristol.

t{Hemmy, Professor A. S. Government College, Lahore.

{Hemsalech, G. A., D.Sc. The Owens College, Manchester.

*Henderson, Andrew. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*Henderson, Miss Catharine. 17 Belhaven-terrace, Glasgow.

*HENDERSON, G. G., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LC. (Pres. B.
1916), Regius Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.

§Henderson, Mrs. 7 Marlborough-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Henderson, H. F. Felday, Morland-avenue, Leicester.

Henderson, J. B., D.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. 10.

{Henderson, Veylien E. Medical Building, The University, Toronto,
Canada.

tHenderson, W. F. Moorfield, Claremont, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Henderson, Admiral W. H., R.N. 3 Onslow Houses, S.W. 7.

tHenderson, William Dawson. The University, Bristol.

*Hendrick, James, B.Sc., F.1.C., Professor of Agriculture in Marischal
College, Aberdeen.

tHeney, T. W. Sydney, New South Wales.

*Henrict Major E. O., R.E., A.Inst., C.E. War Office, Cornwall
House, Stamford-street, S.E. 1.

tHenry, Dr. T. A. Imperial Institute, S.W. 7.

*Henshall, Robert. Sunnyside, Latchford, Warrington.

ftHenson, Right Rev. H. H., D.D., Lord Bishop of Hereford. The
Palace, Hereford.

{Hxpsvurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Anatomy in Univer-
sity College, Cardiff.

tHepworth, Commander M. W. C., C.B.. R.N.R. Meteorological
Office, South Kensington, 8.W. 7.

tHerbinson, William. 376 Ellice-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Herdman, Miss C. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tHerdman, G. W., B.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Irrigation and Water
Supply Department, Pretoria.

*HERDMAN,WILuIAM A., C.B.E.,D.Se., LL.D... F.B.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.
(PrestpENt EvLect; GENERAL SECRETARY, 1903-19; Pres.
D. 1895; Council, 1894-1900; Local Sec. 1896), Professor of
Natural History in the University of Liverpool. Croxteth
Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

ees L. A. McGill University, Montreal,

Canada,

44

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.

1912.

1908.
1874.

1900.

1913.
1905.
1903.

1895.
1913.
1894.

1915.
1908,

1903.
1903.

1909.
1882.

1883.
1866.
1912.
1912.
1877.

1886.

1887.

1864.
1914.
1914.
1891.

1909.
1913.
1907.
1911.
1885.

1903.
1906.
1919.
1881.
1908.
1911.

1912.

{Heron, David, D.Sc. Galton Eugenics Laboratory, University
College, W.C. 1.

*HmRON-ALLEN, EDwarb, F.B.S., F.L.S.,F.G.S. 33 Hamilton-terrace,
N.W.; and Large Acres, Selsey Bill, Sussex.

*Herring, Percy T., M.D., Professor of Physiology in the Uni-
versity, St. Andrews, N.B.

§HerscuEL, Colonel Joun, R.E., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

*Herschel, Rev. J. C. W. Braywood Vicarage, Winkfield, Windsor.

{Hersey, Mayo Dyer, A.M. Bureau of Standards, Washington,U.S.A.

{tHervey, Miss Mary F.S. 22 Morpeth-mansions, S.W.

*HESKETH, CHARLES H. Furntwoop, M.A. Stocken Hall, Stretton,
Oakham.

§Hesketh, James. 5 Scarisbrick Avenue, Southport.

tHett, Miss Mary L. 53 Fordwych-road, West Hampstead, N.W.2.

tHewerson, G. H. (Local Sec. 1895.) 39 Henley-road, Ipswich.

tHewison, William. Winfield, St. George’s-cresent, Pendleton.

{Hewitt, Dr. C. Gordon. Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.

{Hewitt, E.G. W. 87 Princess-road, Moss Side, Manchester.

{tHewitt, John Theodore, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Clifford
House, Staines-road, Bedfont, Middlesex.

tHewitt, W., B.Sc. 16 Clarence-road, Birkenhead.

*Hryoocg, Cuartzs T., M.A., F.R.S. 3 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cam-
bridge.

tHeyes, Rev. John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. St. Barnabas
Vicarage, Bolton.

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

§Hevwood, H. B., D.Sc. 44 Manor-way, Ruislip.

{Hickling, George, D.Sc., F.G.S. Professor of "Geology in the

"Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Hioxs, W. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1895), Crowhurst Hotel,
Crowhurst, Sussex.

tHicks, Mrs. W. M., Crowhurst Hotel, Crowhurst, Sussex.

*Hioxson, Sypnuy J., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1903; Local
Secretary, 1915), Professor of Zoology in Victoria University,
Manchester.

*Hiern, W. P., M.A., F.R.S. The Castle, Barnstaple.

tHiggins, J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell, Victoria.

tHiggins, Mrs. J. M. Riversdale-road, Camberwell, Victoria.

tHices, Hunry, C.B., LL.B., F.S.8. (Pres. F, 1899; Council,
1904-06.) H.M. Treasury, Whitehall, S.W. 1.

t{Higman, Ormond. Electrical Standards Laboratory, Ottawa.

*Higson, G. I., M.Se. 11 Westbourne-road, Birkdale, Lancashire.

tHitzy, E.V. (Local Sec. 1907.) Town Hall, Birmingham.

*Hiley, Wilfrid: E. Danesfield, Boar’s Hill, Oxford.

*Hitt, ALEXANDER, O.B.E., M.A., M.D. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

*Hitt, Arrnur W., M.A., F.L.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

tHill, Charles A.. M.A., M.B. 13 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

*Hill, Cyril Francis. Druid’s Croft, Kinnaird-avenue, Bromley.

*Hiii, Rev. Canon Epwry, M.A. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury St.
Edmunds.

*Hint, Jamus P., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

{Hintt, Lronarp, M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1912.) Osborne House,
Loughton, Essex. :

{Hill, M. D, Angelo’s, Eton College, Windsor.

ras

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919 45

Year of
Election.

1886. {Hm1, M. J. M., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pure Mathematics

in University College, W.C. 1.

1898. *Hill, Thomas Sidney. Langford House, Langford, near Bristol.

1907. *Hitts, Colonel E. H., C.M.G., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1908.) 1 Campden-hill, W. 8.

1920. M Hills, Mrs. Juliet. 1 Campden-hill, W. 8.

1903. Cea ar aa D.Sc. 108 Alexandra-road, South Hampstead,
N 8

1903. *Hinp, WHEELTON, M.D., F.G.S. Roxeth House, Stoke-on-Trent.

1910. {Hindle, Professor Edward, B.A., Ph.D., F.L.S. Biological Depart-
ment, School of Medicine, Cairo.

1883. *Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

1915. *Hindley, R. T. The Green-way, Macclesfield.

1898. Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

1911. {Hinks, Arthur R., C.B.E., M.A., F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S. Royal Geo-
graphical Society, Kensington Gore, 8.W. 7.

1903. *Hinmers, Edward. Glentwood, South Downs-drive, Hale, Cheshire.

1915. {Hitchcock, E. F. Toynbee Hall, Commercial-street, E. 1.

1914. tHoadley, C. A., M.Sc. Weenabah, Ballarat, Victoria.

1919. §Hobbs, A. Chingin Khal, Queen’s Park-avenue, Boscombe.

1919. SHobbs, Miss Dorothy. Chingin Khal, Queen’s Park-ayvenue,
Boscombe.

1919, §Hobbs, Miss Phyllis. Chingin Khal, Queen’s Park-avenue,
Boscombe,

1899. tHobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

1914. t{Hobson, A. Kyme. Overseas Club, 266 Flinders-street, Mel-
bourne.

1887. *Hozsson, BERNARD, M.Sc., F.G.S. Thornton, Hallamgate-road,
Sheffield.

1904. tHozson, Eanust Wixi14M, Se.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1910), Sadleirian
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Cambridge.
The Gables, Mount Pleasant, Cambridge.

1913. tHodges, Ven. Archdeacon George, M.A. Ely.

1916. *Hodgkin, T. E., M.A. Old Ridley, Stocksfield, Northumberland.

_ 1887. *Hodgkinson, Alexander M.B., B.Sc. Bradshaigh, Lower Bourne,

near Farnham, Surrey.

1880. {Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, C.B.H., Ph.D., F.RS.E., Professor of
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
18 Glenluce-road, Blackheath, S.H. 3.

1919. *Hodgson, Benjamin. 114 Bishop-road, Horfield, Bristol.

1909. tHodgson, R. T., M.A. Collegiate Institute, Brandon, Manitoba,
Canada.

1898. tHodgson, T. V. Municipal Museum and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

1919. *Hodson, Miss C. B. S., F.L.S. Steephurst, Bedale’s School, Peters-
field.

1915. {Hoffert, H. H., D.Sc. The Gables, Marple, Stockport.

1904. tHoaarrn, D. G., M.A., C.M.G. (Pres. H, 1907 ; Council, 1907-10.)
20 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

1914. tHogben, George, M.A., F.G.8S. 9 Tinakori-road, Wellington,
New Zealand.

1908. tHogg, Right Hon. Jonathan. Stratford, Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

1911. {Holbrook, Colonel A. R. Warleigh, Grove-road South,

Southesa.

1907. {Holden, Colonel Sir H. C. L., K.C.B., R.A., F.R.S. Gifford House,
Blackheath, 8.H. 3.

1883. tHolden, John J. 73 Aibert-road, Southport.

46

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1887.
1913.

1900.

1887.
1904.
1903.
1896.
1898.

1889.

1906.
1920.
1916.

1883.

1866.

1882.
1903.

1915.

1875.
1904.

1892.

1908.
1865.
1877.

1904.
1905.

1913.
1884,
1882.
1905.
1898.
1910.
1885.
1903.
1902.
1905.

1887.

1908.
1884.
1906.
1859.

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Whingarth, Skelsmergh, near
Kendal.

tHolder, Sir John C., Bart. Pitmaston, Moor Green, Birming-
ham

+Hotpicu, Colonel Sir Tomas H., K.C.M.G., K.C.LE., C.B. (Pres.
BE, 1902.) 41 Courtfield-road, 8.W. 7.

*Holdsworth, C. J., J.P. Fernhill, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

§Holland, Charles E. 9 Downing-place, Cambridge.

{Holland, J. L., B.A. 3 Primrose-hill, Northampton.

{Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton, Cheshire.

{Hotianp, Sir Tuomas H., K.C.LE., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1914),
Professor of Geology in the Victoria University, Manchester.

{Hollander, Bernard, M.D. 35a Welbeck-street, W. 1.

*Hollingworth, Miss. Leithen, Newnham-road, Bedford.

M Holmes, Miss Marion G., B.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

*Holmes, Arthur, B.Se., F.G.S. | Elmhurst, Langley-road, Merton
Park, S.W. 19.

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 37 Corfton-road, Ealing, W. 5.

*Holmes, Charles. 47 Wellington-road, Bush Hill Park.

*Hotmes, THomas VINcENT, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich,
S.E. 10.

*Hoit, AtrreD, M.A., D.Sc. Messrs. Holt, Thompson & Co.,

Binns-road, Liverpool.

§Hott, Alderman Sir K., Bart., C.B.E., J.P. Woodthorpe, Bury Old-
road, Heaton Park, Manchester.

*Hood, John. Longreach House, Keynsham, near Bristol.

§Hooke, Rev. D. Burford, D.D. 20 Cavendish-road, Henleaze,
Bristol.

tHooker, Reginald H. Boroughfield, Bricket-road, St. Albans.

*Hooper, Frank Henry. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W. 16.

*Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Streatham Common, 8.W. 16.

*Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.

tHopewell-Smith, A., M.R.C.\S. 37 Park-street, Grosvenor-square,
S.W. 1. :

*Hopkins, Charles Hadley. Junior Constitutional Club, 101 Picca-
dilly, W. 1.

t{Hoprins, F. Gowxanp, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1913),
Trinity College, and Saxmeadham, Grange-road, Cambridge.

*Hopkrnson, CHaRLEs. (Local Sec. 1887.) The Limes, Didsbury,
near Manchester.

*Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Ferns, Alderley Edge,
Cheshire.

tHopkinson, Mrs. John. Ellerslie, Adams-road, Cambridge.

*Hornby, R., M.A. Haileybury College, Hertford.

tHore, Arthur §. Kerlegh, Cobham, Surrey.

{Hornz, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1901.)
20 Merchiston-gardens, Edinburgh.

t{Horne, William, F.G.S. Leyburn, Yorkshire.

tHorner, John. Chelsea, Antrim-road, Belfast.

*Horsburgh, E. M., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer in Technical Mathematics
in the University of Edinburgh.

t{Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.

{Horton F. The Pines, Englefield Green, Surrey.

*Hotblack, G.S. Brundall, Norwich.

*Hough, Miss Ethel M. The School House, Brentwood, Essex.

tHough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S. Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 47

Year of
Election.

1896. *Hough, S. S., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., His Majesty’s Astronomer at
the Cape of Good Hope. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

1905. {Houghting, A.G. L. Glenelg. Musgrave-road, Durban, Natal.

1886. {Houghton, F. T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

1914. {Houghton, T. H., M.Inst.C.E. 63 Pitt-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

1908. tHouston, David, F.L.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1919. *Houston, Dr. R. A. 45 Kirklee-road, Glasgow.

1904. *Howard, Mrs. G. L. C. Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa,
Bengal, India.

1887. *Howard, 8. S. 56 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.

1919. *Howard-Watson, Captain J. A., F.R.G.S. 1 Eaton Bank, Crosby-
road, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1901. §Howarth, E., F.R.A.S. Public Museum, Weston Park, Sheffield.

1907. {Howarrn, O. J. R., O.B.E., M.A. (Assisranr Srcrerary.) Haw-

thorn Lodge, Eardley-road, Sevenoaks.

1914. {Howchin, Professor Walter. University of Adelaide, South
Australia.

1911. *Howe, Professor G. W. O., D.Sc. Elmswood, Malden, Surrey.

1905. {Howick, Dr. W. P.O. Box 503, Johannesburg.

1863. {Howorr#, Sir H. H., K.C.LE., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.S.A. 45 Lexham-
gardens, W. 8.

1887. §Hoyie, Wittisam E., M.A., D.So. (Pres. D, 1907.) National
Museum of Wales, City Hall, Cardiff,

1903. {Hiibner, Julius. Ash Villa, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.

1913. {Huddart, Mrs. J. A. 2 Chatsworth-gardens, Eastbourne.

1919. *Hucleston, L. J. 53 Christchurch-road, Reading.

1913. tHughes, Alfred, M.A., Professor of Education in the University of
Birmingham. 29 George-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1871. *Hughes, George Pringle, J.P., F.R.G.S. Middleton Hall, Wooler,
Northumberland.

1903. tHulton, Campbell G. Palace Hotel, Southport.

1905. {Hume, D.G. W. 55 Gladstone-sireet, Dundee, Natal.

1919. §Hume, R. H., M.A. Stanley House School, Bristol-road, Birming-

ham.

1911. *Hume, Dr. W. F. Helwan, Egypt.

1914. {Humphrey, G. D. Care of Messrs. Lane & Peters, Burrinjuck
New South Wales.

1904, *Humphreys, Alexander C., Sc.D., LL.D., President of the Stevens
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey, U.S.A.

1907. {Humphries, Albert E. Coxe’s Lock Mills, Weybridge.

1891. *Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

1914. {Hunt, H. A. Weather Bureau, Melbourne.

1881. {Hunter, F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

1889. {Hunter, Mrs. F. W. 16 Old Elvet, Durham.

1916. §Hunter, G. B. The Willows, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1916. §Hunter, Summers. 1 Manor-terrace, Tynemouth.

1909. {Hunter, W. J. H. 31 Lynedoch-street, Glasgow.

1901. *Hunter, William. Evirallan, Stirling.

1903. {Hurst, Charles C., F.L.S. Burbage, Hinckley.

1861. *Hurst, William John. Drumaness, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland.

1913. tHutchins, Miss B. L. 8 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

1914. §Hutchins, D. E. c/o Messrs T. Cook and Son, next General Post
Office, Wellington, New Zealand.

1894. *Hurcuinson, A., M.A., Ph.D. (Local Seo. 1904.) Pembroke
College, Cambridge.

2

48

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.
1903.

1887.
1901.
1871.

1900.

1919.

1908.
1883.
1884.
1906.
1913.

1915.
1885.

1907.
1919.

1905.
1901.
1913.

1912.
1882.
1908.
1915.
1914.
1909.
1883.
1915.
1874.
1919.
1883,
1883.
1899.
1913.
1906.

1919,
1887.

1905.

§Hutchinson, Dr. H. B. Rothamsted Experimental Station
Harpenden, Herts.

§Hutchinson, Rev.H. N., M.A. 17 St. John’s Wood Park,
N.W. 8.

*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Hutton, R.8., D.Sc. Dam House, Mushroom-lane, Sheffield.

*Hyett, Sir Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud,
Gloucestershire.

*Hyndman, H. H. Francis. 3 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. 2.

§Ibbett, F. W., M.A. (Local Sec. 1919). Education Offices, Bourne-
mouth.

{Idle, George. 43 Dawson-street, Dublin.

tIdris, T. H. W. 4 St. Alban’s Villas, Highgate-road, N. W. 5.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tIliffe, J. W. Oak Tower, Upperthorpe, Sheffield.

§Illing, Vincent Charles, B.A., F.G.S. The Chestnuts, Hartshill,
Atherstone, Warwickshire.

tIimms, A. D. West Wood, The Beeches, West Didsbury.

§m THuRN, Sir Everarp F., C.B., K.C.M.G. (Pres. H, 1914;
Council, 1913- .) 39 Lexham-gardens, W. 8.

§Ingham, Charles B. Moira House, Eastbourne.

*Inglis, C. E., O.B.E., M.A., Professor of Engineering in the
University of Cambridge. Ball’s Grove, Grantchester. *

§Innes, R. T. A., F.R.A.S. Union Observatory, Johannesburg.

*Tonides, Stephen A. 802 Equitable-building, Denver, Colorado.

{Irvine, James, F.R.G.S. Richmond-buildings, Chapel-street, Liver-

ool.
Havines J. C.,C.B.E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the University of St. Andrews.
§Irvina, Rev. A., B.A., D.Sc. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop’s Stort-
ford, Herts.
{Irwin, Alderman John. 33 Rutland-square, Dublin.

tJack, A. J. 30 Amhurst-road, Withington, Manchester.

tJack, A. K., B.Sc. Agricultural College, Dookie, Victoria.
tJacks, Professor L. P. 28 Holywell, Oxford.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 349 Collins-street, Melbourne,

Australia.

tJackson, HE. J. W., B.A. The University, Edmund-street, Bir-
mingham. .

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Somenos, Vancouver Island,
B.C., Canada.

*Jackson, Right Hon. F. Huth. 12 Tokenhouse-yard, H.C. 2.

*Jackson, F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Mrs. F. J. 35 Leyland-road, Southport.

tJackson, Geoffrey A. 31 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, 8.W. 7.

*Jackson, H. Gordon, M.Sc. Mason College, Birmingham.

*Jackson, James Thomas, M.A. Engineering School, Trinity
College, Dublin.

*Jackson, John. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, §.E. 10.

{Jacobson, Nathaniel, J.P. Westwood, Polygon-road, Higher
Crumpsall, Manchester. . -

*Jafié, Arthur, M.A. New-court, Temple, E.C. 4.

1913.
1909.
1913.

1908.

1909.
1888.
1887.
1913.
1904.

1

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. 49

Year of

Election.

1874. *Jaffé, John. Villa Jaffé, 38 Promenade des Anglais, Nice,
France.

1906. tJalland, W. H. Museum-street, York.

1891. *James, Charles Russell. Brynteg, Dene-road, Northwood.

1916. §James, Rev. E. O., B.Litt., F.C.S. St. Peter’s Vicarage, Lime-
house, E. 14.

1904. {James, Thomas Campbell. University College, Aberystwyth.

1896. *Jameson, H. Lyster, M.A., Ph.D. Board of Agriculture, 43
Parliament-street, S.W. 1.

1889. *Jarp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1898.)
36 Twyford-avenue, West Acton, W.3.

1910. *Japp, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 59 Beaver Hall-hill, Montreal, Canada.

1896. *Jarmay, Sir John G., K.B.E. Hartford Lodge, Hartford,
Cheshire.‘

1913. {Jarrard, W. J. The University, Sheffield.

1903. {Jarrart, J. Ernest. (Local Sec. 1903.) 22 Hesketh-road, South-

ort.

1904, ayaa, J. H., M.A., F.R.S. (Council, 1917- .) Cleveland Lodge,
Dorking.

1916. *Jeffreys, Harold. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1912. {Jehu, T. J., M.A., M.D., Professor of Geology in the University of
Edinburgh.

1908. *Jenkin, Arthur Pearse, F.R.Met.Soc. Trewirgie, Redruth.

1909. *Jenkins, Miss Emily Vaughan. 14 Eldon-road, Hampstead,
N.W. 3.

1893. *Jennings, G. EK. Ashleigh, Ashleigh-road, Leicester.

1889. {Jevons, F. B., M.A. Hatfield Hall, Durham.

1907. *Jevons, Miss H. W. 17 Tredegar-square, Bow, E. 3.

1905. §Jeyes, Miss Gertrude, B.A. 16 MHarborne-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1914. tJobbins, G. G. Geelong Club, Geelong, Victoria.

1909. *Johns, Cosmo, F.G.S., M.IL.M.E. Burngrove, Pitsmoor-road,

. Sheffield.
1890. *Jounson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.

1902. *Johnson, Rev. W., B.A., B.Sc. Wath Rectory, Melmerby, S.0.,
Yorkshire.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E, Broadstone, Coleman’s Hatch,
Sussex.

1899. tJonnston, Colonel Sir Duncan A., K.C.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., R.E.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1909.) 8 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.

1883. jJounston, Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. St. John’s

Priory, Poling, near Arundel.

{Johnston, James. Oak Bank-avenue, Manchester.

*Johnston, J. Weir, M.A. 129 Anglesea-road, Dublin.

{Johnston, Dr. S. J. Department of Biology, The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

fJohnston, Swift Paine. 1 Hume-street, Dublin.

§Jo~ty, Professor W. A., M.B., D.Sc. South African College, Cape

Town.

tJony, Joun, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1908), Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.
Geological Department, Trinity College, Dublin.

tJones, D. E., B.Sc. Eryl Dag, Radyr, Cardiff.

*Jones, Daniel, M.A., Lecturer on Phonetics at University College,
London, W.C.

jJones, Miss E. E. Constance. Girton College, Cambridge.

919. D

50

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1890. jJonzs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay,
Skipton.

1896. {Jones, E. Taylor, D.Sc. University College, Bangor.

1903. tJones, Evan. Ty-Mawr, Aberdare.

1907.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1912.
1913.

1905.

1901.
1902.
1908.
1912.

1913.
1883.
1886.
1905.
1905

1914.

1905.

1888.

1913.
1915.
1913.
1904.
1892.

1913.
1908.

1911.

1884.
1908.
1911.
1902.

*Jones, Mrs. Evan. 39 Hyde Park-gate, S.W.7.

jJones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S.. 17 Whalley-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

*Jonzs, Rev. G. HartweEit, D,D. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill,
Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge-road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

tJones, J. H. The University, Glasgow.

tJones, O. T., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., -Professor of Geology in the
University College of Wales. Fenton, Caradoc-road,
Aberystwyth.

tJones, Miss Parnell. The Rectory, Llanddewi Skyrrid, Aberga-
venny, Monmouthshire.

tJones, R. E., J.P. Oakley Grange, Shrewsbury.

{Jones, R. M., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

tJones, R. Pugh, M.A. County School, Holyhead, Anglesey.

§Jones, W. Neilson, M.A. Bedford College, Regent’s Park,
N.W. 1,

{Jourdain, Miss Eleanor F. St. Hugh’s College, Oxford.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJudd, Miss Hilda M., B.Sc. Berrymead, 6 Lichfield-road, Kew.

§Julian, Mrs Forbes, F.G.S. Redholme, Braddon’s Hill-road,
Torquay.

jJulius, G. A., B.Se. Culwulla-chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

§Juritz, CHartes F., M.A., D.Sc., F.LC., Agricultural Research
Chemist. Department of Agriculture, Cape Town.

{Kapp, GisBErT, M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.H.E. (Pres. G, 1913),
Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of
Birmingham. 43 Upland-road, Selly Park, Birmingham.

{Kay, Henry, F.G.S. 16 Wretham-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

§Kay, Max M. 82 Daisy Bank-road, Victoria Park, Manchester.

tKaye, G. W. C. 76 Addison-gardens, Kensington, W. 14.

{Kayser, Professor H. The University, Bonn, Germany.

tKmanz, Coartzes A., Ph.D. Sir John Cass Technical Institute,
Jewry-street, Aldgate, E.C. 1.

tKebby, Charles H. 75 Sterndale-road, West Kensington Park,
W

{Keesir, Freprrick W., C.B.E., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. K,
1912), Director of the Royal Horticultural Gardens, Wisley.
Weyton, St. George’s-hill, Weybridge.

*KeirH, Artuur, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. (Pres. H., 1919;
Council, 1917~ .) Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn-
fields, W.C. 2.

{Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Kelly, Captain Vincent Joseph. Montrose, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin.

tKelly, Miss. Montrose, Merton-road, Southsea.

*Kelly, William J., J.P. 25 Oxford-street, Belfast.

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. 51

Election.

1885. §Keurin, Sir J. Scorr, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. (Pres. E, 1897;
Council 1898-1904, 1919-. ) 2 Rosecroft-avenue, Hampstead,
N.W.3.

1887. {Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

1891. t{Kmnpatt, Prroy F., M.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the

1919.
1875.

1906.
1908.
1905.
1913.

1893.

1913.
1857.
1915.
1915,

1881.

1913.
1909.
1892.

1889.
1910.
1869,

1869.

1903.
1883.
1906.
1886.

1901.
1885.
1896.
1890.
1914.
1875.
1875.
1914.

1871.
1883.

1883.

1908.

1860.
1912.
1912.

University of Leeds.

§Kendrick, T. D. 25 Park-hill, Moseley, Birmingham.

{Kennepy, Sir Atexanprer B. W., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(Pres. G, 1894.) Athenzeum Club, S8.W. 1.

tKennedy, Robert Sinclair. Glengall Ironworks, Millwall, E. 14.

tKennedy, William. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

*Kennerley, W. R. P.O. Box 158, Pretoria.

Kenrick, W. Byna. (Local Sec. 1913.) Metchley House,
Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Kenr, A. F. Srantny, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., F.G.S.. College of
Technology, Manchester.

*Kenyon, Joseph, B.Sc., F.1.C. 9 Bainton-road, Oxford.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Kerfoot, E. H. Springwood Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne.

{Kerfoot, Thomas. Pole Bank Hall, Gee Cross, Cheshire.

{Kermopg, P. M. C. Claghbene, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

§Kerr, George L. 39 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

{Kerr, Hugh L. 68 Admiral-road, Toronto, Canada.

Kerr, J. Granam, M.A., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Zoology
in the University of Glasgow.

{Kerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

§Krrsuaw, J. B. C. 9 Grosvenor-road, Colwyn Bay, North Wales.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles Augustus. Roseville, Vale-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Edelweiss Villa, 19 Broomfield-
lane, Hale, Cheshire.

{tKewley, James. Balek Papan, Koltei, Dutch Borneo.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidner, Henry, F.G.S. Bisterne Close, Burley, Brockenhurst.

§Krpston, Rosrrt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-
place, Stirling.

*Kiep, J. N. 137 West George-street, Glasgow.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane, J.P. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

{Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. The Old Heritage, Chailey,
Sussex.

{Kincaid, Miss Hilda 8., D.Sc. Tarana, Kinkora-road, Hawthorn,
N.S.W,

*KIncu, Epwarp, F.1.C. Komaba, Haslemere, Surrey.

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

§King, Miss Georgina. c/o Kelso King, Esq., 120 Pitt-street, Sydney,
N.S. W.

*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.
*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, East Grinstead.
*King, Joseph, M.P. Sandhouse, Witley, Godalming.
{King, Professor L. A. L., M.A. St. Mungo’s College Medical
School, Glasgow.
*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.
*King W. B. R., M.A., O.B.E. Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.
{King, W. J. Harding. 25 York House, Kensington, W.
D2

52

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1870.
1913.

1909.
1903.
1900.

1899.
1913.

1916.

1915.

1901,
1915.

1914.

1917.
1886.

1888.
1887.

1887.

1906.
1915.

1916.
1874.
1915.
1902.
1875.

1883.
1888.

1919.
1903.

1904.
1904.
1889.
1915.
1887.
1893.
1914,

1898.

1886.

tKing, William, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Beach-lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

*King, William Wickham, F.G.8. Winds Point, Hagley, near,
Stourbridge.

{tKingdon, A. 197 Yale-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Kingsford, H. S., M.A. 8 Hlsworthy-terrace, N.W. 3.

{Kierine, Professor F. Stantey, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B,
1908.) University College, Nottingham.

*Kirby, Miss C. F. 8 Windsor-court. Moscow-road. W. 2.

§KipKaLpDy, Professor A. W., M.Com. (Pres. F, 1916.)
University College, Nottingham.

tKirkby, Rev. J. P. Saham Rectory, Watton, Norfolk.

*Kitson, A. EK. 109 Worple-road, Wimbledon, 8.W. 19.

§Kitto, Edward. Pennance, Preston, Paignton, South Devon.

{Knecht, E., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Manchester. 131 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Knibbs, G. H., C.M.G., F.R.A.8., F.S.8., Commonwealth Statis-
tician. Rialto, Collins-street, Melbourne.

§Knight, Lieut.-Colone] C. Morley. 94 Piccadilly, W. 1.

{Knight, Captain J. M., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

{Kwnorr, Professor Carat G., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-
street, Edinburgh.

*Knott, Herbert, J.P. Sunnybank, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

*Knott, John F. Edgemoor, Burbage, Derbyshire.

*Knowles, Arthur J., B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Drayton-court, Drayton-
gardens, 8.W. 10.

*Knowles, Sir Lees, Bart., C.V.O.,0.B.E. Westwood, Pendlebury,
near Manchester.

{Knowles, W. H. Sun-buildings, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim.

§Knox, Principal George, F.G.S. Heol Isaf, Radyr, Glamorgan.

tKwox, R. Kyi, LL.D. 1 College-gardens, Belfast.

*Knubley, Rev. Canon E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage,
Trowbridge.

tKnubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridve.

*Kunz, G. F., M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co.,
11 Union-square, New York City, U.S.A.

*Lace, Richard, F.R.G.S. Santan, Isle of Man.

*Lafontaine, Rev. H.C.de. 52 Albert-court, Kensington Gore,S.W.7.

tLake, Philip. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

tLamb, C.G. Ely Villa, Glisson-road, Cambridge.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

tLamb, Francis W. Lyndene, High Lane, near Stockport.

{Lams, Horacr, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1904), Pro-
fessor of Mathematics in the Victoria University, Manchester.
6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Lampuau, G. W., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1906.) 13 Beaconsfield-
road, St. Albans.

tLane, Charles. Care of John Sanderson & Co., William-street,
Melbourne.

*Lane, Wituiam H., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres. K, 1915), Professor of
Cryptogamic Botany in the University of Manchester.
2 Heaton-road, Withington, Manchester.

*LANGLEY, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1899; Council,
1904-07), Professor of Physiology in the University of Cam-
bridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 53

Year of
Election.

1915

. {Langton, J. L.,M.Se. Municipal School of Technology, Manchester.

1865. {Lankusrer, Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

1884

(PRESIDENT, 1906; Pres. D, 1883 ; Council, 1889-90, 1894-95,
1900-02.) Chinehead, Westcliff-road, Bournemouth.

. [Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Boston, U.S.A.

1911. {Lapthorn, Miss. St. Bernard’s, Grove-road South, Southsea,

1909

. fLarard, C. E., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, 14 Leaside-avenue, Muswell Hill,
N. 10.

1887. {Larmor, Alexander. Craglands, Helen’s Bay, Co. Down.

1881

. Larmor, Sir Josmpn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1900), Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridve.
St. John’s College, Cambridge. g

1883. {Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Headland, Mount Park, Harrow.
1911. {Lattey, R. T. 243 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

1900.

1913

1892.
1907.

1870.

*Lauder, Alexander, D.Sc., Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in
the Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture,
Edinburgh.

. “Laurie, Mrs. E. B. 11 Marine-parade, Hoylake.

fLaver, Matcoum, B.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. School of Medicine, Sur-
geons’ Hall, Edinburgh.

*Laurie, Robert Douglas, M.A. Zoology Department, University
College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

. “Law, Channell. Ilsham Dene, Torquay.

1914. tLawrence, A. H. Urunga, N.S. W.
1905. {Lawrence, Miss M. Roedean School, near Brighton.

1911.

1908.
1908.
1914.
1888.

1913.

1883.
1894.

1905.
1901.
1904.
1910.

1912.
1895.
1914.
1896.

1907.

1919.

1909.
1909.

1894.
1909.

*Lawson, A. Anstruther, D.Sc., F.R.S.@., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University, Sydney, N.S.W.

{Lawson, H. 8., B.A. Buxton College, Derbyshire.

{Lawson, William, LL.D. 27 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.

tLayard, J. W. Bull Cliff, Felixstowe.

{Layarp, Miss Nina F., F.L.S. Rookwood, Fonnereau-road,
Ipswich.

{Lea, F. C., D.Sc., Professor of Civil Engineering in the University
of Birmingham. 36 Mayfield-road, Moseley, Birming-
ham.

*Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

*Lmany, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Sheffield. 92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

{Leake, E. O. 5 Harrison-street, Johannesburg.

*Lean, Dr. George. Corran, Lochgilphead, Argyllshire.

*Leathem, J. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

§Lebour, Miss M. V., M.Se. Zoological Department, The
University, Leeds.

{Lechmere, A. Eckley, M.Sc. Townhope, Hereford.

*Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Protea, Doods-road, Reigate.

tLee, Charles Alfred. Tenterfield, N.S.W.

§Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton. 7 First-avenue, Broadway, Black-
pool.

{Lee, Mrs. Barton. 7 First-avenue, Broadway, Blackpool.

§Lee, Miss Eva M. 55 Logan-road, Bishopston, Bristol.

§Lee, I. L. 61 Broadway, New York City, U.S.A.

tLee, Rev. J. W., D.D. 5043 Washington-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A. [

*Lee, Mrs. W. The Nook, Forest Row, Sussex.

{Leeming, J. H., M.D. 406 Devon-court, Winnipeg, Canada.

54

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1892.

1912.
1906.

1915.

1889.
1906.
1912.
1912.
1910.
1915.
1891.
1903.

1906.
1913.

1903.
1901.

1915.
1914.
1913.
1912.
1890.
1904,
1896.
1904.
1870.

1891.

1913.
1899.

1910.

1919.
1904.

1920.

1910.
1911.

1906.
1913.

1908.
1919.

*Lugs, Cuartzs H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the East
London College, Mile Hind, E. Greenacres, Dryhill Park-
road, Tonbridge.

{Lees, John. Pitscottie, Cupar-Fife, N.B.

tLees, Robert. Victoria-street, Fraserburgh.

*Lees, S., M.A. 51 Chesterton-road, Cambridge.

*Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., C.M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex. }

tLeetham, Sidney. Elm Bank, York.

tLzaaat, W. G. Bank of Scotland, Dundee.

{Legge, James G. Municipal Buildings, Liverpool.

§Leigh, H. 8S. Brentwood, Worsley, near Manchester.

tLeigh, T. B. Arden, Bredbury, near Stockport.

{tLeigh, W. W. Glyn Bargoed, Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

tLeighton, G. R., M.D., F.R.S.E. Local Government Board,
Edinburgh.

tLeiper, Robert T., M.B., F.Z.S. London School of Tropical
Medicine, Royal Albert Dock, E. 16.

{Leith, Professor R. F. C., M.A., M.Sc. Pathological Laboratory,
The University, Birmingham.

*Lempfert, R. G. K., M.A. 54c Redcliffe-square, $.W. 10.

§LronarD, J. H., B.Sc. Natural History Museum, South Kensing-

ton. S.W. 7.

§Leslie, Miss M. 8, D.Sc. 1 Park View-terrace, Halton, near
Leeds.

tLe Souef, W. H. D., C.M.Z.S. Zoological Gardens, Parkville,

Victoria, Australia.

tLessing, R., Ph.D. 317 High Holborn, W.C. 1.

*Lessner, C., F.C.S. Carril, Spain.

*Lester, Joseph Henry. 5 Grange-drive, Monton Green, Man-
chester.

*Le Sueur, H. R., D.Sc. Chemical Laboratory, St. Thomas’s
Hospital, 8.E. 1.

{Leverhulme, The Right Hon. Lord. Thornton Manor, Thornton
Hough, Cheshire,

*Lewis, Mrs. Agnes 8., LL.D. Castle Brae, Chesterton-lane, Cam-
bridge.

{Lrwis, ees Lionet. 35 Beddington-gardens, Wallington,

Surrey.
tLewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth,

tLewis, E. O. Gwynfa, Alma-street, Brynmawr.
tLewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley,
U.S.A

{Lewis, Francis J., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

§Lewis, Miss Gertrude. Montrose, Queen’s-road, Bournemouth,

tLewis, Hugh. Glanafrau, Newtown, Montgomeryshire.

MR Lewis, T., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Chesterford-gardens, N.W. 8.

*Luwis, T.C. West Home, West-road, Cambridge.

§Lewis, W. C. McC., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Physical Chemistry
in the University of Liverpool.

{Liddiard, 4 ames Edward, F.R.G.S. Rodborough Grange, Bourne-
mouth.

*Lillie, D. G. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Lilly, W. E., M.A., Sc.D. 39 Trinity College, Dublin.

*LINDEMANN, Professor F. A. Clarendon Laboratory, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 55
Year of
Election.
1904, {Link, Charles W. 14 Chichester-road, Croydon.

1913.
1888.
1861.
1876,

1902,
1912.

1909.

1903.
1919.
1892.

1905.
1904.
1863.

1902.
1914.
1900.
1886.

1914.
1914.
1875,

1914.
1894,
1915.
1915.
1899.
1903.
1905.
1910.
1904.

1901.

1875.
1881.
1896.
1887,
1886.

1904.
1876.

*Lishman, G. P., D.Sc., F.1.C. Chemical Laboratory, Lambton
Coke Works, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

fListzr, J. J.. M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1906.) St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1882 ; Counci], 1888-95;
Local Sec. 1862.) Newnham, Cambridge.

*LIVERSIDGE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Fieldhead, George-road, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

§Llewellyn, Evan. Workmen’s Institute and Hall. Blaenavon.

tLloyd, Miss Dorothy Jordan. 16 Ampton-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Lloyd, George C., Secretary of the Iron and Steel Institute.
28 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

{Lloyd, Godfrey I. H. The University of Toronto, Canada.

§Lloyd, John A. 6 Montgomery-road, Sheffield.

tLocn. Sir C. S., D.C.L. Denison House, Vauxhall Bridge-road,
S.W. 1.

tLochrane, Miss T. 8 Prince’s-gardens, Dowanhi!l, Glasgow.

tLock, Rev. J. B. Herschel House, Cambridge.

tLooxryer, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc.,F.R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1903 ; Council, 1871-76, 1901-02.) 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Lockyer, Lady. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

tLockyer, Ormonde H.S. 126 Webster-street, Ballarat, Victoria.

{Lockyrr, W. J.S., Ph.D. 16 Penywern-road, S.W.

*Loper, ALFRED, M.A. (Council, 1913-15.) 330 Banbury-road,
Oxford.

{Lodge, Miss Lorna L. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Lodge, Miss Norah M. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Lopes, Sir Ottver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (Prusrpunt, 1913;
Pres. A, 1891; Council, 1891-97, 1899-1903, 1912-13.)
Birmingham.

tLodge, Lady. Mariemont, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Lodge, Oliver W. F. Nurton Farm, Tintern, Monmouthshire.

§Lomas, L. H., B.Sc. Butley Cottage, Prestbury, Cheshire.

tLomax, James, A.L.S. Oakenbottom, Tonge, Bolton.

§Loncq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

[Long, Frederick. The Close, Norwich.

{Long, W. F. City Engineer’s Office, Cape Town.

*Longden, G. A. Draycott Lodge, Derby. ‘

*Longden, J. A., M.Inst.C.E. Chislehurst, Marlborough-road,
Bournemouth,

*Longstaff, Major Frederick V., F.R.G.S. Care of Wimbledon
Common Branch, London County Westminster and Parr’s
Bank, Wimbledon, 8.W. 19.

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.S. Highlands,
Putney Heath, 8.W.

*Longstafi, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, §.W. 1. Care of
Mrs. A. F. Wedgwood, The Grange, Ightham Kent.

tLouis, Henry, D.Sc., Professor of Mining in the Armstrong College
of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Lovz, A. E. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1907), Professor
of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 34 St.
Margaret’s-road, Oxford.

*Love, E. F. J., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Melbourne, Australis.

*Love, J. B., LL.D. Outlands, Devonport.

*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.8. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W, 2.

56

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1916.
1908.
1909.

1912.
1885.
1891.
1885.
1886.

1894.
1903.

1913.
1919.
1891.
1906.
1883.
1914.
1903.
1919.

1916.
1871.
1916.
1914.
1912.
1919.
1907.

1908.
1908.

1878.
1919.

1904.
1896.

1914.
1915.
1909.
1896.

1904.
1919.
1896.

{Loveday, Thomas. 1 Grosvenor-villas, Neweastle-on-Tyne.

*Low, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D. The University, Aberdeen.

{Low, David, M.D. 1927 Scarth-street, Regina, Saskatchewan,
Canada. ;

{Low, William. Balmakewan, Seaview, Monifieth.

§ Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex.

§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

*Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

*Lowe, John Landor, B.Sc., M.Inst.C.H. 27 Palace-mansions,
Addison Bridge, W. 14.

{Lowenthal, Miss Nellie. Woodside, Egerton, Huddersfield.

*Lowry, Dr. T. Marri, C.B.E., F.R.S. 17 Eliot-park, Lewisham,
8.E. 13.

§Lucas, Harry. Hilver, St. Agnes-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

§Luck, H. Courtenay. Courtenay, Zillmere, Queensland.

*Lucovich, Count A. Tyn-y-parce, Whitchurch, near Cardiff.

{Ludlam, Ernest Bowman. 32 Storey’s-way, Cambridge.

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

tLupton, Mrs. 7 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

tLyddon, Ernest H. Lisvane, near Cardiff.

§LypzE, Professor L. W., M.A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1919). North-
wick Lodge, Peterborough-road, Harrow.

tLye, W. T. lLeagrave Hall, near Luton, Beds.

{Lyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., F.G.S. Kinnordy, Kirriemuir.

tLyle, R. P. Rankin. Holmwood, Clayton-road, Newcastle-on-

Tyne.

{LyYLez, ee T. R., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. Irving-road, Toorak,
Victoria, Australia. :

*Lynch, Arthur, M.A., M.P. 80 Antrim-mansions, Haverstock
Hill, N.W. 3.

§Lyon, H. Claude. Shalimar, Branksome Park, Bournemouth.

*Lyons, Lieut-Colonel Henry Grorae, D.Sec., F.R.S. (Pres E.
1915; Council, 1912-15). 3 Cambridge-square, Hyde Park
W. 2.

{Lyster, George H. 34 Dawson-street, Dublin.

{Lyster, Thomas W., M.A. National Library of Treland, Kildare-

street, Dublin.

t{MacAuisrer, Sir Donato, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., LU.D., B.Sc.,
Principal of the University of Glasgow.

§MacAlister, D. A. Care of National Provincial and Union Bank,
53 Baker-street, W.

{Macalister, Miss M. A. M. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

tMacatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1910 ;
Local Sec. 1897.) 59 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

{McAlpine, D. Berkeley-street, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia.

§Macara, Sir C. W., Bart. Ardmore, St. Anne’s-on-Sea.

{MacArthur, J. A., M.D. Canada Life-building, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Macaulay, F. S., M.A. The Chesters, Vicarage-road, East Sheen,

S.W.

*Macaulay, W. H. King’s College, Cambridge.

§McBain, Dr. J. W. The University, Bristol.

+MacBripz, E. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D, 1916), Professor
of Zoology in the Imperial College of Science and Technology,

S.W. 7

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 57

Year of
Election.

1902. *Maccall, W. T., M.Sc. Technical College, Sunderland,

1912. {McCallum, George Fisher. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1912. {McCallum, Mrs. Lizzie. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1908. asa Edward Valentine, J.P. Ardmanagh House, Glenbrook.
Co. Cork.

1909. t{McCarthy, J. H. Public Library, Winnipeg, Canada.

1884. *McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 11 Wellington-road, Dublin.

1904. *McClean, Lieut.-Colonel Frank Kennedy. Rusthall House, Tun-
bridge Wells.

1919. §McClean, W. N. 1 Onslow-gardens, §.W.

1906. tMcClure, Rev. E. 80 Eccleston-square, S.W. 1.

1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. 12 Elgin-road, Dublin.

1908. *McComsin, Hamitton, M.A., Ph.D. The University, Birmingham.

1914. *McCombie, Mrs. Hamilton. The University, Birmingham.

1901. *MacConkey, Alfred. Lister Lodge, Elstree, Herts.

1915. §McConnel, John W. Wellbank, Prestwich.

1901. tMcCrae, John, Ph.D. 7 Kirklee-gardens, Glasgow.

1912. {MacCulloch, Rev. Canon J. A., D.D. The Rectory, Bridge of

lan.

1905. §McCulloch, Principal J. D. Free College, Edinburgh.

1915. {McDonald, Dr. Archie W. Glencoe, Huyton, Liverpool.

1909. {MacDonald, Miss Eleanor. Fort Qu’Appelle, Saskatchewan, Canada.

1904. {Macponatp, H. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
University of Aberdeen.

1905. {McDonald, J.G. P.O. Box 67, Bulawayo.

1900. {MacDonald, J. Ramsay.

1905. {MacponaLp, J. 8., B.A., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1911), Professor of
Physiology in the University of Sheffield.

1909. {MacDonell, John, M.D. Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1909. *MacDougall, R. Stewart. The University, Edinburgh.

1915. *McDougall, Robert, B.Sc. Lerryn, Carr Wood- coud, Cheadle
Hulme, Stockport.

1912. {McDougall, Dr. W., F.R.S. 89 fon ate road, Oxford.

1916. {McDowall, Professor J. W. East Cottingwood, } Morpeth.

1906. t{McFarlane, John, M.A. The Universi of Aberdeen.

1885. {Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania. Lansdowne. Delaware Co., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

1909. {Macgachen, A. F. D. 281 River-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1908. {McGratu, Sir Josren, LL.D. (Local Sec. 1908.) Royal University
of Ireland, Dublin.

1906. {Macerzcor, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1896. *MacGregor-Morris, IT. 3 Lyndhurst-road, Haneeread: N.W.3
1867. *MoIntosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. (Pres. D,
1885). 2 Abbotsford- crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

1909. ae ae Alexander. 142 Maryland-avenue, Winnipeg,
Canada.

1909. {McIntyre, Daniel. School Board Offices, Winnipeg, Canada.

1912. else J. Lewis, M.A., D.Sc. Abbotsville, Cults, Aberdeen-
shire

1909. {McIntyre, W. A. 339 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1884. §MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D. 163 Queens street, Dartmouth, Nova
Scotia, Canada.

1919. §Mackay, Brigadier-General J. G. Physical Pasormon The

__ _ University, Sydney, New South Wales.

58

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1913.
1915.
1885.

1912.
1919.
1908.
1873.

1909.
1907.

1905.

1897.
1910.
1909.
1901.

1912.
1872.
1901.
1887.

1911.
1916.
1915.
1893.

1901.
1901.
1892.

1912.

1908.

1868.

1909.
1883.

1909.

1902.
1914.
1914.
1878.
1905.
1909.
1907.
1906.
1908.
1908.

*Mackay, John. 85 Bay-street, Toronto, Canada.

t{Mackay, John. 46 Acomb-street, Manchester.

{tMacgay, Joun Yuuz, M.D., LL.D., Principal of and Professor of
Anatomy in University College, Dundee.

tMackay, R. J. 27 Arkwright-road, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

§McKay, R. F. 36 Stevenage-road, S.W. 6.

tMcKay, William, J.P. Clifford-chambers. York.

{McKenpericr, Joun G., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. I,
1901 ; Council, 1903-09), Emeritus Professor of Physiology

4 in the University of Glasgow. Maxieburn, Stonehaven, N.B.

{McKenty, D. E. 104 Colony-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

t{McKernziz, Professor ALEexaNnpER, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S.
University College, Dundee.

tMackenzie, Hector. Standard Bank of South Africa, Cape
Town.

tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{Mackenzie, K: J. J.. M.A. 10 Richmond-road, Cambridge.

§MacKenzie, Kenneth. Royal Alexandra Hotel, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Mackenzie, Thomas Brown. Netherby, Manse-road, Mother-
well, N.B.

{Mackenzie, William, J.P. 22 Meadowside, Dundee.

*Mackey, J. A. United University Club, Pall Mall East, 8.W. 1.

{tMackie, William, M.D. 13 North-street, Elgin.

tMacermpeErR, Sir H. J., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1895;
Counci], 1904-05.) 10 Chelsea-court, Chelsea Hmbankment,
S.W. 3.

{Mackinnon, Miss D. L. University College, Dundee.

*Mackley, Edward H. Hawk’s-road, Gateshead.

§McLardy, Samuel. Basford Mount, Higher Crumpsall, Manchester.

*McLaren, Mrs. E. L. Colby, M.B., Ch.B. 137 Tettenhall-road,
Wolverhampton.

tMaclay, William. Thornwood, Langside, Glasgow.

tMcLean, Angus, B.Sc. Harvale, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

*Mactean, Maenvs, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec. 1901), Pro-
fessor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

§McLean, R. C., B.Sc. Duart, Holmes-road, Reading.

{McLennan, J. C., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Toronto, Canada."

tMcLzop, Hrrsert, LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1892; Council,
1885-90.) 109 Church-road, Richmond, Surrey.

tMacLeod, M. H. C.N.R. Depét, Winnipeg, Canada.

tMacManon, Major Preroy A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (TRusres,
1913- ; GENERAL SrcrETARY, 1902-13; Pres. A, 1901;
Council, 1898-1902.) 27 Evelyn-mansions, Carlisle-place,
S.W. 7.

{McMinian, The Hon. Sir Danret H., K.C.M.G. Government
House, Winnipeg, Canada. f

tMcMordie, Robert J. Cabin Hill, Knock, Co. Down.

tMacnab, Angus D. Oakbank, Tullamarine, Victoria, Australia.

tMacnicol, A. N. 31 Queen-street, Melbourne.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

§Macphail, S. Rutherford, M.D. Rowditch, Derby.

{tMacPhail, W. M. P.O. Box 88, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Macrosty, Henry W. 29 Hervey-road, Blackheath, S.E. 3.

tMacturk, G. W. B. 15 Bowlalley-lane, Hull.

tMcVittie, R. B., M.D. 62 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.

tMcWalter, J. C., M.D., M.A. 19 North Earl-street, Dublin,

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 59

Year of
Election.

1902.

1910.

1905.
1909.
1875.

1908.
1907.
1902.
1914,
1913.

1908.
1914.

1920.
1912.
1905.
1915.
1919.
1903.
1915.
1902.

1912.

1898.
1911.
1905.
1905.
1881.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1915.
1889.

1912.

1919.
1904.
1889.
1905.
1919.
1899.
1911.

1889.
1912.
1916.

{McWeeney, Professor E. J., M.D. 84 St. Stephen’s-green,
Dublin.

{MeWilliam, Dr. Andrew. Kalimate, B.N.R., near Calcutta.
tMagenis, Lady Louisa. 34 Lennox-gardens, S.W. 1.

{Magnus, Laurie, M.A. 12 Westbourne-terrace, W. 2.

*Maenvs, Sir Purp, Bart., B.Sc., B.A, M.P. (Pres. L, 1907.)

16 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W. 2.

*Magson, Egbert H. Westminster College, Horseferry-road, 8.W. 1.
*Mair, David. Civil Service Commission, Burlington-gardens, W. 1.
*Mairet, Mrs. Ethel M. Cruntsfield, Ditchling, Sussex.

{Maitland, A. Gibb. Geological Survey, Perth, Western Australia.
{Maitland, T. Gwynne, M.D. Southerndowne, Augustus-road,

Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Makower, W., M.A., D.Sc. Air Ministry Laboratory, W/T Section,
Imperial College of Science and Technology, S.W. 7.
silage B. London School of Economics, Clare Market,
W.C. 2.

Malcolm, C. W. G., F.R.S.E. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
tMalloch, James, M.A., F.S.A. (Scot.). Training College, Dundee.
{Maltby, Lieutenant G. R., R.N. 54 St. George’s-square, S.W. 1.
{Mandleberg, G. C. Redclyffe, Victoria Park, Manchester.
§Mangham, Sydney. 2 Hastfield-road, Benton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tManifold, C.C. 16 St. James’s-square, 8.W. 1.

§Manson, John Sinclair, M.D. 8 Winmarleigh-street, Warrington,
*Marcuant, EK. W., D.Sc.; David Jardine Professor of Electrical

Engineering in the University of Liverpool.
{Marchant, Rev. James, C.B.E., F.R.S.E. 42 Great Russell-street,
W.C. 1

*Mardon, Heber. Cliffden, Teignmouth, South Devon.

*Marett, R. R., D.Sc. (Pres. H, 1916.) Exeter College, Oxford.

{Marks, Samuel. P.O. Box 379, Pretoria.

{Martors, R., M.A., Ph.D. P.O. Box 359, Cape Town.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1896; Council,
1896-1902, 1910-14), Woodwardian Professor of Geology in
the University of Cambridge. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry Carpenter. 147 Brondesbury-road, N.W. 2.

tMarsh, J. E., M.A., F.R.S. University Museum, Oxford.

tMarsh, J. H., M.D. Cumberland House, Macclesfield.

*MARSHALL, ALFRED, M.A., LL.D., D.So. (Pres. F, 1890.) Balliol
Croft, Madingley-road, Cambridge.

{Marshall, Professor C. R., M.A., M.D. The Medical School,
Dundee.

*Marshall, Rev. Edward §., F.L.S. West Monkton Rectory, Taunton.

{Marshall, F. H. A. University of Edinburgh.

{Marshall, Frank. Claremont House, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Marshall, G. A. K. 6 Chester-place, Hyde Park-square, W. 2.

§Martel, Major G. L. The Barracks, Christchurch, Hants.

{Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, 32 Bayham-road, Sevenoaks.

tMarti, Professor Cuartes James, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director
of the Lister Institute, Chelsea-gardens, $.W. 3.

*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Windermere, Mount
Pleasant-road, Hastings.

{Marrin, W. H. Bryrn. (Local Sec. 1912.) City Chambers,
Dundee.

§Martin, William, M.A., M.D. West Villa, Akenside-terrace,
Neweastle-on-Tyne.

60

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1911.
1913.
1913.

1907.
1905.

1913.

1915.
1913.

1891.
1885.

1910,

1905.
1901.
1910.
1915.

1909.
1913.

1908.
1894,
1902.

1904
1899.

1914.

1893.
1905.
1905.
1904.
1916.
1912.

1913.
1915.
1883.
1879.
1881.
1905.

1901.
1913.
1909.
1919.
1914.
1905.

§Martindell, E. W., M.A. Royal Anthropological Institute, 50 Great
Russell-street, W.C. 1.

tMarringav, Lieut.-Colonel Ernest, V.D. Ellerslie, Augustus-
road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§Martineau, P. E. The Woodrow, near Bromsgrove, Worcester.

tMasefield, J. R. B., M.A. Rosehill, Cheadle, Staffordshire.

*Mason, Justice A. W. Supreme Court, Pretoria.

*Mason, Edmund W., B.A. 2 York-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

*Mason, Rev. W. A. Parker. Hulme Grammar School, Alexandra
Park, Manchester.

{Mason, William. Engineering Laboratory, The University,
Liverpool.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.O., Berkshire.

{Masson, Davip Orme, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in
the University of Melbourne.

+Masson, Irvine, M.Sc. University College, W.C. 1.

§Massy, Miss Mary. Orestone, St. Mary Church, Torquay.

*Mather, G. R. Sunnyville, Park-crescent, Wellingborough.

*Mather, Thomas, F'.R.S., Professor of Electrical Engineering in the
City and Guilds of London Institute, Exhibition-road, 8.W. 7.

+Marner, Right Hon. Sir Wruttam, M.Inst.C.E. Bramble Hill,
Bramshaw, New Forest.

tMathers, Mr. Justice. 16 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Matheson, Miss M. Cecile. Birmingham Women’s Settlement,
318 Summer-lane, Birmingham.

{Matheson, Sir R. E., LL.D. Charlemont House, Rutland-square,
Dublin.

{Matuews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 7 Menai View, Bangor, North
Wales.

t{Martuey, C. A., D.Sc. Military Accounts Department, 6 Esplanade
East, Calcutta, India.

{Matthews, D. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

*Maufe, Herbert B., B.A., F.G.S. P.O. Box 366, Salisbury, Rhodesia.

+Maughan, M. M., B.A., Director of Education. Parkside, South
Australia.

tMavor, Professor James. University of Toronto, Canada.

*Maylard, A. Ernest. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{Maylard, Mrs. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

tMayo, Rev. J., LL.D. 6 Warkworth-terrace, Cambridge.

{Measham, Miss C. E. C. 128 New-walk, Leicester.

{Mzex, ALEXANDER, M.Sc., Professor of Zoology in the Armstrong
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Megson, A. L. Cambridge-street, Manchester.

§Melland, W. 23 King-street, Manchester.

+Mellis, Rev. James. 23 Part-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

*Melvill, E. H. V., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. P.O. Val, Standerton District,
Transvaal.

tMennell, F. P., F.G.S. 49 London Wall, E.C. 2.

*Mentz-Tolley, Richard, J.P. Lynn Hall, Lichfield.

{Menzies, Rev. James, M.D. Hwaichingfu, Honan, China.

§Mercier, Charles. Clovelly, Poole-road, Bournemouth West.

{Meredith, Mrs. C. M. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down.

{Meredith, H. O., O.B.E., M.A., Professor of Economics in Queen’s
University, Belfast. 55 Bryansburn-road, Bangor, Co. Down.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 61

Year of

Election.

1899. *Merrett, William H., F.I.C. Hatherley, Grosvenor-road, Walling-
ton, Surrey.

1899. {Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W. 1.

1915. {Merton, Thomas R. 25 Gilbert-street, W. 1.

1916. *Merz, Charles H. Collingwood-buildings, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1889. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1914.

1905.
1896.

1915.
1915.
1903.

1881.
1904,
1894.

1885.

1905.
1912.
1889.
1909.
1915.
1895.
1897.

1919.
1904.
19065.
1908.
1868.

1917.
1908.

1919.
1902.
1907.
1910.
1910.

1903.
1898.
1908.
1907.

1901.
1913.

§Messent, A. HK. 80 Regent-street, Millswocd, Goodwood, South
Australia.

{Methven, Cathcart W. Club Arcade, Smith-street, Durban.

§Metzler, W. H., Ph.D., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse
University, Syracuse, New York, U.S.A.

itMeunier, Stanislas. Gas Works, Stockport.

{Meunier, Mrs. 16 Gibson-road, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

*Micklethwait, Miss Frances M. G. 17 St. Mary’s-terrace, Padding-
ton, W. 2.

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rev. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of,
Bishop’s House, Middlesbrough.

tMipp.eEron, Sir T. H:, K.B.E.,C.B., M.A. (Pres. M. 1912). Devel-
ment Commission, Dean’s-yard, S.W. 1.

*Minrs, Sir Henry A., M.A., D.Se., F.B.S., F.G.8. (Pres. C, 1905 ;
Pres. L, 1910), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Man-
chester. Birch Heys, Cromwell Range, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Mitt, Hues Roser, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E,
1901.) 62 Camden-square, N.W. 1.

tMill, Mrs. H. R. 62 Camden-square, N.W. 1.

tMixar, Dr. A. H. (Local Sec. 1912.) Albert Institute, Dundee.

*Miiiar, Ropert Cocksurn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

§Miller, A. P. Glen Miller, Ontario, Canada.

Miller, Dr. Alexander K. 4 Darley-avenue, West Didsbury.

tMiller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

*Miller, Willet G., Provincial Geologist. Provincial Geologist’s
Office, Toronto, Canada.

§Millin, §. Shannon. 28 St. Kevin’s Park, Dartry-road, Dublin.

{Millis, C. T. Hollydene, Wimbledon Park-road, Wimbledon.

tMills, Mrs. A. A. Ceylon Villa, Blinco-grove, Cambridge.

{Mills, Miss EH. A. Nurney, Glenagarey, Co. Dublin.

*Mitts, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 64 Twyford-avenue,
West Acton, W. 3.

*Mills, Frederick, J.P., D.L., M.Inst.C.E. Llwyn-dai Court, Aber-
gavenny

tMills, John ctl M.B. Durham County Asylum, Winterton,
Ferryhill.

§Mills, W. H. Jesus College, Cambridge.

tMills, W. Sloan, M.A. Vine Cottage, Donaghmore, Newry.

tMilne, A., M.A. University School, Hastings.

tMilne, J. B. - Cross Grove House, Totley, near Sheffield.

*Milne, James Robert, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 5 North Charlotte-street,
Edinburgh.

*Milne, R. M. Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, South Devon.

*Mitner, 8. Rostinaton, D.Sc. The University, Sheffield.

tMilroy, T. H., M.D., Dunville Professor of Physiology in Queen’s
University, Belfast.

§Minron, J. H., F.G.8., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 8 College-avenue, Crosby,
Liverpool.

*Mitchell, Andrew Acworth. 7 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.

*Mitchell, Francis W. V. 25 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.

62

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1901.
1909.
1885.

1905.
1908.
1914,

1895.
1905.
1905.
1883.
1900.

1905.
1919.
1919.
1891.

1915.
1909.
1909,
1914.
1912.

1911.
1908.

1894,
1908.
1901.
1905.
1916.

1892.
1912.
1896.
1901.
1919.

1905.
1895.
1902.
1919.
1901.
1883.
1906.

1896.
1892.

*Mitchell, G. A. 5 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

{Mitchell, J. F. 211 Rupert-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Mrrcnett, P. Cuatmers, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., Sec.Z.8.
(Pres. D, 1912; Council, 1906-13.) Zoological Society,
Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

*Mitchell, W. E.C. Box 129, Johannesburg.

{Mitchell, W. M. 2 St. Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

{Mitchell, William, M.A., D.Sc., Hughes Professor of Philosophy
and Economics in the University of Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia.

*Moat, William, M.A. Johnson Hall, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

{Moir, James. D.Sc. Mines Department, Johannesburg.

§Molengraafi, Professor G. A. F. Kanaalweg 8, Delft, The Hague.

{Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

*Moncxton, H. W., Treas. L.S., F.G.S. 3 Harcourt-buildings,
Temple, H.C. 4. ;

tMoncriefi, Lady Scott. 11 Cheyne-walk, 8.W. 3.

*Mond, Miss Frida H. Combe Bank, Sundridge.

*Mond, Miss Irene K. Combe Bank, Sundridge.

*Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.8. Combe Bank,
Sevenoaks.

§Moodie, J. Williams Deacon’s Bank, Manchester.

tMoody, A. W., M.D. 4324 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

*Moopy, G. T., D.Sc. Lorne House, Dulwich, §.E. 21.

§Moody, Mrs. Lorne House, Dulwich, S.E. 21.

§Moorz, Benzamin, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. 1, 1914.) 14 Frognal,
Hampstead, N.W. 3.

§Moore, E. S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the School
of Mines, Pennsylvania State College, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Moorz, Sir Freprericx, M.A., F.L.S. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Glasnevin, Dublin.

tMoore, Harold E. Oaklands, The Avenue, Beckenham, Kent.

{Moore, Sir John W., M.D. 40 Fitzwilliam-square West, Dublin.

*Moore, Robert T. 142 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

tMoore, T. H. Thornhill Villa, Marsh, Huddersfield.

tMoore, Professor T. S. Hillside, Egham, Surrey.

{Moray, The Right Hon. the Earl of, F.G.S. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

tMoray, The Countess of. Kinfauns Castle, Perth.

*MorpEY, W.M. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

*Moreno, Francisco P. Parani 915, Buenos Aires.

§Morey, Frank. Wolverton, Carisbrooke-road, Newport, Isle of
Wight.

*Morgan, Miss Annie. Care of London County Westminster and
Parr’s Bank, Chancery-lane, W.C. 1.

tMoraay, C. Lioyn, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Psychology in the
University of Bristol.

tMorean, GitBeErt T., O.B.E., D.Sc., F.1.C., Professor of Chemistry

in the University of Birmingham.

§Morison, C. G. T. School of Rural Economy, Oxford.

*Morison, James. Perth.

*Mor.ey, Henry Forster, M.A., D.Se., F.C.S. 5 Lyndhurst-road,
Hampstead, N.W. 3.

tMorrell, H. R. Scarcroft-road, York.

*Morrell, Dr. R. 8. Tor Lodge, Tettenhall Wood, Wolverhampton.

+Morrgis, Sir Danren, K.C.M.G., D.Se., F.LS. (Pres. K., 1919 ;
Council, 1915-— .) 14 Crabton-clese, Boscombe, Hants.

ee ee

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 63

Year of
Election.

1915.
1880.
1907.
1899.

1909.
1896.

1908.
1876.
1892.
1913.
1919.
1913.
1912.

1878.

1905.

1912.

1902.
1907.
1915.
1909.
1912.
1904.
1872.

1905.
1876.

1902.
1915.
1904.
1911.
1898.
1901.
1906.
1904.
1909.

1883.

1914.

1909.
1908.
1908.
1905

1903.

> LOLG:

1914.

*Morris, H. N. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

tMorris, James. 23 Brynymor-crescent, Swansea.

tMorris, Colonel Sir W. G., K.C.M.G. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, W.C. 2.

*Morrow, Major Joun, M.Sc., D.Eng. Armstrong College, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Morse, Morton F. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Morton, Witui1aM B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Queen’s University, Belfast.

tMoss, C. E., D.Sc., Professor of Botany, University College,
Johannesburg.

tMoss, Ricuarp Jackson, F.I.C., M.R.I.A. Royal Dublin Society,
and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

*Mostyn, 8. G., M.A., M.B. 2 Harewood-hill, Darlington.

{Mott, Dr. F. W., F.R.S. 25 Nottingham-place, W. 1.

§Mottram, Allan P. Caterham School, Surrey.

{Mottram, V.H. 256 Lordship-lane, Hast Dulwich, S.E. 22.

*Moulton, J. C., Director of the Raffles Museum and Library,
Singapore.

*Movutron, The Right Hon. Lord Justice, G.B.E., K.C.B., M.A.,
K.C., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-square, 8.W. 7.

*Moysey, Miss E. L. Pitcroft, Guildford, Surrey.

tMudie, Robert Francis. 6 Fintry-place, Broughty Ferry.

{Muir, Arthur H. 7 Donegall-square West, Belfast.

*Muir, Professor James. 31 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

{Muir, Ramsay. 140 Plymouth-grove, Manchester.

{Muir, Robert R. Grain Exchange-building, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Muir, Thomas Scott. 19 Seton-place, Edinburgh.

tMuir, William, 1.8.0. Rowallan, Newton Stewart. N.B.

*MureHeap, ALEXANDER, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Lodge, Short-
lands, Kent.

*Muirhead, James M. P., F.R.S.E. The Dunlop Rubber Co., Ltd.,
Aston Cross, Birmingham.

*Muirhead, Robert Franklin, B.A., D.Sc. 64 Great George-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

tMullan, James. Castlerock, Co. Derry.

¢Mullen, B. H., M.A. Salford Museum, Peel Park, Salford.

{Mullinger, J. Bass, M.A. 1 Bene’t-place, Cambridge.

tMumby, Dr. B. H. Borough Asylum, Milton, Portsmouth.

tMumford, C. E. Cross Roads House, Bouverie-road, Folkestone.

*Munby, Alan E. 44 Downshire-hill, Hampstead, N.W. 5.

{Munby, Frederick J. Whizley, York.

tMunro, A. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

{Munro, George. 188 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Mounro, Rosert, M-A., M.D., LL.D. (Pres. H, 1893.) Elmbank,
Largs, Ayrshire, N.B.

*Murchison, Roderick. Melbourne-mansions, Collins-street, Mel-
bourne.

§Murphy, A. J. Queen-square, Leeds.

{Murphy, Leonard. 156 Richmond-road, Dublin.

tMurpay, Witti1aM M., J.P. Dartry, Dublin.

tMurray, Charles F. K., M.D. Kenilworth House, Kenilworth,
Cape Colony.

§Murray, Colonel J. D. Mytholmroyd, Wigan.

+Murray, Miss Jessie, M.B. 14 Endsleigh-street, W.C. 1.

tMurray, John. Tullibardin New Farm, Brisbane, Australia,

64

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1915.

1892.
1909.

1919.
1906.
1919.
1912.

1870.
1906,

1913.
1902.
1909.
1906.
1915.
1890.

1919.
1914.

1886.
1890.
1919.
1908.

1909.
1883.
1914.
1914.
1914.
1866.
1889.
1912.
1916.
1901.
1919.
1919.
1901.
1913.
1889.

1912.
1892.

tMurray, Miss M. A. Kdwards Library, University College, Gower-
street, W.C. 1.

tMurray, T. S., D.Sc. 27 Shamrock-street, Dundee.

{Murray, W. ©. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sas-
katchewan, Canada.

§Muscio, B., Psychological Laboratory, Cambridge.

tMusgrave, Mrs. Edith M.S., D.Sc. 11 Palace-gate, W. 8.

§Mu.grave, Captain Stanley. 11 Palace-gate, W. 8.

*Musgrove, James, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University

of St. Andrews, N.B. :

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

{Myddelton-Gavey, Major E. H., J.P., F.R.G.S. Care of Captain

Alex. de Hamel, Wigginton Lodge, Tamworth, Staffordshire.

{Myddelton-Gavey, Miss Violet. Stanton Prior, Meads, Eastbourne.

*Myers, Charles S., M.A.. M.D. Great Shelford, Cambridge.

*Myers Henry. Ebbisham Lodge, Downs-avenue, Epsom.

{Myers, Jesse A. Glengarth, Walker-road, Harrogate.

tMyers, William. 7 Station-road, Cheadle Hulme.

*Myres, JOHN L., M.A., F.S.A. (GENERAL SECRETARY, 1919- “
Pres. H, 1909; Council, 1909-16), Wykeham Professor of
Ancient History in the University of Oxford. 101 Banbury-
road, Oxford.

*Myres, J. N. L. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford.

*Myres, Miles Claude. 101 Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Nacet, D. H., M.A. (Local Sec. 1894.) Trinity College, Oxford.

{Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, H.C. 4.

§Napper, Sidney 8. Upmeads, Dunbar-road, Bournemouth.

*Neal, Mrs. E. M. 10 Meadway, Hampstead Garden Suburb,
N.W. 4.

{Neild, Frederic, M.D. Mount Pleasant House, Tunbridge Wells.

*Neild, Theodore, M.A. Grange Court, Leominster.

tNelson, Miss Edith A., M.A., M.Sc. 131 Williams-road, East
Prahran, Victoria.

*Nettlefold, J. S. Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Bir-
mingham.

{Nettlefold, Miss. Winterbourne, Edgbaston Park-road, Birming-
ham.

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

*NEWALL, H. Franx, M.A.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Astrophysics
in the University of Cambridge. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

tNewberry, Percy H., M.A., Professor of Egyptology in the Uni-
versity of Liverpool. Oldbury Place, Ightham, Kent.

{tNewbigin, Henry T. 3 St. Nicholas-buildings, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.

{Newbigin, Miss Marion, D.Sc. Royal Scottish Geographical Society,
Kdinburgh.

§Newgass, G. A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Newgass, Mrs. Maria R. Shernfold Park, Frant.

tNewman, F. H. Tullie House, Carlisle.

t{Newman, L. F. 2 Warkworth-street, Cambridge:

tNewstead, A.H. L., B.A. 38 Green-street, Bethnal Green, E. 2.

*Newton, Arthur U. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

{Newron, E. T., F.R.S., F.G.8. Florence House, Willow Bridge-
road, Canonbury, N. 1.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 65

Year of

Election.

1914. §Newton, R. Bullen, F.G.S. British Museum (Natural History),
South Kensington, S.W. 7.

1914. {Nicholls, Dr. E. Brooke. 174 Victoria-street, North Melbourne.

1914. {Nicholls, Professor G. E. King’s College, Strand, W.C. 2.

1908. {Nicholls, W. A. 11 Vernham-road, Plumstead, Kent.

1908. {Nichols, Albert Russell. 30 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Co.

1908.
1884.

1911.
1916.
1915.
1908.

1916.
1888.
1913.

1912.
1913.

1894.
1909.
1910.
1919.
1915.

1913.
1912.

1919.

1898.
1908.

Dublin.

tNicholson, J. W., M.A., D.So., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
in King’s College, Strand, W.C. 2.

{tNicuotson, Josepa 8., M.A., D.Sc. (Pres. F, 1893), Professor of
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh.

tNicol, J. C., M.A. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

{Nisbet, E. T. 26 Beverley-gardens, Cullercoats.

{Niven, James. Civic Buildings, 1 Mount-street, Manchester.

{Nrxon, The Right Hon. Sir CaristopuEr, Bart., M.D., LL.D., D.L.
2 Merrion-square, Dublin.

tNosiz, J. H. B. Sandhoe, Hexham, Northumberland.

{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

tNorman, Right Hon. Sir Henry, Bart., M.P. The Corner House,
Cowley-street, S.W.

tNorrie, Robert. University College, Dundee.

tNorris, F. Edward. Seismograph Station, Hill View, Woodbridge
Hill, Guildford.

§Norcurt, S. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. (Local Sec. 1895.) Constitu-
tion-hill, Ipswich.

tNugent, F.S. 81 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

§Nunn, T. Percy, M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Education in the Uni-
versity of London. London Day Training College, South-
ampton-row, W.C. 1.

§Nuttall, Professor G. H. F., F.R.S. Longfield, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.

tNuttall, Harry, M.P. Bank of England-chambers, Manchester.

§Nuttall, T. E., M.D. Middleton, Huncoat, Accrington.

tNuttall, W. H. Cooper Laboratory for Economic Research,
Rickmansworth-road, Watford.

§Oaten, Mrs. Elizabeth. Eldon Cottage, Seabourne-road, Bourne-
mouth.

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Greywell House, Woking.

tO’Carroll, Joseph, M.D. 43 Merrion-square East, Dublin.

1913. §Ockenden, Maurice A., F.G.S. Oil Well Supply Company, Dash-
wood House, New Broad-street, E.C. 2.
1883. fOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D., K.C. 15): Old-square,

1910.
1858.
1911.
1908.

1915.
1902.

Lincoln’s Inn, W.C. 2.

*Odling, Marmaduke, M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. Lackenby Iron Works,
Grangetown, Yorkshire.

*Opuine, Witti4M, M.B., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. (Pres. B, 1864 ; Council,
1865-70.) 15 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*O’Donoauus, Cartes H., D.Sc. University College, Gower-
street, W.C. 1.

§O’Farrell, Thomas A., J.P. 30 Lansdowne-road, Dublin.

tOgden, C. K., M.A. Magdalene College, Cambridge.

tOgden, James Neal. Claremont, Heaton Chapel, Stockport.

1913. {Ogilvie, A.G. 15 Evelyn-gardens, S.W.
rere {Ogilvie, Campbeli P. Lawford-place, Manningtree,
1914.

fOgilvie, Mrs. Campbell P. Lawford-place, Manningtree.
1919. B

66

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election,

1885.

1912.
1905.

1905.

1919.
1908.

1892.

1893.
1912.
1914.
1887.

1914.
1889.

1882,

1919.
1908.

1902.
1913.

1919.
1916.
1884.
1901.
1909.
1908.
1904,

1915.
1910.

1901.
1908.
1881.
1906.
1903.
1911.
1910.

1909.
1908.

1906.

1903.
1883.

+Oaitvin, Sir F. Grant, C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. (Local Sec.
1892). Science Museum, South Kensington, 8.W. 7.

tOgilvy, J. W. 18 Bloomsbury-square, W.C. 1.

*Oke, Alfred William, B.A., LL.M., F.G.S., F.L.8. 32 Denmark-
villas, Hove, Brighton. :

tOkell, Samuel, F.R.AS. Overley, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Okey, F. J. 26 Portarlington-road, Bournemouth..

§Oldham, Charles Hubert, B.A., B.L., Professor of Commerce in
the National University of Ireland. 5 Victoria-terrace, Rath-
gar, Dublin.

{OtpHam, H. Yous, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.
*OL~pmAM, R. D., F.B.S., F.G.S. 1 Broomfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

+O’Leary, Rev. William, S.J. Belvedere College, Dublin.

{Oliver, Calder E. Manor-street, Brighton, Victoria.

tOxiver, F. W., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1906). Professor
of Botany in University College. London, W.C. 1.

{Oliver, H. G.,C.E. Lara, Victoria, Australia.

{Oliver, Professor Sir Thomas, M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

§OtsEn, O. T., D.Sc., F.LS., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s
terrace, Grimsby. :

*Omer-Cooper, Joseph. 6 Queensland-road, Bournemouth.

tO’Neill, Rev. G., M.A. University College, St. Stephen’s Green,
Dublin.

tO’Neill, Henry, M.D. 6 College-square East, Belfast.

tOrange, J. A. General Electric Company, Schenectady, New
York, U.S.A.

§Ord, Dr. W. T.. F.G.S. 18 Littledown-road, Bournemouth,

§Orde, Edwin L. Walker Shipyard, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Mark Ash, Abinger Common, Dorking,

tOrr, Alexander Stewart. 10 Medows-street, Bombay, India.

tOrr, John B. Crossacres, Woolton, Liverpool.

*Orr, William. Dungarvan, Co. Waterford.

*Orton, K. J. P., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bangor.

§Orwin, C. S. 7 Marston Ferry-road, Oxford.

*OsBorn, T. G. B., M.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Adelaide, South Australia.

tOsborne, Professor W. A., D.Sc. The University, Melbourne.

tO’Shaughnessy, T. L. 64 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

*Ottewell, Alfred D. 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

tOwen, Rev. E. C. St. Peter’s School, York.

*Owen, Edwin, M.A. Terra Nova School, Birkdale, Lancashire.

tOwens, J. S., M.D., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

*Oxley, Major A. E., R.A.F.,M.A., D.Se. 1 Park-drive, North End-
road, N.W.3.

tPace, F. W. 388 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

tPack-Beresford, Denis, M.R.I.A. Fenagh House, Bagenalstown,
Treland.

§Page, Carl D. Hotel Monticello, 35 West Sixty-fourth-street
New York City, New York, U.S.A.

*Page, Miss Ellen Iva. Turret House, Felpham, Sussex

{Page, G. W. Bank House, Fakenham,

_ LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 67

Year of
Election.

1913.
1911.
1912.

1919.
1911.
1919.
1896.
1878.

1919.
1915.
1904.

1909.

1891.

1899.
1965.
1906.

1913.
1903.

1908.
1878.

1904,
1905.
1919.

1898.

1908.
1909.
1897.

1883.
1884.
1913.
1908.

1913.

1913.
1920.

1879.
1887.
1887.
1914.

1888.
1876.

1906.

{Paget, Sir Richard, Bart. Old Fallings Hall, Wolverhampton.

{Paget, Stephen, M.A., F.R.C.S. 21 Ladbroke-square, W. 11.

{Pahic, Paul. 45 Rue Notre Dame de Loretta, Place St. Georges,
Paris.

§Paine, A. E. W. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon.

{tPaine, H. Howard. 50 Stow-hill, Newport, Monmouthshire,

§Painter, H. 29 Talbot-road, Bournemouth.

tPallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Royal Societies Club, St. James’s-street,
S.W. 1

§Paris, E. Talbot. 14 Waldemar-avenue Mansions, S8.W. 6.

*Parker, Dr. A. Gasworks, Uddingston, Lanarkshire.

{ParKcer, EH. H., M.A. Thorneyereek, Herschel-road, Cambridge.

§Parkrr, M. A., B.Sc., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.

{ParKeR, WiLL1AM Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

*Parkin, John. The Gill, Brayton, Cumberland.

*Parkin, Thomas. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

§Parkin, Thomas, M.A., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. Fairseat, High
Wickham, Hastings.

{Parry, Edward, M.Inst.C.E. Rossmore, Leamington.

§Parry, Joseph, M.Inst.C.E. Woodbury, Waterloo, near Liver-

pool.

{Parry, W. K., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Charlemont-terrace, Kingstown,
Dublin.

}Parsons, Hon. Sir C. A., K.C.B., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
(PRESIDENT ; Pres. G, 1904.) 1 Upper Brook-street, W. 1.

{Parsons, Professor F. G. St. Thomas’s Hospital, S.E.

*Parsons, Hon. Geoflrey L. Worting House, Basingstoke, Hants.

*Parsons, Hon. Mrs. Margaret B. Worting House, Basingstoke,

Hants.

*Partridge, Miss Josephine M. Pioneer Club, 9 Park-place, St.

James’s, S.W. 1.

tPaterson, M., LL.D. 7 Halton-place, Edinburgh.

{Paterson, William. Ottawa, Canada.

{Paton, D. Noiz, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1919), Professor of Physi-
ology in the University of Glasgow.

*Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. Elmswood, Bonnington-road, Peebles.

*Paton, Hugh. Box 2646, Montreal, Canada.

§Patrick, Joseph A., J.P. Broad-street Corner, Birmingham.

*Parrmn, C. J., M.A., M.D., Se.D., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Sheffield.

{Patterson, W. Hamilton, M.Sc. The Monksferry Laboratory,
Birkenhead.

*Pattin, Harry Cooper, M.A.,M.D. King-street House, Norwich.

*Patton, Donald, M.A., B.Sc. Manse Villa, Pollok-road, Shawlands,
Glasgow.

*Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire,

*Paxman, James. Standard Iron Works, Colchester.

*Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

*Payne, Professor Henry, M.Inst.C.E. The University, Mel-
bourne.

*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor, Yeovil.

tPeace, G. H., M.Inst.C.E. The Beeches, Charcoal-road, Dunham
Massey, Altrincham.

tPeace, Miss Gertrude. 39 Westbourne-road, Sheffield.

n2

68

Year of
Election.

1885.

1911.
1913.
1919.

1886.
1886.
1883.

1893.
1898.
1906.
1904.

1909.
1888.

1885.

1884.
1901.
1905.
1915.
1905.
1916.
1887.

1894.
1896.
1919.
1898.
1908.
1905.

1894.

1902.
1884.

1864.
1898.
1909.

1874.

1913.
1904.
1900.

1914.
1901.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Pracn, B. N., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1912.)
Geological Survey Office, George-square, Edinburgh.

§Peake, Harold J. E. Westbrook House, Newbury.

{Pear, T. H. 18 Chatham Grove, Withington, Manchester.

§Pearce, Miss E. K., LL.A. Kempston, Chine Crescent-road,
Bournemouth.

*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. Collingwood, Manby-road, Malvern.

{Pearsall, H. D. Letchworth, Herts.

{Pearson, Arthur A., C.M.G. Hillsborough, Heath-road, Petersfield,
Hampshire.

*Pearson, Charles E. Hillcrest, Lowdham, Nottinghamshire.

{Pearson, George. Bank-chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.

{Pearson, Dr. Joseph. The Museum, Colombo, Ceylon.

{Pearson, Karl, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Kugenics in the University
of London. 7 Well-road, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

{Pearson, William. Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

tPeckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridge-
shire.

{Peddie, William, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in University College. Dundee.

tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.

*Peel, Right Hon. Viscount. 52 Grosvenor-street, W. 1.

§Peirson, J. Waldie. P.O. Box 561, Johannesburg.

tPemberton, Granville. 49 Acresfield-road, Pendleton.

tPemberton, Gustavus M. P.O. Box 93, Johannesburg.

{Pemberton, J. 8. G. Belmont, Darham.

{PenpLepury, Witi1aM H., M.A., F.C.S. (Local Sec. 1899.) Broad-
lands, Canonbury, Shrewsbury.

tPengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

tPennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

§Penrose, Dr. F. G. 44 Westcliff-road, Bournemouth.

tPercival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Chesham-street, 8.W. 1.

tPercival, Professor John, M.A. University College, Reading.

{Péringuey, L., D.Sc, F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape
To

wn.

{Prrnm, A. G., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., F.C. Grosvenor Lodge,
Grosvenor-road, Leeds.

*Perkin, F. Mollwo, Ph.D. 199 Piccadilly, W. 1.

{Pernrn, Wimu14m Henry, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres.
B, 1900; Council, 1901-07, 1917- ), Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 5 Charlbury-road,
Oxford.

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

*Perman, Professor E. P., D.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

tPerry, Rev. Professor E, Guthrie. 246 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg,
Canada.

*Prrry, Professor Jonn, M.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (GmnERAL
TREASURER, 1904- ; Pres. G, 1902; Pres. L, 1914; Coun-
cil, 1901-04.) British Association, Burlington House, Lon-
don, W. 1.

{Perry, W. J. 7 York-view, Pocklington, Yorkshire.

*Pertz, Miss D. F. M. 2 Cranmer-road, Cambridge. —

*PpraveL, Sir J. E., K.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. G. 1919),
Director of the National Physical Observatory. Bushy House,
Teddington, Middlesex.

*Peters, Thomas. Burrinjuck vid Goondah, N.S.W.

{Pethybridge, G. H., Ph.D. Royal College of Science; Dublin,

Nee nn nn nn eee nnn en ene ene ee eee S__eeeE ~~ —_ _--_

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. 69

Year of
Election.

1910.
1895.

1886.

1911.
1896.
1853.
1877.

1905.
1899.
1910.

1890.

1909.
1915.

1901.
1885.

1907.
1888.

1919.

1896.

1905.
1905.
1911.
1911.

1911.
1908.

1909.
1893.
1900.
1911.
1915.

1898.
1916.
1908.
1900.

1916.
1914.

1906.

1891.

1907.
1919.
1900.

*Petrescu, Captain Dimitrie, R.A., M.Eng. Scoala Superiora de
Messern, Bucharest, Rumania.

{Purrin, W. M. Furmpsrs, D.C.L., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1895), Professor
of Egyptology in University College, W.C. 1.

{Phelps, Lieut.-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir.
mingham.

{Philip, Alexander. Union Bank-buildings, Brechin.

+Philip, G. Hornend, Pinner, Middlesex.

*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

tPhilips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, Crescent-road, South
Woodford, Essex.

tPhillimore, Miss C. M. Shiplake House, Henley-on-Thames.

*Phillips, Charles E. 8., F.R.S.E. 54 Bedford-gardens, W. 8.

*Phillips, P. P., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in the Thomason
Engineering College, Rurki, United Provinces, India.

{Puruuies, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Uni-
versity College, Bangor. 2 Snowdon-villas, Bangor.

*Phillips, Richard. 15 Dogpole, Shrewsbury, ;

tPhillips, Captain W. E. 7th Leinster Regiment. Kilworth Camp,
Co. Cork.

tPickard, Robert H., D.Sc., F.R.S. Billinge View, Blackburn.

*PICKERING, SPENCER P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

tPickles, A. R., M.A. Todmorden-road, Burnley.

*Pidgeon, W. R. Lynsted Lodge, St. Edmund’s-terrace, Regent’s
Park, N.W. 8.

§Pilcher, T. H. London City and Midland Bank, Bournemouth.

*Pilkington, A. C. Briars Hey, Rainhill, Lancashire.

{Pilling, Arnold. Royal Observatory, Cape Town.

{Pim, Miss Gertrude. Charleville, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

Pink, H. R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

{Pink, Mrs. H. R. The Mount, Fareham, Hants.

{Pink, Mrs. J. E. The Homestead, Hastern-parade, Southsea.

tPirrie, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., M.Inst.C.E. Downshire House,
Belgrave-square, 8.W. 1.

{Pitblado, Isaac, K.C. 91 Balmoral-place, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Prrr, WALTER, M.Inst.C.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

*Platts, Walter. Morningside, Scarborough.

*Plinimer, R. H. A. Ranulf-road, Hampstead, N.W. 2.

§Plummer, Professor H. C., M.A., Royal Astronomer of Ireland.
Dunsink Observatory, Co. Dublin.

{Plummer, W. E., M.A., F.R.A.S. The Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.

tPlummer, Sir W. R. 4 Queen’s-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tPlunkett, Colonel G. T.,C.B. Belvedere Lodge, Wimbledon, 8.W.

*Pocklington, H. Cabourn, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 5 Wellelose-place,
Leeds. ;

§Pole, Miss H. J. Halfacre Piece, Boar’s Hill, Oxford.

{Pollock, Professor J. A., D.Sc., F.R.S. The University, Sydney,
N.S.W.

*Pontifex, Miss Catherine E. 7 MHurlingham-court, Fulham,

tPontypridd, Lord. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

§Pope, Alfred, F.S.A. South Court, Dorchester.

§Pope, F. G., D.Sc. East London College, Mile End-road, E. 1.

*Popr, Sir W. Jackson, K.B.E., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1914),
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Cambridge.
Chemical Laboratory, The University, Cambridge.

70

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Blection,

1901. §PorrmR, ALFRED W., B.Sc., F.R.S. 87 Parliament Hill-mansions,
Lissenden-gardens, N.W. 5.

1905. §Porrzr, J. B., D.Se., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Mining in the
McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1905. {Porter, Mrs. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

1911. §Porter, Mrs. W. H., M.Sc. Lehenagh House, Cork.

1883. t{Potrpr, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Arm-
strong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 13 Highbury, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1906. {Potter-Kirby, Alderman George. Clifton Lawn, York.

1919. *Potts, Arthur J. 247 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1907. {Potts, F. A. University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge.

1908. *Potts, George, Ph.D., M.Sc. 91 Park-road, Bloemfontein, South
Africa.

1886. *PouLton, Epwarp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.S. (Pres. D,
1896 ; Council, 1895-1901, 1905-12), Professor of Zoology in
the University of Oxford. Wykeham House, Banbury-road,
Oxford.

1905. {Poulton, Mrs. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1913. {Poulton, Miss. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. *Poulton, Edward Palmer, M.A. Wykeham Cottage, Woldingham,
Surrey. -

1894, *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 11, Portland-place, W. 1.

1887. {Pownall, George H. 20 Birchin-lane, E.C. 3.

1908. {Prarcur, R. Luoyp, B.A., M.R.I.A. Lisnamae, Rathgar, Dublin.

1907. *Pratn, Lieut.-Col. Sir Davin, C.LE., O.M.G., M.B., F.R.S. (Pres.
K, 1909 ; Council, 1907-14.) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

1884. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1913.

1904,
1892.
1906.
1914.

1914.
1903.
1888.

1875.
1913.

1897.
1914.

1908.

1919.
1909.

1889.
1876.
1881.
1884,

1919,

*PRANKERD, Miss Theodora Lisle. 25 Hornsey Lane-gardens,
N. 6.

§Prentice, Mrs. Manning. 27 Baldock-road, Letchworth.

{Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

tPressly, D. L. Coney-street, York.

tPreston, C. Payne. Australian Distillery Co., Byrne-street, South
Melbourae.

Preston, Miss E. W. 153 Barry-street, Carlton, Victoria.

§Price, Edward E. Oaklands, Oaklands-road, Bromley, Kent.

{Pricz, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. (Pres. F, 1895 ; Council, 1898 -
1904.) Oriel College, Oxford.

*Price, Rees. Walnuts, Broadway, Worcestershire.

§Price, T. Slater. Municipal Technical School, Suffolk-street,
Birmingham.

*Price, W. A., M.A. The Elms; Park-road, Teddington.

{Priestley, Professor H. J. Edale, River-terrace, Kangaroo Point,
Brisbane, Australia.

§Primstiey, J. H., B.Sc., Professor of Botany in the University of
Leeds.

*Primrose, Miss Ethel H. Culmore, Deering’s-road, Reigate.

*Prince, Professor E. E., LL.D., Dominion Commissioner of Misheries.
206 O’Connor-street, Ottawa, Canada.

*Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel-gardens, South
Hampstead, N.W. 6.

*PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W. 1.

§Procter, John William. Minster Hill, Huttons Ambo, York,

*Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. Care of E. C. S. Scholefield, Esq..
Provincial Librarian, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

*Proudman, J., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Liverpool.

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. al

of

Election.
1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Ilfracombe.
1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.

1919. §Pugh-Jones, David. 15 Colchester-avenue, Cardiff.

1903

1920.

. tPullen-Burry, Miss. Lyceum Club, 128 Piccadilly, W. 1.
M Pullman, Arthur. Wonersh, Hathaway-road, Southbourne.

1904, {Punnett, R. C., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Biology in the Uni-

1913.
1913.

1911.
1912.

1919.
1898.
1883.
1883.
1879.
1911.

1906.

1879.
1911.

1887.
1913.

1898.

1896.
1894.

1908.
1912.
1883.
1915.
1914.
1913.
1869.
1919.
1907.
1868,
1861.

1903.
1914.
1892.
1913.

1908.
1915.

versity of Cambridge. Caius College, Cambridge.

{Purser, G. Leslie. The University, Edinburgh.

+Purser, John, M.Sc. City and Guilds Engineering College, Exhi-
bition-road, S.W. 7.

{Purvis, J. E. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.

{Pycraft, Dr. W. P. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, 8.W. 7. ut

*Pye, David R. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C, 4.

{Pye-Smith, Mrs. 32 Queen Victoria-street, E.C. 4.

{Pye-Smith, R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

tPye-Smith, Mrs. R. J. 450 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

*Quiggin, Mrs. A. Hingston. Fitzwilliam House-road, Cambridge.

tRadford, R. Heber. 15 St. James’s-row, Sheffield.

§Rae, John T. National Temperance League, Paternoster House,
Paternoster-row, H.C. 4.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Stand, near Manchester.

§Railing, Dr. A. H., B.Sc. The General Electric Co., Ltd., Witton,
Birmingham.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, Regent’s Park,
N.W. 1

*Ramacz, Huau, M.A. The Technical Institute, Norwich.

*Rampaut, ArrHuR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.AS., M.R.LA.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

t{Rambaut, Mrs. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

tRamsay, Colonel R. G. Wardlaw. Whitehill, Rosewell, Midlothian,

tRamsay, Lady. Beechcroft, Hazlemere, High Wycombe.

{Ramsbottom, J. 61 Ennerdale-road, Richmond, Surrey.

tRamsbottom, J. W. 23 Rosebery-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Ramsden, William. Blacker-road, Huddersfield.

*Rance, H. Henniker, LL.D. 32 Duncan-terrace, Islington, N. 1.

§Rankin, W. Munn. 52 Fitzharris-avenue, Bournemouth. j

{Rankine, A. O., D.Sc. University College, W.C. 1.

*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

t{Ransomz, Arruur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. (Local Sec. 1861.)
Sunnyhurst, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

tRastall, R. H. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

tRathbone, Herbert R. 15 Lord-street, Liverpool.

*Rathbone, Miss May. 24 Dartmouth-row, Greenwich, S.E. 10.

tRaw, Frank, B.Sc., F.G.S. The University, Hdmund-street,
Birmingham.

*Raworth, Alexander. St. John’s Manor, Jersey.

tRawson, Christopher. 33 Manley-road, Manchester.

1905. {Rawson, Colonel Herbert E., O.B., R.E., F.R.G.S. Home Close,

Heronsgate, Herts,

72

Year of

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1919.

1883.
1897.

1912.

1907.
1913.
1896.

1913.
1914.
1884.
1915.
1916.

1891.
1894.
1903.

1911:
1906.

1910.
1901.
1904.
1881.
1903.
1892.

1908.

1901.
1901.
1909.
1904.
1912.
1897.
1892.
1887.
1919.

1912.
1875.

1891.
1903.
1914.

1889.
1906.

*RaytercH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., Sc.D.,*F.R.S., Professor
of Physics in the Imperial College of Science and Tech-
nology, 69 Cadogan-square, S.W. 1.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster.

*Rayner, Edwin Hartree, M.A. 40 Gloucester-road, Teddington,
Middlesex.

§Rayner, Mabel C.,"D.Sc. (Mrs. W. Neilson Jones), Padworth,

Heathside-crescent, Woking.

tRea, Carleton, B.C.L. 34 Foregate-street, Worcester.

§Read, Carveth, M.A. 73 Kensington Gardens-square, W. 2.

*ReaD, Sir Coartes H., LL.D., F.S.A. (Pres. H, 1899.) British
Museum, W.C. 1.

{Reade, Charles C. Attorney-General’s Office, Adelaide.

tReade, Mrs. C. C. Attorney-General’s Office, Adelaide.

tReadman, J. B., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Belmont, Hereford.

tReed, H. A. The Red House, Bowdon.

*Reed, Thomas, F.C.A., 7.8.8. 1 High West-street, Gateshead-
on-Tyne.

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. Dunscar, Oaken, near Wolverhampton.

{Reeves, H. A., F.R.G.S. (Pres. E, 1916.) Hillside, Reigate-
road, Reigate.

tRerves, Hon. W. Pemper, Ph.D. (Pres. F, 1911.) London
School of Economics, Clare Market, W.C. 2.

*Reichel, Sir Harry R., M.A., LL.D., Principal of University
College, Bangor. Penrallt, Bangor, North Wales.

*Reid, Alfred, M.B., M.R.C.S. The Cranes, Tooting, S.W.

*Reid, Andrew T. Auchterarder House, Auchterarder, Perthshire.

tReid, Arthur H. 30 Welbeck-street, W. 1.

tReid, Arthur §., M.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Glenalmond.

*Reid, Mrs. E. M., B.Sc. Pinewood, Milford-on-Sea, Hants.

{Rem, E. Waymours, B.A., M.B., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology
in University College, Dundee.

tRerp, Grorce ARcHDALL, M.B., C.M., F.R.S.E. 9 Victoria-road
South, Southsea.

*Reid, Hugh. Belmont, Springburn, Glasgow.

tReid, John. 7 Park-terrace, Glasgow.

{Reid, John Young. 329 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

tReid, P. J. Marton Moor End, Nunthorpe, R.S.O., Yorkshire.

§Reid, Professor R. W., M.D. 37 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

fReid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

{Reid, Thomas. Municipal Technical School, Birmingham.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

*Reilly, Jos., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.C.Sc.I. 1 Gilford-avenue, Sandy-
mount, Dublin.

§Reinheimer, Hermann. 103 King Charles-road, Surbiton.

{REmNcGoLD, A. W., C.B., M.A., F.R.S.(Council, 1890-95.) Long-
room, Stonehouse, Plymouth.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

*RENDLE, Dr. A. B., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1916.) 28
Holmbush-road, Putney, S.W. 15.

{Rennie, Professor E. H., M.A., D.Sc. The University, Adelaide,
Australia.

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W. 1.

tRennie, John, D.Sc. Natural History Department, University of
Aberdeen.

a a re

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 73

Year of
Election,

1916.

§Renouf, Louis P. W., B.A. Bute Laboratory and Museum, Rothesay,
' Isle of Bute.

. *Renton, James Hall. Rowfold Grange, Billingshurst, Sussex,

. {Rettie, Theodore. 10 Doune-terrace, Edinburgh.

. {Revnert, Taropors, M.Inst.C.E. P.O. Box 92, Johannesburg.

. [Rew, Sir R. H., K.C.B. (Pres. M, 1915.) Board of Agriculture

and Fisheries, 3 St. James’s-square, 8.W. 1.

. §Reyersbach, Louis. 29-30 Holborn Viaduct, E.C. 1.
. *Reynolds, A. H. 271 Lord-street, Southport.
. [Reynolds, J. H. Low Wood, Harborne, Birmingham.

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 8 Darnley-road, Notting Hill, W.

. TReynolds, 8. H., M.A., Se.D., Professor of Geology in the Univer-

sity of Bristol.

. §Reynolds, W. G. Waterhouse. Birstall Holt, near Leicester.
- *Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Villa

Marzaglia, Modena, Italy.

. §Rich, Miss Florence, M.A. Granville School, Granville-road,

Leicester.

. Richards, Rev. A. W. 12 Bootham-terrace, York.
. [Richardson, A. E. V.. M.A., B.Sc. Department of Agriculture,

Melbourne.

. {Richardson, E.J. Anster, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
. §Richardson, Harry. College of Technology, Manchester.
. {Richardson, Harry, M.Inst.E.E. Electricity Supply Department,

Dudhope Crescent-road, Dundee.

. Richardson, Hugh, M.A. The Gables, Elswick-road, Newcastle-on-

yne.
. *Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr,Swansea.
. Richardson, Lawrence. Stoneham, Beech Grove-road, Newcastle-

on-T'yne.

. *Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S. Montevideo, Chickerell,

near Weymouth.

. *Richardson, Owen Willans, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Wheatstone

Professor of Physies in King’s College, London, W.C. 2.

. *Rideal, Eric K., B.A., Ph.D. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

. *RipEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W. 1.

. {Ridgeway, Miss A.R. 45 West Cliff, Preston.

. §RipeEway, Sir Wixi, M.A., D.Litt., F.B.A. (Pres. H, 1908),

Professor of Archeology in the University of Cambridge.
Flendyshe, Fen Ditton, Cambridge.

. §Ridler, Miss C.C. Coniston, Hunsdon-road, Torquay.
. [Ripiey, E. P., F.G.S. (Local Sec, 1895.) Burwood, Westerfield-

road, Ipswich.

. *Rieg, Sir Epwarp, C.B., I.S.0., M.A. Malvern House, Hast Cliff,

Ramsgate.

. tRintoul, D., M:A. Clifton College, Bristol.

. §Rintoul, Miss L. J. Lahill, Largo, Fife.

. *Rintoul, William. Lauriston, Ardrossan, Ayrshire.

. {Ripper, William, Professor of Engineering in the University of
Sheffield

effield.

. *Rivers, W. H. R., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1911.) St. John’s

College, Cambridge.

. {Rivert, A. C. D., B.A., Ph.D. (General Organising Secretary

1914.) The University of Melbourne, Victoria.

. *Roaf, Herbert E., M.D., D.Sc., Professor of Physiology in the

University of London. 44 Rotherwick-road, Hendon,
N.W. 4.

74

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election.

1898. *Robb, Alfred A., M.A., Ph.D. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

1914. t{Robb, James Jenkins, M.D. Harlow, 19 Linden-road, Bournville,
Birmingham.

1896. {Roberts, Thomas J. Ingleside, Park-road, Huyton, near Liver-
pool.

1913. *Robertson, Andrew, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the
University of Bristol.

1916. §Robertson, G. 8., M.Se., F.C.S. East Anglian Institute of Agri-
culture, Chelmsford.

1897. {Robertson, Professor J. W., C.M.G., LL.D. The Macdonald
College, St. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Candda.

1919. *Robertson, Sir Robert, K.B.E., D.Sec., F.R.S. 29 Charlton-road,
Blackheath, 8. E.

1901. *Robertson, Robert, B.Se., M.Inst.C.E. Carnbooth, Carmunnock,
Lanarkshire.

1912. §Robertson, R. A., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Botany in
the University of St. Andrews.

1913. *Robins, Edward, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Lobito, Angola, Portu-
guese South-West Africa.

1913. {Robinson, A. H., M.D. St. Mary’s Infirmary, Highgate Hill,
N, 19.

1915. §Robinson, Arthur, Professor of Psychology in the University of
Durham. Observatory House, Durham.

1903. { Robinson, G. H. 1 Weld-road, Southport.

1902. {Robinson, Herbert C. Holmfield, Aigburth, Liverpool.

1911. {Robinson, J. J. ‘ West Sussex Gazette’ Office, Arundel.

1902. {Robinson, James, M.A., F.R.G.S. Dulwich College, Dulwich,
S.E.

1912. {Robinson, James. Care of W. Buckley, Esq., Tynemouth-road,
North Shields.

1888. tRobinson, John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

1908. *Robinson, John Gorges, B.A. The Hoo, Windermere.

1910. {Robinson, John Hargreaves. Cable Ship ‘ Norseman,’ Western
Telegraph Co., Caixa no Correu No. 117, Pernambuco,
Brazil.

1919. *Robinson, Mrs. Margaret Stafford. The Willows, Gosforth,
Northumberland.

1899. *Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.C.E. Struan, Fassett-road, Kingston-
on-Thames.

1914. {Robinson, Professor R., D.Sc. The University, Liverpool.

1919. §Robinson, Richard. Pine Cottage, Church Stretton, Shrop-

shire.

1904. {Robinson, Theodore R. 25 Campden Hill-gardens, W. 8.

1909. {Robinson, Captain W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada,
1909. {Robinson, Mrs. W. 264 Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

1918. *Robinson, Wilfrid, B.Sc., M.Sc., Lecturer in Economie Botany in

Victoria University, Manchester.

1919. §Robson, Henry. 21 Meyrick Park-crescent, Bournemouth.

1912. {Robson, W. G. 50 Farrington-street, Dundee.

1915. §Roby, Frank Henry. New Croft, Alderley Edge.

1885. *Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

1905. {Roebuck, William Denison, F.L.S. 259 Hyde Park-road,

1908

Leeds.
tRogers, A.G. L. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 8 Whitehall-
place, S.W. 1.

1913, [Rogers, Sir Hallewell. Greville Lodge, Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston,

Birmingham.

Ve

LIST OF MEMBERS : 1919. 75

Year of
Election.

1919.
1890.

1906.
1909.

1884.
1876.

1915.
1905.
1883.
1894.

1905.
1905.

1900.

1914.

1914.

1914.

1909.
1908.

1902.
1915.
1901.

1891.
1911.

1901.

1899.
1884,
1905.
1903.
1916.

1890.

1910.

1919.
1901.
1904.
1909.

1896.

1911.
1912.
1904.

*Rogers, H. §., B.A. The Grammar School, Beverley, Yorks.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Leeds. 6 Hollin-lane, Leeds.

tRogers, Reginald A. P. Trinity College, Dublin.

tRogers, Hon. Robert. Roslyn-road, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Rogers, Walter. Care of Capital and Counties Bank, Falmouth.

fRoxuir, Sir A. K., LL.D., D.C.L., Litt.D. St. Anne’s Hill, near
Chertsey-on-Thames, Surrey.

tRoper, R. E., M.A. Bedale School, Petersfield.

tRose, Miss G. Mabel. Ashley Lodge, Oxford.

Meee “a Holland, Litt.D. Walsingham, Millington-road, Cam-

ridge.

*Rosz, Sir T. K., D.Sc., Chemist and Assayer to the Royal Mint.
6 Royal Mint, E. 1.

*Rosedale, Rev. H. G., D.D., F.S.A. 7 Gloucester-street, S.W. 1.

*Rosedale, Rev. W. E., D.D. St. Mary Bolton’s Vicarage, South
Kensington, S.W. 10.

fRosennamn, Watrer, B.A., F.RB.S. Warrawee, Coombe-lane,
Kingston Hill, Surrey.

fRosenhain, Mrs. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

{Rosenhain, Miss. Warrawee, Coombe-lane, Kingston Hill, Surrey.

tRoss, Alexander David, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Mathematics and Physics in the University of Western
Australia, Perth, Western Australia.

fRoss, D. A. 116 Wellington-crescent, Winnipeg, Canada.

tRoss, Sir John, of Bladensburg, K.C.B. Rostrevor House,
Rostrevor, Co. Down.

fRoss, John Callender. 46 Holland-street, Campden-hill, W. 8.

tRoss, Roderick. Edinburgh.

tRoss, Colonel Sir Ronatp, K.C.B., F.R.S. 36 Harley House,
Regent’s Park, N.W. :

*Roth, H. Ling. Briarfield, Stump Cross, Halifax, Yorkshire.

*Rothschild, Right Hon. Lord, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Tring Park,

Tring.

“Rottenburg, Paul, LL.D. Care of Messrs. Leister, Bock, & Co.,
Glasgow.

*Round, J.C.,M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, S.E. 26.

*Rouse, M. L., B.A. 2 Exbury-road, Catford, S.E.

tRousselet, Charles F. Fir Island, Bittacy Hill, Mill Hill, N.W.

*Rowe. Arthur W., M.B., F.G.S. Shottendane, Margate.

*Rowell, Sir Herbert B., K.B.E. The Manor House, Jesmond,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tRowley, Walter, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood
Leeds.

Rowse, Arthur A., B.A., B.Sc. 190 Musters-road, West Bridgford,
Nottinghamshire.

§Rowson, 8. 1 Fawley-road, Hampstead, N.W. 6.

*Rudorf, C.C. G.,Ph.D.,B.Sc. 52Cranley-gardens, Muswell Hill,N.10.

{Ruhemann, Dr. 8., F.R.S. The Elms, Adams-road, Cambridge.

{Rumball, Rev. M. C., B.A. Morden, Manitoba, Canada.

*Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. Terras Hill, Lostwithiel.

{Rundle, Henry, F.R.C.S. 13 Clarence-parade, Southsea.

*Rusk, Robert R., M.A., Ph.D. 4 Barns-crescent, Ayr. :

{Russztz, E. J., O.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. M, 1916; Council,

1916— .) Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden.
Herts.

76 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1883. *Russell, J. W. 28 Staverton-road, Oxford.

1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Dover-street, W. 1.

1908. {Russell, Robert. 51 Kenilwoith-square, Rathgar, Dublin.

1908. {RusseLt, Right Hon. Sir T. W., Bart. Olney, Terenure, Co.
Dublin.

1886. {Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

1909. *Rutherford, Hon. Alexander Cameron. Strathcona, Alberta,
Canada.

1907. §RUTHERFORD, Sir Ernest, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1909 ;
Council, 1914— ), Professor, Trinity College, Cambridge.

1914. t{Rutherford, Lady. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1914. {Rutherford, Miss Eileen. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1909. {Ruttan, Colonel H. N. Armstrong’s Point, Winnipeg, Canada.

1919. §Rutter, Dr. G. H. 22 Poole-road, Bournemouth.

1908. {Ryan, Hugh, D.Sc. Omdurman, Orwell Park, Rathgar, Dublin.

1909, {Ryan, Thomas. Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

1906. *Ryme=r, Sir JosepH Sykes. The Mount, York.

1903. {Sapuzr, M. E., C.B., LL.D. (Pres. L. 1906), Vice-Chancellor of the
University of Leeds. 41 Headingley-lane, Leeds.

1883. tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1903. tSagar, J. The Poplars, Savile Park, Halifax.

1914. {St. John, J. R. Botanic Gardens, Melbourne.

1919. §Salisbury, Dr. E. J., F.L.S. The Briars, Crosspath, Radlett, Herts.

1873. *Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

1911. §Sampson, Professor R. A., M.A., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. :

1901. ¢{Samuel, John S., J.P., F.R.S.E. City Chambers, Glasgow.

1907. *Sand, Dr. Henry J. 8. The Sir Jchn Cass Technical Institute,
Jewry-street, Aldgate, H.C. 3.

1919.**Sandberg, C. P., M.Inst.E. 40 Grosvenor-mansions, 8.W. 1.

1919. §Sanderson, G. Meredith. Broxbourne, Parkstone, Dorset.

1915. *Sandon, Harold. 51 Dartmouth Park-hill, Kentish Town, N.W. 5.

1896. §Saner, John Arthur, M.Inst.C.E. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

1896. {Saner, Mrs. Toolerstone, Sandiway, Cheshire.

1915. §Saniter, E.H. Care of Messrs. Steel, Peech, & Tozer, Sheffield.

1903. {Sankey, Captain H. R., C.B., R.E., M.Inst.C.E. Palace-cham bers,
9 Bridge-street, S.W. 1.

1886. tSankey, Percy E. 44 Russell-square, W.C. 1.

1919. §Sarasasna, Lieut.-Colonel Phra. Care of Messrs. Barrow, Brown
& Co., Ltd., Bangkok, Siam.

1907. tSargent, H.C. Fritchley, near Derby.

1914. §Sargent, O. H. P.O. Box 34, York, Western Australia.

1919. §Sassoon, David C. 28 Oxford-street, Manchester.

1903. *SaunpERsS, Miss E. R., F.L.8. (Council, 1914- .) Newnham
College, Cambridge.

1887. §Sayor, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D. (Pres. H, 1887), Professor of
Assyriology in the University of Oxford. Queen’s College,
Oxford.

1906. iSayer, Dr. Ettie. 35 Upper Brook-street, W. 1.

1883. *Scarborough, George. 1 Westfield-terrace, Chapel Allerton,
Leeds.

1903. {Scarisprick, Sir CHartes, J.P. Scarisbrick Lodge, Southport.

1919. *Scatcherd, Miss F. R. 14 Park-square, N.W.

1919. §Scattergood, Joseph. 92 Richmond Wood-road, Bournemouth.

~I
=I

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919.

Year of

Electio
1879.

1914.
1914.
1888.
1905.
1919.
1873.
1883.
1905.
1913.
1881.
1916.
1919.
1878.
1889.

1915.
1902.

1895.
1883.
1890.

1906.
1920.

1914.
1907.

1911.
1913.
1909.
1910.
1895.

1892.

1913

nm.

*Scuarer, Sir E. SuHarpry, LL.D., D.Sc., M.D., F.R S. (PRresrpEnt,
1912; GenrRAL Secrerary, 1895-1900; Pres. I, 1894;
Council, 1887-93), Professor of Physiology in the University
of Edinburgh. Marly Knowe, North Berwick.

tSchafer, Lady. Marly Knowe, North Berwick.

{Scharff, J. W. Knockranny, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

*Scuarrr, Roperr F., Ph.D., B.Se., F.L.S., Acting Director of
the National Museum, Dublin. Knockranny, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

{ScHonnanD, 8., Ph.D. Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape
Colony.

*Schott, Miss H. C. 1 Southern-road, West Southbourne, Bourne-
mouth.

*Scuustmr, Sir Arrnur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (PRusipEent
Poe Pres. A, 1892; Council, 1887-93.) Yeldall, Twyford.
Berks.

*Sclater, W. Luiley, M.A., F.Z.S. Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

tSclater, Mrs. W. L. Odiham Priory, Winchfield.

§Scoble, Walter A., B.Sc., A.M.Inst.C.E. The Woolwich Poly-
technic, William-street, S.E. 18.

*Scorr, Aexanprer. M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper
Hamilton-terrace, N.W. 8.

§Scott, Alexander, M.A., D.Sc. Central Technical School, Stoke-on-
Trent.

§Scorr, A. B. B., J.P. (Local Sec. 1919). 9 Wimborne-road,
Bournemouth.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

*Scott, D. H., M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (GENERAL
SEorETARY, 1900-03; Pres. K, 1896.) East Oakley House,
Oakley, Hants; and Athenzum Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1.

tScott, Rev. Canon J. J. 65 Ardwick-green, Manchester.

{Scorr, Wit14m R., D.Phil., Litt.D., LL.D., F.B.A. (Pres. F, 1915;
Council, 1916- _), Professor of Political Economy in the
University of Glasgow. 8 University-gardens, Glasgow.

tScott-Elliot, Professor G. F., M.A.. B.Sc., F.L.S. Newton, Dumfries.

{Scrivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

*Searle, G. F. C., Sc.D., F.R.S. Wyncote, Hills-road, Cam-
bridge.

*See, T. J. J.. AM., Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Mathematics,
U.S. Navy. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, California.

MR Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Professor of Physics in University

College, Cardiff.

{Selby, H. B. 8 O’Connell-street, Sydney, N.S.W.

§Srnieman, Dr. C.G., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1915), Professor of Ethnology
in the University of London. The Mound, Long Crendon,
Thame, Oxon.

*Seligman, Mrs. C. G. The Mound, Long Crendon, Thame, Oxon. |

§Seligmann, Miss Emma A. 61 Kirklee-road, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

{Sellars, H. Lee. 225 Fifth-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

{Seton, R. S., B.Sc. The University, Leeds.

*Seton-Karr, H. W. 8 St. Paul’s-mansions, Hammersmith, W. 6.

*Sewarb, A. C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. K, 1903 ; Council,
1901-07; Local Sec. 1904), Master of Downing Coilege,
Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. The

Master’s Lodge, Downing College, Cambridge.
. {Seward, Mrs. The Master’s Lodge, Downing College, Cambridge.

78

Year of
Election

1914.
1899.

1891.
1905.
1902.

1913.
1901.

1906.
1878.

1904.

1914.
1910.
1889.
1883.

1883.
1915,
1920.
1912.
1900.
1908.

1883.
1883,
1896.

1888.
1908.
1887.

1897.
1882.

1917.
1904.

1919:
1910.
1889.
1920.

1902.
1883.
1877.
1914.

1913.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

{Seward. Miss Phyllis. The Master’s Lodge, Downing College,
Cambridge.

{Seymour, Henry J., B.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the
National University of Ireland. Earlsfort-terrace, Dublin.

{Shackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Shackleford, W. C. Barnt Green, Worcestershire.

{Suarressury, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.C.V.O.
Belfast Castle, Belfast.

{Shakespear, G. A., D.Se., M.A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield,
Worcestershire.

*Shakespear, Mrs. G. A. 21 Woodland-road, Northfield, Worcester-
shire.

{Shann, Frederick. 6 St. Leonard’s, York.

{Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Lawnside, Brocken-
hurst, Hants.

{Sharples, George. 181 Great Cheetham-street West, Higher
Broughton, Manchester.

{Shaw, A. G. Merton-crescent, Albert Park, Victoria, Australia.

*Suaw, J. J. Sunnyside, Birmingham-road, West Bromwich. |

*Shaw, Mrs. M.S., B.Sc. Brookhayes, Exmouth.

*Snaw, Sir Napier, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1908; Pres. L,
1919; Council 1895-1900, 1904-07.) 10 Moreton-gardens,
South Kensington, 8.W. 5. 3

+Suaw, Lady. 10 Moreton-gardens, South Kensington, 8.W. 5.

§Shaw, Dr. P. E. University College, Nottingham.

MR Shaxby, Capt. J. H. B.Sc. University College, Cardiff.

tShearer, Dr. C., F.R.S. Clare College, Cambridge.

§SHEPPARD, THomas, F'.G.S. The Municipal Museum, Hull.

+Sheppard, W. F., Sc.D., LL.M. Board of Education, White
hall, S.W.

tSherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Sherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

{Suzreinerton, C. §., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1904; Council,
1907-14), Professor of Physiology in the University of Oxford.
9 Chadlington-road, Oxford.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A., F.S.A. St. John’s Hospital, Bath.

*Shickle, Miss Mabel G. M. 9 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

*SureLey, Sr Artuur E.,G.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. D,
1909 ; Council, 1904-11). Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Suorsz, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Suorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 6 Kingswood-road, Upper Nor-
wood, S.E. 19.

§Shorter, Dr. S. A. The University, Leeds.

*Shrubsall, F. C., M.A., M.D. Public Health Department, L.C.C.,
2 Savoy-hill, W.C. 2.

*Shurlock, F. W., B.A., B.Sc. 3 Lime-avenue, Derby.

{Shuttleworth, T. E. 5 Park-avenue, Riverdale-road, Sheffield.

{Sibley, Walter K., M.A., M.D. 6 Cavendish-place, W. 1.

MR Silby, Principal T. Frankland, D.Sc. University College,

Swansea. 4

{Siddons, A. W., M.A. Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex.

*Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Srpawick, Mrs. Henry (Pres. L, 1915). 27 Grange-road, Cam-
bridge. ;

*Srpewick, N. V., M.A., D.Sc. Lincoln College, Oxford.

—— ee a

———

a eS

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 79

Year of
Election.

1873.

1905.
1903.
1915.

1914.
1863.
1909.
1913.
1901.

1907.

1909.
1909.

1884.

1909,
1912,
1907.
1905.

1914.

1902.
1906.
1883.
1919.
1910.
1916.
1898.

1905.
1913.
1913.
1915.
1919.
1916.
1915.
1915.
1903.
1902.

1911.
1911.

1914.
1892.

1908.
1897.

1901.

*STEMENS, ALEXANDER, M.Inst.C.E. Palace Place-mansions, Ken-
sington Court, W. 8.

{Siemens, Mrs. A. Palace Place-mansions, Kensington Court, W. 8.

*Silberrad, Dr. Oswald. Buckhurst Hill, Essex.

*Smmon, Councillor E. D. (Local Sec., 1915.) 20 Mount-street,
Manchester.

*Simpson, Dr. G.C., F.R.S. Meteorological Department, Simla, India.

{Simpson, J. B., F.G.S. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.

{Simpson, Professor J. C. McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

*Simpson, J. J.,M.A.,D.Se. 62 Academy-street, Elgin.

*Simpson, Professor J. Y., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 25 Chester-street,
Edinburgh.

{Simpson, Lieut.-Colonel R. J. S., C.M.G. 66 Shooter’s Hill-road,
Blackheath, S.E. 3.

*Simpson, Samuel, B.Sc. Box No. 53, Kampala, Uganda.

{Simpson, Sutherland, M.D. Cornell University Medical College,
Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

*Simpson, Professor W. J. R,, C.M.G.,.M.D, 31 York-terrace.
Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

Sinclair, J. D. 77 Spence-street, Winnipeg.

{Sinclair, Sir John R.G., Bart.,D.S.0, Barrock House, Wick, N.B.

*Sircar, Dr. Amrita Lal, L.M.S., F.C.S. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta.

*Ssoaren, Professor H. Natural History Museum, Stockholm,
Sweden.

*Skeats, E. W., D.Se., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Uni-
versity, Melbourne.

tSkeffingion, J. B., M.A., LL.D. Waterford.

tSkerry, H. A. St. Paul’s-square, York.

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

*Skinner, Arthur. 92 Northumberland-park, N.17.

{Skinner, J.C. 76 Ivy Park-road, Sheffield.

{Skinner, Leslie 8. Bill Quay Shipyard, Bill Quay-on-Tyne.

{Sxrnver, Srpney, M.A. (Local Sec. 1904.) South-Western
Polytechnic, Manresa-road, Chelsea, S.W.

*Skyrme, C. G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, S.E.

*Skyrme, Mrs. C.G. Baltimore, 6 Grange-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E.

*StapE, R. E., D.Sc. University College, Gower-street, W.C. 1.

{Slater, Gilbert. Ruskin College, Oxford.

*Slater, Miss J. M. W., D.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

tSmall, James. Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Smalley, J. Norton Grange, Castleton, Manchester.

§Smalley, William. Springfield, Castleton, Manchester.

*Smallman, Raleigh 8. Eliot Lodge, Albemarle-road, Beckenham.

ISmedley-Machean, Mrs. Ida. 68 Overstrand-mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W.

{Smiles, Professor Samuel, O.B.E., D.Se., The Quarry, Sander-
stead-road, Sanderstead, Surrey.

§Smith, A. Malins, M.A. St. Audrey’s Mill House, Thetford,
Norfolk.

{Smith, Professor A. Micah. School of Mines, Ballarat, Victoria.

{Smith, Alexander, B.Sc.,Ph.D., F.R.S.E. Department of Chemistry,
Columbia University, New York, U.S.A.

tSmith, Alfred. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin.

{Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.

*Smirn, Miss Annie Lorrary. 20 Talgarth-road, West Kensing-
ton, W. 14.

80

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1914.
1889.

1910.
1900.
1913.
1908.
1915.

1886.
1901.

L911.
1912.
1897.

1914.
1903.
1910.
1914.
1889.

1919.
1860.
1876.
1902.

1903.
1915.
1914.
1914.
1910.
1913.

1910.
1896.
1911.
1885.
1883.

1909.
1914. ,
1919.
1908.

1888.

1913.
1919.

1905.
1905.
1879.

{Smith, Arthur Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*SmirH, Professor C. Micuiz, C.1E., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.AS.,
Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India.

{Smith, Charles. 11 Winter-street, Sheffield.

{Smith, E.J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.

*Smith, Miss E. M. 40 Owlstone-road, Newnham, Cambridge.

{Smith, E. Shrapnell. 7 Rosebery-avenue, E.C. 1.

{Smrru, E. W. Fraser. (Local Sec. 1916.) 2 Jesmond-gardens,
Newcastle-on-Tyne. ‘

*Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.

§Smith, F. B. Care of A. Croxton Smith, Esq., Burlington House,
Wandle-road, Upper Tooting, S.W. 17.

tSmith, F. E., O.B.E. National Physical Laboratory, Teddington,
Middlesex.

{Smith, Rev. Frederick. 10 Mayo-road, Sherwood Rise, Notting-
ham.

{Smira, G. Exxnior, M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. H, 1912), Professor of
Anatomy in University College, London, W.C.

{Smith, Mrs. G. Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

*Smitu, Professor H. B. Luns, M.A. The University, Bristol.

§Smith, H. Bompas, M.A. Victoria University, Manchester.

{Smith, H. G. Technological Museum, Sydney, N.S.W.

*SmitH, Sir H. LLEWELLYN, G.C.B., M.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. (Pres. F,
1910.) Board of Trade, S.W. 1.

*Smith, Professor J. G. The University, Birmingham.

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 30 York-avenue, Hove.

*§mith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

tSmith, J. Lorrain, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the
University of Edinburgh.

*Smith, James. Pinewood, Crathes, Aberdeen.

§Smith, Joseph. 28 Altom-street, Blackburn.

tSmith, Miss L. Winsford, Kodaikanal, South India.

{Smith, Latimer Elliot. 4 Willow Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

{Smith, Samuel. Central Library, Sheffield.

{Smith, Walter Campbell. British Museum (Natural History),
Cromwell-road, S.W. 7.

{Smith, W. G., B.Sc., Ph.D. College of Agriculture, Edinburgh.

*Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 104-122 City-road, H.C. 1

tSmith, W. Parnell. The Grammar School, Portsmouth.

*Smith, Watson. 34 Upper Park-road, Haverstock Hill, N.W. 3.

{SmrrHeLts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1907 ; Local Sec. 1890),
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds.

{Smylie, Hugh. 13 Donegall-square North, Belfast.

{Smyth, John, M.A., Ph.D. Teachers’ College, Carlton, Victoria.

§Smyth, W. Johnson, M.D. Perleright, Bournemouth.

§Smythe, J. A., Ph.D., D.Sc. 10 Queen’s-gardens, Benton, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

*Snape, H. Luoyp, O.B.E., D.Se., Ph.D. Fernléa, Mill-lane,
Torquay.

*Snell, Sir John, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W. 1.

tSoames, Rev. H. A., M.A., F.Z.S. Hazelcroft, Tiger-lane, Mason’s-
hill, Bromley.

tSoppy, F., M.A., F.R.S.

tSollas, Miss I. B. J., B.Sc. Newnham College, Cambridge.

*Sottas, W. J., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1900 ; Council, 1900-03), Professor of Geology in the Univer-
sity of Oxford. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

LIST OF MEMBERS ;: 1919. $i

Year of
Election.

1883. tSollas, Mrs. 48 Woodstock-road, Oxford.

1915. {Somers, Edward. 4 Leaf-square, Pendleton.

1900 *SomervittE, W., D.Sc., F.L.S., (Pres. M., 1919), Sibthorpian
Professor of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford.
121 Banbury-road, Oxford.

1916. §Soulby, Rev. C. F. H., M.A. 7 Victoria-road, Waterloo, Liverpool.

1919. §Sowerbutts, T. W. Manchester Geographical Society, 16 St.
Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

1883. tSpanton, W. D. Ripon Lodge, Hastings.

1913. §Sparke, Thomas Sparrow. Inglefield, Riley-avenue, St. Anne’s-
on-Sea.

1909. {Sparling, Rev. J. W.,D.D. 159 Kennedy-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

1893. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

1910. {Spearman, C. Birnam, Guernsey.

1912. t{Speers, Adam, B.Sc., J.P. Holywood, Belfast.

1914. {Sp=nceR, Professor Sir W. Batpwry, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc.,
F.R.S. The University, Melbourne.

1919. §Spencer, W. K., M.A., D.Sc. The Gables, Constable-road, Ipswich.

1910. {Spicer, Rev. E. C. Heckfield Vicarage, Winchfield, Hants.

1894. {Spiers, A. H. Huntercombe, 51 The Avenue, St. Margaret’s-on-
Thames.

1864, *SprLtEeR, JoHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N. 1.

1909, {Sprague, D. E. 76 Edmonton-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

1854. *Spracun, THomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. West Holme,
Woldingham, Surrey.

1915. {Squier, George Owen. 43 Park-lane, W. 1.

1888. *Stacy, J. Sargeant. 152 Shoreditch, E. 1.

1919. *Stamp, L. Dudley. King’s College, W.C. 2.

1914. *Stanley, Hon. Sir Arthur, K.C.M.G. State Government House,
Melbourne.

1894. *STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc., Professor of Metallurgy in McGill
University, Montreal, Canada.

1909. Baeeteann Edgar. Mines Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa,

anada,

1900. *SransFIELD, Professor H., D.Sc. Hartley University College,
Southampton.

1913. §Stanton, T. E., CBE. D.Sc, F.R.S. National Physical
Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex.

1911. {Srapr, Dr. Orro, F.R.S. Royal Gardens, Kew.

1915. t{Stapledon, R. G. The Faugan, Llanbadarn, Aberystwyth.

1899. {Srartine, K. H., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I. 1909; Council, 1914- },
Professor of Physiology in University College, London,
W.C. 1.

1898. {Stather, J. W., F.G.S. Brookside, Newland Park, Hull.
1907. §Staynes, Frank. 36-38 Silver- street, Leicester.
1900. *Sruap, J. E.,D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1910.) 11 Queen’s-terrace,
Middlesbrough.
188]. {Stead, W. H. Beech-road, Reigate.
1892. *Steppine, Rev. THomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge,
The Common, Tunbridge Wells.
1896. *SrzBBine, W. P. D., F.G.S. Frith Park, Walton Heath, Surrey.
1919. §Steel, Edgar. Hinton Court, Groves-road, Bournemouth.
1914. {SrEexz, Professor B. D.,F.R.S. The University, Brisbane, Australia.
1911. {Steele, L. J.. M.L.E.E. H.M. Dockyard, Portsmouth,
1908. {Steele, Lawrence Edward, M.A., M.R.I.A. 18 Crosthwaite-park
iii East, Kingstown, Co. Dublin
919 F

82

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1912.

1911.

1909.
1920.
1915.
1902.
1910.
1911.
1909.
1908.

1906.
1900.

1880.
1915.
1916.

1916.
1909.

1920.

1875.

1901

1901.
1915.
1911.
1913.

1914.
1914.

1876.

1904.
1906.

1901.

1883.
1898.

1899.
1905.

1895.

1908.
1878.

1883.

§StraGaLL, J. E. A., M.A., F.R.S.E.. Professor of Mathematics
in University College, Dundee. Woodend, Perth-road,
Dundee.

{Stein, Sir Mare Aurel, K.C.LE., D.Se., D.Litt. Merton College,
Oxford

{Steinkopj, Max. 667 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

MR Stephens, Lt.-Col. H. F., R.E. Tonbridge, Kent.

§Stephens, Sir William. 2 Cathedral-street, Manchester.

{Stephenson, G. Grianan, Glasnevin, Dublin.

*STEPHENSON, H. K. Banner Cross Hall, Sheffield.

{Stern, Moritz. 241 Bristol-road, Birmingham.

{Stethern, G. A. Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada.

*Steven, Alfred Ingram. M.A., B.Sc. 16 Great Clyde-street,
Glasgow.

tStevens, Miss C.O. The Plain, Foxcombe Hill, Oxford.

{Srevens, FrepERIcK. (Local Sec. 1900.) Town Clerk’s Office,
Bradford.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpyl, R.S.O.

tStevens, Marshall. Trafford Hall, Manchester.

Stevenson, Miss Elizabeth Frances. 24 Brandling-park, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

Stewart, A. W., D.Sc. 3 Annfield-road, Partick Hill, Glasgow.

tStewart, David A., M.D. 407 Pritchard-avenue, Winnipeg,
Canada.

MR Stewart, Lt.-Col F. H. M.D., D.Sc. Glenlea, Hindhead,
Surrey.

*Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Junior Constitutional Club,
Piccadilly, W. 1.

*Stewart, John Joseph, M.A., B.Sc. 6 Gordon-place, W.C.

*Stewart ,Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. St. George’s-chambers, Cape Town.

tStewart, Walter. Ventnor Street Works, Bradford.

{Stibbs, H. A. Portsea Island Gas Company, Commercial-road,
Portsmouth.

*SrinEs, WauTeER, M.A., Professor of Botany in University College,
Reading. .

{Stillwell, J. L.. M.Sc. University of Adelaide, South Australia.

tStirling, Miss A. M. Care of Messrs. Elder & Co., 7 St. Helen’s-
place, Bishopsgate, H.C. 3.

{Srrrtive, Witt1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Victoria University, Manchester.

{Stobbs, J. T. Dunelm, Basford Park, Stoke-on-Trent.

*Stobo, Mrs. Annie. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbarton-
shire, N.B.

*Stobo, Thomas. Somerset House, Garelochhead, Dumbartonshire,
N.B

*StockER, W. N., M.A. Brasenose College, Oxford.

*Stokes, Professor George J.. M.A. 5 Fernhurst-villas, Colleze-
road, Cork.

*Stone, Rev. F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Stoneman, Miss Bertha, D.Sc. Huguenot College, Wellington, Cape
Province.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 20 Reynolds-close, Hampstead Way,N.W.4.

*Stoney, Miss Florence A.. M.D. 4 Nottingham-place, W. 1.

*Stonsy, G. Gmraup, F.R.S. (Pres. G, 1916), Professor of
Mechanical Engineering in the University and in the School
of Technology, Manchester.

Stopes, Mrs. 4 Kemplay-road, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 83

Year of
Election.

1903. *Sropzs, Mari C., D.Se., Ph.D., F.L.S. Craigvara, Belmont-
road, Leatherhead.

1915. {Stopford, John S. B. Woodhank, Higher Fence-road, Macclesfield.

1910. {Storey, Gilbert. Department of Agriculture, Cairo.

1887. *Storey, H. L. Bailrigg, Lancaster.

1888. *Stothert, Sir Percy K., K.B.E. 1 Lansdown-place, West Bath.

1905. *Stott, Clement H., F.G.S. P.O. Box 7, Pietermaritzburg, Natal.

1881. {Srranan, Sir AupRey, K.B.E., M.A., Se.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres.
C, 1904; Council, 1916- _), Director of the Geological Survey
of Great Britain. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W. 1.

1905. {Strange, Harold F. P.O. Box 2527, Johannesburg.

1908. tein F. J. M., D.Sc., M.A. Gonville and Caius College, Cam-

ridge.

1914. {Street, ie Justice. Judges’ Chambers, Supreme Court, Sydney,

N.S.V

1906. *Srromever, ©. E., O.B.E. 9 Mount street, Albert-square,
Manchester.
1883. iStrong, Henry J.,M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.
1898. *Strong, W. M., M.D. Port Moresby, Papua, via Australia.
1887. *Stroud, H., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Armstrong
College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1887. *Srroup, Witu1aM, D.Sc. Care of Messrs. Barr & Stroud, Annies-
land, Glasgow.
1876. *Stuart, Charles Maddock, M.A. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford,
S.E

1909. iSruparr, Sir Frederic. | Meterological Service, Toronto, Canada.

1879. *Styring, Robert. Brinkclifle Tower, Sheffield.

1891. *Sudborough, Professor J. J., Ph.D., D-Se., ¥.L.C. Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, India.

1902, §Sully, H. T. Scottish Widows-buildings, Bristol.

1911. {Summers, A. H., M.A. 16 St. Andrew’s-road, Southsea.

1887. *Sumpner, W. E., D.Sc. Technical School, Suffolk-street, Bir-
mingham.

1919. §Sutcliffie, G. E. 113 West Side, Clapham Common, 8.W.

1908. {Sutherland, Alexander. School House, Gersa, Watten, Caithness.

1919. *Sutherland, G. K., M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Botany in University
College, Southampton.

1913. §Sutton, A. W. Winkfield Lodge, Wimbledon Common, 8.W.

1914. {Sution, Harvey, M.D., B.Sc. Trinity College, Parkville, Victoria.

1911. §Sutton, Leonard, F.L.S. Hillside, Reading.

1911. {Sutton, W. L., F.C. Hillcroft, Eaton, Norwich.

1905. tSwan, Miss Mary E. Overhill, Warlingham, Surrey.

1911. *Swann, Dr. W. F. G., Professor of Physics in the University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, U.S.A.

1897. tSwanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

1914. §Sweet, George, F.G.S. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria, Australia,

1914. {Sweet, Miss Georgina, D.Se. The Close, Brunswick, Victoria,
Australia.

1913. {Swift, Richard H. 4839 St. Lawrence-avenue, Chicago.

1914. {Swinburne, Hon. George. 139 Collins-street, Melbourne

1887. §Swmeurne, James, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W. l.

1913. {Swinnerton, H. H. 441 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

1902. *Sykes, Miss Ella C. Elcombs, Lyndhurst, Hampshire.

1913. tSykes, Godfrey G. Fairlight, Grosvenor-road, Wallington.

1896. *Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 19 Westbourne-grove, Scarborough.

1902. *Sykes, Major P. Molesworth, C.M.G. Elcombs, Lyndhurst,
Hampshire.

F2

84

Year

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Election.

1906.
1914.
1903.
1885.

1914.
1908.

1910.
1916.
1912.
1904.
1913.
1903.
1892,

1908.

1902.

1913.
1914.

1887.
1906.
1884.
1882.
1914.

1913.
1915.
1860.
1894.
1901.
1919.
1858.
1885.

1906.
1879.

1913.
1916.

1892.
1883.
1883.
1882.

1919.
1915.
1906.
1906.
1870.

‘{Sykes, T. P., M.A. 4 Gathorne-street, Great Horton, Bradford.

tSyme, Mrs. D. York. Balwyn, Victoria.

§Symington, Howard W. Brooklands, Market Harborough.

{Symineton, Jounson, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. (Pres. H, 1903),
Professor of Anatomy in Queen’s University, Belfast.

tSymington, Miss N. Queen’s University, Belfast.

tSynnott, Nicholas J. Furness, Naas, Co. Kildare.

*Tait, John, M.D., D.Se. 44 Viewforth-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Talbot, John. 4 Brandling-park, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

tTalbot, P. Amaury. Abbots Morton, Inkherrow, Worcestershire.

§Tallack, H. T. Rocklands, Fairfield-road, Croydon.

{tTangye, William. Westmere, Edgbaston Park-road, Birmingham.

*Tanner, Miss Ellen G. 8 Cavendish-place, Bath.

*TansLEY, ARTHUR G., M.A., F.R.S. Grantchester, near
Cambridge.

{TartEeton, Francis A., LL.D. 24 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.

{tTate, Miss. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

§Tattersall, W. M., D.Sc. The Museum, The University, Manchester.

*Taylor, C. Z. Rolyat, 407 Lizar-street, Ballarat, Victoria, Aus.
tralia. :

tTaylor, G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

{Taylor, H. Dennis. Stancliffe, Mount-villas, York.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge:

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.

{Taylor, J. M., M.A. Public Service Board, 4 O’Connell-street,
Sydney, N.S.W.

tTaylor, J.S. The Corinthians, Warwick-road, Acock’s Green.

§Taylor, J. W., D.Sc. Skipton-street, Morecambe.

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Street-place, E.C. 4.

*Taylor, W. W., M.A. 66 St. John’s-road, Oxford.

*Teacher, John H., M.B. 32 Kingsborough-gardens, Glasgow.

*Teale, KE. O., D.Sc., F.G.8. 84 Worple-road, Wimbledon, S.W. 19.

{Traz, THomas Priparn, M.A., F.R.S. 38 Cookridge-street, Leeds.

{tTwatt, Sir J. J. H., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1893 ;
Council, 1894-1900, 1909-16.) Athenzum Club, S.W. 1.

*Teape, Rev. W. M., M.A. South Hylton Vicarage, Sunderland.

{Temple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Solheim, Cumberland
Park, Acton, W.

§TrempP.s, Sir R. C., Bart., C.B.,C.1E. (Pres. H, 1913.) The Nash,
Worcester.

*Trempir, Rev. W., M.A. (Pres. L., 1916.) 20 Melbury-road,
Kensington, W. 14.

*Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

{Tetley, C. F, The Brewery, Leeds.

tTetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

*THANE, Sir Grorcr Dancer, LL.D., Professor of Anatomy in
University College, London, W.C.1. 19 St. John’s-road,
Harrow.

§Theyser, Dr. A. C. Sleaford, Penn Hill-avenue, Parkstone.

{Thewlis, J. Herbert. Daisy Mount, Victoria Park, Manchester.

*Tropay, D., M.A. The University, Manchester.

*Thoday, Mrs. M.G. 6 Lyme-park, Chinley, Stockport.

tThom, Colonel Robert Wilson, J.P. Brooklands, Lord-street
West, Southport.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 85

Year of
Election.

1914.

1891.
1919.
1903.

1913.
1910.
1899.
1902,
1904.
1891.
1888,

1885.

1896.
1907.
1883.
1904.

1912.
1893.

1920.
1920.
1919.

1913.

1913.
1876.

*Thomas, A., J.P. Brynglas, West Maitland, New South Wales,
Australia.

*Thomas, Miss Clara. Pencerrig, Builth.

§Thomas, Major E. R. The School, Rugby.

*THomas, Miss Erurn N., D.Se. National Museum of Wales,
Cardiff.

{Thomas, H. H., M.A., B.Se., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1.

*Thomas, H. Hamshaw. Botany School, Cambridge.

*Thomas, Mrs. J. W. MHolne, near Ashburton, Devon.

*Thomas, Miss M. Beatrice. Girton College, Cambridge.

*Thomas, William, F.R.G.8. Bryn-heulog, Merthyr Tydfil,

*Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S., F.G.S. 67 Victoria-road, Northampton.

*Thompson, Claude M., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Cardiff. 38 Park-place, Cardiff.

{THompson, D’Arcy W., C.B., B.A., F.R.S. (Pres. D., 1911; Local
See. 1912), Professor of Natural History in the University of
St. Andrews.

*Thompson, Edward P. Paulsmoss, Whitchurch, Salop.

*Thompson, Edwin. Woodlands, 13 Fulwood-park, Liverpool.

*Thompson, Francis. Eversley, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

*Thompson, G. R., B.Sc., Principal of and Professor of Mining in
the South African School of Mines, Johannesburg.

*Thompson, Rev. H. Percy. Hayes Rectory, Kent.

*Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E. Tregarthen, Garland’s-road,
Leatherhead.

MR Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff, Cardiff.

M Thompson, Mrs. Whitley Batch, Llandaff, Cardiff.

*Thompson, John McLean, M.A, D.Sc, F.LS., F.R.S.E.
2 Second-avenue, Cathcart, Glasgow.

*Thompson, Mrs. Lilian Gilchrist. Hayes Rectory, Kent.

{Thompson, Peter. 14 Rotten Park-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York

1913.,*Thompson, Sidney Gilchrist. Hayes Rectory, Kent.

1883.
1911.

1912.
1912,
1894,

1912.
1909.
1906.
1919.
1914.
1890.

1883.

1889.
1902.

*Thompson, T. H. Oldfield Lodge, Gray-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.
t{Thompson, Mrs. W. H. 328 Assiniboine-avenue, Winnipeg.
{Thompson, William Bruce. Thornbank, Dundee.

§Thoms, Alexander. 7 Playfair-terrace, St. Andrews.

jTsomson, Artuur, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in
the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

§Thomson, D. C. ‘Courier’ Buildings, Dundee.

*Thomson, E. 22 Monument-avenue, Swampscott, Mass., U.S.A.

§Thomson, I. Ross, F.G.S. Hensill, Hawkhurst, Kent, ,

*Thomson, Godfrey, H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Armstrong College, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

§Thomson, Hedley J., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 30 Montalt-road, Wood-
ford Green, Essex.

*Tyomson, Professor J. ArrHuR, M.A., F.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

{Txomson, Sir J. J., O.M., M.A., Se.D., D.Sc., Pres. R.S. (PRESIDENT,
1909; Pres. A, 1896; Council, 1893-95), Master of Trinity
College and Professor of Experimental Physics in the Uni-
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Thomson, James Stuart. 4 Highfield, Chapel-en-le-Frith, Derby-
shire.

86

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1871.

1874.
1906.

1905.
1898.

1902.

1903.
1881.
1898.

1871.

1899.
1896.

1919.
1919.
1905.

1874.

1913.
1899.

1914.
1916.
1902.
1905.

1911.
1900.

1912.
1907.
1889.
1875.

1909,
1912.
1901.

1870.

1914.
1908.
1908.
1911.

*THomson, JoHN Mitiar, LL.D., F.R.S. (Council, 1895-1901),
Professor of Chemistry in King’s College, London. 55 Bed-
ford-gardens, W. 8.

§THomson, Wixiiam, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.

{Thornely, Miss A. M. M. Oaklands, Langham-road, Bowdon,
Cheshire.

*Thomely, Miss L. R. Nunclose, Grassendale, Liverpool.

*THornton, W. M., O.B.E. D.Se., Professor of Electrical
Engineering in the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

{Thornycroft, Sir John I., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Eyot Villa, Chis-
wick Mall, W. 4.

{Thorp, Edward. 87 Southbank-road, Southport.

{Thorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

{TuorRrPE, JOCELYN FIELD, C.B.E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Organic
Chemistry in the Imperial College of Science and Technology,
S.W. 7.

{Tuorpr, Sir T. E., C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
(Pres. B, 1890; Council, 1886-92.) Whinfield, Salcombe,
Devon,

§TERELFALL, Sir Ricnarp, K.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. Oakhurst, Church-
road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§TuRivt, WILLIAM EpwarD, M.A. (Local Sec. 1908), Professor of
Natural and Experimental Philosophy in the University of
Dublin. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines, Dublin.

§Thring, Leonard G. P. Fen Ditton Hall, Cambridge.

*TIERNEY, CLARENCE, D.Sc. Netherton, Coulsdon, Surrey.

{Tietz, Heinrich, B.A.. Ph.D. South African College, Cape
Town.

{Tipen, Sir Wituram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Pres. B, 1883;
Council, 1898-1904.) The Oaks, Northwood, Middlesex.

{Tilley, J. W. Field House, Harborne, Park-road, Birmingham.

*Tims, H. W. Marett, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Bedford College, Regent’s
Park, N.W.1.

{Tims, Mrs. Marett. Bedford College, Regent’s Park, N.W. 1.

{Tinker, Frank. The University, Birmingham.

{Tipper, Charles J. R., B.Sc. 21 Greenside, Kendal.

tTippett, A. M., M.Inst.C.E. Cape Government Railways, Cape
Town.

*Tizard, Henry T. Oriel College, Oxford.

*Tocher, J. F., D.Sc., F.LC. Crown-mansions, 414 Union-street,
Aberdeen.

{Todd, John A. 3 Mapperley Hall-drive, Nottingham.

{Todd, Professor J. L. MacDonald College, Quebec, Canada.

{Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.

{Torr, Charles Hawley. 35 Burlington-road, Sherwood, Not-
tingham.

{Tory, H.M. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

{Tosh, Elmslie. 11 Reform-street, Dundee.

{Townsend, J. §., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Oxford. New College, Oxford.

{Tramt, Wimtiam A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.

*Treckman, C.T. Hudworth Tower, Castle Eden, Durham.

tTreen, Rev. Henry M., B.Sc. 3 Stafford-road, Weston-super-Mare.

{Tremain, Miss Caroline P., B.A. Alexandra Hall, Aberystwyth.

{Tremearne, Mrs., LL.A., F.L.S. 105 Blackheath-park, 8.E. 3.

or tee

ic aes «ee s— hs

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 87

Year of
Election.

1914.
1887.

1903.
1908,
1916,
1905.

1916.
1884.
1914.

1887.

1914.
1898.

1913.
1885,

1905.

1912.
1901.

1914,
1919.
1893.
1913.
1894.

1916.
1919.
1905.

1886.
1910.

1890.
1907.

1915.

1886.

1899.

1907.
1911.

1912.

1884,
1903.

f{Tremearne, Mrs. Ada J. Mandeville Hall, Clendon-road, Toorak,
Victoria.

*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Lotherton Hall, Parlington, Aber-
ford, Leeds.

tTrenchard, Hugh. The Firs, Clay Hill, Enfield.

{Tresilian, R. 8S. Cumnor, Eglington-road, Dublin,

{Trevelyan, C. P., M.P. Cambo, Morpeth.

{Trevor-Barrys, A., M.A., F.L.S., F.B.G.S. Stoner Hill, Peters-
field, Hants.

{Tripp, Dr. E. H. 40 Trewsbury-road, Sydenham, S.E. 26.

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. Atheneum Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1.

fTrouton, Eric. The Rydings, Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W. 3.

*Trouton, Frepericx T., M.A., Sc.D., F.B.S. (Pres. A, 1914;
Council, 1911-14.) The Rydings, Redington-road, Hamp-
stead, N.W. 3.

fTrouton, Mrs. The Rydings, Redington-road, Hampstead,
N.W. 3:

*Trow, ALBERT Howarp, D.Sc., F.L.S., Principal of University
College, Cardiff.

{Tschugaett, Professor L. The University, Petrograd.

*Tubby, A. H., C.B., C.M.G., A.M.S., F.B.GS. 68 Harley-street,

]

§Turmeau, Charles. Claremont, Victoria Park, Wavertree. Liver-

pool,

{Turnbull, John. City Chambers, Dundee.

§Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc. Department of Agriculture and Technical
Instruction. Dublin.

{Turner, Dr. A. J. Wickham-terrace; Brisbane, Australia.

*Turner, Mrs. Agnes Margaret. 9 Blackhall-road, Oxford.

{TurneER, Dawson, M.D., F.R.S.E. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.

§Turner, G. M. Abbey Hill, Kenilworth.

*TuRNER, H. H., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S: (GENERAL SEORE-
TARY, 1913- ; Pres. A, 1911), Frofessor of Astronomy in
the University of Oxford. University Observatory,
Oxford.

{Turner, Miss J., B.A. 14 Endsleigh-street, W.C. 1.

*Turner, Miss Ruth Margaret Whyte. 9 Blackhall-road, Oxford.

fTurner, Rev. Thomas. St. Saviour’s Vicarage, 50 Fitzroy-
street, W. 1.

*TuRNER, THomas, M.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.1.C., Professor of Metallurgy
in the University of Birmingham. 75 Middleton Hall-road,
King’s Norton.

*Turner, W. E. S. The University, Sheffield,

*Turpin, G. 8., M.A., D.Sc. High School, Nottingham.

§Turron, A. E. H., M.A. D.Sc, F.R.S. (Council, 1908-12.)
Duart, Yelverton, South Devon.

*Tweedale, Samuel. Sanbridge House, Castleton, Manchester.

*Twigg, G. H. Rednall, near Birmingham.

tTwisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C. 1.

§Twyman, F. 754 Camden-road, N.W. 1.

*TYNDALL, A. M., M.Sc. The University, Bristol.

{Tyrrell, G. W. Geological Department, The University, Glasgow,

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
{Underwood, Captain J. C. 60 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

88

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Blection.

1908.

1883.
1876,

1909.
1880.
1905.

1887.
1912,
1908.
1919.
1865.
1917.

1903.
1919.
LOUy:
1909.
1905.
1913.
1881.

1883.
1904.
1890.

1906.
1899.
1883.

1902.
1904.

1904.
1916.
1909,
1888.
1914.
1890.

1900.

1905.

1917.
1916.
1894.

§Unwin, Ernest Ewart, M.Sc. Grove House, Leighton Park School,
Reading.

Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W.C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. (Pres. G, 1892; Council,
1892-99.) 7 Palace Gate-mansions, Kensington, W. 8.

tUrquhart, C, 239 Smith-street, Winnipeg, Canada.

{Ussuur, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W. 1:

{Uttley, E. A., Electrical Inspector to the Rhodesian Government,
Bulawayo.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

{Valentine, C. W. Qucen’s University, Belfast.

{Valera, Edward de. University College, Blackrock, Dublin.

§Van der Pol, Balth., jun. 95 Parklaan, Haarlem, Holland.

*VARLEY,S. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson-road, Holloway, N. 7.

§VARLEY, W. Mansercu, M.A., D.Sc., Ph.D. 7 Preston Park-
avenue, Brighton

tVarwell, H. B. Sittaford, West-avenue. Exeter.

§Vasconcellos, A. de. 50 Westby-road, Boscombe, Bournemouth.

§Vassall, Archer, M.A., F.Z.S. Elmfield, Harrow.

*Vassall, H., M.A. The Priory, Repton, Derby.

{Vaughan, EK. L. Eton College, Windsor.

{Vaughton, T. A. Livery-street, Birmingham.

f{VeLzry, V. H., M.A, D.Sc. F.R.S. 8 Marlborough-place,
St. John’s Wood, N.W. 8.

*Verney, Lady. Plis Rhoscolyn, Holyhead.

*Vernon, H. M., M.A., M.D, 5 Park Town, Oxford.

*Villamil, ra! be R. de, R.E. Carlisle Lodge, Rickmans-
worth,

*Vincent, J.H.,M.A., D.Sc, L.C.C. Paddington Technical Institute,
Saltram-crescent, W. 9.

*Vincent, Swauz, M.D., D.Sc. (Local Sec. 1909), Professor of
Physiology in the University of London.

*Vines, Sypnry Howagzp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K,
1900 ; Council, 1894-97), Professor of Botany in the University
of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

tVinycomb, T. B. Ardmore, Shooter’s Hill, S.E. 18.

§Volterra, Professor Vito. Regia Universita, Rome.

§Wace, A. J. B. Leslie Lodge, St. Albans.

§Waddell, Kerr. Riverslea, Grassendale Park, Liverpool.

tWadge, Herbert W., M.D. 754 Logan-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

tWadsworth, Arthur. Commonwealth Parliament, Melbourne.

§Wacer, Harotp W. T., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. (Pres. K, 1905.)
Hendre, Horsforth-lane, Far Headingley, Leeds.

tWagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. Haberdashers’ School, Cricklewood,
N.W

§Wakefield, Captain E. W. Stricklandgate House, Kendal.

*Wakefield, Miss Elsie M., F.L.S. The Herbarium, Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew.

§Wale, Bernard N. Rosemont, 26 Powderham-road, Newton
Abbot, Devon.

fWatrorp, Epwin A., F.G.8. 21 West Bar, Banbury.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 89

Year of
Election.

1882.
1890.
1893.
1901.
1904.
1911.
1897.

1915.
1916.
1894.

1897.
1913.

1906.
1894.
1910.

1906.
1915.
1907.
1909.

1908.
1888.
1919.

1914.
1910.
1883.
1911.

1916.

1920.
1905.
1901.
1887.

1905.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1915.
1895.

1894,

1891.
1903.

1902.
1904.
1887.

*Walkden, Samuel, F.R.Met.S. Windypost, Broadstairs, Kent.

tWalker, A. Tannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

tWalker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe Place, Maidstone, Kent.

*Walker, Archibald, M.A., F.1.C. Newark Castle, Ayr, N.B.

§Walker, E. R., J.P. 30 Park-avenue, Southport.

*Watker, EH. W. Artnuey, M.A. University College, Oxford.

*WaLKER, Sir Epmunp, C.V.O., D.C.L., F.G.S. (Local Seo. 1897.)
Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

§Walker, Edward J.. M.D. 46 Deansgate-arcade, Manchester.

tWalker, F. H. 3 Stannington-grove, Heaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

*Watker, Dr; G. T., C.S.I., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Meteorological
Office, Simla, India.

tWalker, George Blake, M.Inst.C.E. Tankersley Grange, near
Barnsley.

§Walker, George W., M.A., F.R.S. Heath Cottage, Boar’s Hill,
near Oxford.

fWalker, J. F. KE. Gelson, B.A. 45 Bootham, York.

*WALKER, JAMES, M.A. 30 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Watker, James, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1911), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Wester Coates-
road, Edinburgh.

tWalker, Dr. Jamieson. 37 Charnwood-street, Derty.

tWalker, Professor Miles. School of Technology, Manchester.

{Walker, Philip F., F.R.G.S. 36 Prince’s-gardens, S.W. 7.

§ Walker, Mrs. R. 3 Riviera-terrace, Rushbrooke, Queenstown,
Co. Cork.

*Walker, Robert. Ormidale, Combe Down, Bath.

tWalker, Sydney F. 1 Bloomfield-crescent, Bath.

§Walker, W. T., B.Sc., F.G.S. Wallasey Villa, Wallasey-road,
Wallasey, Cheshire.

tWalkom, A. B. The University, Brisbane, Australia.

Wall, G. P., F.G.S. 32 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield.

tWall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.

tWatt, THomas F., D.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. The University,
Birmingham.

tWallace. Colonel Johnstone. Parkholme, Beech Grove-road,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

MR Wallace, Prof. Robert, University, Edinburgh.

tWallace, R. W. 2 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C. 4.

tWallace, William, M.A., M.D. 25 Newton-place, Glasgow.

*WatieR, Auaustus D., M.D., F.R.S. (Pres. I, 1907.) 32 Grove
End-road, N.W. 8.

+Waller, Mrs. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 8.

*Waller, J. C., B.A. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 8.

*Waller, Miss M. D., B.Sc. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 8.

*Waller, W. W., B.A. 32 Grove End-road, N.W. 8.

§Wallis, B. C. 18 Nassau-street, W. 1.

tWauus, E. Wurrer, F.S.S. Royal Sanitary Institute and Parkes
Museum, 90 Buckingham Palace-road, S.W. 1.

*Watmistrey, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W. 1.

§Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C. 1.

tWalsh, W. T. H. Kent Education Committee, Caxton House,
Westminster, S.W. 1.

*Walter, Miss L. Edna. 18 Norman-road, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

*Walters, William, jun. Albert House, Newmarket.

{Wakpp, Sir A. W., M.A., Litt.D., Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge,

90 BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Year of

Election.

1911. {Ward, A. W. Town Hall, Portsmouth.

1881.
1914.

1914.
1919.
1905.
1887.

1913.

1913.
1914.
1875.
1905.

1916.
1900.
1909.
1884.
1901.

1886.

1906.
1909.

1892.
1885.

1915.

1906.
1913.
1919.
1915.
1879.

1901.

1913.
1875.
1873.

1883.

1896.
1919.
1907.
1910.
1919.
1919.
1910.
1919.
1904.

§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

{Ward, L. Keith, B.E. Burnside-road, Kensington Park, South
Australia.

§Ward, Thomas W. Endcliffe Vale House, Sheffield.

§Wareing, Miss Susan. Brook War Hospital, Woolwich, S.E.18.

{Warlow, Dr. G. P. 15 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

{WagreEn, General Sir Coantzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G., F.R.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Pres. EK, 1887.) Athenzum Club, S.W. 1.

{Warren, William Henry, LL.D., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., Challis Pro-
fessor of Engineering in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

{Warton, Lieut.-Colonel R. G. St. Helier, Jersey.

{Waterhouse, G. A., B.Sc. Royal Mint, Sydney, N.S.W.

*WatrRHouss, Major-General J. Hurstmead, Eltham, Kent.

tWatermeyer, F. 8., Government Land Surveyor. P.O. Box 973,
Pretoria, South Africa.

§Waters, Miss Charlotte M. Cotswold, Hurst Green, Oxted, Surrey.

{Waterston, David, M.D., F.R.S.E. King’s College, Strand, W.C. 2.

§Watkinson, Professor W. H. The University, Liverpool,

tWatson, A. G., D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.

*Watson, ARNOLD Tuomas, F.L.S. Southwold, Tapton Crescent-
road, Sheffield.

*Watson, C. J. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road, Acock’s Green,
Birmingham.

{Watson, D. M.8., M.Se. University College, London, W.C. 1.

{Watson, Ernest Ansley, B.Sc. Alton Cottage, Botteville-road,
Acock’s Green, Birmingham.

t{Watson, G., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Ruskin-close, Hampstead Way, N.W. 4.

{Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,
Cheltenham.

*Watson, G. N., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
the University of Birmingham.

*Watson, Henry Angus. 3 Museum-street, York.

tWatson, John D., M.Inst.C.E. Tyburn, Birmingham.

§Watson, Miss K., D.Sc. University College, W.C. 1.

*Watson, Walter, D.Sc. Taunton School, Somerset.

*Watson, Wittiam Henegy, F.C.S., F.G.S. Braystones House,
Beckermet, Cumberland.

Watt, Harry Anderson, M.P. Ardenslate House, Hunter’s Quay,
Argyllshire.

*Watt, James. 28 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.

*Warts, JoHN, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

*Warts, W. MagsHatt, D.Sc. Shirley, Venner-road, Sydenham,
S.E. 26.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., M.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1903;
Council, 1902-09), Professor of Geology in the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, London, S.W. 7.

§Wavertree, Right Hon. Lord. Gateacre, Liverpool.

§Webb, G. D. 10 Bath-road, Bournemouth.

{Webb, Wilfred Mark, F.L.8. The Hermitage, Hanwell, W. 7.

t{Webster, Professor Arthur G. Worcester, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

§Webster, Miss E. Ruth. Ashbrook, Arbroath.

§Webster, Sir Francis. Ashbrook, Arbroath.

{Webster, William, M.D. 1252 Portage-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Wedd, Arthur J. Eastdon House, Longport, Somerset.

+Wedderburn, Ernest Maclagan, D.Sc., F.R.S.L. 7 Dean Park-
crescent, Hdinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919 91

Year of
Election.

1903. t{Weekes, R. W., A.M.Inst.C.E. 65 Hayes-road, Bromley, Kent.

1914. {Weir, G. North Mine, Broken Hill, New South Wales.

1890. *Wetss, FrepERIcK Ernest, D.Sc., F.R.S. F.L.S., (Pres. K, 1911;
Council, 1914- ), Professor of Botany in the Victoria
University, Manchester.

1905. tWelby, Miss F. A. Hamilton House, Hall-road, N.W. 8.

1916. {Welch, J. J., M.Sc., Professor of Naval Architecture in Armstrong
College, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1902. tWelch, R. J. 49 Lonsdale-street, Belfast.

1880. *Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

1908. {Welland, Rev. C. N. Wood Park, Kingstown, Co. Dublin.

1881. §Wellcome, Henry S. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

1911. {WELLDon, Right Rev. J. E. C., D.D. (Pres. L, 1911.) The Deanery,
Durham.

1920. MR Wells, Henry M. 11 Haymarket, S.W. 1.

1881. {Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

1911. *WetsrorD, Miss EH. J., '.L.5. Imperial College of Science and
Technology, 8.W. 7.

1886. *Wertheimer, Julius, D.Sc., B.A., F.I.C., Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering in the University of Bristol.

1919. §West, R. Rolleston, D.S.O. 15 Wimpole-street, W. 1.

1903. {Westaway, F. W. 1 Pemberley-crescent, Bedford.

1882. *Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Salisbury.

1900. {Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Cunliffe-villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

1916. {Weyman, G. Saltwell-road, Low Fell, Gateshead.

1916. *Wheawill, Charles. 104 Birkby Hall-road, Huddersfield.

1909. {Wheeler, A. O., F.R.G.S. The Alpine Club of Canada, Sidney,
B.C., Canada.

1893. *Wuersam, W. C. D., M.A., F.R.S. Upwater Lodge, Cambridge.

1888. {Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

1912. tWhiddington, R., M.A., D.Sc. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1913. t{Whipp, E. M. 14 St. George’s-road, St. Anne’s-on-Sea.

1912. *Whipple, F. J. W., M.A. Meteorological Office, South Kensington,
S.W. 7.

1898. *\WuipeLE, Rosert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.
1859. *Wurraxer, WILLIAM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1895 ; Council,
1890-96, 1917— .) 3 Campden-road, Croydon.

1884, {Whitcher, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,Canada.

1897. t{Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

1886. {Wuitz, A. Sirva. 42 Stevenage-road, S.W.

1908. {White, Mrs. A. Silva. 42 Stevenage-read, S.W.

1913. tWhite, Mrs. H.W. Anelgate, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1904. tWhite, H. Lawrence, B.A. 33 Rossington-road, Sheffield.

1885. *White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

1914. tWhite, Dr. Jean. Prickly Pear Experimental Station, Dulacca,
Queensland, Australia.

1910. *White, Mrs. Jessie, D.Sc., B.A. 49 Gordon-mansions, W.C. 13.

1912. {White, R. G., M.Sc., Professor of Agriculture in University
College, Bangor, North Wales.

1916. §White, Colonel R. Saxton. Shirley, Jesmond, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1877. *White, William. 20 Hillersdon-avenue, Church-road, Barnes,
S.W. 13.

1916. {WurrenzapD, A. N., Sc.D., F.R.S. (Pres. A, 1916), Professor of
Applied Mathematics in the Imperial College of Science
and Technology, S.W. Andrews Wood, Limpsfield, Oxted,
Surrey.

92

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of

Election. '

1904. {WuitenEan, J. E. L., M.A. (LocalSec. 1904.) Guildhall, Cambridge.
1913. tWhitehouse, Richard H., M.Sc. Queen’s University, Belfast.

1905.
1993.

1907.
1905.
1897.

1919.

1919.
1919.
1901.
1913.

1916.
1919.

1912.
1889.

1914.
1910.
1904.
1900.
1915.
1913.

1903.
1916.
1904.
1916.
1905.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1920.

1891.
1883.
1901.
1916.
1883.
1877.
1894.
1910.

1913.
1895.
1895.

1896.
1913.

{Whiteley, Miss M. A., D.Sc. Imperial College of Science and
Technology, 8.W. 7.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., F.I.C. 65 Birmingham-road, West
Bromwich.

*Whitley, E. 13 Linton-road, Oxford.

*Whitmee, H. B. P.O. Box 470, Durban, Natal.

tWuirraker, E. T., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
the University of Edinburgh.

*Whittaker-Swinton, Captain J., R.E. Signals Experimental
Establishment, Woolwich, S.E.

*Whittaker-Swinton, Mrs. The Towers, Belmont, Hastings.

§Whitting, C. J. 83 Poole-road, Bournemouth.

{Whitton, James. City Chambers, Glasgow.

§WICKSTEED, Rev. Pamip H., M.A. (Pres. F, 1913.) Childrey,
Wantage, Berkshire.

§Widdas, Perey, B.Sc. Oakwood, Cockfield, Co. Durham.

§Wigg, H. G., D.Sc. Fairlight, Wesley Park-road, Selly Oak,
Birmingham.

tWight, Dr. J. Sherman. 30 Schermerhorn-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

*WILBERFOROE, L. R., M.A., Professor of Physics in the University
of Liverpool.

Wilcock, J. L. 9 Hast-road, Lancaster.

§Wilkins, C. F. Lower Division, Eastern Jumna Canal, Delhi.

{Wilkinson, Hon. Mrs. Dringhouses Manor, York.

{Wilkinson, J. B. Holme-lane, Dudley Hill, Bradford.

*Willans, J. B. Dolforgan, Kerry, Montgomeryshire.

fWillcox, J. Edward, M.Inst.C.E. 27 Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

tWillett, John E. 3 Park-road, Southport.

§Willey, F. C., R.N. 28 Kyverdale-road, Stoke Newington, N. 16.

*Willtams, Miss Antonia. 6 Sloane-gardens, S.W. 1.

{Williams, Dr. Ethel. 3 Osborne-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Williams, Gardner F., LL.D 2100 Vallejo-street, San Francisco.

{Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Sheering Rectory, Harlow, Essex.

*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea.

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

MR Williams, Professor J. Lloyd, D.Sc. University College,
Aberystwyth.

{Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. 22 Lansdown-place, Cheltenham.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 5 Chepstow-mansions, Bayswater, W. 2.

*Williams, Miss Mary. 16 Campden House-road, W. 8.

§Williams, Miss Maud. 15 Upper Cheyne-row, 8.W. 3.

{Williams, T. H. 27 Water-street, Liverpool.

*Witiiams, W. Cartxton, F.C.S. Broomgrove, Goring-on-Thames.

*Williamson, Mrs. Janora. 18 Rosebery-gardens, Crouch End, N. 8.

tWilliamson, K. B., Central Provinces, India. Care of Messrs.
Grindlay & Co., 54 Parliament-street, S.W. 1.

{Willink, H. G. Hillfields, Burghfield, Mortimer, Berkshire.

tWituikc, W. (Local Sec. 1896.) 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{WILLIis, JouHNn C., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. Jardin Botanico,
Rio de Jatieiro, Brazil.

tWruson, J. 8. (Local Sec. 1897.) Toronto, Canada.

*Wills, L. J., M.A. F.G.S. 128 Westfield-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

ee ee ee

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 93

Year of
flection,

1899.
1899.

1913.
1911.
19]1.

1911.
1901.
1878.

1907.
1903.
1894.
1904.
1912.
1904.
1912.
1900.
1895.
1914.

1901.

1902.

1879.
1910.

1913.

1908.

1879.
1901.

1908.

1908.
1909.
1892.

1887.
1909.
1919.
1910.

1907.
1910.
1886.
1863.
1905.

1919.
1914.

§Willson, George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

§ Willson, Mrs. George. Lendarac, Sedlescombe-road, St. Leonards-
on-Sea.

tWilmore, Albert, D.Sc., F.G.S. Fernbank, Colne.

*Wilmott, A. J., B.A. Natural History Museum, S.W. 7.

§Wilsmore, Professor N. T. M., D.Sc. The University, Perth,
Western Australia.

{Wilsmore, Mrs. The University, Perth, Western Australia.

{Wilson, A. Belvoir Park, Newtownbreda, Co. Down.

tWilson, Professor Alexander S., M.A., B.Sc. United Free Church
Manse, North Queensferry.

tWilson, A. W. Low Slack, Queen’s-road, Kendal.

+Wilson, C. T. R., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney-Sussex College, Cambridge.

*Wilson, Charles J., F.1.C., F.C.S. 14Suffolk-street, Pall Mall,S.W.1.

§Wilson, Charles John, F.R.G.S. Deanfield, Hawick, Scotland.

{Wilson, David, M.A., D.Sc. Carbeth, Killearn, N.B.

{Wilson, David, M.D. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

*Wilson, David Alec. 1 Broomfield-road, Ayr.

*Wilson, Duncan R. 44 Whitehall-court, S.W. 1.

{Wilson, Dr. Gregg. Queen’s University, Belfast.

tWilson, H. C. Department of Agriculture, Research Station,
Werribee, Victoria.

tWilson, Harold A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
the Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

*Wilson, Harry, F.I.C. 30 Westwood-road, Southampton.

{Wilson, Henry J. Osgathorpe Hills, Sheffield.

*Wilson, J. 8. Widnerpoole, Grove-road, Sutton, Surrey.

{Wilson, Professor J. T., M.B., F.R.S. University of Sydney,
Sydney, N.S.W.

tWilson, Professor James, M.A., B.Sc. 40 St. Kevin’s-park, Dartry-
road, Dublin.

tWilson, John Wycliffe. Easthill, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

*Wilson, Joseph, F.R.M.S. The Hawthorns, 3 West Park-road,
Kew Gardens, Surrey.

*Wilson, Malcolm, D.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer in Mycology and Bac-
teriology in the University of Edinburgh. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Edinburgh.

§Wilson, Miss Mary. Glenfield, Deighton, Huddersfield.

§Wilson, R. A. Hinton, Londonderry.

tWilson, T. Stacey, M.D. 27 Wheelcy’s-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

§Wilson, W. Battlehillock, Kildrummy, Mossat, Aberdeenshire.

tWilson, W. Murray. 29 South-drive, Harrogate.

§Wilson, William, M.B. 43 Fellows-road, N.W. 3.

{Wilton, T. R., M.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 18 Westminster-chambers,
Crosshall-street, Liverpool.

§Wimperis, H. E., M.A. Grahamsfield, Goring-on-Thames.

{Winder, B. W. Ceylon House, Sheffield.

{Wino-z, Sir Bertram C. A., M.A., M.D., D.Se., F.R.S., President
of University College, Cork.

*Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. (Local Sec. 1864.) 11 Caven-
dish-crescent, Bath.

§Wiseman, J. G., F.R.CS., F.R.G.S. Stranraer, St. Peter’s-road,
St. Margaret’s-on-Thames.

§Withers, Hartley. ‘The Economist,’ 3 Arundel-street, W.C. 2.

t{Witkiewicz, S. Care of Dr. Malinowski, London School of
Economics, Clare Market, W.C. 2.

94

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Year of
Election.

1913,
1915.

1905.
1863.
1875.
1878.

1908.

1912.

1914.
1904.

1899.

1901.
1896.

Toi.
1912.

1906.
1916.
1904.

1916.
1887.

1869.
1912.
1866.
1894,

1909.
1908.

1890.

1883.
1915.

1914.
1912.

1908.
1906.

1910.
1906.

1914.

tWohlgeemuth, Dr. A. 44 Church-crescent, Muswell Hill, N. 10.

{tWolff, C. EK. ‘The Clough, Hale, Cheshire.

ftWood, A., jun. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, Manchester.

tWoop, Sir H. Trueman, M.A. Prince Edward’s-mansions,
Bayswater, W.

tWood, Sir Henry J. 4 Elsworthy-road, N.W. 3.

tWood, John K. 304 Blackness-road, Dundee.

+Wood, Mrs. M. J. Springfield, Sidgwick-avenue, Cambridge.

*Woop, T. B., C.B.E., M.A., F.R.S. (Pres. M., 1913 ; Council, 1915-
16), Professor of Agriculture in the University of Cambridge.
Caius College, Cambridge.

*Wood, W. Hoffman. Queen-square House, Leeds.

*Wood, William James, J.P., F.S.A.(Scot.). 266 George-street,

Glasgow.

*WoopHEAD, Professor G. Sts, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.

§Woodhead, T. W., Ph.D., F.L.S. Technical College, Huddersfield.

*Wood-Jones, F., D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
London. New Selma, Epsom, Surrey.

*Woodland, Dr. W. N. F. Zoological Department, The Muir
Central College, Allahabad, United Provinces, India.

tWoodrow, John. Berryknowe, Meikleriggs, Paisley.

tWoods, Henry, M.A., F.R.S. Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge.

fWoods, Henry Charles. 171 Victoria-street, S.W. 1

*Woopwakp, ARTHUR SmiTH, LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C,
1909 ; Council, 1903-10, 1915- ), Keeper of the Department
of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, 8.W. 7.

*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road,
Harborne, Birmingham.

tWoodward, Mrs. C. J. The Lindens, St. Mary’s-road, Harborne,
Birmingham.

tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (Pres. C, 1887;
Council 1887-94.) Tudor Cottage, Clay Hill, Bushey, Herts.

*Woodward, John Harold. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,
S.W. 1.

*Woodward, Robert 8S. Carnegie Institution, Washington, U.S.A.

§Wootacott, Davin, D.Sc., F.G.8. 8 The Oaks West, Sunder-
land.

*Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.I.Inst., F.R.C.Inst.,
¥F.R.G.8., F.R.E.S., F.S.S., M.R.I.A. 14 Waterloo-road,
Dublin.

*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.

*Woolley, Hermann. Fairhill, Kersal, Manchester.

tWoolnough, Professor W. 8., D.Sc. University of Weste
Australia, Perth, Western Australia. ‘

*Wordie, James M., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*Worthington, James H., M.A. F.R.A.S.. F.R.G.S. The Obser-
vatory, Four-Marks, Alton.

tWeraaos, R. H. Vernon. York.

{Wrench, E. G. Park Lodge, Baslow, Derbyshire.

tWright, Sir Almroth E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Ex-
perimental Pathology in the University of London. 6 Park-
crescent, W. 1. :

tWright, A. M. Islington, Christchurch, New Zealand.

a

Ps

a

LIST OF MEMBERS: 1919. 95

Year of
Election.

1883.
1909.

1914.

1874.
1884.

1911.
1903.

1871.

1902.
1901.
1902.

1911.
1899.

1901.

1894.

1913.

1905.
1917.

1909.

1904.

1891.

1905.

1909.
1894,

1909.
1885.
1909,

1901.
1883.

1887.
1911.

1907.

1903.

*Wright, Rev. Arthur, D.D. Queens’ College, Cambridge.

tWright, C. S., B.A. Caius College, Cambridge.

tWright, Gilbert. Agricultural Department, The University,
Sydney, N.S.W.

t{Wright, Joseph, F.G.S._ 4 Alfred-street, Belfast.

t{Waiaut, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. Red Gables, Head-
ington Hill, Oxford.

tWright, W. B., B.A., F.G.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

tWright, William. Villa Camdens, Vicarage Way, Gerrard’s Cross.

{Wricutson, Sir THomas, Bart., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

tWyait,G. H. 1 Maurice-road, St. Andrew’s Park, Bristol.

tWylie, Alexander. Kirkfield, Johnstone, N.B.

tWylie, John. 2 Mafeking-villas, Whitehead, Belfast.

tWyllie, W. L., R.A. Tower House, Tower-street, Portsmouth.

tWynnz, W. P., D.Sc, F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1913), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Sheffield. 17 Taptonville-
road, Sheffield.

*Yapp, R. H., M.A., Professor of Botany in the Queen’s University,
Belfast.

*Yarrow, Sir A. F., Bart. Homestead, Hindhead, Surrey.

*Yates, H. James, F.C.S., M.I.-Mech.E. Redcroft, Four Oaks,
Warwickshire.

{Yerbury, Colonel. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall, S.W. 1.

§Yorke, Mrs. R. F., F.R.G.S. Ladies’ Imperial Club, 17 Dover-
street, Piccadilly, W. 1.

gYoung, Professor A. H. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Young, Alfred. Selwyn College, Cambridge.

+Youne, Aurrep C., F.C.S. 17 Vicar’s-hill, Lewisham, S.E. 13.

Young, Professor Andrew, M.A., B.Sc. South African College,
Cape Town.

tYoung, F. A. 615 Notre Dame-avenue, Winnipeg, Canada.

*Younc, GrorcE, Ph.D. 46 Church-crescent, Church End,
Finchley, N. 10.

§Young, Herbert, M.A., B.C.L., F.R.GS. 27 Montpelier-road,
Ealing, W. 5.

tYoune, R. Brvoz, M.A., M.B. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

{Young, R. G. University of North Dakota, North Chautauqua,
North Dakota, U.S.A.

Young, Robert M., B.A. Rathvarna. Belfast.

*Youne, Sypnry, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Pres. B, 1904), Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Dublin. 13 Clyde-road, Dublin.

+Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C. 3.

+Young, T. J. College of Agriculture, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire.

*Youna, Witu1am Henry, M.A., Se.D., Hon. Dr. és Sc. Math.,
F.R.S., Professor of the Philosophy and History of Mathema-
tics in the University of Liverpool. Redlinde, Lausanne,
Switzerland.

tYoxall, Sir J. H. 67 Russell-square, W.C. 1.

96

Year of

Election.

1892.

1913.
1897.
* 1887.

*1390.
1893.

1894.

1897.
1887,
1894,
1901.
1913.
1887.

*1913.
1889,

1872.
1901.
*1913.
1876.
1894.
1892.
*1901.
*1913.
1913.
1901.
*1874.
1913.

*1886.

*1894.

1901.
1894,
71913.
*1892.
1881.
*1901.
1889.

1913.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Svante Arrhenius. The University, Stockholm, (Bergs-
gatan 18.)

Professor C. Barrois. Université, Lille, France.

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.I., U.S.A.

Hofrath Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Anilenfabrik, Ludwigshafen,
Germany.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Friedrichstrasse 11, Munich.

Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Christiania, Norway.

Professor D, H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 8 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G. Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna, Italy.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France

Professor T. C. Chamberlin. Chicago, U.S.A.

Professor R. Chodat. Université, Geneva.

F. W. Clarke. Care of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Professor H. Conwentz. Elssholzstrasse 13, Berlin W. 57.

W.H. Dall, Sc.D. United States Geological Survey, Washington,
D.C., U.S.A.

Dr. Yves Delage. Faculté des Sciences, La Sorbonne, Paris.

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Carl Diener. Universitat, Vienna.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor J. Elster. Wolfenbiittel, Germany.

Professor A. Engler. Universitat, Berlin.

Professor Giulio Fano. Istituto di Fisiologia, Florence.

Professor W. G. Farlow. Harvard, U.S.A.

Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Professor Chas. Féry. Ecole Municipale de Physique et de Chimie
Industrielles, 42 rue Lhomond, Paris.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Altewiekring, No.19b, Braunschweig, Germany.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 34, Berlin, 8.W.48.

Professor A. P. N. Franchimont. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor Léon Fredericg. 20 rue de Pitteurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor M. von Frey. Universitit, Wiirzburg.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Berlinerstrasse 30, Berlin.

Professor OC. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Professor Dr. H. Geitel. Wolfenbiittel. Germany.

Professor Gustave Gilson. L’Université, Louvain, Belgium.

Professor E. Gley. 14 rue Monsieur le Prince, Paris.

* Membership temporarily suspended,

ee ee

Year of

Election.

1889.
1884.
*1913.
1892.

1916.

1881.
1913.
1913.
1893.
*1894.
*1893.

1913.
1887.
1884.

1876.
1881.

1887.
1876.
1913.
1913.

*1873.
*1894.
1913.
*1913.
1894.
1913.

1872.
*1901.
1920.
1887.
*1913.
1913.
*1887.
1884.
1894,
1897.
1913.
1897.

1887.
1913.
1889.
1894.
1913.
*1887.
1894.
*1890.
1890.
*1895.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS: 1919. 97

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

General A. W. Greely, LL.D. Center Conway, N.H., U.S.A.

Professor P. H. von Groth. Universitit, Munich.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau Internationa] des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

George Ellery Hale. Astrophysical Observatory, Mount Wilson,
California, U.S.A.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 30 Langdon-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor A. Haller. 10 rue Vauquelin, Paris.

Professor H. J. Hamburger. Physiological Institute, Groningen.

Professor Paul Heger. 23 rue de Drapiers, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. Universitit, Konigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor A, F. Holleman. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Dr. Oliver W. Huntington. Cloyne House, Newport, R.I., U.S.A

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 383 Bearon-street, Boston, Mas-

sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. W. J. Janssen. -Chernex s. Montreux, Switzerland.

W.Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 159 rue de Fragnée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Viale Bianca 21, Milan.

Professor J.C. Kapteyn Universiteit, Groningen.

Professor A. E. Kennelly. Harvard University, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Gottingen.

Professor Dr. L. Kny. Kaiser-Allee 186-7, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Professor D. J. Korteweg. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor A. Kossel. Physiologisches Institut, Heidelberg.

Maxime Kovalevsky. 13 Avenue del Observatoire, Paris, France.

Ch. Lallemand, Directeur-Général des Mines. 58 Boulevard
Emile-Augier, Paris.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 rue Notre Dame des Champs, Paris.

Professor Philipp. Lenard. Schlossstrasse 7, Heidelberg.

Professor H. A. Lorentz, Zijlweg 76, Haarlem.

Protessor Dr. Georg Lunge. Ramistrasse 56, Zurich, V

Professor F. von Luschan. Universitat, Berlin.

Professor E. Mahaim. Université de Liége, Belgium.

Dr. C. A. von Martius. Voss-strasse 8, Berlin, W.

Professor Albert A. Michelson. The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

Professor G. Mittag-Leffler. Djursholm, Stockholm.

Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden,

Professor E. H. Moore. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

Professor E. W. Morley, LL.D. West Hartford, Connecticut,
U.S.A.

E.S. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor F. R. Moulton. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. F. Nansen. Lysaker, Norway.

Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico, Via S. Maria, Pisa, Italy

Professor E. Naville. Université, Geneva.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Mulhouse, Alsace.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig.

Maffeo Pantaleoni. 13 Cola di Rienzo, Rome.

Professor F. Paschen. Universitat, Tubingen.

* Membership temporarily suspended.

1919 fe}

JS

Year of

Election.

*1887.
*L9O1.

1890.
*1894,
*1887.
* 1868.

*1913.
1895.

1913.
1897.
1896.
*1392.
*1913.
*1913.
* 1895.

1901.
1913.
*1874.
1897.
1887.
1888.

1837.

1889.
*1913.
L586.
* 1887.
1913.
1916.

1887.
*1887.
*1887.

1913.

1913.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a/Main, Germany.

Hofrath Professor A. Penck. Georgenstrasse 34-36, Berlin, N.W.7.

Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockholms Hogskola, Stockholm.

Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 1!, Leipzig.

Professor Georg Quincke. Bergstrasse 41, Heidelberg.

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

Professor Reinke. Universitat, Kiel.

Professor Ira Remsen. Johus Hopkios University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Dr. Hans Reusch. Universitet, Christiania.

Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 rue de |’ Université, Paris, France

Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 3, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

Professor A. Rothpletz. Universitat, Munich.

Professor H. Rubens. Universitat, Berlin.

Professor Carl Runge. Wilhelm Weberstrasse 21, Gottingen,
Germany.

General Rykatchew. Ouniversitetskaia-liniia, 1, Petrograd.

Dr. C. Schoute. De Biet, Holland.

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Kaiser Friedrichstrasse 8; Berlin.

Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

Ernest Solvay. 25 rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd-street, Cincinnati, Ohio,
U.S.A.

Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge.
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Wladimir Vernadsky. Imperial Academy of Sciences. Petrograd.

Professor M. Verworn. Universitat, Bonn.

Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels. Belgium.

Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltkestrasse 60, Kiel.

Professor Max Weber. Universiteit, Amsterdam.

Professor W. H. Welch. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen.

Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-
Breisgau, Baden.

Professor R. W. Wood. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
U.S.A.

Yves-Guyot. 95 rue de Seine, Paris.

* Membership temporarily suspended.

22J5AN.1924

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