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ITISH ae [ATION fea

OF SCIENCE

REPORT

OF THE pe

| NINETY-FIRST MEETING he
(NINETY-THIRD YEAR) ipa

agi

LIVERPOOL 1923

SEPTEMBER 12-19 air

ome a

LONDON Kel

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET ==
OFFICE OF THE ASSOCIATION oa i
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 ‘oat ae
1924 i. yh
; ae 2 %
ie ;

CONTENTS.

PGs

ss BieeMENAND COUNCIL, 1923-24 oo. tage eee cee eects centeaee Vv
BeINGCATH OREIGERS.SLAVERPOOL, 1923.00.50... cece ccc eee eevee eeee vii
_ SEcTIONS AND SECTIONAL Orricers, LivERPOOL, 1923 ................ viii

‘aa

- ANNUAL MpETINGS: PLACES AND Dates, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES,
RECEIPTS, SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC
EAC ISES GLE. OE ana a ae) x

bs REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL ComMITTEE (1922-23)
: PGMISHPASSOCIATION HW:XHIBITIONS .. cecevccisectacegesnseecenesee xviii
q GENERAL MEETINGS, ScIENTIFIC EXHIBITION, AND SorrRéE aT LIVERPOOL xviii
‘a Pusiic Lectures IN LiverPooL AND NEIGHBOURHOOD .............. XiX
CHILDREN’S LECTURES IN LIVERPOOL ........ eee eee e sete eee e ees 50.4

S0GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (1922-23) ....... 02. cece e eee e ener xxii

‘Rusparcn OMS | (ORR 24 ee. bs ls... 5 Pavamewaie ais @ + cA slolee xxvi

PCR eT: Paee 3 ome ete th Meh So. Renee xxxi
SOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (LIVERPOOL MBETING) .......... XXXil
E PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS :

4 The Electrical Structure of Matter. By Sir Ernest RUTHERFORD,

oP ED TRESS | ol. B67 cto IR gen a ete VO pe Re Cp 1
i"

5 7
CTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES :

A.—On the Origin of Spectra. By Prof. J. C. McLennan, F.R.S... 25

: B.—Some Aspects of the Physical Chemistry of Interfaces. By Prof.

SP er ONIN AUN BUI EVao, "x 0 01 eat etatayntetseners nee he’. ANSE Porat 59
C.—Evolutional Paleontology in Relation to the Lower Palxozoic
Rocks. By Dr. GmrrrupE L. Erues, M.B.E. ............ 83
_ D.—Modern Zoology : Some of its Developments and its Bearings on
g Human Welfare. By Prof. J. H. Ashwortu, F.R.S. ...... 108
_E.—The Geographical Position of the British Empire. By Dr.
PA EUAN MMO ORNS Hafele ffi eee te a10 mvarahssvihia ass. oe oo sin 8'e slelleldia in wie 126

_ F.—Population and Unemployment. By Sir W. H. Brverrpae,
Se OBESTAT Is, NEP Saha 5 Pnhev cab isiwte sie MAR bila od Mei boty eeta res 138

lv CONTENTS.

PAGE
G.—Transport and its Indebtedness to Science. By Sir Henry
BOWE Rep BeBe) 4 <= 5,5) +) sce ole icle peneTsiah chats t)atal'e) alee ete oo vo orepale 162
H.—Egypt as a Field for Anthropological Research. By Prof. P. E.
NEWBHBBYAOB. Be 'lgclrsstchee. Beetle tierae ste Sica tals ccc 175
I. —Symbiosis in Animals and Plants. By Prof. G. H. F. Nurraut,
RES pi sive 'eteceteteccie + « + aetatogs: ovale’ alateleie ovscnas im Mates Ret epee a emer 197

J. —The Mental Differences between Individuals. By Dr. C. Burr 215
K.—The Present Position of Botany. By A. G. Tansury, F.R.S... 240
L.—Education of the People. By Principal T. P. Nunn .......... 261
M.—Science and the Agricultural Crisis. By Dr. C. CrowrHer.... 273

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. .. 0.55 cscs cece cscs cece aee 283
SHCURON AT: “ORAN GATIONS 0 oi siccs oc o/s \sie's oy e.0.s:s45 aueyee elerelaieeon yaaa nena arene 424
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS .. 503
REMARKS ON QuUANTISATION. By Prof. P. EHRENFEST .............. 508

Tue SrrRuCTURE OF ATOMS AND THEIR MacGNeric Properties. By

POLS TE; GS NGUEVEN Ccisr doe ghelt: ces Sse ote lens oh cs oe, ele tee SRR ea 51i
CoRRESPONDING SOCIETIES COMMITTEE’S REPORT .........-+00eeeeeee 512
CoNFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ..........+- 513

List or Papurs, 1922, on Zootogy, BoraNy, AND PREHISTORIC
ARCHAOLOGY OF THE Britisn Istus. By 'T. SHEPPARD .......... 515

} His Hon.

"British 3

Association for the Adbancement

of S i hanee

OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1923-24.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
Professor Sir Ernest RutuerrorD, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT FOR THE TORONTO MEETING.
Major-Gen. Sir Dayip Bruce, A.M.S8., K.C.B., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE LIVERPOOL MEETING.

The Right Hon. the Lorp Mayor or
Liverpoort (Frank C. Witson).

The Right Hon. the Earn or Dersy,
KEG. ,iG.G-V.0., P.C.

The Right Hon. the Earn or Serron,
D.L

The Lorp BisHopr or Liverproon (Rt.
Rev. F. J. Cuavassz, D.D.).

The ArcusisHop oF LiveRPoon (Most
Rev. F. Wm. Keatine, C.M.G.).
The Rt. Hon. Viscount LrvERHULME,

LL.D.
Sir Witz1am Herpman, C.B.E., D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

The Vice-CHanceLtoR oF THE UNI-
vERSItTy or Liverpoon (J. G. Apamrt,
C.B.H.; M.D:, Sc.D.,LL.D., F.R.S.).

The PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL OF THE
University or Liverpoon (Hue R.
RatHpons, M.A.).

The CHarRMAN or THE MrrRsEY Docks
AND Harsour Board (THOmMas
Rome).

The Right Hon. the Marquis oF
Satispury, K.G., G.C.V.O.

The Right Hon. the Eart or Larnom.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE TORONTO MEETING.

H.E. the Governor-GENERAL OF
Canapa (Rt. Hon. Lorp Byne or
Vimy, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.).

the LireuTENANT-GOVERNOR
or Ontario (Harry Cocksuot).

Rt. Hon. the Prime Minister oF
Canapa (W. L. Mackenziz Kine,
C.M.G., LL.D.).

The Hon. the Speaker or tHE House
or Commons (Hon. Ropo.pye
Lemieux).

The Hon. the Hicu Commissioner For
Canapa (P. C. Larkin).

The Hon. the Primzs Minister aNnp
Minister or EpvucatTion, ONnrario
(G. Howarp Frrcuson, LL.B.).

His Worship the Mayor or Toronto
(G. A. Macurre).

The CHANCELLOR OF THR UNIVERSITY
or Toronto (Sir Epmunp Watker,
PeveO., mui, DsO:Tu.):

The CHarRMAN OF THE BoaRD oF
Governors, University or TORONTO
(Rev. Canon H. J. Copy, B.D.,
LL.D.).

The PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY
or Toronto (Sir Roserr Fauconer,
K:@.M0.G., D.Litt., LL:D.

The PRESIDENT Or THE ROYAL Pecans

Institute (Prof. J. C. Furexps,
PhD», F.R.8.):
The PRESIDENT OF THE CANADIAN

Narronat Rarways (Sir Henry W.
THornToN, K.B.E.).

The PResIDENT OF THE CANADIAN
Paciric Ramway (E. W. Brarry).

The CHAIRMAN OF THE LocaL GENERAL

AND Executive Commirrer (Prof.
J. C. McLennan, C.B.E., Ph.D.,
D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S.).

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

GENERAL TREASURER.
E. H. Grirrirus, 8c.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Professor J. L. eee O.B.E., M.A.,
D.Sc., F.S.A., F.B.A

F. E. Smiru, C.B.E., F.R.S.

SECRETARY.
O. J. R. Howarru, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

CHAIRMAN OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR THE TORONTO
MEETING.

Professor J. C. McLennan,

F.R.S.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE TORONTO MEETING.
Professor J. C. Fieups, F.R.S.

Professor J. J. R. Macueon,

MBs, Chub DI Pane

ASSISTANT LOCAL SECRETARY.
Major J. M. Moon, O.B.E., M.C.

LOCAL HON. TREASURER FOR THE TORONTO MEETING.
F. A. Mours#, Mus. Doc.

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

Dr. F. W. Asron, F.R.S.

J. Barcrort, F.R. oe

Sir W. H. Beveriver, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lorp Btepistor, K.B.E.
Professor W. Datpy, F.R.S.
Professor C. H. Descu, F.R.S.
E. N. Fawwarze.

Dr. J. 8. Frerr, O.B.E., F.R.S.
Professor H. J. FLEURE.
Professor A. Fow ter, F.R.S.

Sir R. A. Grecory.

Sir Dantet Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S.
C. T. Heycocx, F.R.S.

Wake VER

Dr. W. E. Hoye.

J. H. Jeans, F.R.S.

Sir A. Kerra, F.R.S.

Sir J. Scorr Kerrie.

Professor A. W. KrrKapy.

Dr. P. Cuatmers Mitcuett, C.B.E.,
F.R.S.

Dr. C. S. Mysgrs, F.R.S.

Professor A. W. Portsrr, F.R.S.

Professor A. C. Sewarp, 'F.R.S.

Prof. A. SmirHetts, C.M.G., F.R.S.

TansLey, F.R.S.

W. Wuiraker, F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees,

past Presidents of the Association,

the President for the

year, the President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past
and present General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General

Secretaries,

and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for
Meetings immediately past and ensuing.

the Annual

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Major, (Bs 97As

MacManon,
LL.D., F.R:S.

D:Se.,

Sir ArtHuR Evans.

MsAsy ae ie

8.A.

S.,

Hon. Sir Cuartes A. Parsons, K.CB., LL.D.,' D.Se., FaR:S:

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. vit

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Sir A. Grrkir, K.C.B., O.M., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Batrour, O.M.,
F.R.S.

Sir E. Ray Lanxester, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S.

Sir J. J. THomeson, O.M., F.R.S.

Sir E. SHarpsy Scuarer, F.R.S.

Sir Oniver Lopes, F.R.S.

Professor W. Bateson, F.R.S.

Sir ArrtHuR Scuuster, F.R.S.

Sir ArrHur Evans, F.R.S.

Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons,
F.R.S.

Sir Witt1am A. Herpman, C.B.E.,
F.R.S.

Sir T. Epwarp Tuorps, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir C. 8. SHerrincron, G.B.E.,
Pres.R.S.

K.C.B.,

PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Sir E. SHarpry Scuarer, F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S
Dr. J. G. Garson.

Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S.
Sir W. A. Herpman, C.B.E., F.R.S.
Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

HON. AUDITORS.

Professor A. BowLey.

LOCAL OFFICERS:

| Professor A. W. KirKapy.

LIVERPOOL, 1923.

CHAIRMAN OF GENERAL AND EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor.

VICE-CHAIRMEN.

Sir Witt1am Herpman, C.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
C. Sypnry Jones, M.A.

LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES.

Atrrep Hott, D.Sc.
Watter Moon, Town Clerk of Liverpool.
Epwin THOMPSON.

. ASSISTANT LOCAL HON. SECRETARY.

J. Howarp Roserts.

LOCAL HON. TREASURER.

Cuarues Bootn, M.A.

ASSISTANT LOCAL HON. TREASURER.

J. R. Hosuecuse.

vill

SECTIONS & SECTIONAL OFFICERS, 1923.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

President.—Prof. J. C. McLennan, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. W. L. Braac, F.R.S.; Prof. G. H. Harpy, 'F.B.S.;
Prof. A. W. Porrer, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Proupman; Prof. L. R.
WILBERFORCE.

Recorder.—Prof. A. O. RANKINE.

Secretaries.—M. A. Gistert; Prof. H. R. Hass#; J. Jackson; Prof. A, M.
TYNDALL.

Local Secretary.—J. Rice.

B.—CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof, F. G. Donnan, C.B.E., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. E. F. Armstrone, F.R.S.; Prof. E. C. C. Baty,
C.B.E., F.R.8.; Principal J. C. Irvine, C.B.E., F.R.S.

Recorder.—Prot. C. H. Drscu.

Secretaries.—Dr. H. McComriz; Dr. E. H. Tripp.

Local Secretary.—Prof. I. M. Hertpron,

C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Dr. GERTRUDE Eues, M.B.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. P. G. H. Boswenz, O.B.E.; Dr. J. S. Funrr, 0.B.E.,
F.R.S.; W. Hewirr; Prof. P. F. Kenpati; Prof. W. J. Soumas, F.B.S. ;
Sir A. SrraHan, K.B.E., F.R.S. ’

Recorder.—Dr. A. R. DwrRRYHOUSE.

Secretaries.—Prof. W. T. Gorpon; Prof. G. Hickiine.

Local Secretary.—W. Hewitt.

D.—ZOOLOGY.

President.—Prof. J. H. AsHwortu, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. EK. J. Auuen, F.R.S.; Prof. J. Jounsrone; Dr. T.
Mortensen ; Prof. R. Newsrnap.

Recorder.—Prof. R. D. Laurin.

Secretaries.—F. BALFouR Browne; Dr. W. T. Carman.

Local Secretary.-—Prof. W. J. DaKIN.

EK.—GEOGRAPHY.

President.—Dr. VAUGHAN CORNISH.

Vice-Presidents.—-CHaRtEs BootH; G. G. CursHotm; Prof. H. J. FLEeure;
Col. H. G. Lyons, F.R.S.; Dr. Marion Neweicin; Prof, P. M. Roxsy.

Recorder.__Dr. R. N. RupMoszt Brewn.

Secretaries.—_W. H. Barker; F. DEBENHAM.

Local Secretary.—R. H. Kinvie.

F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Sir W. H. Beveriper, K.C.B.

Vice-Presidents.—J. SANDEMAN ALLEN; Sir F. Danson; Prof. E. Y. Epcr-
wortH; Prof. A. W. KrrKatpy; Prof. D. H. Maccrecor; Huen
RATHBONE.

Recorder.—Prof. H. M. Hatitswortu.

Secretaries.—A. Raprorp; R. B. FoRRESTER.

Local Secretary.—Prof. E. R. Drewsnovp.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1923. ix

, G.—ENGINEERING.
f President.—Sir H. Fowter, K.B.E.
J Vice-Presidents.—Prof. T. Hupson Beare; J. A. Bropiz; Prof. F. C. Lea;
: ‘T. M. Newetzt; Prof. W. H. Warkrnson.
Recorder.—Prof. G. W. O. Howsr.
Secretaries.—Prot. F. Bacon; J. 8. Witson.
Local Secretary.—Prof. T. R. Witton.
|

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

President.—Prof. P. E. Newserry, O.B.E.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. R. Caron; Prof. E. Exwai.i; Dr. J. Garstanc; Dr.
: A. C. Kruyt; H. J. E. Peake; E. Torpay.

Recorder.—K. N. Fatwatze.

Secretaries.—Miss R. M. Fuemine ; Dr. F. C. Surupsatn.

Local Secretary.—Prof. J. P. Droop.

I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

President.—Prof. G. H. F. Nurratz, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—J. Barcrorr, F.R.S.; Prof. E. P. Caracart, F.R.S.;
Prof. J. B. Leatnes; Prof. A. B. Macatium, F.R.S.; Prof. J. 8. Mac-
DONALD, F.R.S.; Prof. J. J. R. Mactgop; Prof. Sir C. SHERRINGTON,
G.B.E., -Pres.R.S.

Recorder.—Prof. C. Lovarr Evans.

Secretaries.—Dr. J. H. Burn; Prof. H. S. Raver.

Local Secretary.—Dr. F. A. Durrtecp.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY.

President.—C. Burt.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. Drever; J. ©. Futeet; Prof. A. Marr; Dr. G. H.
Mires; Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S.; Prof. T. H. Pear.

Recorder.—Dr. Lu. WxNw JONES.

Secretaries.—R. J. Barntietr; Dr. SHEPHERD Dawson.

Local Secretaries.—A. E. Heatu; G. C. Frerp.

K.—BOTANY.

President.—A. G. Tanstey, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. V. H. Brackman, F.R.S.: Prof. H. H. Drxon,
F.R.S.; Dame Heten Gwynne-Vaucuan, G.B.E.; Prof. W. H. Lane,
F.R.S:; Prof. J. C. Prizstuzy; Prof. F. EH. Wwtss,; F.R.S.; J. A.
WHEELDON.

Recorder.—¥. T. Brooks.

Secretaries.—Dr. W. Rorinson; Prof. J. McLean THompson.

Local Secretary.—Miss M. Knicut.

L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

President.—Prof. T. P. Nunn.

Vice-Presidents._-Prof. E. T. Campacnac; G. H. Garter, C.M.G., D.S.0.;
Sir R. A. Grrcory; Prof. O. Jespersmn; J. G. Lecer.

Recorder.—D. BERRIDGE.

Secretaries.—C. E. BRowneE; Dr. Linran CLARKE.

Local Secretary.—C. F. Morr.

M.—AGRICULTURE.

President.—Dr. C. CrowTHER.

Vice-Presidents.—Rt. Hon. Lorp Buirprstor, K.B.E.; W. J. FirzHersert -
Brocxuotss, C.B.E.; Prof. T. B. Woop, C.B.E., F.R.S.

Recorder.—C. G. T. Morison.

Secretaries.—Dr. G. Scorr Rosertson; T. S. Dymonp.

Local Secretary.—E. H. Riperovr.

ANNUAL MEETINGS.

TABLE OF

Date of Meeting Where held Presidents | bY Senta ad
| 1831, Sept. 27. teed MOOS a a See | Viseount Milton, D. OL th ER. Ss. — —
1832, June 19....., Oxford ...... .., The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. — —
1833, June 25 Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......... = —
1834, Sept. 8 .....,) Edinburgh ..| Sir T, M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. ... — —
1835, Aug. 10..,...| Dublin ... ..| The Rey. Provost Lloyd,LL.D., F.R. 8. _ _
1836, Aug. 22 Bristol ... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.. _ —
1837, Sept. 11...... Liverpool ............... The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... — —,
1838, Aug. 10..,... Newcastle-on-Tyne..,| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. — —
1839, Aug. 26 ...... Birmingham ......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.! —_ —
1840, Sept. 17...... Glasgow........ .| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S.. — —
1841, July 20 ...... Plymouth ... ..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ........ | 169 65
1842, June 23...... Manchester ..| The Lord Francis Egerton, E.G.S. 2. 303 169
1843, Aug. 17...... Corky. .| The Harl of Rosse, F.R.S. ............... 109 28
1844, Sept. 26 ....., York . The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. ... 226 150
1845, June l9...... Cambridge Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S. 313 36
1846, Sept. 10.,,...)| Southampto .| Sir Roderick I.Murchison,Bart.,F.R.S.| 241 10
1847, June 23...... Oxfordi s+. ..| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ...| 314 18
1848, Aug.9 ......| Swansea........ .| TheMarquis of Northampton,Pres.R.S. 149 3
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham .| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12
1850, July 21 ...... Edinburgh .| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S....... 235 9
1851, July 2... G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172 8
1852, Sept. ..| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ..... 164 10
1853, Sept. .| William Hopkins, F. R. Se 141 13
1854, Sept. The Earl of Harrowby, 238 23
1855, Sept. ..| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ............ 194 33
1856, Aug. .| Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S... 182 14
1857, Aug. 26 ....., .| The Rey. H. Lloyd, D. D., F.R.S. 236 aN
1858, Sept. 22 ...... ..| Richard Owen, M.D., D. O. L., F.R.! ism 222 42
1859, Sept. 14 ...... Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort... 184 27
1860, June 27 | Oxford ...... ..| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ... 286 21
1861,Sept.4 ....... Manchester . .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 113
1862, Oct.1 ......| Cambridge ... ..| The Rev. Professor Willis, M. A. ne Ss; 239 15
1863, Aug. 26 ...... Newcastle-on- -Tyne... SirWilliam G. ‘Armstrong, O.B., S. 203 36
1864, Sept. 13 ...... |Betingee rs ecersteccete Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S. 287 40
1865, Sept.6 10...) Birmingham.,, .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL. D., 5. 292 44
1866, Angee. Nottingham ., ..| William R. Grove, Q. (ok, F.R.S.. 207 31
1867, Sept. 4 ...... Dundee ...... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.0.B..F.RS. 167 25
1868, Aug.19....., Norwich ..| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, Fr Babe se rcate, 196 18
1869, Aug. 18 ...... Exeter ...... ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R. 204 21
1870, Sept. 14..,... Liverpool .., | Prof. TH. Huxley, LL. D., F. RS. 314 39
UG Nr Edinburgh ..| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL. D. ny 246 28
1872, Aug. 14....., Brighton .., .| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. 245 36
1873, Sept. 17 ...... Bradford Prof, A. W. Williamson, F. 212 27
1874, Aug. 19...,., Belfast ‘| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F. 162 13
1875, Aug. 25 ...... Bristol Sir John Hawkshaw, F. R. 239 36
1876, Sept.6 ...... Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. hy 221 35
1877, Aug. 15....., Plymouth ..| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., 173 19
1876, Aug. 14....., Dublin .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., ER 201 18
1879, Aug. 20...... Sheffield ... Prof. G. J. Allman, M. 184 16
1880, Aupy 25 20. | Swansea .| A. O. Ramsay, LL. D.., E.R 144 11
1881, Aug. 31 . leviorkesae Sir John Lubbock, Bart. a 272 28
1889, Aug. 23 ..,... | Southampton ..| Dr. 0. W. Siemens, FR. 178 17
| 1883, Sept. 19 ...... Southport ...., .| Prof. A. Cayley, D. O.L. 203 60
1884 Aue. FT. 3, Montreal .. ... Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F. 235 20
1885. Sept.9 ......| Aberdeen ..... . Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O. 225 18
1886, Sept.1 ...... | Birmingham Sir J. W. Dawson, 0.M. 314 25
1887, Aug. 31...... | Manchester ..... . Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L. 428 86
1888, Sept.5 |. Babhigee. rec aeeransh Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. 266 36
1889, Sept. 11...... | Newcastle-on-Tyne,... Prof. W. H. Flower, OB., | 277 20
1890, Sept. 3 \Wieedst +2 ae ees | Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., ERS. 259 21
1891, Aug. 19. Oardiff .| Dr. W. Huggins, BR. Ss. 189 24
1892, Aug.3 . Edinburgh Ss Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F WR. 280 14
1893, Sept. 13 | Nottingham ,. ..| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sander son, F.R.S.) 201 17
1894, Aug. 8 | Oxtordig ei .. The Marquis of Salisbury,K. @ F.R.S.| 327 21
1895, Sept. 11......) Ipswich ,.,.. ... Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S. 214 13
1895, Sept. 16 ......) Liverpool .. . Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R. isp 330 31
1897, Aug. 18 ..,...| Toronto.. ... Sir John Evans, K.C.B. oR, RS. . 120 8
1898, Sept.7 ......! Bristol .. . Sir W. Crookes, faTRS event Ba 281 19
1899. Sept. 12...... DOVE iececnemeas sw nae. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S.... 296 20

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

[ Continued on p. xii.

1 ANNUAL MEETINGS. xi

| | Old New | Ag | Smee aeeagant
' Annual | Annual | ce Ladies |Foreigners Total sae ah of Grants Year
Members | Members | | Tickets \for Scientific
| # a ‘ / Purposes
= — = = } _— 353 — _ 1831
= = — — —— => — _ 1832
j = | = — — = 900 = = 1833
_ = =~ | — | _ 1298 — £20 0 0 1834
= a ay ar aed eee, = =o a 167 0 O| 1835
| _ _ -- _ — 1350 = 435 0 0; 1836
= = — — = 1840 = 92212 6| 1837
| = “9 Ses = 1100* = 2400 _ 932 2 2| 1838
—- | = — — = 1438 — 1595 11 0} 1839
—_— | — —_ — —
46. | 317 — | 60* = "501 = 1235 10 7 1841
75 ) 376 33t 331* 28 1315 — 1449 17 8 1842
a | =A Te zee == = — 1565 10 2 1843
4 | = = } _— 98112 8 1844
94 | 22 407 172 35 1079 °| _— 831 9 9 1845
1 65 39 270 196 36 857 _— 685 16 0 1846
] 197 40 495 203 53 1320 a | 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 £707.10: +0') 275 1 8 1848
93 33) CO 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 15919 6 1843
128 42 «| 510 273 44 1241 , 1085 0 0, 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 141 37 710 620 0 0} 391 9 7 1851
63 60 510 292 9 | 1108 | 108 0 0} 304 6 7 1852
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0] 205 0 0 1853
| ee eat 121° +} 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0]| 38019 7 1854
| 142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855
104 48 412 346 9 1115 | 1098 0 0 734138 9 1856
156 120 «=| 900 569 26 } 2022 .| 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857
111 91 | 710 509 13 1698" 1931 0 0 618 18 2 1858
125 179 =| ~=1206 821 22 2564 | 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859
177 5g) | 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0} 76619 6 1860
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0} 1111 510 1861
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 O | 129316 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 UG O 1608 3 10 1863
| 182 | 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0| 128915 8 1864
215 } 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0O| 1591 7 10 1865
218 | 105 960 771 11 | 2303 2469 0 0/| 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 | righ 7 2444 2613 0 0/| 1739 4 0 1867
SoM eOHRL TTT mele” -720 682 | = 45t 2004 | 2042 0 0|1940 0 0] 1868
229 107 678 600 17 1856 | 1931 0 0O| 1622 0 O 1869
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0} 1572 0 0 1870
311 | 127! sf 976 754 21 2463 «=| 2575 0 0/1472 2 6 1871
280 80 937 912 43 2533 «=| 2649 0 0 | 1285 0 O 1872
237 | 99 796 601 11 | 1983 2120 0 O| 168 0 0 1873
232 | 85 817 | 630 12 | 1951 1979 0 0 | 1151 16 0 1874
307 | 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0} 960 0 0 1875
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2 1876
238 | 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0) 1128 9 7 1877
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 725 16 6 1878
239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 ll ll 1879
171 41 389 147 12 915 899 0 0) it ey ro 1880
313 176 =| 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0} 476 8 1 1881
253 79 | 516 189 | 21 1253 1286 0 Oj 1126 1 11 1882
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 1083 3 3 1883
317 | 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0; 1173 4 0 1884
332 | 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 O | 1385 0 0 1885
428 | 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0; 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 O 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0 151l O 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0} 1417 O11 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890
| 341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0 | 102910 0} 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0} 86410 0} 1892
| 328 57 773 268 17, 1661 1653 0 0) 90715 6 1893
435 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0} 583 15 6 1894
290 3] 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0} 97715 5 1895
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0} 1104 6 1 1896
286 : 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0 | 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 | 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898
324 68 548 | 120 | 27 ‘| 1408 1328 0 0O| 143014 2 1899

Tt Including Ladies. § Fellows of the Amerivan Association were admitted as Hon, Members for this Meeting

[ Continued on p. xiii.

Date of Meeting

1900, Sept. 5
| 1901, Sept. 11......

1902, Sept. 10
| 1903, Sept. 9 .
| 1904, Aug. 17.
1905, Aug. 15.
1906, Aug. 1
1907, July 31
1908, Sept. 2 ......
1909, Aug. 25,.....
1910, Aug. 31
1911, Aug. 30
1912, Sept. 4 ......
| 1913, Sept. 10 .....
1914, July-Sept...
1915, Sept. 7
1916, Sept. 5
| 1917

1918
1919, Sept. 9

1920, Aug. 24......
192i, Sept.7 .....
1922, Sept. 6

1923, Sept. 12.......

: Australia .....

| Newceastle-on-Tyne...

ANNUAL MEETINGS,

Where held / Presidents
BYBOEOWEY 255 seccccccts 3s Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...
Glasgow..... | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. ...
Belfast ..... Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. .
Southport .. .. Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.
Cambridge..... | Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S
| South Africa Prof. G. H. Darwin, vith D., F.R.S.

Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S..,.
Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S...
. Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. .. Sal
Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. .............../

Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S.
:. Hon. Sir C. Parsons, K.0.B.,F.RS....

Dundee ......

PONE: see osaece ..| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D. ides R.S.

Leicester .. Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F. Fe coE

Dublin ..... . Dr. Francis Darwin, FR, 3

Winnipeg .. ... Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, RS. 5

| Sheffield. . ..| Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, eMac col

Portsmouth . . Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.O.B,, FE.B.S |
|

Birmingh:

Manchester ,,

(No Meeting)
(No Meeting) ..
Bournemouth

Cardiff ...... ... Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S.

.| Edinburgh . Sir T. E. Thorpe, C. B, F.R.S. .
FU vr eeteseewnicass acoso Sic (0: uke Sherrington, (ex BE.
IPOS RS cae vavnc cewepesesteacs ROS

. Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. .........

Table of
Old Life | New Life |
Members Members
|

267 | 13
310 37
243 21
250 21
419 | 32
115 40
322 10
276 19
294 24
7 |}. 8
293 26
284 21
288 14
376 40
172 13
242 19
164 12
235 47
vi: a a |
336 9
228 13

ANNUAL MEETINGS. xi
Annual Meetings—(continued). _
| Sums paid
Ola | New Ae! | | Sad on account |
' Annual Annual aren ay Ladies Foreigners Total fe Ke of Grants Year
| Members Members , | } i sa for Scientific /
| x 2 geet) en TS eee. | Purposes — |
297 45 801 482 9 , 1915 £1801 0 £1072 10 0 1900
374 131 794 | 246 20 1912 2046 0 920 911 1901 |
314 86 647 305 6 1620 | 1644 0 947 0 O 1902 |
S19! || 90 | 688 365 21 | 1764 | 1762 0| 84513 2 1903 |
449 | 118 | 1338 317 121 2789 2650 0 | 8871811 | 1904
937" 411 430 181 | 16 2130 2492 0 | 928 2 2 1905
356 | 93 817 352 | 22 | 1972 1811 0 | 882 0 9 | 1906
339 61 659 251 42 | 1647 1561 0 757 12 10 | 1907
465 | 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 115718 8 1908
290* 162 789 90 % | 1468 1623 0 1014 9 9 1909
379 57 563 | 123 | 8 1449 1489 0, 96317 O 1910
349 61 414 | 81 | 31 1241 1176 0| 922 0 0 1911
368 95 1292 | 359 | 88 2504 2349 0 | 845 7 6 | 1912
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0) 97817 1 | 1913
139 4160* 539° — 21 | 5044 4873 0 1861 16 4° 1914
287 116 §28* 141 8 ; 1441 1406 0/1569 2 8 | 1915
250 76 251 73 _— \ (826 821 0 | 985 18 10 1916
— . | a = = = = = 617 17 2 1917
—_ | _ | _ — _ fae, OT _ 32613 3 | 1918
254 | 102 | 685* 153 3 | 1482 | 1736 0) 410 0 0 1919
|
Annual Members | |
Ola ee Transfer- |
a | a Binders!
pee nar Meating Meeting Tickets 1omee
Report only | -
136 192 571 42 1200 et 20 1289 1272 10 |1251 13 0* 1920
133 410 1394 | 121 343 22 2768 2599 15 | 518 110 1921
90 294 757 89 235° 24 1730 1699 5, 772 0 7 1922
~ Compli- | |
mentary. |
123 380 | 1434 163 550 3087 5296 | 2735 15 | 777 18 6° 1923
1 Tucluding 848 Members of the South African Association. ‘

* Including 137 Members of the American Association.
® Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
Report, 1914, p.686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of
L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre.

* Including Students’ Tickets, 10s.

* Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge.

7 Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others.

* The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir OC. Parsons, enab!ed grants on account of
scientific purposes to be maintained.
® Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years,

X1V

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1922-23.

I. Major-General Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S., has been unani-
- mously nominated by the Council to fill the office of President of the
Association for the year 1924-25 (Toronto Meeting).

If. The Council conveyed to Sir William Herdman their condolence
on the lamented death of Lady Herdman, and to Lady Dewar on that
of Sir James Dewar, ex-President.

III. The Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, ex-President, and Dr. E. H.
Griffiths, General Treasurer, represented the Association at the
Centenary celebration of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, Septem-
ber 20, 1922, and presented an Address on behalf of the Council, in
which it was stated that the Society ‘ is justly regarded by the Associa-
tion as its mother-society.’

Representatives of the Association have been appointed as follows :—

Air Conference, Guildhall : . . Mr. F. E. Smith, Sir Richard

Gregory and the Secretary.

Council of Honour, International Air

Congress Mr. R. V. Southwell.
Societa Italiana per il “Progresso delle
Scienze . : 5 ¢ : : . Professor J. L. Myres and Dr.

Randall Maclver.
Congres International pour la Protection

de la Nature . : . Dz. P. Chalmers Mitchell.
Royal Sanitary Institute Congress i Mr. W. Whitaker.

Royal Institute of Public Health

Congress : Dr. C. §. Myers.
Pan-Pacifie Science Congress . : . Professor W. A. Osborne.
Advisory Council, Scientific Expedi-

tionary Research "Association : Mr. F. E. Smith.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology :

Inauguration of President . s . Professor W. MacDougall.
Huxley Centenary Committee . : Professor E. B. Poulton.
Association Bpanee (eet Meet-

ing). : 2 . J. G. Garson.

IV. The Council expressed to Sir Robert Hadfield the grateful thanks
of the Association for his generous gift designed to enable necessitous
students to obtain scientific books. The gift is of £50 in each of three
years, and that sum, for the first year, has been distributed in grants
of £10 to each of five universities or colleges selected by lot, viz.
University College of Bangor, North Wales; University College, Cardiff ;
Universities of Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester.

V. In furtherance of the movement to establish a central institution
for the encouragement of more general interest in anthropological studies
(Report, Hull Meeting, p. xv., § III, g), it has been ascertained that the
Royal Anthropological Institute is willing, under certain conditions, to
undertake the functions of such an institution, and has established a

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1922-23. XV

Joint Committee for Anthropological Training and Research, on which
all other bodies concerned in these matters are entitled to representation
by their delegates. The Joint Committee has already held its first
meeting, and taken action in matters of immediate concern to the
constituent bodies.

VI. Resolutions referred by the General Committee, at the Hull
Meeting, to the Council for consideration and, if desirable, for action,
were dealt with as follows :—

(a) On the instruction of the General Committee, the Council invited
the co-operation of a number of societies in applying to the Railway Com-
panies in Great Britain for a restoration of the travelling facilities and
concessions allowed to members attending scientific meetings before the
War. The Council were gratified to learn that this had been granted
to the Association, and returned a vote of thanks to the Companies.

(b) The Council agreed to support Dr. Potts in an application to the
Committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers on Sea Action for a
grant in aid of his investigation into the life-history of Teredo.
(Resolution of Section D.)

(c) The Council felt that they could take no action upon a suggestion
that a fund should be raised for the relief of distinguished aged scientific
men in need as the result of conditions on the Continent of Europe.
(Resolution of Section G.)

(d) The Council, after full inquiry, decided to take no action upon a
proposal that the Association should join the Museums Association in
moving for the appointment of a Royal Commission to investigate the
work of museums in relation to industries and general culture. (Resolu-
tion of the Committee of Recommendations.)

(e) The Council made a standing order that if, in connection with
any application for a grant from the funds of the Association, any
payment of travelling expenses (fares only) is contemplated, the amount
to be so allocated must be stated in the application, and the payment of
such expenses expressly sanctioned by the Committee of Recommenda-
tions and the General Committee, or, in the event of subsequent
emergency, by the Council.

VII. The Council, on behalf of the Association, joined in protesting
against proposed changes in the Egyptian laws relating to antiquities,
and received, through the Foreign Office and the High Commissioner,
the assurance that the Egyptian Government would not modify the
existing law without further careful consideration of protests received.

VIII. The President signed, on behalf of the Council, a memorandum
to the President of the Board of Education, urging that further accom-
modation should be provided for the Science collections at the Victoria
and Albert Museum, the Association having been represented in 1909
on a deputation to the Board dealing with this question.

__ IX. The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented
_ to the General Committee.

Xvl REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1922-23.

The Council made the following grants to research committees from
the Caird Fund :—

Seismology Committee oat ie or 6100
Naples Table Committee Be a ne) bL00
Bronze Implements Committee Ae dee 20)
Tables of Constants Committee ae pale) teats

The General Treasurer was authorised to apply any balance of Caird
Fund income to meeting other grants made by the General Committee
at Hull.

The third grant of £250 trom the Caird Gift for research in radio-
activity (for the year ending March 24, 1924) has been made to Professor
F. Soddy.

The British Association Exhibitions established in connection with
the Hull Meeting were awarded to eighteen students nominated by the
same number of universities and colleges, while six of these institutions
made equivalent allowances for eight additional students. All were
entertained by the Local Executive Committee at Hull, were enabled
to meet the President and General Officers, and through an elected
representative communicated to the Press their appreciation of the
opportunity afforded to them of attending the Meeting. The Council
have every hope of maintaining this system of exhibitions, which has
already proved its value. F

A small cost has been incurred for repairing the datum-level mark
erected at Stogursey by the Association in 1837.

X. The Council approved a number of resolutions from the Con-
ference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. (Report, Hull Meeting,
p- XXxill.)

A number of societies have been admitted to affiliation or association,
including, at the instance of the Organising Committee of Section M
(Agriculture), certain agricultural societies which have not previously
been represented.

Prof. H. H. Turner has been nominated as President, Prof. P. G. H.
Boswell as Vice-President, and Miss E. Warhurst as Local Secretary of
the Conference of Delegates at Liverpool.

The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as
follows: The President of the Association (Chairman, ex officio), Mr.
T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Treasurer, the General Secre-
taries, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall,
Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. W.
Whitaker.

XI. The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are :—

By seniority: Sir A. Strahan, Sir S. F. Harmer.
By least attendance: Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Sir J. Petavel,
Sir W. J. Pope.
The Council nominated the following new members :—
Prof. W. Dalby, Dr. J. S. Flett, Mr. C. T. Heycock,

leaving two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without
nomination by the Council.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1922-23. Xvil

The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :—

Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S. Sir A. Keith, F.R.S.

Mr. J. Barcroft, F.R.S. Sir J. Scott Keltie.

Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe, K.B.K. | Professor A. W. Kirkaldy.
Professor W. Dalby, F.R.S. Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, C.B.I.,
Mr. E. N. Fallaize. F.R.S.

Dr. J. S. Flett, F.R.S. Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S.
Professor H. J. Fleure. Professor A. W. Porter, F.R.S.
Professor A. Fowler, F.R.S. | Professor A. C. Seward, F.R.S.
Sir R. A. Gregory. Professor A. Smithells, C.M.G.,
Sir Daniel Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S. | F.R.S.

Mr. C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. Mr. A. G. Tansley, F.R.S.

Dr. W. Evans Hoyle. | Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

Mr. J. H. Jeans, F.R.S.

XII. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as
follows :—

General Treasurer, Dr. E. H. Griffiths.

General Secretaries, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. F. E. Smith.

XIII. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee :—

Dr. W. L. Balls. | Professor W. D. Henderson.
Professor J. W. Bews. Mr. Julian $. Huxley.
Professor A. H. R. Buller. Mr. H. Jeffreys.

Mr. R. S. Clark. Dr, A. F. Joseph.

Mr. J. R. Clarke. Mrs. Forbes Julian.

Mr. N. M. Comber. Dr. M. V. Lebour.

Mr. J. T. Cunningham. Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux.

Dr. E. M. Delf. | Mr. J. Ramsbottom.

Mr. E. A. Fisher. | Dr. E. J. Salisbury.

Miss R. M. Fleming. Professor W. Wright Smith.
Dr. R. H. Greaves. Professor D. Thoday.

XIV. The Council take pleasure in nominating M. le Comte de St.
Périer to be an honorary corresponding member of the Association.

XY. Arrangements for the Meeting in Toronto, 1924, are in progress,
and the Council has appointed a committee to assist the General Officers
in this matter, including Sir D. Bruce, Sir R. A. Gregory, Sir W.
- Herdman, Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy, Prof. J. C. McLennan, Sir E. Ruther-
ford, Sir C. Sherrington, Prof. A. Smithells.

The General Committee at Hull desired the Council to consider the
possibility of a meeting being held in England in 1924, following and
supplementary to the Toronto Meeting. The Council have done so,

but do not see the way clear to carrying out the suggestion.

XVI. The Council recommend the following change in Rule V., 1,
in relation to ex-officio members of the Council, viz. :—
Present Rule.—The ex-officio members are . . . the President and
Vice-Presidents for the year. the President and Vice-Presidents elect
. and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the ensuing
Annual Meeting.
Amendment.—The ex-officio members are . . . the President for the
year, the President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting
. and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual
eetings immediately past and ensuing.
1923 B

xvill

BRITISH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS.

For the Liverpool Meeting, British Association Exhibitions (referred
to in § IX. of the above report) were awarded to twenty students
nominated by the same number of universities and colleges. Their
travelling expenses (railway fares) were met by the Association, which
also issued complimentary students’ tickets of membership to them;
they were entertained in Liverpool by the Local Executive Committee
at; University hostels in Liverpool. Six of the universities or colleges
allowed travelling expenses for thirteen additional exhibitioners, who
also received the other facilities indicated above. The exhibitioners
were enabled to meet the President and general officers. One of their
number (Mr. W. W. Allen, of King’s College, London) was elected
secretary for the purpose of communication by the exhibitioners as a
body with the general officers.

GENERAL MEETINGS, p
SCIENTIFIC EXHIBITION, AND SOIREE
AT LIVERPOOL.

InaAvuGuRAL GENERAL Marerrina.

On Wednesday, September 12, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic
Hall, Prof. Sir Charles S. Sherrington, G.B.E., Pres.R.S., resigned
the office of President of the Association to Prof. Sir Ernest Rutherford,
F.R.S., who delivered an address on ‘The Electrical Structure of
Matter ’ (for which see p. 1).

The address was broadcast from all stations of the British Broad-
casting Company, and was effectively heard in all parts of Great Britain ;
it was also reported as clearly received by a listener in Switzerland.
Arrangements for land-line transmission were made by the Western
Electric Company, and these also enabled the address to be repeated
in the Small Concert Room, St. George’s Hall, Liverpool, where a
duplicate set of the lantern-sides used by the speaker was shown at
the appropriate points in the address.

EVENING LECTURE.

On Friday, September 14, at 8.30 p.m., in the Philharmonic Hall,
Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., delivered a lecture on ‘ The Study of
Man.’

ScIENTIFIC EXHIBITION.

A Scientific Exhibition was opened in the Central Technical School
from September 10 to 22, the public being admitted in addition to

GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. XIX

members of the Association. Exhibits were furnished by upwards of
sixty firms, institutions, and individuals, and demonstrations were given
and lectures delivered throughout the period of the exhibition.

Screntiric SOIREE.

A Scientific Soirée was held in Liverpool University on Tuesday
evening, September 18, at which a large number of exhibits, demonstra-
tions, and short lectures, in all departments of science covered by the
Sections of the Association, illustrated recent advances.

ConciupInc GENERAL MeErtina.

The concluding General Meeting was held in St. George’s Hall on
Wednesday, September 19, at 12 noon, when the following resolutions
were adopted by acclamation :—

(1) .

To express the thanks of the British Association to the City of Liverpool,
through the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor, for its hospitable welcome ; and to the
City Council for its generous help, and the assistance afforded by its
staff and various committees, especially the Sub-Committee for Technical and
Commercial Education, which has allowed the Technical School to be used for
the Scientific Exhibition, and the Tramways Committee, which has given free
transport to members of the Association.

(2)
To thank the University of Liverpool, through the Vice-Chancellor, for the

use of its buildings and scientific equipment, and for the friendly co-operation
of its Professors and staff.
(3)

To thank the Local Committee and its Vice-Chairmen, tne Local Hon.
Secretaries and Assistant Secretary, the Local Hon, Treasurer and Assistant
‘Treasurer, and their staffs, for their provision for the needs of the Association
and the entertainment of its members; the Chairman and Secretary of the
Scientific Exhibition Committee and of the Scientific Soirée Committee for
their work in connection with these interesting features of the meeting; the
Liverpool Clubs for their hospitality, and the Overhead Railway for providing
free transport; and generally to express the gratitude of the Association to all
those who by throwing open works ov other enterprises for inspection, and in
many other ways, have contributed to the success of the meeting.

PUBLIC LECTURES IN LIVERPOOL
AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.

Picton Hatt, LiverRpPoot.

Tuesday, September 11, at 8 p.m. : Professor G. W. O. Howe on ‘ The Evolu-

tion of the High Power Wireless Station.’

Thursday, September 13, at 8 p-m.: Professor A. 8. Eddington, F.R.S., on

‘ ‘Relativity.’

Friday, September 14, at 8 p.m. : Sir Wm. Pope, K.B.E., F.R.S., on ‘ Colour
Photography.’

R 2

XX PUBLIC LECTURES, CHILDREN’S LECTURES.

Monday, September 17, at 8 p.m.: Mr. J. Barcroft, C.B.E., F.R.S., on ‘The
Study of Life on the Roof of the New World.’

Wednesday, September 19, at 8 p.m.: Dr. F. A. E. Crew on ‘The Riddle
of Sex.’

Arts THEATRE, UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL.

Friday, September 14, at 5 p.m. : Dr. Johs. Schmidt on ‘ The ‘‘ Dana’’ Expedi-
tions and their work on the Life-History of the Eel.’

Town Hatt, HamMitrton Square, BIRKENHEAD.

Friday, September 14, at 7.30 p.m.: Professor A. C. Seward, F.R.S., on
‘Greenland : Its Ice, Flowers, and People.’

Tuesday, September 18, at 3.30 p.m.: Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., on
‘Mimicry in Insects’ (a Lecture for Young People).

Town Hatt, Bootte.

Friday, September 14, at 8 p.m.: Professor T. H. Pear on ‘ The Acquisition
of Skill in Work and Play.’
Town Hatt, WALLASEY.
Wednesday, September 12, at 8 p.m.: Professor A. Dendy, F.R.S., on ‘ The
Evolution Theory of To-day.’
Parr Hatt, WARRINGTON.

Friday, September 14, at 7.30 p.m.: Sir John Russell, O.B.E., F.R.S., on
‘Soil and Crop Growth.’

Friday, September 14, at 3 p.m.: Mr. F. Balfour Browne on ‘ Wild Bees and
Wasps.’

Town Hatt, Str. Hevens.
Monday, September 17, at 7.30 p.m.: Professor P. M. Roxby on ‘ Regional
Survey.’
Muinine anp Trecunicat Cotiece, Linrary Street, WIGAN.
Monday, September 17, at 7.30 p.m.: Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S., on
‘The Size of a Star.’
TrecHNicaL INsTITUTE, RUNCORN.

Monday, September 17, at 7.30 p.m.: Major G. W. C. Kaye on ‘ X-rays and
their Uses.’

CHILDREN’S LECTURES IN
LIVERPOOL.

Arts THEATRE, UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL.

Thursday, September 13, at 3 p.m.: Professor Arthur Smithells, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., on ‘ Flame.’

Picton Haiti, LiverPoou.

friday, September 14, at 3 p.m.: Professor P. E. Newberry, O.B.E., on
‘Toys and Games.’

IERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT

JULY 1, 1922, To JUNE 30, 1923.

XXil GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Balance Sheet,

LIABILITIES.
Ses. aie Cisse. (de Sy as a
| arenas
g . 1922.
To Sundry Creditors lS et ae 8711 0| 246 15 7
;, Capital Account—
General Fund per contra 5 > MOS 75) toe | 10,575 15 2
Caird Fund do. on MO 582 65S | 9,582 16 3

Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift for Inquiry into
Prime Movers, 1931—

£50 Consols accumulated to June 30, me
as percontra . 5 5 56) Leo 63-14) 6

: Caird Fund—
Balance as at July 1, 1922 Dies L220
Add Excess gd ‘Tncome ov er Expendi- |

ture . > 113 10 4
SSS SS 687

no
=
cr
x
©
mw
w
J

(This is without allowance for Depreciation
of Investments £1,861 10s. 3d.)

:, Caird Gift—
Radio-Activity Investigation, Balance at }
July 1, 1922 : : 1,046 18 8
Add Dividends on Treasury Bonds 5 38.52. 6
Income Tax Recovered . 5 22.18 3
VOT LD! oo |
Less Grant to Sir E. Rutherford é 250 0 0 |
—————_—— — 857 19 5 | 1,046 18 8
;; Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift 5 A £ 4 10,000 0 0 |10,000 0 9
;. John Perry Guest Fund—
Hor cases of emergency connected Ms ej |
Guests of the Association . 4 15 90 0 75 0 0
» Life Compositions asat July 1,1922 . 5 467 SO 45 0 O
Add Received during year : e 240 0 0
———___———— 285 0 0
, Legacy,T. W. Backhouse . 5 ; . 450 0 0 450 0 O
» Income and Expenditure Account—
Balance at July 1, 1922 - 2,621 19) 3
Add Excess of Income over Expendi-

ture . - 5 336 19° 9

(MEM.—The above is subject to Depreciation
of Investments amounting to a net
sum of £2,398 9s. 6d.)

}
ee
£35,616 14 2 |£35,271 10 11

I have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers, and certify the
Approved,

ARTHUR L. BOWLEY } :
A. W. KIRKALDY | 4uditors.

July 20, 1923.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. XXili
July 1, 1922—June 30, 1923,

ASSETS.

Se a PAR ey Mars cell SST

} Corresponding
/ Figures, 1922.

By Sundry Debtors . 2 ° 45 13° 4 RT 3

., Investments on Capital Accounts—
£4,651 10s, 5d. Consolidated 24 per cent.

“ Stock at cost. 7 ogee oo 3
£3,600 India 3 per cent. “Stock at cost 3,522 2 6 |
£879 14s. 9d. £43 Great Indian Peninsula |
“3B” Annuity at cost 827.15 0
£52 12s. 7d. & £810 10s. 3d. War ‘Stock, |
1929/47 at cost 889 17 6.
£1,400 War Loan ons 5 ae cent. 19 29/47

atcost . 1,393 16 11

—— 10,575 15
2 £7,634 18s. 2d. Value at date, £7,955 16s. 1d.
_, Caird Fund—
£2,627 0s. 10d. India 34 per cent. Stock at cost 2,400 13 3
£2,100 London, Midland and Scottish Rly.
Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference

to
~
cs
or
x
on
my
on
%

Stock atcost . = 3 s. 2,190°. 4
£2,500 Canada 34 per cent. 1930/50

Registered Stock at cost 2,397) J)e'6
£2,000 Southern Rly. Consolidated 5 per

cent. Preference Stock at cost . 2,594 17 3

£7,359 16s. 4d. Value at date,£7,721 6s. 0d.

SRS cA Bramwell’s Gift—
£50 2% per cent. Self-Cumulating Con-
solidated Stock as per last Balance

Sheet E O < PLES DEE 53 14.6 563 14 6
Add accumulations to
June 30,1923 . : AVLions 216 6
—— 56 11 0

SLUG? 10 a6

£63 11s. 8d. Value at date, £68 7s. 11d.
» Caird Gift—

£1,000 Registered Treasury Bonds. 2 1,000 0 0 1,000 0 @

£1,105. Value at date, £1,018 15s. 0d.
». Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift—

£10,000 5 per cent. War Loan P 5 10,000 0 0 | 10,000 0 O

£10, 025. Value at date, £10,125.
» John Perry Guest Fund—

£96 National pane Certificates at cost TZ $ 0 74 8 O
_.. Investments out of Income—
- ¢ £2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated 2} per cent.
4 Stock atcost. 1,200 0 0
} £1,500 Registered Treasury Bonds at cost 1,482 0 O
; —————————._ 2,682 0 0 2,682, 0 O
£2,857 10s. Od. Value at date, £2,778 9s. 7d.
. ». Life Compositions —
| £324 11s. 8d. Local Loans at cost z 210 0 0
Value at dates aan a 4d.
ar ae Deposit co : 500 0

t Bank . . : - . . 889 10
SS BEE) 1,281 1d 9

Viz.:—Legacy . = £450 0 0O

Caird Fund : : 687 2 4
Life Compositions - (for Ue 2) |
John Perry Guest Fund |

(Balance) . 012 0

1,212 14 4

Less Caird Gift . : 149° 0) 7%
12670 13.>.9 |

General Purposes : 318 16 8

£1,389 10 5

(

£35,616 14 2 |£35,271 10 11

to be correct. I have also verified the balances at the Bankers and the Investments.

W. B. KEEN,
Chartered Accountant.

- XXIV

”

which helps materially to reduce the printing account.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT.

Income and

FOR THE YEAR ENDED

EXPENDITURE.
25 Ss.
Heat and Lie 14 12
Stationery 47 4
Rent in 16 0
Postages 150 2
Electric Light Installation
Refund, re Australian hae eres
Travelling Expenses 185 5
}ixhibitioners - D0, oe
General Expenses 201 16
665 5
Salaries and Wages F 1,108 5
Pension Contribution . 715400
Printing, Binding, etc. 1,396 3

Sir Robert Hadfield’s Gift : Grants to Universities

Miss Stewardson, as per Contra

Grants to Research Committees :—
Absorption Spectra ‘
Stress Distributions
Parthenogenesis .
Growth of Children
Coldrum Megalithic Monument
Geography Teaching
Colloid Chemistry
Old Red Sandstone of Bristol
Stone Monuments =
Muscular Stiffness. ‘
Corresponding Societies
Bronze Implements
Derbyshire Caves
Zoological Bibliozraphy
Malta
Fossils
Oenothera
Conjoint Board

Balance being excess of Theme over Expendi-

ture for the year

_
ScCmoocooccoocococ]ec|s|ces

da, 2S Bat) oy ee

Corresponding

Period, 1922.

1 10 3

5 oe ala 9

0 8 5 0

5(1) OF Wt. i

45 15 56

15° 0-0

2 \ "381 11 0

10(2) DLE 17 wid

9 | 770 19 9

0(3) | 998 13 4

0 7 0 0

6 974 13 8

3,244 14 3
50 0 0

| 15! 0. FO
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0

257 18 6 207. 0 7

336 19 +9 Boe Oe

£3,889 12 6 | £4,658 7 56

(1) Postage of the Annual Report was formerly reckoned with the printing account.
(2) The increase is mainly accounted for by the purchase of an addressing and listing machine,

(3) Wages were formerly reckoned with General Expenses.

To Grants paid—

”

Tables of Gonstants Committee
Naples Station Committee
Seismology Committee

Bronze Implements Committee

Balance being Excess

of
Expenditure . ‘

Income

over

osoco ©

Se Sind, £1 9S: de
270° 0 -@ 515 0 O
113 10 4
£383 10 4 £515 0 0

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. XXV
Expenditure Account
‘JUNE 30, 1923.
INCOME.
23 ORO £4 28: £5 isid:
Corresponding
: Period, 1922.
By Life Compositions (Now Capitalised) ' . 225 0
;, Annual Members’ Subscriptions, Regular—
Including £76, 1923/24, and £1, 1924/25 207, 5.0L 40 323 0 O
» Annual Members’ Subscriptions, Temporary—
(Including £111, 1923/24) . 846 0 0 1,364 0 0
», Annual Members’ Subscriptions, with Report
(Including £69 10s., 1923/24) Al7 .0 0 544 10 O
», Transferable Tickets (Including £2 10s. .1923/24) 106) 5° 0 154 0 0
;, students’ Tickets (Including £2 10s.. eee LO9F10 0 171,10: 0
», Life Members’ Additional Subscriptions . 1 A
» Donations . TUE ol Hb off) 5 0 0
+3 (Miss Stewardson), as per contra fs a me
Interest on Deposits 10, Mig, 3 ae 14, 4
Advertisements 60 12 9
Sales of Publications . 802 8 0 734 6 O
Sir Robert Hadfield’s Gift 50 0 O
Transfer from Caird Fund. gag oO F
Unexpended Balance of exents returned 1 Ta Ws U2 HF 98 12 7
Income Tax recovered Livin 35). MB 958° 2
Dividends :—-
Consols - 11614 4 Sie 8) 6
India 3 per cent. r 81 0 0 75 12 O
Great Indian Peninsula “ B ” Annuity 3 2419 4 22.13. 3
War Stock . 96410" 6 93 18 0
>» (Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift) 500. 0 0 250 0.0
Treasury Bonds DeAbs 8 50 12 6
Local Loans E16. 6
880 111 575 3 9
£3,889 12 6)| £4,658 7 35

und.

y Dividends on Investments :—
India 34 per cent. . "oy
Canada 34 per cent. A
London, Midland & Scottish Railway Con-
solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock .
Southern Railway ch and aoe 5 = cent.
Preference Stock :

», Income Tax recovered . :
Balance being mec fe of Expenditure over
Income . ¢ . . . .

oo oof

Lend
s
ols RN

XXV1

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc.

APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN
LIVERPOOL: SEPTEMBER, 1923.

Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected
with researches are indicated in heavy type.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

Seismological Investigations.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw
(Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. ©. Davison,
Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof.
A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Mr. W. 8.
Plummer, Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Dr. G. 'T.
Walker. £100 (Caird Fund grant).

Tides.—Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Dr. G. R.
Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Major G. I. Taylor, Prof.
D’Arey W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg.

Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological.
—Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. Alfred
Egerton. £15 (Caird Fund grant, to be applied for from Council).

Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Dr. J. R.
Airey (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Prof. L. N. G. Filon, Prof. E. W. Hobson,
Mr. G. Kennedy, and Profs. Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love. H. M. Macdonald,
G. B. Mathews, G. N. Watson, and A. G. Webster. £35 (for printing).

Determination of Gravity at Sea.—Prof. A. E. H. Love (Chairman), Dr. W. G. Duffield
(Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Prof. A. 8. Eddington, Major E. O. Henrici,
Sir A. Schuster, Prof. H. H. Turner.

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Sir Napier Shaw (Chairman), Mr. C. J. P.
Cave (Secretary), Prof. 8S. Chapman, Mr. J. 8. Dines, Mr. L. H. G. Dines. Mr.
W. H. Dines, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Sir J. Larmor,
Mr. R. G. K. Lempfert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Sir J. E. Petavel,
Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Mr. F. J. W. Whipple, Prof. H. H. Turner.

To aid the work of Establishing a Solar Observatory in Australia.—Prof. H. H. Turner
(Chairman), Dr. W. G. Duffield (Secretary), Rev. A. L. Cortie, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer,
Mr. F. McClean, Sir A. Schuster.

To investigate local variations of the Earth’s Gravitational Field.—Col. H. G. Lyons
(Chairman), Capt. H. Shaw (Secretary), Prof. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. C. Chree, Col.
Sir G. P. Lenox-Conyngham, Dr. J. W. Evans, Mr. E. Lancaster-Jones, the
Director-General, Ordnance Survey; the Director, Geological Survey of Great
Britain. £50.

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications.—Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman),
Dr. W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Prof. J. W.
McBain. £5.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.—Prof. I. M.
Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. £10.

. The Position of the Quantum Theory in its relations to Chemistry.—Prof. W. C.
McC. Lewis (Chairman), Dr. J. Rice (Secretary), Prof. E. C. C. Baly, Prof. F. A.
Lindemann, Dr. E. K. Rideal, Dr, N. V, Sidgwick. £10.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXV1l
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Prof. Grenville Cole (Chair-
man), Prof. T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. R. Kidston, Dr. A.
Smith Woodward. £15.

To excavate Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Prof.
W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Prof. W. 8S. Boulton,
Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Mr. V. C. Illing, Dr. J. E. Marr,
Dr. W. K. Spencer. £5.

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo-
logical Interest.—Prof. KE. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secretary),
Mr. G. Bingley, Messrs. C. V. Crook, R. Kidston, and A. S. Reid, Sir J. J. H.

Teall, Prof. W.W. Watts, and Messrs. R. Welch and W. Whitaker.

To consider the preparation of a List of Characteristic Fossils.—Prof. P, F. Kendall
(Chairman), Mr. H. C. Versey (Secretary), Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Dr. A. R. Dwerry-
house, Profs. J. W. Gregory, Sir T. H. Holland, and S. H. Reynolds, Dr. Marie
C. Stopes, Dr. J. E. Marr, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. H. Woods, and Dr. A. Smith
Woodward. £5.

To investigate the Flora of Lower Carboniferous times as exemplified at a newly
discovered locality at Gullane, Haddingtonshire.—Dr. R. Kidston (Chairman),
Prof. W.T. Gordon (Secretary), Dr. J. 8. «ett, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Dr. J. Horne,
and Dr. B. N. Peach.

To investigate the Stratigraphical Sequence and Paleontology of the Old Red Sand-
stone of the Bristol district.—Dr. H. Bolton (Chairman), Mr. F. 8S. Wallis
(Secretary), Miss Edith Bolton, Mr. D. E. I. Innes, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, Prof.
8S. H. Reynolds, Mr. H. W. Turner. £20.

To investigate the Quaternary Peats of the British Isles.—Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chair-
man), Mr. L. H. Tonks (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss Chandler, Prof.
H. J. Fleure, Dr. E. Greenly, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. J. de W.
Hinch, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mrs. Reid, Mr. T. Sheppard, Mr. J. W. Stather,
Mr. A. W. Stelfox, Mr. C. B. Travis, Mr. A. E. Trueman, Mr. W. B. Wright. £50.

Comparison of the Rocks of Pre-Cambrian and presumably Pre-Cambrian Inliers of
England and Wales and the Dublin Area with the Rocks of the Mona Complex
of Anglesey, with a view to possible correlation.—Dr. Gertrude Elles (Chairman),
Dr. Edward Greenly (Secretary), Mr. T. C. Nicholas, Prof. 8. H. Reynolds,
Dr. C. E. Tilley. £30 (including travelling fares).

To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area. To tabulate
and preserve records of new excavations in that area.—Prot. W. T. Gordon (Chair-
man), Dr. 8. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof. H. L. Hawkins,
Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. W. Whitaker. £15.

To attempt to obtain agreement regarding the significance to be attached to Zonal
Terms used in connection with the lower Carboniferous.—Prof. P. F. Kendall
(Chairman), Mr. R. G. Hudson (Secretary), Mr. J. W. Jackson, Mr. W. B. Wright.
£10.

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.

To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. 8. Goodrich (Chairman),
Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. O. Bower, Dr. W. B.
Hardy, Sir 8. F. Harmer, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Prof. W. C.
MeIntosh. £100 from Caird Fund, subject to approval of Council.

To summon meetings in London or elsewhere for the consideration of matters affecting
the interests of Zoology, and to obtain by correspondence the opinion of Zoologists
on matters of a similar kind, with power to raise by subscription from each
Zoologist a sum of money for defraying current expenses of the organisation.—
Prof. 8. J. Hickson (Chairman), Mr. R. A. Wardle (Secretary), Prof. J. H. Ashworth,
Prof. W. J. Dakin, Prof. A. Dendy, Prof. F. W. Gamble, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner,
Prof. W. Garstang, Sir S. Harmer, Sir W. A. Herdman, Prof. J. Graham Kerr,
Prof. R. D. Laurie, Prof. E. W. MacBride, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. W. M.
Tattersall.

XXVIll RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A.
Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. E. Hoyle, Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater. £1.

Parthenogenesis.—Prof. A. Meek (Chairman), Mr. A. D. Peacock (Secretary), Mr.
R. 8. Bagnall, Dr. J. W. Heslop-Harrison. £5.

To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine
Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. A. Dendy (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. J. H.
Ashworth, Prof. W. J. Dakin, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester. £25
(Caird Fund grant, to be applied for from Council).

To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for
the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir 8. Harmer
(Chairman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof. A. Dendy, Prof. E. 8. Goodrich,
Prof. D. M. S. Watson. £50 (Caird Fund grant, to be applied for from
Council).

Marine Biological Research in India.—Dr. E. J. Allen (Chairman), Dr. S. W. Kemp
(Secretary), Prot. J. H. Ashworth, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof. E. §. Goodrich,
Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

To consider the advisability of making a provisional Population Map of the British
Isles, and to make recommendations as to the method of construction and
reproduction.—Mr. H. O. Beckit (Chairman), Mr. F. Debenham (Secretary),
Mr. J. Bartholomew, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie,
Mr. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby. £5.

SECTIONS E, L.—GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION.

To formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of Geography both to Matrica-
lation Standard and in Advanced Courses ; to report upon the present position
of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon ;
and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee
of Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of
Education affecting the position of Geography in Training Colleges and Secondary
Schools.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Barker (Secretary), Mr. L.
Brooks, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Sir H. J. Mackinder, Prof.
J. L. Myres, and Prof. J. F. Unstead (from Section Z) ; Mr. Adlam, Mr. D. Berridge,
Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. Sharwood Smith, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss
O. Wright (from Section L).

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

To report on certain of the more complex Stress Distributions in Engineering Materiais.
—Prof. E. G. Coker (Chairman), Prof. L. N. G. Filon, and Prof. A. Robertson
(Secretaries), Prof. T. B. Abell, Prof. A. Barr, Mr. Charles Brown, Dr. Gilbert
Cook, Prof. W. E. Dalby, Sir J. A. Ewing, Sir H. Fowler, Mr. A. R. Fulton,
Dr. A. A. Griffith, Mr. J. J. Guest, Dr. B. P. Haigh, Profs. Sir J. B. Henderson,
C. E. Inglis, F. C. Lea, A. E. H. Love, and W. Mason, Sir J. E. Petavel, Dr. F.
Rogers, Dr. W. A. Scoble, Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. T. E. Stanton, Mr. C. E.
Stromeyer, Mr. G. I. Taylor, Mr. A. T. Wall, Mr. J. 8. Wilson. £25.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chair-
man), Mr. H. Peake (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Dr. G. A. Auden,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. L. H. D. Buxton, Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, Sir W. Boyd
Dawkins, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway. £100
(including £60 from Caird Fund, to be applied for from Council).

To conduct Archeological Investigations in Malta.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman),
Sir A. Keith (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. R. R. Marett,
Mr, H. Peake.

— a

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXix

To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.—
Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Prof.
Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins,
Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake.

To excavate Karly Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway (Chairman), Mr.
S. Casson (Secretary), Prof. R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Prof.
J. L. Myres, Mr. M. Thompson.

To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.—Mr.
G. A. Garfitt (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. O. G. S. Crawford,
Miss R. M. Fleming, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E.
Peake. £5.

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro-
pological Interest.—Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary),
Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres.

To conduct Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Dr. D. G. Hogarth
(Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. R. C. Bosanquet, Dr. W. L. H.
_ Duckworth, Sir A. Evans, Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

To co-operate with Local Committees in excavation on Roman Sites in Britain.—
Prof. Sir W. Ridgeway (Chairman), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby,
Mr. Willoughby Gardner, Prof. J. L. Myres.

To report on the present state of knowledge of the Ethnography and Anthropology
of the Near and Middle East.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize
(Secretary), Mr. 8. Casson, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. H. J. E. Peake.

To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Paleolithic
Implements to Glacial Deposits.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. Burkitt, Prof.
P. F. Kendall, Mr. G. Lamplugh, Prof. J. E. Marr. £30.

To investigate the Lake Villages in the neighbourhood of Glastonbury in connectica
with a Committee of the Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society.—
Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman), Mr. Willoughby Gardner (Secretary), Mr. H.
Balfour, Mr. A. Bulleid, Mr. F. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E. Peake.

To co-operate with a Committee of the Roya! Anthropological Institute in the explor-
ation of Caves in the Derbyshire district.—Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman),
Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. M. Burkitt, Mr. E. N.
Fallaize, Dr. Favell, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. R. R. Marett, Mr. L. 8. Palmer,
Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £25 (including £16 4s. 4d. unexpended balance).

To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences
due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.—Sir
A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G.
Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. £20. (A proportion not exceeding two-thirds
of this grant may be expended on railway fares incurred in course of the
investigation. )

To conduct Excavations and prepare a Survey of the Coldrum Megalithic Monument.—

Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. H. J. E. Peake.

To report on the existence and distribution of Megalithic Monuments in the Isle of
Man.—Prof. H. J. Fleure (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 8.
Crawford, Sir W. Herdman, Mr. P. M. C. Kermode, Rev. Canon Quine.

To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archeological Bibliography, with
power to co-operate with other bodies.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E, N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford,
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-MaclIver,
Mr. T. Sheppard.

To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century.—
Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure,
Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman.

XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

To conduct Ethnographical investigations in British Columbia.—Prof. G. Elliot Smith
(Chairman), Dr. F.C. Shrubsall (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. C. G. Seligman.
£60.

To conduct Explorations on early Neolithic Sites in Holderness.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake
(Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. Burkitt, Dr. R. V.
Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Mr. L. 8. Palmer.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Muscular Stiffness in relation to Respiration.—Prof. A. V. Hill (Chairman), Dr. Ff.
Roberts (Secretary), Mr. J. Barcrott. £25.

The Cost of Cycling with varied rate and work.—Prof. J. 8. Macdonald (Chairman),
Dr. F. A. Duffield (Secretary). £50.

SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY.

The Place of Psychology in the Medical Curriculum.—Prof, G. Robertson (Chairman),
Dr. W. Brown (Secretary), Dr. J. Drever, Dr. R. G. Gordon, Dr. C. 8. Myers, Prof.
T. H. Pear, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Vocational Tests.—Dr. C. 8. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Mr. C.
Burt, Prof. T. H. Pear, Mr. F. Watts, Dr. Ll. Wynn-Jones.

The Character of a first-year University Course in Experimental Psychology.—Dr. J.
Drever (Chairman), Dr. May Collins (Secretary), Mr. F. C. Bartlett, Mr. R. J.
Bartlett, Dr. C. Burt, Dr. Shepherd Dawson, Mr. A. E. Heath, Dr. Ll. Wynn-
Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear.

The uniformity of Terminology and Standards in the Diagnosis of Mental Deficiency.—
Dr. C. Burt (Chairman), Miss Evelyn Fox (Secretary), Miss L. G. Fildes, Dr.
Kennedy Fraser, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

The Physiology and Life-history of Marine Algz at Port Erin.—Prof. J. McLean
Thompson (Chairman), Dr. M. Knight (Secretary), Prof. F. E. Weiss. £25
(including £15 for travelling fares).

Index Kewensis.—Sir D. Prain (Chairman), Dr. A. W. Hill (Secretary), Prof. J. B.
Farmer, Dr. A. B. Rendle, Prof. W. Wright Smith. £60.

Botanical Survey of Sherwood Forest.—Prof. R. H. Yapp (Chairman), Dr. H. 8. Holden
(Secretary), Mr. A. G. Tansley. £20 (including £5 for travelling fares).

SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

Training in Citizenship.—Rt. Rev. J. E.C. Welldon (Chairman), Mr. C. H. Blakiston,
Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Mr. W. D. Eggar, Mr. J. C. Maxwell Garnett. Sir R. A.
Gregory, Miss E. P. Hughes, Sir T. Morison. (With power to retain balance in
hand from proceeds of sale of reports.)

To inquire into the Practicability of an International Auxiliary Language.—Dr. H.
Forster Morley (Chairman), Dr. E. H. Tripp (Secretary), Mr. E. Bullough, Prof.
F. G. Donnan, Prof. J. J. Findlay, Sir Richard Gregory, Mr. W. B. Hardy, Dr.
C. W. Kimmins, Sir E. Cooper Perry, Mr. Nowell Smith, Mr. A.E. Twentyman. £3.

To consider the educational training of boys and girls in Secondary Schools for over-
seas life.-—Rev. H. B. Gray (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Dr. J.
Vargas Eyre, Sir R. A. Gregory, Sir J. Russell. £5.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman
ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General
Treasurer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr.
Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. W. Whitaker; with
authority to co-opt representatives of Scientific Societies in the locality of the
Annual Meeting. £40 for preparation of bibliography and report.

XXX1

DHE CATIRD FUND.

An unconditional gift of £10,000 was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of
Dundee.

The Council, in its report to the General Committee at the Birming-
ham Meeting, made certain recommendations as to the administration
of this Fund. These recommendations were adopted, with the Report,
by the General Committee at its meeting on September 10, 1913.

The allocations made from the Fund by the Council to September
1922 will be found stated in the Report for 1922, p. xxxi.

In and since 1921, the Council have authorised expenditure from
accumulated income of the fund upon grants to Research Committees —
approved by the General Committee by way of supplementing sums
available from the general funds of the Association, and in addition to
grants ordinarily made by, or applied for from, the Council.

Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of £1,000
to the Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity. In
1920 the Council decided to devote the principal and interest of this gift
at the rate of £250 per annum for five years to purposes of the research
intended. The grants for the year ending March 24, 1922 and 1923,
were made to Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. The grant for the year ending

- March 24, 1924, was made to Prof. F. Soddy, F.R.S.

XXXII
RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS.

The following Resolutions and Recommendations were referred to
the Council by the General Committee at Liverpool for consideration
and, if desirable, for action :—

RESOLUTIONS RELATING TO ScteENcCE Museum BuiupIneG, SouTH
KENSINGTON.

From Section A.

(1a) The Committee of Section A, having learned with regret that it is the inten-
tion of the Government to complete at present only a portion of the accommodation
for the science collections, which Sir Hugh Bell’s Committee considered urgently
required, request the Council to take such steps as may seem to them most
suitable to secure a reconsideration of the question with a view to the early
completion of the whole plan.

-From Section B.

(1b) That in the opinion of this Section the establishment of a Science Museum,
representative of all branches of Science, in which Chemistry shall be fully
represented, is of great importance, and urges that the scheme proposed in
1912 be carried out with the least possible delay.

From Section C.

(Ic) The Sectional Committee of Section C is strongly of opinion that the general
scheme for museum buildings should be continued and regarded as urgent, and
that, in particular, part of the scheme relating to the transfer of the Museum
of Practical Geclogy and the offices of the Geological Survey should be effected
without delay.

The Committee believes that it would be of great advantage to the public
that the stratigraphical, paleontological, mineralogical, and economic exhibits
in the National Museum should be housed in close proximity with one another.

From Section D.

(1d) That this Section hopes that the scheme of 1913 for the complete housing of
the Science Museums in South Kensington be proceeded upon with all possible
expedition.

From Section E.

(le) The Committee of Section E learn with regret that the science collections
at the Science Museum, South Kensington, are being withdrawn from exhibition
for a considerable period on atcount of lack of space.

They recommend that the General Committee should urge strongly upon
H.M. Government the importance of completing the whole of the eastern block
of the new Science Museum buildings forthwith, and of carrying out as soon as
may he practicable the building scheme prepared by the Departmental Committee
of 1910-12.

From Section G.

(1f) The Committee, having considered the letter of Sir Hugh Bell, desire to
place on record (1) their regret at learning that the already inadequate accom-
modation of the Science Museum has been further curtailed to make room

”
:

a a ee

RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. XXXill

for the War Museum, and (2) their disapproval of the delay in bringing the
buildings and equipment of our National Museum of Science up to a standard
commensurate with the national importance of pure and applied science.

The Committee consider that the Council of the British Association should,
either alone or in conjunction with other bodies, take steps to urge upon the
authorities the vital importance of providing adequate museum accommodation
in subjects so fundamentally essential to our national development and well-being.

From Section H.

To recommend that the Council of the British Association urge upon the
Government the desirability of providing at not too distant a date adequate and
suitable accommodation for the proper housing and display of the national
scientific collections.

From Section K.

That the Council of the British Association urge the Government to expedite
the completion of the Science Museum and the transfer of the Jermyn Street
Geological Museum to South Kensington as recommended in the Report pre-
sented in 1911 and 1912 by the Departmental Committee.

From Section L.

That Section L cordially agrees with the protest being presented against the
‘delay which has taken place in the completion of the scheme of the National
Museum for Science.

From Section M.

The Committee of Section M is strongly of opinion that every effort should
be made at the present time to secure as rapidly as possible the accommodation
necessary for the adequate housing of the Science collection.

It is particularly anxious that suitable provision should be made for an
agricultural exhibit worthy of the prominent position which agriculture occupies
among the industries of this country.

From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

To represent to His Majesty’s Government the urgent need for more ample
provision for the Science Museum, and for closer co-ordination between the
principal national collections of scientific material.

OtuerR RESOLUTIONS.

From Sections C, D, G, H, I, M, and the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies.

To represent to His Majesty’s Government, in view of recent proposals to
utilise for naval, military, or commercial purposes sites of historic or scientific
interest or of natural beauty, such as Avebury, Holmbury Hill, and Lulworth
Cove and its neighbourhood, the urgent need of more effective protection of
such sites from disfigurement or obstruction. salle

From Sections C, E, G, H, I, M, and the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies.

To request the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey to reconsider his
decision to discontinue the issue by the Ordnance Survey of quarter-sheets of
the six-inch map on the ground that, if quarter-sheets are not available, teachers,
students, and others engaged in various kinds of research on local’ and regional
distributions will be put to expense and inconvenience in providing themselves
with the sheets necessary for their work." . TSOWR Se EN RE re

1923 c

(1g)

(th)

(li)

(Ik)

(11)

(2)

(3)

(4a)

(4b)

(9)

(7)

(8)
(9)

‘10)

(11)

XXXIV RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

From Section EH.

That this Committee of Section E recommends that the Report of the Research
Committee on Geography be issued on sale as a Reprint of the British Associa-
tion, and that the Secretary of the British Association be authorised to take
such steps as are deemed necessary for the wide publicity of the pamphlet.

From Section L.

That the Report on teaching of Geography shall be included in the publica-
tions of the Association.

From Section G.

That this Committee should endeavour to obtain a wider publication of the
work of the Committee on Complex Stresses, and that with this object, in the
first place, the Reports published in 1913 on the subjects of ‘ Combined Stresses ;
and ‘The Collapse of Tubes’ should be brought up to date by their authors,
and, after discussion by the Complex Stress Committee, steps should be taken
with a view to their republication. As a first step the Council of the British
Association should be approached and its general approval of the foregoing
proposal obtained.

From Section H.

The Sectional Committee recommends the adoption of the suggestion of the
Committee on the Age of Stone Circles that ‘ finds’ from Avebury may be
deposited in Devizes Museum and duplicates be distributed among other
museums. It is recommended further that in the distribution of duplicates
preference be given to museums in the vicinity.

From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

To recommend that the publications of scientific societies should conform
so far as possible to a standard size of page for convenience in dealing with
off-prints ; and that for octavo publications the size of the British Association’s
Report be adopted as the standard.

To urge the adoption by scientific societies of the bibliographical recom-
mendations contained in the current Report of the Zoological Publications
Committee.

To call the attention of local scientific societies to the need for prompt
and systematic supervision, in the interests of scientific record, of all sections
and other excavations which were opened during the construction of new roads
or other public works.

That this Conference suggests for the consideration of the Council that the
change of the British gallon to 4 litres would be objectionable, because the gallon
of water weighs 10 Ib., which is an important fact in physical and engineering
practice.

To recommend the General Committee to accept the invitation received from
the President of the Museums Association to hold the Conference of Delegates
in connection with that Association’s meeting at Wembley in July 1924, without
prejudice to any provision which may be possible for a Conference of Repre-
sentatives of local societies at the Toronto meeting.

COMMUNICATIONS RECOMMENDED FOR PRINTING IN
EXTENDED FORM.
Section A.—Extended Abstracts of Professor P. Ehrenfest’s Paper,

‘Remarks on Quantisation,’ and Professor Langevin’s Paper on ‘ The Structure
of Atoms and their Magnetic Properties.’

THE,,PRESIDENTIAL..ADDRESS.

| ae Ee CECTRICAL STRUCTURE
OF MATTER.

PROFESSOR SIR ERNEST RUTHERFORD,
DSc. Orn. MPa... eo:

PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.

_ Iv was in 1896 that this Association last met in Liverpool, under the
_ presidency of the late Lord Lister, that great pioneer in antiseptic
_ surgery, whose memory is held in affectionate remembrance by all
nations. His address, which dealt mainly with the history of the
application of antiseptic methods to surgery and its connection with
the work of Pasteur, that prince of experimenters, whose birth has
been so fittingly celebrated this year, gave us in a sense a completed
page of brilliant scientific history. At the same time, in his opening
remarks, Lister emphasised the importance of the discovery by Réntgen
of a new type of radiation, the X-rays, which we now see marked the
beginning of a new and fruitful era in another branch of science.

‘The visit to your city in 1896 was for me a memorable occasion,
for it was here that I first attended a meeting of this Association, and
here that I read my first scientific paper. But of much more import-
ance, it was here that I benefited by the opportunity, which these
gatherings so amply afford, of meeting for the first time many of the
distinguished scientific men of this country and the foreign representa-
tives of science who were the guests of this city on that occasion. The
year 1896 has always seemed to me a memorable one for other reasons,
for on looking back with some sense of perspective we cannot fail to
recognise that the last Liverpool Meeting marked the beginning of what
has been aptly termed the heroic age of Physical Science. Never before
in the history of physics has there been witnessed such a period of
intense activity when discoveries of fundamental importance have
followed one another with such bewildering rapidity.

_ The discovery of X-rays by Réntgen had been published to the
world in 1895, while the discovery of the radioactivity of uranium
c 2

2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

by Becquerel was announced early in 1896. Even the most imagina-
tive of our scientific men could never have dreamed at that time of
the extension of our knowledge of the structure of matter that was to
develop from these two fundamental discoveries, but in the records of
the Liverpool Meeting we see the dawning recognition of the possible
consequences of the discovery of X-rays, not only in their application
to medicine and surgery, but as a new and powerful agent for attacking
some of the fundamental problems of physics. The address of Pro-
fessor J. J. Thomson, President of Section A, was devoted mainly to
a discussion of the nature of the X-rays and the remarkable properties
induced in gases by the passage of X-rays through them—the beginning
of a new and fruitful branch of study.

In applied physics, too, this year marked the beginning of another
advance. In the discussion of a paper which I had the honour to
read, on a new magnetic detector of electrical waves, the late Sir
William Preece told the meeting of the successful transmission of
signals for a few hundred yards by electric waves which had been made
in England by a young Italian, G. Marconi. The first public demonstra-
tion of signalling for short distances by electric waves had been given
by Sir Oliver Lodge at the Oxford Meeting of this Association in 1894.
It is startling to recall the rapidity of the development from such small
beginnings of the new method of wireless intercommunication over the
greatest terrestrial distances. In the last few years this has been followed
by the even more rapid growth of the allied subject of radiotelephony as
a practical means of broadcasting speech and music to distances only
limited by the power of the transmitting station. The rapidity of these
technical advances is an illustration of the close interconnection that
must exist between pure and applied science if rapid and sure progress is
to be made. The electrical engineer has been able to base his technical
developments on’ the solid foundation of Maxwell’s electromagnetic
theory and its complete verification by the researches of Hertz, and also
by the experiments of Sir Oliver Lodge in this University—a verifica-
tion which was completed long before the practical possibilities of this
new method of signalling had been generally recognised. The later
advances in radiotelegraphy and radiotelephony have largely depended
on the application of the results of fundamental researches on the
properties of electrons, as illustrated in the use of the thermionic valve
or electron tube which has proved such an invaluable agent both for
the transmission and reception of electric waves.

It is of great interest to note that the benefits of this union of pure
and applied research have not been one-sided. If the fundamental
researches of the workers in pure science supply the foundations on
which the applications are surely built, the successful practical applica-
tion in turn quickens and extends the interest of the investigator in

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

the fundamental problem, while the development of new methods and
appliances required for technical purposes often provides the investi-
gator with means of attacking still more difficult questions. This
important reaction between pure and applied science can be illustrated
in many branches of knowledge. It is particularly manifest in the
industrial development of X-ray radiography for therapeutic and indus-
trial purposes, where the development on a large scale of special X-ray
tubes and improved methods of excitation has given the physicist much
more efficient tools to carry out his researches on the nature of the rays
themselves and on the structure of the atom. In this age no one can
draw any sharp line of distinction between the importance of so-called
pure and applied research. Both are equally essential to progress,
and we cannot but recognise that without flourishing schools of research
on fundamental matters in our universities and scientific institutions
technical research must tend to wither. Fortunately there is little
need to labour this point at the moment, for the importance of a training
in pure research has been generally recognised. The Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research has made a generous provision of
grants to train qualified young men of promise in research methods in
our scientific institutions, and has aided special fundamental researches
which are clearly beyond the capacity of a laboratory to finance from
its own funds. Those who have the responsibility of administering the
grants in aid of research both for pure and applied science will need all
their wisdom and experience to make a wise allocation of funds to
secure the maximum of results for the minimum of expenditure. It
is fatally easy to spend much money in a direct frontal attack on some
technical problem of importance when the solution may depend on
some addition to knowledge which can be gained in some other field of
scientific inquiry possibly at a trifling cost. It is not in any sense my
purpose to criticise those bodies which administer funds for fostering
pure and applied research, but to emphasise how difficult it is to strike
the correct balance between the expenditure on pure and applied science
in order to achieve the best results in the long run.

It is my intention this evening to refer very briefly to some of the
main features of that great advance in knowledge of the nature of
electricity and matter which is one of the salient features of the interval
since the last meeting of this Association in Liverpool.

In order to view the extensive territory which has been conquered
by science in this interval, it is desirable to give a brief summary of
the state of knowledge of the constitution of matter at the beginning
of this epoch. Ever since its announcement by Dalton the atomic
theory has steadily gained ground, and formed the philosophic basis
for the explanation of the facts of chemical combination. In the early
stages of its application to physics and chemistry it was unnecessary

4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

to have any detailed knowledge of the dimensions or structure of the
atom. It was only necessary to assume that the atoms acted as indi-
vidual units, and to know the relative masses of the atoms of the
different elements. In the next stage, for example, in the kinetic
theory of gases, it was possible to explain the main properties of gases
by supposing that the atoms of the gas acted as minute perfectly elastic
spheres. During this period, by the application of a variety of methods,
many of which were due to Lord Kelvin, rough estimates had been
obtained of the absolute dimensions and mass of the atoms. These
brought out the minute size and mass of the atom and the enormous
number of atoms necessary to produce a detectable effect in any kind
of measurement. From this arose the general idea that the atomic
theory must of necessity for ever remain unverifiable by direct experi-
ment, and for this reason it was suggested by one school of thought
that the atomic theory should be banished from the teaching of
Chemistry, and that the law of multiple proportions should be accepted
as the ultimate fact of Chemistry.

While the vaguest ideas were held as to the possible structure of
atoms, there was a general belief among the more philosophically
minded that the atoms of the elements could not be regarded as simple
unconnected units. The periodic variations of the properties of the
elements brought out by Mendeléef were only explicable if atoms were
similar structures in some way constructed of similar material. We
shall see that the problem of the constitution of atoms is intimately
connected with our conception of the nature of electricity. The
wonderful success of the electromagnetic theory had concentrated atten-
tion on the medium or ether surrounding the conductor of electricity,
and little attention had been paid to the actual carriers of the electric
current itself. At the same time the idea was generally gaining ground
that an explanation of the results of Faraday’s experiments on electro-
lysis was only possible on the assumption that electricity, like matter,
was atomic in nature. The name ‘electron’ had even been given to
this fundamental unit by Johnstone Stoney, and its magnitude roughly
estimated, but the full recognition of the significance and importance
of this conception belongs to the new epoch.

For the clarifying of these somewhat vague ideas, the proof in
1897 of the independent existence of the electron as a mobile electrified
unit, of mass minute compared with that of the lightest atom, was of
extraordinary importance. It was soon seen that the electron must
be of a constituent of all the atoms of matter, and that optical
spectra had their origin in their vibrations. The discovery of the
electron and the proof of its liberation by a variety of methods from
all the atoms of matter was of the utmost significance, for it strength-
ened the view that the electron was probably the common unit in the

ee EEE

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

structure of atoms which the periodic variation of the chemical pro-
perties had indicated. It gave for the first time some hope of the
success of an attack on that most fundamental of all problems—the
detailed structure of the atom. In the early development of this subject
science owes much to the work of Sir J. J. Thomson, both for the
boldness of his ideas and for his ingenuity in developing methods for
estimating the number of electrons in the atom, and of probing its
structure. He early took the view that the atom must be an electrical
structure, held together by electrical forces, and showed in a general
way lines of possible explanation of the variation of physical and
chemical properties of the elements, exemplified in the periodic law.

In the meantime our whole conception of the atom and of the
magnitude of the forces which held it together were revolutionised by
the study of radioactivity. The discovery of radium was a great step
in advance, for it provided the experimenter with powerful sources of
radiation specially suitable for examining the nature of the characteristic
radiations which are emitted by the radioactive bodies in general. It
was soon shown that the atoms of radioactive matter were undergoing
spontaneous transformation, and that the characteristic radiations
emitted, viz. the «, 8, and y rays, were an accompaniment and conse-
quence of these atomic explosions. The wonderful succession of changes
that occur in uranium, more than thirty in number, was soon disclosed
and simply interpreted on the transformation theory. The radioactive
elements provide us for the first time with a glimpse into Nature’s
laboratory, and allow us to watch and study but not control the
changes that have their origin in the heart of the radioactive atoms.
These atomic explosions involve energies which are gigantic compared
with those involved in any ordinary physical or chemical process. In
the majority of cases an « particle is expelled at high speed, but in
others a swift electron is ejected often accompanied by a y ray, which is
a very penetrating X-ray of high frequency. The proof that the «
particle is a charged helium atom for the first time disclosed the import-
ance of helium as one of the units in the structure of the radioactive
atoms, and probably also in that of the atoms of most of the ordinary

-elements. Not only then have the radioactive elements had the greatest

direct influence on natural philosophy, but in subsidiary ways they
have provided us with experimental methods of almost equal import-
ance. The use of « particles as projectiles with which to explore the
interior of the atom has definitely exhibited its nuclear structure, has
led to artificial disintegration of certain light atoms, and promises to
yield more information yet as to the actual structure of the nucleus
itself.

The influence of radioactivity has also extended to yet another field
of study of fascinating interest. We have seen that the first rough

6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS;

estimates of the size and mass of the atom gave little hope that we
could detect the effect of a single atom. The discovery that the radio-
active bodies expel actual charged atoms of helium with enormous
energy altered this aspect of the problem. ‘The energy associated with
a single « particle is so great that it can readily be detected by a variety
of methods. Hach« particle, as Sir Wm. Crookes first showed, pro-
duces a flash of light easily visible in a dark room when it falls on a
screen coated with crystals of zinc sulphide. This scintillation method
of counting individual particles has proved invaluable in many re-
searches, for it gives us a method of unequalled delicacy for studying
the effects of single atoms. The « particle can also be detected electri-
cally or photographically, but the most powerful and beautiful of all
methods is that perfected by Mr. C. T. R. Wilson for observing the
track through a gas not only of an « particle but of any type of pene-
trating radiation which produces ions or of electrified particles along its
path. The method is comparatively simple, depending on the fact,
first discovered by him, that if a gas saturated with moisture is suddenly
cooled each of the ions produced by the radiation becomes the nucleus
of a visible drop of water. The water-drops along the track of the
a particle are clearly visible to the eye, and can be recorded photo-
graphically. These beautiful photographs of the effect produced by
single atoms or single electrons appeal, I think, greatly to all scientific
men. ‘They not only afford convincing evidence of the discrete nature
of these particles, but give us new courage and confidence that the
scientific methods of experiment and deduction are to be relied upon in
this field of inquiry; for many of the essential points brought out so
clearly and concretely in these photographs were correctly deduced
long before such confirmatory photographs were available. At the
same time, a minute study of the detail disclosed in these photographs
gives us most valuable information and new clues on many recondite
effects produced by the passage through matter of these flying projec-
tiles and penetrating radiations.

In the meantime a number of new methods had been devised to
fix with some accuracy the mass of the individual atom and the number
in any given quantity of matter. The concordant results obtained by
widely different physical principles gave great confidence in the correct-
ness of the atomic idea of matter. The method found capable of most
accuracy depends on the definite proof of the atomic nature of elec-
tricity and the exact valuation of this fundamental unit of charge.
We have seen that it was early surmised that electricity was atomic
in nature. This view was confirmed and extended by a study of the
charges carried by electrons, « particles, and the ions produced in gases
by X-rays and the rays from radioactive matter. It was first shown
hy Townsend that the positive or negative charge carried by an ion in

an ia

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7

gases was invariably equal to the charge carried by the hydrogen ion
in the electrolysis of water, which we have seen was assumed, and
assumed correctly, by Johnstone Stoney to be the fundamental unit
of charge. Various methods were devised to measure the magnitude
of this fundamental unit; the best known and most accurate is
Millikan’s, which depends on comparing the pull of an electric field on
a charged droplet of oil or mercury with the weight of the drop. His
experiments gave a most convincing proof of the correctness of the
electronic theory, and gave a measure of this unit, the most funda-
mental of all physical units, with an accuracy of about one in a
thousand. Knowing this value, we can by the aid of electrochemical
data easily deduce the mass of the individual atoms and the number
of molecules in a cubic centimetre of any gas with an accuracy of
possibly one in a thousand, but certainly better than one in a hundred.
When we consider the minuteness of the unit of electricity and of the
mass of the atom this experimental achievement is one of the most
notable even in an era of great advances.

The idea of the atomic nature of electricity is very closely connected
with the attack on the problem of the structure of the atom. If the
atom is an electrical structure it can only contain an integral number
of charged units, and, since it is ordinarily neutral, the number of units
of positive charge must equal the number of negative. One of the
main difficulties in this problem has been the uncertainty as to the
relative part played by positive and negative electricity in the structure
of the atom. We know that the electron has a negative charge of one

fundamental unit, while the charged hydrogen atom, whether in elec-

trolysis or in the electric discharge, has. a charge of one positive unit.
But the mass of the electron is only 1/1840 of the mass of the hydrogen
atom, and though an extensive search has been made, not the slightest
evidence has been found of the existence of a positive electron of small
mass like the negative. In no case has a positive charge been found
associated with a mass less than that of the charged atom of hydrogen.
This difference between positive and negative electricity is at first sight

_ very surprising, but the deeper we pursue our inquiries the more this

fundamental difference between the units of positive and negative
electricity is emphasised. In fact, as we shall see later, the atoms are
quite unsymmetrical structures with regard to the positive and negative
units contained in them, and indeed it seems certain that if there were
not this difference in mass between the two units, matter, as we know
it, could not exist.

It is natural to inquire what explanation can be given of this striking
difference in mass of the two units. I think all scientific men are
convinced that the small mass of the negative electron is to be entirely
associated with the energy of its electrical structure, so that the electron

8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

may be regarded as a disembodied atom of negative electricity. We
know that an electron in motion, in addition to possessing an electric
field, also generates a magnetic field around it, and energy in the
electromagnetic form is stored in the medium and moves with it. This
gives the electron an apparent or electrical mass which, while nearly
constant for slow speeds, increases rapidly as its velocity approaches
that of light. This increase of mass is in good accord with calculation,
whether based on the ordinary electrical theory or on the theory of
relativity. Now we know that the hydrogen atom is the lightest of all
atoms, and is presumably the simplest in structure, and that the
charged hydrogen atom, which we shall see is to be regarded as the
hydrogen nucleus, carries a unit positive charge. It is thus natural
to suppose that the hydrogen nucleus is the atom of positive electricity,
or positive electron, analogous to the negative electron, but differing
from it in mass. Electrical theory shows that the mass of a given
charge of electricity increases with the concentration, and the greater
mass of the hydrogen nucleus would be accounted for if its size were
much smaller than that of the electron. Such a conclusion is sup-
ported by evidence obtained from the study of the close collisions of
« particles with hydrogen nuclei. It is found that the hydrogen nucleus
must be of minute size, of radius less than the electron, which is
usually supposed to be about 10-'* cms. ; also the experimental evidence
is not inconsistent with the view that the hydrogen nucleus may
actually be much smaller than the electron. While the greater mass
of the positive atom of electricity may be explained in this way, we are
still left with the enigma why the two units of electricity should differ
so markedly in this respect. . In the present state of our knowledge it
does not seem possible to push this inquiry further, or to discuss the
problem of the relation of these two units.

We shall see that there is the strongest evidence that the atoms
of matter are built up of these two electrical units, viz. the electron
and the hydrogen nucleus or proton, as it is usually called when it
forms part of the structure of any atom. It is probable that these two
are the fundamental and indivisible units which build up our universe,
but we may reserve in our mind the possibility that further inquiry
may some day show that these units are complex, and divisible into
even more fundamental entities. On the views we have outlined
the mass of the atom is the sum of the electrical masses of the individual
charged units composing its structure, and there is no need to assume
that any other kind of mass exists. At the same time, itis to be borne
in mind that the actual mass of an atom may be somewhat less than
the sum of the masses of component positive and negative electrons
when in the free state. On account of the very close proximity of the
charged units in the nucleus of an atom, and the consequent disturbance

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9

of the electric and magnetic field surrounding them, such a decrease
of mass is to be anticipated on general theoretical grounds.

We must now look back again to the earlier stages of the present
epoch in order to trace the development of our ideas on the detailed
structure of the atom. That electrons as such were important con-
stituents was clear by 1900, but little real progress followed until the
part played by the positive charges was made clear. New light was
thrown on this subject by examining the deviation of « particles when
they passed through the atoms of matter. It was found that occa-
sionally a swift « particle was deflected from its rectilinear path through
more than a right angle by an encounter with a single atom. In such
a collision the laws of dynamics ordinarily apply, and the relation
between the velocities of the colliding atoms before and after collision
are exactly the same as if the two colliding particles are regarded as
perfectly elastic spheres of minute dimensions. It must, however, be
borne in mind that in these atomic collisions there is no question of
mechanical impacts such as we observe with ordinary matter. The
reaction between the two particles occurs through the intermediary of
the powerful electric fields that surround them. Beautiful photo-
graphs illustrating the accuracy of these laws of collision between an
% particle and an atom have been obtained by Messrs. Wilson, Blackett,
and others, while Mr. Wilson has recently obtained many striking
illustrations of coilisions between two electrons. | Remembering the
great kinetic energy of the « particle, its deflection through a large
angle in a single atomic encounter shows clearly that very intense
deflecting forces exist inside the atom. It seemed clear that electric
fields of the required magnitude could be obtained only if the main
charge of the atom were concentrated in a minute nucleus. From this
arose the conception of the nuclear atom, now so well known, in which
the heart of the atom is supposed to consist of a minute but massive
nucleus, carrying a positive charge of electricity, and surrounded at a
idistance by the requisite number of electrons to form a neutral atom.

A detailed study of the scattering of « particles at different angles,
by Geiger and Marsden, showed that the results were in close accord
with this theory, and that the intense electric forces near the nucleus
varied according iv the ordinary inverse square law. In addition, the
experiments allowed us to fix an upper limit for the dimensions of the
nucleus. For a heavy atom like that of gold the radius of the nucleus,
if supposed to be spherical, was less than one thousandth of the radius
of the complete atom surrounded by its electrons, and certainly less
than 4x10-" cms. All the atoms were found to show this nuclear
structure, and an approximate estimate was made of the nuclear charge
of different atoms. This type of nuclear atom, based on direct experi-
mental evidence, possesses some very simple properties. It is obvious

10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

that the number of units of resultant positive charge in the nucleus
fixes the number of the outer planetary electrons in the neutral atom.
In addition, since these outer electrons are in some way held in equili-
brium by the attractive forces from the nucleus, and, since we are
confident from general physical and chemical evidence that all atoms
of any one element are identical in their external structure, it is clear
that their arrangement and motion must be governed entirely by the
magnitude of the nuclear charge. Since the ordinary chemical and
physical properties are to be ascribed mainly to the configuration and
motion of the outer electrons, it follows that the properties of an atom
are defined by a whole number representing its nuclear charge. It
thus becomes of great importance to determine the value of this nuclear
charge for the atoms of all the elements.

Data obtained from the scattering of « particles, and also from the
scattering of X-rays by light elements, indicated that the nuclear charge
of an element was numerically equal to about half the atomic weight
in terms of hydrogen. It was fairly clear from general evidence that
the hydrogen nucleus had a charge one, and the helium nucleus (the
« particle) a charge two. At this stage another discovery of great im-
portance provided a powerful method of attack on this problem. The
investigation by Laue on the diffraction of X-rays by crystals had
shown definitely that X-rays were electromagnetic waves of much
shorter wave-length than light, and the experiments of Sir Willam
Bragg and W. L. Bragg had provided simple methods for studying the
spectra of a beam of X-rays. It was found that the spectrum in
general shows a continuous background on which is superimposed a
spectrum of bright lines. At this stage H. G. J. Moseley began a
research with the intention of deciding whether the properties of an
element depended on its nuclear charge rather than on its atomic weight
as ordinarily supposed. For this purpose the X-ray spectra emitted
by a number of elements were examined and found to be all similar
in type. The frequency of a given line was found to vary very nearly
as the square of a whole number which varied by unity in passing
from one element to the next. Moseley identified this whole number
with the atomic or ordinal number.of thea elements when arranged in
increasing order of atomic weight, allowance being made for the known
anomalies in the periodic table and for certain gaps corresponding to
possible but missing elements. He concluded that the atomic number
of an element was a measure of its nuclear charge, and the correctness
of this deduction has been recently verified by Chadwick by direct
experiments on the scattering of « particles. Moseley’s discovery is
of fundamental importance, for it not only fixes the number of electrons
in all the atoms, but shows conclusively that the properties of an atom,
as had been surmised, are determined not by its atomic weight but

— —-—— <= — =<

{es

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. i

by its nuclear charge. A relation of unexpected simplicity is thus
found to hold between the elements. No one could have anticipated
that with few exceptions all atomic numbers between hydrogen 1, and
uranium 92, would correspond to known elements. The great power
of Moseley’s law in fixing the atomic number of an element is well
illustrated by the recent discovery by Coster and Hevesy in Copen-
hagen of the missing element of atomic number 72, which they have
named ‘ hafnium.’

Once the salient features of the structure of atoms have been fixed
and the number of electrons known, the further study of the structure
of the atom falls naturally into two great divisions: one, the arrange-
ment of the outer electrons which controls the main physical and
chemical properties of an element, and the other the structure of the
nucleus on which the mas; and radioactivity of the atom depends. On
the nuclear theory the hydrogen atom is of extreme simplicity, con-
sisting of a singly-charged positive nucleus with only one attendant
electron. The position and motions of the single electron must account
for the complicated optical spectrum, and whatever physical and
chemical properties are to be attributed to the hydrogen atom. The
first definite attack on the problem of the electronic structure of the
atom was made by Niels Bohr. He saw clearly that, if this simple
constitution was assumed, it is impossible to account for the spectrum
of hydrogen on the classical electrical theories, but that a radical depar-
ture from existing views was necessary. For this purpose he applied
to the atom the essential ideas of the Quantum Theory which
had been ‘developed by Planck for other purposes, and had been
found of great service in explaining many fundamental difficulties in
other branches of science. On Planck’s theory radiation is emitted
in definite units or quanta, in which the energy E of a radiation is
equal to hv where v is the frequency of the radiation measured by the
ordinary methods and h a universal constant. This quantum of radia-
tion is not a definite fixed unit like the atom of electricity, for its
magnitude depends on the frequency of the radiation. For example,
the energy of a quantum is small for visible light, but becomes large
for radiation of high frequency corresponding to the X-rays or the
¥ rays from radium.

Time does not allow me to discuss the underlying meaning of the
quantum theory or the difficulties connected with it. Certain aspects
of the difficulties were discussed in the Presidential Address before this
Association by Sir Oliver Lodge at Birmingham in 1913. It suffices
to say that this theory has proved of great value in several branches
of science, and is supported by a large mass of direct experimental
evidence.

In applying the quantum theory to the structure of the hydrogen

12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

atom Bohr supposed that the single electron could move in a number
of stable orbits, controlled by the attractive force of the nucleus, with-
out losing energy by radiation. The position and character of these
orbits were defined by certain quantum relations depending on one or
more whole numbers. It was assumed that radiation was only emitted
when the electron for some reason was transferred from one stable
orbit to another of lower energy. In such a case it was supposed that
a homogeneous radiation was emitted of frequency v determined by the
quantum relation E=hy where E was the difference of the energy of
the electron in the two orbits. Some of these possible orbits are
circular, others elliptical, with the nucleus as a focus, while if the
change of mass of the electron with velocity is taken into account’ the
orbits, as Sommerfeld showed, depend on two quantum numbers, and
are not closed, but consist. of a nearly elliptical orbit slowly rotating
round the nucleus. In this way it is possible not only to account for
the series relations between the bright lines of the hydrogen spectrum,
but also to explain the fine structure of the lines and the very compli-
cated changes observed when the radiating atoms are exposed in a
strong magnetic or electric field. Under ordinary conditions the
electron in the hydrogen atom rotates in a circular orbit close to the
nucleus, but if the atoms are excited by an electric discharge or other
suitable method, the electron may be displaced and occupy any one
of the stable positions specified by the theory. In a radiating gas
giving the complete hydrogen spectrum there will be present many
different kinds of hydrogen atoms, in each of which the electron
describes one of the possible orbits specified by the theory. On this
view it is seen that the variety of modes of vibration of the hydrogen
atom is ascribed, not to complexity of the structure of the atom, but
to the variety of stable orbits which an electron may occupy relative
to the nucleus. This novel theory of the origin of spectra has been
developed so as to apply not only to hydrogen but to all the elements,
and has been instrumental in throwing a flood of light on the relations
and origin of their spectra, both X-ray and optical. The information
thus gained has been applied by Bohr to determine the distribution of
the electrons round the nucleus of any atom. The problem is obviously
much less complicated for hydrogen than for a heavy atom, where each
of the large number of electrons present acts on the other, and where
the orbits described are much more intricate than the orbit of the
single electron in hydrogen. Notwithstanding the great difficulties of
such a complicated system of electrons in motion, it has been possible
to fix the quantum numbers that characterise the motion of each
electron, and to form at any rate a rough idea of the character of the
orbit.

These planetary electrons divide themselves up into groups, according

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13

as their orbits are characterised by one or more equal quantum
numbers. Without going into detail a few examples may be given to
illustrate the conclusions which have been reached. As we have seen,
the first element hydrogen has a nuclear charge of 1 and 1 electron; the
second, helium, has a charge 2 and 2 electrons, moving in coupled
orbits on the detailed nature of which there is still some uncertainty.
These two electrons form a definite group, known as the K group,
which is common to all the elements except hydrogen. For increasing
nuclear charge the K group of electrons retain their characteristics,
but move with increasing speed, and approach closer to the nucleus.
As we pass from helium of atomic number 2 to neon, number 10, a
new group of electrons is added consisting of two sub-groups, each of
four electrons, together called the L group. This L group appears in
all atoms of higher atomic number, and, as in the case of the K group,
the speed of motion of the electrons increases, and the size of their
orbits diminishes with the atomic number. When once the L group
has been completed a new and still more complicated M group of
electrons begins forming outside it, and a similar process goes on until
uranium, which has the highest atomic number, is reached.

It may be of interest to try to visualise the conception of the atom
we have so far reached by taking for illustration the heaviest atom,
uranium. At the centre of the atom is a minute nucleus surrounded
by a swirling group of 92 electrons, all in motion in definite orbits,
and occupying but by no means filling a volume very large compared
with that of the nucleus. Some of the electrons describe nearly circular
orbits round the nucleus; others, orbits of a more elliptical shape whose
axes rotate rapidly round the nucleus. The motion of the electrons
in the different groups is not necessarily confined to a definite region
of the atom, but the electrons of one group may penetrate deeply into
the region mainly occupied by another group, thus giving a type of
inter-connection or coupling between the various groups. The maxi-
mum speed of any electron depends on the closeness of the approach
to the nucleus, but the outermost electron will have a minimum speed
of more than 1,000 kilometres per second, while the innermost K elec-
trons have an average speed of more than 150,000 kilometres per
second, or half the speed of light. When we visualise the extraordinary
complexity of the electronic system we may be surprised that it has
been possible to find any order in the apparent medley of motions.

In reaching these conclusions, which we owe largely to Professor
Bohr and his co-workers, every available kind of data about the different
atoms has been taken into consideration. A study of the X-ray spectra,
in particular, affords information of great value as to the arrangement
of the various groups in the atom; while the optical spectrum and
general chemical properties are of great importance in deciding the

14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

arrangements of the superficial electrons. While the solution of the
grouping of the electrons proposed by Bohr has been assisted by con-
siderations of this kind, it is not empirical in character, but has been
largely based on general theoretical considerations of the orbits of
electrons that are physically possible on the generalised quantum theory.
The real problem involved may be illustrated in the following way.
Suppose the gold nucleus be in some way stripped of its attendant
seventy-nine electrons and that the atom is reconstituted by the succes-
sive addition of electrons one by one. According to Bohr, the atom
will be reorganised in one way only, and one group after another will
successively form and be filled up in the manner outlined. The nucleus
atom has often been likened to a solar system where the sun corresponds
to the nucleus and the planets to the electrons. The analogy, however,
must not be pressed too far. Suppose, for example, we imagined that
some large and swift celestial visitor traverses and escapes from our
solar system without any catastrophe to itself or the planets. There
will inevitably result permanent changes in the lengths of the month
and year, and our system will never return to its original state. Con-
trast this with the effect of shooting an electron or « particle through the
electronic structure of the atom. The motion of many of the electrons
will be disturbed by its passage, and in special cases an electron may be
removed from its orbit and hurled out of its atomic system. In a short
time another electron will fall into the vacant place from one of the
outer groups, and this vacant place in turn will be filled up, and so on
until the atom is again reorganised. In all cases the final state of the
electronic system is the same as in the beginning. This illustration
also serves to indicate the origin of the X-rays excited in the atom, for
these arise in the process of reformation of an atom from which an
electron has been ejected, and the radiation of highest frequency arises
when the electron is removed from the K group.

It is possibly too soon to express a final opinion on the accuracy of
this theory which defines the outer structure of the atom, but there can
be no doubt that it constitutes a great advance. Not only does it offer
a general explanation of the optical and X-ray spectra of the atom, but
it accounts in detail for many of the most characteristic features of the
periodic law of Mendeléef. It gives us for the first time a clear idea
of the reason for the appearance in the family of elements of groups
of consecutive elements with similar chemical properties, such as the
groups analogous to the iron group and the unique group of rare earths.
The theory of Bohr, like all living theories, has not only correlated a
multitude of isolated facts known about the atom, but has shown its
power to predict new relations which can be verified by experiment.
For example, the theory predicted the relations which must subsist
between the Rydberg constants of the arc and spark spectra, and generally

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

between all the successive optical spectra of an element, a prediction so
strikingly confirmed by Paschen’s work on the spectrum of doubly
ionized aluminium and Fowler’s work on the spectrum of trebly ionized
silicon. Finally, it predicted with such great confidence the chemical
properties of the missing element, number 72, that it gave the necessary
incentive for its recent discovery.

While the progress of our knowledge of the outer structure of atoms
has been much more rapid than could have been anticipated, we clearly
see that only a beginning has been made on this great problem, and
that an enormous amount of work is still required before we can hope
to form anything like a complete picture even of the outer structure
of the atom. We may be confident that the main features of the struc-
ture are clear, but in a problem of such great complexity progress in
detail must of necessity be difficult and slow.

We have not so far referred to the very difficult question of the
explanation on this theory of the chemical combination of atoms. In
fact, as yet the theory has hardly concerned itself with molecular struc-
ture. On the chemical side, however, certain advances have already
been made, notably by G. N. Lewis, Kossel, and Langmuir, in the
interpretation of the chemical evidence by the idea of shared electrons,
which play a part in the electronic structure of two combined atoms.
There can be little doubt that the next decade will see an intensified
attack by physicists and chemists on this very important but undoubtedly
very complicated question.

Before leaving this subject, it may be of interest to refer to certain
points in Bohr’s theory of a more philosophical nature. It is seen that
the orbits and energies of the various groups of electrons can be specified
by certain quantum numbers, and the nature of the radiation associated
with a change of orbit can be defined. But at the same time we cannot
explain why these orbits are alone permissible under normal conditions,
or understand the mechanism by which radiation is emitted. It may
be quite possible to formulate accurately the energy relation of the

electrons in the atom on a simple theory, and to explain in considerable
detail all the properties of an atom, without any clear understanding of
the underlying processes which lead to these results. It is natural to
hope that with advance of knowledge we may be able to grasp the details
of the process which leads to the emission of radiation, and to understand
why the orbits of the electrons in the atom are defined by the quantum
relations. Some, however, are inclined to take the view that in the
present state of knowledge it may be quite impossible in the nature of
things to form that detailed picture in space and time of successive
_ events that we have been accustomed to consider as so important a part
of a complete theory. The atom is naturally the most fundamental
_ Structure presented to us. Its properties must explain the properties
1923 D

16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

of all more complicated structures, including matter in bulk, but we
may not, therefore, be justified in expecting that its processes can be
explained in terms of concepts derived entirely from a study of molar
properties. The atomic processes involved may be so fundamental that
a complete understanding may be denied us. It is early yet to be
pessimistic on this question, for we may hope that our difficulties may
any day be resolved by further discoveries.

We must now turn our attention to that new and comparatively
unexplored territory, the nucleus of the atom. In a discussion on the
structure of the atom ten years ago, in answer to a question on the
structure of the nucleus, I was rash enough to say that it was a problem
that might well be left to the next generation, for at that time there
seemed to be few obvious methods of attack to throw light on its con-
stitution. While much more progress has been made than appeared
possible at that time, the problem of the structure of the nucleus is
inherently more difficult than the allied problem already considered ot
the structure of the outer atom, where we have a wealth of information
obtained from the study of light and X-ray spectra and from the chemical
properties to test the accuracy of our theories.

In the case of the nucleus, we know its resultant charge, fixed by
Moseley’s law, and its mass, which is very nearly equal to the mass of
the whole atom, since the mass of the planetary electrons is relatively
very small and may for most purposes be neglected. We know that
the nucleus is of size minute compared with that of the whole atom,
and ¢an with some confidence set a maximum limit to its size. The
study of radioactive bodies has provided us with very valuable informa-
tion on the structure of the nucleus, for we know that the « and 6
particles must be expelled from it, and there is strong evidence that the
very penetrating y rays represent modes of vibration of the electrons
contained in its structure. In the long series of transformations which
occur in the uranium atom, eight « particles are emitted and six elec-
trons, and it seems clear that the nucleus of a heavy atom is built up,
in part at least, of helium nuclei and electrons. It is natural to sup-
pose that many of the ordinary stable atoms are constituted in a similar
way. It is a matter of remark that no indication has been obtained
that the lightest nucleus, viz. that of hydrogen, is liberated in these
transformations, where the processes occurring are of so fundamental a
character. At the same time, it is evident that the hydrogen nucleus
must be a unit in the structure of some atoms, and this has been
confirmed by direct experiment. Dr. Chadwick and I have observed
that swift hydrogen nuclei are released from the elements boron,
nitrogen, fluorine, sodium, aluminium, and phosphorus when they are
bombarded by swift « particles, and there is little room for doubt that
these hydrogen nuclei form an essential part of the nuclear structure.

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Ya

The speed of ejection of these nuclei depends on the velocity of the
« particle and on the element bombarded. It is of interest to note that
the hydrogen nuclei are liberated in all directions, but the speed in the
backward direction is always somewhat Jess than in the direction of
the « particle. Such a result receives a simple explanation if we sup-
pose that the hydrogen nuclei are not built into the main nucleus but
exist as satellites probably in motion round a central core. There can
be no doubt that bombardment by « particles has effected a veritable
disintegration of the nuclei of this group of elements. It is significant
that the liberation of hydrogen nuclei occurs only in elements of odd
atomic number, viz. 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, the elements of even number
appearing quite unaffected. For a collision of an « particle to be effec-
tive, it must either pass close to the nucleus or actually penetrate its
structure. The chance of this is excessively small on account of the
minute size of the nucleus. For example, although each individual
« particle will pass through the outer structure of more than 100,000
atoms of aluminium in its path, it is only about one « particle in a
million that gets close enough to the nucleus to effect the liberation of
its hydrogen satellite.

This artificial disintegration of elements by « particles takes place
only on a minute scale, and its observation has only been possible by
the counting of individual swift hydrogen nuclei by the scintillations
they produce in zinc sulphide.

These experiments suggest that the hydrogen nucleus or proton must
be one of the fundamental units which build up a nucleus, and it seems

highly probable that the helium nucleus is a secondary building unit

composed of the very close union of four protons and two electrons.
The view that the nuclei of all atoms are ultimately built up of protons
of mass nearly one and of electrons has been strongly supported and
extended by the study of isotopes. It was early observed that some of
the radioactive elements which showed distinct radioactive properties
were chemically so alike that it was impossible to effect their separation
when mixed together. Similar elements of this kind were called
“isotopes ’ by Soddy, since they appeared to occupy the same place in
the periodic table. For example, a number of radioactive elements in
the uranium and thorium series have been found to have physical and
chemical properties identical with those of ordinary lead, but yet to
have atomic weights differing from ordinary lead, and also distinctive
radioactive properties. The nuclear theory of the atom offers at once a
simple interpretation of the relation between isotopic elements. Since
the chemical properties of an element are controlled by its nuclear charge
and liftle influenced by its mass, isotopes must correspond to atoms

with the same nuclear charge but of different nuclear mass. Such a

view also offers a simple explanation why the radiocative isotopes show
D2

18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

different radioactive properties, for it is to be anticipated that the stability
of a nucleus will be much influenced by its mass and arrangement.

Our knowledge of isotopes has been widely extended in the last few
years by Aston, who has devised an accurate direct method for showing
the presence of isotopes in the ordinary elements. He has found that
some of the elements are ‘ pure ’—i.e. consist of atoms of identical mass—
while others contain a mixture of two or more isotopes. In the case of
the isotopic elements, the atomic mass, as ordinarily measured by the
chemist, is a mean value depending on the atomic masses of the indi-
vidual isotopes and their relative abundance. These investigations have
not only shown clearly that the number of distinct species of atoms is
much greater than was supposed, but have brought out a relation between
the elements of great interest and importance. The atomic masses of
the isotopes of most of the,elements examined have been found, to an
accuracy of about one in a thousand, to be whole numbers in terms of
oxygen, 16. This indicates that the nuclei are ultimately built up of
protons of mass very nearly one and of electrons. It is natural to
suppose that this building unit is the hydrogen nucleus, but that its
average mass in the complex nucleus is somewhat less than its mass in
the free state owing to the close packing of the charged units in the
nuclear structure. We have already seen that the helium nucleus of
mass 4 is probably a secondary unit of great importance in the building
up of many atoms, and it may be that other simple combinations of
protons and electrons of mass 2 and 3 occur in the nucleus, but these
have not been observed in the free state.

While the mass of the majority of the isotopes are nearly whole
numbers, certain cases have been observed by Aston where this rule is
slightly departed from. Such variations in mass may ultimately prove
of great importance in throwing light on the arrangement and closeness
of packing of the protons and electrons, and for this reason it is to be
hoped that it may soon prove possible to compare atomic masses of
the elements with much greater precision even than at present.

While we may be confident that the proton and the electron are the
ultimate units which take part in the building up of all nuclei, and can
deduce with some certainty the number of protons and electrons in the
nuclei of all atoms, we have little, if any, information on the distribution
of these units in the atom or on the nature of the forces that hold them
in equilibrium. While it is known that the law of the inverse square
holds for the electrical forces some distance from the nucleus, it seems
certain that this law breaks down inside the nucleus. A detailed study
of the collisions between « particles and hydrogen. atoms, where the
nuclei approach very close to each other, shows that the forces between
nuclei increase ultimately much more rapidly than is to be expected
from the law of the inverse square, and it may be that new and unex-

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19

pected forces may come into importance at the very small distances
separating the protons and electrons in the nucleus. Until we gain more
information on the nature and law of variation of the forces inside the
nucleus, further progress on the detailed structure of the nucleus may
be difficult. At the same time, there are still a number of hopeful
directions in which an attack may be made on this most difficult of
problems. A detailed study of the y rays from radioactive bodies may
be expected to yield information as to the motion of the electrons inside
the nucleus, and it may be, as Ellis has suggested, that quantum
laws are operative inside as well as outside the nucleus. From a
study of the relative proportions of the elements in the earth’s crust,
Harkins has shown that elements of even atomic number are much
more abundant than elements of odd number, suggesting a marked
difference of stability in these two classes of elements. It seems
probable that any process of stellar evolution must be intimately
connected with the building up of complex nuclei from simpler ones,
and its study may thus be expected to throw much light on the evolution
of the elements.

The nucleus of a heavy atom is undoubtedly a very complicated
system, and in a sense a world of its own, little, if at all, influenced by
the ordinary physical and chemical agencies at our command. When
we consider the mass of a nucleus compared with its volume it seems
certain that its density is many billions of times that of our heaviest
_ element. Yet, if we could form a magnified picture of the nucleus,
we should expect that it would show a discontinuous structure, occupied
but not filled by the minute building units, the protons and electrons,
in ceaseless rapid motion controlled by their mutual forces.

Before leaving this subject it is desirable to say a few words on
the important question of the energy relations involved in the formation
and disintegration of atomic nuclei, first opened up by the study of
radioactivity. For example, it is well known that the total evolution
of energy during the complete disintegration of one gramme of radium
is many millions of times greater than in the complete combustion of
an equal weight of coal. It is known that this energy is initially
mostly emitted in the kinetic form of swift « and @ particles, and the
energy of motion of these bodies is ultimately converted into heat
when they are stopped by matter. Since it is believed that the radio-
active elements were analogous in structure to the ordinary inactive
elements the idea naturally arose that the atoms of all the elements
contained a similar concentration of energy, which would be available
for use if only some simple method could be discovered of promoting
and controlling their disintegration. This possibility of obtaining new
_ and cheap sources of energy for practical purposes was naturally an

alluring prospect to the lay and scientific man alike. It is quite true

20 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

that, if we were able to hasten the radioactive processes in uranium and
thorium so that the whole cycle of their disintegration could be confined
to a few days instead of being spread over thousands of millions of
years, these elements would provide very convenient sources of energy
on a sufficient scale to be of considerable practical importance. Un-
fortunately, although many experiments have been tried, there is no
evidence that the rate of disintegration of these elements can be altered
in the slightest degree by the most powerful laboratory agencies. With
increase in our knowledge of atomic structure there has been a gradual
change of our point of view on this important question, and there is ~
by no means the same certainty to-day as a decade ago that the atoms
of an element contain hidden stores of energy. It may be worth while
to spend a few minutes in discussing the reason for this change in out-
look. This can best be illustrated by considering an interesting analogy
between the transformation of a radioactive nucleus and the changes in
the electron arrangement of an ordinary atom. It is now well known
that it is possible by means of electron bombardment or by appropriate
radiation to excite an atom in such a way that one of its superficial
electrons is displaced from its ordinary stable position to another tem-
porarily stable position further removed from the nucleus. This
electron in course of time falls back into its old position, and its potential
energy is converted into radiation in the process. There is some reason
for believing that the electron has a definite average life in the displaced
position, and that the chance of its return to its original position is
governed by the laws of probability. In some respects an ‘ excited’
atom of this kind is thus analogous to a radioactive atom, but of course
the energy released in the disintegration of a nucleus is of an entirely
different order of magnitude from the energy released by return of the
electron in the excited atom. It may be that the elements, uranium
and thorium, represent the sole survivals in the earth to-day of types
of elements that were common in the long distant ages, when the
atoms now composing the earth were in course of formation. A frac-
tion of the atoms of uranium and thorium formed at that time has
survived over the long interval on account of their very slow rate of
transformation. It is thus possible to regard these atoms as haying
not yet completed the cycle of changes which the ordinary atoms have
long since passed through, and that the atoms are still in the ‘ excited’
state where the nuclear units have not yet arranged themselves in posi-
tions of ultimate equilibrium, but still have a surplus of energy which
can only be released in the form of the characteristic radiation from
active matter. On such a view, the presence of a store of energy ready
for release is not a property of all atoms, but only of a special class
of atoms like the radioactive atoms which have not yet reached the
final state for equilibrium.

—

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21

It may be urged that the artificial disintegration of certain elements
by bombardment with swift « particles gives definite evidence of a
store of energy in some of the ordinary elements, for it is known that
a few of the hydrogen nuclei, released from aluminium for example,
are expelled with such swiftness that the particle has a greater indi-
vidual energy than the « particle which causes their liberation. Un-
fortunately, it is very difficult to give a definite answer on this point
until we know more of the details of this disintegration.

On the other hand, another method of attack on this question has
become important during the last few years, based on the comparison
of the relative masses of the elements. This new point of view can
best be illustrated by a comparison of the atomic masses of hydrogen
and helium. As we have seen, it seems very probable that helium is
not an ultimate unit in the structure of nuclei, but is a very close com-
bination of four hydrogen nuclei and two electrons. The mass of the
helium nucleus, 4.00 in terms of O=16, is considerably less than the
mass 4.03 of four hydrogen nuclei. On modern views there is believed
to be a very close connection between mass and energy, and this loss
in mass in the synthesis of the helium nucleus from hydrogen nuclei
indicates that a large amount of energy in the form of radiation has
been released in the building of the helium nucleus from its components.
It is easy to calculate from this loss of mass that the energy set free
in forming one gramme of helium is large even compared with that
liberated in the total disintegration of one gramme of radium. For
example, calculation shows that the energy released in the formation
of one pound of helium gas is equivalent to the energy emitted in the
complete combustion of about eight thousand tons of pure carbon.
It has been suggested by Eddington and Perrin that it is mainly to
this source of energy that we must look to maintain the heat emission
of the sun and hot stars over long periods of time. Calculations of
the loss of heat from the sun show that this synthesis of helium
need only take place slowly in order to maintain the present rate of
radiation for periods of the order of one thousand million years. It
must be acknowledged that these arguments are somewhat speculative
in character, for no certain experimental evidence has yet been obtained
that helium can be formed from hydrogen.

The evidence of the slow rate of stellar evolution, however, certainly
indicates that the synthesis of helium, and perhaps other elements of
higher atomic weight, may take place slowly in the interior of hot stars.
While in the electric discharge through hydrogen at low pressure we
can easily reproduce the conditions of the interior of the hottest star
as far as regards the energy of motion of the electrons and hydrogen
nuclei, we cannot hope to reproduce that enormous density of radiation
which must exist in the interior of a giant star. For this and other

22 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

reasons it may be very difficult, or even impossible, to produce helium
from hydrogen under laboratory conditions.

lf this view of the great héat emission in the formation of helium
be correct, it is clear that the helium nucleus is the most stable of all
nuclei, for an amount of energy corresponding to three or four « par-
ticles would be required to disrupt it into its components. In addition,
since the mass of the proton in nuclei is nearly 1.000 instead of its mass
1.0072 in the free state, it follows that much more energy must be put
into the atom than will be liberated by its disintegration into its ultimate
units. At the same time, if we consider an atom of oxygen, which
may be supposed to be built up of four helium nuclei as secondary units,
the change of mass, if any, in its synthesis from already formed helium
nuclei is so small that we cannot yet be certain whether there will be
a gain or loss of energy by its disintegration into helium nuclei, but in
any case we are certain that the magnitude of the energy will be much
less than for the synthesis of helium from hydrogen. Our information
on this subject of energy changes in the formation or disintegration
of atoms in general is as yet too uncertain and speculative to give any
decided opinion on future possibilities in this direction, but I have
endeavoured to outline some of the main arguments which should be
taken into account.

I must now bring to an end my survey, I am afraid all too brief
and inadequate, of this great period of advance in physical science.
In the short time at my disposal it has been impossible for me, even
if I had the knowledge, to refer to the great advances made during
the period under consideration in all branches of pure and applied
science. I am well aware that in some departments the progress made
may justly compare with that of my own subject. In these great
additions to our knowledge of the structure of matter every civilised
nation has taken an active part, but we may be justly proud that this
country has made many fundamental contributions. With this
country I must properly include our Dominions overseas, for they have
not been behindhand in their contributions to this new knowledge.
It is, 1 am sure, a matter of pride’ to this country that the scientific
men of our Dominions have been responsible for some of the most
fundamental discoveries of this epoch, particularly in radioactivity.

This tide of advance was continuous from 1896, but there was an
inevitable slackening during the War. It is a matter of good omen
that, in the last few years, the old rate of progress has not only been
maintained but even intensified, and there appears to be no obvious sign
that this period of great advances has come to an end. There has never
been a time when the enthusiasm of the scientific workers was greater,
or when there was a more hopeful feeling that great advances were
imminent. This feeling is no doubt in part due to the great improve-

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23

ment during this epoch of the technical methods of attack, for problems
that at one time seemed unattackable are now seen to be likely to fall
before the new methods. In the main, the epoch under consideration
has been an age of experiment, where the experimenter has been the
pioneer in the attack on new problems. At the same time, it has
been also an age of bold ideas in theory, as the Quantum Theory and
the Theory of Relativity so well illustrate.

I feel it is a great privilege to have witnessed this period, which
may almost be termed the Renaissance of Physics. It has been of
extraordinary intellectual interest to watch the gradual unfolding of
new ideas and the ever-changing methods of attack on difficult problems.
It has been of great interest, too, to note the comparative simplicity
of the ideas that have ultimately emerged. For example, no one could
have anticipated that the general relation between the elements would
prove to be of so simple a character as we now believe it to be. It is
an illustration of the fact that Nature appears to work in a simple way,
and that the more fundamental the problem often simpler are the con-
ceptions needed for its explanation. The rapidity and certitude of the
advance in this epoch have largely depended on the fact that it has been
possible to devise experiments so that few variables were involved. For
example, the study of the structure of the atom has been much facili-
tated by the possibility of examining the effects due to a single atom

of matter, or, as in radioactivity or X-rays, of studying processes going
on in the individual atom which were quite uninfluenced by external
- conditions.

. In watching the rapidity of this tide of advance in physics I have
_ become more and more impressed by the power of the scientific method
_ of extending our knowledge of Nature. Experiment, directed by the
_ disciplined imagination either of an individual, or still better, of a
_ group of individuals of varied mental outlook, is able to achieve results
which far transcend the imagination alone of the greatest natural philo-
sopher. Experiment without imagination, or imagination without
recourse to experiment, can accomplish little, but, for effective progress,
a happy blend of these two powers is necessary. The unknown appears
as a dense mist before the eyes of men. In penetrating this obscurity
we cannot invoke the aid of supermen, but must depend on the com-
bined efforts of a number of adequately trained ordinary men of scientific
imagination. Each in his own special field of inquiry is enabled by
the scientific method to penetrate a short distance, and his work reacts
upon and influences the whole body of other workers. From time to
time there arises an illuminating conception, based on accumulated
knowledge, which lights up a large region and shows the connection
between these individual efforts, so that a general advance follows. The
attack begins anew on a wider front, and often with improved technical

24 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

weapons. The conception which led to this advance often appears
simple and obvious when once it has been put forward. This is a
common experience, and the scientific man often feels a sense of dis-
appointment that he himself had not foreseen a development which
ultimately seems so clear and inevitable.

The intellectual interest due to the rapid growth of science to-day
cannot fail to act as a stimulus to young men to join in scientific investi-
gation. In every branch of science there are numerous problems of
fundamental interest and importance which await solution. We may
confidently predict an accelerated rate of progress of scientific discovery,
beneficial to mankind certainly in a material but possibly even more so in
an intellectual sense. In order to obtain the best results certain condi-
tions must, however, be fulfilled. It is necessary that our universities
and other specific institutions should be liberally supported, so as not
only to be in a position to train adequately young investigators of
promise, but also to serve themselves as active centres of research. At
the same time there must be a reasonable competence for those who
have shown a capacity for original investigation. Not least, peace
throughout the civilised world is as important for rapid scientific
development as for general commercial prosperity. Indeed, science is
truly international, and for progress in many directions the co-operation
of nations is as essential as the co-operation of individuals. Science,
no less than industry, desires a stability not yet achieved in world
conditions.

There is an error far too prevalent to-day that science progresses
by the demolition of former well-established theories. Such is very
rarely the case. For example, it is often stated that Einstein’s general
theory of relativity has overthrown the work of Newton on gravitation.
No statement could be farther from the truth. Their works, in fact,
are hardly comparable, for they deal with different fields of thought.
So far as the work of Einstein is relevant to that of Newton, it is simply
a generalisation and broadening of its basis; in fact, a typical case of
mathematical and physical development. In general, a great principle
is not discarded but so modified that it rests on a broader and more
stable basis.

It is clear that the splendid period of scientific activity which we
have reviewed to-night owes much of its success and intellectual appeal
to the labours of those great men in the past, who wisely laid the sure
foundations on which the scientific worker builds to-day, or to quote
from the words inscribed in the dome of the National Gallery, ‘The
works of those who have stood the test of ages have a claim to that
respect and veneration to which no modern can pretend.’

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECTRA
(RECENT PROGRESS).
ADDRESS TO SECTION A (MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS) BY
Proressor J. C. McLENNAN, F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SKCTION.

Introduction.

Tue problem of the origin of spectra is intimately bound up with that
of the constitution and structure of atoms. Models of atoms of different
types have been proposed from time to time, and these all have served,
in a measure, to explain some at least of the chemical, optical, and
mechanical properties of matter. The conception, however, that in-
spires and co-ordinates the whole of modern atomic physics in so far as
radiation is concerned is the remarkably simple atomic model of Ruther-
ford and Bohr.

According to this model the neutral atom consists of a central
positively charged nucleus with dimensions of the same order as those
of the electron itself (10-** cm.),’ and surrounded by a system of elec-
trons whose aggregate negative charge is equal in amount to that of the
positive charge carried by the nucleus. The atomic nwmber—t.e. the
number that indicates the places occupied by the element under con-
sideration in the Periodic 'Table—gives for a neutral atom the number
of electrons surrounding the nucleus, and is at the same time a measure
of the positive electric charge ¢darried by the latter.

Rutherford, by his brilliant experiments on the scattering of alpha
rays, has shown that the electric field due to the charge on the nucleus
is central, and that it follows the inverse square law practically up
to the effective boundary of the nucleus. Close to the nucleus the
electric field is very intense, and therefore sufficient to produce those
remarkably interesting deflections of alpha rays that are being studied
so widely and so successfully at the present time by the use of
C. T. R. Wilson’s beautiful method of photographing cloud tracks.

As regards the problem of the origin of spectra, but little progress
was made so long as one limited oneself to the use of classical mechanics.
With the introduction of the theory of quanta into the mechanics of
the atom it became possible to analyse in detail the structure of atoms
and to make quantitative comparisons between the properties of matter

and those deducible from the different atomic models. In the develop-

—— ©

ments that have taken place in this direction Niels Bohr has been the
leader ; but very notable and important contributions to the theory have

1 Neuberger, Ann. der Phys., Bd. 70, Heft 2, p. 139, 1923.

26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

been made by Wilson, Sommerfeld, Ehrenfest, Kramers, Lande, and
others.

Bohr in his theory supposes that each electron in an atom describes
a central or quasi-central orbit under the attraction of the nucleus
in combination with the fields of the other extra-nuclear electrons
present in the atom. He imposes, moreover, upon these motions of
the electrons in atoms something in the nature of a quantum censorship.

As a generalised postulate it is laid down that from the continuous
manifold of all conceivable states of motion that may be ascribed to
an atomic system there exists a definable number of stationary states
that possess a peculiar stability, and that are of such a kind that every
permanent change of motion within the system must involve a complete
transition from one stationary state to another.

It is postulated further that while no radiation is emitted by the
atomic system when it is in one of its stationary states, the process of
transition from one stationary state to another is accompanied by the
emission of monochromatic radiation with a frequency given by the
relation

vh=H,— &,,

where h is Planck’s constant and E, and H, are the values of the energy
of the atom in the initial and final stationary states between which the
transition takes place. Conversely, it is to be understood that the absorp-
tion by the atomic system of radiation with the frequency v given above
results in a transition back from the final stationary state to the initial
one. These postulates, it will be seen, form the basis of an interpreta-
tion of the laws of series spectra, for the most general of these—the
combination principle of Ritz—asserts that the frequency v of each of
the lines in the spectrum of a selected element can be represented by
the formula
v=T,-T),

where T, and T, are two spectral terms taken from a number that are
characteristic of the element in question.

On Bohr’s theory’ the interpretation of the law of Ritz would be
that the spectrum of the element referred to must originate in transi-
tions between stationary states for which the atomic energy values are
obtained simply by multiplying by Planck’s constant the values of
those spectral terms of which T, and T, are types.

This, it is evident, indicates the feasibility of establishing a connec-
tion between the series spectrum of an element and the constitution and
structure of its atoms. From the spectrum of the element the series
spectral terms can be selected and evaluated, and these values when
multiplied by Planck’s constant will give the various energy levels
within and associated with the atom of the element. As the number
of electrons within the said atom is given by the atomic number of the
element, the problem becomes one of assigning to these constituent
electrons orbits of a size and form that will provide the values of the
energy levels determined by the spectral series terms.

2 Bohr, Nature Supplement, July 7, 1923.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 27

The reciprocal nature of this relationship between the series spectrum
of an element and its atomic structure will be evident. Ina case where
the series spectrum of an element is not known a knowledge of it
may be obtained by determining the energy levels in the atoms of this
element independently. This can be done after the manner of Moseley
and Franck and Hertz by causing atoms to emit limited portions of its
spectrum under bombardment by electrons of selected speeds.

Tn illustration of the foregoing it may be pointed out that empirically
determined spectral relationships obtained in a study of the radiation
emitted by such elements as hydrogen and helium have enabled us to
determine with some precision the constitution, structure, and stationary
states of the atoms of these comparatively simple elements. Moreover,
explicit and definite knowledge of the temporary modifications that
can be impressed upon the structure of the normal atoms of these ele-
ments has been acquired through spectral relationships established by
observations on the fine structure of these spectral lines, and by a
study of the resolutions of these lines obtainable through the application
of external electric or magnetic fields.

Stationary States—Quantum Conditions.

To illustrate the manner in which stationary states are defined on
Bohr’s theory we may take the simple case of an atom of hydrogen
which consists of a nucleus with charge +e and an electron with
charge—e. It is known that the frequencies of the series spectra of this
element are given with great accuracy by the generalised Balmer

formula
SERS. PENS ibe | Sets ae)

nol ew
where n" and »’ are two integers and K is the well-known Rydberg
constant. From this formula we see that all the spectral terms are of
the form K/n’, and it follows at once that the energy corresponding to
the various stationary states of the atom of hydrogen must be given by
Kh/n? with n having all possible integral values.

Now it can be shown that when an electron describes an elliptic
orbit about the nucleus of a hydrogen atom the major axis of the orbit
described is inversely proportional to w the work required completely
to remove the electron from the field of the nucleus. The major axis

2 2 2
is, in fact, given by Qa—°% . If, therefore, we take a= Fe we have

w v
determined for the hydrogen atom a set of clearly defined stationary
states consisting of a series of elliptical orbits for which the major
axis takes on discrete values proportional to the squares of the whole
numbers. Transitions from one to another of such a set of stationary
states will suffice on Bohr’s theory to account for all the lines in the
Series spectrum of atomic hydrogen.

In the early development of Bohr’s theory it was noted that for
, 2 2
each value of 1 in the equation 2a=—s it was possible to have a

28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

number of orbits with the same major axis but with different eccen-
tricities, while all were characterised by the same energy value. For
each value of n the number of such orbits was given by the number of
ways in which n could be made equal to the sum of two integers,
including zero. For example, if n were equal to 1 only a single orbit
could exist. If were equal to 2, then since 2=2+0 and 2=1+1 we
could have two orbits. If n were equal to 3, we see again, since 3=3+0
or 3=2+1 or 8=1+2, that we could have three orbits, &. For
each value of n there could exist a definite number of equivalent orbits.
If we put n=n,+n, it can be readily shown that the eccentricities of
these equivalent orbits are given by
2 2
0 Ra Tr al Ny
pred nm (m+ 10)” ; ‘ é ; (2)
If 2b be taken to represent the minor axis of the different equivalent
elliptical orbits, it follows that the ratio of the semi-axes is given by

SI nae cad scr jb ih3)

FiaG@. 1.—H Orbits.

Illustrations of such equivalent orbits for the hydrogen atom with differ-
ing values of n are shown in Fig I. On this view the Lymans spectral series

v=K(1-4,) originates in transitions to the n=1 orbit, the Balmer

™m

series v=K(5—4)in transitions to either of the n=2 orbits, and the
2° mM
Paschen series v=K(5- *,) in transitions to one or other of the orbits
m

of the n=8 group.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 29

Though the single principal quantum number suffices to define the
energy levels for the atom of hydrogen, the introduction of the subordin-
ate quantum numbers 7, and n, extended the basis of the theory, and,
as is well known, led to developments by Sommerfeld of profound
importance in dealing with the question of the fine structure of spectral
lines.

Bohr’s theory of the origin of spectra as it exists to-day is
_ approached from a somewhat different angle from that given above.

Through extensions initiated independently by Wilson and by Sommer-
feld the quantising conditions are made to apply to momentum rather
than to energy, and in dealing with the problem of the stationary states
of a system such as that of the hydrogen atom the angular and radial
momenta of the electron in its orbit are both quantised.

In more complicated systems the quantisation principle is extended
to all degrees of freedom that are characteristic of the motion. The

- analytical conditions laid down are

Mei, Io — Mot... . . I,=n,h where mm... . . NM, are quantum
integers independent of each other, and where J, = | p.d®, integrated

over a complete cycle with reference to the generalised co-ordinates
p, and , that describe the states and motions of the constituents of
the system.

If we confine ourselves to the use of the two conditions I, = mh
and J,=7)h, representing respectively the quantisation of the
angular and radial momenta of a system consisting of a nucleus
of mass M and charge Ne and an electron of mass m, we find that the
frequencies of the radiation that can be emitted are given by

2~72 4
Mi 7 {ca ts where n=," +n,” and n'=n',+n'>.

This formula possesses the advantage that it enables us to evaluate
the Rydberg constant K for the spectral terms of the hydrogen spectrum,
or of any system consisting of a single nucleus and one electron. It
will be recalled in this connection that through the use of this formula
Fowler was able to evaluate the mass of an electron from experimentally
determined differences in the values of the Rydberg constant in the
spectral series of hydrogen and the atom ion of helium.

Quantum Numbers and their Significance.

From the illustrations that have been given in the previous section,
it will be seen that for a given atomic system the quantum numbers
define the stationary states, and the energy values and moments of
momentum of the system in these states. Moreover, they define the
‘kinematical character of the electron obits in the atomic edifice, and,
on account of the simple relation connecting the values of spectral
terms in the series spectrum of an element with the energy of the
atom of this element in its various stationary states, they define these
spectral terms and enable us to calculate their values.

In the simplest possible treatment of a system such as that of the
atom of hydrogen one quantum number n suffices to define the various
actors just mentioned. In the theory of the fine structure of the

30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

spectral lines of hydrogen two quantum numbers n and k were required.
In the case of a series spectrum of single lines two quantum numbers
n and k are requisite to define its terms and the orbits corresponding
to them. For a series spectrum consisting of doublets, triplets or
multiplets, three quantum numbers are required, n, k and j, to define
its spectral terms and the corresponding electronic orbits. In the case
of the resolution of a spectral line by the application of an external
magnetic field a fourth quantum number m is necessary in order to
distinguish the stationary states and to evaluate the spectral terms
corresponding to the Zeeman components.

Taking the case of the stationary states associated with the outer
electrons in an atom for illustration the kinematic significance of these
quantum numbers is as follows: n characterises the orbit forms of these
outer electrons. If n=k the orbit is circular, but if n > k it is elliptical,
having the greater eccentricity the greater n is compared with k. The
quantum number k, on the other hand, connotes kinematically a rotation
of the perihelion of the elliptical orbit confined in its own plane, and
on account of this turning of the perihelion the orbit takes on the form
of a rosette (as shown in Fig. 5). The normal to the orbital plane
about which the perihelion is progressing is called the k axis. The
quantum number j indicates the total moment of momentum of the
atomic state at a given instant, and the axis of this moment is called
the j axis. It is in general different from the k axis, and the orbital
plane performs a turning or precession about the 7 axis determined by
the value of 7 the moment of momentum of the atom. If an atom
endowed with the motions described above be situated in an external
magnetic field, the whole system thus in motion will carry out a rotation,
i.e. a Larmor precession about the direction of the lines of force of this
magnetic field. The axis for this rotation is called the m axis, and m
is a measure of the moment of momentum about it.

In spectroscopy it has become customary, in order to distinguish
series of different kinds, to designate singlet systems by the use of
capital letters, doublet series by Greek letters, and triplet series by
small letters. Thus:

*PSDF =singlet systems.
™ 68 © =doublet systems.
os d f =triplet systems.

In the same way it has become customary to use the same letters
to designate the spectral terms whose differences determine the fre-
quencies of the lines in a series. As example we may cite 15, 25, &c.,
1%, Ar, &e.; 1d, Ad, &e.; and If, Af, &e.

Practically all efforts of spectroscopists towards arranging lines into
series have had for their goal, even before the arrival of the quantum
theory, in an unconscious way the establishment of the quantum
numbers that define the various types of spectral terms indicated
above. As a result of the progress that has been made in the last
year or two, it is now generally agreed that the principal quantum
number determines the current number of the series term. For

3 Fowler, ‘Report on Series in Line Spectra.’

example, the 1S term is defined by n=1, the 2P term by n=2, the 3d

term by n=3, and the 4F term by n=4, &c. The azimuthal quantum

number k indicates the type to which a term belongs. For k=1 an
8,9 or S term is signified, for k=2 a p, m or P term, for k=3.ad,8 D

term, and for k=4 anf, @ or F term. A 3, term, for example, would
. signify a 3s, a 3, or a 3S term, and a 4, term would be one which
_ in spectroscopy is usually designated as a 4p, 4% or 4P term. We
_ have then in the symbol n, a means of defining a particular spectral
_ term as well as a particular electronic orbit.

A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 31
4

Principles of Selection—The Correspondence Principle.

In the early development of Bohr’s theory it was found that the
censorship imposed by the quantum conditions referred to above were
not sufficiently drastic to account completely either for the observed

complexity of the fine structure of spectral lines originating in the
: variation of the mass of an electron with its velocity or for the

observed complexity and state of polarisation of the components of
_ spectral lines that had their origin in the application of an external
electric or magnetic field.

To make up for this deficiency arbitrary Principles of Selection,
involving such factors as intensity and polarisation, were brought
forward by Rubinowicz and by Sommerfeld, that found immediate and
remarkable verifications in the relativity fine structure of the Balmer
lines, in the Stark effect, in the Zeeman effect, and in the spectra of
rotation, 1.e. the band spectra of Deslandres.

Although these principles of selection furnished rulés that have
served as useful guides in unravelling the intricacies of various types
of spectral resolution, it has all along been recognised by the proposers,
as well as by others, that the principles as formulated rested upon a
dynamical basis that was rather limited and scarcely adequate.

The whole matter, however, was given an entirely new orientation
and an enhanced significance by Bohr’s enunciation of the Correspond-
ence Principle.

To elucidate this principle we may revert for a moment to the
properties of the stationary orbits of the atom of hydrogen. It can
be easily shown that the frequency with which the electron revolves
in the nth orbit is given by

2)! 4nm Me" ;
(m+ M)n*h®

nd the frequency of the light emitted when a transition occurs of the
electron from the nth to nth orbit is given by

_ Or'mMe! 1/1 4
VRS 8\ irl) al}e
mt+M h\n n
From these two relations it follows that
¥ =i af a) 2
oO \n? w/t nn}

1923 E

32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
If now n and n’ be taken to be large integers and not very different
from each other we have

vy = An. numerically.

As An must be an integer it follows that the frequencies of the
light that can be emitted by the system under the conditions laid down
are those of the harmonics of the frequency of the electron’s orbital
motion.

The explicit hypothesis made by Bohr in his Correspondence
Principle is that what has been shown above to be true necessarily for
very great orbital periods is also sensibly true for finite ones as well.
To put the matter in another way—if the orbit described by an electron
were carried out under a law of action proportional to the distance, the
development of the law of motion in a Fourier series would permit
the use of a fundamental term only. The Correspondence Principle
would under these conditions demand that the electron could pass
spontaneously only from the nth quantum orbit to the n—1 quantum
orbit immediately below it. If these conditions were to apply in the
case of the hydrogen atom, for example, it would limit each series
to a single wave-length, and the Balmer series would be reduced to its
first component.

The existence of series made up of numerous terms shows that the
electronic orbits of an atom cannot be described under a central force
varying as the direct distance, but points rather in the direction of the
orbits being ellipses following approximately the Keplerian law.

In general, if the electronic motion within an atom is periodic and
not simply of a pure sinusoidal character, Fourier’s theory shows
that the vibration of the electron is represented by a superposition of
pure periodic motions that are harmonics of a fundamental one. To
this classical notion there corresponds in the theory of quanta the notion
of transitions from one stationary state to another with variations in
the quantum number no longer equal to one only. If the Fourier series
representing the motion contains effectively an harmonic of rank,
1, 2,3... orm, for example, the Correspondence Principle postulates
that the atom can be the seat of transitions corresponding to differences
in the characterising quantum number of 1, 2,3...orm. If on the
contrary, the coefficient of a term in the Fourier series under con-
sideration is small or equal to zero, this signifies that the probability
of corresponding transitions in the atom becomes small or vanishes.

The Correspondence Principle co-ordinates every transition process
between two stationary states with a corresponding harmonic vibration
component in such a way that the probability of the occurrence of the
transition is dependent on the amplitude of this particular vibration.
On the classical theory the intensity and state of polarisation in the
wave system emitted by an atom as a consequence of the existence of
some vibration component are determined respectively by the amplitude
and certain other characteristics of this vibration. On the quantum
theory the Correspondence Principle asserts that these other special
characteristics of the vibration referred to determine in an analogous
manner the state of polarisation of the radiation emitted during a transi-

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 33

tion for whose occurrence the amplitude of the vibration measures the
probability.
| With the aid of the Correspondence Principle it has been possible
_ to develop a complete quantum theory of the normal Zeeman effect for
_ the hydrogen lines, and in the case of the Stark effect for these lines,
_ where the classical theory failed to provide an explanation, the quantum
_ theory has been so developed that it is now possible, as Kramers has
_ shown, to account with the aid of the Correspondence Principle for the
polarisation of the different components into which the lines are split,
and for the characteristic intensity distribution exhibited by these
components.

These and other equally interesting examples leave no doubt of the
fecundity of the Correspondence Principle and of its far-reaching compass
and applicability. It has endowed with precision the application of the
principles of selection of Rubinowicz and Sommerfeld, and has eliminated
the somewhat arbitrary formalism that has hitherto characterised them.

Through its use Bohr has been able to show that the Quantum Theory
_ can no longer be looked upon as displacing the Classical Theory, but
; must be considered to be a fruitful means of systematically amplifying
and extending it.

The Genesis of Atoms.

One of the more interesting of the recent developments of Bohr’s
theory is that which concerns the genesis of atoms of different types.
Bohr has put forward the view that the fundamental process that must
apply consists in the successive binding of electrons one after another
by a nucleus originally naked.

On this view the electrons as they are successively bound to the
nulceus take up certain final and definite orbits that are characteristic
of the particular atom selected in its normal state, and that can to a
first approximation be specified by two quantum numbers—namely, the
principal and subordinate quantum numbers n and k. This means that
the motion of each single electron of the atomic system can be approxi-
mately described as a plane periodic motion on which is superimposed a
uniform rotation in the plane of the orbit.

It is assumed as a general postulate that during the binding of
an electron by a nucleus the values of the quantum numbers n and k
that characterise the orbits of the earlier bound electrons remain un-
changed, and that at most, apart from a few exceptional cases, the
addition of the later bound electrons merely results in slight alterations
in the orientations in space of the orbitsi of the electrons already bound.

In arriving at his conclusions regarding the characteristics of the
orbits of the bound electron Bohr has, of course, been guided in large
measure by considerations derived from a study of the arc spectra of
the different elements, a type of spectrum that it is now generally
agreed is emitted during the process of binding the last electron in
he formation of a neutral atom. Data derivable from the characteristics
of the X-ray spectra of the elements have also been utilised by Bohr
to check the validity of his conclusions regarding the characteristics
of the orbits of the electrons bound in neutral atoms. As X-ray lines
‘may be considered to give evidence of stages in a process by which an
gE 2

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

TABLE I.
ELECTRONIC ORBITS IN ATOMS OF THE ELEMENTS.

~ |
ey aaae | |+
|- 3 .

We) | |

| 40 | |

fae ma | |o
| |

Wee ai aad | | ©
S| | | aa@es | FA | aaa | +[ere~ | lo
peels = | ie || Ec
| | aan lan |ocoo |ojoooe ||
e4 | alt adda [wa | ooo |ooooe | |a
A aaAag HAN | oH ttt | ae | ooo |oloooe | |o
1d LC eve |

| oe | | rier | a | ac | w|o0aa00 | |
Vv | aa [ooo |ocoooe |wmw|nmm | wlonmma | | o
vf | Hl tata | ooo |cloowoe |ww|anmm | wmj/onan | |
i NGS | aan | wad | ooo |oloowoe | nw |nnw | nlmmmm | | o
| i} |

| of aa | oes) looove |ooe |oloooee [oo |ooe|ojoooo| |©
oo a | +)taad | ooo | cloves |woo |elooove joo |ooo|ojoooe| |©
cc) BAN | Hl[HHdtd | COO |oloooe lowe |ojooovwe |oo | ows |ojoose | [oO
oe =|+ “tt [Hit | et | Sti Ht | tH | tH ttt | tt | et | atta | | +
| of maa | tlt | elt | tit | lee | ee | a] [ae [ae | eae | [os
ie: ralanalalanalainanalanal|aanarnal|aan|alananalani|aan|ainaaa | | a
, ya : op | . . | 2 ae | Raper oa aH t=] 20 ; ~ | so a ~
of mi lsde | 2)eh4lausae 188s |Azar8 | 288 lxlsaida | 48 lama lz) lean | |”
/Rrajete (elise |Z Saag |Aes |S 5389 18991 s/BSE8s He Ss 1858s | 12

A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 35

atom undergoes reorganisation after a disturbance in its interior, the
energy levels obtainable for a neutral atom from the values of the
frequencies of its X-radiation must agree with those representing the final
orbits provided for this atom by the characteristics of its own arc
spectrum as well as by those of the are spectra of its ions or of the
elements of lower atomic number.

As stated above, the basis of Bohr’s classification of the orbits of
atoms in their normal state is largely of an experimental character.
It is not altogether so, however, for he has been able in the case of a
number of the simpler atoms to work out the relative stabilities of orbits
that are conceivable ones for these atoms, and by the use of the quantum
theory, supported by the Correspondence Principle, has obtained a
theoretical justification for the classification that he has adopted.

The results of Bohr’s work in this direction are given in Table I.,
where N denotes the atomic number and n and k give the values of
the principal and subordinate quantum numbers respectively of the
orbits indicated. According to the scheme, it will be seen, the orbits
are divided into groups corresponding to the various values of the
principal quantum number n, and into sub-groups designated by different
values of the subscript quantum number k. While orbits for which
n has the value 1 are all of one type, those for which n has the value 2
are of two types, those for which m has the value 3 are of three types,
and so on.

Illustrations of the structure of a number of neutral atoms are given
by the diagrams on Plates I. and II. These have been copied from
a paper by Kramers* that has recently appeared, and are stated to be
similar to those prepared by Bohr for use in his own lectures. The
electron orbits in the neutral atoms selected are arranged in groups
from the centre of the atom outwards according to increasing values
of the principal quantum number. ‘The diagrams do not take account
_ of the rotation of the orbits in their own plane, nor in the case of the
heavier atoms is there any attempt to indicate the characteristics of
the orbits close to the nucleus. They merely serve to illustrate in a
general way Bohr’s ideas regarding the genesis of atoms. A characteristic
feature of the scheme is brought out by the illustrations of the orbits
of the atoms of the'rare gases. These, it will be seen, provide for the
recurrence of the structure of a lighter atom as a constituent part of
the structure of each of the heavier ones.

An illustration given by Bohr of the process of binding an electron
to a nucleus is shown in Fig. 2. In this diagram the representation is
that of the stationary states corresponding to the emission of the arc
spectrum of potassium. No attempt is made to depict the duplex
character of each of the stationary states. The curves show the form
of the orbits described in the stationary states by the last electron
captured in the potassium atom. They can be considered to represent
stages in the process whereby the 19th electron is bound after eighteen
previous electrons have already been bound in their normal orbits.
The orbits are marked with the symbol n,, where n and k are respectively
the principal and subordinate quantum numbers.

)

4 Kramers, Die Naturwissenschaften, Heft 27, July 6, 1923.

36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The states 4,5, 6, . . . are to be considered as those which give rise
to the o terms in the series arc spectrum of potassium. The states
4, 5, 6, connote the z spectral terms, and the states 3,, 4, the 3
spectral terms. The state 4, will give rise to one of the ¢ or funda-
mental terms in the series spectrum.

FIG. 2.—Binding Potassium Orbits.

Grotrian’s method of exhibiting these relationships is instructive.
Its application to the case of the stationary orbits of the potassium
atom is shown in Fig. 3.

A few outstanding features of the classification given in Table I.
may be referred to. In the first place, the scheme provides for periodi-
city in the properties of the elements. For example, in the case of

n
| 72x 15 2:0 25 30 4 56
rt Tar et: <a | T 7 a sa
a 4@<—~-+---~--- 5e@7—-
Ts K (19) Bis Sees el
! cs ~
& Se Tee
a) ' | 40-0 —
fe jae ! Ue ENG Bl ee ee eee A SLi
U 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0

Fic. 3.—Grotrian Diagram.

the heavier inert gases the outer group of electrons is made up of two
sub-groups with four electronic orbits of the same type in each. For
these sub-groups the subordinate quantum number has the values 1 and
2. The principal quantum number increases by unity from element to
element. Again, in the case of the alkali elements the outer group con-
tains but one orbit. For it the subordinate quantum number k has

the characteristic value 1, and the principal quantum number again

‘T HLVId

(II) umtpog
(OT) WooN, ese
fata SS

ve ee

(¢) UNTYyWT
(1) usSo1pAT]

a ee
(Z) WTO] WD
OL
g-

38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

increases by unity as we pass from a lighter to a heavier element in
the alkali group.

Another interesting feature of the classification is that in the genesis
of the different kinds of atoms provision is made for the appearance
at certain stages of sets of homologous elements such as those of the
iron, palladium, platinum, and rare-earth groups. For example, the
appearance of the iron group accompanies the establishment in the
normal atom of an inner group of orbits of the 3, type beginning with
the element scandium. These 3, orbits begin in the fourth period and
differentiate it from the second and third because for the first time the
charge on the nucleus is sufficiently great to make it possible for the
successive atoms to differ by an extra electron in such an inner group
instead of in an outer one. The appearance of the palladium group also
is associated with the beginning of a development of inner orbits of the
4, type at a stage in the binding process when the outer orbits of the next
lighter atoms consist of 5, quantum orbits. The appearance of the
platinum and rare-earth groups of elements, too, it will be seen, is
associated with the beginnings of developments of inner orbits of the
5, and 4, types respectively at stages in the binding process when
the outer orbits of the neighbouring lighter elements are of the 6, type.

732i ———" Na
4Be 12 Mg
5B 13 A?
6c 14 Si

2We. IN ISP
“80 ——4S

OIF 170?

(0Ne 148A

FIG. 4.—Elements.

Xenon (54)

PLATE IT.

40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

These and other features of the classification that might be referred
to are illustrated by the arrangement of the elements shown in Fig. 4.
In this representation, it will be noted, those elements that belong to
the same period are given in vertical columns, and those that from their
chemical and optical properties can be considered homologous are
connected with one another by straight lines. Groups of elements
that possess analogous physical properties, and that differ from one
another by variations in the number of electrons belonging to inner
groups, are enclosed, as the diagram shows, by rectangular spacings.

Peculiar interest attaches to the newly discovered element of atomic
number 72, to which the name ‘ Hafnium ’* has been given. Condi-
tions imposed by the quantum theory, in Bohr’s view, make it impera-
tive to assign this element to the platinum group instead of to the rare-
earth group, as Dauvillier * and others have suggested. Theoretically,
this element would appear to be a homologue of zirconium, and it is
interesting to note that Coster and Henesy, who have been chiefly
concerned with its discovery, have been able to obtain from zircon-
bearing minerals considerable quantities of a substance whose chemical
properties are similar to those of zirconium, and whose X-ray spectrum
is that of an element with atomic number 72.

In the remainder of my address I propose, with your permission,
to deal with a number of matters that are closely associated with
developments of the quantum theory of the origin of spectra and that
appear to merit some special attention and consideration at the present
time.

The Fine Structure of the Balmer Lines of Hydrogen.

In the simplest treatment by the quantum theory of the origin of the
spectrum of atomic hydrogen no allowance is made for a variation
in the mass of the electron with its speed. If this factor be taken into
account, as it has been by Sommerfeld, it is found that the motion
of the electron is reducible to a motion in an elliptic orbit upon which
is imposed a slow rotation in its own plane about the nucleus as focus.
The resulting orbit has the form of a rosette, and is similar to that
shown in Fig. 5.

In this treatment the chief factor in determining the stationary
states is the principal quantum number n, but the subordinate quantum
number k is also contributory. The former practically determines the
major axis and the period of the elliptical orbit, while the latter defines
the parameter of the ellipse—i.e. the shortest chord through its focus.
The subordinate quantum number k also determines the period of rota-
tion of the elliptic orbit in its plane. The energy corresponding to
each stationary state is in the main determined by the value of the
quantum number n, but stationary states determined by the same value
of n are characterised by energy values that vary slightly with different
values of the quantum number k.

° Coster and Henesy, Nature, Jan. 20, Feb. 10, 24, and April 7, 1923.
* Dauvillier, C.#., t. 174, p. 1347, May 1922; Urbain, C.R., t. 174, p. 1349,
May 1922, and t. 152, p. 141, 1911.

_——

A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 4)

The diagram shown in Fig. 1 represents an instantaneous aspect of
the orbits of the different stationary states, and the designations n, give
the values of the quantum numbers characterising the different orbits.

According to this treatment each of the numbers of the Balmer series

eo i a)
ee KF m

should consist of a doublet, and each of the components of these
doublets should possess a fine structure. Calculations made by
Sommerfeld showed that the frequency difference for these doublets
should be constant over the whole of the Balmer series, and should be
equal to 0.36cm.-".

FIG. 5.—Rosette.

As the theory applies equally well to the corresponding series in the
spectrum of positively charged helium, the doublets of this series were
investigated by Paschen, and were found to have separations that led
to a value of 0.3645+0.0045 for the frequency difference of the doublets
of the hydrogen Balmer series.

Since the publication of Paschen’s work on the helium doublets a
number of investigators” have attempted, from measurements on the

7 Michelson and Morley, Phil. Mag., vol. 24, p. 46, 1887.
Ebert, Wied. Ann., vol. 43, p. 800, 1891.
Michelson, Bur. Int. des Poids et Mesures, vol. 11, p. 139, 1895.
Houston, Phil. Mag., vol. 7, p. 460, 1904.
Fabry and Buisson, C.f., vol. 154, p. 1501, 1912.
Paschen, Ann. der Phys., vol. 50, p. 933, 1916.
Merton and Nicholson, Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 93, p. 28, 1917.
Merton, Hoy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 87, p. 307, 1920.
Gehrcke and Lau, Phys. Zeit., vol. 21, p. 634, 1920.
McLennan and Lowe, Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 100, p. 217, 1921.
Gehrcke and Lau, Phys. Zeit., vol. 22, p. 556, 1921.
Oldenburg, Ann. der Phys., vol. 67, p. 69, 1922.
Gehrcke and Lau, Ann. der Phys., vol. 67, p. 388, 1922.
Oldenburg, Ann. der Phys., vol. 67, p. 253, 1922.
Geddes, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. 43, p. 37, 1923.

42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

separations of H, and H,, and in some cases of H, and H,, to look
for evidence that would lead to a confirmation of Sommerfeld’s theory.
Up to the present the results obtained could not be considered as satis-
factory. There was a lack of agreement in the values obtained for the
separations by different investigators, and on the whole the values
obtained were less than that demanded by the theory. The matter was
reinvestigated recently, at my suggestion, by one of the research workers
in the Physical Laboratory of the University of Toronto, Mr. G. M.
Shrum, and in his experiments he succeeded in eliminating practically
the whole of the secondary spectrum, and as a result was able to include
in his measurements of the doublet separations that of H, as well as
those of H., Hs, H,, and Ha.

The results are the following : —

Separation of the Components
Line Wave-length Probable Error
dr dy
H, 6562-79 A 0-143 A 0:33 cm.—! 0-02 em.—!
H 4861-33 ,, 0-085 ,, 0-36 ,, 0-01 ,,
H, 4340-46 ,, 0-070 ,, | 0-37 ,, 0-02 ,,
H, 4101-73 ,, 0-061 ,, 0°36 ,, 0-02 ,,
H 3970-07 ,, 0-055 ,, 0°35 ,, | 0-02 ,,

It will be seen that as far as the doublet separations are concerned they
afford a striking confirmation of Sommerfeld’s theory.

Model of the Atom of Helium.

Considerable interest attaches to the atom of Helium. From the
chemical point of view it has been considered to be inert, and conse-
quently not likely to enter into chemical combination. Of all atoms
it is the most stable, for it has the highest ionisation potential, namely
24.5 volts. A study of the X-radiation emitted by the elements gener-
ally makes it appear that the configuration we assign to the electronic
orbits in helium atoms is maintained intact throughout the whole of
the remaining heavier elements. These orbits, as Table I. shows,
constitute for all atoms the K X-ray group the innermost and most stable
system. For these reasons it is highly desirable that a model of the
atom of helium be realised possessing high stability endowed with the
capacity to emit radiation exhibiting the characteristic features of the
helium spectrum, and having energy values for its normal and tem-
porary stationary states that fit in with the experimentally determined
values of its ionisation, resonance, and other critical excitation
potentials.

The earlier models of the atom of helium put forward failed entirely
to meet these requirements. Models recently conceived by Lande * and
by Bohr® are at the present time receiving considerable attention. In
these the two electrons in the normal atom are taken to move in equiva-
lent 1, orbits. As a first approximation these may be described as

8 Lande, Phys. Zeit., No. 20, p. 228, 1919.
* Bohr, Zeit. fiir Phys., No. 2, p. 464, 1920.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 43

circular orbits with planes inclined at an angle to each other. Bohr
assumes this angle to be 120°, and on account of the interaction between
the two electrons the two orbits are supposed to be slowly turning
about a fixed momentum axis inthe atom. A diagrammatic representa-
tion of this model is shown in Fig. 6.

Such a model, however, will not account for the whole of the
spectrum of helium, which is known to consist of two complete but
separate sets of series, the one being made up of single lines and the
other of doublets. An important feature of the spectrum of helium,
too, is that it contains no lines that are the result of combinations
between spectral terms belonging to one of the sets of series and those
belonging to the other. The explanation put forward is that while
helium in its normal state exists in the form of atoms with crossed
orbits, designated by the name parhelium, it can also exist in a meta-
stable form, known as orthohelium, as well. In the latter state the
electronic orbits are supposed to be in the same plane with the electrons
revolving in the same direction. In the most stable form of ortho-

F1G. 6.—Helium Model.

helium oue of the electrons is supposed to move in a 1, orbit and the
second in a 2, orbit. The singlet series in the spectrum of helium are
assigned to parhelium and the doublet series to orthohelium.

If parhelium be bombarded by electrons it appears to be possible to
transform its atoms into the metastable form, but once the atoms are
in the latter state it does not seem to be possible for them to revert
directly to the normal form by means of a simple transition accom-
panied by the emission of radiation. They can only do so by a process
analogous to a chemical reaction involving interaction with atoms of
other elements.

The fact that helium, under certain conditions, can be made to emit
a band spectrum in addition to its line spectrum connotes the possi-
bility of helium existing in the molecular form. Since helium in the
form of orthohelium has its outer electron in a 2, orbit, the atoms of
orthohelium in so far as chemical combination is concerned occupy a
position analogous to atoms of lithium, which also possess a 2, orbit
in their normal state. As this feature enables lithium to react

AA SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

vigorously with other atoms, one would expect orthohelium also to be
capable of entering into chemical combinations. From this it would
appear that molecular helium originates in atoms that have undergone
a transition into the metastable state. As to the atoms of parhelium,
there appears to be no warrant of this or any other character for sup-
posing that they can participate in any kind of chemical union.

It is probable that orthohelium, if obtainable in sufficient amounts,
may be found to be more easily liquefied and solidified than parhelium.
It would, however, in the liquid or solid state be highly explosive. This
will be seen from the data in Table II. A study of the band spectrum
of helium or of its compounds at low temperatures would be interesting
for what it might reveal regarding the origin of the spectrum of nebule.

The views just presented have gained strong support from Frank and
Knipping’s experiments on the excitation potentials of helium atoms
by electronic bombardment, and by Lyman’s recent work on the
extreme ultra-violet spectrum of helium, in which it has been shown
that radiation of the wave-lengths 600.5 A, 584.4 A, 537.1 A, 522.3 A,
and 515.7 A are absorbed by helium in its normai state. The scheme"?
set forth in Fig. 7 and the data collated in Table IT. are self-explanatory,
and show how on the view just put forward the radiation whose wave-
lengths were measured by Lyman can originate, and how the excitation
potentials observed by Frank and Knipping can be realised.

According to this scheme electrons with a speed corresponding to a
potential of 19.75 volts will be able to transform parhelium into ortho-
helium, and those with speeds corresponding to 20.55 volts and
91.2 volts will be able to lift the electrons from 1, S orbits to 2, S and
2, P orbits respectively. Under bombardment by electrons with speeds
the equivalent of 24.5 volts the helium atoms will be ionised. The
scheme shown in Fig. 7 also indicates how the series spectrum of
orthohelium originates.

The considerations set forth above would seem to clear up some of
the difficulties that have hitherto been encountered in realising a satis-
factory model of the helium atom, and in reaching an explanation of
the origin of the radiation that atoms of helium can emit. The com-
plete solution of the problem, however, has received a set-back from
the results of an investigation recently carried out by Kramers,** for
according to his calculations the ionisation potential of the crossed
orbit model comes out 3.8 volts less than the experimentally determined
value. His calculations also show that in a mechanical sense the
crossed orbit model cannot be considered to be a stable one. Although
real progress has been made, it cannot be said that finality has been
reached in the determination of the form of a completely satisfactory
model of the atom of so simple an element as helium.

A somewhat novel aspect of the problem has recently been empha-
sised by Silberstein.** | He assumes the crossed orbit model of the
helium atom to be capable of taking up a number of stationary states

10 (frotrian, Die Naturwissenschaften, Heft 17, p. 321, 1923.
11 H, A. Kramers, Zeit. fiir Phys., vol. 13, p. 339. 1923.
12 Silberstein, Nature, Ap. 28, p. 567, 1923, and July 14, p. 53, 1923.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 45

with the planes of the orbits at a series of angles other than 120°. On
this basis he has been able, by taking for granted the dynamical legiti-
macy of the crossed orbit system, to calculate values for the ionisation

Parhelium

Orthohelium

0 50000 100000 150 000 200 000 =V
FG. 7.—Scheme of He Lines.

and other excitation potentials that are in remarkably good agreement
__with the experimental values found by Frank and Knipping, Horton,
and others.

TABLE II.
Lines Series Calculated HD & K. q
Observed Repre- | Excitation E ean Remarks
by Lyman | sentation | Potentials Pote eae
otentials
— 1, S—2, s 19-77 19-75 Transition voltage connoting
change from parhelium to ortho-
helium.

600-5 A | 2,S—1,8 20-55 20°55 | A weak radiation and one not pro-
vided for by the principle of
selection.

584-4 ,, 2P—1,8'| . 21°12 21-2 First member of absorption series
| of parhelium.

537-1 ,, | 3,P—1,S 22:97. | 22:9 Second member of absorption series

| of parhelium.
§22°3 ,, | 4,P—1,S| 23-62 | oo Third member, &c.
Ripe’, |.0,£—1,9| 23:92 || Fourth member, &c.
602:0.,, | — —1,S| 245 | 246 Series limit and ionisation poten- |
(calculated) tial.

46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Resonance and Ionisation Potentials.

The results of investigations on the absorption spectra of zinc,
cadmium, and mercury, and on the resonance and ionisation potentials
of these elements, have shown that for this group of elements the
ionisation potentials are given ty V = hv/e,where vis the frequency
denoted by (n, S), namely, that of the last member of the series
v=(n,8)—(m,P)." It is also known that their resonance potentials are
given by the same relation with v having the value (,S)—(2,p.) the
frequency of the first member of a combination series. In the
case of the alkaline earths similar relations obtain. With the alkali
elements the frequencies that determine the resonance and ionisation
potentials are given by v = (n,o)—(n,7)“ andy = (n,6) respectively.
It is, therefore, clear from the characteristics of the spectral terms
involved that, while the electron concerned in phenomena associated
with resonance and ionisation potentials must be the one that is most
easily displaced in or removed from the atom, this electron must he
bound in atoms of the elements mentioned—when these are in their
normal state—in orbits of the 7, type, i.e. in orbits for which the
subordinate quantum number has the value 1. Now, a reference to
Table I. will show that this characteristic is exactly the one possessed
by the electron that is last bound in the atoms of the elements cited.

It foliows, then, that if we know the type of orbit occupied by the
last bound electron in the normal atom of any element we can at once
deduce the type of the series whose first and last members will enable
us to calculate the resonance and ionisation potentials of the element.
Moreover, the wave-lengths of such a series will be the ones that will
be selectively absorbed by the vapour of the element, provided its tem-
perature is sufficiently low to ensure that the atoms constituting the
vapour are in their normal state.

Previous to the publication by Bohr of the scheme in Table I. it
had been thought that for all elements the resonance and ionisation
potentials should be obtainable from spectral frequencies of the
(n, ©) —(m,7) or (n, S)—(m, P) type. Numerous attempts were made
by investigators of the absorption spectra of such elements as thallium,
lead, tin, &c., to group the wave-lengths of the radiation absorbed into
a principal series that would enable one to calculate the critical potentials
for these elements. These efforts, however, ended in failure, for though
wave-lengths were found that were selectively absorbed by the vapours
of the elements referred to, and though it was found possible to fit
these partially at least into series, it was clear that the series obtained
did not satisfy the conditions demanded by series of the principal type.

By the publication of Bohr’s scheme of atomic orbits, however, it
became evident that since in the case of the aluminium group of
elements, for example, the electron last acquired in making the atoms
neutral is bound in an orbit of the n, type, the first member of the

18 According to Bchr’s scheme n has the value 4 for Zn, 5 for Cd, and 6
for Hg, while m has the value 2.

14 Tn this formula n has the value 2 for Li, 3 for Na, 4 for K, 5 for Rb, and
6 for Cs.

A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. AT

spectral series that would enable us to caleulate the resonance and
ionisation potentials for this group of elements must be of the type
v=(n,7™) — (m, x) and not of the type Y=(n, 6) — (m, ™). Moreover,
this makes it clear that the series of wave-lengths that should be selectively
absorbed by vapours in the normal state of the elements of the
aluminium group would be the first and second subordinate ones repre-
sented by V=(n, 7%) —(m, 6) and v=(n, ™) — (m, 8).

Recent experiments by Carroll '* and by Grotrian,** as well as earlier
ones by Wood and Guthrie’’ and by the writer,’* show that the wave-
lengths most readily absorbed by non-luminous thallium vapour all
belong to the sharp or diffuse subordinate series in the spectrum of this
element. — With indium vapour Grotrian has obtained similar results.
With aluminium, as with thallium, the wave-lengths absorbed by the
comparatively cool vapour that surrounds an electric are in the metal
belong to the sharp and diffuse subordinate series.

From these results it is clear that the evidence furnished by spectral
data amply confirms the view put forward by Bohr that in the case
of the heavier elements of the aluminium group at least, the electron
last acquired by the neutral atom of the respective elements is bound
in an orbit of the n, type. In the case of the light element boron,
the series data available are so meagre that it is not possible as yet to
affirm that the same law applies.

From the known values of the frequency v=(n, 7,) in the spectra
of the elements aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium, it follows
that the resonance potentials for these elements are respectively 3.12 v.,
3.08 v., 3.00 v., and 3.26 v., and that the ionisation potentials are
respectively 5.94 v., 5.96 v., 5.75 v., and 6.07 v.

For thallium, the only element of this group as yet investigated
by the method of electronic impact, Foote and Mohler found the reson-
ance and ionisation potentials to have the respective values 1.07 v.
and 7.3 v. The agreement, it will be seen, is not very close. It should
be noted, however, that Foote and Mohler, in giving their results,
indicate that they should be considered to be approximate only.

Electronic Orbits of the Atoms of the Lead-Tin Group.

It will be seen that the scheme of orbits given in Table I. makes
no provision for the elements of the Lead-Tin group. The reason for
this is that hitherto but little spectroscopic data have been available
for these elements. Besides, the development of the quantum theory
does not appear to have been sufficiently advanced to include the atoms
of these elements within the scope of its application. Progress with
these elements is, however, now possible owing to the fact that
Thorsen *® has been able to organise a part of the spectrum of lead
into a triplet set of first and second subordinate series. These series

‘

Carroll, Proc. Roy. Soc., Series A, vol. 103, p. 334, May 1923.

16 Grotrian, Zeit. fiir Phys., Bd. 12, p. 218, 1923.

17 Wood and Guthrie, Ast. Phys. Jl., vol. 29, p. 211, 1909.

' iy McLennan, Young and Ireton, Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada, Section III.,
mt, L919:

1® Thorsen, Die Naturwissenschaften, Heft 5, Feb. 2, 1923. Recent experi-
ents by Thorsen lead to the value of 9,18'v, for the ionisation potential of gold.
1923 F

48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

have frequencies given by v=(n, p,)—(m, s)” and v=(n, px) —(m, d)
where a has the values 1, 2,8. In all about 54 wave-lengths have been
allocated into places in these series. In this connection it is of import-
ance to note that Thorsen does not seem to have been able to assign
any of the wave-lengths in the lead spectrum to a related principal series.

Following up this work, Grotrian** has recently pointed out that
of the wave-lengths known to be selectively absorbed by non-luminous
lead vapour,” the prominent ones A=2833 A, A=2170 A, A=20538.8 A,
and A=3683 A were not included in the series formulated by Thorsen.
He has been able to show, further, that they can be included in a more
extended scheme of first and second subordinate series that includes,
in addition to those of Thorsen, two others that have for their highest
frequencies v= (2, »,)=59826cem ‘andy=2, p,; = 51677 em’. According
to this scheme A=2833 A would have the frequency v= (2, ,) —(2,s),
A=2053 A the frequency v= (2,p,)—(3,s),A=2170 A the frequency
v=(2, »,)— (8, d.), and A= 3683 A the frequency (2, p,;)—(Q, s). These
results lead at once to definite conclusions regarding the outermost orbit
in the normal atoms of lead. Since all the wave-lengths absorbed
are members of subordinate series, it follows that the electron last
acquired by a neutral atom of lead must be bound in an orbit for which
the subordinate quantum number k has the value 2.‘ This leads to the
conclusion that the scheme of orbits for lead will include two of the
6, type and two of the 6, type.

From the frequencies

v= (2, p,) — (2, s) =35296em™ and v=(2, p,) =59826em
it follows that the resonance and ionisation potentials of lead should
be respectively 4.385 v. and 7.4 v. As Foote and Mohler have found
by the method of electronic impact these critical potentials to be 1.26 v.
and 7.93 v., it will be seen that while the values for the resonance
potentials show no agreement, there is a fair agreement in the case
of the values of the ionisation potentials.

As very little is known about the series spectra of tin** and german-
ium, one cannot as yet write with precision about the outermost orbits of
the normal atoms of these elements. Considerations of periodicity make
it highly probable that they will be of the same type as those of lead.
This would mean that tin should have its two outermost electrons
bound in the normal atoms of equivalent 5, orbits, and the normal
atoms of germanium their two outermost electrons bound in 4, orbits.
The results obtained with the series spectra of lead will no doubt lead
immediately to the organisation of the spectral lines of tin and ger-
manium into series.

Though but little has been published about the series spectra of
neutral atoms of silicon, Fowler reports that he has been able to show
that the are spectrum of this element includes a number of related

20 According to Thorsen 7 has the effective value 2 in this formula.

21 Grotrian, Die Naturwissenschaften, Heft 13, March 30, 1923.

22 McLennan and Zumstein, Proc. Roy. Soc. of Canada, Section III.,
vol. xXiv., p. 9, 1920.
_ *3 The writer has been able to show recently that the spectrum of tin
includes series of the same type as those of lead. + ito] ero teas

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 49

triplets. In this regard it is analogous to the spectrum of lead as
originally classified into series by Thorsen. From general considera-
tions the existence of these triplet series would connote that there are
two valency electrons in the atoms of silicon. As the outermost electron
in normal atoms of aluminium is bound in a 3, orbit, the two outer-
most electrons in the normal atoms of silicon would appear to be bound
in equivalent orbits of this type.

As to norma] atoms of carbon, Bohr has expressed the opinion that
the four last bound electrons may be expected to form an exceptionally
symmetrical configuration, in which the normals to the planes of the
orbits occupy positions relative to one another nearly the same as the
lines from the centre to the vertices of a regular tetrahedron. Such
a configuration would, it is evident, furnish a suitable foundation for
explaining the structure of organic compounds. Thus, considerations
of symmetry would undoubtedly lead to the view that the four outer
electrons in carbon atoms were all bound in 2, quantum orbits sym-
metrically arranged in space.

This scheme of outer orbits is radically different from that ascribed
above to the outer orbits of the atoms of lead, tin, germanium, and
silicon, and the explanation of the difference is at yet not at all clear.

The fact that the spectrum of lead has been shown to include at least
five sharp subordinate series and four diffuse subordinate series suggests
in a measure a parallel to the spectrum of neon for which Paschen 74
has identified at least thirty sharp series and seventy-two diffuse series.
Multiple series of this character have also been shown by Meissner ?*
and by Nissen ** to be included in the spectrum of argon. Though this
parallel might be taken to indicate that the orbits of the four last
bound electrons in the atoms of lead and in those of the allied elements
are all of the n, type, it would seem that since the wave-lengths selec-
tively absorbed by lead vapour all belong to subordinate series, we must
conclude that in the case of lead at least its outermost orbits must be
two in number and of the 6, type. Carbon, too, in all probability will
be found to have two of its outermost electrons in 2, orbits and two
in 2, orbits.

The Kossel-Sommerfeld Displacement Law.

I have stated that Bohr in arriving at his scheme of atomic orbits
was guided by the view that the fundamental process to keep in mind
was that when a nucleus originally naked acquired electrons sufficient
in number to neutralise its charge, it did so by binding them according
to a programme that was definite and fixed for each value of the
nuclear charge.

If this view be accepted, it follows that if we were to detach from
the neutral atom of an element its most loosely bound electron, we
should expect to find that the orbits which remained were characterised
by the same quantum numbers as defined them in the neutral atom.
Moreover, except in certain special cases, these orbits would be identical

*4 Paschen-Gétze, Seriengesetze der Linienspektren, p. 30.
25 Meissner, Ann. d. Phys., Bd. 51, p. 95, 1915.
76 Nissen, Phys. Zeit., vol. 21, p. 25, 1920.

50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES

in type with those of the neutral atoms of the next hghter element.
The exceptional cases would include those elements whose atomic
structure involved the commencement of the development of an inner
system of orbits, such as those of the 3;, 4,, 4,, &c., groups. Subject
to these limitations, we should expect to find that if the n last-bound
electrons were removed from a neutral atom of an element the orbits
that remained in this atom would be identical in type with those of
the neutral atoms of the nth lighter element. This would mean that
the arc spectrum of the monovalent positive ion of are element would
be identical as to types of series involved with the arc spectrum of the
neutral atoms of the next lighter element. ‘There would be this differ-
ence, however, that in the series formule of the spectrum of the ion
the Rydberg constant would be 4K, whereas in the series of the
spectrum of the neutral atoms of the lighter element it would be K.
Putting the matter as it is ordinarily stated, the spark spectrum of
an element should be made up of series of the same type as those of the
arc spectrum of the next lighter element. This is known as the Kossel-
Sommerfeld Displacement Law.

Numerous illustrations of this law might be cited. For example,
the series in the spectrum of the monovalent positive helium ion are
of the same type as those of the spectrum of atomic hydrogen. Again,
the series in the spark spectra of the alkali elements have been shown
to be similar in type to those of the are spectra of the rare gases. In

the case of potassium,*’ it has been shown that in addition to its arc’

spectrum it can, under moderate excitation, emit a series spectrum
identical in type with that of the red spectrum of argon, and under
violent excitation a spectrum having all the characteristics of the blue
spectrum of this inert gas. In the case of the alkaline earths, the
series spark spectra have the same characteristics as the are spectra
of the alkali elements.

But perhaps the most striking confirmation of the correctness of
Bohr’s view of the process of binding electrons to nuclei, and also at
the same time of the validity of the Kossel-Sommerfeld Law, is found
in recent work by Paschen ** and by Fowler” on the spectra of doubly
ionised aluminium and trebly ionised silicon.

It will be recalled that Fowler some years ago showed that the waye-
lengths of the spark spectrum of magnesium could be organised into
series having 4K for their Rydberg constant. Early this year Paschen
carried the matter farther by showing that under strong excitation
aluminium emits a spectrum that can be arranged into series with a
Rydberg constant equal to 9K. Now Fowler has capped it all by
showing in a brilliant piece of work that in the spark spectrum of
silicon certain wave-lengths can be grouped into series with a Rydberg
constant of 16K. With both elements the series referred to are doublet
series of the type obtained in the are spectrum of sodium.

27 McLennan, Proc. Hoy. Soc., vol. 100, p. 182, 1921, and Zeeman and Dik,
Konin. Akad. Van Weten, Amsterdam, Proc., vol. xxv., p. 1, April 29, 1922, and
Ann. der Phys., Bd. 71, Heft 1/4, p. 188, 1923.

*8 Paschen, Ann. der Phys., Bd. 71, Heft 1/4, p. 142, Heft 8. p, 537, 1923.

29 Fowler, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 103, No, A, 722. June 1923.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. Bil

In terms of Bohr’s theory the 9-fold value of the Rydberg constant
would be interpreted as meaning that aluminium atoms which emitted
_ this spectrum had lost two electrons, and were represented by Al+ +,
or, as it is now written, Al(im). The 16-fold Rydberg constant would,

on the same theory, also be interpreted as meaning that the atoms of

silicon which emitted this spectrum were those that had lost three

electrons, i.e. Si(tv). These results, it will be seen, amply confirm

the view that the bound electrons in the neutral atoms of sodium, Na(1),

are of the same type and are characterised by the same quantum

numbers as those of the singly ionised atom of magnesium, Mg(m),

_ of the doubly-ionised atom of aluminium, Al(m1), and of the trebly-
_ionised atom of silicon, Si(rv).

What has been found to be true of the spectra of sodium, magnesium,
| aluminium, and silicon, will no doubt be found to be true of the spectra
- of the elements lithium, beryllium, boron, and carbon. The spectra
_ of beryllium and boron are extremely meagre in wave-lengths, and but
_ little is known of their spectral series. The spectrum of carbon, how-

ever, especially in the extreme ultra-violet, has been well worked out
: by a number of observers, and particularly so by Simeon.*°

In the spectrum of beryllium the doublet A = 3131.194 A,
A =3130.546 A has been shown to be the first member of a principal
and a second subordinate series of doublets.- Moreover, Back,*' who
recently investigated its magnetic resolution, has found that the mag-
netic components are of the D, and D, type, just as Kent has shown
the magnetic components of the close lithium doublet A= 6708 A
to be. It will, therefore, probably be found when the spectrum of
beryllizm has been extended that the doublet A = 3131.194 A,
A =3180.546 A will prove to be the first member of the doublet series
of the positive singly-charged atom of beryllium, with a Rydberg con-
stant for the series of 4K. In the spectrum of boron the doublets
4 =2497.73 A, }=2496.78 A and A =2089.49 A, A =2088.84 A,
particularly the latter, merit attention in looking for a 9K series. In
the ultra-violet spectrum of carbon there is a strong doublet at
A =1335.66 A, } =1334.44 A, and another nearly as strong at
A =1329.60 A,A=1329.07 A. These two also merit attention in any
attempt to identify 16K series for this element.

In considering the general validity of the Kossel-Sommerfeld Dis-
‘placement Law the recent work of Catalan * on the series spectra of
Manganese, chromium and molybdenum is of interest.

_ The spectra of the neutral and singly ionised atoms of manganese,
as well as that of the neutral atoms of chromium, have been shown
by him to consist of sets of sharp diffuse and principal triplet series.
Moreover, he has found that in all these spectra there are certain
groups of prominent lines, to which the name ‘ multiplet’ has been
given, that have similar characteristics, and that show similar varia-
tions with changes in temperature. This has led Catalan to put forward

pat i

80 Simeon, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 102, p. 490, 1923.

$1 Back, Ann. der Phys., No. 5, p. 333, 1923.

_ *2 Catalan, Phil. Trans., Roy. Soc., Series A, vol. 223, pp. 127-178, 1922;
).R., Jan. 8 and 22, and April 16, 1923.

52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the view that the neutral atom of manganese has an outer system of
two electrons, and that when this atom loses one of its most loosely
bound ones another electron from the next inner system comes out to
take its place in the outermost system, so that the latter again contains
two electrons. The similarity of the spectra of the neutral and singly
ionised atoms of manganese would thus be accounted for. By assuming
that this final configuration of the orbits in the singly ionised atoms
of manganese was the same as the configuration of the outer orbits
in the neutral atoms of chromium, the similarity of the are spectrum
of chromium to those of the singly ionised and neutral atoms of man-
ganese would also be explained.

Catalan’s series relations show that the two last acquired electrons
in the neutral atoms of manganese and chromium are bound in equiva-
lent orbits of the 4, type, and that as a consequence the ionisation
potentials of these two elements are given by a frequency of the form
vy =(1.5), and have the values 7.4 v. and 6.7 v. respectively.

In some later work Catalan®** has shown that the scheme of series
in the spectrum of molybdenum is identical with that which applies to
the spectrum of chromium. With this element he deduced the value
7.1 volts for the ionisation potential. The two last acquired electrons
in the atom of molybdenum would appear to be bound in equivalent
orbits of the 5, type.

From the considerations that have been presented in regard to the
atoms and the spectra of chromium and manganese some deductions
can be made regarding the spectrum and stationary orbits of the un-
known element of atomic number 48. Its are spectrum, and probably
that of its singly charged positive ion too, will likely consist of triplet
series. Its spectrum will also very likely include a set of multiplets,
and its two outer electrons will probably be found in equivalent 5, orbits.
Although some considerations recently put forward by Lande** and by
Back** may lead to modifications in the views expressed above, the
possibility of making these deductions constitutes a rather remarkable
testimony to the power of the methods that are being at present applied
in unravelling the mysteries of atomic structure and of the origin of
radiations.

An interesting point in connection with the Kossel-Sommerfeld
Displacement Law arises in connection with the magnetic properties
of the neutral atoms of argon, of the singly-charged positive atom ions
of potassium, and of the singly-charged negative atom ions of chlorine.
Recent work by W. L. Bragg** and Davey,®” as well as a report by
Herzfeld,** go to show that the ions referred to and the atom of argon
have practically the same dimensions, with a radius of about
1.56x10-*em. It appears also from the work of Kénigsberger,*°

33 Catalan, C.#., April 16, 1923.

34 Lande, Zeit. fiir Phys., vol. 15, p. 189, 1923.

35 Back, Zeit. fiir Phys., vol. 15, p. 206, 1923.

3% WW. L. Bragg, PAil. Mag., vol. xl., p. 187, 1920.

81 Davey, Phys. Rev., vol. xvili., p. 103, 1921.

38 Herzfeld, Jahr. der Rad. und Llek., Bd. 19, p. 259, 1922.
9 Kénigsberger, Ann. der Phys., vol. 66, p. 713, 1898.

A.—_MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 58

St. Meyer,*’ Curie,’ and Soné” that the atom ions of potassium and
chlorine and the atoms of argon are diamagnetic.

Since these ions and the atoms of argon contain the same number
of electrons, and since the electrons in all three are supposed to be
bound in orbits of the same type and of the same area, one would
expect them to show identical diamagnetic properties. The experi-
mental results, however, do not appear to support this view. While
the specific magnetic susceptibility of argon has been shown
by Soné to have the value 5.86x10-°, that of the singly-charged nega-
tive atom ions of chlorine and of the singly-charged positive atom ions
of potassium have been found from observations on the magnetic pro-
perties of potassium chloride to be equal approximately to 0.55x10-*,
i.e. the diamagnetic susceptibility of argon is about ten times that of
the ions of potassium and chlorine. As Pauli** has shown that this
high value of the diamagnetic susceptibility of argon leads on certain
simple assumptions to a value for the moment of inertia of the atoms
of argon about ten times too great, it would appear that the discrepancy
arises in connection with the evaluation of the diamagnetic susceptibility
of argon. Although all the experimental work involved appears to
have been carefully done, it is evident that the mvestigation of the dia-
magnetic properties of these elements will have to be carried further
before the matter is finally cleared up.

Quantisation in Space.

One of the most surprising and interesting developments of the
quantum theory is that which shows that quantum numbers determine
not only the size and form of the electronic Keplerian orbits in atoms,
but also the orientation of these orbits in space with regard to a favoured
direction such as that provided by an intra-atomic or by an external
magnetic or electric field of force. For any-arbitrary value of the
azimuthal quantum number k, the simple theory shows that there
are exactly k+1 quantum positions of the orbital plane characterised
by whole numbers. For example, if k=1 the normal to the orbit may
be either parallel to the direction of the controlling field or at right
angles to it. If k=2 the normal to the orbit may take up in addition
to these two positions a third one, in which the normal to the orbit
makes an angle of 60° with the field. For higher values of the quantum
number k, the possible orientations of the corresponding orbits become
regularly more numerous.

A striking confirmation of this theory is afforded by the very
beautiful experiments of Gerlach and Stern.** In these a stream of
atoms of vaporised silver was allowed to flow past a wedge-shaped
pole of an electromagnet which provided a radial non-uniform magnetic

40 St. Meyer, Ann. der Phys., vol. 69, p. 239, 1899.

41 Curie, Jl. de Phys., 3, 8. 4, p. 204, 1895.

42 Soné, Téhoku Univ. Sc. Rep., vol. 8, pp. 115-167, Dec. 1919, and Phil.
Mag., vol. 39, p. 305, March 1920.

43 Pauli, Zeit. fiir Phys., Bd. Heft 2, p. 201, 1920.

44 Gerlach and Stern, Zeit. fiir Phys., vol. 7, p. 249, 1921: vol. 8, p. 110,
1921; vol. 9, p. 349 and p. 353, 1922.

54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

field. The atoms were caught on a glass plate placed immediately
behind the pole, and it was found that they were deposited in two
distinct sharply defined layers, indicating that the atoms were sorted
out into two distinct and separate beams. ‘The positions of the bands
on the plate showed that one of the beams was attracted by the pole
and the other repelled by it, the attraction being slightly the greater in
intensity. No evidence was obtained of an undeflected beam. From
these results it was concluded that all the silver atoms in the stream of
vapour possessed a definite magnetic moment, and that while the atoms
were passing through the magnetic field their magnetic axes had two
distinct orientations in space.

By assuming the correctness of this interpretation, Gerlach and
Stern found from measurements on the various magnitudes involved
in the phenomenon that within the limits of error of their experiments
the magnetic moment of the normal atom of silver in the gaseous
state was that of one Bohr magneton.

Bohr, also, has drawn attention to another possible illustration of
the principle of the quantisation of orbits in space. It is known that
all the rare gases do not exhibit the property of paramagnetism. From
this fact the conclusion has been drawn that the atoms of these gases
in their normal condition do not possess any angular momentum.
According to the quantum theory, however, this conclusion may not be
warranted, for we have seen that for an atom which has a finite angular
momentum and, consequently, possesses a magnetic moment, the
theory prescribes certain definite directions for the axis of momentum
relative to a magnetic field in which the atom may be situated. If
we assume that the atoms of the rare gases in a magnetic field can place
themselves with their momentum axes perpendicular to the magnetic
field, it follows that they could appear to be diamagnetic, and all indica-
tion of paramagnetism on their part would be absent. In this connec-
tion I may point out that Bohr has made the suggestion that evidence
in support of the validity of this view is derivable from the results of
an analysis, on the basis of the quantum theory, of the anomalous
Zeeman effect shown by the rare gases.

One point that may be worthy of notice in dealing with phenomena
associated with the principle of space quantisation is that the permitted
orientations depend only on the values of the quantum number involved,
and not on the magnitude of the magnetic field applied.

Orbits characterised by certain definite values of the quantum number
should take up their permitted orientations in weak magnetic fields as
well as in strong ones, provided the time allowed for the process to
take place was ample, and provided suitable pressures were used and
disturbances arising from the presence of contaminating gases were
eliminated. Such conditions as these have recently been realised by -
Gerlach and Schutz,**° and they have been able to obtain with sodium
vapour at low pressures in the absence of foreign gases remarkably
striking manifestations of the magnetic rotation of the plane of

45 Gerlach and Schutz, Die Naturwissenschaften, vol. 11, Heft 28, p. 638,
1923.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 55

polarisation of the light passing through the vapour with magnetic fields
as low as a few tenths otf a gauss.

This idea of space quantisation may perhaps throw some light
on the interesting and suggestive experiments of R. W. Wood and
A. Ellett ** on the polarisation of the resonance light emitted by mercury
and sodium vapours. In their experiments, it will be recalled, strong
polarisation of the resonance light from mercury or sodium vapours
could be produced by weak magnetic fields properly orientated. More-
over, they found that the polarisation of the resonance light emitted by
these vapours in the presence of the earth’s magnetic field could be
destroyed by applying a magnetic field of less than one gauss provided
it was suitably orientated. It is highly desirable that the experiments
of Wood and Ellett should be followed up in order that sufficient
information may be gained to enable us to elucidate the principles
- underlying the modifications in the polarisation of the resonance light
observed by them.

It seems clear that atoms of sodium, for example, when excited
by the absorption of resonance radiation would tend during the period
of excitation to take up definite and characteristic orientations even in
weak magnetic fields that would result in the polarisation of the re-
sonance radiation emitted being different from that of the radiation
emitted from atoms of the vapour situated in space in which absolutely
no magnetic field existed. It should be remembered, too, that in the
normal atom of sodium the orbit in which the valency electron is bound
has the value 1 for its characteristic azimuthal quantum numter k.
When the atom is excited by the absorption of resonance radiation the
azimuthal quantum number of the orbit, in which the valency electron .
becomes bound for a time, takes on the value 2. It seems clear then
that the electronic orbit of the valency electron may be subject to
different orientations relative to the rest of the atom when the atom
is in the excited state from what it would be with the atom in its
normal state. These relative orientations, moreover, would again be
different in the presence of even a weak external magnetic field from
what they would be in the complete absence of such a field. It is,
therefore, quite conceivable that changes in orientation of electron
orbits may be able to account for the phenomena observed by Wood
and Ellett, but at present the whole matter appears to be rather involved
and rather difficult to clear up with the information as yet available.

Quantum Theory and the Zeeman Effect.

Among the most fruitful of the prinéiples utilised by Bohr in the
development of his theory of radiation is the Adiabatic Hypothesis
enunciated by Ehrenfest.‘7 To this hypothesis Bohr has given the
name the Principle of Mechanical Transformability. Numerous examples
of the application of this principle might be cited, but the one that
concerns us most here is that which deals with the effect of the
establishment of a magnetic field on the electronic orbits in atoms. It
46 Wood and Ellett, Proc. Roy. Soc., A, June 1923, p. 396.

47 Ehrenfest, Die Naturwissenschaften, vol. 11, Heft 27, July 6, 1923,
p. 543.

56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

is well known that Larmor has shown that one result of the establish-
ment of such a field is to endow an electronic orbit with a uniform
rotation about the direction of the magnetic field, the angular velocity

: BS oH Langevin has also pointed out that the
2m ¢

being given by @ =
size and form of the electronic crbit remain unaffected by the magnetic
field. Ehrenfest’s hypothesis asserts that if the magnetic field be
established slowly the energy of the electron in its orbital motion and
the frequency of its revolution.in the orbit may be changed, but the
number of quanta defining its energy undergoes no modification. With
the adoption of these principles it is an easy matter to show that when
we quantise the angular momentum about the direction of the magnetic
field the normal Zeeman components are exactly the same as those
provided by the older classical theory of Lorentz. The singular beauty
and simplicity of this method of explaining the normal Zeeman effect
constitute one of the finest achievements placed to the credit of the
quantum theory.

Efforts to explain the abnormal Zeeman effect have not as yet met
with the same siccess. Among the contributions made to this subject
perhaps that of Heisenberg ** is the most stimulating and suggestive.
In addition to offering an explanation of the abnormal Zeeman effect
it constitutes an attempt to account for the doublet and triplet structure
of series spectra.

Taking for example the case of an alkali element, Heisenberg
postulates that through magnetic coupling a movement of rotation
‘within an atom of these elements involves simultaneously the valency
electron and the core of the atom as well. According to the theory it
is supposed that in the various stationary states there is a partition
of the angular momentum between the two, one-half an azimuthal
quantum being assigned to the core and k-4 azimuthal quanta to the
electron. The author supposes further that through space quantisation
the two axes of rctation are in the same direction, and that the rotation
of the core and that of the electron may take place either in the same
sense or in opposite senses. As far as the radial quanta for the
electronic orbits are concerned, it is assumed that they are given by
n’+4 where n’ has integral values. This device leads to the result
that the total quantum number characterising the orbit of the electron
is an integer n that is equal to the sum k+n'. In this way the author
is enabled, at the same time, to characterise the spectral terms in the
Rydberg series formule by integra] quantum numbers.

This scheme, it will be noted, provides for the binding of the valency
electron in one or other of two energy levels and reduces the frequency
difference characterising the members of the doublet series of the spectra
of the alkali elements to a manifestation of what is practically a Zeeman
effect produced by an internal atomic magnetic field. To account for
the triplet structure of series spectra such as we obtain with the
alkaline earth elements, Heisenberg supposes the magnetic coupling

48 Heisenberg, Zeit. fiir Phys., No. 8, p. 257 and p. 278, 1922.

A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. 57

to involve not only the core of the atom but the two outer valency
electrons as well. It is shown when the theory is extended to take
account of an external magnetic field in addition to the internal one,
that the Zeeman separations of the magnetic components of doublet
and triplet lines are in exact agreement with the laws formulated by
Preston and Runge.

When the external magnetic field is high compared with the internal
one, the theory shows that for doublets and triplets the final result is
a normal Zeeman triplet in complete accordance with the observations
of Paschen and Back.*®

To illustrate the validity of the theory Heisenberg used his formule
to evaluate the magnitude of the internal magnetic field of the atoms
of lithium, and found that it led to a value of 0.32cm-" for the frequency
difference characterising the doublets of the second subordinate series
in the spectrum of this element. As the experimental value found by
Kent °° is 0.34cm~’, it will be seen that the agreement is good.

Again, in connection with the matter of triplet series the theory
shows that in the case of the p terms the ratio of the triplet frequency
differences should be as 2:1, for the d terms it should be as 3:2, and
for the f terms as 4:3. These deductions find ample verification in the
measurements made on the frequency differences of triplet series in the
spectra of such elements as magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium,
zine and cadmium.

To say the least, the theory outlined above is extremely suggestive.
It leads, however, to rather surprising results. If we are to account
for doublet separations generally as being due to Zeeman separations
produced by intra-atomic magnetic fields, it follows that with some
atoms these must be exceedingly high. Taking the doublet separations
of the second subordinate series in the spectra’of the alkali elements, we
find the following values for the internal magnetic fields of the different
atoms :—

Element . : : ‘ : f = «AY, H;

Lithium . A : : ; ; é 0:34 em 7,173 Gauss
Sodium : , : ‘ ; é 3 718s, 366,744 ,,
Potassium . F ; : : ‘ - 57-71 ,, 1,231,945,
Rubidium . " : : é 3 coat Otek « 5,072,090 _
Cesium 5 ; é 5540 ,, 1E826:330° ~;,;

If it should turn out that magnetic fields so high as those given
above are present in atoms of elements such as those in the alkali
group, the results obtained by Wood and Ellett would be easily explained.

Whether the existence of a magnetic coupling between the valency
electron and the atomic core justifies Heisenberg in adopting the artifice
of partitioning the quanta of rotation between the electron and the
atomic core is a debatable point.

It does not appear to be permissible to adopt the value 4 for the
azimuthal quantum number in defining the stationary orbits of a heavy
atom such as that of uranium. In a recent paper by Rosseland,** in

49 Paschen and Back, Ann. der Phys., vol. 39, p. 897, 1912; vol. 40, p. 960,
1913.

50 Kent, Ast. Phys. Jl., vol. 40, p. 343, 1914.

5 Rosseland, Nature, March 17, p. 357, 1923.

58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

which a suggestion is put forward that the phenomenon of radioactivity
exhibited by the heavier atoms may be due to some interaction between
the nuclear and the external electrons in these atoms, he finds that the
nearest approach of an electron to the nucleus in the atom of uranium
according to Bohr’s scheme of orbits is 16x 10-* cm. If the electronic
orbit closest to the nucleus in the atom of uranium had 4 for the value
of its azimuthal quantum number, it would mean that the shortest
distance of approach to the nucleus would be equal to4x 107" em. As
the radius of the nucleus of the atom of uranium has been shown to
be 6.5x10- em. it is evident that such an orbit could not exist. For
reasons of this character we are practically precluded from assigning
to k, the azimuthal quantum number, a value less than 1 in defining the
electronic orbits in atoms.

In this paper an attempt has been made to outline some of the
leading features of the quantum theory as it is being used to solve
the problems of atomic structure as well as of those connected with the
origin of radiations emitted by atoms. Other illustrations of special
interest might have been drawn from the treatment of problems that
have arisen in a study of band spectra®’ and of fluorescence pheno-
mena.°? The recent work of Cabrera,°* Epstein,®® and Dauvillier,** on
paramagnetism, too, has a most interesting connection with the deve-
lopment of inner systems of electronic orbits in atoms in Bohr’s scheme
of the genesis of atoms.

I venture to think, however, that the few iliustrations presented may
serve, in a measure, to indicate the power and also the beauty of the
methods being put forward to elucidate the problem of the origin of
radiation.

5? Kratzer, Die Naturwissenschaften, vol. 11, Heft 27, p. 577, 1923.

53 Wranck and Pringsheim, Die Naturwissenschaften, Heft 27, vol. 11,
July 6, p. 559, 1923.

‘4 Cabrera, Jl. de Phys., t. 6, p. 443, 1922.

55 Epstein, Science, vol. lvii., No. 1479, p. 532, 1923.

*6 Dauvillier, U.R#., June 18, p. 1802, 1923.

SOME ASPECTS OF
Tee, PHYSICAL “CHEMISTRY, OF
| INTERFACES.

ADDRESS TO SECTION B (CHEMISTRY) BY
Proressor F. G. DONNAN, C.B.E., F.RB.5.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Ir was at the last meeting at Liverpool, in 1896, that I first had the
honour of attending a gathering of the British Association. On that
occasion Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.S., was President of Section B, and
I shall never forget the interest and pleasure I felt in listening to the
Address of that great master of science and scientific method. Little
did I dream that in 1923 I should have the honour and privilege of
occupying the Chair of Section B at Liverpool.

Looking back on the Liverpool Meeting of 1896, one can say now that
it came at the dawn of a new era in the development of physico-chemical
science. The X-rays had just been discovered by Roéntgen. Perrin
had proved experimentally (1895) that a negative electric charge was
associated with the cathode rays and had surmised that these so-called
‘rays’ were constituted by electricity in motion, thus corroborating
Crookes’ brilliant views of a decade earlier and demonstrating that
Lenard was wrong. Sir J. J. Thomson had just begun that splendid
series of researches which resulted not only in the complete elucidation
of the nature of the cathode ‘rays,’ but also in the discovery of the
negative electron as a constant, universal, and fundamental constituent
of all matter.

The discovery of the chemically inert elementary gases by Rayleigh
~ and Ramsay had begun in 1894, and the series of investigations which

finally led to the recognition of the radio-active transformations of atoms
and to the discovery of the nature and constitution of the atom itself,
were just beginning. During the last twenty-five years the influence
of these discoveries on chemical science has been enormous. ‘There
has come about a fresh reunion of physics and chemistry, somewhat
analogous to that which occurred in the days of Volta and Davy. During
the two decades preceding 1896, physical science had been largely con-
cerned with the phenomena of the ‘ ether,’ with electric and magnetic
fields, electromagnetic waves, and the identification of light and other

60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

forms of radiant energy as electromagnetic phenomena. Now that the
physicists have brought physical science back to the close and intimate
study of matter, physics and chemistry have come together again, and
the old and homogeneous science of ‘ natural philosophy ’ has been
reconstituted. It is time that the walls which divide our chemical and
physical laboratories were broken down, and that the young men and
women who come to our Universities to study physics or chemistry,
should study the facts and principles of a fundamental science which
includes both.

Since the last meeting of our Section a number of eminent men
of science have passed away. It is with great sorrow that I record the
deaths of Professor Sir James Dewar, F.R.S., in our own country, and
of Professors E. Beckmann, J. P. Kuenen, G. Lemoine, L. Vignon,
and J. D. van der Waals on the Continent. Limits of time and space
forbid me to attempt here any account of the great services to science
rendered by these eminent men. As the successor of Tyndall, Sir
James Dewar worked for over forty years at the Royal Institution, and
by his investigations on the liquefaction of gases and the physical and
chemicial behaviour of substances at low temperatures, upheld the
famous tradition of the Royal Institution as a home of pioneer research
in science. Beckmann’s name is well known for his researches on the
effect of dissolved substances on the boiling- and freezing-points of
solvents, and for the convenient form which he gave to the ‘ variable
zero’ thermometer. He also devised useful and convenient forms of
apparatus required in spectroscopic work. Lemoine was one of the
pioneers in the study of chemical reaction velocities and equilibria in
France, whilst Vignon was well known for his researches in organic
chemistry. Kuenen was at one time Professor of Physics at Dundee,
although at the time of his death he had been for many years one of
the Professors of Physics at Leiden. He was particularly noted for
his investigations on the equilibria occurring in the evaporation and
condensation of liquid mixtures. His death at a comparatively early
age is a very heavy loss to science in general, and to Holland in
particular. In van der Waals there passes away one of the very greatest
men of science. He was one of that group of Dutch men of science,
including Cohen, Lorentz, Kamerlingh Onnes, van’t Hoff, Roozeboom,
Schreinemakers, and Zeeman, who have made Holland so famous as a
centre of physical and chemical research during the last thirty or forty
years. Van der Waals was the great mathematical and physical inter-
preter of the work begun by Thomas Andrews.

In recent years a great deal of attention has been paid by chemists,
physicists and physiologists to the phenomena which occur at the
surfaces or interfaces which separate different sorts of matter in bulk.
During the last quarter of the nineteenth century, both J. Willard Gibbs
and J. J. Thomson had shown clearly, though in different ways, the
peculiar nature of these interfacial or transitional layers. It was
evident that things could happen in these regions which did not occur
in the more homogeneous and uniform regions well inside the volume
of matter in bulk. Such happenings might, if they could be investi-
gated, reveal molecular or atomic peculiarities which would be undetect-

B.—CHEMISTRY. 61

able in the jostling throng of individuals inside. A surface or surface
layer represents a sort of thin cross section which can be probed and
examined much more readily than any part of the inside bulk. It is
indeed only within comparatively recent years that the X-rays have
provided a sufficiently fine probe for examining this bulk in the case
of crystalline matter.

The living organisms of plants and animals are full of surfaces and
membranes. What can happen at surfaces is therefore a matter of great
importance for the science of living things. We are bound to hold as
long as possible to the assumption that the physico-chemical manifes-
tations of life can be explained in terms of the potentialities of action
inherent in electrons, atoms, and molecules. The drilled and disciplined
soldiers of an army behave very differently from an undisciplined and
disordered mob of the same men. ‘Thus the modes of action
of ordered arrays and marshallings of atoms and molecules are
of extreme interest, since such modes of action will constitute pheno-
mena non-existent in a disordered multitude of the same atoms and
molecules with exactly the same individual powers and potentialities
These phenomena may be intimately connected with the phenomena of
living matter, and as the latter evidently require the existence of surfaces
and membranes, the idea naturally suggests itself that the special array-
ing or ordering of individuals occurs at, and may start from, such
surfaces.

An essential characteristic of this ordering or arraying may consist
in special orientation. In the chemical and physical actions occurring
in a volume of liquid whose bulk is large compared with its surface,
the molecules or atoms probably move towards each other with every
sort of orientation, no special type being privileged or distinguished.
Should, however, some special orientation be characteristic of interfaces,
then it is clear that such interfaces will exhibit new phenomena due
to this special sort of arraying. Moreover, if we are dealing with
molecules which are ionised into electrically polar constituents, or which,
if not actually dissociated, can be treated as electrically bi-polar, it
follows that, if orientation occurs at interfaces and surfaces, then
electrical double layers and electrical potential differences may be set
up at such boundaries.

In the theories of Laplace, Gauss, and Poisson the field of force
surrounding an attracting element or molecule was regarded as essentially
uniform in its spatial relations, 7.e. the equipotential surfaces were
regarded as concentric spheres with the molecule as a small element at
the centre. The only way in which the molecule could show its
character was in affecting the intensity of this central force at a given
distance and the rate at which the force falls off with increasing distance.
The molecules were thought of as possessing what one might call a
very ‘rounded and somewhat: monotonous ‘ physical’ personality or
character as regards their fields of force. In recent years our views
on such matters have undergone a somewhat radical transformation.
The field of force surrounding a molecule may in reality be very
‘irregular,’ and may be specially localised around certain active or
‘polar’ groups Its region of sensible magnitude may be very variable

62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and relatively small compared with molecular dimensions. The chemical
constitution of the molecule is now regarded as determining the varying
nature of the field of force surrounding it, so that parts of the molecule
possessing high ‘ residual chemical affinity ’ give rise to specially power-
ful regions of force. In this way the older ‘physical’ theories of
cohesion according to central forces with uniform orientation have been
to some extent replaced, or at all events supplemented, by ‘ chemical’
theories according to which the attractive force-fields are highly
localised round active chemical groups and atoms, are relatively minute
in range, and can be saturated or ‘ neutralised’ by the atoms or groups
of neighbouring or juxtaposed molecules.

Dr. W. B. Hardy has been the chief pioneer in the development
of these newer theories, having been led thereto by his researches on
surface tension, surface films, composite liquid surfaces and static fric-
tion and lubrication. As the matter is one of great importance, I shall
take the liberty of giving two quotations from Hardy’s scientific papers.

‘ The corpuscular theory of matter traces all material forces to the
attraction or repulsion of foci of strain of two opposite types. All
systems of these foci which have been considered would possess an
unsymmetrical stray field—equipotential surfaces would not be disposed
about the system in concentric shells. If the stray field of a molecule,
that is of a complex of these atomic systems, be unsymmetrical, the
surface layer of fluids and solids, which are close-packed states of matter,
must differ from the interior mass in the orientation of the axes of the
fields with respect to the normal to the surface, and so form a skin
on the surface of a pure substance having all the molecules oriented
in the same way instead of purely in random ways. The result would
be the polarisation of the surface, and the surface of two different fluids
would attract or repel one another according to the sign of their surfaces.’
(Hardy, 1912.)

These ideas are even more clearly expressed in the following passage.
‘Tf the field of force about a molecule be not symmetrical, that is to say,
if the equipotential surfaces do not form spheres about the centre of
mass, the arrangement of the molecules of a pure fluid must be different
at the surface from the purely random distribution which obtains on the
average in the interior. The inwardly directed attractive force along
the normal to the surface will orientate the molecules there. The
surface film must therefore have a characteristic molecular architecture,
and the condition of minimal potential involves two terms—one relating
to the variation in density, the other to the orientation of the fields of
force.’ (Hardy, 1913.)

Hardy thus bases the notion of molecular orientation at the surface
on the existence of unsymmetrical fields of force surrounding the mole-
cule; in other words, the parts of the molecule possessing the most
powerful stray fields will be attracted inwards towards the bulk and
thus cause a definite orientation of the whole molecule at the surface.

If , be the surface tension of a liquid A, y, that of another prac-
tically immiscible liquid B, and y,, the interfacial tension at the
interface A/B, then the quantity W =7~,+7,—yYa, represents the de-
crease of free surface energy, and therefore the maximum work gained,

B.—CHEMISTRY. 63

when a surface of A is allowed to approach normally and touch a surface
of B at constant temperature. Comparing different liquids A with water
as a constant liquid B, Hardy has shown that the quantity W is ex-
tremely dependent on the chemical constitution of A, and is especially
high when A contains the atomic groups characteristic of alcohols, acids,
and esters. Thus, for such saturated substances as octane, cyclo-
hexane, CS, and CCl,, the values of W at ordinary room temperature
lie between 21 and 24. Compare with these values the following :—

(a) Introduction of a hydroxyl group :—
Octyl Aleohol . ; ‘ ;
Cyclohexanol . : j 2661.4

(b) Introduction of a carboxyl group :—
n—Caprylic acid : 3 - 46.4
Oleic acid . : : - 44.7

The natural inference from results such as these is that the
cohesional forces are essentially chemical in origin and that they depend
in large measure on the presence of ‘ active’ atoms or groups of atoms,
namely those possessing strong fields of ‘residual chemical affinity’;
in other words, powerful and highly localised stray fields of electrical
or electromagnetic force (or of both types). The existence of such atoms
or atomic groups is strong presumptive evidence of the unsymmetrical
fields of force postulated by Hardy and therefore of the molecular orienta-
tion at surfaces.

The conclusions drawn by Hardy have been amply confirmed by
W. D. Harkins, and his collaborators, who in a long series of accurate
measurements of surface and interfacial tensions have found that in
the case of very many organic liquids the ‘ adhesional work’ towards
water is greatly increased by the presence of oxygen atoms (as in
alcohols, acids, and aldehydes). They find that the very symmetrical
halogen derivatives CCl: and C2H«Brz (which possess specially high
values for their own cohesional work) give markedly low values for
their adhesional work towards water, and that in the case of unsymme-
trical molecules, the adhesional work towards water is determined by
the presence of certain active atoms or atomic groups.

In his work on static friction and lubrication, Hardy has found
that the influence of chemical constitution and the effects of active
atomic groups are very pronounced. This, comparing aliphatic or open
chain compounds, the co-efficient of static friction falls (and the lubri-
cating power increases) as we pass through the series hydrocarbon—
alecohol—acid. The corresponding ester is in this case a much worse
lubricant than the related acid or alcohol. These results suggest, as
Hardy has indicated, that friction is caused by the molecular cohesion
of surfaces, and that in the action of such lubricants the molecules are
oriented with their long axes normal to the surface, whereby the active
atomic groups play an important part in ‘ taking up’ or saturating a

_ portion of the stray force-fields of the molecules of the solid surfaces,
_ and in orienting and anchoring the lubricant molecules to these surfaces.

Many facts lend strong support to Hardy’s views. Thus it is true,
T believe, that the addition of aliphatic esters improves the lubricating
1923 _

64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

value of hydrocarbon oils, whilst H. Wells and W. Southcomb have
demonstrated the marked improvement due to a small addition of a
fatty acid. In this connection it is interesting to note that W. E. Garner
and §. S. Bhatnagar have recently shown in my laboratory that the
interfacial tension between mercury and B.P. paraffin oil is markedly
lowered by small additions of oleic acid. The oleic acid molecules are
therefore absorbed or concentrated at the mercury-oil interface, an
action which may well be due in part to the fixation and orientation of
these molecules at the metal-oil interface.

This question of the orientation of molecules at the surfaces of
liquids has been greatly extended in recent years by a detailed study of
the extremely thin and invisible films formed by the primary spreading
of oily substances on the surface of water. In a continuation and
development of the work of Miss Pockels, the late Lord Rayleigh showed
many years ago that when olive oil forms one of these invisible films
on water, there is no fall in surface tension until the surface concen-
tration reaches a certain very small value. He made the highly interest-
ing and important suggestion that this concentration marks the point
where there is formed a continuous layer just one molecule thick. In
the case of olive oil, he found this critical thickness to be 10-7 cm.,
and concluded that this number represented the order of magnitude of
the diameter of a molecule of the oil. Increase in surface concentration
beyond this point causes the surface tension to fall, until a second point
is reached, after which no further fall in surface tension occurs. Lord
Rayleigh assumed that at the second point a layer two molecules thick
is formed. This pioneer work of Lord Rayleigh was repeated and
extended by H. Devaux and A. Marcelin, who showed the correctness of
his first suggestion, namely that the primary film consists of a
unimolecular layer. It appears, however, that the fall in surface
tension which he ascribed to the building up of a bimolecular layer, must
be ascribed to the closer packing of the molecules of the unimolecular
layer, and that the second point occurs when these molecules are packed
as tightly as possible.

Instead of varying the surface concentration by adding more and
more of the oily substance to a definite surface, we may attain the same
end by means of a moving boundary and a variable surface, and study
the relation between the force of surface-compression (difference between
the surface tension of pure water and that of the contaminated surface)
and the surface concentration. This method was greatly developed by
Devaux. Although these researches had firmly established the theory
of the formation of a unimolecular surface layer and therefore of the
existence of a new ‘two dimensional’ phase of matter, we owe it to
I. Langmuir to have made a very important advance by connecting this
conception with the ideas of chemically active groups and molecular
orientation. Influenced, no doubt, by the ideas of Hardy, Langmuir
reasoned that the formation of these primary unimolecular films must
be due to the presence of active groups in the molecules, which are
attracted inwards towards the water and thus cause the long open chain
molecules of the fatty acids to be oriented on the water surface with
their long hydrocarbon axes vertical and side by side.

dimensions of a unimolecular layer.
from the results which he published in 1917 :—

B.—CHEMISTRY.

Working by means of the method of Devaux, Langmuir put these
ideas to the test of experiment, and determined the internal molecular

The following is an excerpt

Molecular Molecular | Length per
es Cross Section V8 Length C atom
S
(sq. cms.) (cms.) (cms.)
Palmitic Acid 21x10 | 46x10 | 240x107 | 1°5x107 |
Stearic Acid . 225e10n's ALIX MOR 525°0X 1078 |" 24x 107%
Cerotic Acid . 25x 10746 5°0x 10% 31°0X10% | 1:°2x10°% |
|

It is at once evident that these results agree in a wonderful manner
both with the idea of a unimolecular layer and with that of molecular
orientation. The molecular cross section is practically constant, as we
should expect, since it must represent the cross section either of a
carboxyl or CH, group. Since the molecular length is determined from
the thickness of the layer, and is found to be five or six times the value
of s (molecular ‘ thickness ’), we perceive here the first actual experi-
mental proof of the theory of molecular orientation. Another fact of great
significance emerges from these results. If we calculate the average
distance between two adjacent carbon atoms in the three acids, we
obtain a value of 1.4x10-*cm. Now this distance must be of the order
of magnitude of the distance between the centres of the carbon atoms
in the crystal structure of a diamond. This latter distance is known to
be 1.52x10-*cm. The agreement is striking.

These regularly oriented and unimolecular surface films on water
have been recently investigated in a very detailed and careful manner
by N. K. Adam, who has improved the method employed by Devaux and
Langmuir. From a closer analysis of the relationship between the
force of surface compression and the surface concentration (expressed
as area occupied per molecule) he has shown that a distinction must be
‘made between the close packing of the polar or active end groups (head

_ groups) of the molecules and the subsequent close packing of the

hydrocarbon chains. The following table contains a few of Adam’s
results for the higher aliphatic acids :—

Cross Seation (ea. cms.) sop

£ ‘OX.

No. of ae Length

C atoms == (ems.)
8
Chain Head telat

| Myristic Acid AN, as 14 21°0 2571 Q1°1
| Pentadecylic Acid . : 15 21°0 25°1 22°4
| Stearic Acid . 5 3 18 21°'0 251 26°2
Behenic Acid = e 22 21°0 25°1 31°4

Although these results must be considered as more accurate and
detailed than those of Langmuir, they provide an ample confirmation
@2

66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

of the theory of unimolecular films of juxtaposed and oriented molecules.
If we calculate the average distance between two carbon atoms for the
four acids, we obtain the following results :—

Distance_(cms.) x 108

Myristic Acid : é : ceo ALG
Pentadecylic Acid . S 0 35 AE
Stearic Acid : : ‘ See alits:

Behenic Acid ° f : Age

As pointed out before, these values do not deviate much from the
value for the distance between the carbon atom centres in the diamond
(1.52x10-* cm.). Too much stress cannot, however, be laid on this
point, since in calculating the lengths of the oriented carbon chains an
assumption has to be made regarding the density of the film, because
only its area and mass are given directly by experiment.

Concerning this point some very interesting results have been
recently obtained in Sir William Bra ge’s laboratory by Dr. A. Miiller.
In these experiments layers of crystallised fatty acids on glass plates
have been examined by an X-ray photographic method. From these
results it appears that the unit cell is a long prism, the cross section of
which remains constant for the substances investigated, whilst the
length of the prism increases linearly with the number of carbon atoms
in the molecule. The increase in length of the unit prism per carbon
atom in the molecule is found to be 2.0x10-*cm. Since it appears
likely that there are two molecules arranged along the long axis of each
unit cell (prism), it would follow that the increase in the length of the
molecule per carbon atom added is 1.0x10-* cm. Comparing this result
with the value for the distance between the carbon centres in the
diamond lattice, it would appear that the carbon atoms in the long
hydrocarbon chains of the higher saturated fatty acids are arranged in
a zig-zag, or more probably in a spiral or helix. If this be the case,
the closer packing or compression of the juxtaposed molecules in the
unimolecular films, as revealed in the investigations of Devaux, Lang-
muir, and Adam, may be to some extent explained by the straightening
out of these zig-zags, or perhaps by the ‘ elastic compression’ of the
helices.

As pointed out by Langmuir, the question of the formation of uni-
molecular surface films can be attacked in a different manner. It is
known that gases or vapours can be condensed or adsorbed by solid and
liquid surfaces. The question then arises, does the formation of
primary unimolecular films ever occur in such cases? It will be recol-
lected that Hardy made the suggestion that the formation of the
primary unimolecular film in the spreading of oily substances on water
might be due to adsorption from the vapour. In order to examine this
question, 1} Mr. T. Iredale has recently measured in my laboratory the
fall in the surface tension of mercury caused by exposing a fresh mercury
surface to vapours of increasing partial pressure. The excess surface
coricentration q of the adsorbed vapour can then be calculated by means
of Gibbs’ formula

it on

B,—CHEMISTRY. 67
where =surface tension, and p and p denote the density and partial
pressure of the vapour respectively. Working with the vapour of methyl
acetate, Iredale found in this way that at a temperature of 26° C. and
a partial pressure of 62 mm. of mercury, q=4.5 x 10° grm. per square
centimetre of surface. From this result we can readily calculate that
there are 0.87 X10'* molecules of methyl acetate adsorbed per square cm.,
and that the area per molecule is 27x107"* sq. cm. As under the condi-
tions corresponding to this calculation the molecular surface layer was
probably not quite saturated (in the unimolecular sense), we may expect
the value found to be of the same order of magnitude but somewhat
greater tlian the values found by Adam for the cross section of the head
group of the higher saturated fatty acids (25x 10~'") and of the esters
(22x10-"* for ethyl palmitate and ethyl behenate). We may, therefore,
say that Iredale’s results appear to indicate the formation of a primary

— unimolecular layer built up by adsorption from the vapour phase.

the surfaces of liquids
in a liquid concentrates preferentially at the liquid-air or liquid-vapour

Langmuir has measured the adsorption of a number of gases ab
low temperatures and pressures on measured surfaces of mica and glass,
and has arrived at the conclusion that the maximum quantities adsorbed
are always somewhat less than the amounts to be expected 1n unimole-
cular surface layer. EK. K. Carver, who has measured the adsorption of
toluene vapour on known glass surfaces, has arrived at a similar con-
clusion. The view that the maximum adsorption from the gas phase
cannot exceed a unimolecular layer has, however, been much criticised.
Thus, for example, M. E. Evans and H. J. George, on the basis of
their own measurements on the adsorption of gases on a known surface
of glass wool, combined with the data obtained by Miilfarth, have con-
cluded that the adsorption layer may be several (and in some cases:
many) molecules thick. 1. may well be that the formation of a uni-
molecular ‘ saturation * layer only occurs in the case of molecules with:
relatively very active atoms or atomic groups, whose strong localised!
fields of force suffice to produce powerful attraction and orientatiom
and an almost complete saturation of the ‘ stray’ fields of the surface
molecules of the adsorbing surface, especially when the thermal tem-
perature agitation is sufficiently small. In the case of molecules with
weaker or more symmetrical fields of force, there may be relatively
little orientation, and an extension of the attraction field of the adsor-
bent through layers of the adsorbate many molecules thick. It would
be rash to theorise too much on this subject until more data are accu-
mulated, but it may be pointed out that in his investigations on the
spreading of surface films and on the theory of lubrication, Hardy has
been led to distinguish between primary spreading (primary unimole-

cular films) and secondary spreading (secondary relatively thick sheets).

Let us now consider another type of formation of surface layers at
namely, the case where a substance dissolved

interface. Gibbs, and later J. J. Thomson, have shown that if a

dissolved substance (in relatively dilute solution) lowers the surface

tension, it wili concentrate at the surface. That such a phenomenon
actually occurs has been qualitatively demonstrated in the experiments
of D. H. Hall, J. von Zawidski, and F. B. Kenrick and C. Benson,

68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

by the analysis of foams and froths. In 1908 S. R. Milner used
the same method in the case of aqueous solutions of sodium oleate,
and arrived at a mean value of 1.2x107'° gram mols. excess concentra-
tion per sq. cm. of surface. Now, in the case of dilute solution, we
can calculate q, the amount concentrated or ‘ adsorbed ’ in the surface
per sq. cm. (excess surface concentration) by making use of the equa-
tion of Gibbs,

Oey

q on

where y =surface tension and »=chemical potential of the adsorbed
substance in the bulk of the solution. Writing » = RT log a + k,
where a=‘ activity ’ of the solute, and k is a quantity dependent only
on the temperature and nature of the solute and solvent, du=R T d
log a, and so Gibbs’ equation can be written in the form

wp dleg hed borg
RT d log a

i
If for very dilute solutions (or for so-called ‘ ideal ’ solutions) we
put a=c, we can write

ee sedh Grate ade Hay.
RT d log ¢ RT de

In this way Milner has calculated from Whatmough’s data for aqueous
solutions of acetic acid that the ‘saturation’ value of gq is 3.8x10-"°
mols. per sq. cm., from which it follows that the area per molecule in
the surface is 50x107** sq. cm. In a similar manner, Langmuir has
calculated from B. de Szyszkowski’s data for aqueous solutions of
propionic, butyric, valeric, and caproic acids that the surface area per
molecule adsorbed in the saturated layer is equal to 31x10-** sq. cm.,
whilst Harkins has arrived from his own measurements for butyric
acid at the value 36x10-** sq. cm.

In 1911 Dr. J. T. Barker and myself made a direct determination
of q for a solution of nonylic acid in water. For a practically saturated
surface layer it was found that q was about 1.0x10-’ grm. per sq. cm.,
or 3.1x10™ molecules per sq. cm. From this result it follows that
the surface area per molecule is 26x10-"* sq. cm.

If we consider these various values, it will be at once evident that
they are not very different from the values found by Langmuir and
by Adam for the oriented unimolecular layers of practically insoluble
fatty acids resting on the surface of water. That in the present case
some of the values are larger might easily be explained on the ground
that these adsorption layers are partially, or completely, in the state of
‘surface vapours.’ For Adam and Marcelin have recently made the
important discovery that the unimolecular surface films investigated
by them may pass rapidly on increase of temperature from the state
of ‘ solid’ or ‘ liquid’ surface films to the state of ‘ vaporised ’ surface
films, in which the juxtaposed molecules become detached from each
other and move about with a Brownian or quasi-molecular motion,

——

B.—CHEMISTRY. 69

probably communicated to them by the thermal agitation of the water
molecules to which they are attached.

It is, indeed, highly probable that the molecules which are con-
centrated in the surface from the state of solution in the liquid phase
are not in quite the same situation as the molecules of practically
insoluble substances which are placed on the surface. In the former
case the molecules are still ‘dissolved,’ so that they will be more
subject to thermal agitation and less able to form a juxtaposed uni-
molecular layer. They may also be ‘hydrated.’ The difference
between the two cases is rendered very evident from the fact that in
the production of surface layers from dissolved molecules of the fatty
acids (and other ‘ surface active’ substances) there is a very marked
fall of surface tension, whilst the uncompressed unimolecular surface
films placed on the surface from outside do not affect the surface ten-
sion of the water. Thus the molecules of the surface-active substance
in the former case are in much closer relation to the solvent molecules,
and are in kinetic equilibrium with the molecules of both solvent and

‘solute in the bulk of the liquid. Nevertheless, the agreement as

regards order of magnitude in the values of the surface area per mole-
cule in the two types of case is certainly very suggestive and significant.
Moreover, the experiments of Mr. Iredale show that molecules which
are adsorbed on the surface from the vapour phase lower the surface
tension, and are therefore from this point of view comparable with
molecules concentrated in the surface from the bulk of the liquid phase.

The question as to whether the simplified form of Gibbs’ equation
yields a sufficiently accurate value for the excess surface concentration
can scarcely be decided without more experimental data. In the
experiments made by Dr. Barker and myself, the values calculated
from the surface tension-concentration curve were 1.3x10~’ and
0.6x10-7 grm. per sq. cm., according as the value of the van’t Hoff
factor i for the very dilute solutions of nonylic acid was taken as 1 or 2

‘respectively ; whilst the corresponding directly determined value was

about 1.0x10-7 grm. per sq. cm. ‘This discrepancy was probably well
within the experimental error of our measurements.

Let me now direct your attention to another very interesting
phenomenon relating to the surfaces of liquids and solutions—namely,
the existence of an electrical potential gradient or potential difference
in the surface layer. ‘These interfacial potential differences are of great
importance, and play a fundamental réle in determining the stability or
instability of many colloidal states of matter. The liquid-gas interface
offers the simplest case of such interfaces, and so the investigation of
the potential differences which may exist at this interface is a matter
of fundamental interest. In 1896 F. B. Kenrick developed, on the
basis of earlier experiments of Bichat and Blondlot, an electrometric
condenser method for the comparative determination of the gas-liquid
P.D.'s. The results which he obtained show that substances (such as
the aliphatic alcohols and acids) which concentrate at the surface pro-
duce a very great change in the surface P.D., whilst highly dissociated
univalent inorganic salts, such as KCl, do not. The results obtained
by Kenrick have been much extended by an investigation carried out

70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

with the same type of apparatus by Professor Thorbergur Thorwaldson
in my laboratory. The general result of these experiments can be
described in the following terms :—

Consider the system :

Aqueous Solution of KCl
(cone. =c) Air

The positive potential of A will be equal to that of B. If we now
add to the solution B a small quantity of a substance S (generally a
non-electrolyte or weak electrolyte) which has a strong tendency to
concentrate at the air-B interface, it is found that the positive potential
of A rises markedly above that of B, the value of the quantity, positive
potential of A minus that of B, varying with the concentration of S in
the way that is characteristic of adsorption phenomena. What is the
interpretation of this phenomenon? If we were to assume that there
was practically no P.D. at the interface A-air, it would follow that the
effect of S is to make the positive potential of the bulk of B markedly
below that of the air. The same result would follow if we were to
assume that at the interface A-air there exists a P.D. which makes the
positive potential of the bulk of A markedly below that of the air out-
side. Both these assumptions would lead to the conclusion that in the
surface layer of the solution at the A-air interface there must exist either
no electrical double layer, or else one with its positive half oriented
towards the air side. Now Quincke has shown that a bubble of air
in water placed in an electrical potential gradient travels towards the
anode—i.e. the bubble behaves as if it were negatively charged. From
this it would follow that the P.D. at the air-water interface is such
that the negative half lies towards the air side. As an electrolyte such
as KCl is negatively adsorbed at an air-liquid surface, it is probable
that a P.D. of the character indicated by Quincke’s experiment exists
at the A-air interface. If we accept this conclusion, it follows that the
effect of S is markedly to reduce this P.D. (or to reverse it). Now the
P.D. at the air-water interface is probably due to the existence of a
double layer containing hydroxyl ions on the outside and hydrogen ions
on the inside, or to oriented water molecules regarded as electrical
bi-poles. If S is a non-electrolyte (or a substance which possesses
httle self-ionisation), we can understand why its concentration at the
surface could result in the reduction of this P.D.

The experiments of Thorwaldson show that a substance such as
the hydrochloride of methyl violet has a powerful effect on the P.D. at
the air-water interface. It is probable that in this case the complex
basic dye cation is drawn into, or ‘ adsorbed ’ in, the outside layer next
to the air, the result of this being a reduction or possibly reversal of
the original potential difference.

Kenrick found that 1f gases such as hydrogen and coal gas be sub-
stituted for air, there is no effect on the surface P.D.

Within the last few years H. A. McTaggart has made a number of
experiments on the electric cataphoresis of gas bubbles in aqueous solu-
tions and other liquids. He finds that aliphatic acids and alcohols in

Aqueous Solution of KCl
(cone. =c)

eer”

B.—CHEMISTRY. 71

aqueous solution reduce the surface P.D. and that this effect runs
parallel with their influence on the surface tension of water. He also
finds that acids reduce the P.D. These results may be regarded as a
corroboration of those obtained by Kenrick. McTaggart has found that
the nitrates of tri- and tetravalent cations have a powerful effect in not
only reducing but reversing the P.D. (i.e. the bubble becomes posi-
tively charged). His experiments also show that polyvalent negative
ions, such as the ferrocyanide ion, act in the opposite direction to the
polyvalent cations—i.e. they increase the negative charge on the bubble
or diminish a previously existing positive one. These results are of
great interest, inasmuch as they show the powerful effects produced by
polyvalent ions on the P.D, existing in the surface layer of an aqueous
solution. As we shall see presently, very similar results have been
obtained at liquid-liquid and solid-liquid interfaces. But it is of great
importance to know what happens at the air-liquid interface, since we
ean largely discount the chemical and physical influence of the gas
phase.

Although the electrometric method employed by Kenrick and Thor-
waldson only gives comparative results (since two interfaces must always
be simultaneously used), whilst the cataphoresis method gives results
for a single interface, it is necessary to observe that the electrometric
method measures the total fall of potential from the bulk of one phase
to the bulk of another. The cataphoresis method measures what
Freundlich has called the ‘ electrokinetic’ P.D.—that is to say, the
potential drop between the limiting surface of the ‘ fixed’ part of the

_ double layer and the rest of the liquid. The two values need not neces-

sarily coincide.

When liquids are sprayed or splashed, or when gases are bubbled
through liquids, it is known that the gas often acquires an electrical
charge, whilst the liquid acquires an opposite one (so-called ‘ waterfall ’
electrification). Since the pioneer work of Elster, Lenard, J. J.
Thomson, Kelvin, Maclean, and Galt, very many investigators have
dealt with this subject (Eve, Christiansen, Bloch, de Broglie, Zwaarde-
makers, Coehn, &c.). Originally, Lenard thought that the effect was
due to a ‘ contact electrical’ action between the gas and the liquid,
whilst J. J. Thomson was inclined to ascribe it to a sort of partial
chemical action between them. It is known that there are produced
in the air or gas relatively slow-moving carriers, both positive and
negative. Lenard has quite recently changed his views, and ascribes
the origin of these carriers to the tearing off of very small portions of
the outside layer of the electrical double layer existing in the surface
of the liquid. It may be mentioned that Kenrick, Thorwaldson, and
McTaggart came to the conclusion that the surface P.D.’s measured
by them were not connected, or at all events not connected in any simple
manner, with the phenomena of waterfall electrification.

We may say, therefore, that if there be a relation between these
two types of phenomena, it is a complicated and still largely obscure one.

The subjects which I have been discussing have an interesting bearing
on the formation and stability of foams and froths. If air be violently
churned up with water, only comparatively large bubbles are produced,

72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and these quickly rise to the surface and burst. If now a very smail
quantity of a substance which concentrates at the air-water interface
be added, an almost milk-white ‘ air emulsion’ of small bubbles is
produced, which rise to the surface and produce a relatively durable
froth. These phenomena were discussed by the late Lord Rayleigh
in a very interesting Royal Institution lecture on ‘Foam.’ It is clear
that the diminution in interfacial tension facilitates the subdivision or
dispersal of the air. The existence of the surface layer will also confer
a certain amount of stability on the resultant froth, since it will give
rise to forces which resist the thinning of a bubble wall. Any sudden
increase in the surface will produce a momentary diminution in
the concentration or ‘thickness’ of the surface layer, and hence
a rise in surface tension, which will persist until the normal thick-
ness or concentration is readjusted by diffusion of molecules from
the inside volume—a process which in very dilute solution will occupy
a perceptible time. That this explanation (due to the late Lord
Rayleigh) is the correct one can be seen from the fact that very
often stronger solutions of the same surface-active substance scarcely
foam at all. In this case the readjustment of the equilibrium thickness
or concentration of the surface layer occurs with such rapidity (owing
to the greater concentration of the molecules in the inside volume) that
practically no rise in surface tension, and hence no counteracting force,
comes into play. These effects will be the more pronounced—other
things being equal—the greater the mass and hence the smaller the
motion of the solute units, as in the case of large molecules or colloidal
micelles. It is probable, however, that the explanation of the stability
of very durable forms, as, for example, those produced by the sea at
the sea coast, by beer and stout, by aqueous solutions of soap or saponin,
&e., is often more complex, and that we must seek it in the forma-
tion of very viscous or semi-rigid or gel-like membranes at the interface.
Moreover, small solid particles may contribute to the stabilisation of a
froth, as in the case of the ‘mineralised froths’ of the ‘ore flotation
process ; and the preferential aggregation of small particles in the inter-
face between two phases has been demonstrated in the experiments of
W. Reinders, F. B. Hofmann, and many others.

Let us now inquire how far the phenomena which we have seen to
be characteristic of a gas-liquid interface occur also at the interface
between two immiscible or partially miscible liquids. Many years ago
it was shown by Gad and by Quincke that a fatty oil (such as olive oil)
is very readily dispersed in the form of an emulsion by a dilute solution
of caustic soda. Some experiments which I once made showed that a
neutral hydrocarbon oil could be similarly emulsified in a dilute aqueous
solution of alkali if one of the higher fatty acids was dissolved in it,
whilst the lower fatty acids do not produce a similar action. It was
shown that the action runs parallel to the lowering of interfacial tension
and must be ascribed to the formation of a soap, which lowers the inter-
facial tension and concentrates at the interface. These phenomena
have have been further investigated by S. A. Shorter and S. Ellings-
worth, by H. Hartridge and R. A. Peters, and by others.

If a substance which is dissolved in one liquid A, and which is

SS ee a Oe ae tttt—“‘“O_N

B.—CHEMISTRY. 73

practically insoluble in another liquid B, is found to have, in very dilute
solutions, a strong effect in lowering the tension at the interface A-B,
the following interesting questions arise :—

(1) What is the amount of the surface concentration or adsorption
per sq. cm. of interface ?

(2) Can it be calculated by means of the simplified Gibbs equation ?

3) How does the surface adsorption vary with the concentration ?

(4) Does the ‘ saturation’ value correspond to the formation of a
unimolecular layer ?

Some of these questions were experimentally investigated in my
laboratory by W. C. McC. Lewis. For the liquid A water was chosen,
and for B a neutral hydrocarbon oil. Working with sodium glycocholate
as the surface-active subtance, it was found that the experimentally
measured surface adsorption g was much greater than that calculated by
means of the equation

For example, a 0.2 per cent. aqueous solution at 16° C. gave a directly
measured value of g=5x10-° grm. per sq. cm., whilst the calculated
value was 5 x 10-* grm. per sq. cm., practically a hundred times smaller.
A similar type of discrepancy was found in the cases of Congo Red and
methyl orange. If we calculate from the experimentally found surface
adsorption of sodium glycocholate the value of the surface area per mole-
cule, we obtain about 0.9x10-"* sq. cm. A similar calculation in
the case of Congo Red gives a correspondingly low figure. Now
if we compare these values with those previously obtained for the air-
liquid surface, it is clear that in the present case we are not dealing with
simple unimolecular layers, but with adsorption layers or films many
molecules thick. On the other hand, if we calculate from Lewis’
results the surface area per molecule as deduced from the surface
tension measurements by the simplified Gibbs formula, we arrive at
values of the order of 90 x 10-'* (sodium glycocholate) and 100 x 107-**
(Congo Red). These are values which are consistent with the gradual
building up of a unimolecular layer (of possibly heavily hydrated mole-
cules or micelles). It is possible, therefore, that the Gibbs equation
gives the surface concentration of the primary unimolecular ‘two
dimensional ’ surface phase, and that any building up of further con-
centrations beyond this layer does not affect the surface tension. It is
true that in the case of substances such as sodium glycocholate, and
especially Congo Red, in aqueous solution, there is a considerable amount
of uncertainty as to the nature and molecular weight of these sub-
stances as they exist, not only in the bulk of the solution, but especially
in the surface phase. In a later investigation Lewis determined the

‘surface adsorption of aniline at the interface mercury-aqueous alcoholic

solution, and found in this case a very fair agreement between the
observed and calculated results. This case is more favourable, since
we can be in little doubt concerning the molecular weight of the solute
units. The mean observed value for the surface adsorption was

TA SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

2.7x10-° grin. per sq. cm. Hence the number of molecules per
sq. em. of interface

aa
93

and the surface area per molecule=58 x 10-1* sq. cm. JLangmuir’s
calculation from Worley’s measurements of the surface tensions of
aqueous solutions of aniline gives at the air-water surface the value
34 x 10-** sq. em. for the area per molecule of aniline. We may con-
clude, therefore, that Lewis’ measurements in this case point to the
building up of a primary unimolecular layer, unaccompanied by any
further concentration or ‘condensation’ of molecules or colloidal
micelles.

The relation between surface adsorption and fall of interfacial tension
at a mercury-water interface was further investigated by W. A. Patrick,
who concluded that, although there was a correspondence between the
two phenomena, the surface adsorption could not be calculated from
the simplified Gibbs equation. If we were to accept this conclusion
as correct, we might find an explanation either in the suggestion made
above, or in the possible invalidity of conclusions drawn from the use
of the simplified Gibbs equation ; either because the simplifications intro-
duced are not justified, or because the existence of electrical or other
factors requires an extension or elaboration of the original equation.
This matter has been discussed by Lewis, by A. W. Porter, and by
various investigators of electro-capillary phenomena.

From very accurate measurements of the interfacial tensions of the
aqueous solution-mercury interface, W. D. Harkins has calculated (by
means of the simple Gibbs equation) that when the interface ‘is satu-
rated as regards butyric. acid molecules coming from the aqueous
solution, the surface area per molecule is 36X10-** sq. cm.

Here, again, we see that a calculation by means of the Gibbs equa-
tion seems to point to the formation of a primary unimolecular layer.
Experiments similar to those of Lewis have been very recently made by
EK. L. Griffin, who has measured directly the adsorption of soaps from
aqueous solutions at a mineral oil-water interface. The results obtained
are as follows :—

m10 KG 06% 10° =O 17 410.

Average Surface per Molecule

Substance adsorbed
Sodium Oleate - . . - 48X10~ sq. em.
Potassium Stearate ; : LOOT R11 ae, Cha

Potassium Palmitate . ; - 30X10-% sq. em.

These figures are very interesting, for they would appear to indicate
the formation of unimolecular surface layers. 1t may be mentioned
here that T. R. Briggs has investigated the adsorption of sodium: oleate
at a benzene-water interface, and finds that the amount of soap adsorbed
at the interface increases rapidly at first with small increases in the
concentration of the solution, and then remains very nearly constant
while the concentration of the solution undergoes great increase. This
is just-what one would expect from the building up of a saturated
surface or surface layer (whether unimolecular or otherwise).

B,—CHEMISTRY.

We have seen that in the case of the air-water surface there exists
an electrical separation or potential difference in the surface layer, and
that certain substances can produce pronounced variations, or even
reversals in sign, of this electrical double. layer. It becomes a matter,
therefore, of great interest to inquire whether similar phenomena occur
at the interface between two immiscible liquids, and, if so, to ascertain
whether such electrical charges or double layers bear any relation to
the ‘ stability ’ of pure emulsions, or fine dispersions of one liquid in
another. It is well known that those disperse or finely heterogeneous
states of matter known as colloidal solutions depend in part for their
stability on the existence of such electrical potential differences. We
might expect, therefore, that an investigation of these emulsion systems
would throw some light on the general theory of what are called ‘ sus-
pensoid’ or ‘lyophobic’ colloidal states. __ Investigations with these
objects in view were carried out some years ago in my laboratory by
R. Ellis and F. Powis. The method employed was to measure directly
by means of a microscope the motion of minute globules (suspended in
water) under the influence of a known electric field. This procedure may
be regarded as an extension and development of the work of Quincke.
From the measured velocity and potential gradient the interfacial P.D.
and the electrical charge can be calculated from the theories of Helm-
holtz, Lamb, and Stokes. The microscopic method has the advantage
that the P.D. between the aqueous solution and the glass wall (cover
glass or object glass) can be simultaneously determined It is a remark-
able fact that the P.D. between various types of hydrocarbon oils (puri-
fied from acid as far as possible) and water was found to be 0.045—0.053
yolt, the oil being negative—that is to say, the oil droplet moving towards
the anode. If we compare this with the value recently calculated by
McTaggart for the P.D. between an air-bubble and water (deduced from
a precisely similar type of measurement), namely 0.055 volt, we can
draw the conclusion that the potential difference is due to an electric
double layer residing in the surface layer of the water. The oil droplet
moves, therefore, with an attached negative layer or surface sheet,
probably determined by hydroxyl ions, this being balanced by a positive
layer whose charge is determined by hydrogen ions. If hydrochloric
acid be added to the water the interface P.D. rapidly falls, and appears
asymptotically to approach zero. If, on the other hand, caustic potash
be added, the P.D. at first rises, reaches a maximum at a concentration
of about one thousandth molar, and then falls with increasing concen-
tration, but nothing like so sharply as in the case of the acid. Similar
results hold good for the glass-water interface. From the results
recently obtained by H. R. Kruyt (by means of the stream method) 1t
is probable that at very low concentrations of acid there also occurs
an initial increase in the interfacial P.D. The influence of salts is
yery remarkable. Thus at low concentrations potassium chloride and
potassium ferrocyanide increase the P.D., whilst at higher concentra-

‘tions they reduce it, just as in the case of the acid and the alkali. The

initial increase caused by potassium ferrocyanide is markedly greater
than that caused by potassium chloride. The effect of the valency of
the salt cation is very pronounced. Thus barium chloride at very low

76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

concentrations probably causes a very small rise of the P.D., but at
quite low concentrations its effect is to reduce it, and this effect increases
rapidly with rising concentration, and is much more marked than in
the case of potassium chloride. The lowering effect of aluminium
chloride at low concentrations on the P.D. is much more pronounced
than in the case of barium chloride, and this effect becomes still greater
with thorium chloride. Both aluminium chloride and thorium chloride
at low concentrations reverse the sign of the P.D., the oil side of the
double layer becoming positive. In these cases the positive charge of
the oil droplet reaches a maximum with increasing concentration of
the salt, and then appears to fall slowly towards zero. No second
reversal of sign has ever been observed. So far as the solid-liquid
interface is concerned, these results have been in general confirmed by
the electroendosmotic experiments of G. v. Elissafoff (carried out in
Freundlich’s laboratory) and by the stream-potential measurements
of Kruyt. It may also be remarked that Loeb has recently obtained
similar results in the case of collodion particles, using the micro-
cataphoresis method. Perhaps the most remarkable result which has
emerged from these electrical investigations of oil suspensions is the
relation between the stability of the emulsion and the potential difference
of the interfacial double layer. The minute oil globules are in constant
Brownian motion and must frequently collide. Why do the forces
of cohesion not produce agglomeration or coalescence (coagulation or
clearing of the emulsion)? We should expect that under determinate
conditions a certain fraction of these collisions would give rise to coher-
ence. Is there any other factor besides orientation of path and kinetic
energy which affects the probability of coherence following an encounter ?
At distances great in comparison with their own dimensions the electric
double layers will act practically as closed systems. But when two
oil drops approach sufficiently near each other the conditions will be
different, since we must expect a repulsive force when two similarly
charged outer layers just begin to interpenetrate each other. Hence
the answer to the question asked above is that the third factor is the
potential difference or electric density of the interfacial double layer.
Other things being equal, the probability P of an encounter leading
to coherence will be a diminishing function of the electric intensity x
of the similarly constituted double layers, i.e. a will be negative.
Hence of the total number of encounters in a given small period of
time the number which lead to coherence should be a maximum at the
point of zero potential difference (iso-electric point of Hardy). i

Now the experiments of Powis brought out the very important fact
that when the interfacial P.D. (whether positive or negative) is above
a certain value, which was about 0.03 volt for his conditions, the rate
of coagulation or coherence of the oil drops is relatively small, but
rapidly increases when the P.D. falls inside the zone —0.03 to +0.03
volt. Under definite conditions there exist, therefore, what we may,
speaking broadly, call a critical potential and a critical potential zone.
When the P.D. is outside this zone the emulsion is comparatively very
“stable.” Very small concentrations of electrolytes, which, as we

B.—CHEMISTRY. fof

have seen, increase the P.D., increase this stability. As soon as the
concentration of any electrolyte is sufficient to bring the P.D. into
the critical zone, the stability of the emulsion undergoes a sudden and
very marked decrease, and relatively rapid coagulation occurs. Take,
for example, the case of thorium chloride. On increasing the concen-
tration we find that the interfacial P.D. traverses successively the
following regions :— .

(1) Above the critical value (and negative). __

(2) Inside the critical zone (negative and positive).

(3) Above the critical value (and positive).

(4) Below the critical value (and positive).

In exact correspondence with this series we find that the emulsion
goes through the following states :—

(1) Stable (oil particles ‘ negative’).

2) Unstable and flocculating (oil particles negative or positive).

(3) Stable (oil particles positive).

(4) Unstable and flocculating (oil particles positive).

Here we see a very striking analogue and explanation of the pheno-
mena observed by Joly in studying the effect of aluminium salts on the
sedimentation of clays, and of the numerous examples of the so-called
‘irregular series ’ observed in the flocculation of suspensoid hydrosols
by salts with polyvalent cations.

As Linder and Picton showed, when two suspensoid hydrosols, one
negative and the other positive, are mixed, then, depending on the
ratio, a stable hydrosol (either positive or negative) can be obtained.
In continuation of this work, W. Biltz demonstrated the existence in
such cases of a ‘zone of coagulation,’ 7.e. a zone of concentration
ratios leading to coagulation. A study of the mutual behaviour of a
negative oil emulsion and the positively charged ferric oxide hydrosol
provides a complete explanation of this curious phenomenon. When
increasing amounts of the iron oxide hydrosol are added to the oil
emulsion it is found that the interfacial P.D. falls to zero, and then
reyerses its sign, becoming increasingly positive—an action which is
due to the adsorption of the positively charged micelles at the oil-water
interface. When the P.D. is above a certain value (positive or nega-
tive) the system is stable. But within the critical zone a rapid and
relatively complete mutual coagulation takes place.

These studies of oil emulsions (and of the glass-water interface),
by means of the micro-cataphoresis method, have thrown a great deal
of light on many previously ill-understood points in the theory of
colloids. If, for example, the P.D. between the particles of a suspen-
soid hydrosol and the aqueous fluid is not above the critical potential,
coagulation will occur. But very small concentrations of certain
electrolytes can raise the P.D. and stabilise the hydrosol. This is the
explanation of the well-known ‘ peptising’ action. Higher concentra-
tions of even the same electrolytes will reduce the P.D. below the
critical potential, and produce flocculation. We see also that rapid
coagulation will occur before the P.D. becomes zero. This was
proved for arsenic sulphide hydrosol by Powis. Later experiments
of Kruyt have confirmed these conclusions. It is obvious, therefore,

78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

that coagulation of a lyophobic hydrosol will occur before the iso-electric
point is reached, and that Hardy’s famous rule requires revision.

The following table contains the concentrations (in millimols per
litre) of certain electrolytes required to reduce the potential of a certain
hydrocarbon oil emulsion from its ‘ natural ’ value (against pure water)
of 0.046 volt to the critical value, 0.03 volt :—

—— | Concentrations Sonate es
KCl 5 - F 51 2500
BaCl, . 5 “ 19 95
AlCl, . A : 0°020 1
Thch . : é 0°0070 0°35

These results show the enormous influence of the valency of the
cation in a series of salts with the same univalent anion, and explain
in a striking manner the analogous effects in the coagulation of lyophobic
hydrosols. ‘The exact value of the critical potential and the range
of the critical zone will depend, of course, on the experimental defini-
tion of ‘rapid coagulation,’ and on the concentration, nature, and
degree of dispersion of the hydrosol. It is not to be supposed, there-
fore, that these critical values are constants except under very definite
conditions. The fundamental fact is that under given conditions the
rate of coagulation of the particles of an oil suspension or of a lyophobic
hydrosol undergoes a relatively sudden and very great increase when
the interfacial P.D. falls below a certain finite value (positive or
negative).

There is not time or space at my disposal to enter into the much
discussed question as to the inner mechanism of the action whereby
ions (and electrically charged micelles) set up or vary the potential
difference in the interfacial layer. According to Freundlich’s original
theory we must ascribe an independent effect to each ion, which will
depend on the sign of its charge, its specific adsorbability, and electro-
valency and the nature of the already existing double layer. A different
theory was proposed by Freundlich in order to explain the results
obtained in the electroendosmotic experiments of Elissafoff. According
to this point of view, the ‘ solid’ surface acts chemically (as an acid,
base, ampholyte, or salt), whereby it may dissociate off an ion or ions,
and itself become an ionised surface. Invading foreign ions may then
alter this ionisation equilibrium; or they may simply combine with
the ionised surface and form neutral insoluble spots (compare the
views of Freundlich, Gyemant, and Kolthoff). J. N. Mukherjee has
‘suggested that ions are attached to the surface by chemical forces, and
has attempted to work out an electro-kinetic theory of ion adsorption.
It is probable that surfaces very often do act ionically or chemically,
and that specific actions of this sort must often be taken into account
in dealing with the great variety of material presented in the study
of surface actions. Nevertheless, in the case of the hydrocarbon oil
‘droplets studied by Ellis and Powis, or the gas-liquid interface studied

B.—CHEMISTRY. 79

by Kenrick, Thorwaldson, and McTaggart, any specific chemical
activity or ionisation of the oil or gas would seem improbable. Any
theory which attempts a general treatment of the problem must be
prepared to deal with cases such as these.

Many measurements have been made of the potential differences
between solids and liquids, or between pairs of immiscible (or partly
miscible) liquids, using electrometric methods. Thus Haber and
Klemensiewicz determined the potential difference at a glass-water
solution interface, and found the glass to act like a hy drogen electrode.
Their results have been recently confirmed by W. S. Hughes. Tt will
be at once obvious that these results are not in agreement with those
obtained by cataphoretic and electroendosmotic methods. A somewhat
similar type of discordance has keen observed in the electrometric
measurements of the potential difference between solid paraffin and an
aqueous solution made by G. Borelius, and of the P.D.’s between pairs
of liquids made by R. Beutner, E. Baur, and others. Freundlich and
Gyemant have drawn attention to the fact that in all such electrometric
measurements, where in the process of the measurement an electric
current must pass from one phase to the other, we measure the total
or ‘thermodynamic’ potential difference between the phases in bulk,
whereas in determinations by the methods of electroendosmose and cata-
phoresis, we measure only a portion of this total potential difference.
These ‘ electro-kinetic’’ P.D.’s, although of fundamental importance in
relation to the stability of suspensoid (lyophobic) systems, need not,
and in general will not, coincide in value with the total (thermodynamic)
potential differences. It will be recollected that I drew attention to a
quite analogous difference in discussing the measurements of the
potential differences at gas-water interfaces made by Kenrick and by
McTaggart.

We may illustrate this point by considering the P.D. between two
immiscible phases, L, and L,, in equilibrium with each other, and
each of which contains dissolved in it the electrolyte KA. Ife denote
the positive potential of L, above L,, and F the quantity of electricity
associated with an ionic gram equivalent, then by a virtual variation
of the equilibrium system it follows that

(tux): — (Ux)o= Fe = (Ya)o— (Ha):

where the subscripts refer to the cation or anion and tc the phases
L, or L,, and the #’s denote the chemical potentials per gram equivalent
(partial equivalent free energies) of the ionic constituents in the bulk of
the two phases. Whatever may be the ‘electro-adsorption ’ or ion
adsorption of K and A at the interface I\,—L,, it is clear that ¢ depends
only on the ‘ bulk ’ values of the respective chemical potentials, which
likewise determine the surface concentrations. If the phases L, and

-L, be not in equilibrium, then velocity or diffusional terms will enter
into the equations, and the potential difference will be partly or wholly a

“diffusional potential.’ These relationships were clearly established
many years ago by R. Luther.
In discussing the ‘ stabilities ’ of hydrocarbon oil emulsions, it must
‘not be forgotten that I was dealing with very dilute suspensions of oil
H

80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

in water, produced by mechanical agitation without the addition of any
‘emulsifier.’ I pointed out that in the emulsification of oils in water
by means of soap, the soap lowers the interfacial tension and concen-
trates at the interface. When we wish to produce oil emulsions in the
ordinary sense of the term we must use some such emulsifying agent,
and for this purpose many substances are employed, such as soap,
gum acacia, gelatine, casein, starch, &c., &c. All these substances
concentrate or condense on the surfaces of the oil globules. If we may
regard these surface films as very mobile from the molecular-kinetic
point of view, it is clear that they will confer an increased degree of
stability on the emulsion. For any sudden decrease of interface
(caused, for example, by coalescence or partial coalescence of two
adjacent globules) will produce a momentary increase in the surface
concentration or thickness of the adsorption layer, and so a decrease in
the interfacial tension, if the surface layer is not saturated. It may
require a perceptible time for the molecular-kinetic motion (especially
in the case of large molecules or hydrated micelles) to readjust the
equilibrium between the surface layer and the bulk.

It is probable, however, that the stability of the emulsion is in many
cases due to the fact that the surface films possess a very viscous,
quasi-rigid, or gel-like character, so that a more mechanical explanation
is necessary. As S. U. Pickering showed, oils may be emulsified in
water by the gels of certain basic salts; and A. U. M. Schlaepfer has
shown that emulsions of water in kerosene oil may be obtained by means
of finely divided ‘carbon.’ Nevertheless, even in cases where an
emulsifier is used, we may hope to succeed in obtaining a more precise
physical analysis of the system. It is interesting in this connection to
note that Mr. W. Pohl has recently found in my laboratory that when
a neutral hydrocarbon oil is emulsified in water by means of sodium
oleate, the electrical potential difference at the oil-water interface is
almost doubled, and that the effects of alkalies and salts on this potential
difference are very similar to those found in the case where no emulsifier
is employed.

I cannot conclude this account of certain aspects of surface actions
and properties without making a passing, though all too brief, refer-
ence to the beautiful investigations of Sir George Beilby on the amor-
phous layer. He has shown that when the surface of crystalline matter
is subjected to shearing stress there is produced a surface layer of
a vitreous or amorphous character—a ‘ flowed’ surface—in which the
particular ordered arrangement of the molecules or atoms which is
characteristic of the crystalline matter largely disappears. Working at
University College, London, Dr. Travers and Mr. R. ©. Ray have
recently obtained a very interesting confirmation of the Beilby Effect.
The heats of solution (in kilogram calories per gram mol) of vitreous
silica and silver sand (silica as crystalline quartz) in aqueous hydro-
fluoric acid were found to be 37.24 and 30.29 respectively. After
grinding for fifteen hours the corresponding values were 36.95 and
32.46 respectively. If we assume that the internal energy of the amor-
phous phase produced by grinding is the same as that of the vitreous
silica (silica glass), we can calculate from these results that about 31 per

B.—CHEMISTRY. 81

cent. of the crystalline silica has been converted by grinding into
‘amorphous’ silica. The densities of silica glass and silver sand were
found to be 2.208 and 2.638 respectively. After fifteen hours’ grinding
the density of the latter was lowered to 2528. On the same assump-
tion as before, it follows that about 26 per cent. of the quartz has been
converted into the vitreous condition. The difference between the
figures 31 and 26 is doubtless due to the approximate character of the
assumption underlying the calculations and to experimental errors.
There seems little doubt, however, about the soundness of the main
conclusion—namely, that the mechanical action of shearing stress on
erystalline matter is to produce a random molecular or atomic
distribution in the surface layers.

This discussion, necessarily brief and limited, of certain aspects of
the properties of surfaces—molecular orientation, surface concentra-
tion or adsorption, electrical or ionic polarisation—has dealt very largely
with states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The chief interest of such
studies has always appeared to me to lie in their possible ultimate
bearing on the phenomena of life. We must remember, however, that
the activities, and indeed the very existence, of a living organism depend
on its continuous utilisation of an environment that is not in thermo-
dynamic equilibrium. A living organism is a consumer and trans-
former of external free energy, and environmental equilibrium means
non-activity, and eventual death.

It is probable, therefore, that along and across ‘ living surfaces’
there is a continual flux of activity. Does the very existence of these
surfaces depend on some special sort of activity? Questions such as
these must make us cautious as regards any premature generalisation
from simple physico-chemical results. But there is encouragement if
we may assume that the physico-chemical manifestations of life are
functions of the same powers and potentialities of electrons, atoms,
ions, and molecules that we find in what we call inanimate environ-
ments. Life would then be simply a new functional relationship of
very old parameters, at all events in so far as its various physico-
chemical ‘mechanisms’ are concerned.

In the totality of its activities and relationships, however, a living
organism is an individual, and to arrive gradually at an understanding
of this ‘ individualisation ’ it will be necessary to study very carefully
the laws pertaining to the intimate and particlar modes of action of

_ simpler individuals. The actions of an individual are conceived by

science as determined by its internal state and by its relation to its
environment. As we pass from certain peculiar atomic states, where
the actions appear to have no relation to environment, to molecules,
colloidal micelles, and living cells, the effects of the environment in
determining activity seem to become more and more pronounced.

The internal state of a living cell or organism may arrive from time

_ to time at ‘critical’ points and ‘ critical’ transformations.. Whatever

may be the relation of such possible critical states to the previous cell-
environment reactions, the resulting events will be immediately deter-
mined by the special internal nature and sctivity of the cell itself. Is

_ this ‘ special internal nature and actiyity ’ simply a special type of

H 3

82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

organisation or arrangement of the positions, shapes, sizes, orientations
and motions of electrons, atoms, ions, and molecules? To this oft-put
question the answer of physico-chemicai science is still in the affirma-
tive. More complex individuals are not cloaked in any mysterious
‘law of complexity.’

Probably future progress will depend more on the investigation of
the special nature, situation, and action of individuals than on the
statistical thermodynamic treatment of the average behaviour of the

“ crowd.’

EVOLUTIONAL PALZONTOLOGY IN
RELATION TO THE LOWER
PALZOZOIC ROCKS.

ADDRESS TO SECTION C (GEOLOGY) BY

GERTRUDE L. ELLES, M.B.E., D.Sc.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Ir is just twenty-seven years since the British Association last met in
Liverpool, and in casting my mind back over the intervening years
and thinking how our Science stands to-day with regard to its position
then, it has appeared to me that one at any rate of the most important
lines along which progress has been achieved is due to the growth of
what may be termed the genetic principle. This would seem to be
equally true both as regards Petrology and Paleontology, for it is
becoming increasingly evident that conceptions and classifications,
whether they be of rocks or of fossils, if they are to be natural, must
be based fundamentally upon origin and descent. Therefore, situated!
as we are here in Liverpool, almost within sight of the Welsh Hills:
on the one hand and the Lake District Fells on the other, both classic
areas so far as the Lower Paleozoic rocks are concerned, it may perhaps:
be appropriate to see how far this principle may be applied to the eluci-
dation of problems connected with these Lower Paleozoic rocks, to
note what has been achieved in this respect, and how much yet remains
to be done. The subject, therefore, of my address to you to-day is
‘Evolutional Paleontology in Relation to the Lower Paleozoic Rocks.’

Problems of the Older Rocks.

As I interpret the facts, the chief problems still awaiting solution
are both fundamentally stratigraphical: on the one hand there are
problems relating to classification, that is, of subdivisions of the forma-
tions on a basis that shall be of wide application, and render possible
correlation of beds in areas far removed from one another; on the
other, there is the actual structural relationship existing between these
beds as seen in the field, which, when rightly interpreted, makes
evident the nature and extent of those deformational strains that have
from time to time so profoundly affected the rocks of the Earth’s crust.
With regard to classification, the problems are of different degrees of
magnitude; there are, for example, those larger difficulties relating
to the satisfactory determination of the upper and lower limits of the
formations; there are also those connected with the correlation of all
those smaller local subdivisions of formations with which Strati-
graphical Geology is becoming increasingly overburdened without any
prospect of compensation unless a fresh principle be introduced.

84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Moreover, the interpretations of structural details must to a large
extent depend upon the satisfactory elucidation of these problems of
classification, so that the solutions of the two really go together. It
is my firm conviction that the most satisfactory solution of the first,
and therefore also of the second, of these problems will be found in the
application of the principles of evolutional Paleontology.

Variation in Shallow-water Fauna.

As regards the more fundamental of the two problems, a general
principle seems to be involved, demanding the recognition of the rela-
tive values of faunal changes in shallower and deeper waters respec-
tively. The faunas of the shallow seas must of necessity be subject
to far greater degrees of physical change than those of the deeper
waters, and, thanks to the excellent work done at the Danish Biological
Station! in carrying out investigations on the bottom faunas of different
Danish waters, we now know a good deal as to the extent to which
the distribution of modern faunas is governed by physical conditions.
Some of the more important conclusions reached by the Danish investi-
gators may be summarised as follows :—

1. That certain characteristic animal communities undoubtedly
exist under certain physical conditions, and when these conditions
remain constant even over wide areas the same community will be
found, but each community is bounded by those physical conditions.

2. That change in physical conditions brings about a change in the
characteristic animal community, though certain organisms may be
found in more than one community.

3. The physical changes to be correlated with the change in com-
munity are those of temperature, salinity, and clearness of the water;
depth as depth seems to be less important than the factcrs which go
with depth, such as temperature, amount of light, character of the sea
bottom, and quietness of the water. Thus along a section in the
N. Kattegat at depths varying only between 7 and 50 metres, five
different animal communities have been recognised :—

Community Depth Character of Bottom Temp.
,

1. Echinocardium Community . | 7 metres | Fine sand _

2. Echinocardium Turritella |12-19 metres; Dark sand with --
Community fine detritus

4, Brissopsis - Turritella Com- | 35 metres | Grey Kattegat Clay 13.4° C.
munity

5. Brissopsis-Nucula Community | 50-52 gress Light Kattegat Clay | 8°—6° C.

1 1913, Petersen, ©. G. J Report of the Danish Biological Station.

ee ee

C.—GEOLOGY. 85

That depth is not the determining factor is clearly indicated by
another section taken in the Sams ¢ Belt :—

3. Rich Modiola Echinoderm 18 metres | Coarse gravel with 10.3° C.

Community sand, clay, pebbles. |

This Macoma community is very well known, as it occurs in all
the more sheltered waters of the Danish Fjords, and can be directly
observed and examined at low-water. It is seen to present many
facies, and to vary greatly according to whether the bottom is sandy,
stony, muddy, or soft, and according to whether it is exposed to the
action of currents and to varying conditions of temperature and salinity.
The fauna in bulk, apart from those characteristic species which belong
to the community as a whole, varies considerably in different localities,
and, as the author of the Report expresses it, “the real matter for
wonder is that there are some species common to all these localities
and different conditions.’

The difference between the characteristic animals of the communi-

ties living in waters of different depth is so great that none of the
animals are common to both. This does not mean that no species are
common to shallower and deeper waters, but that no characteristic
species as such.
_ Now the interest for the geologist in all this lies in the fact, as,
Petersen has pointed out, that these ‘characteristic animals’ are
closely akin to the ‘ characteristic fossils ’ of the geologist, and we may
ask ourselves whether the variations which can be seen to exist in the
contemporar.eous shallow-water fossil assemblages of past ages may
not be recognised as brought about by the same factors as those that
can be seen operating to-day.

Our ancient Lower Paleozoic faunas were composed in the main
of trilobites, brachiopods, and corals, both solitary and reef-building.
The distribution of coral reefs at the present day is governed by three
cardinal factors * :—

1) Uniformly warm waters, the temperature of which does not |
fall below 22° C. on an average throughout the year ; )

(2) A depth not exceeding 14 fathoms;

(3) Clear waters, i.e. those free from mud in suspension ;
and there is every reason to believe that formations containing the
remains of coral reefs were laid down under very similar conditions to
these; hence reef-building corals might be expected to have flourished

2 1923, Potts, F. A. ‘The Distribution of Coral Reefs.’ School Science
Review, Feb. 1923.

86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

best in clear, warm seas of moderate depth, and such trilobites and
brachiopods as occur abundantly associated with them might be pre-
sumed to have flourished also under these conditions ; other brachiopods
and trilobites would appear to have attained their greatest development
on sandy shores, whilst others, again, seem to have lived in greatest
numbers in muddy waters, no great change in depth being necessi-
tated. Unfavourable conditions seem to be indicated by the dwarfing
| of a fauna as a whole, the extreme of such conditions being attained
| when salinity of the waters resulting from desiccation reached such a
pitch that abnormally distorted forms predominate. Moreover, in the
case of faunas inhabiting the actual coastal region, it is obvious that
even slight changes in the relative levels of sea and land will be very
effectively felt, since these may be sufficient to bring about permanent
submergence or emergence, and thus induce a total change of environ-
ment; also since shore lines tend more particularly to be the lines
along which migrations take place between the faunas of one area
and another a further factor conwibuting to heterogeneity may thereby
be introduced.

It is therefore obvious that there are many factors tending to give
different aspects to shallow-water faunas in different places, hence a
certain amount of Lateral Variation or lack of uniformity is only to
be expected amongst those of the same age when seen in different
localities. There may also be considerable Vertical Variation in the
type of shallow-water fauna of successive ages, either in response to
changes in the physical conditions of one and the same area, or as the
result of migration; and if the surroundings are variable it may happen
that two faunas separated in time may bear a greater degree of
resemblance to each other than two successive faunas, the similarity
being induced by a return to similar conditions. Vertical Variation has
long been recognised and understood in principle by geologists, but I
do not think the same can be said of Lateral Variation.

Since then a greater or lesser degree of variation is to be expected
even in ancient shallow-water faunas that are contemporaneous, it is
in their case too the resemblances that should be considered remarkable
rather than the differences, since close resemblance would seem to
indicate one of two things, either a wonderful degree of uniformity of
conditions over a wide area, or else the occurrence of a large proportion
of those fossils that I have elsewhere * called ‘ successful types,’ these
possessing amongst other characteristics the property of being, in some
cases at any rate, less susceptible to differences of physical condition.
Thus in comparing the contemporaneous shallow-water faunas of the
past in different areas it would seem that all we are entitled to expect
is a general resemblance rather than a particular, and this at best will
probably show itself in generic rather than specific agreement, a fact
well illustrated by the trilobite faunas of the Keisley and Chair of
Kildare Limestones of Ashgillian age; the general aspect of these
faunas is really far closer than any fossil list would indicate,
since the species are often different, though the faunas agree in the

* 1922, Elles, G. L. ‘The Graptolite Faunas of the British Isles.’ Proc.
Geol. Ass., 1922, vol. xxxiii.

Occurtence of numerous Cheirurids, Lichads, and Remopleurids. In
many cases, therefore, where there is considerable lateral variation in
faunas, and also where the fragmentary condition of the specimens
renders specific determination impossible, or where the assemblage is
insufficient to determine the horizon, the recognition of the evolutional
stage reached by an organism may prove to be of greater significance
than specific determination, in that it is essentially independent of any
nomenclature, however much such a nomenclature may in the past
have been forced upon it.

Moreover, since all shallow-water faunas will be liable to be affected
to a greater or lesser extent by the different factors enumerated above,
difficulties in correlation are bound to occur; these may be obviated in
two ways, either by studying the faunas from the evolutional stand-
point, and noting the stage reached, or by determining where possible
the relation of each separate fauna to its deeper-water equivalent; for
it is obvious that the faunas of the deeper-water areas where conditions
are more uniform should furnish the standard for purposes of classifica-
tion. Since the physical conditions in such areas are far more constant,
and the sediments of more uniform type, any change in the character
of the fauna that does take place is almost bound to be of real signifi-
cance, and probably in many cases indicates the attainment of an
important stage in the evolution of the group or groups of organisms
concerned. Every modern classification of strata should surely take
these data into account. It is not that I undervalue the importance
of local changes—they have their own significance—but just because
they are bound to be more or less entirely local they are useless for
purposes of international correlation.

Principles of the Modern Classification of Strata.
It can hardly be doubted at the present day that the most efficient

classification of strata is that based upon the paleontological principle
of the coming in of new forms, but if the classification is to be of wide-

application and to be depended upon, this coming in of new forms must
not be directly connected with changes in the character of the sedi-
mentation. Physical causes which induce changes in the nature of
the sediments are no doubt important, and probably give great impetus
to evolutionary development, but to be depended upon they must be re-
flected in those faunas of the deeper parts of the epicontinental seas
where sedimentation continues apparently unaltered; in other words,
where the change in the fauna shows primarily as an advance in the
evolutional stage. The factors that have to be considered render the
international classification of our great formations a matter of con-
siderable difficulty. This is well illustrated by the differences of opinion
that exist as to where the upper limit of the Silurian should be placed,

and in spite of all that has been urged by Stamp,* I am not yet con-

vinced that his claim that the boundary should be shifted to the base

f 1920. Geol. Mag., vol. lvii, p. 164.
“ Stamp, L. D. 1922. Bull. Soc. Belge de Géologie, vol. xxxi, p. 87.
| 1923. Geol. Mag., vol. 1x, p. 92 and p. 276,

88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of the Downtonian rests upon a satisfactory basis. ‘Towards the close
of the Silurian, as is perfectly well known, far-reaching changes in
physical conditions took place, necessarily involving changes in the
character of the shallow-water fauna whenever and wherever these
occurred, and the coming in of fishes appears to be directly connected
with them. That these changes took place simultaneously over wide
areas is in the highest degree improbable, and having had some experi-
ence of the behaviour of these rocks in the field I have felt that the
evidence at times so strongly suggested that the Downtonian was essen-
_ tially a facies formation that the possibility of its horizon being eventu-
' ally found to be almost as inconstant as that of the Millstone Grit was
far from improbable. That there may appear to be a similar change
of conditions in parts of Britain and France at about the same time is
not really the point; it is not the succession of shallow-water marine
faunas that is important from the point of view of classification, but
how far these are really of the same age in different places, and how
much change is reflected in the fauna of the more stable deeper-water
beds. The author may be perfectly right in his contention, only up
to the present as I see the problem he has not proved his case.

So, too, at the lower limit of the same Silurian formation; at
' present the top of the Ashgillian needs clearer demarcation, and [
have endeavoured to show elsewhere that on paleontological grounds
the most satisfactory place at which to draw the line is at the horizon
where Monograptus makes its first appearance in force in the deeper-
water sediments of the period, a well-defined faunal change indicative
of the attainment of an important evolutional stage, of world-wide
significance, and independent so far as can be determined of any change
in the nature of the sedimentation. This appears also to be the horizon
of the entrance in force of the true Pentamerids (Barrandella) amongst
the faunas of shallow-water type.

With regard to these general principles of modern classification,
there would appear also to be only one really effective way of rescuing
our Science from the increasing burden of local nomenclature; this has
had its uses undeniably in indicating the exact nature of local successions
and developments, and at present cannot be avoided in unfossiliferous
rocks such as those of Pre-Cambrian age, but for the rest of our Lower
Paleozoic rocks surely the time is coming, if, indeed, it has not already
come, when there may be detected emerging from all this wealth of
local detail a general paleontological sequence that may be of wide and
possibly even of international application.

There will, no doubt, be those who will object on the grounds that
in adopting such a classification the geological world might be at the
mercy of the whims of a few paleontologists; this should not be the
case if the evolutionary principle be adopted, for the choice of fossil
indices should then be limited to those fossils that are of the nature
of stable or successful types, for these are likely to be the only forms
with a sufficiently wide distribution in space to be really useful, whilst
in widely remote areas, should these fail, corresponding forms at a
similar general stage of evolution should be utilised in their stead.

The most reliable classification for shallow-water beds would then

Ee er rrr

C.—GEOLOGY. 89

be that based upon the evolutional sequence of the members of one or
more species-groups® belonging to gemera possessing considerable
possibilities of variation (variation gradient) so long as such members
continue to be important and characteristic members of the fauna; when
they fail in this respect they should be replaced by the members of
another species-group that succeeds in importance. Thus, as will be
shown in the sequel, the evolutional series comprised within the species-
group of Calymene cambrensis might well be adopted for classifying
the lower part of the Ordovician in our own country, whilst in the upper
part members of the species-group of C. blumenbachi might be utilised.
It may prove advisable in some cases to choose genera belonging to two
distinct phyla to serve as a check upon each other such as, in the case
of certain of the Lower Paleozoic rocks, might be afforded by Trilobita
and Brachiopoda; in other cases species-groups of either of these phyla
might prove sufficient.

Deeper-water Faunas of the Lower Palzeozoic.

We must now pass on to the consideration of some Lower Paleozoic
Faunas, and see what has been achieved by regarding them from the
evolutional standpoint; and since, for reasons already given, it would
seem that the faunas of the deeper waters must be taken as the standard
for purposes of classification, these will be considered first.

Throughout the greater part of Lower Paleozoic time the Graptolite
Shales constitute the typical deposit of the deeper waters of our epi-
continental seas, the factors controlling their accumulation being not
depth as such, but rather the factors that are closely associated with
depth, especially quietness of the water, and absence of coarse sediment.
Strictly speaking, I suppose the graptolite fauna does not belong to the
Black Shale, since it is in all probability pseudo-planktonic; but owing
to similar conditions governing its distribution the two are almost

invariably associated and may be taken in that sense to belong; in any

case, its occurrence is independent of those factors which make for
heterogeneity in the faunas of the shallower waters, so that the
Graptolite Shales furnish the standard sequence for purposes of
classification. As regards the study of this highly interesting group of
organisms, it is as well to note at the outset their extraordinarily favour-
able position from the evolutionary standpoint ; for though we may not
know the complete story of the whole class of the Graptolithina, since
at present its actual beginning is uncertain, we do appear, at any rate,
to have a more or less complete history of the more important order,
the Graptoloidea, comprised within the rocks of Lower Paleozoic age ;
so that here, if anywhere, we ought to be able to study the various forms
in their true relationship to each other. To a large extent this can be
done, and the honour of its first conception belongs to Nicholson and

5 Species-group or gens may be considered to be the aggregate of all the
species which possess in common a large number of essential properties and
are continuously related in space or time. Vaughan, Q.J.G.S., 1905, vol. 1xi,

p. 183

90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Marr, who in 1895* pointed out the evolutional importance of the
simplification of branching; the work is still far from complete, though
more lines of evolutional importance have been added to that of
Nicholson and Marr. At the present day we can study the lines along
which general development took place, see how different species-groups
arose, reached their acme, and diminished in importance as they were
succeeded by those of the next evolutional stage; and we can note the
horizons at which the more important of these evolutional stages were
reached.

Looked at purely from the evolutional standpoint there seem to be
' at least three main lines along which the graptolites evolved as a
whole :—

1. Change in direction of growth.

2. Simplification in branching.

3. Elaboration of cell type.

The first of these brings about a change from the primitive pendent
or hanging form to the scandent or climbing position, and appears to
be brought about by the necessity for the better protection of the nema
or attachment organ, and would, therefore, seem to arise in direct
response to environment.

The second line of development eventually results in reduction of
the total number of stipes or branches of the rhabdosoma to one; the
earliest attempt in this direction, where the tendency to reduction out-
distances that of change in position of growth, appears to be unsuc-
cessful, since the forms are all ‘dead ends’ undergoing apparently no
further development of any kind (Azygograptus). The later attempt is
combined with further change in the position of growth, so that the
forms which result are scandent one-branched graptolites with a well-
protected nema; these are obviously highly successful, undergoing a
rapid development in many different directions.
| This simplification in branching may, as suggested by Nicholson and
‘ Marr, be the impression of the struggle for an adequate food supply.

The third line also occurs in what may be termed two episodes,
and is of a somewhat different nature each time; the earliest elaboration
affects the cell as a whole, whereby the cell with a bend or sigmoid
curve in it is gradually evolved from a straight tubular cell, the curvature
eventually becoming so pronounced that there is torsion of the whole
apertural region. Since the development of a cell of this type would
allow of closer packing, its evolution, like that of the simplification in
branching, may be the impression of the struggle for food ; if so this type
of cell elaboration may result in response to conditions of environment.

In the second episode the elaboration is of a totally different nature,
and seemingly results as the expression of two definite tendencies or
trends within the organism, one a trend towards lobation, the other
a trend towards isolation.

So it comes about that the broad outline of the Graptolite History
is found to be comprised within four chapters, all dealing with different

* 1895, Nicholson and Marr, ‘ Phylogeny of the Graptolites.” Geol. Maqg.,
dec. 4, vol. ii.

C,—GEOLOGY. 91

evolutional stages, each chapter being capable of further divisions into
sections and sub-sections.

The four chapters of the story may be summarised as follows :—

1. General simplification of branching coupled with change in direc-
tion of growth. Attainment of unsuccessful one-branched form, which
undergoes no further development. Characteristic of Arenigian and
Llanyirnian beds.

2. Commencement of elaboration of cell type (first episode)
Characteristic of Llandilian beds.

3. Widespread attainment of the scandent position by two-branched
forms. Characteristic of Caradocian and Ashgillian beds.

4. Widespread attainment of one-branched stage by scandent forms
which undergo conspicuous elaboration of cell type (second episode).
Characteristic of the whole of the Silurian,

The first chapter deals mainly with the many-branched graptolites,
of which the best known is the 8-branched form Dichograptus, and the
most obvious changes shown are those tending in the direction of the
reduction of number of stipes or branches. Thus the 32-stiped forms
are gradually succeeded in time by those with 16 stipes (Logano-
graptus), the 16-stiped by those with 8 (Dichograptus), the 8 by 4
(Tetragraptus), and the 4 by 2-branched forms (Didymograptus). Thus
the simpler forms succeed the more complex, and at the same time
there is a gradual change from the pendent through the horizontal to
the scandent position of growth; by the time this is attained the number
of stipes is reduced to four, so that such forms are essentially scandent
or climbing forms of Tetragraptus, though they are more familiar under
the name of Phyllograptus.

This, the first attainment of the scandent position of growth, is an
evolutional stage of considerable significance, and differentiates the upper
part of this first or Dichocraprip fauna from the lower containing the
many-branched graptolites; the 2-branched horizontal Didymograpti
become abundant at the same horizon (zone of D. extensus), so that it
is easy of recognition without any knowledge of graptolite species. The
Phyllograptus stage is short; there is a certain degree of elaboration,
and then further reduction in the number of stipes to two follows on,
and the place of Phyllograptus is gradually taken by Glossograptus, a
graptolite common for the first time in the Llanvirn rocks, and often a
conspicuous element in the faunal assemblages of that age. The struc-
ture of the proximal end of these two graptolites is so peculiar and so
alike that there can be no doubt of their relationship ; moreover, I regard
the septal spines of Glossograptus as possibly representing the last
vestiges of the thece of the third and fourth stipes of Phyllograptus.
Structural resemblances of such a kind may naturally be made out in
the laboratory or museum, but the realisation of the true connection
between them and their proper place in the evolutional line only becomes
obyious when they are seen gradually replacing each other in the field
with all the intermediate stages.

If now simplification in branching be accepted as a line of evolution,
how does it come about that many-branched graptolites are often found
- occurring on the same slabs of rock as those with four or even with

92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

only two branches? Field evidence supplies the answer to this very
natural query. Whilst the earliest graptolite with which we are
acquainted was a pendent form, there very quickly followed other
graptolites in which a horizontal direction of growth replaced the earlier
pendent direction, though both occur side by side in rocks of the same
age; the horizontal growing forms we term Clonograptus, the pendent
Bryograptus. Now it is perfectly obvious from observation in the field
that as regards simplification of branching the same plan of evolution
was followed in both these groups, though there is always a tendency
for development to lag behind and go slower in the pendent line,
whereas development is so rapid in the horizontal line that many Clono-
grapti persist alongside the 8-branched Dichograpti, though when
Dichograpti persist alongside the 4-branched Tetragrapti they are most
commonly those in which a certain amount of simplification has already
taken place, since they are, as a rule, forms with only six or five stipes
instead of eight ; owing, however, to the unequal rate of development in
the two groups there is a characteristic association of pendent 4-branched
graptolites with horizontal 2-branched forms of the type of D. ezxtensus,
whilst horizontal 4-branched forms have become rare.

The apparent anomaly is thus clear when followed out step by step.
This greater rapidity of development in one group seems to indicate that
these horizontal-growing forms were the more successful of the two; and
it is, therefore, perhaps only to be expected that almost all the later
graptolites are developed from ancestors within that group, the excep-
tions being those whose ancestry is at present obscure, but there is no
indication that these arose from any member of the pendent group; I
have so far been utterly unable to find any graptolites in later beds
which seem to be connected with these. If I am right in supposing
that the change in direction of growth of the rhabdosoma was connected
with the protection of the hollow thread-like nema (virgula auctorum),
which is the attachment organ so vitally necessary to the colonial organ-
ism, the forms belonging to the pendent group may be regarded as
unsuccessful because they fail utterly to secure this necessary protec-
tion, and, therefore, the members of this group come entirely to an end
at the top of the Llanvirnian. Within the other group protection is
better achieved, since in many cases at any rate the horizontal-growing
stipes appear to have been plastered on to foreign bodies or suspended
therefrom by short threads, and the nema would, therefore, in most
cases have been short. Within this horizontal group the goal in simpli-
fication would seem to have been reached early in the one-stiped A zygo-
graptus of the Middle Arenig; this type is repeated more than once at
slightly higher horizons, but appears to be in no case a successful form;
individuals are very commonly broken in the region of the sicula, which
is in itself suggestive, and they, like the pendent Didymograpti, appear
to be ‘dead ends.’ The successful one-stiped form is attained much
later by very devious routes through the scandent or climbing grapto-
lites, and in all of them the attachment organ is very perfectly pro-
tected, partly by being buried within the rhabdosoma for the whole of
its initial region, and partly by the development of a special encasing
tube or sheath,

i ig i i a i eel ee ee

C.—GEOLOGY. 93

Practically all the graptolites referred to above, which are the pre-
dominating element in the fauna, are characterised by simple cells—
i.e. at most a reproduction of the embryonic sicula slightly modified in
respect of relative length and breadth—and they follow what I have
called elsewhere the Dichograptus plan of development; they may,
therefore, be regarded as constituting the first or Dichograptid Fauna,
which is pre-eminently characteristic of the rocks of Arenigian or
Llanvirnian age. Without any special knowledge of species or genera,
the horizon of this fauna may be recognised by the presence of branched
graptolites with simple thece, the presence of scandent forms being
indicative of the higher beds.

In all the earlier graptolites, as has been shown, the cell type is
simple, but soon after the two-stiped horizontal Didymograpti have
developed a slight change begins to be apparent in the thece of some
forms; this shows itself in a drawn-out curvature of the cell wall and a
turning in of the apertural margin, which gives a most striking and
characteristic appearance to the cell after compression. _This is first
apparent in the thece in the region of the sicula, and becomes less
conspicuous as the stipe grows in length; for it may be noted at this
point that all progressive development (anagenesis) is first indicated in
the proximal and, therefore, youthful region of the rhabdosoma, and
when retrogression (catagenesis) occurs, it is in this same proximal
region that signs of former elaboration are retained.

Throughout the earlier rocks of Llandilian age the great majority
of the graptolites have cells of this slightly elaborated type and two
stipes only, which are reclined or reflexed in their position of growth ;
but gradually in some forms an increasing degree of curvature of the
walls of the cells becomes apparent, and the incurving of the apertural
region is accompanied by a degree of torsion that after compression
causes a very different appearance according to whether the rhabdosoma
is viewed from the front (obverse) or back (reverse). This is the
Dicellograptus stage, and so distinct is the appearance of this graptolite
from any Didymograptus that it would never be considered related if the
successive stages had not been followed step by step. It may be noted,
too, that whilst this cell elaboration is in progress evolution along other
lines seems to be temporarily arrested, but is resumed when the elabora-
tion has reached its acme, especially towards the attainment of the
scandent position of growth; this is at first only partial, as in Dicrano-
graptus, but is eventually complete, as in the closely related Clima-
cograpti, which are scandent throughout. The relationship of
Climacograptus is clearly with Dicranograptus and Dicellograptus rather
than with Diplograptus, with which up to the present it has been invari-
ably grouped. The only connection it really has with Diplograptus is
that, being a biserial scandent form, it is at a similar evolutional staqe.

Since the simpler type of thecal elaboration is characteristic of the
graptolite Leptoqraptus, the various forms in which this type of theca
is found may suitably be regarded as constituting the second or Lrpto-
GRAPTID Fauna, and its occurrence, whether in simpler or more complex
forms, may be taken as indicating rocks of Llandilian or Caradocian
age. As will be shown later, other features more particularly charac-

’

ees

94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

teristic of the Caradocian will serve readily as a guide to discriminate
between these two, whilst the degree of elaboration shown will afford
some indication as to whether the lower or upper part of the Llandilian
is indicated.

There is no new element definitely to be associated with the third
chapter of the graptolite story, and yet perhaps the opening paragraphs
are as striking as anything in the whole narrative. A feature that
cannot fail to arrest the attention of every field worker is surely that
extraordinary development of large Diplograpti and Climacograpti that
characterises the junction of the Llandilian and Caradocian rocks. So
far as can be determined from field evidence this swarm of Diplograpti,
particularly of Orthograptus type, is due to development along at least
two lines reaching their acme at approximately the same time, and
when these meet the Climacograptus lines the result is bound to be
very striking; moreover, since most of these are clearly highly success-
ful forms, giving origin to numerous varietal modifications, the pre-
dominance of the scandent biserial graptolites is pre-eminently the
distinctive feature of the rocks at this horizon. Hence the various
associated graptolites may be regarded as belonging to the third or
DipnioGRaPtTip Fauna.

In the lower beds belonging to this fauna the complex-celled Dicello-
grapti and Dicranograpti still persist, but the association of the large
Orthograpti is sufficient to differentiate the horizon from the Llandilian.
This is the association characteristic of the Caradocian.

So far as the graptolite faunas are concerned there is obviously a
close connection between the Caradocian and the Ashgillian, the pre-
dominance of the Orthograpti continuing to be a characteristic feature;
in the lower beds regarded as Ashgillian there is some evidence of
retrogression as respects the Dicellograpti and Climacograpti, both
showing a return to the simpler type of cell; the stages of this, how-
ever, have not as yet been completely worked out. The highest beds,
which from the point of view of their graptolites should logically be
grouped with this third fauna, include some at present very generally
grouped with the Silurian. In these Diplograpti (Orthograpti) and
Climacograpti are still predominant, though the Dicellograpti have
disappeared.

The next striking feature is the coming in of Monograptus, or, if
expressed evolutionally, the uniserial (one stiped) scandent graptolite,
a very important and easily recognised evolutional stage. This marks
the successful attainment of the end along two lines of development:
simplification in branching, and change in direction of growth. It is
pre-eminently characteristic of Silurian rocks.

In the earliest graptolites reaching this stage there is nothing new
as respects the cells; all are ‘ old-fashioned ’ types seen previously in
Diplograptus, Climacograptus, Leptograptus, or Dicellograptus; but
with the attainment of the uniserial scandent form the organism seems
to have had its energies set free to follow further trends, these being
in the main in the direction either of lobation or isolation, but they do
not keep quite apart; a certain degree of lobation creeps into the line of
isolation, and a certain amount of isolation is clearly discernible in the

C.—GEOLOGY. 95

lobate line; nevertheless, one or other trend is always the more con-
spicuous and the more definitely followed. In both these lines the
trend continues to the point where, as Lang’ has so ably described it,
‘their exaggeration puts the organism so much out of harmony with its
environment as to cause extinction ’; the lobation is developed till the
aperture of the cell is practically closed (Monog. lobiferus), and isola-
tion is carried to such a pitch that the cells seem readily to have fallen
apart from each other altogether, so extremely slender is the connecting
portion (Rastrites maximus). The hooked variant of the lobate line,
however, fares much better, and can be seen to work steadily up to its
acme (M. priodon), and as steadily decline until the cell-form is seen
to have returned to the point from which it started.

These are the general facts concerning the evolution of the group
as a whole. We may now see the way this works out along a few
particular lines.

1. Bryograptus to Didymog. indentus.

2. Clonograptus to Didymog. hirundo.

3. Monog. cyphus to Monog. tumescens.

In the first of these lines the evolution is purely in the direction of |
simplification in branching, the thece being practically identical
throughout and the pendent position of growth unchanged. Thus we
pass successively from Bryograptus kjerulfi to Tetragraptus pendens
by failure of branching, and thence to the two-branched Didymog.
nanus, which by slight modification seems to pass into the form known
as D. indentus; this is really only a late mutation® of D. nanus. In
the second case there is simplification of branching combined with
change in direction of growth and some increase in the size of the
thecee. The first conspicuous change is the change in position of
growth from pendent to horizontal, resulting in Clonograptus flezilis, a
32-stiped graptolite, thence by gradual stages to Loganograptus logant,
a 16-branched form, and by further reduction in the number of branches
to 12, 11; 10, and 9 an important stage is reached in the well-known
8-branched form Dichograptus octobrachiatus. This passes succes-
sively through what may be termed septad, hexad, and pentad stages
before attaining another important stage, thab of the 4-branched form
Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus, a horizontal form with perfect sym-
metry. It may be noted that the commoner and more widespread
forms are always those in which there is symmetry. Now such a form
as T. quadribrachiatus has two obvious lines of variation: it may con-

_ tinue the process of simplification in branching or it may change its

_ position of growth. It appears to do both, and so two lines diverge

at this point with very far-reaching results.

(a) follows the tendency for change in position of growth, and

_ passing through the reclined forms Tetrag. amii and T. serra leads into

_ that scandent Tetragraptus which we know better as Phyllograptus, the

earliest scandent graptolite, and a very important form indeed; for
* 1923, Lang. ‘Evolution; a Resultant.’ Proc. Geol. Ass., 1923, vol. xxxiv,
11

pe lt.

* Mutation.—This term is used throughout in Waagen’s sense and not it
that of De Vries.

1923 I

96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

simplification in branching follows whereby the stipes are reduced to
two, and an entirely new factor supervening in localisation of thicken-
ing in the graptolite wall, the line diverges in one direction and leads into
the Retiolitide, a quite distinct species-group.

(b) follows the tendency to simplification, and passes into the two-
stiped form Didymog. eatensus, and thence to an unsuccessful one-
stiped graptolite Azygog. eivionicus. The two-stiped form undergoes
also various modifications in the packing of the cells, and passes
through Didymog. nitidus, a very variable graptolite, into D. hirundo,
a more stable form, which is, however, apparently a dead end. In
others of this Didymog. extensus type an actual modification of the cell
structure supervenes as an entirely new factor, so that the cell, instead
of being a simple tube, is gradually bent and twisted and its aperture
turned in. The details of this have yet to be worked out completely,
but the general plan is perfectly clear, and leads first into the Leptograpiz,
and thence into the Dicellograpti, Dicranograpti, and Climacograpti
in turn.

Lastly, we may study the elaboration of the cell as seen in the
second episode, the evolution of the hooked variant of the apertural
lobe. Here, starting from Monog. cyphus, which has the old-fashioned
Dichograptus type of cell, we find the first traces of a hook in the
closely related M. revolutus, and can trace its gradual development in
the proximal region of the rhabdosoma in M. difformis and M. argenteus,
in which, though the hook is well developed proximally, the distal
thece are still simple; gradually the hook-form invades the whole
rhabdosoma (M. clingani and M, sedgwicki), and taking on its most
distinctive features in M. marri, reaches its acme in M. priodon, per-
haps one of the best-known graptolites all over the world. Thereafter
retrogression sets in, the hook becomes less pronounced in M. flemingii
s.s., and a small, highly characteristic variety is seen occurring side
by side with the larger form; this smaller variety gradually gives way
to Monog. colonus, in which only the proximal thece retain-any signs
of their former elaboration, and M. colonus itself is replaced by Monog.
tumescens, where all thece are once more of the unhooked type just
as in Monog. cyphus, though the form of the rhabdosoma of M. colonus
is retained. This is one of the latest graptolites with which we are
acquainted.

Shallow-water Faunas of the Lower Paleozoic.

The case of the shallow-water faunas of Lower Paleozoic age must
now be considered; and here, in spite of a vast amount of work that
has already been accomplished, much remains to be done, but from a
different standpoint and along very different lines. There exists already
a great mass of more or less purely descriptive literature, accompanied
in general by illustrations of varying degrees of merit. All this has a
value of its own; it provides descriptions which aid identification of
fossils, and in many cases gives an excellent idea of the variety of the
brachiopods, trilobites, or corals represented in a certain bed or set of
beds; but, looked at broadly, is not its value to a great extent purely
numerical, giving an idea mainly of the relative abundance of certain

=e —

C.—GEOLOGY. 97

fossils at certain horizons and their relative scarcity at others? Since
such work has too often unfortunately been carried out in the museum
or laboratory by workers unacquainted with the fossils in their natural
environment, it is liable to fail to take note of peculiarities of preserva-
tion and condition that may be significant, and new names have in the
past been sometimes given to the same fossil in different conditions of
preservation, or to other forms which owe their apparent peculiarities
to the deformation of the rocks in which they lie. As is perfectly well
known, the older rocks of this country have almost always suffered
more or less considerably in this respect, though in the case of some
rocks, such as mudstones, it is exceedingly difficult to estimate the
degree of such deformation in hand specimens removed from their
proper surroundings. So, too, the relative sizes of fossils may take on a
totally new aspect when seen in the field. In such a connection we
may note the characters of the Caradocian faunas of Shropshire and
North Wales respectively. Similar fossils from. the two areas differ
so much in size that the existence of small Welsh varieties is inevitably
suggested, until it is realised when the faunas are seen in the field that
the whole Welsh fauna is of smaller size though otherwise very similar,
therefore obviously we are here dealing not with any true varieties but
rather with a whole fauna living under less favourable conditions.

The pity of it is that, in spite of all the labour and skill that has been
expended, we are still left so largely in ignorance of the crucial facts
that in these days we want to know. There is a very real need at the
present time for the co-ordination of these descriptions so far as possible
on genetic lines. The difference between the past and future paleonto-
logical work appears to me to be just this: the older type of work is
too dead, whilst the paleontology of the future must be essentially
alive; it’ must vitalise fossil organisms, and regard them as parts of
once-living’ entities possessing definite ancestors and descendants,
developing along definite lines which are the result partly of internal and
partly of external forces.* The biologist will find his interest in the
degree of relationship between species-group and species-group, or in
the precise relationship between ancestor and descendants within the
species-group, but the value of the work to the geologist will lie rather
in the determination of the definite lines along which evolution takes
place and the horizons at which important and easily recognised evolu-
tional stages are reached.’

It may perhaps be argued that the geological record is so imperfect
that our story can at the best be of little value, because it will be so
incomplete; to that I would reply that such features as have been
sufficiently permanent in any organism to impress themselves upon the
hard parts that are all that remain to us are likely to ‘be those of
enduring significance, and therefore particularly reliable so far as they
go. We may miss detail, but the main facts of the story should be
beyond question. Up to the present time resemblances and differences
existing between certain fossils have often been noticed as points to
render identification. more accurate, but their true significance has too

* Lang, loc. cit.
12

98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

often been missed. Classifications have also been given claiming to
be genetic, but too often all that has been done has been the placing in
the same group or class, forms that have reached a parallel evolutional
stage, and since many of the more conspicuous evolutional stages
appear to be reached at approximately the same time, even though along
different lines, such a classification is chronological rather than bio-
plogical. From the geological standpoint a chronological classification
‘is valuable, but the biological side must not be ignored. Thus we have
seen in the classification of the Graptoloidea, Climacograptus and
Diplograptus are both included in the family of the Diplograptide,
presumably because they are both biserial and have both attained the
scandent position of growth; they have no other connection and appear
to have totally different lines of descent. The same is to a large
extent true of Pompeckj’s classification of the Calymenes.1®° Thus
Pompeckj divides the Calymenes proper into two sub-genera, Pharo-
stoma and Calymene. ‘The forms included under the s.g. Pharostoma
are stated to be characterised by the presence of long genal spines and
the termination of the facial suture at the posterior margin. These
two are closely connected, for the presence of genal spines seems to
inhibit the facial suture coming out at the genal angle as in the s.g.
Calymene; hence if, as Pompeck] himself suggests, the possession of
spines is a primitive character, it carries with it a notable stage in the
development of the facial suture, since until the spines have dis-
appeared the facial suture cannot come out at the genal angle. Hence
the rounding of the angle and the position of the termination of the
facial suture together mark an evolutional stage that is regarded as
characteristic of the s.g. Calymene. He also places Calymenes of the
tristami type in a totally different section from the Calymenes of the
type of C. cambrensis (Calymene s.s.), for he holds that the lobing of
the glabella is so different that ‘relationship is not to be thought of,’
whereas I hope to be able to show that, looked at evolutionally, these
forms may be regarded as belonging to different points along a special
trend line, that of evolution of the glabella lobes, and the appearance
of bifurcation in the glabella furrows upon which he lays such stress
as a feature of importance in classification appears to me to be a neces-
sary stage in the lobal evolution, and therefore only highly developed at
a certain stage.

On the other hand, Calymene caractaci, which he places in the
same group as C. cambrensis, apparently chiefly on the grounds of the
course of the facial suture and number of glabella lobes, does not
appear to me to be so closely related from the genetic point of view,
since theses two differ markedly in other characters that must, I think, he
considered ‘ essential,’ and therefore belong more likely to different
species-groups.

A glance at the table given at the end of his paper will serve to show
how largely this classification is chronological. It is probably true that
the greater number of our fossil ‘ genera’ at the present day are poly-
phyletic, and cut across true lines of evolution, as can be demonstrated

10 1898, Pompeckj, J. F. ‘On Calymene Brongniarti.’ Jahrb. f. Mineral.,
Geol, & Pal., vol. i, p. 187.

C.—GEOLOGY. 99

in the case of the Corals, Trilobites, and Graptolites. The true relation-
ship existing between individual fossils and fossil-groups will probably
only become manifest after searching examination in the field, and
whilst many of the species previously established will no doubt stand,
others will probably be found to be more truly related to certain central
forms as space or time variants (mutations), and may or may not be
worth specific rank. So that the evolutional work that is required
must be carried out primarily in the field, though supplementary work
will have to be carried out in the museum or laboratory ; but the value
of different features can, I believe, be only truly estimated when they
are seen making their first appearance, gradually coming to their acme,
and then dying away to be replaced by others. Thus we may study
in the field all the stages between fossil A and fossil B, whose relation-
ship to A would probably otherwise never have been suspected, so
different do the two extreme types appear. It was indeed truly said
by your President three years ago’ ‘that not until we have linked
species into lineages can we group them into genera, not until we have
unrayelled the strands by which genus is connected with genus can
we draw the limits of families, not until that has been accomplished
can we see how lines of descent diverge or converge so as to warrant the
establishment of orders.’ This is equally applicable to shallow- and
deeper-water faunas alike, but the time and space variants are best
seen in shallow-water faunas, where the variation gradient being spread
out over thicker deposits is less steep than it is in the deeper-water
faunas, where it is often so steep that the time-variants tend to become
absorbed in genera.

The facts just dealt with concern the more purely biological side of
the question, but for the geologist there is more in the evolutional
method of work than this. Bearing in mind that Paleontology fulfils
one of its chief functions as the handmaid or helper of Stratigraphy,
we may ask how far evolutional work will accomplish that object.
The answer is clear and definite. The Lower Paleozoic faunas, as has
already been stated, are essentially Brachiopod-Trilobite faunas
together with Corals where the seas were sufficiently clear to permit of
their growth and development.

As regards the Corals, the kind of work required is that initiated by
Vaughan, and most ably extended by Dixon, Carruthers, Stanley Smith,
and others. Lang?!® has recently performed splendid service in the
cause of evolutional paleontology in putting forward his Doctrine of
Trends, and showing how Carboniferous Corals follow what he terms
Programme Evolution, since coral stocks continually developed along
parallel lines so that different lineages may go through the same
sequence of changes. We may hope that some such trends may be dis-
cernible amongst the corals of Lower Paleozoic age, and Carruthers **
has shown us how best to obtain the knowledge we require. In

11 1920, Bather, F. A. Pres. Address to Section C., Cardiff.

31923, Lang, W. D. ‘Trends in British Carbonif. Corals.’ Proc. Geol.
Ass., vol. xxxiv, pt. 2, p. 120.

#1910, Carruthers, R. G. ‘Evolution of Zaphrentis delanouei.’ Q.J.G.S.,
vol. Ixvi, p. 523, &c.

100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

his most admirable account of the evolution of Zaphrentis delanouei
Carruthers has shown the importance of cutting serial sections, for
the stages seen in the adult of early forms are often characteristic of
adolescence in forms at higher horizons. Thus in Z. delanouei evolu-
tionary stages are confined to the shape of the cardinal fossula and
the length of the major septa, and different time-variants (mutations,
Waagen) show striking differences between these.

In Z. delanouei s.s., which occurs in the Cementstone Group
300-400 ft. below the base of the Fells Sandstone, the transverse
sections show septa meeting in the centre of the corallum and a large
cardinal fossula expanded towards the inner end; together with this
form there occur others which agree with Z. delanouei in their adolescent
stage, but in the adult a stage is reached in which the walls of the
fossula become parallel and finally show a tendency to constriction at
the inner end. Since this mutation marks an important evolutional
change as regards the fossula, it is termed Z. parallela.

At a considerably higher horizon, in the Lower Limestone Group,
the cutting of sections of a fresh mutation foreshadowed in the Cement-
stones reveals no trace remaining of what may be termed the delanouei
stage; but the parallela stage is distinct, and with growth the inner end
of the fossula narrows, whilst in sections of the adult stage the con-
striction becomes very pronounced, the septa being, however, still joined
together in the centre of the corallum. Again, on account of a further
change in the character of the fossula this mutation may be distin-
guished as Z. constricta. Within the Lower Limestone Group are also
found forms representing a further change; these do not pass through
the parallela stage, but start at the constricta stage, and on further
growth the septa shorten until they separate at the centre of the
corallum. This again is an important and easily recognised stage
(Z. disjuncta), and this mutation is said by Carruthers to show amplexoid
characters (=amplexoid trend, Lang). The geological value of these
changes lies mainly in the fact that they are continuous in time and
characteristic of different stratigraphical horizons, apart from whether
they are progressive or retrogressive, but it is clear that careful dis-
crimination may at times have to be made between these.

At the mere thought of coping with the many evolutional problems
connected with the Lower Paleozoic Brachiopods the heart of the most
vigorous paleontologist amongst us might well fail him. I suppose
that there is no single worker on the Lower Paleozoic rocks who has
not at one time or another realised the stupendous nature of the problem
that awaits us here. We Have, I feel sure, all been conscious of the
fact that many of the so-called long-ranged species are not really quite
the same, but show certain differences at different horizons with which
in the course of our field-work we have become familiar and can recog-
nise, so that for the sake of our own convenience we have often given
them the field-names; but when we try to analyse these differences
paleontologically each character seems so slight as to be trivial and
unimportant ; nevertheless, in bulk they may be important and the two
extremes quite distinct. This may well be illustrated by the case of
the Dalmanellas as represented by the species D. elegantula, a name

C.—GEOLOGY. 101

which as at present used does not define a species but an important
species-group, the earliest members of which occurring low down in the
Ordovician are certainly markediy different even as regards the
external ribbing of the shell from those occurring at the base of the
Silurian, though all have been included in the same diagnosis. Up to
the present all we can do in naming such a fossil is to term it, in despair,
Dalmanella of elegantula type.

This work can and must be tackled group by group; it will demand
an amount of careful field-collecting, in the first place, of specimens
showing internal as well as external characters, for these last are by
no means to be neglected, since they often reflect changes in internal
characters, though they do not do so invariably ; hence it will be neces-
sary to distinguish between those possessing different internal and
external characters and those which differing in their internal
characters yet may have the same external characters.

Field paleontology, when it has a definite aim of this sort in view,
becomes a fascinating and absorbing study, and a fresh zest is given to
the somewhat monotonous task of mere fossil-collecting.

Kiaer, in his classic memoir on the Silurian Rocks of the Christiania
Basin," has indicated to us how this work may be carried on. He was
fortunate in that the rocks in the area where he did his work are but
slightly inclined and are affected only by faulting and not by folding,
so that there can be no doubt as to the order of succession of the various
beds. To a large extent Kiaer has applied the principles of evolutional
paleontology with great success ; he notes the appearance of early muta-
tions and their gradual evolution at successive horizons up to and beyond
the development of the typical form. Thus he utilises the evolution of
the septum in the Pentamerids of the species group of P. oblongus; he
notes how this septum is short in Barrandella undata, the earliest of the
true Pentamerids, and shows how this gives place upward to another
mutation, P. borealis, with a septum which, though rather longer, is
nevertheless shorter than that of P. oblongus s.s., which is next
developed. At a still definitely higher horizon is found P. gotlandicus,
probably to be regarded as a late mutation of P. oblongus, in which
the septum is still further developed.

Having arranged these Pentamerids in order, Kiaer is able to throw
light on the development and relation of the Stricklandinias, among
which there has been and stili is much confusion in this country. He
shows that Stricklandinia lens makes its appearance in the Christiania
Basin with the borealis mutation of P. oblongus, and is followed at a
slightly higher horizon by a mutation of its own, whereas S. lirata does
not occur till the horizon of the galeatus mutation.

For purposes of correlation, however, Kiaer notes the position of
the beds containing the fossils in relation to the deeper-water Graptolite
Shales. Thus, for example, beneath his zone of Barrandella undata he
recognises the zone of Cl. normalis, the equivalent of our British zone
of Diplog. acwminatus, and some little way above his zone of Penta-
merus oblongus he notes the graptolite zone of Cyrtog. Murchisoni,

141908, Kiaer, J. ‘Das Obersilur im Kristianiagebiet.’

102 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and taking that rightly as representing the base of the Wenlock, he
concludes that all the zones of ‘shelly’ beds in between must belong
to the Valentian.

In the course of work amongst the rocks of Ordovician age I have
been struck with distinct evolutional trends amongst some of the com-
moner trilobites, the stages of which have proved valuable as indices
of age. In illustration of this I may quote two:—

1. The evolution of the glabella lobes in a species-group of Calymene.

2. The relation between the segments of the side lobes and axis in
the pygidia of Encrinurus.

With regard to the first of these, the evolution of the lobe, two things
have to be noted :—

(a) The number of the lobes.

(b) Their character—i.e. the degree of rounding off into a real lobe.

The number of lobes appears to increase steadily in proceeding from
older to newer beds; thus, for example, Silurian forms in general have
more lobes than those of Ordovician age. The actual character of the
lobe is to a large extent determined by the state of development, both
as regards depth and breadth, of the curved glabella furrows. Primarily
the lobation seems to arise as the necessary result of the development
of such curvature; the glabella furrows appear to develop gradually in
width from above downwards, and at the same time increase in breadth;
the lobation of the basal lobe, for example, is complete when the down-
ward curvature of the first furrow cuts into the upward curvature of
ihe neck furrow, and the furrow is deep and broad throughout its extent ;
but before this stage is attained there are many degrees in the develop-
ment from an incompletely developed furrow through one where, though
more or less complete, it is still so shallow for a part of its course that
the lobe is not cut off, but appears definitely attached to the rest of the
glabella by a ‘ neck’ or bridge.

The Calymenide appear in part at any rate to be derived from the
Olenide, and starting with the earliest known Calymene occurring in
our British rocks of Ordovician age we may note that the general form
of the glabella is still definitely oval or parabolic in outline, the neck
furrow incompletely developed, and the two glabella furrows fairly
deep but short and oblique, giving more the idea of indenting the general
outline of the glabella than of cutting off a lobe; the outer edge of the
segment too, being still that of the outline of the glabella, is straight;
there is, moreover, at this stage no very conspicuous difference in size
between the two segments, though there is a tendency for the posterior
pair to be slightly the larger of the two. This is the form known as
Calymene tristani, which is characteristic of the trilobitic beds imme-
diately below and associated with the graptolite zone of Didymog.
extensus. At a slightly higher horizon, that of the graptolite zone of
Didymog. hirundo, there is found a similar form hardly to be distin-
guished from C. tristani except for the greater distinction of the basal
lobe and the curvature of the second pair of glabella furrows (C. parvi-
frons), whilst another type with a less parabolic glabella more truncated
in front makes its first appearance (var. Murchisoni). Within the
Ordovician up to this horizon, despite various descriptions hinting the

C.—GEOLOGY. 103

contrary, I have never observed any Calymene which had any indication
of more than two glabella segments, but in higher beds the equivalents
of the zone of Didymog. bifidus there may be detected in some forms,
otherwise very closely allied to the C. parvifrons of the horizon of the
zone of Didymog. hirundo, the occasional presence of a third glabella
furrow ; this is, however, always obscure, and its presence is generally
accompanied by. a very definite difference in size in the glabella seg-
ments, largely induced by the increase in breadth of the furrows, the
’ basal segment at this stage being very decidedly the larger. By the
time the horizon of the Llandilo Limestone is reached (zone of Didymog.
Murchisoni) this third lobe, minute though it be, is constant and per-
fectly definite in form; also the proximal pair of glabella furrows are
now curved to such an extent that the basal segment may be regarded
as constituting a pair of basal lobes; the curved furrow is, however, so
shallow for part of its course in the middle that there is still a distinct
‘neck of attachment.’ The so-called bifurcation of the glabella furrow,
to which much importance has been attached in classification, seems to
arise as a direct consequence of this tendency to lobation; the lobation
of the basal segment is not, however, yet complete; there is still
some angularity on the outer side, the oval parabolic outline of the
glabella as a whole being still obvious.

This stage, the development of a basal lobe and the presence of a
third segment, seems to mark a definite advance and to constitute a
very successful form, for this Calymene, C. cambrensis, is very stable
in its characters in many different kinds of sediment, and has a wide
distribution in space. In our own country it is one of the few trilobites
found in both the Scotch and Welsh types of the Llandilian.

All the Calymenes hitherto dealt with are characterised by the
possession of a broad frontal region, which has, however, steadily
decreased in size relatively to the glabella, but at this horizon there
appear to be two forms to both of which the name C. cambrensis seems
to have been applied, in one of which there is a far more conspicuous
diminution in breadth of the margin than in the other, though both
are at the same stage of evolution as respects their glabella lobes.
This suggests that the marginal development is going to be a factor
of importance, and from what happens later it is clear that this is the
case, and when it takes place some retardation may be expected on the
older line, either as regards the number of the lobes or as regards the
perfection of their development.

In Calymene planimarginata, the common Caradocian form which
retains its broad margin, further development on the old lines takes
place; the third lobe, though still small, becomes more definite; there
is marked disparity in size as between segments 1 and 2, both of which
are distinctly more lobate in character, having lost to a large extent the
angularity of the outer margin, though those specimens characteristic of
the lower part of the Caradocian (alternata beds) are distinctly less per-
fectly lobate than those of the higher chasmops beds; in the lower beds
the third segment, though definite, is not lobate at all, whilst at the
higher horizon it is lobate but with a definite neck of attachment. Both
these forms of C. planimarginata are characteristic of the horizon of the

104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

graptolite zone of Dicranog. clingani, but others also occur showing
that the line has begun to branch in various directions leading into
different species-groups, the details of which have still to be worked
out. It is, however, clear, I think, that the state of evolution of the
glabella lobes may afford a valuable index of the age of the beds in
which it occurs.

Further investigation is required to show how far this parallel
evolution takes place at approximately the same time in remote areas
in different species-groups. So far as I have investigated the problem
it would appear to be broadly true in the case of the deeper-water

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1. Calymene tristani. 3. Calymene parvifrons mut.
(Zone of D. extensus.) (Zone of D. bifidus.)
2. Calymene parvifrons. 4. Calymene cambrensis.
(Zone of D. hirundo.) (Zone of D. Murchisoni.)

5. Calymene planimarginata.

(Zone of Dicranog. clingani.)
faunas, for so far as the graptolites are concerned the outstanding stages
in evolution are reached in the majority of cases at approximately the
same time along many different routes, though there are some excep-
tions, for which the reason is, however, usually obvious. So far as
the Calymenes are concerned it is of great interest to note that those
of Bohemia, though constituting a different species-group from those
found in this country, undergo a precisely similar evolution at the
same time; thus C. arago of D.1. y shows a. very slight and faint indi-
cation of a third lobe with a straight outer edge to the glabella, a pre-
cisely similar stage to that of C. parvifrons in this country; so, too,

C.—GEOLOGY. 105

C. parvula of D.d.2. is at a stage of development similar to that of
C. cambrensis, as is also C. pulchra at the same horizon in yet another
species-group.

It would, I believe, be perfectly possible to adopt a classification of
the whole of the Ordovician based upon the evolutional sequence of the
various Calymenes.

All these facts illustrate that even from the purely paleontological
standpoint much field knowledge is essential if a right conception is to
be gained of the true relationship existing between species and species.
It appears to be also in the highest degree necessary to view a succes-
sion of forms like those I have quoted in order to determine what
characters are really of importance in the recognition of species.

Also, when lines of evolution result in the attainment of successful
forms, not only do these appear to be numerically abundant, but it
would seem also that they have a wide distribution in space.

So much, then, for a possible line of evolution in the head of a,
trilobite; we may next consider the evolution of the pygidium in a
very different form. An interesting study of this appears to be afforded |
by the species-group of Encrinurus punctatus. As is well known in
the commonest type of this trilobite occurring in the Wenlock Lime-
stone of Dudley, the axis of the pygidium’ shows a far greater degree
of segmentation than do the lateral lobes; this may be interpreted
as implying that numerous segments have been incorporated into the
tail with a greater degree of fusion in the side lobes than in the axis.
The species, moreover, is commonly recognised as possessing two well-
marked varieties, var. arenaceus and var. calcareus, differing chiefly
from each other in the possession of a definite mucro in var. calcareus,
which has been interpreted as being connected with the supply of
calcareous matter available, but, viewing the species-group as a whole,
it would seem rather to be the natural culmination or acme of a definite
tendency to fusion which is developed with increasing persistence
throughout its history in time so far as I have been able to study it.

The earliest forms which I have examined are to be found at the
horizon of the Stinchar Limestone in Scotland and the Derfel Lime-
stone of Wales. The graptolite shales associated with these limestones
prove their age to be Llandilian. At this horizon the relation between
the segments of the axis and the lateral lobes of the pygidium never
exceeds 2:1, whilst in the two earliest segments the proportion is very
clearly 1:1; in the Caradocian the proportion rises to 3:1 for segments
5 and 6, whilst the Ashgillian forms (multisegmentatus stage) show
2:1 for segment 2 and still 3:1 for segments 5 and 6. In the Lower
Valentian segment 4 has risen to 3:1, whilst in the Upper
Valentian it is commonly the third, though there is some variation,
since in some cases all that it is possible to make out is that there are
five segments in the axis compared with two (2 and 3) in the lateral
lobes. In the succeeding Wenlock forms the culmination is reached with
3:1 for segments 2-5, and 4:1 at the sixth; in all these later forms
there is a tendency to fusion of the later lateral lobes with the axis,
partially, as in the case of 7 and 8, throughout their length, and more
definitely at their terminations.

106

FUSION OF SEGMENTS OF TAIL IN SPECIES-GROUP OF ENCRINURUS PUNCTATUS.

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

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C.—GEOLOGY. 107

The species-group of Hncrinurus sexcostatus would appear to show
a similar evolutional stage at similar horizons, though in this the
line at present is incomplete.

Facts such as I have enumerated in the different groups of fossils
with which we have mainly to deal in Lower Paleozoic rocks show
that, if viewed from the evolutional standpoint, even the most meagre
fauna may yet in many cases be made to yield a considerable amount
of information as to the age of the beds containing it, for the evolu-
tional succession, once established, can be applied anywhere, and the
explanation of any apparent anomalies will be more correctly sought
in the mutual relations of the rocks than in the faunas they contain.

Moreover, as regards the varying shallow-water faunas, even those
which have a generally similar aspect may be shown definitely to be
of different ages when one as a whole contains fossils at a different
stage of evolution from the other, and the apparent similarity, so
striking upon superficial examination, will then be regarded as deter-
mined by physical conditions and not by contemporaneity. Working
on lines such as these we shall be enabled to visualise more definitely
the conditions which governed the distribution of the different faunas
in the remote past, and thereby acquire a more accurate conception of
the changes in physical geography that must have taken place with the
progress of time.

MODERN ZOOLOGY:

SOME OF ITS DEVELOPMENTS AND ITS
BEARINGS ON HUMAN WELFARE.

ADDRESS TO SECTION D (ZOOLOGY) BY

PROFESSOR J. H. ASHWORTH, D.S8c., F.B.5.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Zootoey has far outgrown its early boundaries when it could be defined
simply as a part of natural history, and at no period has its growth
been more rapid or more productive in results of scientific and ‘practical
importance than in the interval since our last meeting in this city.
It is however impossible, even if time permitted, for any one observer
to survey the many lines of activity in zoology or to record its contri-
butions to knowledge in this fruitful period. I have thought it might
be profitable to endeavour to take in retrospective glance the broad out-
lines of development of zoology during the last two or three decades,
and then to limit our further consideration more especially to some of
the relations of zoology to human welfare. The period under review
has witnessed a growth of our knowledge of the living organism of the
same order of importance as the progress in our knowledge of the atom.
Never have investigators probed so deeply or with so much insight into
the fundamental problems of the living animal; the means for observa-
tion and recording have become more delicate, and technique of all
kinds more perfect, so that we can perceive details of structure and
follow manifestations of activity of the organism which escaped our
predecessors.

At the time cf the last Liverpool Meeting and for some few years
previously, a distrust of the morphological method as applied to the
study of evolution had beer expressed by a number of zoologists. At
that meeting Professor MacBride put forward an able defence of morpho-
logy while recognising that the morphological method had its limita-
tions, which must be observed if the conclusions are to rest on safe
ground. Through undue zeal of some of its devotees morphology had
been pushed too far on arid and unproductive lines, and rash speculation
based on unsound morphology brought discredit on this branch of our
science. It is now fully recognised that the observed resemblances
between animals are due, some of them to genetic relationships, and
others to convergent evolution, and therefore that the conclusions
drawn from the study of morphology are to be interpreted with the
greatest circumspection. There are some groups of animals, e.g. the
earthworms, in regard to the evolutionary history of which we can
never hope to receive help from paleontology ; we must perforce make
the best use we can of the morphological method applied, be it under-
stood, with wide knowledge and deep insight. That careful systematic
work, coupled with the skilful application of sound morphological

was

D.—ZOOLOGY. 109

principles, is capable of yielding results of specific and general import-
ance is well illustrated by the researches of Michaelsen and of Stephen-
son on Indian Oligochetes; these authors have been able to trace the
lines of evolution of the members of the family Megascolecide so com-
pletely that we know their history as well as we know that of the
Equide. Again, to take an example from a different category, the fine
morphological work on the cell and on the nucleus and its chromosomes
which we owe to Hertwig, Flemming, Boveri, van Beneden, Wilson
and others, made possible the modern researches and conceptions in
regard to inheritance and sex. The danger that morphology will be
pushed to excess is long past; the peril seems to me to be rather in the
opposite direction, i.e. that some of our students before passing on to
research receive too little of that training and discipline in exact morpho-
logy by which alone they can be brought to appreciate how the com-
ponents of the living organism are related to one another and to those
of allied species or genera, and how they afford, with proper handling,
many data for the evolutionist. I plead, therefore, for the retention
of a sound and adequate basis of morphology in our zoological courses.

No one who engages in the study of morphological problems can
proceed far without meeting questions which stimulate enquiry of a
physiological nature, and, where means are available, resort to experi-
mental procedure is the natural mode of arriving at the answer. That
morphology is detrimental to or excludes experimental or physiological
methods is entirely contrary to present day experience, and indeed the
fruitfulness of the combination of morphology and physiology could
have been amply illustrated any time during the last eighty years simply
by reference to the work of Johannes Miller. The structure of an
crganism must be known before its co-ordinated movements can be
adequately appreciated—morphology must be the forerunner of
physiology.

Another of the basal supports of our science an appreciation of
which, or better still a training in some branch of which, we must
encourage is the systematic or taxonomic aspect. The student or
graduate who is proceeding to specialise in experimental zoology or in
genetics particularly requires a sound appreciation of the fact that the
accurate determination of the genus and species under investigation is
@ primary requisite for all critical work—it-is’ part of the fundamental
data of the experiment and is essential, if for nothing else, to permit
subsequent observers to repeat and perhaps to extend any given series
of observations. Moreover, the systematic position of an animal is an
expression of the final summary of its morphology and ‘its genetic
relationships, and it is from such summaries that we lave to attempt
in many cases—as, for example, in the Oligochetes already cited—to
discover in a restricted group or order the probable course of evolution,
though the method of evolution may not be ascertainable. From these
summaries prepared by systematists issue problems for the experimental
evolutionist and the geneticist. As Mr. Bateson has pointed out, it is
from the systematist who has never lost the longing for the truth
about evolution that the’ raw materials for genetical researches are to

_ be drawn, and the separation of the laboratory men from the systematists

imperils the work and the outlook of both.

110 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Among the notable features of zoological activity during the last
twenty-five years the amount of work on the physiology of organisms
other than mammals must attract early notice in any general survey of
the period. Eighty years ago Johannes Miiler’s physiological work
was largely from the comparative standpoint, but for some years after
his death the comparative method fell into disuse, and the science of
physiology was concerned chiefly with the mode of action of the organs
of man or of animals closely related to man, the results of which have
been of outstanding importance from their bearing on medicine. Interest
in the more general applications of physiology was revived by Claude
Bernard (‘ Legons sur les phénoménes de la vie,’ 1878), and the appear-
ance of Max Verworn’s ‘ General Physiology,’ in 1894, was in no incon-
siderable measure responsible for the rapid extension of physiological
methods of enquiry to the lower organisms—a development which has
led to advances of fundamental importance. Many marine and fresh-
water organisms lend themselves more readily than the higher verte-
brates to experimentation on the effects of alterations in the surround-
ing medium, on changes in metabolic activity, on the problems of
fertilisation and early development, on the chemistry of growth and
decline, and to the direct observation of the functioning of the individual
organs and of the effects thereon of different kinds of stimuli. The
study of these phenomena has greatly modified our interpretation of
the responses of animals and has given a new impetus to the investiga-
tion of the biology and habits of animals, i.e. animal behaviour. This
line of work—represented in the past by notable contributions such as
those by Darwin on earthworms, and by Lubbock on ants, bees and
wasps—has assumed during the last two or three decades a more
intensive form, and has afforded a more adequate idea of the living
organism as a working entity, and revealed the delicacy of balance
which exists between structure, activity and environment. This closer
correlation of form, function and reaction is of the greatest value to
the teacher of zoology, enabling him to emphasise in his teaching that
for the adequate appreciation of animal structure a clear insight into
the activities of the organism as a living thing is essential.

The penetrating light of modern investigation is being directed into
the organism from its earliest stage. During the summer of 1897
Morgan discovered that the eggs of sea-urchins when placed in a two
per cent. solution of sodium chloride in sea-water and then transferred
to ordinary sea-water would undergo cleavage and give rise to larvx,
and J. Loeb’s investigations in this field are familiar to all students of
zoology. Artificial parthenogenesis is not restricted to the eggs of
invertebrates, for Loeb and others have shown that the eggs of frogs
may be made to develop by pricking them with a needle, and from such
eggs frogs have been reared until they were fourteen months old. The
application of the methods of microdissection to the eggs of sea-urchins
is leading to a fuller knowledge of the constitution of the egg, of the
method of penetration of the sperm, and of the nuclear and cytoplasmic
phenomena accompanying maturation and fertilisation, and will no
doubt be pursued with the object of arriving at a still closer analysis of
the details of fertilisation.

D.—ZOOLOGY. 111

The desire for more minute examination of developing embryos led
to the more careful study of the egg-cleavage, so that in cases suitable
for this method of investigation each blastomere and its products were
followed throughout development, and thus the individual share of the
blastomere in the cellular genesis of the various parts of the body was
traced. This method had been introduced by Whitman in his thesis
on Clepsine (1878), but it was not until after the classical papers of
Boveri on Ascaris (1892) and E. B. Wilson on Nereis (1892) that it
came into extensive use. About the time of our last meeting here, and
for the next twelve or fifteen years, elaborate studies on cell-lineage
formed a feature of zoological literature and afforded precise evidence
on the mode of origin of the organs and tissues, especially of worms,
molluscs and ascidians. A further result of the intensive study of egg-
cleavage has been to bring into prominence the distinction between
‘soma-cells and germ-cells, which in some animals is recognisable at a
very early stage, e.g. in Miastor at the eight-cell stage. The evidence
from this and other animals exhibiting early segregation of germ-cells
supports the view that there is a germ-path and a continuity of germ-
ceils, but the advocates of this view are constrained to admit there are
many cases in which up to the present an indication of the early differen-
tiation of the germ-cells has not been forthcoming on investigation, and
that the principle cannot be held to be generally established.

A cognate line of progress which, during the period under review,
has issued from the intensive study of the egg and its development is
experimental embryology—devoted to the experimental investigation of
the physical and chemical conditions which underlie the transformation
of the egg into embryo and adult. By altering first one and then another
condition our knowledge of development has been greatly extended, by
artificial separation of the blastomeres the power of adjustment and
regulation during development has been investigated, and by further
exploration of the nature of the egg the presence of substances fore-
shadowing the relative proportions and positions of future organs has
been revealed in certain cases, the most striking of which is the ege of
the Ascidian Cynthia partita (Conklin, 1905). Still further intensive
study of the cytoplasm and nuclei of eggs and cleavage stages is required
to throw light on the many problems which remain unsolved in this
domain.

Progress in investigation of the egg has been paralleled by increase
in our knowledge of the germ-cells, especially during their maturation
into eggs and sperms, the utmost refinements of technique and observa-
tion having been brought to bear on these and on other cells. During
the last thirty years, and especially during the latter half of this period,
cytology has developed so rapidly that it has become one of the most
important branches of modern biology. One of the landmarks in its
progress was the appearance, at the end of 1896. of E. B. Wilson’s
book on ‘ The Cell,’ and we look forward with great expectations to the
new edition which, it is understood, is in an advanced stage of prepara-
tion. A great stimulus to cytological work resulted from the rediscoverv
in 1900 of the principle of heredity published by Mendel in 1865. which
showed that a relatively simple conception was sufficient to explain the

1923 K

112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

method of inheritance in the examples chosen for his experiments, for
in 1902 Sutton pointed out that an application of the facts then known
as to the behaviour of the chromosomes would provide an explanation
of the observed facts of Mendelian inheritance. In the same year
McClung suggested that the accessory chromosome in the male germ-
cells is a sex-determinant. These two papers may be taken as the
starting-point of that vast series of researches which have gone far
toward the elucidation of two of the great problems of biology—the
structural basis of heredity and the nuclear mechanism correlated with
sex. The evidence put forward by Morgan and his colleagues, resulting
from their work on Drosophila, would seem to permit little possibility
of doubt that factors or genes are carried in the chromosomes of the
gametes, and that the behaviour of the chromosomes during maturation
of the germ-cells and in fertilisation offers a valid explanation of the
mode of inheritance of characters. The solution of this great riddle of
biology has been arrived at through persistent observation and experi-
ment and by critical analysis of the results from the point of view of
the morphologist, the systematist, the cytologist, and the geneticist.
Among other important developments in the period, reference may
be made to the great activity in investigation of the finer structure of
the nerve-cell and its processes. By 1891 the general anatomical rela-
tions of nerve-cells and nerve-fibres had been cleared up largely through
the brilliant work of Golgi and Cajal on the brain and spinal cord, and
of von Lenhossék, Retzius, and others on the nervous system of annelids
and other invertebrates. In these latter had been recognised the receptor
cells, the motor or effector cells, and intermediary or internunciary
cells interpolated betw2en the receptors and effectors. In June 1891
Waldeyer put forward the neurone theory, the essence of which is that
the nerve-cells are independent and that the processes of one cell, though
coming into contiguous relation and interlacing with those of another
cell, do not pass over into continuity. He founded his views partly
upon evidence from embryological researches by His, but chiefly on
results obtained from Golgi preparations and from anatomical investiga-
tions by Cajal. The neurone theory aroused sharp controversy, and
this stimulus turned many acute observers—zoologists and histologists—
to the intimate study of the nerve-cell. First among the able opponents
of the theory was Apathy, whose well-known paper, published in 1897,
on the conducting element of the nervous system and its topographical
relations to the cells, first made known to us the presence of the neuro-
fibrillar network in the body of the nerve-cell and the neurofibrils in the
cell-processes. Apathy held that the neurofibrillar system formed a
continuous network in the central nervous system, and he propounded
a new theory of the constitution of the latter, and was supported in
his opposition to the neurone theory by Bethe. Nissl, and others. The
controversy swung to and fro for some years, but the neurone theory—
with certain modifications—seems now to have established itself as a
working doctrine. The theory first enunciated as the result of morpho-
logical studies receives support from the experimental proof of a slight
arrest of the nerve-impulse at the synapse between two neurones, which
causes a measurable delay in the transmission. The latest development

D.—ZOOLOGY. 118

in morphological work on nerve-elements is the investigation of the
neuromotor system in the Protozoa. Sharp (1914), Yocom (1918), and
Taylor (1920), working in Kofoid’s laboratory, have examined this
mechanism in the ciliates Diplodinium and Euplotes and they describe
and figure a mass—the neuromotorium—from which fibrils pass to the
motor organs, to the sensory lip, and, in Diplodinium, to a ring round
the cesophagus. The function of the apparatus is apparently not sup-
porting or contractile, but conducting. By the application of the
finest methods of micro-dissection specimens of Euplotes have been
operated upon while they were observed under an oil-immersion objec-
tive. Severance of the fibres destroyed co-ordination between the mem-
branelles and the cirri, but other incisions of similar extent made
without injuring the fibrillar apparatus did not impair co-ordination,
and experiments on Paramecium by Rees (1922) have yielded similar
results. While the experimental evidence is as yet less conclusive than
the morphological, it supports the latter in the view that the fibrils have
a conducting, co-ordinating function. Progress in our knowledge of
the nervous system is but one of many lines of advance in our under-
standing of the correlation and regulation of the component parts of
the animal organism.

The ciliate protozoa have been the subject during the last twenty
years of a series of investigations of great interest, conducted with the
purpose of ascertaining whether decline and death depend on inherent
factors or on external conditions. While these researches have been
in progress we have come to realise more fully that ciliates are by no
means simple cells, and that some of them are organisms of highly
complex structure. Twenty years ago Calkins succeeded in maintaining
a strain of Paramecium for twenty-three months, during which there
were 742 successive divisions or generations, but the strain, which had
exhibited signs of depression at intervals of about three months, finally
died out, apparently from exhaustion. From this work, and the pre-
vious work of Maupas and Hertwig, the opinion became general that
ciliates are able to pass through only a limited number of divisions,
after which the animals weaken, become abnormal and die, and it was
believed that the only way by which death could be averted was by a
process of mating or conjugation involving an interchange of nuclear
material between the two conjugants and resulting in a complete re-
organisation of the nuclear apparatus. Jennings has shown that con-
jugation is not necessarily beneficial, that the ex-conjugants vary greatly
in vitality and reproductive power, and that in most cases the division
rate is less than before conjugation. Woodruff has since May 1, 1907,

kept under constant conditions in culture a race of Paramecium.
During the sixteen years there have been some ten thousand generations,
_ and there seems no likelihood of or reason for the death of the race so

long as proper conditions are maintained. The’ possibility of conjuga-

_ tion has been precluded by isolation of the products of division in the
- main line of the culture, and the conclusion is justifiable that conjuga-

tion is not necessary for the continued life of the organism. The
criticism that Woodruff’s stock might be a non-conjugating race wag
_ met by placing the Paramecia, left over from the direct line of culture

K 2

114 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

under other conditions when conjugation was found to occur. Later
observations by Erdmann and Woodruff show that a reorganisation of
the nuclear apparatus of Paramecium takes place about every twenty-
five to thirty days (forty to fifty generations). This process, termed
endomixis (in contrast to amphimixis), seems to be a normal event in
the several races of Paramecium which Erdmann and Woodruff have
examined, and it is proved to coincide with the low points or depressions
in the rhythm exhibited by Paramecium. The occurrence of endomixis
raises the question, to which at present there is no answer, as to whether
this process is necessary for the continued health of the nuclear
apparatus and of the cytoplasm of Paramecium.

Enriques (1916) maintained a ciliate—Glauwcoma pyriformis—
through 2,701 generations without conjugation, and almost certainly
without endomixis. From a single ‘ wild’ specimen he raised a large
number and found that conjugating pairs were abundant, so that the
objection could not be made that this was a non-conjugating race.
Enriques then began his culture with one individual, and examined the
descendants morning and evening, removing each time a specimen for
the succeeding culture. The number of divisions per day varied from
nine to thirteen, and as there was no break in the regularity and rapidity
of division, and no sort of depression, Enriques concluded that neither
endomixis nor conjugation could have occurred, for these processes take
some time and would have considerably reduced the rate of division.
These results, especially if they are confirmed by cytological study of
preserved examples, show that for Glaucoma neither conjugation nor
endomixis is necessary for continued healthy existence. Hartmann’s
observations (1917) on the flagellate Hudorina elegans extend the con-
clusion to another class of Protozoa. He followed this flagellate through
550 generations in two and a-half years. The mode of reproduction
was purely asexual, and there was no depression and no nuclear re-
organisation other than that following fission. The evidence seems
sufficient to confirm the view that certain Protozoa, if kept under favour-
able conditions, can maintain their vigour and divide indefinitely, without
either amphimixis or endomixis.

Child (1915) states as the result of his experiments that the rate of
metabolism is highest in Paramecium and other ciliates immediately
after fission—‘ in other words, after fission the animals are physiolo-
gically younger than before fission.’ This view, that rejuvenescence
occurs with each fission, derives support from the observations of
Enriques and Hartmann, for no other process was found to be taking
place and vet the vigour of their organisms in culture was unimpaired.
Tf, then, fission is sufficiently frequent—that is, if the conditions for
growth remain favourable—the protoplasm maintains its vigour. Tf
through changes in the external conditions the division rate falls, the
rejuvenescence at each fission may not be sufficient to balance the
deterioration taking place between the less frequent divisions. Under
such conditions endomixis or conjugation may occur with beneficial
results in some cases, but if these processes are precluded there is
annarently nothine to arrest the progressive decline or ‘ ageing ’ ohserved
hv Manpas and others. But further investigations are reanired on the
physiology and morphology of decline in the protozoan individual.

D.—ZOOLOGY. 115

The culture of tissues outside the body is throwing new light on the
conditions requisite for the multiplication and differentiation of cells.
R. G. Harrison (1907) was the first to devise a successful method by
which the growth of somatic cells in culture could be followed under
the microscope, and he was able to demonstrate the outgrowth of nerve-
fibres from the central nervous tissue of the frog. Burrows (1911),
after modifying the technique, cultivated nervous tissue, heart-cells,
and mesenchymatous tissue of the chick in blood-plasma and embryonic
extract, and this method has become a well-established means of
investigation of cell-growth, tissues from the dog, cat, rat, guinea-pig,
and man having been successfully grown. One strain of connective
tissue-cells (fibroblasts) from the chick has been maintained in culture
in vigorous condition for more than ten years, that is for probably some
years longer than would have been the normal length of life of the cells
in the fowl. Heart-cells may be grown generation after generation—all
traces of the original fragment of tissue having disappeared—the cells
forming a thin, rapidly growing, pulsating sheet. Drew (1922) has
recently used instead of coagulated plasma a fluid medium containing
calcium salts in a colloidal condition, and has obtained successful growth
of various tissues from the mouse. He finds that epithelial cells when
growing alone remain undifferentiated, but on the addition of connective
tissue differentiation soon sets in, squamous epithelium producing
keratin, mammary epithelium giving rise to acinous branching struc-
tures, and when heart-cells grow in proximity to connective tissue they
exhibit typical myofibrillz, but if the heart-cells grow apart from the
connective tissue they form spindle-shaped cells without myofibrille.
This study of the conditions which determine the growth and differentia-
tion of cells is only at the beginning, but it is evident that a new line
of investigation of great promise has been opened up which should lead
also to a knowledge of the factors which determine slowing down of the
division-rate and the cessation of division, and finally the complete
decline of the cell.

For many lines of work in modern zoology biochemical methods are
obviously essential, and the applications of physics to biology are like-
wise highly important—e.g. in studies of the form and development of
organisms and of skeletal structures. Without entering into the vexed
question as to whether all responses to stimuli are capable of explanation
in terms of chemistry and physics, it is very evident that modern develop-
ments have led to the increasing application of chemical and physical
methods to biological investigation, and consequently to a closer union
between biology, chemistry, and physics. It is clear also that the
association of zoology with medicine is in more than one respect
becoming progressively closer—comparative anatomy and embryology,
cytology, neurology, genetics, entomology, and parasitology, all have
their bearing on human welfare.

Some Bearings of Zoology on Human Welfare.

The bearings of zoology on human welfare—as illustrated by the
relation of insects, protozoa and helminthes to the spread or causation
of disease in man—have become increasingly evident in these later years

116 SECTIONAL “ADDRESSES.

and ,ge familiar to every student of zoology or of medicine. At the
tims, of our last meeting in Liverpool, insects were suspected of acting
as transmitters of certain pathogenic organisms to man, but these cases
were few and in no single instance had the life-cycle of the organism
been worked out and the mode of its transmission from insect to man
ascertained. The late Sir Patrick Manson, working in Amoy, had shown
(1878) that the larvee of Filaria bancrofti undergo growth and metamor-
phosis in mosquitoes, but the mode of transference of the metamorphosed
larvee was not determined until 1900. Nearly two years after our last
meeting here the part played by the mosquito as host and transmitter of
the parasite of malaria was made known by Ross. In addition to these
two cases at least eight important examples can now be cited of arthro-
pods proved to act as carriers of pathogenic organisms to man—e.g.
Stegomyia—yellow fever, Phlebotomus—sandfly fever, tsetse-flies—
sleeping sickness, Conorhinus—South American trypanosomiasis
(Chagas’ Disease), Chrysops—Filaria (Loa) loa, the flea Xenopsylla
cheopis—plague, the body-louse—trench fever, relapsing fever and
typhus, and the tick Ornithodorus—African relapsing fever. In select-
ing examples for brief consideration I propose to deal very shortly with
malaria, although it is the most important of the insect-carried diseases,
because the essential relations between the Anopheles mosquito and the
parasite are known to everyone here. There still remain lacunz in our
knowledge of the malarial organisms. Ross and Thomson (1910),
working in this city, showed that asexual forms of the parasite tend to
persist in small numbers between relapses, and suggested that infection
is maintained by these asexual stages. Such explanation elucidates
those cases in which relapses occur after short intervals, but the recur-
rence of the attacks of fever after long intervals can only be explained
by assuming that the parasites lie dormant in the body—and we know
neither in what part of the body nor in what stage or condition they
persist. Nevertheless, the cardinal points about the organism are estab-
lished, and preventive measures and methods of attack based on a
knowledge of the habits and bionomics of Anopheles have been fruitful
in beneficial results in many parts of the world.

If we desire an illustration of the vast difference to human well-being
between knowing and not knowing how a disease-germ is transmitted
to man, we may turn to the case of yellow fever. When this pestilence
came from the unknown, and no one knew how to check it, its appear-
ance in a community gave rise to extreme despair and in many cases
was the signal for wholesale migration of those inhabitants who could
leave the place. But with the discovery that Stegomyia was the trans-
mitting agent all this was changed. The municipality or district took
steps to organise its preventive defences against a now tangible enemy,
and the successful issue of these efforts, with the consequent great saving
of life and reduction of human suffering in the Southern United States,
in Panama, in Havana and in other places, is common knowledge.
It is a striking fact that during 1922 Central America, the West Indies,
and all but one country of South America were free from yellow fever,
which has ravaged these regions for nearly two centuries. The cam-
paign against Stegomyia is resulting, as a recent Rockefeller report

D.—ZOOLOGY. 117

points out, in yellow fever being restricted to rapidly diminishing,
isolated areas, and this disease seems to be one which by persistent effort
can be brought completely under control.

In 1895 Bruce went to Zululand to investigate the tsetse-fly disease
which had made large tracts of Africa uninhabitable for stock, and
near the end of the same year he issued his preliminary report in which
he showed that the disease was not caused by some poison elaborated
by the fly—as had been formerly believed—but was due to a minute
flagellate organism, a trypanosome, conveyed from affected to healthy
animals by a tsetse-fly (Glossina morsitans). In 1901 Forde noticed
an active organism in the blood of an Englishman in Gambia suffering
from irregularly intermittent fever, and Dutton (1902) recognised it
as a trypanosome, which he named T'rypanosoma gambiense. In 1902
Castellani found trypanosomes in the blood and cerebro-spinal fluid of
natives with sleeping sickness in Uganda, and suggested that the
trypanosome was the causal organism of the disease. The Sleeping
Sickness Commission (Bruce and his colleagues) confirmed this view,
and showed that a tsetse-fly, Glossina palpalis, was the transmitter.
Since then much has been learnt regarding the multiplication of the
trypansosome in the fly and its transference to man. For some years
this was believed to take place by the direct method, but in 1908 Kleine
demonstrated ‘ cyclical’ transmission, and this was shown later to be
the principal means of transference of T. gambiense. In 1916
Stephens and Fantham described from an Englishman, who had
become infected in Rhodesia, a trypanosome which, from its morpho-
logical characters and greater virulence, they regarded as a new species,
T. rhodesiense, and its ‘cyclical’ transmission by Glossina morsitans
was proved by Kinghorn and Yorke. Recent reports by Duke
and Swynnerton (1923) of investigations in Tanganyika Territory suggest
that direct rather than cyclical transmission by a new species of Glossina
is there mainly responsible for the spread of a trypanosome of the
rhodesiense type. The impossibility of distinguishing by their morpho-
logy what are considered to be different species of trypanosomes, and
the difficulty of attacking the fly, are handicaps to progress in the
campaign against sleeping sickness, which presents some of the most
subtle problems in present day entomology and protozoology. Here
also we come upon perplexing conditions due apparently to the different
virulence of separate strains of the same species of trypanosome and
the varying tolerance of individual hosts—on which subjects much
further work is required.

The relation of fleas to plague provides one of the best and most
recent illustrations of the necessity for careful work on the systematics
and on the structure and bionomics of insects concerned in carrying
pathogenic organisms. Plague was introduced into Bombay in autumn
1896, and during the next two years extended over the greater part
of Bombay Presidency and was carried to distant provinces. The Indian
Government requested that a Commission should be sent out to investi-
gate the conditions. This Commission, which visited India in 1898-99,
came to the conclusion (1901) that rats spread plague and that infection
of man took place through the skin, but—and this is amazing to us at

118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the present day—‘ that suctorial insects do not come under consideration
in connection with the spread of plague.’ Further observations, how-
ever, soon showed this conclusion to be erroneous. Liston found in
Bombay in 1903 that the common rat-flea was Pulex (Xenopsylla)
cheopis, that it was present in houses in which rats had died of plague
and in which some of the residents had become infected, that the plague-
bacillus could multiply in the stomach of this flea, and that the flea would
—in the absence of its usual host—attack man. These observations
pointed to the importance of this flea in the dissemination of plague,
and the Second Plague Commission, which was appointed and began
work in 1905, definitely proved that Xenopsylla cheopis is the trans-
mitter of the plague-organism from rat to rat and from rat to man.
The mechanism of transmission of the plague-bacillus was worked out
by Bacot and Martin in 1913. They showed that in a proportion of
these fleas fed on the blood of septicemic mice the plague-bacilli
multiply in the proventriculus—which is provided with chitinous pro-
cesses that act as a valve to prevent regurgitation of the blood from
the stomach—and a mass of bacilli is formed which blocks the proven-
triculus and may extend forward into the cesophagus. Fleas in this
condition are not prevented from sucking blood because the pharynx
is the suctorial organ, but their attempts to obtain blood result only in
distending the cesophagus. The blood drawn into the cesophagus is
repeatedly forced backwards into contact with the mass of plague-bacilli
and on the sucking action ceasing some of this infected blood is expelled
into the wound. The transmission of plague depends on the peculiar
structure of the proventriculus of the flea and on the extent to which,
in certain examples, the plague-bacilli multiply in the proventriculus.
Such “blocked ’ fleas being unable to take blood into the stomach are
in a starved condition, and make repeated attempts to feed, and hence
are particularly dangerous.

Until 1913 it was believed that all the fleas of the genus Xenopsylla
found’on rats in India belonged to one species—cheopis, but in that
year L. F. Hirst reported that the rat-flea of Colombo was X. astia,
which had been taken off rats in Rangoon, and described by N. C. Roth-.
schild in 1911. Hirst ascertained that this flea did not readily bite man’
if the temperature were above 80°F. A collection of 788 fleas from’
Madras City proved to consist entirely of X. astia, and Hirst suggested
that the explanation of the immunity of Madras and Colombo from
plague was the relative inefficiency of X. astia as a transmitter. Crage’s
examination (1921, 1923) of 23,657 fleas obtained from rats in all parts
of India shows that they include three species of Xenopsylla—namely,
cheopis, astia, and brasiliensis. This last species is common in the’
central and northern uplands of peninsular India, but its’ bionomics
have not yet been investigated: Cheopis is the predominant species
in the plague areas, while astia is the common flea in those areas which
have ‘remained free from plague or have suffered only lightly. In
Madras City, for instance, during the twenty-one years, 1897-1917,'
plague has occurred in twenty of these years, but the average mortality ..
was only .013 per thousand—that is, though the infection has been.
repeatedly introduced there, it failed each time to set up an epidemic.

D.—ZOOLOGY. 119

The significance of an imported case of plague depends in large measure
on the local species of Xenopsylla. Hirst has made numerous attempts
during the plague season in Colombo to transmit plague by means of
X. astia from rat to rat, but with negative results, and X. aslia was
never found to behave like a ‘ blocked’ cheopis.

The distinction of X. cheopis from X. astia is not an entomological
refinement with purely systematic significance, but corresponds with a
different relation of the species to the epidemiology of plague, and
hence becomes a factor of great practical importance. If through these
researches it has become possible by examination of the rat-fleas of a
locality to estimate accurately its liability to plague, anti-plague
measures may henceforward be restricted to those areas in which plague
is likely to occur, i.e. where cheopis is the predominant flea. Thus a
great economy of effort and of expenditure and a higher degree of
efficiency may be achieved; in fact, the problem of the prevention or
reduction of plague may be brought from unwieldy to practicable pro-
portions. When it is remembered that since we last met in Liverpool
some ten and a quarter millions of people have died in India from
plague we have a more than sufficient index of the importance of a
precise knowledge of the systematics, structure, and bionomics of the
insect-carrier of Bacillus pestis.

Another of the outstanding features of the period under review has
been the extensive and intensive study of the Protozoa. ‘The structure
and the bionomics and life-history of these organisms have been inyesti-
gated with the help of the finest developments of modern technique.
It is fitting here to record our acknowledgment to two staining methods—
Heidenkain’s iron-hematoxylin and the Romanowsky stain (including
Giemsa’s and Leishman’s modifications), which have added greatly to
our technica] resources.

There is time to refer only to certain of the Protozoa which directly
affect man. Twenty years ago our knowledge of the few species of
Protozoa recorded from the human alimentary canal was defective in
two important respects—the systematic characters and the biology of
the species—so there was much confusion. Subsequent investigations,
and especiaily those of the last ten years (by Wenyon, Dobell, and
others), have cleared up most of the doubtful points, but owing to the
difficulties of size and the paucity of characters available it is by no
means easy in practice to distinguish certain of the species. Of the
seventeen species now known to occur in the intestine of man
Entame ba histolytica has received particular attention. This organism
lives ‘as a tissue parasite in the wall of the large intestine, where, as a
rule, the damage caused is counterbalanced by the host’s regenerative
processes. But when the destruction outstrips the regeneration intes-
tinal disturbance results, leading to the condition known as ameebic
dysentery. The specific characters and the processes of reproduction
and encystment of H. histolytica are now well ascertained, and it is
realised that in the majority of cases the host is healthy, acting as a
‘carrier’ dangerous to himself, for he may develop into a case
of acute dysentery, and to the community—for he is passing in his

120 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

feeces the encysted stage which is capable of infecting other persons.
Whether an infected person will suffer from dysentery or act as a
healthy ‘ carrier ’ apparently depends upon his own susceptibility rather
than on any difference in the virulence of different strains of the
Entamceba.

In all work with human Entamcebe there is need for critical deter-
mination of the species, for, in addition to H. histolytica, a closely
similar species, E. coli, is a common inhabitant of the intestine. This,
however, is a harmless commensal, feeding on bacteria and fragments
derived from the host’s food. The distinction between the two species
rests chiefly upon the characters of the nuclei and of the mature cyst—
quadrinucleate in histolytica and octonucleate in coli—and considerable
care and technical skill are requisite in many cases before a diagnosis
can be given. And yet this distinction is definitely necessary in prac-
tice, for indiscriminate treatment of persons with Entamceba is indefen-
sible ; treatment is only for those with histolytica; it is useless for those
with coli, and subjects them needlessly to an unpleasant experience.

A notable result of recent work is the proof that the more common
intestinal Protozoa, formerly believed to be restricted to warmer coun-
tries, occur indigenously in Britain. ‘his was first established by a
group of observers in this city, and has been confirmed and extended by
subsequent workers. There is good reason for believing that in this
country the incidence of infection with EH. histolytica is about 7 to
10 per cent., and with H. coli about five times as great (Dobell).

The discovery (1903) of Leishmania, the organism of kala azar and
of oriental sore, added another to the list of important human patho-
genic Protozoa, but the mode of transmission of this flagellate has not
yet been proved. é

Of the problems presented by the parasitic worms the most momen-
tous are those associated with Ancylostoma and its near relative
Necator, which are prevalent in countries lying between 369N. and
30° S.—a zone which contains more than half the population of the
earth. Heavy infection with Ancylostoma or with Necator produces
severe anemia, and reduces the host’s physical and mental efficiency
to a serious degree. Until 1898 there was no suggestion that infection
was acquired in any other way than by the mouth, but in that year Looss
published his first communication on the entry of the larve of Ancy-
lostoma through the skin, and in 1903 gave‘an account of further experi-
ments which proved that dermal infection ‘resulted in the presence
of worms in the intestine. At the meeting of this Association in Cam-
bridge in 1904 Looss demonstrated to a small company his microscopical
preparations showing the path of migration of the larve. His investiga-
tions served to establish the importance of the skin as the chief portal
of entry of Ancylostoma, and pointed the way to effective methods of
prevention against infection.

__ Another notable advance in helminthology is the working out of the
life-cycle of Schistosoma (Bilharzia)—a genus of trematode worms
causing much suffering in Egypt and elsewhere in Africa, as well as

D.—ZOOLOGY. 121

in Japan and other parts of the world. These worms when mature live
in pairs, a male and female, in the veins of the lower part of the
abdomen, especially in the wall of the bladder and of the rectum. The
eggs, laid in large numbers by the female worm, provoke inflammatory
changes, and cause rupture of the veins of the organs invaded. Until
about ten years ago the life-history of Schistosoma had been traced
only as far as the hatching of the ciliated larva or miracidium which
takes place shortly after the egg reaches water, but it was then shown
that this larva is not, as had been held by Looss, the stage which infects
man. Miyairi and Suzuki (1913) found that the miracidium of Schisto-
soma japonicum entered a fresh-water snail which acted as the inter-
mediate host, and Leiper and Atkinson (1915) confirmed and extended
this observation, and showed that the miracidia develop into sporocysts
in which cercarie are formed. We owe chiefly to Leiper’s work (1915-
1916) our knowledge of the life-history and method of entry into man
of the Egyptian species of Schistosoma. He demonstrated that two
species of this parasite occur in Egypt, and established that the miracidia
develop in different intermediate hosts: those of S. mansoni enter
Planorbis, while those of S. hematobium penetrate into Bullinus—the
molluscs being abundant in the irrigation canals. The sporocysts
produce cercariz, which escape from the snails and gather near the
surface of the water, and experiments with young mice and rats showed
that the cercarie attach themselves to the skin, enter, and reach the
portal system from which they travel to the veins of the lower part
of the abdomen. Infection of man takes place chiefly through the skin
when bathing or washing in water containing the cercariez, though infec-
tion may also occur through drinking such water. And so, at last,
these worms which have troubled Egypt for at least thirty centuries
have become known in all their stages, and measures for preventing
infection—which were of great use during the War—have been devised,
and curative treatment introduced.

Other recent helminthological researches deserve consideration did
time permit, for there has been much excellent work on the life-history
of the liver-flukes and lung-flukes of man, and the life-cycle of the
tape-worm, Dibothriocephalus latus, was worked out in 1916-17.
Mention should also be made of Stewart’s investigations (1916-19) on
the life-history of the large round-worm Ascaris lumbricoides, during
which he made the important discovery that the larve on hatching in
the intestine penetrate into the wall and are carried in the blood to the
liver, and thence through the heart to the lungs, where they escape from
the blood-vessels, causing injury to the lungs. The larve, now about
ten times their original size, migrate by way of the trachea and pharynx
to the intestine, where they grow to maturity. During last year Dr.
and Mrs. Connal have worked out the life-history of Filaria (Loa) loa
in two species of the Tabanid fly, Chrysops, and investigations on other
Filarias have thrown light on their structure, but there is still need for
further researches on the conditions governing the remarkable periodi-
city exhibited by the larve of some species (e.g. F. bancrofti; in some
parts of the world the larve of this species are, however, non-periodic).
The period under review has obviously been one of great activity in

122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

research on helminthes, and fertile in measures tending to reduce the
risks of infection.

Insects, protozoa and helminthes not only inflict direct injury on
man; they also diminish his material welfare by impairing the health
or causing the death of his horses, cattle and sheep, by destroying food
crops during growth and, in the case of insects, by devouring the
harvested grain. The measure of control which man can gain over
insects, ticks and endoparasitic organisms, will determine largely the
extent to which he can use and develop the natural resources of the
rich tropical and sub-tropical zone of the earth.

Other applications of zoology to human well-being cannot be dealt
with owing to lack of time, but mention should be made of two—the
researches on sea-fisheries problems which have formed an important
branch of the zoological work of this country for forty years, and the
studies on genetics which made possible an explanation of the mode of
inheritance of a particular blood-group, and of some of the defects
(e.g. colour-blindness and hemophilia) and malformations which appear
in the human race.

Maintenance of Correlation between the Branches of Zoology.

The rapid expansion of zoology has brought in its train the difficulty
of maintaining the connection between its different branches. There is
not only the mental divergence of the different workers, due to the
necessity for specialised reading, thinking, and technique, but also in
some cases spatial separation, and this seems to me to be the factor
of greater importance. When’ modern developments of the subject
necessitate expansion of the staff and of the working facilities it has
not infrequently happened that one of the newer branches of the subject
has been placed in another building, and unless careful arrangements
are devised the dissociation tends to become more marked, so that, to
take Mr. Bateson’s example, the geneticist becomes separated from
his colleague whose interests are more largely in systematic zoology,
to their mutual disadvantage.

The actively growing physiological branch of zoology will, it is
to be hoped, remain an‘integral part of our subject; for while there
are close and friendly relations between the Department of Zoology and
the Department of Physiology, the latter is mainly concerned with the
training of medical students, and the teaching and research are conse-
quently, in most Universities, chiefly directed to the physiology of
mammals and of the frog. The medical physiologist cannot be expected
to prosecute researches on the invertebrates—these are as a rule too far
removed from the matters with which he is especially concerned—and
yet many of the invertebrates have’ been found 'to be especially favour-
able for the investigation of fundamental problems which the morpho-
logist with physiological leanings and training seems most fitted to
undertake. It is a good sign that more students of zoology are including
a course of physiology in their curriculum for the science degree, thus
preparing themselves for work in comparative morphology and’ com-'
parative physiology. | eat

D.—ZOOLOGY. 123

The association of zoology with physiology, and with botany through
common problems in genetics and in general physiology, is becoming
more intimate. The association of zoology with medicine has become
of such importance, especially in regard to its parasitological and its
physiological aspects, that clearly collaboration with our medical col-
leagues in teaching and in research should be as close as possible.

Zoology in the Medical Curriculum.

Much has been written and said in recent years about the place of
zoology in the medical curriculum, and the present seems a favourable
opportunity to reconsider the position and to ascertain the general

opinion of the body of zoologists on this important matter. There can,
I think, be no doubt that the value of zoology taught in its modern
‘significance is being increasingly appreciated by the majority of our
medical colleagues. The minority consists of two categories—those
who have not taken the trouble to inform themselves of the subjects
nowadays brought to the notice of medical students in the course of
zoology, and who apparently consider that this is the one subject in the
curriculum in which there has been no evolution since they were them-
selves first-year students thirty or forty years ago, and those who feel
that the increasing pressure in the curriculum calls for curtailment of
the teaching in what they believe to be the less important subjects. The
first of these categories need not detain us, for an opinion based on
obsolete data is valueless. Those in the second category merit serious
consideration, but I believe even many of these would change their views
if they knew more fully what is being done in the modern course of
zoology to give the medical student a broad, scientific outlook. yen
if the course on zoology were cut out the time would not be wholly
gained for other work, because many of the subjects now dealt with
in the course would require consideration in the teaching of anatomy
and physiology. The attention of the medical student is nowadays
directed in his course of zoology not so much to the study of details of
‘types’ as to the principles which certain chosen animals serve to
illustrate. A reasonable knowledge of structure is obviously requisite
before the working together of the parts can be understood, and before
general principles can be profitably discussed. The student at that
early stage of his education must have concrete examples to enable
him to grasp the functions of organs, development, ideas as to the
relationships of animals, heredity, evolution, and so on, and his work
in the laboratory should give him the opportunity of observing for
himself the important structural points on which the principles are
based. The practical work cannot be limited to what the student can
do for himself, for at this stage of his training there are many things
which he ought to see but which are beyond his technical powers to
prepare for himself, so that a good series of demonstration objects is
necessary, care being taken that the student not only sees the specimens
but appreciates their significance. © As the time given to zoology is
limited, the examples for study and the principles to be illustrated are
to. be carefully chosen, for the course in zoology is not only a discipline

124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

but should give basal knowledge of value in the subsequent years of
study; and, moreover, if the student can see that his zoological work
bears on his later studies he will take much more interest in it. It is
important, therefore, that the pomts of contact of his present with his
future work should be successively indicated.

The details of the course of zoology for the first-year medical student
will vary in the hands of different teachers, and it is well that they
should be to some extent elastic.. In a minimum course will be included
the consideration of two or three protozoa, a ccelenterate, an annelid,
an arthropod—and especially the features in which it presents advance
as compared with an annelid, an elasmobranch fish, and a frog, the
primitive features of the fish being emphasised, and the chief systems of
organs of both vertebrates compared with each other and with those of
amammal. The functions of the principal organs of all these examples
will be dealt with so far as they can be understood from the account of
structure—this latter being sufficient to illustrate the principles involved,
care being taken not to over-elaborate structural details. Man’s place
in nature should be considered either in the course of zoology or in
that of anatomy. Other opportunities occur during the course in
anatomy, and still more in physiology, for reference to the conditions
in lower animals, and if more use could be made of these opportunities
the linkage between zoology and the second-year subjects would become
much more perfect, and would help in doing away with the water-
tight compartments into which the average student considers his early
medical education to be divided.

The course in zoology should be planned so as to give the student a
wide outlook on structure and function, adaptation and environment,
some knowledge of the germ-cells and their maturation, of fertilisation,
growth, regulation, regeneration, decline and death, and an introduction
to evolution, heredity and genetics—in general, it should aim at afford-
ing a broad conception of the activities and modifications of the organism
as a living thing, and should educate the student to manipulate, to
observe and record, and to exercise his judgment in matters of inference
and of theory.

While some reference may be made in the first-year course to insects
and parasitic organisms to indicate the relationship between zoology and
pathology and public health, it has seemed to me for some years that
the real instruction in entomology and parasitology should be given in
the later part of the third or early in the fourth year along with the
course in bactericlogy. The first-year student, although keenly inter-
ested in the direct applications of zoology to medicine, is not competent
at that early stage of his career to obtain full advantage from studies
on parasites. In most Universities a certain amount of time is already
set aside in the third year for the study of protozoa, and of helminthes
and their eggs, and I have suggested to some of my colleagues in Edin-
burgh that the teaching on these subjects in the first and in the third
year should be brought together in the latter year and remodelled to
form a short course of lectures, demonstrations, and practical work to
cover the essentials required for general practice in this country. By
this time the student is much better fitted to appreciate the bearings of

D.—ZOOLOGY. 125

‘this work. I am also inclined to the opinion that a short course of
‘six or eight lectures—on which attendance might be voluntary—on
heredity and genetics would be of value in the fourth year to the good
student who has a little time at his disposal.

__ I should be glad if my colleagues would give the Section the benefit
of their views on the first-year course of zoology for medical students,
_and on the provision of a course on entomology and parasitology about

THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION OF
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

ADDRESS TO SECTION E (GEOGRAPHY) BY

VAUGHAN CORNISH, D.Sc.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Part I.—The Position which has been occupied.

Tur British Empire, although situated in every continent, with shores
on all the oceans, is seen to have a definite geographical position when
we consider the ports of call which unite its lands and the naval stations
which guard the communications. During the growth of the Empire
eastward and westward from Great Britain, numerous harbours were
held at different times, those retained being a selection unrivalled by
the ports of any other State in commercial and strategic position. Our
many oceanic islands give us, moreover, an important advantage in the
selection of maritime stations for aircraft.

The naval station of Bermuda, well withdrawn from aerial attack,
has a central position in the great western embayment of North
America intermediate between the ocean routes which connect
Great Britain with Canada and the West Indies. No foreign ports
flank the route between Canada and the west coast of Great Britain.
At the western gateway of the South Atlantic we have excellent harbour-
age in the Falkland Isles. Malta, the capital of our Fleet in the
Mediterranean, has a commanding position at the Straits which connect
the eastern and western basins, and the naval station at Gibraltar helps
to ensure the junction of the Home and Mediterranean Fleet and to
protect the Cape route. Our status in the Sudan, the vulnerable fron-
tier of Egypt, is still maintained, and the British army which is kept
in Egypt as garrison of the Suez Canal ensures our use of this gateway
as long as we can navigate the Mediterranean. If that navigation be
interrupted we can still oppose the seizure of the Isthmus, for we are
able to send reinforcements by way of the Red Sea. East of Egypt
the British island of Perim stands in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb,
and the garrisoned fuelling station of Aden provides the necessary
port of call on the routes to Bombay and Colombo. Colombo, in the
Crown Colony of Ceylon, is at the parting of the ways for Australia
and the furthest parts of our Asiatic possessions, and Singapore stands at
the narrow gateway of the shortest route between India and the Far East.

E.—GROGRAPHY. 127

The Cape route to India and Australasia is improved by British
ports of call in Sierra Leone, St. Helena, and Mauritius, and is more
effectively dominated from British South Africa than at first appears,
for although there is open sea to the south there are no useful harbours
in the Antarctic continent, and on the African coasts the harbours are
under British control for a thousand miles from Cape Town.

Oi the six great foreign Powers the French alone are posted on the
flank of both routes between Great Britain and the Indian Ocean, and
no Great Power has its home territory on that ocean, or railway con-
nection thereto from its home territory.

Thus the principal lands of the British Empire—Canada, the British
Isles, South Africa, India, and Australasia—have good communications
with one another across the Atlantic and Indian Oceans both in peace
and war.

The conditions of strategic communication across the North Pacific,
on the contrary, are adverse to us, owing mainly to the circumstance
that we opened up British Columbia across the prairies and by the coast-
ing voyage. Had our colonising route been across the Pacific, the
Hawaiian Islands, which were first brought into touch with the Western
world by the ships of the Royal Navy, would have been a British settle-
ment and one of our first-class naval stations. As things happened,
however, these islands were first needed by the Americans, and now
form the essential western outpost of the United States Navy. Between
them and British Columbia the ocean is empty of islands, and Fanning
Island, south-west of Hawaii, with the adjacent small coral islands in
our possession, are no adequate substitute, even apart from overshadow-
ing by a first-class naval station in the neighbourhood. Thus there is
no good strategic communication between Australasia and Canada across
the North Pacific. In this connection it must be remembered that
cousinship does not relieve the American Government from the obliga-
tions which international law imposes upon neutrals. It was not until
three years after the outbreak of the Great War that America could
offer us any facilities in the harbour of Honolulu which were not equally
open to Germans. It must also be noticed that.we have no control of
the Panama route between New Zealand and Great Britian.

Turning to the question of communication between British Columbia
and India, it is important to realise that the Pacific coasts of North
America and Asia are in a direct line with one another, forming part
of a Great Circle, so that there is no short cut across the ocean, as the
map misleadingly suggests. Thus the course hetween Vancouver and
Hong Kong is not only very long, but also closely flanked by the home
ports of Japan and many outlying Japanese islands, so that its security
in time of war depends upon the attitude of the Japanese.

When, therefore, we differentiate the routes on which we have well-
placed naval stations and recruiting bases from those dominated by the
ports of some other Great Power, we see that the lands of the Empire are
united by the Atlantic and Indian Oceans and strategically separated
by the North Pacific. Thus the form in which the Mercator map is
usually drawn by British cartographers with Canada in the upper left
and Australasia in the lower right corner is a good representation of our

1923 h

128 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

maritime Empire. It shows the lands as connected by the Atlantic
and the Indian but not by the Pacific Ocean; Great Britain, the naval
and military headquarters of the Empire, on the central meridian; and
Port Said and Cape Town as connecting positions between the western
and eastern parts of the Empire. i 2d ;

Upon this map a symmetrical distribution of our lands is
revealed when a Great Circle is drawn connecting Halifax in Nova
Scotia, the eastern terminal port.of the Canadian Pacific Railway,
with Fremantle, the western terminal port. of the Australian railway
system. ‘This truly direct line, twisted on Mercator’s map into the
form of the letter S, extends just half-way round the meridians but is
somewhat shorter than the semi-circumference of the globe, the differ-
ence Of latitude between Halifax, N.S., and Fremantle being less than
ninety degrees. ‘The line passes through Lower Egypt close to the Suez
Canal following the general direction of the Main Track of the Empire,
which is the steaming route from Canada to Great Britain, and thence
by the Suez Canal to India and Australia. At one end of the line lies
the Canadian Doiinion, and at the other Australasia, to the north
the British Isles, and to the south the Union’ of South Africa,
the chief homes of the British nation. Our coloured peoples are also
distributed symmetrically about the line, India being on the east, the
Crown Colonies and the Protectorates of Africa on the west, so that it
is the axis of symmetry of the Empire. Not far from its middle point
is the Isthmus of Suez, where our direct line of sea communication is
crossed by the only continuous route for the international railways
which will connect our Indian and African possessions, and adjacent to
the Isthmus is the central station of our airways.

Such is the form and position of the British Empire, regarded as a
maritime organisation, which in fact it is.

The Empire thus mapped has an Intermediate Position among the
commercial, national, religious, and racial communities of the world
such as is occupied by no other State. The ocean routes must always
be the Link between the two great land areas of the world, and in the
present state of land communication provide the connection between
the numerous independent systems of continental railways. The chief
of these systems is based on the ports of Continental Europe, of which
the greatest communicate with the ocean, and therefore with other rail-
way systems, by way of the English Channel. Thus the island of Great
Britain is intermediate between the principal termini of the European
railways and the other railway systems. Its harbourage is unequalled
by that of any country of Continental Europe, and its supply of ship-
building material and coal exceptionally good. Thus the physical
characters of the island accord with its position on the commercial map,
and the Metropolitan British in their Intermediate Position have become
the chief common carriers of international commerce. Much of this
profitable business used to be in the hands of smaller European States,
whose commerce eventually suffered from their inability to defend them-
selves against more powerful neighbours. Our merchant shipping is
protected by the Royal Navy, but owing to the recent development of
fighting aircraft, ships of war can no longer protect the island itself,

E.—GEOGRAPHY, 129

and since the close of the recent war this citadel of the Empire, the
home of two-thirds of the white population, has been more exposed to
attack from the Continent than at any previous time during the last eight
hundred years.

The Suez Canal, where we have the principal control, is the gateway
between the railway termini of Europe, the greatest manufacturing
centre of the world, and those of the monsoon region of Asia, the greatest
centre of population. It is also on the shortest route between the rail-
ways of North America and India.

The commercial and strategic importance of Singapore as an Inter-
mediate Position between India and the Far East is enhanced by the
circumstance that railway communication between them is debarred by
the greatest mountain system in the world.

Hong Kong, at the chief gateway of Southern China, is typical of
British maritime stations both in its Intermediate Position and in the
facilities provided for the ships of other nations, which swell the vast
tonnage entered and cleared at the port.

How far-reaching is the effect of our Intermediate Position is re-
vealed by the important but little recognised fact that it is the British
naval stations which would, if available, provide America with the
best line for reinforcement of the Philippines, the Achilles’ heel of the
Republic. The distance of Manila from the naval shipbuilding yards of
the United States is almost exactly the same by Suez and Panama, but
the Pacific connection has never been good owing to the great distance
between stations, and is now worse than before the Great War on
account of the island mandates acquired by the Japanese. The relation
of Port Said and Singapore to America and the Philippines is only one of
many cases in which our position is intermediate between the home and
Colonial possessions of a white nation. Thus the important French
possession of Indo-China has to be reached from France either by way
of the Suez Canal where we maintain a garrison, or by rounding the
Cape where we have a national recruiting base, as well as a station of
the Royal Navy. The true significance of our Intermediate Position
has, however, been generally missed owing to a one-sided interpretation
of strategical geography. An intermediate station, particularly a naval
station, has commonly been regarded as a blocking position, a Barrier
where freedom of movement can be interfered with. The historical fact
is, however, that the harbours of the British Empire have also been a
Link between nations. In the Great War the British Empire was the
Link of the Allied and Associated Powers, and its geographical position
is unequalled for making a benevolent alliance effective or checkmating
the action of an alliance formed with a sinister purpose.

The British Empire provides in Canada the one Link between the
European and American divisions of the white race, for public opinion
in the United States adheres to the view that the New World, in the
sense of North and South America, should be shut off and sheltered
from the evils of a bad Old Europe.

Tn Tropical Australia the British, in the exercise of their discretion,
have set up a Barrier between the white and coloured races. Australia
3s a land almost empty of aboriginals, which has for the most part

L 2

130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

a climate in which British children thrive and develop true to type.
In the great basin of the Murray River and its confluents, not far
from the huge superficial deposit of brown coal in South Victoria,
is a combination of fertile soil, forcing sun, water for irrigation and
cheap electric power transmitted from the coal-field. This favoured
region, the ‘ Heart of Australia,’ as it has been called, with a population
of “only three million, is equal in size to France, Italy, and Germany
combined, which have a population of more than one hundred and thirty
million. The problem of Australian settlement is, however, complicated
by the circumstance that the northern coast- lands lie in the Tropics,

and have a climate which makes field work very arduous to white men.

It is, moreover, uncertain if British families would continue true to
ancestral type in this climate. If, however, settiers from the neighbour-
ing monsoon lands of Asia be admitted, whose descendants would rapidly
increase, it would be impossible to maintain a colour line between
Tropical and Temperate Australia, and the rough labour of the Common-
wealth would in time be done by coloured people. The fact that this
labour is cheap would result in the employment of a great number of
coolies instead of the use of machinery, and Australia might become a
land of coloured workmen and white overseers. Circumstances, there-
fore, forced the Australians to decide whether their tropical belt should
be a Link or a Barrier between white and coloured labour. The decision
to erect a Barrier was taken early, and has been consistently maintained.

The strategic responsibility of the decision is seen to be very great When
we look into the future and reflect on the facts of population.

Of the 1,650 million people in the world, the whites number about
500 and the coloured 1,150. The former are mainly grouped on the two
sides of the North Atlantic Ocean; of the latter, the greater part, about
800 million, are in the monsoon region of Asia, which includes India,
Indo-China, China proper, and Japan. The Australian British are far
from the main body of the white race and from Great Britain, the chief
recruiting base of their own nation. On the other hand, the distance
by sea between Townsville, Queensland, and the Japanese coast is no
longer than the course of the coasting steamers from Fremantle to
Townsville; and the other lands of Monsoon Asia are even nearer than
Japan.

Enough is known of the relation between geographical environment
and national well-being to declare with confidence that the decision to
erect a Barrier against ‘coloured labour in Tropical Australia is best both
for the white race in Australia and for the coloured people of the
monsoon region of Asia. Not only is Government much more difficult
with a two-colour population, but the admission of coolie labour would
deteriorate the national character of the Australians, for history shows
that the greatest nations are those which provide their own working
class. Turning from the Occidental] to the broader humanitarian view,
it is only necessary to look ahead in order to see that the admission of
Asiatic coolies to a British homeland is unkind to their descendants.
Those that remain unmixed in race will have a stunted existence as a
community cut off from full national life, whilst the case of mulatto
descendants is almost worse, for the children are not brought up in the

, i ae ae

E.—GEOGRAPHY, 131

family of the British parent, and yet are cut off from the full tradition
of Asiatic civilisation. Far better, then, that the Asiatic coolie should
remain where the family life of his descendants will be part and parcel
of national life.

Neither should it be assumed that there is not room in Asia for a
large additional population. The pressure of population in China is
largely due to the undeveloped condition of mining, factories, and com-
munications. ‘The coal-fields are unsurpassed in the world, and iron ore
is abundant; if they were worked, and factories were based upon them,
the new occupations and improved market for agricultural produce would
provide at home for many of those who now migrate oversea. The rise
in standard of living which may be expected to follow industrial develop-
ment would also reduce coolie competition in the white borderlands of
the Pacific. The further development of manufacture in India would
operate in the same direction. The growth of a manufacturing popula-
tion in China and India would stimulate cultivation and stock-rearing
in the sparsely inhabited region under Asiatic rule which runs diagonally
across the meridians from the Persian Gulf to the Amur, and includes
the eastern provinces of Persia at the one end and Mongolia and Man-
churia at the other. This has for the most part a light rainfall, but
comprises much fine prairie country and some good agricultural land,
whilst in the more arid tracts there are many great rivers fed from snow-
fields and glaciers which could be made to irrigate large areas where the
sun is as strong asin Australia. Adjacent to the Indo-Chinese peninsula
are the East Indies, whose climate is suited both to Indians and Chinese,
with great tracts of undeveloped land whose productivity is attested by
luxuriant forest. The sparsely peopled regions of Asia near to India,
China, and Japan by land and sea, and for the most part connected with
them by ties of civilisation, provide an area for the overflow from these
countries which is more than twice as large as Tropical Australia and
British Columbia, together with California, Washington, and Oregon,
the American frontier provinces of English-speaking labour.

India includes one of the most important borderlands within the
Orient, that of the Mohammedan and Hindu worlds. The Punjab, with
its great rivers and plain, is in such striking contrast to the mountains
and plateau of Iran that we are apt to lose sight of the fact that, climatic-
ally, it more resembles the highland on the west than the rainy valley of
the Ganges on the east. It is an eastern borderland of Islam, a religious
world which is mainly comprised in the belt of dry country which
stretches diagonally from the Atlantic shore of Morceco to the Altai
Mountains. Delhi, under the Great Moghul, was an advanced capital
of the Mohammedan world just within the Ganges valley, which is the
headquarters of Hinduism. In this sub-imperial capital the two
antagonistic civilisations are now linked to the government of the
United Kingdom, and the age-long wars between them have ceased.

Up to the time of British predominance, India was the terminal posi-

tion of Continental conquerors unused to the sea, who did not develop the

advantages of a salient maritime position. The ports of India lie con-
veniently for a long stretch of coast-land on the great gulf which forms

the Indian Ocean, and now, owing to the facilities provided by British

132 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

shipping, much of this coast-land has easier communication with India
than with its own continental interior. Several British possessions in
the parts of Africa adjacent to the Indian Ocean are in the Intermediate
Position between the principal homelands of the black peoples and the
overflowing population of India, and nowhere has the responsibility of
our Intermediate Position called for more careful examination of the
rights and interests of competing coloured races. The decision with
reference to Kenya which has just been given by the home Government
recognises the main physical regions in the coloured world as political
divisions of the Empire within which the established races have special
rights.

The Union of South Africa is the racial home of white men and of
the more numerous coloured people who are indigenous io the country.
It is, therefore, largely a land of white overseers and coloured labour,
but here, as in the other Britains beyond the seas, there is an opposition
to the introduction of coloured blood into white families which is not
met with where Latin races are similarly situated. The Dutch families
are at one with those of British stock in the maintenance of this racial
Barrier.

From the foregoing facts it is clear that the British people, Metro-
politan and Colonial,* are in a greater degree than any other nation the
doorkeepers of the world in respect of economic, strategic, and racial
communications.

Part II.—The Consolidation of the Position.

The consolidation of the position which the British Nation has won
turns upon the future of colonisation within the Empire, We must
therefore compare the number of the Metropolitan and Colonial British
with that of other peoples within and without the Empire, and take
account of the relation between the present population of the world
and the area of its empty lands. The British Empire comprises the
fourth part of mankind, but the ratio of white to coloured people
in the Empire is only about one to six. The former are mostly of
British stock, and belong to the Christian world. The latter are of
many stocks, differing physically from each other as much as from the
white people, and belonging to diverse religions. Their population is
steadily increasing under British rule, and some of them have recently
made advances in political organisation and industrial efficiency. Conse-
quently, if the Empire is to be guided by the British, the numbers of our
race must also increase. There is, however, a school of thought which
considers that if our ideals of ethics and efficiency are once accepted
by the coloured peoples, the racial complexion of the Empire will be
unimportant, as public affairs will be regulated by our principles. This
point of view, which may be termed in a general sense the missionary
standpoint, does not take account of the contingency that British ideals
implanted in coloured stock may receive alien development in future

* The introduction of the term ‘Dominion’ served to suggest emancipation
from the Colonial Office, but the word Colonial as descriptive of a people has
permanent historical value and therefore should not be allowed to lapse.

E.—GEOGRAPHY. 183

generations owing to biological causes. Our confidence in Western
culture in general, and the British version of that culture in par-
ticular, is based more upon the power of adaptation which it has shown
in our hands since the Renaissance and the Era of Oceanic discovery
than upon any system of which we can hand over a written prescrip-
tion. It is only in our own national communities, mainly com-
posed of British stock, with minorities nearly akin, that we can be
confident that British ideals will develop typically in the way of natural
evolution. Therefore in our own interests and in that of the coloured
races (who conflict among themselves) it is desirable to maintain the
present proportion of the British stock, to whom the Empire owes the
just administration of law and a progressive physical science.

The co-operation of the Union of South Africa in the Great War
only became possible after the failure of an insurrection by part of the
Boers. Since the number of persons of Dutch and British stock is
about equal, an influx of British colonists is required in order to ensure
unanimity between South Africa and the rest of the Empire.

Passing to the ratios between British population and foreign nations,
we have to note that the population of Australia stands to that of Japan
as about one to ten. The Japanese are a patriotic as well as an
advanced nation, and claim equality with the white nations from
patriotic motives. It is evident, therefore, that a strong reinforcement
of British population is needed to maintain the doctrine of a white
Australia. For the same reason New Zealand also needs reinforcement,
since Australasia is strategically one.

The number and density of the population of Canada is exceeded
in the proportion of about ten to one by the white population of the
United States, hence it is inevitable that there should be a large
flow of people from the latter country tothe Dominion. As it is essential
to unanimity in the Empire that the Canadians should continue to be
British in sentiment and not become pan-American, a large immigration
from Great Britain is required in Canada. Moreover, the population
of Continental Europe outnumbers that of Great Britain® in the propor-
tion of something like ten to one, and as emigrants go to Canada from
many European countries there is a further call for British immigrants

to maintain the British character of the Dominion.

We have next to note that the population of Great Britain, which
is now forty-three million, outnumbers the combined population of
Canada, Newfoundland. South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand in
the proportion of two and a-half to one, and increases more rapidly than
that of all these Dominions, more than three and a-half million being
added in the decade 1901-11, in spite of an emigration which much

exceeded the immigration. Thus the chief source available for the
British peopling of the Dominions is the Metropolitan, not the Colonial,
population.

_ In 1891 the late Mr. G. Ravenstein calculated from the rate of
increase of population the time which remained before the unoccupied
lands of the world would be settled and developed in accordance with

_ 7 In the present condition of home affairs in Ireland it seems best to leave
its population out of the numerical reckoning for Imperial purposes.

134 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES .

their agricultural capabilities. This period he reckoned at about two
centuries, by which time the population was calculated at 6,000,000,000
instead of the 1,600,000,000 which it had reached in 1891. The figure
must not be taken to indicate the final population of the world, about
which we know nothing, but the epoch marks finality of a certain kind—
namely, the end of the colonising period of history as colonising has
hitherto been conducted. The world will then be completely parcelled
out among the nations, and since it is very difficult to displace a nation,
it is probable that those which occupy the world at the end of the colonis-
ing period will remain in possession for a long time, even as time is
reckoned in the pages of history. If we allow a generation for the set-
back of the War we may roughly reckon our zero-time as 1923 instead of
1891, which, on the basis of Mr. Ravenstein’s figures, would still give
about two centuries, or six generations, in which to provide the temperate
climates of the British Empire with a sufficiency of British stock to
ensure the continuance of their British character.

There is, however, a school of thought which sees the salvation of
the home country in a reduction of its population. I take their strategic
argument first. It is contended that Great Britain would be safer in
time of war if it had no more people than its farms can feed. Judging
‘by France and the former Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, this would
be about one-half of our present population, for our country is small
though fertile. The conditions of our strategic security have, however,
undergone a great change since 1914. The best plan of campaign for a
combination of European Powers bent on overthrowing the citadel of
the Empire would be an attack by combined air-fleets, which could be
concentrated on London, the great manufacturing towns, and the ship-
building yards, wholly destroying them one by one by intensive bom-
bardment. This plan would be more effective than naval blockade,
which it is very difficult to make complete, and is liable to bring in new
belligerents owing to interference with neutral shipping. In order to
have strategic security in this island we must therefore be able to meet
the air-force of a European combination as well as carry out our tradi-
tional plan of despatching a powerful expeditionary force for the support
of a friendly Power. This active defence requires large population and
high devlopment of technical industries, and therefore could not be
sustained by a rural Britain.

The economic argument for reduced population has received ready
but uncritical assent owing to the great want of employment since the
War. It is stated that this island will never be able to support in
proper comfort a population of forty-three million, the present figure.
But the population which can be sustained in a country depends
jointly upon internal resources and geographical position. The com-
mercial position of Great Britain is more favourable than that of any
other island of equal size, and the large amount of good coal, besides
iron ore and beds of salt, enable full advantage to be taken of the
geographical position in manufacturing for export. According to the
estimate made in 1905 the stock of accessible coal in the United
Kingdom is sufficient to last more than four hundred years at the present
rate of output, and an estimate made in 1915 gives a yet larger stock.

E.—GEOGRAPHY, 135

‘Moreover, no change in the distribution of available minerals can ever
do away with the commercial advantage conferred by our central and
focal position on the natural maritime routes. Hence the population
which can be supported in Great Britain depends upon services to
outside nations to a much greater extent than in most countries.

The population which can be maintained in our home country
depends, therefore, to an exceptional degree upon the population and
prosperity of the rest of the world, so that when the world again gets
into its stride there should be improved conditions here, and as the popu-
lation of the world grows so should the number of jobs in the country
increase. There is, therefore, no sufficient ground for stating that we
have passed or reached the limit of population which the island can
ever support.

The teaching of those who advocate reduction of population as the
salyation of Great Britain includes eugenic and ethical arguments.
Thus it is said that very small families conduce to a high standard of
civilisation since more care can be devoted to the child. This, however,
leaves out of account the educative influence of the children of a family
upon one another. Everyone knows that an only child is at a disadvan-
tage in life. The world being of both sexes, and the society in which
we move mainly of our own generation, the full home training for life
is only obtained if each child have a brother and sister, which implies
a family of at least four.

The desirability of birth-restriction among the poorer classes is

strongly pressed on the plea that we are breeding to an increasing
extent from inferior stock, and thereby lowering the national type. As
far as the allegation relates to defectives, it is indisputable that most of
them are among the poorest of the poor, and that their breeding is an
injury to the community, as is also the admission of defective or criminal
aliens, but these are categories quite apart from our great working-class
community.
' The professional families are far too few to maintain the supply of
original genius needed for this country’s advance, for genius is largely
in the nature of a sport, and has to be replenished from a very large
reservoir of population. To recruit the professions entirely from the
present professional families would, therefore, in the long run be fatal
to originality, On the other side of the picture, a working-class home
is the best preparatory school for the colonial frontier, where to have few
wants is better than the possession of many attainments.

We are told that an increase of population in Great Britain will pack
the slums and thereby reduce us to the ‘C3’ category of physique,
but this argument takes too little account of the redistribution of urban
population which has been going on for the last forty years. The
density of population in central London has diminished, and factories
have sprung up along the railways which radiate from the town. In
1911 the five Counties surrounding London, with their two included
County Boroughs, contained no less than one million residents born in
London who had migrated into these more rural districts. Migration,
it should be observed, whether to or from the town, prevents the close
breeding which used to be a serious disgenic factor in villages.

136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

In 1911 the birth-rate in the towns of England and Wales was
higher than in the rural areas, and the Registrar-General’s Report states
that even when these figures are corrected for the movement of the
people the rural districts would only have increased at the same rate as
the country at large, adding that ‘ these facts are worth noting in view

of the assumption, sometimes loosely made, that the population of the |

towns would cease to increase if it were not recruited from the country.’
In this connection it should also be noted that the proportion of
London residents who are London-born has steadily increased from 1881
onwards.

The growth of our towns is no longer haphazard, but has entered
on the stage of planning.

A great abatement of the contamination of town air by smoke has
been shown to be practicable, and it is largely in the matter of smoke
and crowding that towns have been hygienically inferior to the country,
for country cottages are often as bad in themselves as slum houses,
and their water supply much inferior. Moreover, the hygiene of towns
has always been dependent on the circumstance that here the health of
many people is affected by the carelessness of a few, and it follows that
the hygienic conditions of urban life are capable of immense improve-
ment when scientific knowledge becomes general. The experience of
the War has shown that the popular notion of the inferior moral of
townsmen was unduly pessimistic, for our urban regiments not only
showed intelligence, but exhibited a sustained valour which has seldom
been surpassed in the long annals of military history.

That emigration to the Dominions ‘brings some economic benefit
to the home country cannot be. gainsaid, for trade returns show that
an emigrant to the Dominions buys as rnuch here as eleven emigrants
to the United States, and therefore as much as many foreigners; but
those who fear additions to our people also fear the moral effects of
emigration. They say that emigration will take the best and leave the
worst, and so produce a disgenic effect in the home country.. But the
individual emigration of to-day differs in this respect from the group
migrations under political compulsion, or for conscience sake, which
inflicted eugenic loss upon Spain, France, and England in bygone
days. The best lad for the Dominions is not necessarily the best for
the home country, and an Empire which comprises urban as well as
rural States requires young men whose business tenacity is sufficient to
resist the restlessness of youth not less than those who are instinct with
the spirit of the frontiersman.

That a relative increase of female migration would benefit national
character cannot be gainsaid, for at present the Dominion frontiers lack
the due weight of feminine influence, whilst in Great Britain many
women are denied the full development of their character which some
natures only attain by wedlock and motherhood. The Census of 1911,
unaffected by War losses, shows an excess of about 1,300,000 females
in Great Britain and a deficiency of about 750,000 in the Dominions.
The inequality of distribution as between Great Britain and the
Dominions limits the possible marriage-rate, and therefore the total
births, in a way to which no other nation is equally subject. If the

_—

E,—GEOGRAPHY. 137

numbers in the Dominions be equalised as the result of special en-
couragement of female emigration, there will still remain a large excess
of women in Great Britain who cannot be paired in the Empire unless
the stream of emigrants who now leave the Empire can be for the most
part deflected to the Dominions. In Great Britain the total number
of families is limited by the number of males. In dealing with the
size of family needed to maintain or increase population I do not reckon
the present surplus of nearly two million women resulting from the
joint effect of migration and war. At present our community appears
to be in a transitional stage between the limitation of the family by
chance and by choice, but the census shows, from the present age of
marriage in Great Britain and the number of deaths before this age,
that a general preference for the family of three children would not quite
maintain the population, apart from migration. If, therefore, the size
of family be universally decided by choice the number of the race cannot
even be maintained, far less increased, under present conditions unless
those who enter jnto matrimony cherish the ideal of a family of four
children.

Unless the British race increase we cannot insure the internal peace
and external security of the Empire, or the continuance of its beneficent
work of enlarging commerce and restricting the range of war. There-
fore the birth-rate in Great Britain should be maintained above the
death-rate at least until the British population in the Dominions exceeds
that in the Mother Country. _The maintenance of the race will then
rest chiefly with our people oversea, and, with their great resources, it
should be possible for them to keep pace with the other growing nations.

POPULATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT.

ADDRESS TO SECTION F (ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS) BY

SIR WILLIAM H. BEVERIDGE, K.C.B.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION,

THE impression that the civilised world is already threatened with over-
population is very common to-day. Many, perhaps most, educated
people are troubled by fear that the limits of population, probably in
Europe and certainly in this country, have been reached, and that a
reduction in the rate of increase is an urgent necessity. Most, if they
were asked to give reasons for their fear, would refer to one or both
of two reasons: they would point to the enormous volume of unemploy-
ment in this country ; they would say that economic science, at least at
Cambridge, had already pronounced its verdict. I propose to begin
by raising some doubts as to the validity of each of these arguments.

Unemployment No Proof of Over-Population.

The volume of unemployment in Britain is undoubtedly serious, and
almost certainly unparalleled in past history. Those who see, as we
now do, more than a million wage-earners whom our industry for
years together is unable to absorb in productive employment may be
excused if they draw the inference that there are too many wage-earners
in the country. The inference, though natural, is unjustified. Un-
employment in Britain can in any case prove nothing about the world
asa whole. History shows that 1t does not prove over-population even
in Britain.

During the last half of the nineteenth century, the industry of the
United Kingdom was finding room for a rapidly increasing number of
wage-earners with an admittedly rising standard of production and
comfort. Through the whole of that period there was unemployment
in the country. The percentage of trade unionists out of work never
fell to zero; in no year since 1874 was it less than two; at more than
one crisis it reached a height comparable if not equal to that which
we have just experienced. During 1922 this percentage has averaged
fifteen ; but it averaged over eleven in 1879 and over ten in 1886. These
figures are not on an identical basis and are therefore not absolutely com-
parable. ‘Taken for one year only, they understate the relatively greater
seriousness of our recent experience, since the unemployment percentage
was high through a large part of 1921 as well as in 1922, and still con-
tinues high. But the difference is one of degree rather than of kind.
The peril of inferring over-population from unemployment is conclu-
sively shown. 9

The experience of 1879 was up to then unparalleled; probably it
was as much worse than anything previously recorded as the experience

F.—ECONOMICS, 139

of 1922 appears worse than that of 1879. The experience of 1879,
however, the record year of unemployment, heralded, not over-
population and the downfall of British industry, but a period of ex-
pansion and prosperity which itself reached, if it did not pass, all
previous records. ‘ Real wages,’ which had risen thirty per cent. in
the twenty years to 1880, rose even more rapidly in the next twenty
years to 1900. Anyone who in 1879, looking at the half or three-
quarter million unemployed, had argued that the existing population
of the United Kingdom (then about thirty-four millions) was all that
the country could support without lowering its standards, would have
been lamentably discredited at once. ‘Ten years later he would have
found a population nearly three millions more, enjoying a real income
per head that was a fifth greater, with the unemployment percentage
reduced to two. Ten years later still the population had grown further
in size and in prosperity; those trades had grown most rapidly in
which there had been and continued to be the largest percentages of
unemployment.

The problems of unemployment and of over-population are distinct ;
they are two problems, not one. Severe unemployment has occurred
in the past without over-population, as a function of the organisation
and methods of industry, not of its size. On the other hand, it is very
doubtful if excessive growth of population has ever shown itself or
would naturally show itself by causing unemployment. A more pro-
bable effect would be pressure to work more than before in order to
obtain the same comforts; a fall of real wages per hour, by increase
either of hours or of prices.

The same dependence of unemployment on the organisation and
methods of industry, rather than on its size, appears if we look, not
backwards in time, but round us in space. It has been pointed out
by Professor Cannan that one of the few groups of economists whe
from our post-war sufferings can at least obtain the high intellectual
satisfaction of saying ‘I told you so,’ is that which maintains that
changes in the purchasing power of money are the most potent causes
of the fluctuations in prosperity known as cycles of trade or booms and
depressions. ‘In the pre-war period booms and depressions swept
over the whole western world at once and left their causes obscure.
In 1922 we have been treated to a sharp contrast between two groups
of countries, one group having boom and full employment, the other
depression and unemployment, the difference being quite clearly due
to the first group having continued the process of currency inflation,
the other group having dropped it.’ To bring this generalisation down
to particular instances, we see in Central Europe a nation which
assuredly should be suffering from over-population if any nation is;
Germany, defeated in war, has been compressed within narrower limits
has lost its shipping and foreign investments, its outlets for emigration
and trade, and now by high birth-rates is repairing with exceptiona!
speed the human losses of the war. Germany may or may not be
suffering from over-population. She certainly has not suffered from
unemployment; she has had a boom stimulated by inflation of the
currency. We see on the other hand Britain, victorious in war, with

140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

expanded territories and the world open to her, pursuing a different,
no doubt a better, currency policy and experiencing unexampled un-
employment. To argue uncritically from unemployment to over-
population is to ignore the elements of both problems.?

Europe before the War.

Let us turn to the second argument, the argument from authority
and, above all, from the authority of Mr. J. M. Keynes. No economic
writing in our generation has obtained so wide a fame as that of Mr.
Keynes on the ‘ Economic Consequences of Peace.’ None, on its
merits, has deserved more. With its main argument neither I nor,
I think, posterity will wish to quarrel. There are, however, in that
book certain phrases about population, used incidentally, almost casually,
which have none of the weight of the main argument. To these almost
more than to anything else is to be attributed the general dread of oyer-
population to-day; these call for examination.

In the second chapter of his book, Mr. Keynes paints a picture of
Europe as an economic Eldorado, now devastated beyond repair by
war and the peace, but even before the War threatened by internal
factors of instability—‘ the instability of an excessive population de-
pendent for its livelihood on a complicated and artificial organisation,
the psychological instability of the labouring and capitalist classes and
the instability of Europe’s claim, coupled with the completeness of
her dependence on the food supplies of the New World.’ In naming
the first of these factors of instability Mr. Keynes already passes the
judgment that Europe’s population was ‘ excessive.” Elsewhere in the
same chapter he is more specific: ‘ Up to about 1900-a unit of labour
applied to industry yielded year by year a purchasing power over an
increasing quantity of food. It is possible that about the year 1900
this process began to be reversed, and a diminishing yield of Nature
to man’s effort was beginning to reassert itself. But the tendency
of cereals to rise in real cost was balanced by other improvements.’
A few pages further on he passes from possibilities to positive asser-
tion; in the last years before the War ‘ the tendency towards stringency
was showing itself . . . in a steady increase of real cost . . . the law
of diminishing returns was at last reasserting itself, and was making it
necessary year by year for Europe to offer a greater quantity of other
commodities to obtain the same amount of bread.’ | In the seventh
chapter is a wider and yet more explicit assertion of ‘ the increase in
the real cost of food and the diminishing response of Nature to any
further increase in the population of the world.’ And so to Malthus.
‘Before the eighteenth century mankind entertained no false hopes.
To lay the illusions which grew popular at that age’s latter end, Malthus
disclosed a Devil. For half a century all serious economical writings

1 In the United States, which no one suspects of over-population, ‘there
seems good ground for believing that in actual diminution of employment, the
depression of 1921 was almost twice as acute as that of 1908’ (Berridge : Cycles
of Unemployment, p. 52). 1908 was one of the worst depressions hitherto
experienced in America.

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142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

held that Devil in clear prospect. For the next half-century he was
chained up and out of sight. Now perhaps we have loosened him again.’

These quotations set the problem. The question is not indeed
whether Malthus’ Devil is loose again. Mr. Keynes has seen to that;
he stalks at large through our lecture-rooms and magazines and debating
societies. The question is rather whether Mr. Keynes was right to
loose this Devil now upon the public. Was there in Europe or in the
world as a whole before the War clear evidence, first, of ‘ a diminishing
yield of Nature to man’s effort’; and, second, of a ‘rising real cost’
of corn?

The Course of Agricultural Production.

The answer to the first question is given by the table of ‘ Agricul-
tural and other Production at certain Epochs’ which is printed above.

Notes to Table I.

The figures of acreage and corn production at the successive epochs are averages
for the six years 1878-1883, 1888-1893, 1898-1903, 1908-1913, and for the two years
1920-21, or for as many of those years as were available in each case.

The populations are those given in censuses or official estimates relating to dates
within six months of January 1, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911 and 1921, or are estimated
for about those dates (being the centre of the six years taken for averaging) where no
such census was available.

The figures for ‘ Europe’ relate to Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, France,
Germany, Holland, Hungary, Italy, Roumania, Russia (with Poland), Serbia, Spain,
Sweden, and the United Kingdom, containing between them 94% of the total popu-
lation of Europe in 1910. Norway, Finland, Portugal, Switzerland, Greece, Turkey,
Bosnia and Herzegovina and a few minor states alone are excluded. The figures for
‘ Countries settled from Europe ’ relate to Canada, United States of America, Argentina,
Uruguay, Australia, and New Zealand, At the epochs 1900 and 1910 actual returns
are available for all those countries ; at the earlier epochs the yields or acreages or
both have had to be interpolated for a few countries (of which Spain and Roumania
are the most important).

The yields, acreages, and populations for 1920-21 are based on the statistics given
in the year book for 1921 of the International Agricultural Institute. The yields and
acreages for earlier years are based on the statistics in the annual Agricultural Returns
published by the English Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. The populations for
these earlier years in Europe are based on the statistics compiled by the International
Statistical Institute) Htat de la Population, published 1916).

Weights have been converted into quarters on the basis of 480 Ibs. to the quarter
of wheat, rye, and maize, and 448 lbs. to the quarter of barley.

The figures for coal, iron ore and steel production are five or three year averages
centering on the years 1880, 1890, 1900, 1910. For Europe the production is actually
that of Austria, Hungary, Belgium, France, Germany, Italy (not steel), Russia (not
iron ore), Spain (not steel), Sweden, and United Kingdom. For European settlements
the United States contribute all the steel and all but a little of the iron ore; for coal
Canada, Australia and New Zealand are included. The production* per head ’ is based
on the same populations as those used for agriculture in Europe and its settlements
respectively.

The population for Russia at January 1, 1911, is obtained (as 133,500,000) by
interpolation from censuses and estimates for earlier years and from the official
estimate of 130,820,000 at January 1, 1910, given both in the Agricultural Returns of
the English Board of Agriculture from which the acreages and crops are taken, and in
the Annuaire Statistique of 1916 (Etat de la Population). The 1921 year book of the
International Agricultural Institute gives for January 1, 1911, an estimate of
138,274,500. This is inconsistent both with the estimate for January 1, 1910, and
with the census of 1897, requiring an impossible rate of increase. Jt must refer to an
area larger than that covered by the crop returns,

F.— ECONOMICS. 148

The first section of this table shows at four successive epochs—1880,
1890, 1900, 1910—the total yield and acreage of corn and the yield per
acre and per head of population in Europe as a whole (including Britain),
with corresponding figures for coal, iron ore, and steel. The second
section gives corresponding facts for the principal countries settled from
Europe—-Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, and parts
of South America. The third section covers Europe and its settlements
together, practically the whole of the ‘ white man’s countries.’ The
figures for each epoch represent an average of years, generally six,
centering about the end of the year named. The records are not abso-
lutely complete; one or two small European countries have been left
out altogether; one or two gaps at the earlier epochs have to be filled
by estimate or interpolation. The substantial accuracy of the main
results is beyond question.

The European section shows at each successive epoch a greatly
increased population and acreage under corn, and a production increasing
faster than either, so that yield per head and yield per acre alike both
rise materially and steadily. Nature’s response to human effort in
agriculture, on each unit of soil and for each unit of total population
in Europe, has increased, not diminished, up to the very eve of the
War. Needless to say, this greater production of corn has not been
due to a shifting of population from industry to agriculture, and has
not been offset by a decline of manufacturing. The general movement
of population has probably been in the opposite direction, from agricul-
ture to industry; the output of coal, iron ore, and steel, the basio
materials and products of industry, has risen yet more rapidly than
the output of corn.

There is no trace of reaction, either in industry or in agriculture,
in the last ten years of the table; nothing to suggest a turning-point at
1900. It is true that the rate of increase in the yield of corn per head
and per acre from 1900 to 1910 is less than in the preceding decade,
but it is as great as in the decade from 1880 to 1890. In any case, a
slowing down in the rate of increase proves nothing. Corn is produced
only to be consumed, and there is a limit to consumption. In
the best and most progressive of all possible worlds, the consumption,
and so the production, per head of wheat, rye, barley, and maize could
not rise endlessly; when saturation-point had been reached the yield
per head of these elementary necessaries would cease to rise, and the
people would use their increasing powers over Nature to win luxuries
and leisure. Something of this movement is already seen in the growth
of wheat at the expense of rye between 1900 and 1910.

_ The second section of the table, covering the countries settled from
Europe, begins only in 1890, but can be continued to-1920. It shows
a very similar picture, not a markedly better one, in agriculture up to
the War. From 1890 to 1910 the yield per acre of wheat has increased
in the settlements a litile faster than in Europe (15 against 124 per
cent,), but that of all crops taken together has increased more slowly
(4 against 18 per cent.). The yield per head has also increased for
wheat a little faster in the settlements than in Europe (25 against
19 per cent.), and for all crops a little more slowly (11 against 121 per

1993 i

144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

cent.). The actual yield per head is, of course, much higher in the
settlements; the yield per acre is lower for wheat, though higher, for
the other crops. “ aa

In general, as we find European agriculture more progressive than
might have been expected, so we find the superiority of the new lands
in that field less clear. It is in the industrial field, with doubled or
trebled output of coal, iron ore, and steel per head between 1890 and
1910, that the progress of Europe’s settlements is most marked.

In the third section of the table, taking Europe and its settlements
together, we see progress, both in yield per acre and in yield per head
of the four crops, more marked from 1900 to 1910 than from 1890 to
1900, and nothing to suggest a limit to the expansion of the white
races in the countries which they hold.

The inclusion of Russia in any statistical table induces an element
of uncertainty ; it is difficult to be sure that figures for successive years
relate to the same area. As a check upon this a second table has been
prepared, giving figures for Western and Central Europe; that is, Europe
without Russia and Poland. ‘The broad results of this table from 1880
to 1910 are the same as those for Europe as a whole. The yield per
acre for each crop and for all crops together is at each epoch higher
than when Russia is included and has increased more rapidly. ‘The
yield of all crops per head of population has also increased, though
less rapidly than for Europe as a whole; this is natural, for the exclusion
of Russia means the exclusion of a country which has suffered least
from urbanisation.?

The main interest of the second table lies in the fact that it can be
continued to a fifth epoch—1920—after the War. It shows that at that
epoch the total production of wheat in Western and Central Europe
was back again near the point where it stood in 1880; for the four
crops together, production was about half-way between 1880 and 1890.
In acreage under cultivation Europe had gone back still further, pro-
bably fifty years at least; the yield per acre was at the point where it
stood twenty or thirty years before. The population of course was
much greater. Taking the years 1920-1921 together, two and three
years after the last shot of the Great War had been fired, Western and
Central Europe in total agricultural production had gone back a genera-
tion; in production per head of population it had gone back fifty years
and more. If Russia and Poland could be included the comparison

2 ‘I'he maintained increase in the yield per acre and per head of total popu-
lation in. Western and Central Europe is remarkable, in view of the common
assumption that in ‘old countries’ the point of maximum return to agriculture
has long been reached. Unfortunately actual census figures of occupations are
available only for seven countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark. France. Hungary.
Italy. and the United Kingdom), omitting all-important Germany: these show
for the seven countries a stationary yield of corn per head of the total popula-
tion and a markedly higher yield per head of the agricultural population in
1910 than in 1900 or 1890. The figures themselves are open to criticism, but it
seems safe to assume that in Western and Central Europe as a whole, with
the great industrial states of Germany and Britain, the agriculturists form.
from 1880 onwards, a diminishing proportion of the total population; per head
of those actually emploved on the land the yield must have risen yet more
markedly than appears in the tables.

———— ee OC

T.—ECONOMICS, 145

TABLE II.

AGRICULTURAL PRopDUCTION IN WESTERN AND CEenTrRAL EUROPE.

| |
Epoch |} 1880 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 | 1920
| | | | |
Population | 225,613 | 242,847 | 264,517 | 289,893 | 291,713 |
(thousands) | !
Total Production | | |
(1000 quarters) |
Wheat 3 - | 110,796 120,311 | 137,635 | 149,466 | 112,924 |
Rye t - | 57,196 | 62,904 | 76,146 | 91,949 | 55,738
Barley . | 53,580 | 55,575 60,163 | 63,738 51,602
Maize . = ..° 88,205'0|) 45,725) [48,516 | 57,763 | 51,712 |
Four Crops . _—._ |_-259,777 | 284,515 | 322,460 | 362,916 | 271,976 |
Area under Crops
(1000 acres) | |
Wheat : - | 59,960 61,448 63,287 65,139 | 57,456
Rye : . | 30,716 | 31,477 | 31,128 | 32,305 23,521 |
Barley : : 21,752 21,873 | 20,740 | 21,718 | 20,746 |
Maize : : 17,849 20,142 21,455 22,147 22,534. |
Four Crops . seep fel BO227 7 / 134,940 136,610 | 141,309 124,257 /
Yield per Acre |
(bushels)
Wheat : E 14-78 15-66 17-40 | 18-97 15-72 |
Rye F .| 1489 | 1600 | 19:54 | 22-77 19-40
Barley P ; 19-71 . | 20-33 23-21 | 23:48 | 19-90
Maize : of. LadZ 18-16 18-09 20-86 | 18:36
Four Crops . : 15:95 |, 16-87 18-88 | 20-55 17-48 |
Yield per head | | | |
(bushels) | |
Wheat 3:93 3:97 4:16 4-13 3-10
Rye 2-03 2-07 2:30 | 2-54 1:53 |
Barley 1-90 1-83 1:82 1-76 Neel |
Maize ith Sree LIE be | aces ASL 1-47 1-59 1-42 |
| Four Crops . 5 ee 9:38 9-75 10-02 7:46 |
|

Note to Table If.

The countries included up to 1910 are those forming ‘ Europe ’ in Table I, with the
exception of’ Russia and Poland.

For 1920 the area is nearly but not quite the same. The Polish war gains from
Germany and Austria, being reckoned with Poland in the latter year, are excluded.
On the other hand, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro (now part of the Serbo-Croat-
Slovene state), Bessarabia (gained by Roumania from Russia), and the Serbian and
Bulgarian gains since 1910 from Turkey are included. So far as can be judged,
the excluded regions are somewhat less in area (122,000 square km. against 165,000)
and somewhat greater in population (11,000,000 against 6,000,000 in 1911) than those
included ; that is to say, the term ‘ Western and Central Europe ’ in my table represents
a slightly larger area and a slightly smaller population in 1920 than in 1910. The differ-
ences, however, are unimportant ; substantially the exclusions and inclusions balance
one another and the total regions remain comparable.

M 2

146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

would be worse. To point the contrast, we have the figures for Europe’s
settlements; from 1910 to 1920 a further growth of acreage under
crops and of crops per acre, and a yield per head of population only
slightly less.

This result is only incidental to the present inqury. The main
object of my calculations has been to test whether the facts suggested
any diminution of returns to agriculture in Europe between 1900 and
1910. Having regard to Mr. Keynes’ words, I expected to find in the
last years before the War a falling yield in Europe, balanced by increased
drawing on the virgin lands of the new world. Actually we find in
Europe, decade by decade to the eve of war—population rising, acreage
under corn rising, total production rising still more, so that we get a
greater yield per acre and per head of the total population.®

The Movement of Corn Prices.

The answer to our second question, as to the real cost of corn, is as
certain and hardly less surprising. If before the War it was becoming
‘necessary year by year for Europe to offer a greater quantity of other
commodities to obtain the same amount of bread,’ the money price
of corn must have been rising relatively to the money price of other
commodities. There is no trace of such a rise; the movement was in
the opposite direction ; up to the eve of war the price of corn was falling
relatively to the price of other commodities,

Table III shows the movement of wholesale prices from 1871 to
1913 as recorded in the two best-known British indices: that of the

3 Detailed examination of the figures yields a number of interesting results
which can only be briefly indicated here : ’

(1) The progress shown for all the countries taken together represents a
general movement in the fifteen countries taken separately. Taking wheat
alone, from 1880 to 1910 every country for which figures are available shows
a large increase in the yield per acre, varying from 18 per cent. in France to
68 per cent. in Germany, and averaging 43 per cent.; the other countries show
large increases from 1890 to 1910. Even from 1900 to 1910 of the fifteen countries
every one but three shows an increased yield per acre; the United Kingdom is
stationary and France has a trifling decline; the Danish figures are incomplete
and abnormal. More surprising still, every one but four (Belgium, France,
Holland and United Kingdom) shows an increase of wheat per head of total
population in the decade. For crops other than wheat the figures are less
uniformly progressive; generally between 1900 and 1910 yield per acre increased
in each country for each crop, except barley (which increased in eight and
decreased in six countries), but yield per head of total population increased only
for wheat. This greater progress of wheat is in itself a sign of greater ease
rather than stringency ; it represents a rising, not a falling, standard of life.

(2) During the thirty years 1880 to 1910 the total acreage under each crop
and the yield per acre, in Europe as a whole, have both grown. But the rates
of growth for acreage and for yield per acre vary inversely. ‘lhe acreage has
increased most for barley (41 per cent.) ; next for wheat (38 per cent.) ; next
for maize (33 per cent.) ; and least of all for rye (2 per cent.). The yield per
acre has risen most for rye (45 per cent.) ; next for maize (22 per cent.) ; next
for wheat (19 per cent.) ; least for barley (13 per cent.). This is an interesting
statistical confirmation of expectations based on economic theory. The greater
total production has been secured in wheat and barley mainly by bringing fresh
lands under cultivation ; in maize and rye, mainly by getting more out of lands
already cultivated.

I’.— ECONOMICS. 147

} | |
(1) Sees 1G) (3) (4) (5) (6) 1)
1871-80 2 | 6738 166 119 81 126 "| g6 | 59 |
1881-90 loliie re 129 108 60 116 97 54) |
1891-00 ; 95 108 96 65 113 101 67 |
1901-10 as 201 106 104 17 106 103 76 |
1911-13 cyl Neyer b 116 115 84 102 101 74

Sauerbeck Index.

As percentages of |
all articles
oe be ee Minerals (Col. 1)
Vegetable | Minerals |
Food

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) |

1851-60 . 7 - 94 98 99 104 105
1861-70 . : : 100 95 90 95 90
1871-80 . a ; 96 96 98 100 101 |
1881-90 . ; : 75 71 73 95 98 |
1891-00 . : 7 66 61 73 92 110
1901-10. tt 73 65 89 Ur eal pai
1911-13 . 2 H 83 72 | 105 87 126 }
1919 : j 3 206 179 220 87 107
1920 £ ; : 251 | cs cag 295 90 Fame
1921 : : ; 155 143 181 92 1 Ue |
1922 5 c A 132 108 137 2 104

Board of Trade and that of Sauerbeck. Both indices refer formally to
the United Kingdom only, but there can be littie danger in taking
them as an indication of world conditions; United Kingdom prices
from 1871 to 1918 must have followed world prices in all important
movements.

From the early ’seyenties prices generally first fell heavily to about
1896 and then rose, though not to the height from which they had
fallen ; that is to say, the value of money in relation to commodities first
rose and then fell. Through this complete reversal in the movement
of prices generally, the price of corn in relation to other articles has
moved steadily—and downwards. Decade by decade from 1871 and
to the last three years before the War the price of corn, as recorded by
the Board of Trade, has fallen relatively to prices as a whole (column 5);
with less regularity, but even more markedly, the relative price of coal
and metals has risen (column 7). The result of these two movements
is startling ; to get in 1911-13 the same amount of corn as in 1871-80
or 1881-90, it would have been necessary to offer, not more coal and

148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

metals at the later than at the earlier dates, but one-third less. The
Sauerbeck index leads to substantially the same results; it shows
from 1871-80 onwards a steady fall in the price of vegetable food
and an even greater rise in the price of minerals relatively to all
articles (columns 4 and 5); the cost in terms of minerals of a given
quantity of vegetable food would have been one quarter to a third less on
the eve of the War than it had been a generation before. Both indices
point emphatically to a falling, not a rising, real cost of corn.

Index numbers of wholesale prices are open to criticism, in this
connection as in many others, because they refer mainly to raw products
and give little or no representation to manufactured articles. It would
be consistent with the figures quoted above to argue that though the price
of coal and of other minerals, which are the basis of manufacturing,
had risen relatively to corn, the price of manufactured articles them-
selves as a whole had fallen relatively to corn. Such a result, para-
doxieal as it is, could occur in two ways: either if increases in manu-
facturing efficiency reduced the cost of manufacture or distribution,
or if a superfluity of labour fit only for industry, as distinct from
agriculture, reduced the reward to such labour, by an amount sufficient in
each case to outweigh the increased cost of coal and other minerals.
The first is a real possibility ; it is just in the spheres of manufacturing
and distribution that increased efficiency most naturally accompanies
a growth in population and that invention and organisation win their
last victories over diminishing returns. But a cheapening of manu-
facture in this way involves not a decreasing but an increasing return
to each unit of labour in industry; it would cause a fall of the real
cost of corn measured in labour. The second way assumes a fall in
real wages of industrial workers both absolutely and relatively to those -
of agriculturists such as quite certainly has not taken place in Europe.

In regard to Europe as a whole we find no ground for Malthusian
pessimism, no shadow of over-population before the War. Still less
do we find them if we widen our view to embrace the world of white
men. Mr. Keynes’ fears seem not merely unnecessary but baseless;
his specific statements are inconsistent with facts. urope on the eve
of war was not threatened with a falling standard of life because Nature's
response to further increase in population was diminishing. It was
not diminishing; it was increasing. Europe on the eve of war was
not threatened with hunger by a rising real cost of corn; the real cost
of corn was not rising; it was falling.

Room for Expansion.

I have dealt at some length with Europe before the War because
that is Mr. Keynes’ theme; in his view the society that seems bent on
self-destruction by the Carthaginian peace that crowned the War was
already in deadly peril from Nature. If now, with better assurance
as to the past, we look for a moment at the distant future of the
European races, the first though not the only point for consideration
is the extent of the world’s untouched or half-used resources in land
and minerals. On this point, unfortunately, the existing information
goes only part of the way. It is certain that enormous areas of the

¥.— ECONOMICS. 149

earth which are fit for cultivation are not yet cultivated at all, and that
of other areas only the surface has been seratched; but it is not
certain how great the areas that could be cultivated are; how much
of the land that is now unproductive of anything must for ever remain so.

In most European countries from 70 to 95 per cent. or more of the
total area is now classed as ‘ productive’; it is being turned to some
use—as arable, pasture, forest, and the like. In nine provinces of
Canada (excluding the desolate Yukon and North-West Territories)
the percentage of all the land that now produces anything is
8, in Siberia 18, in Australia 6, in South Africa 8. Even for the
United States it is only 46, and for European Russia 96.*
Part, no doubt, of the ‘ unproductive area’ in all those countries is
beyond possibility of cultivation; it is impossible on the present infor-
mation to say how large a part. But the figures as they stand are
eloquent of how little the Huropean races have yet done to fill the
lands that they hold; how ample the room for their expansion. Any
suggestion that these races have reached or are within sight of territorial
limits to their growth hardly deserves serious consideration.

Material Progress in Britain.

Ib is reasonable to suppose, however, that Mr. Keynes, though he
speaks throughout of Europe, though he emphasises his European
standpoint, was at heart concerned mainly for his own country, and
may thus have generalised impressions derived from Britain. For us
at least the position in these islands, rather than that in Europe or in
the world as a whole is of prime importance If we look at Britain in
the last years before the War and ask if all was then well and the
prospect cheerful, we get no. clear answer to our question. The picture
that our economic records paint is half in shadows; to many the shadows
will seem ominous of ill.

Unfortunately on this issue, so vital to our interests, the use of
statistical tests is peculiarly difficult. The yield of our soil in agricul-
ture is clearly irrelevant; only less so is the yield in such elementary
industries as coal or iron mining or pig-iron production. Britain 1s
essentially & manufacturing, commercial, and financial country; the
return to its labour is measured by its output or gain from finished
articles and services which themselves, by their infinite variety, escape
all measurement. Current statistics both of production and of prices
refer mainly to raw materials or food; they miss the main features of
British economic life and service.

With this warning I invite consideration of the accompanying table
of ‘ Material Progress in the United Kingdom relative to Population.’
The table shows at six suecessive epochs, beginning with 1860 and
ending with 1910, the course of some of the most important indices of
economic conditions. The figure for each epoch is an average for ten
years in which the epoch is ‘central ; thus for ‘1860’ the average of
1855-64 is taken, for ‘1870’ the average of 1865-74, and so on; for
the last epoch, ‘1910,’ the average is for the nine years 1905-13
alone ; all War years are omitted. The various indices cover the activity

; 4 International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics, 1921, pp. 20-21.

150

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

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F.—ECONOMICS. 151

of five important industries (coal, pig iron, shipbuilding, cotton, wool),
measured either by production or by consumption of raw material, and
of our export trade as a whole; the course of ‘ real wages’ and of * real
income,’ 7.e. of money rates of wages and of money income per head,
corrected to allow for changes in the purchasing power of money; the
consumption of certain articles of food and drink; and housing. The
influence of the growth of the population and the influence of fluctua-
tions in prices have both been eliminated. The figures are presented
in two ways; the upper half of the table gives actual figures of pro-
duction, consumption or ‘ real income’ per head; the lower half gives
the same figures as index numbers in which the figure for 1900 is
taken=100 and forms the basis. Comparisons with this critical epoch
are thus made easy. What does the table show ?

It shows, first, for every separate index a marked and almost un-
broken rise, epoch by epoch, to the last but one in 1900. There are
occasional reactions (as with pig iron from 1880 to 1890 or cotton in the
following decade), but these are only ripples on a powerful and rapid
stream. From starting-points of about 50 or 60 the various indices
moved in fifty years to 100; the general progress from 1890 to 1900
was not less than in previous decades. Unquestionably up to 1900
the average productivity and prosperity of each unit of the population
rose as the number of units rose; there was a rapidly increasing return
to labour as a whole. This was the complacent Victorian Age which
led the world in material progress and piled up savings without effort.

The table shows, next, from 1900 to 1910 a more interesting but
more dubious picture. With one exception—real wages—every index
has risen, but with two exceptions—coal production and exports—the
rise is slower than in previous decades, and in more than one case
is barely perceptible. Running our eyes along the last three lines of
the table, we see pig iron going from 93 in 1890 to 100 in 1900 and
only 101 in 1910; shipbuilding goes 82, 100, 105; wool 96, 100, 102;
real wages 91, 100, 100; real income 87, 100, 102; consumption of food
and drink 91, 100, 102; housing 95, 100, 104. In index after index
a rapid rise to 1900 is followed by a smaller rise, or by no rise at all,
to 1910. In cotton there had been reaction from 1890 to 1900; the
resumed progress to. 1910 was at much below the former average rate.
Only in coal production and exports is the rapid progress of Victorian
days maintained or accelerated ; those two indices represent largely one
factor, not two, for coal more than anything else swelled our recent
exports.* In every other case, rapid certain growth to 1900 gives place

° Curiously enough coal is the product for which a diminishing return to
labour in this country, not since 1900 merely but long before, seems to be most
definitely established. In relation to the number of persons actually employed
in mining the output has fallen rapidly, from 324 tons per head per annum
in 1881-85, to 288 tons in 1895-99 and 254 tons in 1909-13. If we combine these
figures with those showing the relative movement in the wholesale prices of
coal and of corn, we find that the amount of corn that could be bought by
one person’s output of coal in a year rose 30 per cent. from 1881-85 to 1895-99,
and was stationary from then to 1909-13; ‘as the hours of work had been
reduced between the two latter epochs, the real cost in mining labour of a given
quantity of corn had continued to fall slightly even in Britain. The increasing

response of Nature to agricultural effort was just more than sufficient to out-
weight the effects of her diminishing response to the British miner,

152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

to small and dubious improvement in the next ten years. This is the
cramped, uneasy, envious, but not impoverished age of Edward.

None of the indices, indeed, records an actual decline; all still
show progress however small. Even if the index of ‘ real wages ’
—stationary from 1900 to 1910—be accepted without question, the
workman was slightly better off at the later epoch, since hours of work
were less; he was getting the same wages for a shorter week. We
cannot speak of a falling return to labour; at most we see a lower rate
of increase, such as might, or might not, precede an actual fall. The
contrast, however, between the Victorian and the Edwardian ages is
unquestionably disturbing. In Britain, if not in Europe as a whole,
the turn of the century seems to bring a turn of fortune. What con-
clusions are we to draw? What remedies, if any, can we apply? We
shall find reasons for not being too ready to despair of the common-
wealth.

The Edwardian Age and its Meaning.

In the first place, there is ground for optimistic doubts as to the
figures themselyes. Several of them, particularly the indices of real
income, real wages and consumption, are elaborate structures based
largely on estimates ; others are suspect for various reasons; none need
be believed to the death. And even if the structure be sound, no
established index of material prosperity can be expected to rise in-
definitely. Progress involves change. When a nation has reached a
certain point in the consumption of necessaries, it will utilise further
purchasing power, not in consuming more of those necessaries, but in
other ways: in buying bananas and condensed milk instead of more
bread or meat, in tasting leisure, education, travel, football, cinemas,
and other delights which do not appear in any index. So there may be
a saturation-point in production; after putting its growing strength for
many years into shipbuilding or cotton a nation may find greater need
for its services in other directions-—in transport, commerce, or finance.

6 'I'wo special causes of doubt are worth mentioning :—

(1) The presentation of the figures as averages for particular decades,
necessary as it is in order to give within reasonable space a summary picture
of the whole, is deceptive, because the various decades are unequally affected
by the phases of the trade cycle. The years 1895-1904 contain but one year
of slight depression (1904) and an undue proportion of ‘ good’ years.. The
nine years 1905-13 contain the end of the slight 1904-5 depression and the
whole of the exceptionally severe depression of 1908-9. The course of cyclical
fluctuation unfairly weights the comparison against the later epoch.

(2) The falling off of cotton, not only in the last decade but ever since 1880,
is in large part apparent only. British industry was concentrating more’ and
more on fine counts, using more spindles and producing more value: for the
same weight of raw cotton.

A point on the other side, i.e. making the comparison unduly favourable
to later epochs, is the change in the age-constitution of the population. The
population in 1910 included a larger proportion of adults and a smaller pro-
portion of children than that of 1900; production and consumption ‘per head’
should have been slightly higher to maintain the same standard in relation
to capacity. The correction to be applied on: this account is too small to
disturb the comparison appreciably, . ote ors

T.—ECONOMICS. 1538

In the second place, even if we admit, as I, for one, am prepared
to admit, that there was some real change in our conditions, some
faltering in our progress in the first years of this century, it may yet
be no more than a transient phenomenon, a result of special causes not
pointing to permanent change. At the turn of the century we do in fact
find special and temporary influences disturbing our ordinary develop-
ment. One of these is the South African War; that war, like other
wars, probably caused a greater loss of savings than of human life; it
would leave capital scarce relatively to labour and in a stronger position
to bargain. Another is the change in the movement of prices. Just
before 1900 the falling tide of prices turned. From 1900 to 1913 we
lived on a rising tide. This also is an element favouring capital as
against labour, profits rather than wages. Yet another special influence
at the turn of the century is a change in the rate of labour supply, due
partly to the course of birth- and death-rates more than twenty years
before and partly to the development of compulsory education. This
point calls for explanation.

In 1876 the birth-rate in this country reached its maximum. At
the same time, or just before, important steps were taken for the
improvement of public health; the death-rate, which had changed little
for thirty years, began to fall, and fell steadily thereafter. There
followed a quarter of a century later, as a wave follows a distant earth-
quake, an abnormal growth in the supply of adult labour. As has
been pointed out by Mr. Yule, the number of males aged twenty to filty-
five rose 19 per cent. from 1891 to 1901, as compared with a rise of
14 per cent. from 1881 to 1891, and 10 per cent. in earlier decades.’
If we take five-year averages the rate of natural increase (difference of
birth- and death-rates) reached its highest points in the years 1876-1880
and 1881-1885. Normally, this would have shown itself first by large
numbers of boys entering the labour market in the early ‘nineties. At
the same time, however, the Education Acts were withdrawing more
and more boys under fourteen into the schools. The State dammed
up the rising flow of juvenile labour for a year or two. The main
pressure in the labour market began to be felt later, i.e. about
1900, and presented itself as the ‘ problem of boy labour,” which was
really the problem of those who had got boys’ work easily enough
between fourteen and twenty (replacing the younger children kept at
school), but found themselves in difficulties when they reached man’s
estate. This abnormal movement was bound, for the time at least, to
disturb the balance between the growth of capital needed to employ
labour and the growth of labour seeking employment. Some temporary
pressure in the labour market was inevitable. It might cause a check
in economic progress as measured per head of the total population; it
would certainly, in the bargaining between labour and capital for the
division of their joint product, make labour for the moment relatively
weak and capital for the moment relatively strong because scarce.
Wages would lose relatively to profits.

7 See Mr. Yule’s paper on ‘ Changes in the Birth and Marriage Rates’ in
the Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, March 1906.

154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

All these special influences favour capital against labour. It is in
accord with them that, of all our economic indices, that which shows
worst, the only one that shows no progress at all from 1900 to 1910, is
real wages, the reward to labour; that which almost alone shows con-
tinued progress at the full Victorian rate is exports, to be explained
perhaps in large measure as the surplus profits of capital.

With these points in mind, we reach an economic interpretation of
the Edwardian age, reasonable in itself and consistent with other than
economic records. That age does not live in our memories and will
not live in drama and fiction * as a season of hard living and hard labour.
It comes back to us now rather in the guise of the ball before Waterloo,
as an episode of unexampled spending and luxury; as the time when we
saw our roads beset by motors, our countryside by golfers, our football
grounds by hundred thousand crowds and a new industry of book-
makers, our ballrooms and dining-rooms by every form of extravagance.
The smooth development of Victorian days was broken, but the charac-
teristic of the time was rather inequality of fortune than general mis-
fortune; discontent rather than poverty; a gain by capital in relation to
labour, by profits in relation to wages, by some classes of workmen at
the expense of others, even more than a check to our progress as a
nation. Some check to our national progress there probably was, but
we are not bound to believe that the check was permanent. The three
factors described above—the earthquake wave of labour supply, the
South African War, and the upward turn of prices—are all peculiar to
their time. The relative shortage of capital would tend io produce its
own corrective. Difficulty in absorbing an abnormal flood of new
labour does not prove permanent over-population; if all the hundred
million persons who now find room and growing opportunities in the
United States had landed there at once they would all have starved.°

In the last three years before the War we find in nearly all indices
resumption of a rapid upward movement. What would have happened
if the War had not come? Would the Edwardian age have proved a
passing episode of unrest or the beginning of a serious threat to our
prosperity? This is one of many questions whose answer is buried
in the common grave of war.

In the third place, even if ‘the new century was to see in
Britain a lasting and not a transient harshening of conditions, if the
rich ease of the Victorian age had gone for ever with Victoria,
there is little ground for surprise. Malthus or no Malthus, it
was not reasonable to expect Britain to keep up for ever the speed
that marked her start in the industrial race. | Providence had not
concentrated in these islands the coal and iron supplies of all the
world. As the United States and Germany and France developed their
own mineral resources, Britain was destined to find her general indus-
trial supremacy challenged, now in one field now in another; she
would be driven to discover and maintain those branches of work in

8 Sonia, by Stephen McK ; -Bun . G. Wells;
pe aknold Be cKenna; Z'ono-Bungay, By H. G. Wells; The Regent,

® This is pointed out by a recent author, Mr. H. Wright, in Population
p- 110 ( ‘ Cambridge Economic Handbooks,’ 1923). "a ? f

F.—ECONOMICS. 155

which she had the greatest economic advantage, and to withdraw from
the rest. This process of challenge and adjustment was bound to
occur irrespective of the growth of population, and as it occurred to
give rise to strains and pressures; when accomplished it might yet
leave room for progress, if not at the full Victorian pace.

Of Britain before the War we may conclude that the position called
for serious thought, not tears or panic. The economic records are open
to diverse readings. The check to material progress in the Edwardian
age may in part have been less than appears, and in part real but due
to transient causes. At worst our industrial rank was challenged, not
destroyed; forgetting some of the slacknesses of our easy days, we
might through science and system and industrial peace have won a
new lease of rapid progress. In this direction lay our remedy; in this,
I think, rather than in hastening the process of birth restriction which
had begun a generation before.

Britain and Austria after the War.

Let us pass to Britain after the War. Here, statistical tests of
progress must be abandoned altogether. | War’s disturbance of our
economic life and all its standards and records is barely subsiding; to
found judgments of the future on the course of production or wages
or prices in the years of demobilisation is vanity. Judgment by re-
corded results is impossible; we are driven back to general considera-
tions for an estimate of prospects in this new but not better world.

The first principle of population to-day is that under conditions of
economic specialisation and international trade the population problem
in any particular country cannot profitably be considered without
reference to other countries. The problem in every country is a prob-
lem of the distribution of the population of the world as a whole. The
actual density in different regions of the earth varies fantastically,
according to the part which that region plays in the life of the world,
from less than one person per square kilometre in Canada or three in
the Argentine, through 186 in Britain, or 245 in Belgium, to 760 in
Monaco or 3,538 in Gibraltar. The ‘ optimum density’ ™ for any
one country at each moment depends not solely or even mainly upon
its own resources of natural fertility or mineral treasure, on its own
achievements of technique or co-operation, but on how in each of these
matters it compares with other countries, on whether other countries
are prospering or depressed, on the relations of its own people—in
respect of peace or war, of trade or tariffs—towards other peoples.

Britain illustrates this principle more clearly than any other great

10 These figures relate to 1911 and are taken from Table I of the Inter-
national Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics. A remarkable instance of the
density possible to a purely agricultural population is presented by Java and
Madura, which in 1921 had a population of 35,000,000, living 266 to the square
kilometre, more than the most crowded industrial states of Europe. This
involves of course a Chinese standard of life.

1 That is, the density which will bring the largest return per head of the
population. Cf. Cannan, Wealth, p. 68, and Carr-Saunders, The Population
Problem, pp. 200 seq.

156 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

country, because of all great countries Britain has grown to be the
least self-sufficient, the most highly specialised, the most dependent
on trade and peace and world-wide co-operation. A pregnant analogy
will make the position clear.

In Central Europe, before the War, lived, under one dynastic ruler,
a congeries of communities known collectively as the Austro-Hungarian
Empire. These communities formed together a single economic unit,
a free-trade area with fifty million inhabitants, in which every stage of
economic activity, from the simplest agriculture to the most developed
finance, was strongly represented, in which all the separate functions
came to be distributed locally according to economic advantage without
regard to internal boundaries. Some regions—east and south—were
predominantly agricultural ; in the north-west were extractive industries
of coal and iron, and manufactures founded upon them; further south
were other manufactures, and the main seat of commerce and finance.
Here was timber; there water-power. Each industry tended to settle
where it could most profitably be carried-on. Within each industry
local specialisation often went very far; thus, in cotton, one region
predominated in the first and final processes (spinning and bleaching),
another had more than its share of intermediate processes (such as
weaving); the locomotives for railways came to be built in one region
and the waggons in another. In the centre lay Vienna, a natural
meeting-point entrenched by art in a system of radiating railways, con-
centrating on itself the most advanced stages of social life—fine manu-
factures, commerce, distribution, transport, finance, administration—
a large and prosperous head directing and nourished by a large body.
While the Austro-Hungarian Empire lasted, this headship brought with
it the first place in prosperity. The wealth, pleasure, and extrava-
gance, no less than the government, education, science and art, of
fifty millions made Vienna, their centre.

The War came and went, and with it went the Empire. The
dynastic ruler disappeared; the congeries dissolved; each community
became a separate body desiring and needing a separate head, aiming at
self-sufficiency, seeking it by economic barriers against intercourse.
Tn that break-up the average prosperity of all the fifty millions has sunk.
Nearly every region is in some way poorer than before. But no region
has suffered as much as Vienna; in none does the loss take the
characteristic appearance of over-population. Vienna remains a head
srotesquely too large for the shrunken body of German Austria, mani-
festly over-populated, as little able to support its former numbers at
their former standard, as would be Monaco if the nations gave up
gambling or Gibraltar if they gave up war. It is over-populated, not
through exhaustion of its natural resources, not because in the past its
people were too prolific, but because the world outside has changed
too suddenly.

De nobis fabula—the fate of German Austria is the moral for Britain.
No other country of comparable size is so highly specialised as Britain.
None produces so small a proportion of the food that it requires, or
of the raw materials of its industries. None is so _ pre-
dominantly engaged in the advanced ranges of economic activity;

Se —— =

¥,—ECONOMICS. 157

in industry rather than agriculture; in finishing processes
rather than the extraction of raw material; in transport, commerce
and finance, rather than manufacture. No other country, therefore,
is so completely dependent upon the restoration of peace and trade
and economic co-operation. None is destined to suffer so acutely from
any general disorder. At this moment perhaps none is suffering so
much.

It is needless to seek in excessive fecundity an explanation of our
present troubles. There are other reasons, enough and to spare, why
we should expect now to suffer from unexampled unemployment. Two
exceptional causes of unemployment are now added to the normal
movement of cyclical fluctuation. One is the difficulty of passing from
war and war industries to peace—the difficulty of making swordsmen
into ploughboys. The process of training and directing the new sup-
plies of labour to fit the changing needs of industry has been broken by
the War; there is a maladjustment of quality between labour supply
and labour demand. The second cause lies in the damage done
by the War and its aftermath to the economic structure of
the world; the destruction of capital, the relapse of great nations towards
barbarism, the breaking of easy and friendly intercourse, the con-
tinuance of war measures, the smaller yolume of international trade
and its shifting into new channels. The world has changed suddenly,
if less completely, round us as round German Austria. Many of our
trades find their former customers dead or impoverished or cut off by
new barriers; the labour trained to those trades cannot shift to fill the
gap in production which is left by the disappearance of those customers
and their work. In both these ways, in terms which I used in writing
of unemployment fifteen years ago, we have leading instances of these

‘changes of industrial structure’ which leave legacies of enduring un-
employment, to be reduced only as the labour ill-fitted for new needs
is slowly and individually absorbed again or is removed by death on
emigration.’”

The fate of Austria has a bearing not on war alone. The world
may change otherwise than by war. The ‘ optimum density’ of popu-
lation for any country may be diminished not by anything happening
in that country, but by the discovery and exploitation of resources in
other countries ; possibly even by tariff changes. The more any country
is specialised in its economic functions, above all if it is specialised
in the most developed rather than in the primary functions, the greater
is its liability to such changes. Britain, becoming yearly less self-
sufficient, setting each year a swiftly growing people to more and more
specialised labour, increasing each year its inward and outward trade,
was before the War taking more and more the Austrian risk. It is
arguable that with this lesson before us we ought no longer to take
the risk so fully; should retrace our specialisation and aim at self-
sufficiency—in practical terms, under a system of tariffs or bounties,

12 Uncertainty as to the course of prices, with its paralysing effect on
business enterprise, ought perhaps to be named as yet another special cause
of post-war unemployment. Alternation of upward and downward movements
of prices is, of course, one of the elements in normal cyclical fluctuation.

158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

should) grow more corn and do less trade. The _ practical
answer to that argument is that we are already too far from
self-sufficiency to make worth while any attempt to return. Any
change great enough to diminish seriously our dependence on overseas
trade, in other words our exposure to the Austrian risk, would involve
an impracticable reduction in our total population and our average
wealth. A middle course that is sometimes suggested is to aim at
self-sufficiency in the British Empire, by tariff arrangements favouring
Imperial rather than foreign trade. The adoption of such arrangements
clearly depends more on the wishes of the Dominions than on those of
Britain, and their value for the purpose in view upon the readiness
of the Dominions to acquiesce in a division of economic functions which
would leave the most advanced and most profitable ones to the British
Isles. It is more than doubtful whether this is the Dominion view of
Imperial economics. In the last analysis, the long road which Britain
has travelled to dependence on international trade, as general and as free
as possible, will, I believe, be found to be irretraceable. Like the hero
of one of Mr. Wells’ novels, the Britain that we know, the Britain ,
of forty millions, has been made for a peaceful and co-operative world ;
she must try to create such a world if she does not find it ready to hand.

Recapitulation.

Let me try to gather together the threads of this long discussion. A
further quotation from Mr. Keynes’ writings will serve for a starting-
point :—

‘The most interesting question in the world,’ he writes, ‘(of those
at; least of which time will bring us an answer) is whether, after a
short interval of recovery, material progress will be resumed, or
whether, on the other hand, the magnificent episode of the nineteenth
century is over. In aftempting to answer this question it is important
not to exaggerate the direct effects of the late War. If the permanent
underlying influences are favourable, the effects of the War will be no
more lasting than were those of the wars of Napoleon. But if even
before the War the underlying influences were becoming less favour-
able, then the effects of the War may have been decisive in settling
the date of the transition from progress to retrogression.’ }*

The warning deserves attention. Yet, as I am less inclined than
Mr. Keynes to be pessimistic about the tendencies before the War, I
feel perhaps more pessimistic than he is in this passage about the effects
of the War, and the possibly enduring damage it may have done and
be destined to do to humanity.

Before the War, as I have tried to show, there is nothing to suggest
that Europe had reached its economic climax ; Malthus’ Devil, unchained
again or not, cannot be found where Mr. Keynes professes to find him.
For the world of white men as a whole there is even less ground for
pessimism ; the limits of agricultural expansion are indefinitely far. If
we regard only that part of this world which is known as Britain,

18 « An Economist’s View of Population,’ in the Manchester Guardian Recon-
struction Supplement, Section Six (1922).

F.—ECONOMICS, 159

judgment is not so casy. Some change did come over our economic life,
or certain parts of it, with the turn of the century ; our effortless supre-
macy was challenged. Reasonable men may dispute, and since the
decisive evidence has perished will probably dispute for ever, whether
the unrest and uncertainty of the Edwardian age marked a passing
episode destined but for the War to give place to a fresh stage of swiftly
rising prosperity, or, on the other hand, recorded the first shock of
permanent forces working to make life in these islands less easy and
to set a term to material progress.

After the War—for that phase, if indeed we have reached it, I doubt
whether we may find much comfort in Napoleonic parallels. The
Napoleonic wars were wars between Governments and armies rather
than peoples; they did not bite deeply into economic life; they left it
possible for the best contemporary fiction to show «a picture of English
society in which the military figure chiefly as dancing partners.'* The
war of 1914-18 was waged on millions of non-combatants, as much as
on armies ; it is being continued in the same form to-day ; the economic
structure of the world, battered out of shape by four years of open war,
is still twisted by human passions. The lesson of compulsory self-
sufficiency has been learnt too well; in all parts of the world, by new
economic barriers, nations are endeavouring to safeguard, at the expense
of their native and natural industries, the industries which were forced
on them by the extremities of war. The world is poorer in resources
by its lost years and ruined capital; of those diminished resources it
makes worse use.**

To sum up, for Europe and its races the underlying influences in
economics were probably still favourable when the War began. But
the war damage was great and we are not in sight of its end. Man
for his present troubles has to accuse neither the niggardliness of Nature
nor his own instinct of reproduction, but other instincts as primitive
and, in excess, as fatal to Utopian dreams. He has to find the remedy
elsewhere than in birth control.

The Population Problem Remains.

Let me add one word of warning before I finish. Such examination
as I have been able to make of economic tendencies before the War
yields no ground for alarm as to the immediate future of mankind, no
justification for Malthusian panic.

It has seemed important to emphasise this, so that false diagnosis
should not lead to wrong remedies for the world’s sickness to-day.
But the last thing I wish is to over-emphasise points of disagreement
with Mr. Keynes. The limits of disagreement are really narrow. The
phrases which I have criticised are incidental, not essential, to
Mr. Keynes’ main argument as to the consequences of the War and
the Peace. And whether Mr. Keynes was right, or, as I think, too

4 Jane Austen’s first three novels were written during the Revolutionary
Wars (1796 to 1798) ; her last three between Wagram (1809) and Waterloo (1815).

The recent development of prohibitive tariffs is very fully described in a
oe supplement by Dr. Gregory to the London and Cambridge Economic
Service. b

1923 -

160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

pessimistic in his reading of economic tendencies before the War, he
will be regarded as unquestionably right in calling attention again to
the importance of the problem of population. ‘

Nothing that I have said discredits the fundamental principle of
Malthus, reinforced as it can be by the teachings of modern science. The
idea that mankind, while reducing indefinitely the risks to human life,
can, without disaster, use to the full a power of reproduction adapted to
the perils of savage or prehuman days, can control death by art and
leave births to Nature, is biologically absurd. The rapid cumulative
increase following on any practical application of this idea would within
measurable time make civilisation impossible in this or any other planet.

In fact, this idea is no more a fundamental part of human thought
than is the doctrine of laissez faire in economics, which has been its
contemporary, alike in dominance and in decay. Sociology and history
show that man has hardly ever acted on this idea; at nearly all stages
of his development he has, directly or indirectly, limited the number of
his descendants.*® Vital statistics show that the European races, after
a phase of headlong increase, are returning to restriction. The revolu-
tionary fall of fertility among these races within the past fifty years,
while it has some mysterious features, is due in the main to practices
as deliberate as infanticide. The questions now facing us are how far the
fall will go; whether it will bring about a stationary white population
after or long before the white man’s world is full; how the varying inci-
dence of restriction among different social classes or creeds will affect
the stock; how far the unequal adoption of birth control by different
races will leave one race at the mercy of another’s growing numbers,
or drive it to armaments and perpetual aggression in self-defence.

To answer these questions is beyond my scope, as it is beside my
purpose to pass judgment on the practices from which they spring.
The purpose of my paper is rather to give reasons for suspending
judgment till we know more. The authority of economic science cannot
be invoked for the intensification of these practices as a cure for our
present troubles. But behind these troubles the problem of numbers waits
—the last inexorable riddle for mankind. To multiply the nation and not
increase the joy is the most dismal end that can be set for human
striving. If we desire another end than that, we should not burk dis-
cussion of the means. However the matter be judged, there is full
time for inquiry, before fecundity destroys us, but inquiry and frank
discussion there must be. Two inquiries in particular it seems well to
suggest at once.

The first is an investigation into the potential agricultural resources
of the world. There has been more than one elaborate examination of
coal supplies; we have estimates of the total stock of coal down to
various depths in Britain and Germany, in America, China, and else-
where; we can form some impression of how long at given rates of
consumption each of those stocks will last; we know that ‘ exhaustion ’
is not an issue for this generation or many generations to come. There
has been no corresponding study of agricultural resources; there 1s not

16 See The Problem of Population, by A. M. Carr-Saunders,

F.—RCONOMICS. 161

material even for a guess at what proportion of the vast regions—in
Canada, Siberia, South America, Africa, Australia—now used for no
productive purpose could.-be made productive; 4t what proportion of
all the ‘ productive ’ but ill-cultivated land could with varying degrees
of trouble be fitted for corn and pasture.’ Without some estimate on
such points, discussion of the problem of world population is mere
groping in the dark, The inquiry itself is one that by an adequate
combination of experts in geographic, agricultural and economic science
—not by a commission gathering opinions or an office gathering statistical
returns—it should not be difficult to make.

The second is an investigation into the physical, psychological, and
social effects of that restriction of fertility which has now become a
leading feature of the problem. This also is a matter neither for one
person—for its scope covers several sciences—nor for a commission ;
facts rather than opinions or prejudices are required.

If the question be asked, not what inquiries should be made but
what action should now be taken, it is difficult to go beyond the trite
generalities of reconstruction, of peace and trade abroad, of efficiency
and education at home. The more completely we can restore the eco-
nomic system under which our people grew, the sooner shall we absorb
them again in productive labour. Unless we can make the world again
a vast co-operative commonwealth of trade, we shall not find it spacious
enough or rich enough to demand from these islands the special services
by which alone they can sustain their teeming population. Even if the
world becomes again large enough to hold us, we shall not keep our
place in it with the ease of Victorian days; we dare no longer allow, on
either side of the wage bargain, methods which waste machinery or
brains or Jabour. Finally, if there be any question of numbers, if there
be any risk that our people may grow too many, the last folly that we
can afford is to lower their quality and go back in measures of health or
education. Recoil from standards once reached is the gesture of a
community touched by decay.

TRANSPORT AND ITS INDEBTEDNESS
TO SCIENCE.

ADDRESS TO SECTION G (ENGINEERING) BY
Sin HENRY FOWLER, K.B.E.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

I reeu that it is right that the Engineering Section of the Association
here in, Liverpool should devote one of its sessions to the subject of
traction. ‘There is no city in the Empire, or in the world, which is so
dependent on traction in one way or the other as the one in which we
are meeting to-day, and I can also say without fear of contradiction
that there is no city in the world which has acted as so great a pioneer
in traction development as this one on the Mersey.

Its very birth was caused by the physical features it presented at a
time when the estuary of the Dee was silting up, whilst whatever may
be the derivation of the first portion of its name, there is no question
but that the latter portion refers to the advantages it offered for water
transport.

It is not necessary, nor am I qualified, to speak of the development
of the ‘ pool’ into the port which means so much to Liverpool at the
present day, but there are other methods of transport in which it has
played an important part that I should like to mention.

As early as 1777 Liverpool realised the necessity and advantages of
easy and cheap transport, and the canal from Liverpool to the Trent
was constructed at that date, having a length of ninety-six miles. This
joined the Trent at Shardlow, not far from ‘Nottingham, and it has
recently been suggested the river should be canalised from there to the
sea on the East Coast.

More recently Liverpool has become connected with its sister city of
Manchester by the Ship Canal, in the carrying out of which many
interesting engineering problems were met and solved.

The better-remembered event is, however, in connection with trans-
port by rail. Tt was the construction of the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway in 1829 and its immediate success that more than anything
else impressed on the country the fact that a new system of traction
was opening out unheard-of possibilities. It is not too much to say that
the production of the ‘ Rocket’ for the trials at/Rainhill in October 1829
marked the first step in the practical commercial success of railways.

This, however, has not been the last association of the city in pioneer |
work on the rail in this country. In 1904 the Liverpool and Southport
section of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway was electrified, this
being the first inter-urban electric line in this country. The change
was due to the enterprise and foresight of Mr. (Sir) John A. F. Aspinall,

G.—ENGINEERING, 163

a distinguished son of Liverpool, and the Directors of the Lancashire and
Yorkshire Railway. The electrification of the line was preceded by
exhaustive trials to determine the tractive force required to overcome
the resistance on railways,’ and with these trials I had the honour of
being connected.

The other matter in which Liverpool has done pioneer work on
traction is that of heavy motor traffic. From its inception in 1895
the Liverpool Self-propelled Traffic Association was specially connected
with this method of transport. Under the presidency of the late Sir
Alfred Jones, with the guidance of Dr. Hele Shaw and under the
organising ability of its enthusiastic and energetic secretary, Mr. E.
Shrapnell Smith, it organised and carried out trials of commercial
vehicles in 1898, 1899, and 1901. In May 1898 were carried out the
first. practical trials of these vehicles held in the country, and I had the
honour of being the observer of the first lorry to leave the yard. The
Motor Car Act of 1908, which allowed a practical weight for commercial
road motor vehicles, was the result of a deputation of the Liverpool
Self-propelled Traffic Association waiting on the President of the Local
Government Board (the Right Hon. Walter Long, now Viscount Long)
when he was on a visit to Liverpool.

I think I have said enough to justify the statement I made that
it is fitting that one of our sessions here in this city of Liverpool should
be devoted to the question of transport, and I wish to speak of its
indebtedness to Science, and trust I may be able to show that, as
with other branches of engineering, its progress is due to science, and,
in concluding, speak of how it may repay, if inadequately, the debt
under which it is placed.

We are perhaps too apt at the present time to forget the obligation
which the world owes. to transportation, so commonplace have the
improved methods become. We are already forgetting the lesson that
the submarine menace gave us on this matter during the War, and
again looking upon the movement of matter from point to point as a
commonplace occurrence. It has been said that effective transporta-
tion is one of the great aids to civilisation, but it must not be forgotten
that all movement of material from place to place is economically waste
as far as the dissipation of work is concerned. Problems of transporta-
tion have been solyed more or less successfully in all ages, and some
of them, such as the moving of the stone to Stonehenge, &c., still excite
our wonder and admiration. Such works, and similar ones of much
greater magnitude in the East, however, we feel as engineers could be
accomplished by quite crude methods if there was unlimited labour
available and if time were of no consequence.

The transportation which aids civilisation is that which cuts down
the wastage of power to a minimum and which reduces the time occupied
in carrying this out. It is here that science has helped in times past,
and will help increasingly in the future if we are to go forward. In no
other branch is Telford’s dictum that the science of engineering is ‘ the
art of directing the great sources of power in Nature for the use and

1 See Mr. (Sir) J. A. F. Aspinall’s paper on ‘ Train Resistance,’ Proceedings
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. 147, 1901.

164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

convenience of man’ so well exemplified, and this utilisation has been
carried forward at ever-increasing speed during the last hundred years.

If we take the definition of Science as ‘ ordered knowledge of natural
phenomena and of the relations between them,’ as given by W. C. D.
Whetham in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ we shall easily see how
transportation has been dependent upon it.

It may be that some may not agree with this definition of ‘ ordered
knowledge of natural phenomena,’ but I feel that after thought it will
be recognised that it covers very completely what we call Science. We
are rather apt to confuse the knowledge with the means and apparatus
applied in getting it. Recently I have read an article which called
attention to the dependence of science upon engineering or mechanical
achievement, but surely the accuracy we get, the lack of which was
such a great drawback to the investigations of a century to a century and
a half ago, is itself based upon ‘ ordered knowledge.’

Dealing with transport, it may be said roughly that it is mainly
dependent upon three things—the method of propulsion, the material
available for use, and the path over which traction takes place. I cannot
deal fully even with one of these, and propose to confine my remarks
to the first two, which are the ones I am best acquainted with.

It may be said that advance in traction really became rapid when
methods of propulsion other than those of animals and the force of the
wind became available. The greatest step forward—wonderful as some
of the achievements of aeronautics have been of recent years—came with
the development of the steam-engine.

Like most great achievements in the world, it was not a lucky
and sudden discovery of one individual, although here as elsewhere
we associate the work with the name of one man especially. This
has usually been the case, and without wishing to detract from the work
of the individuals who are fortunate enough to utilise the ordered know-
ledge available to the practical use of man, one must not forget the
labours of those who have sought out that knowledge and have given it
freely to the world, thus placing it at the disposal of the one whose
imagination and creative faculty were great enough to see how it could
be utilised in the service of man.

The first attempt at traction by using a steam-engine was a failure
because of the lack of this knowledge. I refer to the work of Jonathan
Hulls and his attempt in 1736-7 to apply one to the propulsion of a boat
on the River Avon in Worcestershire. He failed because of the lack
of that knowledge, although undoubtedly he possessed the necessary
imagination.

Although James Watt is not directly associated with traction, it was
his application of science to practical use that finally gave the greatest
impulse to transportation that it has ever had. No advance had taken
place to Newcomen’s engine of 1720 until Watt’s. work of 1769. His
knowledge of Black’s work at Glasgow on the latent heat of steam and
his own experiments with the Newcomen model led to the success of
his improvements of the steam-engine. His scientific knowledge is
clearly shown in his patents and publications, for he dealt with steam-
jacketing in 1769, with expansive working in 1782, and he devised Jhis
parallel motion in 1784. His direct connection with transport includes
the reference to a steam-carriage and a screw-propeller in 1784, whilst

1.—ENGINEERING, 165

the firm of Boulton & Watt corresponded with Fulton for a period
extending from 1794 to 1805.

Although Cugnot in 1770 and Murdoch in 1786 had made models of
vehicles propelled by steam, it was Richard Trevithick with his steam-
carriage in 1801 and 1803 and ill-fated railway in 1804 who first. showed
the practical application which could be made. It is probable that the
engine which his assistant, Steel, took to the wagon-way at Wylam in
1805 turned the thoughts of George Stephenson to the work that has
meant so much for us. No one can read the early life of the father of
railways without appreciating that he was from young manhood a
searcher after scientific knowledge. Doubtless he owed much to the
friendship of Sir William Fairbairn, the President of our Association in
1861. ‘The advances he gave to the world of transport were all due
to his practical application of the knowledge he had obtained himself
or had learned from others. It is so often thought that because the
early inventors and engineers of the beginning of last century had not
received what we now call a scientific education they were not in
any sense of the term men of science. It must be remembered that ati
that time the knowledge of natural phenomena was very limited, and it
was possible to know much’ more easily all the information available on
a subject than at the present day, when we have such a mass of miscel-
laneous information to hand on eyery conceivable subject. It was
ordered knowledge which led Stephenson to adopt the blast-pipe of
Trevithick. It was the desirability of obtaining ordered knowledge that
caused him to carry out those experiments which showed to him the
advantages of using rails, and it was the scientific appreciation of the
necessity of increased heating surface that made him adopt the sugges-
tion of using tubes through the water-space in the boiler of the ‘ Rocket.’
His appreciation of the advantages of science was shown by his accept-
ance of the Presidency of the Mechanical Science Section (then as now
Section G) of our Association in 1838. It is interesting to note that
one of the earliest grants in Section G was for a constant indicator (for
locomotives) and dynamometric instruments in 1842-43, whilst
Stephenson was still alive. Let me remind you of his ready grasp of
the application of a known principle to a different object by the story of
the invention of the steam-whistle. On the Leicester and Swannington
Railway, which followed the Liverpool and Manchester, one of the
Neweastle locomotive-drivers—R. Weatherburn—at a level-crossing ran
into the cart belonging to an old lady, destroying her eggs and butter.
Upon his return to Leicester, and reporting this to Stephenson, he was
at once told to go down the town to a trumpet-maker and get him to
make a trumpet which could be blown by steam. None but a mind
in which the knowledge of natural phenomena was very carefully ordered
could have so readily solved such a problem.

From the time of Stephenson the progress in propulsion on rails by
steam-locomotives was steady if slow. The investigations for a long
while were largely confined to the question of expansion and condensa-
tion, and although the results attained were noteworthy in the case of
steamships, on the rail—to which for the moment I will confine myself—
there was little advance in the principle of propulsion, but, as I shall
show later, the improvements in materials allowed a steady growth in

166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

power and size. Although work was done by compounding and using
higher pressures, the greatest advance has come to steam-locomotives
by the use of superheated steam. This was no new thing, for Papin in
1705 seemed to have an appreciation of its value. As pressures and the
resultant temperatures increased there came difficulties with lubrication.
With the increased use and knowledge of mineral lubricants Dr. Schmit
was in 1895 able to devise methods of using superheated steam which
have been of the greatest use to transport and to the community,

The progress of transport on the rail has latterly strongly followed
other lines, and I must for a few minutes go back again to the develop-
ment. of the use of steam in a turbine in order to speak of the subject
of electric traction.

In spite of the fact that the idea of the utilisation of steam for giving
rotary motion is old, its commercial adaptation in the turbine is modern.
Rarely, if ever, has there been such a direct and instantaneous applica-
tion of science to practice. We are too close at present to the matter
to realise what a change has taken place in the world owing to the
introduction of the steam-turbine.

If we think for a moment we shall realise what a change has come
over our lives, not only in an engineering but in a general sense, since
the end of last century. It has truly been said that this is very largely
due to an Italian experimenting with Hertz waves, to numberless young
men lying on their backs on muddy roads under motor-cars, and not
least to a young Irish engineer who revolutionised transport.

One realises the work done by De Laval, Curtiss, Rateau, and the
brothers Ljungstrom, but the name which will always be associated with
the steam-turbine as firmly as that of James Watt is with the inception
of the steam-engine is that of Sir Charles A. Parsons, our President
for the Meeting of 1919 at Bournemouth. The success of his work is
due to his application of scientific principles to the many points of the
turbine and its accessories. Apart from its application to marine work,
it is the turbine which has made possible the economical production of
electrical energy, which is doing so much, and will do so much more in
the future, for rail transport. To-day it may be said, as it often has
been, that there are no mechanical or electrical difficulties in the elec-
trification of railways, the only difficulties being financial ones, although
one could hope that the induction troubles could be overcome by a
cheaper method than at present available.

It-is impossible here to trace the development of electrical science
from the experiments described by Gilbert in 1600 to the equipment of
electric locomotives on the railways of Switzerland and the United States
of America. If we were able to trace this development we should see
that it has been not only a gradual but a continuous and ordered increase
of knowledge of natural phenomena. One must mention, however,
what « change electrical traction by train and tube has made to our
town life. It has rendered our large towns possible and given a chance
to millions of our workers of a wider outlook on life and the opportunity
of living amongst healthier and more pleasant surroundings. This, as
just stated, is not the result of a sudden discovery of some fundamental
principle, but to a studied advance, step by step, from very elementary
knowledge to the information we have available. and at our disposal

G.— ENGINEERING. 167

to-day. ‘This is very largely the result of endless laboratory research
and experiment.

The last method of propulsion that I can deal with is that by means
of the internal-combustion engine. This, as we almost universally have
it to-day, is the result of the cycle adopted by N. A. Otto in his gas-engine
in 1876. Here again the engines we have to-day are the result of careful
and studied investigation. It may be truly said that the advance made
has been so much more rapid than in the case of the steam-engine and
electrical machinery because of the more advanced state of scientific
knowledge, and it furnishes an example of the assistance which this
gives to progress.

In relation to transport the work has proceeded on two distinct lines,
the Daimler and the Diesel engines. In 1885 Gottlieb Daimler produced
the engine that is associated with his name, and which utilises a light
spirit which supplies a carburetted air for the explosive mixture for the
cylinder. The development of this engine has itself proceeded in two
directions. In the one it has been made very much more flexible and
silent in its adaptation to motor-car work, whilst in the other the great
desideratum has been lightness and in association with the improvements
in the necessary materials has rendered possible the aeroplane as we
have it to-day. In both cases the development to the degree reached
has been due to a careful study primarily of the pressures, compression,
and composition of the mixture.

The Diesel engine was invented in 1894 by Rudolph Diesel, and
consists of the injection of oil or pulverised fuel into the engine cylinder.
Its development has taken place both on the four- and two-stroke cycle,
and although considerable progress has been made with land engines,
it has chiefly been used for marine transport.

The internal-combustion engine has not been largely used for rail
transport owing to its comparatively high cost of fuel per horse-power
and its lack of flexibility. The latter is particularly the case when one
remembers the high torque which is so desirable, and which can be
attained in both the steam and electric locomotives in starting.

Throughout these remarks on methods of propulsion I have dealt
with the points connecting them with rail transport as they occurred,
as this is not only the method with which I am most familiar, but is the
oldest means of using mechanical power. I must, however, say a few
words as regards transport by sea, road, and air in connection with
methods of propulsion.

T have already spoken of the early efforts of Hulls, and it was only
natural that the work of Watt on land should be followed by application
of the new power available to propulsion on the water. Although the
growth after the work of Symington, Fulton, and Bell may have seemed
to be slow, it was continuous, and constant experiments and research
were made both in marine engines and in their application. Saving of
fuel has played a much more important part here than with the loco-
motive, whilst, more space being available and greater power required,
the advantages of the expansion of steam were rendered more imperative
and had greater scope than in the other long-established method of
mechanical transport. The great advance came with the turbine, and
it is interesting to notice that whereas in early days engines were geared

168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

up, most of them now are geared down to the screw. Scientific methods
have been applied to all those details of measurement and experiment
that have led to transport by sea bemg carried on at increased speed
and with decreased cost per ton carried. The application of liquid fuel
and the introduction of Diesel engines, both with the object of increasing
the space available for cargo, have been carried out on true scientific
lines.

Of transport by road it may be said that its commercial inception
came at a time when scientific knowledge was well advanced, and its
progress was in consequence more rapid. It must not be forgotten that
in the fairly early part of last century considerable work was done on
scientific lines with steam-cars, only to be abandoned when legislation
made its continuance impossible. The development of the motor-car
engine from the small unit of Daimler to the present car is undeniably
due to the use of ‘ ordered knowledge’ of the gaseous mixture, of its
ignition, of the fuel itself, and of the compression that should be
employed. Here again we have a case of the careful application of the
principle developed with ever-increasing care until we get engines as
noiseless, as efficient, as reliable, and as flexible as we have them to-day.
It is a case, too, where the development is so recent that many of us can
remember the scorn and distrust that this method of traction excited
even here in this city that was so prominent in its inception twenty-five
years ago.

Very much more could be said as to the indebtedness of aeronautics
to science, but the fact that this indebtedness is so self-evident, as well
as the question of space at my disposal to deal with a subject of such a
size, make it impossible to attempt to do justice to this part of my
subject. I will speak only of the aeroplane, and its development has been
even more rapid than that of the motor-car. J personally feel this when
I remember that Mr. A. V. Roe was one of my students here in
Lancashire in the ‘nineties.

It was not until the development of the internal-combustion engine
that the matter became a really practical one. The early work of Santos
Dumont, Henry and Maurice Farman, Wilbur and Orville Wright,
A. Vernon Roe, Cody, Rolls, Blériot, Paulhan, and others led to the
close scientific consideration of the whole problem.

Step-by-step investigations have led towards the perfecting of this
type of transport. In all cases the developments have followed careful
scientific research. Amongst our fellow-countrymen the work of Rolls,
Godden, Cody, Busk, Keith-Lucas, Hopkinson, Pinsent, and others
has unfortunately been terminated by thei deaths in the cause to which
they were devoting their lives. In no other field has scientific work
demanded so great 2 toll. This must be so when one is dealing with
transport in such a medium as air. The work of others, such as—to
name but a few—Bairstow, De Havilland, Sopwith, Barnwell, Handley
Page, B. M. Jones, and O’Gorman, has fortunately continued. The
War was naturally a great incentive to the advancement of our know-
ledge of aeronautics, and [ feel proud that at Farnborough, at the Royal
Aircraft Factory, I was allowed to be associated with such men as
Aston, Dobson, Farren, Gibson, Green, Grinstead, Hill, Irving, Linder-
man, Thompson, and McKinnon Wood.

G.—ENGINEERING. 169

These were scientific men working on scientific lines, and their work
was put to full practical test at once. The mass of information collected
and used has been immense. One cannot in any collection of names
omit one to whom one must ever be grateful—Sir Richard Glazebrook,
again a son of Liverpool, who not only as Director of the National -
Physical Laboratory, but also as chairman, under the presidency of
Lord Rayleigh, of the Advisory Committee of Aeronautics, did so much
towards the development of this method of transport.

It is impossible to touch more than in the lightest possible manner
on the developments which have taken place in aeronautics due to scien-
tific work. In the means of propulsion research has given an engine
of such size and so light in weight per horse-power that what was a
laboured struggle against the effects of gravity has changed into the
ability to rise at considerably over 1,000 feet per minute to heights where
the rarefaction of the atmosphere renders it necessary for oxygen for
breathing to be obtained artificially. The safety of flying as the result
of the work of Busk has rendered the machines stable even in such a
medium as the air. There is no greater instance of the indebtedness of
transport to science than the rapidity with which the possibilities of
transport by air have advanced. That the realities have not advanced
at the same rate is due to financial reasons. Asa rule we have a close
relationship between these two, but in this instance, owing to the de-
mands of war, this has not been the case, for we have the knowledge
before we are financially able to use it to the greatest advantage.

The other point I would deal with in some detail is the question of
materials. Here we are dealing with a matter which has to be con-
sidered in an entirely different manner. We to-day have no basic metal
or material which was not known when transport first turned to
mechanical methods for assistance. The change which has come about
has been as largely due to the advances made in metallurgy as to the
inventions in mechanics that have led to the improvements in means
of propulsion and in machinery. I am aware that neither of these
would have been of any use were it not for the increase in facilities of
production, but most certainly the scientific work of the metallurgist is
one of the many points which, taken together, have caused the resultant
progress. The early builders of steam-engines were not only troubled
through inability to get their engines machined properly, but also with
the difficulties of obtaining suitable material for the parts they required.
Steel has been known for thousands of years, but its rapid and economic
production is of very recent growth. It has very iruly been said that
every great metallurgical discovery has led to a rapid advance in other
directions. I will as before deal with the railway as an example. We
can hardly appreciate at this date the conditions which existed from a
metallurgical standpoint on our railways when our first Meeting at
Liverpool was held in 1837. Tron—made laboriously, heterogeneous
in character and expensive of production not only in money
but, owing to the heavy character of the methods employed,
detrimental to the very character of the workman—was the only
material available. Remember for a moment that this was not only
the material employed for the various parts of the mechanism of the
locomotive, but for the vails. Towever improved the methods of

170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

manufacture were, there could never have been a universal development
of rail traction if it had depended upon material made in sucha way. We
are especially interested in the manner the growing demand was met,
for it was at the Cheltenham Meeting of the Association in 1856 that
Bessemer made public the invention he had already been working on
for two years, and which was to insure a cheap method of production
of a material so essential to transport. One should mention with
Bessemer the name of Mushet, whose work helped so materially in
getting rid of the red shortness which in the early days gave such trouble.
We are apt at the present day, I am afraid, to somewhat belittle the
work of Bessemer in view of the more improved methods now employed,
but his name must for ever stand out as the one which made cheap
transport possible. After the use of manganese in one form or the
other as a deoxidiser and a ‘ physic’ for sulphur, there, however, still
remained the baneful effect, due to phosphorus, which prevented the
use of the ores of more general occurrence. There have been few more
epoch-making announcements made at meetings of technical subjects—
although this was not appreciated at the time by many of the audi-
ence—than S. G. Thomas’s announcement of the discovery of the ‘ basic ’
process, which he made at the meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute in
March 1878. I say advisedly that many did not appreciate the news,
for an old friend of mine who was present was impressed by the earnest-
ness of the remarks of Thomas and the little notice taken of the short
statement made. His work, associated with that of his cousin, Gilchrist,
was the result of close scientific research. E,

Another investigation which has given great results in transport has
been the ever-growing use of alloy steels. For the scientific inception
of these we owe a great debt to Sir Robert Hadfield, whose inventive
genius and scientific mind are still active in that field he has made so
particularly his own. His first investigations materially affect transport
to-day. It is true that Mushet had previously worked on self-hardening
tool-steel containing tungsten, but the work was carried out only on a
small scale. In 1882 Hadfield had produced manganese steel.* This
is a most remarkable product with its great toughness, and is exten-
sively used for railway and tramway crossings, where resistance to
abrasion is of great value. This was the first of that very remarkable
series of alloys about which I must say a few words, for they have made
possible the motor-car and the aeroplane as we have them to-day.
Continuing his investigations, in 1889 Hadfield produced the compound
of iron and silicon* known as low hysteresis steel. Indirectly this is
of the greatest interest from a transport standpoint, as when used in
transformers it not only reduces the hysteresis losses, but allows of a
considerable saving in the weight of core material.

From these early uses of alloy steels there has grown up a large
number of various alloys, many of which are of the very greatest use
for various transport purposes. It is not too much to say that the
modern aeroplane is the result of the material now at the designers’
disposal both for the engine and for the structure itself. The strength

2 Inst. of Civil Engineers, vol. 93, 1888.
3 Iron and Stecl Institute, p. 222, Pt. IT, 1889.

G.— ENGINEERING. 171

of some of the chrome-nickel steels combined with their ductility 1s
extraordinary, and is due not only to the composition of the metal, but
to the results which have been obtained by patient scientific investiga-
tions relating to their heat-treatment. Taking one other example, one
may quote the use of high chrome steel—for the early investigations
into which we owe so much to Brearley, and for its later developments
to Hatfield also—tfor the valves of aeronautical engines, subjected as they
are to high temperatures. At one time it looked as if the advantages
which follow high compression and its resultant high temperatures
might be lost owing to the inability of ordinary steels to resist this heat,
but the employment of 13 per cent. chrome steel allowed work in this
direction to be continued. Not only the aeroplane but the motor-car
is, as has previously been said, the result of the work done on alloy
steels.

It is not only with steels that we have been benefited so much from
research. ‘The case is as marked with light alloys, which have alu-
minium as a base. The latter itself is the result of investigation along
scientific lines, and in aeronautical work particularly much has been
done towards giving a metal both light and strong by the work of Walter
Rosenhain, F. C. Lea, and others.

Tt may be said that all I have dealt with up to the present has been
the result of special investigation, and that ‘ ordered knowledge’ is not
of assistance to an everyday engineer such as myself. I may perhaps
be forgiven if I refer to some personal work where the collection of that
knowledge, with the assistance of my colleagues, especially I. Archbutt
and H. A. Treadgold, has been of great assistance to that large transport
institution, the Midland Railway, with which we were so long asso-
ciated. I have dealt briefly with the subject in a general way in a paper
Tread a little while ago before the Institution of Locomotive Engineers, *
but would like to speak of it in more detail and in view of the fresh
information that is now available. I would first speak of the results
obtained with solid locomotive crank-axles. Here we have a large mass
of metal which in the rough state weighs about 40 ewt. It is forged
from the ingot into a block about 25 in. by 18 in. in section, and this
is then worked down at the two ends and in the middle to about 11 in.
in diameter, the pieces of the original section of the block remaining
being the throws, which are twisted to an angle of 90° to each other.
A block about 14 in. thick is slotted out of each web, and from these
the tests to which the crank is subjected are taken. Sometimes a crank
has to be taken out of service owing to the journal wearing down below
a diameter at which it is judged safe for it to run, but more often
flaws ave developed, which, however, are progressive, and with ordinary
examination can be detected before any risk is taken in running. A
crank-axle is an expensive portion of a locomotive, and its replacement
is not only costly but takes a considerable amount of time, as the driving.
wheels have to be removed and replaced. These considerations have
led us to give a good deal of attention to this piece of mechanism
on what we believe to be scientific lines. Careful note has been taken
not only of the mechanical tests made on the portion removed from the

4 Inst. of Loco, Hngineers, vol, 12, 1921.

172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

throws, but of the micro-structure of the metal itself. The first question
which rises in our mind is why the cranks deyelop flaws at all. It is, of
course, known that with ordinary structures one is able to calculate the
stresses in them, but this is not so with a locomotive crank-axle. Not
only is it being subjected to the stresses set up by revolying it while
it is loaded with the weight of a portion of the locomotive on its axle-
bearings and by the steam pressure on the pistons transmitted to the
crank-pins, but it has to withstand the shocks set up by its running on
the rails, which cannot be calculated. These include the pressure set
up on the edge of the wheels when entering a curve at a speed other
than that which the super-elevation is allowed for, running over uneven
rail joints and crossings, and also what I believe is one of the worst, if
infrequent, the striking of check rails. These stresses and the resultants
of them are most severe at the corners of the crank-pins and at the radii
where the webs or throws join the rounded portions of the axle. These
are the points at which flaws usually occur.

For about twenty years we have endeavoured to get the knowledge
we have obtained into an ordered state, from observation and discussion
with the metallurgists attached to the various manufacturing firms.
Certain points are obvious, such as the necessity of a good micro-struc-
ture, and whilst the details in connection with exactly what micro-
structure is the best are somewhat uncertain and open to debate, we
can with confidence say that the steel ‘ shall be as free as possible from
non-metallic enclosures, and that the micro-structure should show
uniformly distributed pearlite in a sorbitic or very finely granular or
lamellar condition and be free from any nodular or balled-up cementite.
It must also be free from any signs of segregation and from any coarse
or overheated structure.’ (Extract from Midland Railway specification
for crank-axle forgings.) The dimensions I haye given of the size of
the block of metal from which the axle is made show that it cannot have
received much work, and therefore any non-metallic enclosures present
will be only slightly drawn out, and will not occur as threads as they
do in bars of small diameter and even in steel tyres. One of the first
observations we deduced was that the life of the crank in miles had a
direct relation to the ductility of the test-bar taken across the section
of the throw and near the centre of the original ingot. This is the point
at which non-metallic enclosures are most likely to be found, as well
as that at which the greatest stress occurs. The inference is obvious
that a flaw is likely to develop at some sharp corner of such an enclosure,
In a section of steel such as that which must be used non-metallic
enclosures are very likely to occur, and so steps had to be taken to
ascertain what the best practical remedy was. With decreased carbon
content greater ductility was likely to follow, and this has been shown
to be the case. In a word, it is toughness rather than strength which is
required, and the studied consideration of these points has led to an
increased life in miles of the crank-axles of the 3,000 locomotives owned
by the Company, in spite of the fact that they have been constantly
growing in size, in pressure on the pistons, and in the work expected
from them, This is shown in the following curves, which represent
the mileage of crank-axles scrapped in the last twelve years.

G.—ENGINERRING. 178

Mileage in’ Ten Thousands.

Average Mileage obtained from Crank-Axles for Years 1910 to 1921 inclusive.

Tt will be appreciated that the above result, which is unquestionably
the result of ‘ ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and the relation
between them,’ is only one example, if perhaps the most marked one,
in our experience. A somewhat similar one could, however, be written
on locomotive tyres and other matters if space and time per mitted.

This example finishes my general remarks, and I cannot do so with-
out expressing the indebtedness I feel to ‘the various members of
the scientific staff of our great firms for all the assistance and help they
haye eyer so readily given us in the case I have just quoted,

One would like to press home strongly on engineers generally a point
made by Dr. Maw in his Presidential Address to the Institution of Civil
Enginegrs in November last. He pointed out the large amount of
scientific knowledge—much of which was accumulated during the War—
which is available at the present day. Here is the knowledge if we will
but apply it to the service of man. This is our function as engineers.
Tn times past we have had to wait for this knowledge, and, as I trust
I have shown, as it slowly became available it has been used in our
service and in that of the world. One great need is for men with the
education, the capacity, and the imagination necessary to use this scien-
tific knowledge for the advancement of our profession. I use these three
requisites advisedly, for each one of them is necessary to take full.
advantage of the opportunities which now exist. The trouble is that
whereas we can supply education, can increase the capacity of the indi-
vidual, it is difficult to instil or cultivate that imagination which allows
one to see the way in which the knowledge available can be applied in a
practical way,

174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

I think I have shown adequately the debt which transport, as well
as other branches of our profession, owes to the study of ‘ ordered know-
ledge.’ That in the future this will be even more marked than at present,
one can say without fear of contradiction. Not only so, but there must
be more and more interdependence between science and engineering.
More and more as we adyance—as we are doing so rapidly—in the
knowledge of natural phenomena will the necessity of the practical
application of this knowledge on a large scale become necessary to
confirm it and to bring out fresh features. One trusts that our Associa-
tion, which has done so much in this direction in the past, may continue
increasingly useful in the branch of its work which brings together those
whose work is purely scientific with those who are applying that know-
ledge to the direct service of man. Although the old idea of antagonism
between the two has disappeared, we cannot but feel that in spite of the
advance of recent years the extent to which the engineer depends on
the scientist for knowledge, and the scientist depends upon the engineer
for the practical application of the knowledge he has gathered, is not
realised as fully as it should be by either. The terms scientific and
practical should be synonymous. ;

One would like to feel that the meeting of our Association was more
generally used as the occasion on which the scientist ‘and the engineer
would meet in larger numbers. I know that the scientist is often an
engineer, and that the engineer has nowadays to be a scientist with a
broad outlook, but the personal contact of the two which this meeting
offers gives an opportunity the results of which would be incalculable if
that opportunity were fully grasped. If one might use an illustration
which I trust will not offend my scientific friends, scientific knowledge
is a tool of infinite possibilities, and this knowledge is possessed by sa
many who attend here. The practical engineer is always attracted by
tools. There is no better method of ascertaining what new and im-
proved tools of this type are available than by coming here. Beyond all
this, personal acquaintance is of greater and more permanent value
from every point of view than a paper acquaintance.

I would like, in closing, to make an appeal for a freer disclosure of
results obtained in practical working. This can only be done by taking
care in noting the behaviour of apparatus, material, &c., in use, and
placing the results freely at the disposal of the man of science and of
the manufacturers. At the present day there is no lack of those who
are trained observers, and [ believe one of the troubles often encountered
by manufacturers who are applying some new method is the difficulty
of getting dependable figures of performance. With transport companies
this should not be a difficult matter, for one great advantage they have
now is that there is no trade necessity to hide their results in any way.
It is one small way in which they can repay the great debt they owe to
science, which has allowed them to complete so satisfactorily their task.
As Kipling has so rightly and concisely stated:

‘ Tt is their care that the wheels run truly, it is their care
to embark and entrain,
Tally, transport, and deliver duly the Sons of Mary by
land and main.’

EGYPT AS A FIELD FOR
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH.

ADDRESS TO SECTION H (ANTHROPOLOGY) BY

Proressor P. E. NEWBERRY, M.A., O.B.E.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION,

Wuen I received the honour of an invitation to preside at the Anthropo-
logical Section of the British Association my thoughts naturally turned
to the subject of the Presidential Address, which, if I accepted the
invitation, it would be my duty to prepare. On looking back over the
Addresses of past Presidents of this Section since its institution in
1884 I found that no one had dealt with Egypt as a field for anthropo-
logical research. It was because of this that I decided to accept the
Council’s invitation, and I am here to-day to bring before your notice
some facts regarding the civilisation of the country with which I have
long been associated, and in which I have spent many years of my life.

In 1897, when the British Association last met in this great city on
the Mersey-side, Sir Arthur Evans occupied the Presidential Chair of
this Section, and the subject of his address was ‘ The Eastern Question
in Anthropology.’ Surveying the early history of civilisation as far as
it was then known, he insisted that the adequate recognition of the
Eastern background was essential to the right understanding of the
Aigean. He laid stress on the part which Crete had played in the
first emancipation of the European genius, and pointed out that in
Crete, far earlier than elsewhere, can be traced the vestiges of primeval
intercourse with the Nile Valley. Nineteen years later, years that
were extraordinarily prolific in archeological discovery in every part of
the Near East, Sir Arthur occupied the Presidential Chair of the British
Association at Newcastle. He then addressed us on ‘New Archeo-
logical Lights on the Origins of Civilisation in Europe.’ Referring te
his epoch-making discoveries in Crete he said, ‘ It is interesting to note
that the first quickening impulse came to Crete from the Egyptian
and not from the Oriental side; the Eastern factor in it is of compara-
tively late appearance.’ By that time Sir Arthur’s researches had led
him to the ‘ definite conclusion that cultural influences were already
reaching Crete from beyond the Libyan Sea, before the beginning of
the Egyptian Dynasties.” He further said ‘the impression of a very
active agency indeed is so strong that the possibility of some actual
immigration into the island of the older Egyptian element, due to the
conquests of the first Pharaohs, cannot be excluded.’

I propose to-day to deal with some of the questions relating to the
origins of the Egyptian civilisation, and incidentally shall touch upon

1923 5

176 - SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

this Cretan problem. At the end of my address I shall very briefly
refer to the much-neglected modern Egyptians, and to the need there
is to study them. Much has been written during the last twenty years
about the origins of the Egyptian civilisation, but there are some
facts which, I think, have either escaped notice or have not been duly
considered, and there are others upon which, in my opinion, insufficient
stress has been laid. I am not going to deal with the physical charac-
teristics of the people, for that is not my province. I shall confine
myself to certain inferences that I believe can be drawn from the
monuments of pre-dynastic and dynastic times.

It is generally agreed that the habits, modes of life, and occupations
of all communities are immediately dependent upon the features and
products of the land in which they dwell. Any inquiry into Egyptian
origins ought, therefore, to begin with the question, What were the
physical conditions that prevailed in the Lower Nile Valley immediately
preceding, and during, the rise of its civilisation? Until this question
is answered I do not think that we are in a position to deal with such
important problems as, ¢.g.—agriculture, architecture, shipbuilding,
tool-making, or weaving. The first thing that we ought to know is
what were the kinds of trees, plants, and animals that were to be found
in Egypt in the wild state, and what was the economic value of the
indigenous flora and fauna. We ought, in fact, to know what the
country was like in pre-agricultural days. If there was no timber in
the country, then it may, I think, be confidently said that the art of
the carpenter did not originate in Egypt; that the architectural styles
founded on wood construction could not have arisen there; that the art
of shipbuilding (at all events of building ships of wood) did not originate
there. Similarly, if there were no incense-bearing trees or shrubs in
the country, it is difficult to imagine that the ceremonial use of incense
arose there. Again, the art of weaving presupposes the presence of
sheep or goats for wool, or of flax for linen thread. All these kinds
of problems depend upon the natural products of a country, or they
did so depend in the early days of civilisation,

We are accustomed to regard Egypt as a paradise, as the most
fertile country in the world, where, if we but scratch the soil and
scatter seed, we have only to await and gather the harvest. The
Greeks spoke of Egypt as the most fit place for the first generations
of men, for there, they said, food was always ready at hand, and it
took no labour to secure an abundant supply. But there can be no
doubt that the Egypt of to-day is .a very different place from the Egypt
of pre-agricultural times. There has been a great, but gradual, change
in the physical condition of the whole country. In the mortuary
chapels of tombs of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, as well as in many
of the Empire, are scenes of papyrus swamps and reed marshes; in
these swamps and marshes are figured the animals and birds that then
frequented them. Among the animals are the hippopotamus and the
wild boar, the crocodile, the ibis, and a great variety of water-fowl.
These animals, and some of the birds, have now disappeared from the
region north of the First Cataract. Only very recently has the croco-
dile become extinct north of Aswan. It was still occasionally seen in

ee.

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 177
the Delta as late as the middle of the eighteenth century, and it was
fairly plentiful in Upper Hgypt up to the middle of the nineteenth
century, but it is now rarely, if ever, seen north of Wadi Halfa, It is
the same with the hippopotamus. In the twelfth century this mammal
still frequented the Damietta branch of the Nile, and two specimens
were actually killed near Damietta by an Italian surgeon in the
year 1600.! In the Dongola Province of Nubia it was very cormmon
at the beginning of last century, and Burckhardt states that it was
then a terrible plague there on account of its yoracity. In 1812 several
hippopotami passed the Second Cataract and made their appearance
at Wadi Halfa and Derr, while one was actually seen at Darawi, a
day’s march north of Aswan.? The wild boar is apparently now extinct
in Egypt, but specimens were shot in the Delta and in the region of
the Wadi Natrén during last’ century. | The ibis has gradually dis-
appeared from the Lower Nile Valley, where it was once so common.
The last specimen of this bird recorded in Egypt was shot in 1877
in Lake Menzaleh. It is sometimes seen in Lower Nubia, but has
now entirely disappeared from Egypt proper.

Much is known about the ancient fauna of the desert wadies from
the paintings and sculptured scenes in the tombs of the Old and Middle
Kingdoms and of the Empire. On the walls of many of these tombs
are depicted hunting scenes,* and among the wild animals figured in
them are the lion, leopard, Barbary sheep, wild ass, wild ox, hartebeest,
oryx, ibex, addax, dorcas gazelle, fallow deer, giraffe, and ostrich. As
several of these animals are not now~ known in Egypt it has been
argued that the scenes do not faithfully represent the ancient fauna
of the country. But I can see no reason to doubt that the scenes
depict actual hunts that took place inthe Arabian and Libyan Deserts
not far from the localities in which the tombs figuring them are found,
There is some corroborative evidence in the references in the ancient
literature to the hunting of the wild animals that frequented Egypt.
Thutmose 1V., for example, hunted the lion and ibex in the desert
plateau near Memphis; * Amenhotep III. killed 102 fierce lions during
the first ten years of his reign,® and in his second regnal year he hunted
wild cattle in the desert near Keneh;* he saw there a herd of 170,
and of these he and his huntsmen captured 96, -The desert to the east
_ of Kaft was a famous hunting-ground at the time of the Eighteenth
Dynasty. At the present day all but one of the animals represented in
these ancient hunting scenes are found in the Nubian Deserts to the
south of Egypt. The exception is important; if is the fallow deer,
which belongs to the Holarctic, not to the Ethiopian, zoological zone.
Although most of the animals that were hunted by the dynastic Egyp-
tians have now disappeared from their northern home, many have been
recorded in recent years as occurring in the Arabian and Libyan Deserts.
We can, in fact, follow them gradually receding southwards. The
dorcas gazelle is still common in both deserts, and the addax some-
_ times occurs in the region of the Wadi Natrin. The ibex is occasionally
seen on the mountains north-east of Keneh. The Barbary sheep
(Ammotragus tragelaphus) was observed by Dr. Schweinfurth in 1878
in the Wadi Shietun, which opens on the Nile below Ekhmim.* The
02

178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

wild ass was recorded by James Burton in 1823 in the desert north-east
of Keneh; he remarks that then the Arabs of this part of the desert let
their female donkeys loose to be served by the wild males.’ Later, in
1828, Linant de Bellefonds saw many wild asses in the region between
Darawi and Berber; they were, he says, often trapped by the Bisharin,
who used the flesh as food. During the first half of the eighteenth
century the ostrich frequented the desert near Suez.* A hundred years
later it was reported to be numerous in the Arabian Desert opposite
Esneh, and there is a wadi, some distance south-east of Aswan, that
is called by the Arabs Wadi Naam, ‘the Wadi of Ostriches.’ In the
Libyan Desert the bird was fairly common in the eighteenth century.
W. G. Browne, who travelled along the coast west of Alexandria in
1792, states that tracks of the ostrich were frequently seen, and he noted
also that the bird sometimes appeared in the neighbourhood of the
Wadi Natran.* Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1799 reported that it was then
common in the mountains south-west of Alexandria.?° In 1837 Lord
Lindsay saw the ostrich near Esneh,*! but the northern limit of the bird
is now very much further south. ‘The lion is mentioned by Sonnini at
the end of the eighteenth century as one of the larger carnivora which
then approached the confines of Egypt, but did not long remain in the
country.

Now the appearance of all these animals in Egypt and in its border-
ing deserts in dynastic times presupposes that the vegetation of the
wadies was much more abundant then than now, and this again pre-
supposes a greater rainfall than we find at present. The disappearance
of the dynastic fauna is not, however, entirely due to the change in
climatic conditions. The Arabs have a saying that it was the camel
that drove the lion out of Egypt, and this is doubtless true. The
lion depends mainly on the antelope tribe for its food supply. The
antelopes, on the other hand, depend for their sustenance on herbage
and grass, and this has been consumed to a great extent by the camels,
which, since Arab times, have been bred in great numbers in the
Arabian and Nubian Deserts. It is certain that the advent of the
camel was a factor in driving southwards many of the wild animals
that were at cne time so common in Egypt, but are now characteristic
of the Ethiopian region.

The characteristic wild trees of the dynastic flora of Egypt, as we
know from the remains of them that have been found in the ancient
tombs, were the heglik (Balanites eqyptiaca), the seyal (Acacia seyal),
the stint (Acacia nilotica), the tamarisk (Tamarix nilotica), the nebak
(Zizyphus spina-Christi), the sycomore-fig (Ficus sycomorus), and the
moringa (Moringa aptera). The dom palm (Hyphene thebaica) and
the Dellach palm (H. arqun) were also common. ‘The heglik does not
now grow wild north of Aswan, and, of the other trees, only the stint
and the tamarisk are really common in the Lower Nile Valley. All
these trees, however, now grow in abundance in the region north of
the Atbara, and it is here, in what is called the Taka country, that we
find also the fauna that was once so abundant in more northerly regions.

But if the fauna and flora of the Arabian and Libyan Deserts in
dynastic times approached more closely to that now seen in the Taka

*
4

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 179

country, we have to go further south again for the earliest pre-dynastic
fauna and flora of the Lower Nile Valley. This pre-dynastic fauna is
particularly interesting, because, in addition to several of the animals
already mentioned as occurring in dynastic times, we meet with others,
such as the elephant,’* the kudu (Strepceros kudu),’* the gerenuk gazelle
(Lithocranius walleri),"* a species of Sus'* (which is certainly not the
wild boar, i.e. Sus scrofa), and the marabou stork (Leptoptilus
erumenifer).’° From the nature and habits of these mammals and
birds it is evident that there must have been a considerable rainfall in
the Valley of the Nile north of Aswan when they frequented Egypt.
Dr. Anderson has referred to this subject in his monograph on the
Reptilia of Egypt. He notes that the physical features on both sides
of the Nile * indicate the existence of a period long antecedent to the
present, in which a considerable rainfall prevailed, as in the eroded
valleys of the desert may be observed rocky ravines which have been
carved out by the action of water, which has left behind it dry channels
over which waterfalls had once precipitated themselves, and others
down which cataracts once raced. The rainfall of the present is not
sufficient to account for such a degree of erosion.’** ‘This evidence
sanctions the conclusion that a material change in the character of the
climate of North-Eastern Africa, so far as its rainfall is concerned, has
taken place since pre-dynastic days. The flora of the valley of the
Lower Nile also points to the same conclusion. Dr. Schweinfurth!’ has
drawn. attention to the fact that many plants, now known in Egypt
only under cultivation, are found in the primeval swamps and forests
of the White Nile. He not unreasonably draws the inference that in
ages long ago the entire Nile Valley exhibited a vegetation harmonising
in its character throughout much more than at present. The papyrus
swamps and reed marshes that lined the Lower Nile Valley in pre-
agricultural days have been changed into peaceful fields, in which now
_ grow the cereal grains, wheat and barley, and the other crops that have
made Egypt famous as an agricultural country. It was the canalisa-
tion of the Valley, carried out by man, and the consequent draining
of the swamps and marshes that displaced the ancient flora from its
northern seat, and made it, as at the present day, only to be found
hundreds of miles higher up the river. The land of Egypt has, in
fact, been drained by man; each foot of ground has been won by the
sweat of his brow with difficulty from the swamp, until at last the
wild plants and animals which once possessed it have been completely
exterminated in it. The agricultural Egypt of modern times is as
much a gift of man as it is of the Nile.
I have dwelt at some length on the ancient fauna and flora because
Tt want to bring out as clearly as I can two facts concerning the Egypt
of pre-agricultural days—the Egypt of the time before man began to
win the alluvial soil for the purposes of agriculture. ( 1) The aspect of
the Lower Nile must have been very different from what it is now ; it
was a continuous line of papyrus swamps and marshes inhabited by
hippopotami, wild boars, crocodiles, and immense flocks of wild-fowl
of all kinds; it was singularly destitute of trees or plants that could
be put to any useful purpose, and timber-trees were non-existent; its

1380 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

physical conditions resembled those prevailing on the banks of the
White Nile to-day. (2) The deserts bordering the Lower Nile Valley
on both sides were much more fertile, and their fauna and flora
resembled that of the Taka country in Upper Nubia. Of the animals
that frequented the wadies only the ass and the wild ox were capable
of domestication. If man inhabited Egypt in pre-agricultural times—
and there is no valid reason to suppose that he did not—he probably
lived a wandering life, partly hunter, partly herdsman, in the fertile
wadies that bordered the valley, only going down to the river to fish
or to fowl or to hunt the hippopotamus. In the valley itself there
was certainly no pasture-land for supporting herds of large or small
cattle. It was probably also in these wadies that agriculture was first
practised in Egypt. Even at the present day a considerable number
of Ababdeh roam the wadies of the Arabian Desert between Keneh
and the Red Sea, where, at certain seasons of the year, there is fair
pasturage for small flocks of sheep and goats. I have myself seen
many of these people in the course of several journeys that I have
undertaken to the Red Sea coast: Some of these nomads sow a little
barley and millet after a rain-storm, and then pitch thei tents for
a while till the grain grows, ripens, and can be gathered. They then
move on again with their little flocks. What the Ababdeh do on a
very small scale the Hadendoa of the Taka country do on a much
greater one.

If we turn to the Taka country we see there people living under
much the same physical conditions as those which must have prevailed
in the Arabian and Libyan Deserts in early times. The inhabitants
of the Taka country are Hamite, and, as Professor Seligman has pointed
out,**® the least modified of these people are physically identical with
the pre-dynastic Egyptians of Upper Egypt. I would suggest that
they, like the fauna and flora of ancient Egypt, receded southwards
under the pressure of the advance of civilisation, and that the physical
conditions of the country have preserved them to a great extent in their
primitive life and pursuits. The picture of the Taka as Burckhardt
draws it would, I believe, describe almost equally well the earliest pre-
dynastic Egyptians. This country, called El Gash by its inhabitants,
has been described by Burckhardt.'* In his day the people there were
in the transition stage between the pastoral nomad and the agricul.
turist. It was a fertile and populous region. About the end of June
large torrents coming from the south and south-west pour over the
country, and in the space of a fortnight or so cover the whole surface
with a sheet of water, varying in depth from two to three feet. These
torrents were said to lese themselves in the eastern plain after inundat-
ing the country, but the waters remained upwards of a month in Taka,
and on subsiding left a thick slime or mud upon the surface. Imme-
diately after the inundation was imbibed the Bedawin sowed their seed
upon the mud, without any previous preparation whatever. The
inundation was usually accompanied by heavy rains, which set in a
short time before the inundation, and became most copious during its
height. The rains lasted some weeks longer than the inundation; they
were not incessant, but fell in heavy showers at short intervals. In

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 181

the winter and spring the people of Taka obtained their water from
deep wells, extremely copious, dispersed all over the country, but at a
considerable distance from each other. The people appeared to be
ignorant of tillage; they had no regular fields, and the millet, their
only grain, was sown among thorny trees. After the harvest was
gathered the peasants returned to their pastoral occupations. When
Burckhardt visited this region in the hottest part of the year, just
before the period of the rains, the ground was quite parched up, and
he saw but few cattle; the herds were sent to the Eastern Desert,
where they fed in the mountains and fertile valleys, and where springs
of water were found. After the inundation they were brought back to
the plain. The quantity of cattle, Burckhardt believed, would have
been greater than it was had it not been for the wild beasts which
inhabited the district and destroyed great numbers of them. The
most common of these wild animals were the lion and the leopard.
The flocks of the encampment were driven in the evening into the
area within the circle of tents, which were themselves surrounded by
a thorny enclosure. Great numbers of asses were kept by all these
Bedawin. They also possessed many camels. The trees are described
as being full of pigeons. The Hadendoa were the only inhabitants of
Taka seen by Burckhardt. Each tribe had a couple of large villages
built in the desert on the border of the cultivable soil, where some
inhabitants were always to be found, and to which the population,
excepting those who tended the cattle in the interior of the desert,
repaired during the rainy season. After the waters had subsided they
spread over the whole district, pitching their camps in those places
where they hoped for the best pasturage, and moved about from month
to month, until the sun parched up the herbage. The settlers in the
villages meantime sowed the ground adjoining the neighbouring desert.
The camps consisted of huts formed of mats; there were also a few
huts with walls, resembling those in the countries of the Nile, but
smaller. Even the settlers, however, preferred living in the open under
sheds to inhabiting these close dwellings.

It has often been stated that civilisation in Egypt spread from
the south, and considerable stress has been laid upon the fact that so
many pre-dynastic and early dynastic remains have been found in Upper
Egypt in the region between Edfu and Thinis, especially at Hierakon-
polis and Naqada, and north of Naqada, in the neighbourhood of
Abydos. Opposite Edfu is a desert route leading to the Red Sea; at
Kaft, opposite Naqada, is the beginning of the road leading to Kosér,
the port on the Rea Sea. It has been thought that the people who
brought culture to Egypt reached the Nile Valley by one or by both
these routes from a ‘God’s Land’ situated somewhere down the Red
Sea coast. But throughout the whole history of Egypt culture has
always come from the north, and spread southwards.

From a study of the monuments of the First Dynasty that had
been found at Abydos and elsewhere in Upper Egypt I ventured, nearly
fwenty years ago,”° to suggest the existence in pre-dynastic times of
a Delta civilisation which, in culture, was far advanced beyond that
of Upper Egypt, and I pointed out that it was probably to a Delta

182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

civilisation that the Dynastic Egyptians owed their system of writing.
I was led to this conclusion by the following facts. Although many
pre-dynastic cemeteries had been thoroughly explored in Upper Egypt
no grave had yielded a single fragment of hieroglyphic writing. ‘The
only inference that can be drawn from this is that hieroglyphic writing
was unknown, or at all events unpractised, by the inhabitants of
Upper Egypt before dynastic times. On the other thand, the dis-
coveries at Naqada, Hierakonpolis, and Abydos had shown us that all
the essential features of the Egyptian system of writing were fully
developed at the beginning of the First Dynasty. Hieroglyphic signs
were already in full use as simple phonograms, and their employment
as phonetic complements was well established. Determinative signs
are found beginning to appear in these early writings, but, as Erman
and Griffith have noticed, even as late as the Fifth Dynasty their use
was very restricted in the monumental inscriptions, although they were
common in the cursive and freely written texts of the Pyramids. At
the very beginning of the First Dynasty the numerical system was com-
plete up to millions, and the Egyptians had already worked out a solar
year of 865 days. ‘This was indeed a remarkable achievement.

These facts are of great significance, for it is clear that the hiero-
elyphic system of writing, as we find it at the beginning of the First
Dynasty, must have been the growth of many antecedent ages, and
yet no.trace of the early stages of its evolution have been found on
Upper Egyptian soil. There is no clear evidence, however, that the
system was borrowed from any country outside Egypt; the fauna and
flora of its characters give it every appearance of being indigenous. It
is apparent, therefore, that we must seek the cradle of the Egyptian
system of hieroglyphic writing elsewhere than in Upper Egypt, and
as the fauna and flora of its characters are distinctly Egyptian the
presumption is that it must be located to the Delta. An important indi-
cation as to the original home of Egyptian writing is given by the
signs which, in historic times, were used to designate the points of the
compass. The sign for ‘ east’ was a drop-shaped ingot of metal upon
a sacred perch, and this was the cult-object of a clan living in pre-
dynastic times in the Eastern Delta. The sign for ‘ west’ was an
ostrich feather placed in a semicircular stand, and this was the cult-
object of the people of the Western Delta. The sign for ‘ south’ was
a scirpus-reed; this was the cult-object of a clan which dwelt on the
east bank of the Nile a little above the modern village of Sharona in
Middle Egypt. The country south of the apex of the Delta was known
as Ta Shema, ‘Reed Land.’ It must, therefore, have been at some
point north of the apex of the Delta that the scirpus-reed was first used
to designate the south. It must also have been somewhere in the
Central Delta that the cult-objects of the peoples of the Eastern and
Western Delta were first used to designate ‘east’ and ‘ west.’

For the Delta being the early home of writing another fact has to
be taken into consideration. Thoth, the Ibis-god, was to the Egyp-
tians the god of writing, and it was to him that they attributed. its
invention. The principal seat of his worship in historic times was
Hermopolis, in Middle Egypt. But Thoth’s original habitat was

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 188

situated in the north-east corner of the Delta, where, in pre-dynastic
times, had resided an Ibis clan. The tradition that named Thoth as
the god and inventor of writing would, therefore, point Delta-wards.
This tradition is significant also in another way. Although we cannot
doubt that the Egyptian system of writing was evolved in the Delta,
the germs of writing may have come into Egypt from Western Asia
via this north-east corner of the country. In this connection it may
be pointed out that the hieroglyphic signs for ‘ right’ and ‘left ’ were
the same as those for ‘ west’ and ‘ east’; the Egyptians who evolved
the hieroglyphic system of writing orientated themselves facing south.

It is remarkable that so little is known about the early history of the
‘Delta. But few excavations have been carried out there, and nothing of
pre-dynastic or early dynastic times has, so far, been brought to light
from the country north of Cairo. We do know, however, that before
the arrival of the Falcon-kings from Hierakonpolis in the south, Middle
and Lower Egypt had been, probably for many centuries, united under
one sceptre, and that before these two parts of the country were united
there had been a Delta Kingdom which had had its capital at Sais. The
names of some of these early kings are preserved on the Palermo frag-
ment of the famous Annals Tablet, and the list there given would alone
be enough to prove how ancient the Delta civilisation must have been.
There was certainly nothing comparable with it-in Upper Egypt in those
far-off days.

What were the physical conditions prevailing in the Delta and in
the regions to the east and west of it immediately preceding Menes’
arrival in Lower Egypt? For the eastern side the evidence is exceed-
ingly scanty, but there is one fact which is significant. The chief god
of the eastern nomes of the Delta in the Pyramid Age was Anzety, a
pastoral deity who was the prototype of Osiris. He is represented as a
man holding in one hand the shepherd’s crook, and in the other the
goatherd’s ladanisterion. There can be little doubt, therefore, that in
the Eastern Delta there lived a pastoral people who possessed flocks of
sheep and goats, and this is evidence of a certain amount of grass-land.
In the Central Delta at the same period there lived a series of clans,
among which a Bull Clan was predominant. In historic times in
Egypt the ox is often figured roaming in papyrus and reed marshes, and
it may be that the Central Delta marshes supported herds of domesti-
cated cattle. Much more is known about the western side of the Delta
at the time of Menes. It formed, I believe, part of what was called
Tehenu-land; at all events this name was given to the region imme-
diately to the west of the Canopic branch of the Nile. There can be no
doubt that this part of the country was a very fertile and prosperous
region in the period immediately preceding the First Dynasty. Its
name signifies ‘Olive-land,’ and we actually see these trees figured,
with the name of the country beside them, on a pre-dynastic Slate
Palette; on this Palette, above the trees, are shown oxen, asses, and
sheep of the type later known as ser-sheep. It was Menes,*! the Falcon-
king of Upper Egypt, who conquered the people of Tehenu-land. This
conquest is recorded on a small ivory cylinder that was found at
Hierakonpolis. Another record of the Southerner’s triumph over these

184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

people is preserved on his famous Slate Palette; here the Upper Egyp-
tian king is depicted smiting their Chieftain, while on the verso of the
same Palette is the scene of a festival at the Great Port, which was
perhaps situated near the Canopic branch of the Nile. The mace-head
of Menes, which is now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford, has a
scene carved upon it which shows the king assuming the Red Crown of
Sais, and the inscription accompanying it records that he had captured
120,000 prisoners, 400,000 oxen, and 1,422,000 goats. This immense
number of oxen and goats is clear evidence that the north-western
Delta and the region to the west of it (Tehenu-land) must have included
within its boundaries very extensive grass-lands. Several centuries after
Menes, Sahure, a king of the Fifth Dynasty, captured in Tehenu-
land 123,440 oxen, 283,400. asses, 232,413 goats, and 243,688
sheep. Senusret I. also captured in the same region ‘ cattle of all kinds
without number.’ This again shows how fertile the country must have
been at the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. ‘The history of this part
of the Delta is most obscure. During the period that elapsed from the
end of the Third Dynasty to the beginning of the Twenty-third, when
Tefnakht appears upon the scene, we have hardly any information about
it. What was happening at Sais and other great cities in the north-
west of Egypt during the period from 2900 to 720 B.c. ? There is an
extraordinary lacuna in our knowledge of this part of the country. The
people living there were certainly of Libyan descent, for even as late
as the time of Herodotus the inhabitants deemed themselves Libyans,
not Egyptians; and the Greek historian says that they did not even
speak the Egyptian language. The pre-dynastic people who inhabited
the greater part of the Lower Nile Valley were apparently of the same
stock as these Libyans. There is a certain class of decorated pottery
which has been found in pre-dynastic graves from Gizeh in the north
to Kostamneh in the south. On this decorated pottery are figured boats
with cult-objects raised on poles. Altogether some 170 vases of this
type are known, and on them are 300 figures of boats with cult-signs.
Of these, 124 give the ‘ Harpoon’ ensign; 78 the ‘Mountain’ ensign;
and 20 the ‘ Crossed Arrows’ ensign. These cult-objects all survived
into historic times; the ‘ Harpoon’ was the cult-object of the people
of the Mareotis Lake region; the ‘ Mountain’ and ‘ Crossed Arrows’
were the cult-objects of the people dwelling on the right bank of the
Canopic branch of the Nile. Thus it will be seen that out of 300 boats
figured on vases found in graves in the Lower Nile Valley south of
Cairo, 222 belong to cults which can be located in the north-western
corner of the Delta. Twenty-two boats bear the ‘Tree’ ensign,
which was the early cult-object of the people of Herakleopolis, a city
just south of the Fayim. Ten bear the ‘Thunderbolt’ ensign of
Ekhmim. The ‘ Faleon’ on a curved perch appears on three boats,
and this ensign undoubtedly represents the Falcon deity of Hierakon-
polis. At the beginning of the historic period the cult-objects of the
people of the north-western Delta included (1) the “ Harpoon,’ (2) the
figure-of-eight ‘ Shield with Crossed Arrows,’ (3) the ‘ Mountain,’ and
probably (4) the Double Axe,*” and (5) a Dove or Swallow.” With the
exception of the ‘ Harpoon’ all these cult-objects are also found in

>» = aw we i es

ee a.

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 185

Crete, a fact which is significant in view of Sir Arthur Evans’ remark,
quoted at the beginning of my address, to the effect that he considers the
possibility of some actual immigration into the Island of the older
Egyptian element due to the first Pharaohs. The * Harpoon,’ it should
be noted, is the prototype of the bident, and later, of the trident of the
Libyan god Poseidon.

Upon the mace-head of Menes the king is represented assuming the
Crown of Neith of Sais. This is the earliest representation of the
famous Sed Festival which is generally held to be a survival, in a
much weakened form, of the ceremonial killing of the king, its essential
feature being regarded as the identification of the king with the god
Osiris. The festival was, I believe, of Libyan origin, and, at all
events in its origin, it was not connected in any way with Osiris. On
this mace-head the Upper Egyptian conqueror is shown seated under a
canopy upon a dais raised high above the ground. He is clad in a long,
close-fitting garment; upon his head is the Red Crown of Sais, and in
one of his hands is the so-called flail. Behind him is a group of
officials, and upon either side of the dais are two fan-bearers. In front
of the king is a princess seated in a palanquin, and behind her are
three men figured in the act of running. This is the earliest of a long
series of representations of the festival, and we cannot doubt that the
particular ceremony here depicted was the central one around which,
in later times, the other ceremonies that we know were connected with
it were grouped. There is no indication here of any ceremonial killing
of the king, and the Red Crown which Menes wears is not charac-
teristic of Osiris but of the goddess Neith of Sais. In the Mortuary
Temple of Neuserre at Abusir, in the Temple of Amenhotep III. at
Soleb in Nubia, and in the Temple of Osorkon III. at Bubastis, the
Sed Festival is represented in far greater detail, but still there is no
indication of the ceremonial killing of the king, or of his identification
with Osiris. These later scenes show that the festival was a great
national one that was attended by all the great dignitaries of State, and
_ by the priests of the gods from all the principal cities of Egypt. In
these later representations the king’s daughters and the running men
play an important part. Inscriptions accompanying the scenes at
Soleb** and Bubastis state that the king at this festival assumed the
protection of Egypt and of the sacred women of the Temple of Amon.
The Queen at these periods of Egyptian history was the High Priestess
of Amon and the Head of the Harim of the god. An important refer-
ence to the festival is found in the inscription of Piankhy. This
Ethiopian king, in his triumphant march from Thebes towards the
Delta, had captured Hermopolis, the capital of a petty king named
Namlot (a Libyan Dynast), and when Piankhy made his entry into the
city he was acclaimed by the people, who prayed that he would cele-
brate there a Sed festival. ‘ His Majesty proceeded to the palace of
Namlot, and entered every chamber. He caused that there be brought
to him the king’s wives and the king’s daughters. They saluted His
Majesty in the fashion of women,” but the Ethiopian says that he would
not turn his face tc them, and he did not celebrate a Sed festival. The
most important point in connection with the festival is that at it the

186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

king assurued the protection of the land of Egypt. It was a kind of
coronation festival. On Menes’ mace-head the king is shown assuming
the Red Crown, while before him is the Princess of the country that he
had conquered, and below her is a statement of the number of prisoners
and cattle captured by him in her country.

Now what were the rules that regulated the succession to the king-
ship in Ancient Egypt? It is often assumed that the kingship was
hereditary in the male line, and that the son regularly succeeded his
father on the throne. But we know that many Egyptian kings were
not the sons of their predecessors. We also know that at some periods,
at all events, the sovereign based his claim to the kingship upon the
fact that he had married the Hereditary Princess. Harmhab, at the
beginning of the Nineteenth Dynasty, tells us that he proceeded to the
palace at Thebes, and there, in the Great House (pr-wr), married the
Hereditary Princess. Then the gods, ‘ the lords of the House of Flame
(pr-nsrt), were in exultation because of his coronation, and they prayed
Amon that he would grant to Harmhab the Sed festivals of Re.’ It
was after his marriage to the princess that Harmhab’s titulary was
fixed. The reference to the House of Flame is interesting because the
kindling of fire was an important ceremony at the Sed Festival; it is
figured at Soleb, and there a priestess called ‘ the Divine Mother of
Suit’ plays an important réle. This priestess may be compared with
Vestia, who always bore the official title of ‘ Mother,’ never that of
‘Virgin.’ It is unnecessary for me to speak of the King’s Fire and
the Vestal Virgins whose duty it was to keep the perpetual fire burning ;
the material has been collected by Sir James Frazer. This ceremony
of kindling fire suggests that the festival may have been a marriage
festival, and the running men figured on the mace-head of Menes, and
in later representations, also points to this interpretation of it. There
can be little doubt that it was a Libyan festival; at all events it is first
found when Menes assumed the Red Crown of Neith of Sais. When
Menes had conquered the north-western Delta, he married the
Hereditary Princess of the country. She was probably the eldest
daughter, or perhaps the widow, of the Lower Egyptian king whose
country he had seized. Marriage with the king’s widow or eldest
daughter carried the throne with it as a matter of right, and Menes’
marriage, we can well believe, was.a marriage of policy in order to
clinch by a legal measure his claim to that crown which he had already
won for himself in battle. Sir James Frazer has noted that sometimes
apparently the right to the hand of the princess and to the throne
has been determined by a race. The Libyan king Antzeus placed his
daughter Barce at the end of a race-course; her noble suitors, both
Libyans and foreigners, ran to her as the goal, and the one who touched
her first gained her in marriage. The Alitemnian Libyans awarded
the kingdom to the fleetest runner. According to tradition, the earliest
games at Olympia were held by Endymion, who set his sons to run
a race for the kingdom. In all the ceremonies connected with the Sed
Festival I can see no feature that suggests the Osirification of the king.
When he wears the Red Crown he assumes control of Lower Egypt;
when he wears the White Crown he assumes control of Upper Egypt.

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 187

There is one further point connected with the western side of the Delta
that must be noted. Glazeware (and glass) in Egyptian is called tehent ;
this was one of the chief articles of export of Tehenu-land. Just as we
use the word ‘ china’ for a kind of porcelain which first came to us from
China, so the Egyptians called glass thn.t after the country of the
north-western Delta from which they derived it. Here in this western
side of Lower Egypt is an almost wholly unexplored field for the
anthropologist.

I have already referred to the pastoral deity Anzety, who, in the
Pyramid Age, was Chief of the nomes of the Eastern Delta. Among all
the nome-gods he is the only cne that is figured in human form; he
stands erect, holding in his right hand the shepherd’s crook and in his
left the goatherd’s ladanisterion. On his head is a bi-cornute object
that is connected with goats, and on his chin is a false beard curled
at the tip. He was not an oxherd, but a shepherd and goatherd. In
later times the figure of this deity, in hieroglyphic writing, is regularly
used'as the determinative sign of the word ity, ‘ ruling prince,’
sovereign,’ a term that is applied only to the living king. In the
Pyramid Texts, Anzety is entitled ‘ Head of the Eastern nomes,’ and
these included the ancient one of the Oxyrrhynchus-fish, where, later,
the ram or goat was the chief cult-animal. Neither the domesticated
sheep nor the goat can be reckoned as Egyptian in origin; they both
came into Hgypt from Western Asia. We have, therefore, in this
pastoral deity Anzety evidence of immigration from the west. The
only wild sheep inhabiting the continent of Africa is the Barbary sheep,
and this animal was not the ancestor of any domesticated breed. Both
the sheep and the goat are essentially mountain animals, though sheep
in the wild state do not as a rule frequent such rugged and precipitous
ground as their near relatives the goats, but prefer more open country.
Sheep browse in short grass ; goats feed upon the young shoots of shrubs
and trees. The domesticated goat is generally recognised as descended
from the wild goat (Capra hircus egagrus) of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia,
and the Mediterranean Isles. Two breeds of domesticated sheep were
known to the Egyptians. The sheep of the earliest historical period
down to the Middle Kingdom was a long-legged variety (Ovis longipes),
with horns projecting transversely and twisted. This breed was the
only one known in the earlier periods of Egyptian history; it was the
predominant breed in the Middle Kingdom, but soon after the beginning
of the Empire it appears to have become rare or extinct in Egypt, and
was superseded by a variety with horns curving forwards in a sub-
circular coil, Both varieties of domesticated sheep, according to
Lydekker, were introduced into Egypt through Syria.

Among the cult-objects of the cities over which the god Anzety pre-
sided were two which, I believe, can definitely be referred to trees
that were not indigenous to the soil of Egypt. but to Syria. One of
these cult-objects is the so-called Ded-column. This was one of the
holiest symbols of the Egyptian religion. It has four cross-bars at the
top like superposed capitals. | Sometimes a pair of human eyes are
shown upon it, andthe pillar is draped: sometimes a human form is
given to it by carving a grotesque face on it, robing the lower part,

188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

crowning the top with ram’s horns, and adding two arms, the hands
holding the crook and ladanisterion. Frazer has suggested that this
object might very well be a conventional representation of a tree stripped
of its leaves. That it was, in fact, a lopped tree is, I believe, certain.
In the Pyramid Texts it is said of Osiris, ‘ Thou receivest thy two oars,
the one of juniper (wan), the other of sd-wood, and thou ferriest over
the Great Green Sea.’ The determinative-sign of the word sd is a tree
of precisely the same form as the Ded-column that is figured on eariy
Egyptian monuments, i.e. it has a long, thin stem. This tree-name
occurs only in inscriptions of the Pryamid Age, and it is mentioned
as a wood that was used for making chairs, tables, boxes, and various
other articles of furniture. In the passage quoted from the Pyramid
Texts it is mentioned together with juniper, and the latter was employed
in cabinet-making, etc., at all periods of Egyptian history. There is
no eyidence that juniper ever grew in Egypt, but we have numerous
records of the wood being imported from the Lebanon region. The
sd-tree, as we see from the determinative-sign of the name, had horizon-
tally spreading branches, and was evidently some species of conifer.
No conifers, however, are known from Egypt; the sd-wood must,
therefore, have been of foreign importation. As it is mentioned with
juniper, which we know came to Egypt from Syria, it is possible that
it came from the same region. Among the trees of the Lebanon there
are four that have horizontally spreading branches. These are the cedar
(Cedrus libani), the Cilician fir, the Pinus laricio, and the horizontal-
branched cypress (Cupressus sempervirens var. horizontales). Much
misconception at present exists with regard to the Lebanon Cedar,
because the name ‘ cedar’ is applied to a large number of woods which
are quite distinct from it, and the wood which we generally call cedar
(e.g. the cedar of our ‘ cedar’ pencils) is not true cedar at all, but
Virginian juniper. The wood of Cedrus libani is light and spongy, of a
reddish-white colour, very apt to shrink and warp badly, by no means
durable, and in no sense is it valuable. Sir Joseph Hooker, who visited
the Lebanon in 1860, notes that the lower slopes of that mountain
region bordering the sea were covered with magnificent forests of pine,
juniper, and cypress, ‘so that there was little inducement for the timber
hewers of ancient times to ascend 6,000 feet through twenty miles of
a rocky mountain valley to obtain cedar wood which had no particular
quality to recommend it. The cypress, pine, and tall, fragrant juniper
of the Lebanon, with its fine red heart-wood, would have been far more
prized on every account than the cedar.’ The sd-tree was, I believe,
the horizontal-branched cypress which is common in the wild state.
In the Middle Ages this tree was believed to be the male tree, while the
tapering conical-shaped cypress was considered to be the female. This
is an interesting fact, because there is some evidence to show that the
tapering variety was the symbol of Hathor-Isis, while the horizontal-
branched one was the symbol of Osiris.

In the Pyramid Age there are several records of the priests of the
Ded-column. They were called ‘ priests of the venerable ded-column.’
The seat of the cult was Dedu, or, as it was sometimes called, Pr-Wsr,
‘the House of Osiris,’ the Greek Busiris in the Central Delta. At this

T.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 189

city was celebrated annually a great festival in honour of Osiris. It
lasted many days, and the culmination of a long series of ceremonies
was the raising of the ded-column into an erect position. Osiris is
intimately connected with this column; the Egyptians called it his back-
bone. In the myth of Osiris, as recorded by Plutarch, a pillar played
an important part. Plutarch says that the coffer containing the body
of Osiris was washed up by the sea at Byblos, the port of the Lebanon,
and that a tree grew up and concealed the coffin within itself. This
sacred tree was cut down by Isis and presented to the people of Byblos
wrapped in a linen cloth, and anointed with myrrh like a corpse. It
therefore represented the dead god, and this dead god was Osiris.

Not far from Dedu, the city of Osiris in the Delta, was Hebyt, the
modern Behbeyt el Hagar. Its sacred name was Neter. The Romans
ealled it Iseum, or Isidis oppidum. It was the ancient seat of Isis
worship in Egypt, and the ruins of its temple to that goddess still cover
several acres of ground in the neighbourhood. On the analogy of other
sacred names of cities the primitive cult-object here was the nér-pole.
This was not an axe, as has so often been supposed, but a pole that was
wrapped around with a band of coloured cloth, tied with cord half-way
up the stem, with the upper part of the band projecting as a flap at top.
Dr. Griffith conjectured that it was a fetish, e.g. a bone carefully wound
round with cloth, but he noted that ‘this idea is not as yet supported
by any ascertained facts.’ As a hieroglyh this wrapped-up pole
expresses ntr, ‘ god,’ ‘ divine,’ in which sense it is very common from
the earliest times; gradually it became determinative of divinity and of
the divine names and ideographic of divinity. Another common ideo-
graph of ‘ god’ in the Old Kingdom was the Faleon (Horus) upon a
perch, and this sign was also employed as a determinative of divinity
and of the names of individual gods; it even sometimes occurs as a
determinative sign of the ntr-pole, e.g. Pyr. Texts, 482. This use of
the Falcon indicates that in the early dynasties the influence of the
Upper Egyptian Falcon-god (Horus) was paramount. But there is
reason for believing that the ntr-pole cult had at an earlier period been
the predominant one among the writing people of the Delta; this, I
think, is shown by the invariable use of the ntr-pole sign in the words
for priest (hm-ntr, ‘ god’s servant ’), and temple (ht-ntr, ‘ god’s house ’).
Now, on a label of King Aha of the First Dynasty there is a representa-
tion of the temple of Neith of Sais. Here two poles with triangular
flags at top are shown on either side of the entrance. Later figures of
the same temple show these poles with the rectangular flags precisely
as we find in the nétr-sign. A figure of the temple of Hershef on the
Palermo Stone shows two poles with triangular flags, while a Fourth
Dynasty drawing of the same temple shows the same poles with
rectangular flags. We see, therefore, that the triangular-flagged pole
equals the rectangular-flagged one, and that the nir is really a pole or
mast with flag. Poles of this kind were probably planted before the
entrances to most early Egyptian temples, and the great flag-masts set
up before the pylons of the great temples of the Eighteenth and later
dynasties are obviously survivals of the earlier poles. The height and
straightness of these poles prove that they cannot have been produced

190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

by any native Egyptian tree; in the Empire flag-staves were regularly
imported from Syria; it is probable therefore that in the earlier times
they were introduced from the same source. A well-known name for
Syria and the east coast of the Red Sea, as well as of Punt, was Ta-ntr,
‘the land of the ntr-pole.’ This was the region in which the primitive
Semitic goddess Astarte was worshipped. In Canaan there was a
goddess Ashera whose idol or symbol was the ashera pole. The names
of Baal and Ashera are sometimes coupled precisely as those of Baal
and Astarte, and many scholars have inferred that Ashera was only
another name of the great Semitic goddess Astarte. The ashera-pole
was an object of worship, for the prophets put it on the same line
with the sacred symbols, such as Baal pillars: the ashera was, therefore,
a sacred symbol, the seat of a deity, the mark of a divine presence. In
late times these asherim did not exclusively belong to any one deity;
they were erected to Baal as well as to Yahw. They were sign-posts set
up to mark sacred places, and they were, moreover, draped. They
correspond exactly to the ntr-poles of Egyptian historic times. I have
noted that these ntr-poles were tal! and straight. What tree produced
them? In Egyptian inscriptions there is often mentioned a tree named
tr.t. It was occasionally planted in ancient Egyptian gardens, and
specimens of it were to be seen in the Temple garden at Heliopolis.
The seeds and sawdust were employed in medicine, and its resin was
one of the ingredients of the Kyphi-incense. Chaplets were made of
its twigs and leaves. The tree was sacred to Hathor; branches of it
were offered by the Egyptian kings to that goddess. In a Saite text it
is mentioned with three other trees—pine, yew, and juniper; these are
all found in Northern Syria, where they grow together with the cypress ;
the tr.t tree may therefore be the cypress. Evidence has been brought
forward to show that the sd-tree is the horizontal-branched cypress,
which was believed to be a male tree, while the tapering, flame-shaped
cypress was believed to be the female tree. The ded-column was the
symbol of Osiris, and at Busiris was celebrated a festival of raising this
column. ‘The tr.t tree was sacred to Hathor, who is often identified
with Isis, and there was a festival of raising the tr.t tree that was
celebrated on the nineteenth day of the first month of the winter season.
It is not known where this festival was celebrated, but it may well have
been at Neter, the seat of the Isis cult near Dedu-Busiris. The two
tree-cults point to Northern Syria as the country of their origin.

In the architecture of ancient Egypt two distinct styles can be
recognised. One is founded on wattle-and-daub, the other on wood
construction. Wattle-and-daub is the natural building material of the
Nile Valley and Delta, and the architectural forms derived from it are
certainly indigenous. Those styles derived from wood construction,
on the other hand, could not have originated in Egypt, but must have
arisen in a country where the necessary timber was ready at hand.
Egypt produces no coniferous trees and no timber that is at all suitable
for building purposes, or indeed for carpenter’s work of any descrip-
tion. The wood of the sycomore-fig is very coarse-grained, and no
straight planks can be cut from it. The sint-acacia is so hard that
it requires to be sawn while it is green; it is very irregular in texture,

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 191

and on account of the numerous branches of the trunk it is impossible
to cut it into boards more than a couple of feet in length. The palaces
of the early kings of the Delta were built of coniferous wood hung with
tapestry-woven mats. The tomb of Menes’ queen, Neith-hotep, at
Naqada, was built of brick in imitation of one of these timber-con-
structed palaces, and smaller tombs of the same kind are known from
the Second and Third Dynasties, but not later. As early as the reign
of King Den (First Dyn.) the palaces of this type were beginning to

- be built of the native wattle-and-daub in combination with wood, ye)

by the end of the Pyramid Age the style disappears entirely, though the
memory of it was preserved in the false-doors of the tombs and “stele.

Brick buildings similar to those of the ‘ palace ’ style of Egypt are
also known from early Babylonia, and they were at one time regarded as
peculiarly characteristic of Sumerian architecture. These, obviously,

must have been copied, like the Egyptian, from earlier timber forms.

In Babylonia, as in Egypt, timber was scarce, and there are records
that it was sometimes obtained from the coast of Syria. This was the
region from which the Egyptians throughout historic times obtained
their main supplies of wood, so it is not improbable that they, as well
as the Sumerians, derived this particular style of architecture from
Northern Syria. [I may observe in passing that in this ‘ palace’ style
we have the transition form between the nomad’s tent and the permanent
building of a settled people. The lack of native timber in Egypt is
significant in another direction. Boats of considerable size are figured
on many pre-dynastic monuments. They are long and narrow, and in
the middle there is usually figured a reed or wicker-work cabin. bn!
my view these boats were built, like many of those of later periods in
Egypt, of bundles of papyrus reeds bound together with cord ; they were,
in fact, great canoes, and, of course, were only for river traffic. They
were not sailing boats, but were propelled by means of oars. No mast
is ever figured with them, but they generally have a short pole amid-
ships which is surmounted by a cult-object. On one pre-dynastic vase
there is a figure of a sailing ship, but this is totally different in build
from the canoes, and it has a very high bow and stern with its mast
set far forward in the hull. Similar vessels are figured on the ivory
knife-handle of pre-dynastic date from Gebel el Araq, but these vessels
appear to be in port anid the sails are evidently iowered. I have already
referred to the Great Port mentioned on the Palette of Menes. A port
implies shipping and trade relations with people dwelling along the coast
or across the sea. It may be that the people of the north-western
_ Delta built wooden ships, but if they did they must have procured their
timber from some foreign source. Coniferous wood was already being
imported into the Nile Valley at the beginning of the First Dynasty
from the Lebanon region, and it must be remembered that the Egyptian
name for a sea-going ship was kbnyt, from Keben, ‘ Byblos,’ the port

_ of the Lebanon, where these ships must have been built and from whence

a) they sailed. ‘The sacred barks of the principal gods of Egypt in historic
times were invariably built of coniferous wood from the Lebanon.
_ Transport ships on the Nile were sometimes built of the native sint-

wood, and Herodotus describes them as made of planks about two cubits
1923 P

192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

long which were put together ‘ brick-fashion.’ No masts or sail-
yards, however, could possibly be cut from any native Egyptian tree.
In the Sidan at the present day masts are sometimes made by splicing
together a number of small pieces of stint and binding them with ox-hide,
but such masts are extremely liable to start in any gale, and they would
be useless for sea-going ships. It may be doubted whether the art of
building sea-going ships originated in Egypt. It may be doubted also
whether the custom of burying the dead in wooden coffins originated in
Egypt. In countries where a tree is a rarity a plank for a coffin is
generally unknown. In the Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage written
some time before 2000 B.c., at a period when there was internal strife in
Egypt, the Sage laments that ‘ Men do not sail northwards to
[Byb]-los* to-day. What shall we do for coniferous trees} for our
mummies, with the produce of which priests are buried, and with the
oil of which [chiefs] are embalmed as far as Keftiu? They come no
more.’ This ancient Sage raises another anthropological question when
he refers to the oil used for embalming. The only oils produced by
native trees or shrubs in Egypt were olive oil, ben oil from the moringa,
and castor oil from the castor-oil plant. The resins and oils used for
embalming were principally those derived from pines and other coni-
ferous trees. Egypt produced no kinds of incense trees or shrubs. The
common incenses were pine resin, ladanum, and myrrh, and all these
were imported. It is difficult to believe that the ceremonial use of
incense arose in Higypt.

These are a few of the questions raised by a study of the material
relating to the origins of the ancient civilisation of Egypt. There are
numbers of others that are waiting to be dealt with. Egypt is extra-
ordinarily rich in material for the anthropologist. It is a storehouse
full of the remains of man’s industry from pre-agricultural times right
down to the present day. Almost every foot of ground hides some
relic of bygone man. The climatic conditions prevailing there are excep-
tional, and it is largely owing to the absence of rain that so full a record
of man and his works has been preserved. For more than a century
excavators have been busy in many parts of the country, but there is
yet no sign that the soil is becoming exhausted; it is, in fact, almost
daily yielding up its buried treasures. The past two or three decades have
been prolific in surprises. Mines of hidden wealth have been unearthed
where but a few years ago we only saw the sands and rocky defiles of the
desert. Since we met at Hull last year, the most sensational archzo-
logical discovery cf modern times has been made in a place that had
been abandoned by many excavators as exhausted. This discovery, due
to the untiring persistence of an Englishman, promises to yield results
of extraordinary interest, but it will take years before they can be
adequately published. Other discoveries have been made in Egypt
during recent years which have opened out a vista of human history
that we little dreamt of a quarter of a century ago. Three decades

* This place-name ends -ny: the restoration [Xp-]ny is due to Sethe and
‘suits the traces, the space and context quite admirably.—A. H. Gardiner,
Lhe Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, Leipzig, 1909, p. 33.

+ The word is as, a generic one for pines, fir, &c.

ab ay

H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 193

ago not a single monument was known that could be ascribed with
certainty to the period before the Third Egyptian Dynasty. To-day
we possess a continuous series of written documents which carry
us back to Menes, the Founder of the Monarchy, some 3,400 years
or more before our era. These written documents, moreover, show
clearly that Menes himself must have come at the end of a very
long period of development. Egypt had already had a long history
when the Upper and Lower Countries were first united under a single
sceptre. From Upper Egypt we possess a continuous series of un-
inscribed monuments which take us back far into prehistoric times. An
immense vista has been opened out before our eyes by the discoveries
of the last thirty years, and now, in Egypt better than in any other
country in the world, we can see man passing from the primitive hunter
to the pastoral nomad, from the pastoral nomad to the agriculturist,
and then on to the civilised life which begins with the art of writing.
We can see in the Delta and in the Lower Nile Valley tribes becoming
permanently settled in fixed abodes around primitive cult-centres, and
then uniting with others into one community. We can trace the fusion
of several communities into single States, and then, later, the uniting
of States under a supreme sovereign. What other country in the world
preserves such a record of its early history ?

I have but little time left to speak of the modern Egyptians, but to
the anthropologist few people are more interesting. In almost every
circumstance of daily life we see the Old in the New. Most of the
ceremonies from birth to burial are not Muslim, or Christian, or Roman,
or Greek; they are Ancient Egyptian. In the transition of a people
from one religion to another the important institutions of the older doc-
trine are generally completely abolished; many ceremonies and mucit
unessential detail, however, survive, and in the Delta and Lower Nile
Valley survivals are extraordinarily numerous. It was Lady Duff
Gordon who said that Egypt is a palimpsest in which the Bible is written
over Herodotus, and the Koran over that; the ancient writing is still
legible through all. There is a passage in one of her letters which
describes her visit to some Nubian women. Their dress and ornaments
were the same as those represented in the ancient tomb-paintings. Their
hair was arranged in little plaits, finished off with lumps of yellow clay
burnished like golden tags. In their house, Lady Duff Gordon sat on
a couch of ancient Egyptian design, with a semicircular head-rest.
They brought her dates in a basket such as you may see in the British
Museum. So closely did they and their surroundings resemble the
scenes of the ancient tombs that she says she felt inclined to ask them
how many thousand years old they were! The modern worship of the
people is full of the ancient; many of the sacred animals and trees
have taken service with Muslim Saints. Up to a few years ago cats
were still fed by the ‘ Servant of Cats’ in the Kadi’s court in Cairo.
Cobras are still held in great reverence in the City cf the Khalifs. Some
time ago the Director of the Zoological Gardens in Cairo told me that
it was most difficult to procure cobras for the Gardens. It was not
because they were scarce, but because the demand for them was so great
that the price asked was far more than the Government would pay.

194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Many cobras, I was told, were kept in the upper rooms of houses in the
native quarters of the city. The funeral customs of the people through-
out the country are much the same as those which prevailed in ancient
times. It is not only among the merchant and agricultural classes that
we find the Old in the New. Mrs. Poole, the sister of the Arabic
scholar Edward Lane, writing from Cairo in 1846, describes the scenes
in one of Mohammed Ali’s palaces on the death of a princess of the
Royal Family. Immediately the royal lady breathed her last, her
relations and slaves broke up all the beautiful china and glass which
had been her property. ‘ The destruction after a death,’ Mrs. Poole
remarks, ‘is generally proportioned to the possessions of the deceased ;
therefore, in this case, it was very extensive.” Many, perhaps most,
of the festivals of the country are of ancient origin. In the Delta towns
and villages there are several which are similar to those that were held
there in ancient days. It is the same in Upper Egypt. Thebes still
possesses its sacred boat, and on the festival commemorating the birth-
day of Luxor’s patron saint, Abu’l Haggag, this lineal descendant of the
sacred bark of Amon decorated with flags and gaily coloured bits of
cloth, is drawn around the town in procession, amid the acclamations
of the people. Modern Egypt has hardly been touched by the anthro-
pologist. The Government official usually holds himself far too aloof to
ever really get into intimate contact with the native. Edward Lane did
much to record the manners and customs of the Cairene Egyptian, but
he never lived among the fellahin, and his book contains little about the
modern dweller on the banks of the Nile outside Cairo. A rich harvest
awaits any student who, knowing the language, will settle and live
throughout the year among the peasants in any village or town in the
Lower Nile Valley or Delta. It is only in this way that a real know-
ledge of the people can be obtained. Far less is known about them
than about many a tribe in Central Africa.

Thucydides, in the preface to his ‘ History,’ proposed to record past
facts as a basis of rational provision in regard to the future, but he was
not the first to whom this great thought had occurred. A thousand
years before the Greek historian was born an old Vizier of Egypt said
of himself that he was ‘ skilled in the ways of the Past,’ and that ‘ the
things of Yesterday ’ caused him ‘ to know To-morrow.’ Anthropology,
the Science of Man and Civilisation, aims at discovering the general laws
which have governed human history in the past and may be expected
to regulate it in the future. The Egyptian Vizier had, at most, a couple
of thousand years of recorded history before him. Since his time the
area of history has been ever widening, and we ourselves can look back
over nearly six thousand years of human endeavour. We know con-
siderably more of the past than did our forefathers, and though those
who hold the reins of government do not usually learn by experience,
the anthropologist ought to be able to predict a little better than the
politician about the future. For thousands of years Egypt has been
under foreign rule. It has been under the yoke of Ethiopian and
Persian kings, under the Greek and Roman, Arab and Ottoman con-
querors. Its people suffered three thousand years of oppression. For

the last forty years it has had English justice. Egypt has this year

H,—ANTHROPOLOGY. 195

been handed back to the Egyptians. It is an Oriental country. What
will be the immediate future of its people? It is not difficult to predict.
Seventy years ago, when Egypt was under the sway of Said Pasha,
there was current among the feliahin of Thebes a little parable, and
with this I will conclude. I quote it as it was taken down by Rhind
in the fifties of last century, but the story was still remembered when
I lived among the natives of Upper Egypt twenty-eight years ago. It
runs thus :—

“It happened once that a Sultan captured a lion, which it pleased
him to keep for his royal pleasure. An officer was appointed especially
to have in charge the well-being of the beast, for whose sustenance the
command of His Highness allotted the daily allowance of six pounds
of meat. It instantly occurred to the keeper that no one would be a
bit the wiser were he to feed his dumb ward with four pounds, and
dispose of the remaining two for his own benefit. This he did, until
the lion gradually lost his sleekness and vigour, so as to attract the
attention of his Royal Master. ‘‘ There must be something wrong,’’
said he; ‘* I shall appoint a superior officer to make sure that the former
faithfully does his duty.’’ No sooner was the plan adopted than the
first goes to his new overseer, and convincing him very readily, that if
the proceeds of two pounds be conveyed to their pockets, the meat
would be far better employed than in feeding the lion, they agreed to
keep their own counsel and share the profit between them. But the
thirst of the newcomer soon becomes pleasantly excited by the sweets
of peculation. He talks the matter over with his subordinate, and they
have no difficulty in discovering that the lion might very well be reduced
to three pounds a day. Drooping and emaciated, the poor beast pines
in his cage, and the Sultan is more perplexed than before. ‘‘ A third
official shall be ordered,’’ he declares, ‘‘ to inspect the other two *’; and so
it was. But they only wait for his first visit to demonstrate to him the
folly of throwing away the whole six pounds of meat upon the lion,
when with so little trouble they could retain three, one apiece, for
themselves. In turn his appetite is quickened and he sees no reason
why four pounds should not be abstracted from his ward’s allowance.
The brute, he states to his colleagues, can do very well on two, and if
not, he can speak to nobody in complaint, so why need they lose the
gain? And thus the lion, reduced to starvation-point, languishes on,
robbed and preyed upon by the overseers set to care for him, whose
multiplication has but added to his miseries.’

196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

NOTES.

(1) Buffon’s Hist. Nat., vol. xii., 1764, p. 24.

(2) Burckhardt, Z'ravels in Nubia, 1819, p. 67.

(3) For a characteristic hunting scene of the Pyramid Age see Borchardt,
Grabdenkmal des Kénigs Sahure; for one of the Middle Kingdom, New-
berry, Hl Bersheh I, pl. vii.

4) The Sphinx Stela, 1, 5.

5) Newberry, Scarabs, pls. xxxiii.-iv.

6) Giornale l’ Hsploratore, anno ii., fase. 4.

7) Brit. Mus., Add. MS., 25666.

(8) Burckhardt, Travels in Syria, 1822, p. 461.

9) W. G. Browne, 7’ravels in Africa, &c.

) Mém. sur V Egypte, vol. i., p. 79.

) Letters on Egypt, &c., ed. 1866, p. 107.

) Journal of Egyptian Archeology, vol. v., p. 234, pl. xxxiil.

) Petrie, Abydos I, pl. L.

) Lydekker, Brit. Mus., Guide to the Great Game Animals, 1913, p. 39, and

figs. 21, 22.

) Journal of Egyptian Archeology, vol. v., pl. xxxiii., p. 227.

) Anderson, Zoology of Egypt (Reptilia), p. xlvi.

) Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa, vol. i., p. 69.

) C. G. Seligman, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xliii., p. 595.

) Burckhardt, 7'ravels in Nubia, p. 387, ct seq.

) Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archxology, Feb. 1906, p. 69.

) That Narmer was Menes is proved by a sealing published by Petrie in

Royal Tombs of the Larliest Dynasties, pl. xiii., 93. His conquest of Tehenu-

ae is recorded oa an ivory cylinder published by Quibell, Hierakonpolis 7,

pli exw 7)

(22) The cults of the Double Axe and of the Dove or Swallow are found on

monuments of the Pyramid Age.

(23) I owe my knowledge of the greater part of the Soleb scenes to Prof.

Breasted, who kindly showed me unpublished drawings of them when I
visited him in Chicago in 1921,

on nen = Oe

SYMBIOSIS IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS.

ADDRESS TO SECTION I (PHYSIOLOGY) BY

GEORGE H. F. NUTTALL, M.D., P#.D., Sc.D., F.R.S.,

Quick Professor and Director of the Molteno Institute for Research in
Parasitology, University of Cambridge,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

CONTENTS. PAGE
Introduction . : F “ - N 5 : 197
I, Symbiosis in Plants :—
(1) Lichens . : 4 : 5 . ; 6 LOT
(2) Root-nodules of Leguminous Plants 3 s A ; . 199
(3) Significance of ei heac in various Plants : : C 200
(a) Orchids . : F : . F - 200
(b) Origin of Tubers i in, various Planta ‘ e P . L202,
(c) Ericacez 5 - - H 3 : ; 2\n 203
(d) Club-mosses and Ferns . : : : : f > 203
II. Symbiosis in Animals :—
(1) Alge as Symbionts in various Animals : : : é . 203
(2) Symbiosis i in Insects f - 206
(3) Micro-organisms in relation to pee in rntrials é - 9 209
(a) Luminescence due to Parasitic Organisms 210
(b) Luminescence due to Symbionts in Insects, Cephalopods,
Tunicata (Pyrosomide) and Fish ‘ : : 210
Portier’s Hypothesis < A A 2 i A . : 212
Conclusion . . 2 “ : . - ; . - - 213
Introduction.

THE subject of symbiosis has been chosen for this address because of its
broad biological interest, an interest that appeals equally to the physio-
logist, pathologist, and parasitologist. It is, moreover, a subject upon
which much work has been done of recent years in different countries,
and this seems a fitting occasion upon which to give a brief summary
of what is known to-day, especially since the literature relating to
symbiosis is largely foreign, somewhat scattered and _ relatively
inaccessible.
I. Symbiosis in Plants.

(1) Lichens.

It is well known to botanists that the vegetative body (thallus) of
lichen plants consists of two distinct organisms, a fungus and an alga.
The alga, individual elements of which are called ‘ gonidia,’ is either
scattered throughout the thallus or, as in most cases, it forms a well-
defined layer beneath the surface of the thallus. The view that lichens

198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

consist of the two elements mentioned was advanced by Schwendener
(1867-9), who regarded the fungus as living parasitically upon the alga,
a view which gained support from the researches of Bornet (1872),
Voronin (1872), Treube (1873), etc., and especially of Bonnier (1886-9),
‘ wherein synthetic cultures were obtained by bringing together (a) various
algze obtained in the open and (b) fungus-spores isolated from cultures
of fungi forming the one component of certain lichens.

Schwendener’s view, that the fungi are parasitic on the alge in
lichens, was contested by Reinke (1873) on the ground that a state of
parasitism did not explain the long and apparently healthy life of the
associated fungi and alge, a biological association for which the term
Consortium was proposed by him, that of Homobiuwm by Frank (1876),
and that of Symbiosis by de Bary (1879), the latter term denoting a con-
dition of conjoint life that is more or less beneficial to the associated
organisms or symbionts.

Investigation has shown that the relation or balance between the
associated organisms varies in different lichens. Thus in some forms
of Collemacee, as stated by Bornet (1873), the partners as a rule inflict
no injury upon each other, whilst in some species of Collema occasional
parasitism of the fungus upon the alga (Nostoc) is observable, since
short hyphal branches fix themselves to the alga cells, these swelling,
their protoplasm becoming granular and finally being voided. In
Synalissa and some other lichens the hypha penetrates into the interior
of the alga, where it swells and forms a sucker, or haustorium. EJenkin
(1902-6) and Danilov (1910) take it as proved that lichens owe their
origin to parasitism, the fungus either preying upon the alga or living
as an ‘ endosaprophyte ’ (Elenkin) upon the alge that die.

Therefore, we may find in lichens the condition of true symbiosis on
the one hand, ranging to demonstrable parasitism on the other, and,
conversely to what has been described above, instances are known
wherein alge are parasitic on fungi (Beijerinck, 1890).

Physiology of Lichens.

The nutrition of alg@ in lichens is similar to that of other chloro-
phyllaceous plants, the most important work on the subject being that
associated with the names of Beijerinck (1890) and Artari (1902). In
respect to nitrogen supply, Beijerinck cultivated various green alge,
as well as gonidia derived from Physcia parietina. The gonidia only
multiplied rapidly in a malt-extract culture-medium to which peptones
and sugar were added. This showed that the algze associated with
fungi as in lichens were placed advantageously in respect to nitrogen
supply. He termed such fungi ‘ ammonia-sugar-fungi,’ because they

extyact nitrogen from ammonia salts and, in addition to sugar, form —

peptones. Artari showed that there exist two physiological races in
green alge, those which absorb and those which do not absorb peptones.
He found that the gonidia (Cystococcus humicola) derived from Physcia
parietina absorbed peptones, and he consequently referred to such alge
as ‘peptone-alge.’ Treboux (1912), however, denies the existence of
peptone-sugar-races of alge, and regards the alge in lichens as the
Victims of parasitic fungi. Nevertheless, the important researches of

:
{

1.—PHYSILOLOGY. 199

Chodat (1913) have demonstrated that cultivated gonidia develop four
times as well when supplied with glycocoll or peptone in place of
potassium nitrate.

The carbon supply of gonidia, according to Artari (1899, 1901),
Radais (1900), and Dufrenoy (1918), is not derived photosynthetically,
but from the substratum on which they grow. Whilst Tobler (1911), in
his culture experiments with lichens, found that the gonidia obtain their
carbon from calcium oxalate secreted by the fungus, Chodat (1913)
observed that cultured gonidia grow but slowly without sugar (glucose),
which he believes constitutes their main source of carbon supply.

Whereas, according to Chodat, the gonidia grow poorly on organic
nitrogen in the absence of sugar, they develop rapidly when sugar is
added. He therefore concludes that the gonidia lead a more or less
saprophytic life in that they obtain from the fungus-hyphe both organic
nitrogen and carbon in the form of glucose or galactose.

The nutrition of fungi in lichens depends partly upon parasitism,
when they invade the gonidia, and partly upon saprophytism, when
they utilise dead gonidia (Chodat).

In concluding this section, the hypothesis of M. and Mme. Moreau
(1921) demands mention, since it bears upon the manner in which
lichens may have originated in nature. . They regard the fungal portion
as a gall-structure arising from the action of the associated alga. The
lichen, according to this view, is to be regarded as a fungus that has
been attacked by a chronic disease which has become generalised and
necessary for the subsistence of the host-fungus. F. Moreau (1922)
sums up this view as follows: ‘The lichen-fungus appears as an
organism characterised in its morphology by deformity due to an infec-
tive agent, an alga. The history of the association existing in lichens
may be described as that of a contagious malady marked by the invasion,
development, inhibition, and death of the infective agent on the one
hand, and on the other hand by the morphological reactions and defen-
sive processes of the attacked organism. Im conformity with the
virulence and relative immunity of the two opponents, the struggle may
be short, the association transitory, the conflict may last indefinitely,
and the association, rendered lasting, presents the appearance of a
harmonious symbiosis.’

(2) The Root-nodules of Leguminous and other Plants.

A well-known example of symbiosis is afforded by the presence of
the bacteroids in the nodules of leguminosie, the micro-organisms being
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and thereby rendering nitrogen
available for assimilation by the plant. This was demonstrated by
Hellriegel and Willfahrt (1888), Schloesing and Laurent, whilst Beije-
rinck cultivated Bacterium radicicola from the nodules and produced
nodules synthetically by bringing the plant and bacterium together on
previously sterilised soil. According to Pinoy (1913), the bacteroids
are myxobacteria, and, in the case of one species which he has specially
studied (Chondromyces crocatus), it was found essential for the
successful cultivation of the micro-organism, apart from its host-plant
and in vitro, that it should he grown in association with a species of

200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Micrococcus; similar observations have been made on other micro-
organisms by bacteriologists, and some refer to the condition as one of
symbiosis. Bacteriologists, I would note, are continuously misapplying
the term symbiosis in referring to bacteria grown in mixed cultures,
when there is no evidence whatever that the micro-organisms are
mutually interdependent for their growth. In passing, it may be men-
tioned that nodules on the roots of the alder are attributed to the presence
therein of Streptothrices, and that comparable nodules occur in
Eleagnacee. The nodules on the leaves of Rubiacee and tropical
Myrsinacez are also regarded as due to bacterial symbionts.

(3) The significance of Mycorhiza in relation to various Plants.

It has long been known that the roots of most perennial and
arborescent plants are invaded by the mycelium of fungi known as
Mycorhiza, and it is to Kamiensky (1881), and especially Frank (1885),
to whom we owe the hypothesis that we are here dealing with symbiotic
life. Frank distinguishes two forms of Mycorhiza: (1) the ectotrophic,
which surround the root externally like a sleeve and are found especially
about the roots of forest trees (Conifers), and (2) endotrophic, which
penetrate deeply into the root tissue and even into the cells of the root.
The endotrophic Mycorhiza are derived from the outside ; their mycelium
enters the root by penetrating the epidermal cells at the base of the
root hairs, passes between the cells and into them where the mycelium
branches dichotomously, and forms ultimately a much-branched intra-
cellular growth. By this time the fungus is no longer in communica-
tion with the exterior of the root, and it nourishes itself within the
host cell, only, however, by utilising the reserve substances stored there
whilst avoiding the cell protoplasm or other living host elements. The
host cell, after a period of inertia, exhibits a distinct reaction to the
presence of the fungus, in that its nucleus becomes hypertrophied,
divides repeatedly and becomes amcebiform in contour. The contained
mycelial mass undergoes degeneration, is digested by the host, and the
host-cell resumes its normal life. These root-Mycorhiza have not as
yet been cultivated,’ as have others to which reference will presently be
made, and it is as yet impossible to assign them a place among known
species of fungi. Further details regarding these forms will be found
in the publication of Gallaud (1904).

Mycorhiza in Orchids.

The first to note the presence and to attempt to cultivate the fungus
mycelium in the roots of orchids was Reisseck (1846), and in 1881
Kamienski advanced the hypothesis that the association was one of
symbiosis. Wahrlich (1889) subsequently found symbionts in all
species of orchids he examined, about 500 in number, thereby showing
that their distribution is generalised.

It is to the researches of Noél Bernard (1902 onward), however, that
we are actually indebted for the complete demonstration of the true

* Magrou (1921) reports that he isolated Mucor solanum n. sp. from Solanum
dutca-mara, and he seems to have infected the potato plant with the fungus.

oe + in

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 201

relation existing between orchids and Mycorhiza, based as it is upon
physiological studies. All who had to do with orchids in the last
century found the greatest difficulty in raising these plants from their
seed ; a successful result appeared to depend largely on chance. Culti-
vators of orchids found that success was obtained more frequently by
placing seed in soil upon which orchids had previously lived, and much
secrecy was observed as to the methods employed by the more successful
cultivators.

The seeds of orchids are exceedingly small—a million may be found
in a single capsule of an exotic species; they possess no albumen and
contain an embryo consisting merely of a mass of undifferentiated cells
provided with a suspensor. ‘The essential discovery of Bernard was that
orchid seeds do not germinate in the absence of fungi belonging to the
genus Rhizoctonia. The fungus enters the seed through its least
resistant and highly permeable cells, which apparently emit a secretion
that attracts the fungus. Each species of orchid, according to the subse-
quent researches of Burgeff (1909), possesses a special species, variety,
or race of fungus that is particularly adapted to it—he distinguishes
fifteen species of fungus. When mutually adapted orchid seed and
fungus are brought together, the mycelium of the latter penetrates the
suspensor cells by digesting their cellulose wall. The mycelium
traverses the epidermal cells of the seed without undergoing development
within them. As soon as the primary infestation has occurred, even
where the mycelium has penetrated but slightly, the cells of the seed,
situated at the posterior pole of each embryo, cease to be vulnerable.
In other words, a local immunity appears to be established, this
immunity lasting at any rate until new regions are attacked by the
fungus. This, in Bernard’s experience, is the general rule. The
mycelium, having attained the parenchyma cells, develops into charac-
teristic filamentous masses recalling the appearance seen in bacterial
agglutination. Nevertheless, there comes a time, this varying according
to the associated species involved, when the development of the fungus
is arrested by the deeper parenchyma cells of the seeds. These cells
are altered before they are penetrated by the fungus ; they become hyper-
trophied and acquire large lobose nuclei. They digest the mycelium
which enters their protoplasm, but the cell continues to harbour remains
of the fungus (‘ corps de dégénérescence ') which occur abundantly in
the tissues of orchids. The seed now proceeds to sprout, giving rise to
a small tubercle (‘ protocorm ’), which only at a later period produces
leaves and roots.

The cuitivation of Rhizoctonia of various species was carried out
successfully by Bernard, the cultures being used to reproduce germina-
tion in orchids. Orchid seeds alone remained unchanged for months in
cultures on agar with salop-decoction added, but when pure cultures of
Rhizoctonia mycelium were added to such orchid seeds, the latter were
invaded by the fungus, germinated, and gave rise to a ‘ protocorm.’
Bernard gives excellent figures illustrative of the development described.

The relation between the fungi and orchids varies in different groups
and plants. In primitive forms like Bletilla germination occurs in the
absence of the fungus, but the ‘ protocorm’ does not develop; the

202 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

rhizome, to which the plant is periodically reduced, is only periodically
attacked when fresh roots are formed. Bletilla, however, behaves in
an exceptional manner. In other orchids (Ophrydee, Cattleyee, Cypri-
pede@, &c.) the fungus is needed for germination, and the adult plant is
fungus-free except when the orchid produces fresh roots. Therefore,
in such cases symbiosis is intermittent. In higher orchids like the
epiphytic Sarcanthinee the fungus is needed for germination, and, the
roots being persistent, symbiosis is maintained continuously. Finally,
in Neottia nidus-avis the symbiotic condition is maintained throughout
the life-cycle of the orchid, the fungus being found in the roots, rhizome,
and even in the flowers and seeds, and it is transmitted hereditarily.

The activity or ‘virulence’ of Rhizoctonia, according to Bernard,
diminishes when the fungus is kept apart from the orchid, being prac-
tically lost after two or three years. An attenuated fungus regains its
activity in a measure after a sojourn of some weeks in a young orchid
plant; a full degree of activity under symbiotic conditions is, however,
only regained slowly.

The germination of orchids in the absence of fungi was successfully
induced by Bernard through cultivating them in concentrated nutrient
solutions of a kind that does not occur in nature; such solutions, more-
over, except under carefully carried out experimental conditions, would
be rapidly vitiated through serving as a medium for the multiplication
of different micro-organisms. The effect of increasing the concentration
of the solution, offered to plants reared without fungi, corresponds to
that obtained by raising plants with fungi of increasing activity or
‘virulence.’ It may be added here that when Rhizoctonia are cultivated
on a medium containing saccharose and the substance of orchid tubers—
namely, salop—they cause an increase in the molecular concentration of
the medium. It is possible that the fungi, when associated with the
orchids, bring about a similar increase in the molecular concentration
of the sap of the invaded plant.

The Origin of Tubers in Various Plants.

The occurrence of endotrophic Mycorhiza in the roots of species of
Solanum has been recorded by Janse (1897) for S. verbascifolium in
Java, by Bernard (1909-11) for S. dulca-mara, by Mme. Bernard and
Magrou (1911) for S. maglia collected in Chili, the last-named species
having been regarded by Darwin as the wild type of S. tuberosum, our
edible potato.

Experimenting with the potato, Molliard (1907, 1920) found that
tubers were not formed in aseptic cultures in a poor nutrient medium,
and that raising the concentration of the sugar in the sap artificially (as
with the radish) led to tuberisation; concentrating the culture-medium
did not induce tubers. Magrou (1921) placed potato seeds in a poor
soil and close to S. dulca-mara, which always contains fungi, and found
that only when the fungus invaded the potato plant were tubers formed.

Magrou also investigated tuberisation in Orobus tuberosus (Legu-
minose) and in Mercurialis perennis (Euphorbiacee), and from his
collective studies the following conclusions may he drawn :—

Se es SS

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 203

(1) When the potato plant and Orobus are raised from seed, the
establishment of symbiosis leads to tuberisation of the sprouts at the
base of the stem; tubers are not formed in the absence of symbionts.
(2) Owing to developmental differences between the two plants,
symbiosis in the potato plant is intermittent, whilst in Orobus it is
continuous. (3) It follows that these plants may develop in two ways:
(a) when they harbour symbionts they produce perennial organs;
(b) without symbionts they are devoid of perennial organs. (4) It is the
rule for wild perennials to hatbour symbionts, as Bernard has stated,
whilst annuals are devoid of symbionts; three species of annuals
(Solanum nigrum, Orobus cecineus, and Mercurialis annua) may be
penetrated by endophytes, but they quickly digest the intruders.
(5) These observations confirm and supplement the view held by Bernard
that tuberisation is due to the association of fungi with plants.

Mycorhiza in Ericacee.

Rayner (1915-16) finds that Mycorhiza are constantly present in
heathers. He isolated Mycorhiza (of the genus Phoma) from Calluna
vulgaris, in which the fungus is widely distributed, being found in the
roots, branches, and even in the carpels, so that it occurs within the
ripe fruit and seed tegument. Calluna seeds, when grown aseptically,
give rise to poor little plants devoid of roots, but, under like conditions,
in contact with Phoma the plants develop normally and form many
rocts.

Mycorhiza in Club-mosses and Ferns.

Tn Lycopodiacew (Club-mosses) and Ophioglossacee (Ferns), accord-
ing to Bernard, the perennial prothallus is infested, and the spores
whence the plants emanate will not germinate except (as with orchid
seeds) with the help of fungi.

In concluding this part of my subject, dealing with symbionts of
plants, I need scarcely emphasise the significance of symbiosis in the
vegetable kingdom, I will close by mentioning the theoretical deduction
of Bernard that vascular plants owe their origin in the past to the
adaptation of certain mosses to symbiotic life with fungi.

II. Symbiosis in Animals.
(1) Alg@ as Symbionts.

Animals of widely separated groups characterised by their green
colour have long been known. Already in 1849, von Siebold attributed
the colour of Hydra viridis to chlorophyll which, for a period, was
regarded as an animal product. In 1876, Gésa Entz concluded that

_ the chlorophyll is contained in vegetable cells living as parasites or

commensals within the animals; these cells were aptly named
zoochlorella by Brandt (1881), whilst cells distinguished by their yellow
colour were subsequently called zooxanthella, the latter having been

first described by Cienkovsky (1871) as present in Radiolaria. In the

204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

latter case the symbionts were found capable of surviving their host,
of multiplying, and of assuming a flagellate stage.

Zoochlorella occur mainly in fresh-water animals, zooxanthella
mainly in marine animals, the symbionts, measuring 3-10 microns in
size, being found in many Protozoa, Sponges, Cceleriterates, Cteno-
phores, Turbellaria, Rotifers, Bryozoa, Annelids and Molluscs.

Physiological relations between Animals and Symbiotic Alg@.—In
1879, Geddes showed that green animals give off oxygen, Convoluta
roscoffensis (Turbellaria), when well illuminated, liberating gas con-
taining 45-55 per cent. of oxygen. Engelmann (1881), by means of
his bacteria-method, showed that Hydra viridis (Ccelenterata) and
Paramecium bursaria (Protozoa) give off oxygen when exposed to light.
Geddes (1882), working with a series of marine animals, found Velella
gave off 21-24 per cent. of oxygen, and an Actinia (Anthoa cereus) gave
off 32-38 per cent. of oxygen. Whereas animals harbouring green
alge as symbionts always liberated oxygen, the colourless varieties of
these animals never did so. Geddes regarded the association of animal
and alga as being mutually helpful, the oxygen supplied by the alga
to the animal and the carbon dioxide and nitrogen supplied by the
animal to the alga being useful to the partners. He speaks of ‘animal
lichens ’ and ‘ Agricultural Radiolarians and Celenterates.’ He found,
moreover, that animals harbouring symbionts are much more resistant
than those without symbionts: Meduse (Velella) survived 14 days in
small beakers with symbionts, only 1-2 days without them. Proto-
zoologists have, moreover, found that Protists harbouring symbionts
are easier to rear in vessels than are those without symbionts. Brandt
(1883) believes that the symbionts and host aid each other in nutrition.
Green Spongilla (fresh-water sponges) and Hydra viridis may live a
long time in filtered water. He found that when starved green Actinia
were (a) placed in the dark, they expelled their alge and died rapidly,
being probably poisoned by the dead algee, but that when they were (b)
placed in diffuse light they lived on. Actinia deprived of symbionts
may become habituated in culture to live without them. Opinions
(vide Buchner, 1921) are in conflict as to the exact relationship
between the partners; in some cases (Peneroplis and Trichospherium)
the symbionts never appear to be injured, in Ameba viridis, &e., a
limited number of symbionts are digested at all times, whereas in some
Radiolarians, &c., digestion only takes place at certain stages of their
development. Nutritive substances pass from the algze into the host’s
cells; thus starch granules, found alongside the alge, may be taken up
by the animal cells.

Using modern methods of gas analysis, Trendelenburg (1909) con-
cludes that green Actinias (Anemonia sulcata) live in true symbiosis
with alge, the algee supply oxygen to the animal by day and at night
utilise the surplus oxygen evolved, whilst carbon dioxide is furnished
to the alga partly by the animal and partly by the water in which they
are bathed. Riitter (1911) studied the nitrogen metabolism and con-
cludes (a) that the Actinia yields to the alge nitrogen in the form of
ammonia for protein synthesis, and in darkness it adds carbon contain-
ing substances (nitrogen-free), whilst (b) the alge yield to the Actinia

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 205

nitrogenous substances in the dark and by light carbon-containing
substances. Organisms harbouring alge exhibit naturally a positive
heliotropism.

Symbiotic algz are not usually transmitted hereditarily, each host-
generation being usually infected afresh by alge, encountered about the
host, which may be either free-living or possess a free-living stage in
their development. Exceptions occur, however, where Protozoa multiply
by division and the alge pass directly (as it were hereditarily) to
succeeding generations. There are also cases of hereditary transmission
in hosts that undergo sexual multiplication (as in Hydra viridis), the
zoochlorella penetrating the egg on escaping from the host’s endodermal
cells after the manner of starch granules or other food reserve sub-
stances (vy. supra). From the circumstance that in most cases symbiotic
alge are not transmitted hereditarily, we may explain the occasional
occurrence of alga-free individuals in a species usually harbouring the
symbionts.

Studies conducted on TurBELLARIA are of special interest: These
animals may contain either green or yellow symbionts, and, as in
Protozoa, some allied species harbour the symbionts and others do not.
The eggs of Turbellaria are symbiont-free, each generation becoming
infected afresh, the symbiont either entering the host’s mouth and
“remaining there, traversing the intestinal wall, or entering by the genital
pore, according to the particular host-species it affects.

The best-known example of symbiosis in Turbellaria is found in
Convoluta roscoffensis, a species that has been well studied by Keeble
and Gamble (1903-7). Its larve are colourless and infection occurs
after hatching. Colourless larve are obtainabie by transferring freshly
hatched examples immediately to filtered sea-water. The cocoon, on
the day following its deposition, is already invaded by many alge having
a very different structure from those found in Convoluta; they possess
four flagella and have been referred by Keeble and Gamble to the genus
Carteria (allied to Chlamydomonas). The alge within the host possess
a special structure, their contour is very irregular, they have no cellulose
_ wall, the green colouring matter is unevenly distributed, being confined
to chromatophore bodies surrounding the pyrenoid body, the nucleus is
_ eccentric, and a number of examples are found with degenerating nuclei.
Naturally all attempts to cultivate these obviously degenerating alge
have failed.

_The physiological relations existing between Turbellaria and alge
differ according to the species. Thus in Vortes viridis symbiosis is not
hecessary, in Convoluta it is necessary for both partners. Mature
Convoluta are never found devoid of alge in nature. The young larva
can only feed itself for a week; as it grows older it becomes infected
progressively with alge and ceases to nourish itself otherwise than
upon the products of its contained symbionts. Finally, having reached
an advanced age, the animal becomes capable of digesting the alge, as
does Convoluta paradoza under unfavourable conditions of life. Keeble
and Gamble define four periods in the life of Convoluta, which they term
respectively hetero-, mixo-, holo-, and auto-trophic, wherein the animal

206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

lives at the expense (1) of formed substances, (2) of these and alga-
products, (3) of alga-products only, and finally (4) of the alge them-
selves. This constitutes a true evolution in a species from a free
existence, depending only on outside sources of food supply, to a
symbiontic mode of life, and lastly one merging into parasitism.

(2) Symbiosis in Insects.

Among insects we find a whole series of progressive adaptations
toward an association with micro-organisms of different categories :—

Group I.—The utilisation by insects of micro-organisms cultivated
by them outside their bodies. ‘lo quote three examples: (1) The larvee
of the beetle Xwuloteres lineatus (Bostrichide) form galleries in the
wood of Pines. ‘The galleries have a characteristic blue colour, produced
by the growth of the fungus Ambrosia upon their walls, the fungus
being cultivated by the larva for food. The beetle is incapable of
digesting cellulose. Analogous cases occur among Ants and Termites
thus: (2) Termes perrieri of Madagascar, studied by Jumelle and Perrier
de la Bathie (cited by Portier, 1918), builds numerous chambers and
galleries. The termites collect dead wood, chew it up finely, swallow
it, the wood passing unaffected through their intestine and out in the
form of small spherical masses (0.5 mm.) which are cemented together
as porous cakes that are impregnated with digestive secretions. Fungi
which develop upon the cakes serve as food for the termites, and in
well-cared-for nests the growth is harvested by the workers who triturate
the mycelium and spores and feed the young larve therewith, whilst
older larvee receive spores, and large larve receive mycelium and the
triturated wood contained in the cakes. (3) A third example is that
of ants belonging to the genus Atta which cultivate fungi over areas of
5 to 6 square metres ; here the queen, when about to found a new colony,
carries away a small ball of fungus in a corner of her mouth wherewith
to start a fresh culture in the new habitat.

Group II.—Symbiotic organisms developing in the lumen of the
intestine and its adneza. As examples may be cited the bacteria
occurring in the intestines of fly larvee (Musca, Calliphora, &c.), which
aid the Jarva to digest meat; the bacteria associated with the olive-fly
(Dacus olea); the Trychonymphids of xylophagous Termites (Leuco-
termes lucifugus).

Group III.—Intestinal symbionts situated in the epithelial cells of
the digestive apparatus. The most striking instance is found in Anobium
paniceum, a small beetle commonly occurring in flour, biscuits, dried
vegetables, &c. In a part of its mid-gut are found cells filled with
symbiotic yeasts undergoing multiplication (Escherich, 1900). The
symbionts are not transmitted hereditarily but are acquired by the larva
on hatching, being eliminated by the female beetle.

In this connection may be mentioned with reserve the observation
of Portier (1918) upon xylophagous Lepidoptera (Cossus, Nonagria,
Sesia, &c.) which, according to that author, possess intestinal fungi
(Isaria) that multiply in the gut and form spores that penetrate the
intestinal epithelium and attain the perivisceral cavity, fat-body, and

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 207

muscles of the insect. As Caullery points out, however, the supposed
spores closely resemble Microsporidia, and Portier’s interpretation may
be erroneous. In this category also belong the symbionts described as
occurring in Glossina by Roubaud (1919) and before him by Stuhlmann,
these being found in certain hypertrophied cells of the intestinal epithe-
lium. When liberated into the gut lumen, the symbionts are stated
to multiply by budding after the manner of yeasts. Roubaud regards
the yeasts as fungi, allied to the Cicadomyces of Sule, and finds that
they are transmitted hereditarily from the adult to the egg, larva and
pupa.

Group IV.—Intracellular symbionts of deep tissues. ‘This group
of symbionts is most frequently found in insects, but their nature was
not disclosed until recent years. Already, in 1858, Huxley described
an organ which is constantly present close to the ovary in Aphis.
Balbiani (1866) named it the pseudovitellus, or green body, and
Metchnikoff (1866), who followed its development, named it ‘ secondary
vitellus.’ The function and structure of this organ were studied by
subsequent authors without being understood until, in 1910, there

_ appeared two important papers by Pierantoni (February 6), and Sule

(February 11), who demonstrated their symbiotic character, recognising
the intracellular inclusions as yeasts whose evolution they completely
followed. ‘Their results have been confirmed by various authors,
especially by Buchner, who in a remarkable series of papers describes
a number of associations existing between insects and micro-organisms
and reaches important generalisations as to their significance. It is
from a collective work on the subject by Buchner (1921) that most of
our information regarding this class of symbionts is taken.

Among the symbionts of deep tissues in insects are found a whole
series of specialisations among the host-elements harbouring the
symbionts. The least specialised instance is represented by Lecaniine
where the yeasts are distributed throughout the body (perivisceral fluid,
cells of fat-body); the fat-body cells may be regarded here as facultative
Mycetocytes. In cases like Orthezia, symbiotic bacteria occur in certain fat
cells which still contain fat droplets ;this condition is also found in certain
Cicadas, the yeasts being contained in fat cells which continue to
accumulate fat, glycogen and urates. Finally cases occur as in Blattids
where symbiotic bacteria are found in special cells greatly resembling
fat cells but already forming well differentiated Mycetocytes. This

_ class is well represented in and about the digestive tract of Pediculidee

~ (Hematopinus) and certain ants (Camponotus). Still more advanced

in specialisation are those cases in which the symbiont-containing cells

(Mycetocytes) agglomerate to form true organs termed Mycetomas,

organs that are surrounded by flattened epithelial cells, the component

mycetocytes containing either yeasts or bacteria as symbionts; such
eases are found in Aphids, Chermids and Aleurodids. Mycetomas may
occur singly or in numbers according to the nature of the host; the
epithelial covering of the organ varies in its cell structure and pig-
mentation, and the organ may be plentifully supplied with trachee
whose finest branches penetrate into the interior of the mycetocytes.
The relations hetween the mycetocytes or mycetomas and the other

1923 Q

208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

organs of the host vary greatly ; in some cases they occur especially in
the fatty tissue, in others near the gonads, in others, as in Pediculidz
around or upon the intestine. In Pediculus and Phthirus, parasitic on
man, the mycetoma is disc-shaped and lies centrally as a distinct milk-
white structure upon and indenting the mid-gut. Transition forms
between. isolated mycetocytes and differentiated mycetomas are found
in various insects.

The mode of transmission of intracellular symbionts of insects from
generation to generation may take place in different ways as defined
by Buchner (1921, somewhat modified) :

I. The larva of each generation infects itself through the mouth
(Anobiide).
II. Infection takes place hereditarily through the egg:
1. By symbionts set free in the blood, or which leave mycetocytes
or mycetomas and attain the egg as follows :—

(a) by general infection of follicles and invasion of the egg, and
finally establishing themselves at the posterior pole of
the egg (Ants) ;

(b) by penetrating special parts of the follicles, producing for
a period bacterial vegetation upon the whole egg and
finally concentrating at the egg’s two poles (Blattide);

(b) a number of bacteria enter in the form of a gelatinous
mass (Coccine) ;

(d) by entering the posterior pole of the egg:

(a) as isolated fungi
(a) which penetrate one after another (Aphids) ;
(b) which accumulate in follicles and enter in a mass
consisting of
(a) one kind of symbiont (Icerya) ;
(b) two kinds of symbiont (Cicada, Aphrophora) ;
(c) three kinds of symbiont (Aphalara ?);
(b) as bacteria united in several gelatinous masses
(Orthezia).
2. By whole mycetomas entering at posterior pole of egg

(Aleurodes).

3. By isolated symbionts leaving special mycetomas situated at
juncture of follicular tubes (Pediculide).

III: Embryonal infection as in parthenogenetic Aphids.

It is difficulé to understand the mechanism whereby the symbionts
penetrate the egg in the insect’s body; in any case the complicated
procedure must depend upon a mutual and parallel adaptation of the
insects and micro-organisms concerned.

During embryonal development the topographical distribution of the
mycetocytes varies from one group of insects to another. In Cam-

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 209

ponotus they occur dorsally upon the mid-gut; in Blattide the bacteria
are at first localised in the intestinal lumen, passing thence through the
intestinal epithelium and entering the fat-cells. In Hemiptera and
- Pediculidee the symbionts form a mass at the posterior pole of the
germinal layer, and during version or unrolling of the embryo they
penetrate in the ventral region of the abdomen.

As’ already indicated, the symbionts may be Yeasts, Saccha-
romycetes, Bacteria, or even Nitrobacteria. Their entrance into the
cells and their presence therein even in large numbers does not in many
cases prevent multiplication of the invaded cells or affect their mitosis ;
in other cases mitosis is more or less affected ; it may become multipolar
and lead to synsytium formation; and finally, cases may occur in which
mitosis ceases and the symbiont-bearing cells divide amitotically.

We know little regarding the part played by symbionts in insects;
our information relates almost exclusively to their morphology, mode
of multiplication, and entry into the host during its development.
There are no indications that the symbionts are injurious or pathogenic.
It is evident, however, that they find in certain insects favourable
conditions for growth, multiplication, and transmission from host to
host. In these cases, therefore, we are dealing with a constant very
harmonious association which excludes even a suspicion of there being
any conflict between the associated organisms. We may well ask
ourselves what are the reciprocal advantages of this association, but this
is a question that it is impossible to answer in view of our ignorance
_ of physiological and biochemical processes in insects.

Various hypotheses have been advanced to explain the possible func-
tion of the symbionts. Symbiotic yeasts may decompose urates (Sule);
they may produce an enzyme that aids in digestion of sugars, as in
Aphids (Pierantoni): they may aid in digestion of cellulose in xylo-
phagous insects which alone cannot render cellulose assimilable
(Portier); the Nitrobacteria found in various Hemiptera may fix free
nitrogen which is conveyed to them through the host’s trachese, and
thus supply the host with nitrogenous substances, thereby meeting a
deficiency in its food supply.

Phytophagous Hemiptera nourish themselves chiefly upon leaf-sap
without utilising the protoplasm of the plant-cells they penetrate with
their sucking mouthparts. The imbibed sap is rich in mineral sub-
stances, carbohvdrates and glycosides only. In these insects Peklo
finds two different symbionts, Saccharomycetes and coccoid organ-
_isms, whilst Pierantoni attributes to symbionts the pigment production
in Coccus cacti.

(3) Micro-organisms in Relation to Luminescence in Animals.

A fairly large number of organisms are known which have the
faculty of emitting light. They are found among Bacteria, Fungi,
Protozoa, Ccelenterates, Echinoderms, Worms, Molluses, Crustacea,
Insecta, Tunicata, and Fish. As a rule luminescence in animals
depends upon the action of luciferase on luciferin, but recently a numher
of cases have become known wherein light production has been traced
to micro-organisms, and it is with these cases that we shall deal.

210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Luminescent pathogenic bacteria may invade the host, as described
by Giard and Billet (1889-90), for the small marine amphipod, Talitrus,
of which rare light-emitting examples may be found in nature. The
affected crustacean dies in about six days. The pathogenic bacterium
does not luminesce in cultures, but does so when inoculated into
Talitrus.

Luminescent symbiotic bacteria present in various light-emitting
animals are, however, of direct interest to us, since their presence has
been determined in luminescent organs of certain insects, cephalopods,
tunicates, and fishes:

Insects: Pierantoni (1914) investigated the luminous organs of
glow-worms (Lampyrus), and found them to consist of parenchyma
cells crowded with minute bodies having bacteria-like staining reactions,
these bodies being also present in the beetle’s egg, which is luminous.
He cultivated two species of micro-organisms from the organs, but does
not distinctly establish their causal relationship.

CEPHALOPops: We owe to Pierantoni (1917-20) and Buchner the
discovery that luminescence in certain Cephalopods is due to light-
preducing bacterial symbionts living in special organs of the host.
These organs may be simple or otherwise. In Loligo the luminous
organs, hitherto known as ‘ accessory nidamentary glands,’ represent
the simpler type of organ, this consisting merely of a collection of
epithelial tubes surrounded by connective tissue. In cuttle-fish
(Sepiola and Rondeletia) the organs are more complicated, the glands
being backed by a reflector, and provided outwardly with a lens serving
for the projection of the light rays generated by the symbionts within
the tubes. The symbionts are transmitted hereditarily when the
Cephalopods lay their eggs. The symbionts of Loligo and Sepiola
have been cultivated by Pierantoni and Zirpolo (1917-20); they
inhabit the gland-tubes of the luminescent organs in large numbers,
and produce light continuously, as do other luminescent bacteria in
cultures.

Tunicata: The Pyrosomide, all of which emit light and form
tubular colonies, have long attracted the attention of biologists. Each
individual in the colony possesses two fairly large luminescent organs,
whose structure was studied by Panceri (1871-77), Kovalevsky
(1875), and especially Julin (1909-12), who observed in the cells of
the luminous organ riband-like structures appearing knotted here and
there. Julin regarded the structures as mitochondria or chromidia, and
it was left to Buchner (1914) to explain their true nature; they are
symbiotic fungi, and are transmitted hereditarily. Buchner gives a
detailed study of the symbiont and a review of the physiology of
luminescence and of Pyrosomes which is well worth consulting by those
interested in such problems.

Fisu: Of great interest are the researches of Harvey (1922) upon
light prduction by two species of fish (Photoblepharon and Anomalops)
which occur in the sea about the Banda Islands, Moluccas. Their life-
history is unknown. “They measure up to about 11cm. in length. The
author writes: ‘ In both fishes the luminous organ is a compact mass
of white to cream-coloured tissue, flattened oval in shape, lying in a

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 211

depression just. under the eye and in front of the gills. The organ
looks as if made for experimentation, as it is attached only at the dorso-
anterior end, and can be cut out with the greatest ease, giving a piece
of practically pure luminous tissue. The back of the organ is covered
with a layer of black pigment, which serves to keep the light from
shining into the tissues of the fish. In both fishes there is a mechanism
for obscuring the light, but, curiously enough, the mechanism developed
is totally different in the two species, notwithstanding the fact that in
structure the organ is identical in the two, and in every detail except
proportion the fishes are very similar. Im Anomalops the organ is hinged
at the antero-dorsal edge, and can be turned downward until the light
surface comes in contact with a fold of black pigmented tissue, forming
a sort of pocket. The light is thus cut off. In Photoblepharon a fold
of black tissue has been developed on the ventral edge of the organ
socket, which can be drawn up over the light surface like an eyelid,
thus extinguishing the light.’ The histological structure of this organ
was worked out by Steche (1909). The organ is continuously
luminous day and night, and independent of stimulation. According
to Steche, Anomaiops constantly turns the light on and off (10'’ light,
5’’ dark), the fish using it, he supposes, as a searchlight to attract
and mislead its prey, The natives use the amputated organ as a bait
in night fishing; it maintains its luminosity for about eight hours.
The organ is described by Steche as composed of a great number of
sets of parallel gland tubes (acinose), separated by connective tissue,
and extending across the organ from the back pigmented surface to the
front transparent surface, each set arranged in a ring about a vessel
Which provides them with blood and oxygen. Near the surface a
number of these tubes unite into a common reservoir opening outward
through a minute pore which admits sea-water. A number of pores
dot the surface of the organ. The luminous material fills the lumen
of the tubes; it is extracellular but intraglandular, and is never voided
from the gland. Harvey states that the luminous material filling the
tubes consists of an emulsion containing many granules and rods: the
latter move about with a corkscrew-like motion, and are undoubtedly
bacteria. The luminosity of the organ is due to these symbiotic bac-
teria. An emulsion containing the symbionts behaves exactly like an
emulsion of luminous bacteria in being sensitive to lack oxygen, desic-
cation, bacteriolytic agents, potassium cyanide, &c. The continuity of
the light, independently of stimulation, is characteristic of luminous
bacteria and fungi alone among organisms; this, and the circumstance
that luciferin and luciferase could not be demonstrated, all go to confirm
the correctness of Harvey’s conclusions regarding the cause of
luminosity in these fish, notwithstanding that he has failed hitherto to
cultivate the bacteria found in the luminous organs.

In coneluding this section dealing with light production by animals
it may be repeated that we have to distinguish between (a) luminescence
due to symbiotic organisms, such luminescence being continuous in
the presence of oxygen as in cultures of luminous bacteria (of which
some thirty species are known), and (b) that due to animal cell-products
known as luciferin and luciferase which are secreted and expelled

212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

at intervals, in response to a stimulus, from two kinds of gland cells,
the secretions, when mixed, producing light.

Portier’s Hypothesis.

The numerous cases in which symbiosis occurs in nature have
naturally led some biologists to ask if symbiosis is not a phenomenon
of general significance, and perhaps essential, in living organisms. In
this connection reference must be made to the hypothesis advanced by
Portier (1918), because it formulates extreme views. Starting from
his studies of symbionts of leaf-mining caterpillars (Nepticula) and
wood-devouring insect larve (Cossus, Sesia, &c.), he sought to verify
the work of Galippe (1891-1918) on micro-organisms occurring in verte-
brate tissues. Using methods he supposed to be adequate, Portier
claimed that he could isolate various micro-organisms from vertebrate
tissues. On faulty premises he built up an hypothesis that may be
likened to a house of cards. He divides living organisms into two groups,
autotrophic (bacteria only) and heterotrophic (all plants and animals),
according as they are provided or not with symbionts. Whereas some
symbionts are cultivatable, others have become so domesticated in
respect to their hosts that they cannot be separated from them. The
essential function of symbionts is to elaborate reserve substances so
that they become assimilable to the host cell. The mitochondria that
are present in all plant and animal cells, though not cultivatable, are,
according to Portier, nothing but symbionts, the importance of their
function having recently been revealed by Guillermond, Dubreuil, and
others.? They are derived from food, and, if absent therefrom, illness
supervenes, as shown by the bad effects of sterilised food, decorticated
rice, &c., causing deficiency diseases attributed to lack of vitamines,
which, according to Portier, are nothing but symbionts. Where, as in
Aphis, the animal feeds on plant sap that is filtered through a tube
formed by the insect’s saliva—in other words, the insect imbibing food
devoid of symbionts—the animal is of necessity provided with its own
well-developed store of them. Portier applies his hypothesis to such
varied problems as fecundation, parthenogenesis, tumor-formation,
variation, and origin of species, in all of which mitochondria, that is,
his supposed symbionts, play a part. His views aroused great con-
troversy in France, so much so that it was thought necessary for the
Société de Biologie de Paris (see C.R. Soc. Biol. LXXXITI., 654,
May 8, 1920) to have a Committee examine the evidence. The Com-
mittee, consisting on the one part of Portier and Bierry, and on the
other of Martin and Marchoux (Institut Pasteur), by its report indicates
the pitfalls, well known to bacteriologists, into which Portier was led,
and thus disposes of the greater part of his far-reaching hypothesis.
Nevertheless, like many exploded hypotheses, that of Portier has served
a useful purpose through the discussion it has provoked and the interest
in the subject of symbiosis which it has stimulated.

2 Guillermond has shown that the mitochondria of the epidermal cells in
Iris elaborates amyloplast and finally starch. Dubreuil (1913) found that
mitochondria elaborate the fat in fat-cells. Other cytologists have shown that
glandular secretions are similarly referable to mitochondria.

I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 213

Conclusion.

The term ‘ symbiosis’ denotes a condition of conjoint life existing
between different organisms that in a varying degree are benefited by
the partnership. The term ‘ symbiont,’ strictly speaking, applies
equally to the partners; it has, however, come to be used also in a
restricted sense as meaning the microscopic member or members of the
partnership in contradistinction to the physically larger partners which
are conveniently termed the ‘ hosts ’ in conformity with parasitological
usage.

The condition of life defined as symbiosis may be regarded as balancing
between two extremes—complete immunity and deadly infective
disease. A condition of perfect symbiosis or balance is realised with
comparative rarity because of the many difficulties of its establishment
in organisms that are either capable of Hving independently or are
incapable of resisting the invasion of organisms imperfectly adapted to
communal life. In these respects the conclusions of Bernard and
Magrou in relation to plants apply equally to animals. It is difficult
to imagine that symbiosis originated otherwise than through a pre-
liminary stage of parasitism on the part of one or other of the associated
organisms, the conflict, between them in the course of time ending in
mutual adaptation. It is, indeed, probable that some supposed sym-
bionts may prove to be parasites on further investigation.

In perfect symbiosis the associated organisms are completely
adapted to a life in common. In parasitism the degree of adaptation
varies greatly; it may approach symbiotic conditions on the one hand,
or range to vanishing point on the other by leading to the death of the
organism that is invaded by a highly pathogenic animal or vegetable
disease agent. There is no definite boundary between symbiosis and
parasitism. The factors governing immunity from symbionts or para-
sites are essentially the same.

No final conclusions can as yet be reached regarding the function
of symbionts in many invertebrate animals owing to our ignorance of
the physiological processes in the associated organisms. The investiga-
tion of these problems is one fraught with difficulties which we must
hope will be surmounted.

New knowledge is continually being acquired, and a glance into
new and even recent publications shows that symbionts have been
repeatedly seen and interpreted as mitochondria or chromidia. Thus
in Aphis the long-known pseudovitellus has been shown to contain
symbiotic yeasts by Pierantoni and Sule, independently and almost
simultaneously (1910); Buchner (1914) has demonstrated symbiotic
luminiscent fungi in the previously well-studied pyrosomes, besides
identifying (1921) as bacterial symbionts the mitochondria found by
Strindberg (1913) in his work on the embryology of ants. The increas-
ing number of infective diseases of animals and plants, moreover, which
have been traced, especially of recent years, to apparently ultramicro-
scopic organisms cannot but suggest that there may exist ultra-
microscopic symbionts.

From the foregoing summary of what is known to-day of symbiosis

214 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

we see that it is by no means so rare a phenomenon as was formerly
supposed. Symbiosis occurs frequently among animals and plants,
the symbionts (Alge, Fungi, Bacteria) becoming in some cases per-
manent intracellular inhabitants of their hosts, and at times being
transmitted from host to host hereditarily. Among parasites, non-
pathogenic and pathogenic, we know of cases wherein hereditary trans-
mission occurs from host to host.

It is evident that we are on the threshold of further discoveries,
and that a wide field of fruitful research is open to those who enter
upon it. In closing, it seems but fitting to express the hope that British
workers may take a more active part in the elucidation of the interesting
biological problems that lie before us in the study of symbiosis and the
allied subject of parasitism.

Acknowledgment.—I have pleasure in expressing my thanks to my »

colleague, Mr. David Keilin, for the very valuable aid he has given
me in the preparation of this address.

dar

THE MENTAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS.

ADDRESS TO SECTION J (PSYCHOLOGY) BY

Dr. CYRIL BURT, M.A.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Tur most remarkable advances made by psychology during recent years
consist in the rapid development of what threatens to become a new and
separate branch of science, the study of individual differences in mind.
Down to the close of the nineteenth century psychologists were all
pure psychologists. They confined themselves, with an air of chaste
aloofness, to the discussion of mind in general; they wrote and
experimented solely on the abstract functions of consciousness as such.
The varying eccentricities of minds in the concrete, how one man’s con-
sciousness might be unlike another’s, were problems beneath their
interest or beyond their ken. If, in some laboratory research, different
persons gave dissimilar results, either in the sharpness of their senses
or the speed of their reactions, the divergencies were treated as no more
than unavoidable disturbances of measurement, vexatious errors to be
eliminated by the method of averaging, not facts of special value to be
éxamined in and for themselves. For the rest, the chief method of the
psychologist was still introspection; and his chief subject, himself.
Accordingly, although in this way he laid the necessary foundations of
a sound terminology and a safe technique, he nevertheless exposed him-
self to the taunts of his literary colleagues, who knew that it takes all
sorts to make a world. ‘ Les philosophes ’ (laughs an early and un-
orthodox observer) ‘ sont toujours trop oceupés a eux-mémes pour avoir
le loisir de pénétrer ou de discerner les autres.’

Of late, however, a body of workers has arisen who have turned
their attention more especially to the peculiarities of particular minds.
The variations have attracted them more than the averages; and the
-mental disparities between childhood and age, between race and race,
_ between one sex and the other, and between each unique individual and
the rest, have formed their chosen topic. As a result of their labours,
there has grown up, step by step, a vast and miscellaneous accumulation
of data which urgently demands to be sifted and systematised. The
practical needs of applied psychology, in each of its fresh spheres—the
psychology of war, of education, of industry, of mental disorder, defi-
ciency and crime—all depend for their solution upon a sound doctrine of
st individual differences; and their study in its turn has already contri-
buted much welcome information to the parent science. I propose, within

1 La Bruyére, Les Caractéres (1687).

216 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the limits of the time allowed me, to attempt a summary of the chief
problems and principles of this new branch; and, as methodically and
as completely as is possible within so narrow a compass, to plot out the
ground explored by recent work.

Though the scientific study of individual minds is new, the popular
interest in the practical issues has a long and venerable record; the
ancient title of ‘ psychology ’ is by comparison a word of yesterday.”
Time after time in the history of knowledge, the quack who has pandered
to a public want proves to have been the primitive precursor, the earliest
avant-coureur, of what afterwards arrives as a respected and respectable
science. Astrology was the forerunner of astronomy, alchemy of chem-
istry, and the lore of the bone-setter and the herbalist of modern surgery
and medicine. In the same way the charlatan who reads your character
from the lines on your hand or the bumps on your skull is carrying on
an antique tradition which embodies the first attempts at a psychology
of individuals. He has seen the problem; he has met the demand;
and, if his wares are sham and shoddy, he has at least thrown down a
challenge to the slower and more scrupulous disciple of truth.

The blunders of pseudo-science, however, are never wholly unin-
structive. Those who first practised l’art de connaitre les hommes—the
physiognomists, the phrenologists, the palmists, and their successors—
were all, in their crude and curious speculations, mainly guided, and
mostly misled, by three fallacious assumptions. They looked for nothing
but permanent and external signs; they assumed nothing but constant
connections between the outward and visible symptom and the inward
and invisible state of mind; and they classified both physical symptoms
and mental qualities into arbitrary and discrete types. Thus, your nose
was either pointed or not pointed; and your temperament was either
choleric or not choleric. If your nose was sharp, then your temper must
be sharp as well: for nasus acutus irascibiles notat. No graduations
were recognised; no exceptions admitted. The correspondence was
made perfect and invariable. Indeed, if the classes were not clear-cut,
if the symptoms were not patent to superficial inspection, and if the con-
nections between the two were not absolute and uniform, how could
there be any inference, any prediction, any science of whatever sort ?
The soul, surely, must be a riddle which could never be read.

The difficulty was solved by the discovery of a new technique. And
this we owe to an original English thinker of the latter half of the nine-
teenth century, Sir Francis Galton. To the general public, Galton is
best known by his demonstration of the hereditary factors in individual
genius—a doctrine that in his own person he so remarkably exemplified.

2 I suppose the earliest written recognition of the power of judging the
quality of the mind from observable characteristics is to be found in the words
of Nestor to the unknown Telemachus : ‘By certain signs that I discern upon
thy face, illustrious youth, I recognise what man thou art. Thy countenance
is proud and generous, thine eloquence great, and thy reasoning recalls to me
thy father. What manner of youth could such a one as thou be, were he
not the offspring of the great Ulysses?’ Homer, Odyssey, xi., 693. Those who
care to trace the historical development of individual psychology will find most
of the necessary materials and references collected in Mantegazza’s Phystognomy
and Expression (1904) and Stern’s Différentielle Psychologie (1911).

J.—PSYCHOLOGY - 217

But his most fruitful contribution lay in the development of two tech-
nical methods of inquiry, the statistical method of correlation, and the
experimental method of psychological tests. These in turn rest upon a
fundamental assumption, which recent work has verified—the con-
tinuity of mental variation. Here stands the keystone of individual
psychology as a science. The differences between one man and another
are always (we shall find) a matter of ‘ more or less ’—seldom, if ever,
a question of presence or absence, of ‘ all or none.’
‘ Virtuous and vicious ev’ry man must be,
Few in th’ extreme, but all in a degree.’ °

There are, in fact, no such things as mental types ; there are only mental
tendencies. And it becomes the main task of individual psychology,
first, to catalogue and classify all the tendencies to be surveyed, and then
to devise a method for the quantitative assessment of each.

It follows from this initial postulate that the mind of every individual
has the same underlying structure. Men’s minds are like their faces.
Hach seems at first unique. But patient analysis shows that the
real component features are in every one the same. All have two eyes,
two ears, a mouth, a forehead, and a nose. But the length, the width,
and the prominence of each part may differ infinitely from man to man.
Our business is thus to calculate the extent to which each known
potentiality has been developed or contracted, much as a surveyor marks
down, at given stations upon his map, the eminences and depressions
of the land.

The Psychographic Scheme.

Since the mental ground-plan is in all persons approximately the
same, the same inventory of mental tendencies will serve, no matter
which particular person we are about to analyse. An identical set
of questions may be asked about each.. An identical series of headings
will recur in our reports. Were our psychological catalogue exhaustive
and complete, it would, in theory, be necessary only to measure in
Succession each particular capacity; and so obtain a clear and quanti-
tative specification of the idiosyncrasy of each individual.

This view is more than a mere dogmatic postulate. It is confirmed
by a close comparison of the literature in different psychological fields.
li will be discovered that, whatever the nature of the case to be ex-
amined—mental deficiency or supernormal talent, educational back-
wardness or vocational misfit, neurotic disorder or propensity to crime
—practical experience has forced each examining psychologist to work
out very much the same main heads of inquiry as his colleagues in
other lines. Such a working schedule of mental characteristics may
be termed a ‘ psychographic scheme.’ The scheme that I shall follow
here will be one which I have found reappearing as a basis for my
note-taking in investigating individuals in each of the foregoing groups.
In its broadest outlines every personal examination should pursue
two chief directions: first, a retrospective inquiry into the past history
of the person studied; and, secondly, what I may call a conspective

5 Pope, Hssay on Man, 231.

218 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

survey of his mental condition at the present time. Viewing his whole
life’s story as a growing tree with ramifying roots and boughs, we
take, as it were, first, a longitudinal section, and then one or more
cross-sections, of the main trunk.

I. Case-History.

The historical retrospect should embrace, first of all, a personal
history, based upon reports. supplied by parents, teachers, and medical
attendants, and reviewing such developmental features as conditions
of birth, mental and bodily growth, past physical ailments, and early
mental shocks and disorders, and general moral and intellectual pro-
gress both at home and at school.

The procedure of the modern psycho-analyst consists in little more
than the taking of an elaborate mental case-history by means of a
special technique. The discovery of early repressions and infantile
complexes often sheds a bright flood of light upon the present mental
make-up of an adult, person. Think, for example, what numerous
characteristics may be explained when it is reported that a neurotic
bachelor of thirty was the only son of his mother, and that she was
a widow. Mill, who in this country was the first to raise the science
of character to a level of philosophical respectability, regarded
‘ethology,’ as he named it, as consisting principally in the deduction
of present mental features from past encircling influences.

But the inquiring psychologist must go further back still. He must
pass behind birth to ancestry ; and to the personal history of his subject
prefix an account (where he can get it) of the family history. Here
he obeys the lead of Galton rather than the logic of Mill; and is seeking,
by a study of pedigrees, to infer the presence of hereditary factors.
Of these the ultimate significance will be presently apparent.

IL. Personal Examination.

What I have termed taking a cross-section must include an exami-
nation of the person’s present condition by the two chief instruments
of all scientific inquiry—namely, observation and experiment. By
whichever method they are reached the facts established will be brought
together synoptically under a convenient system of tabulated heads.
These headings will embrace external conditions as well as internal, and
physical conditions as well as mental.

A. Environment.

The psychologist must never be content to look at nothing but the
mind before him. It is his task to extend his survey to the surrounding
influences that are making that mind what it is; he must ascertain the
current situations and the crucial problems which that mind is called
upon to meet. To study a mind without knowing its miliew is to study
fishes without seeing water.

Accordingly, as he turns from the past to the present, the human
naturalist will commence with a review of the person’s present environ-
ment, of his material, physical, and moral circumstances, at home, at
school, and at business. Recent research upon milder abnormal states

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 219

—particularly delinquency and neurosis—has shown very clearly that
none of these is due exclusively to inborn constitution, nor yet entirely
to shocks and mental traumata in the remote or immediate pasb; they
spring largely out of coritemporarieous conditions and conflicts. Even
with the normal individual, simply to learn in what social class he
moves, or in what city or street he lives, is to divine very plausibly the
chief of his guiding habits and ideas—his code, his creed, and his
customs. Strange persons are like strange words: their intentions
are best guessed from their context. One incidental item of practical
import rises to the surface in most of these investigations. Of all
external factors home influences are paramount; moral influences are
far more powerful than material, emotional than intellectual. With-
out a knowledge of the emotional attitudes elicited in a person by the
attitude of his parents, of his various relatives, and of others in daily
contact with him, his standpoint towards life can never be properly
envisaged or explained.

B. Personality.
1.—Physical Condition.

Turning from the environment to the personality proper, from the
setting to the gem, it, is essential to glance first at physical conditions
before we pass to psychological; to see what is reflected on the surface
before we hold the centre to the light. That a man’s body has a pro-
found influence upon his mind has been realised in every age. But
we are only just beginning to discover in definite detail how certain
physical states and certain physical disorders are attended by certain
psychical effects.

Once more it is in patlology—where more or less morbid conditions
of body produce more or less morbid conditions of mind—that the most
convincing instances are to be seen. At present, it is true, the ten-
dency in the newer schools of psychology is to trace mental derange-
ments, particularly in their milder forms, almost exclusively to mental
origins. But those who deal daily with young children, where the
causal factors can be more readily unravelled, find it impossible to over-
look the co-operation of such purely physical conditions as rheumatism,
chronic catarrh, nasal obstruction in numerous forms, minor lesions of
the brain, or the absorption of toxines from internal foci or superficial
sores.

The study of juvenile delinquency shows, in most unexpected direc-
tions, the influence of physique upon character. Anything that weakens
physical health tends to weaken self-control. Anything that conduces
to physical irritation tends to set up a mood of mental irritability. A
holiday in the country is sometimes the best cure for crime. With
the intellectually subnormal the efficacy of simple physical remedies is
quite as striking as with those who are subnormal in character or tem-
perament. The provision of spectacles, the extraction of teeth, the
extirpation of tonsils and adenoid-growths, measures in themselves
comparatively trifling, have often converted an alleged mental defective
into a normal or nearly normal child.

220 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Of all the physical influences studied in recent years the most
striking is that of the ductless glands.* | Every layman knows that
thyroid insufficiency produces a cretinous type of mental defect, and
that such defect may be cured or alleviated by the administration of
glandular extracts. And just as thyroid insufficiency depresses, so
thyroid excess may heighten, emotional states and reactions. _ Of other
glands belonging to this class—the pituitary, the adrenal, and the sex
glands—we know far less. But recent work upon their internal secre-
tions has left no doubt as to their power over temperament and feelings.
Shall we some day, when biochemistry is sufficiently advanced, be able
to analyse the minute components of lymph and blood, and diagnose
from the chemical constitution of small samples whether a man is over-
sexed, or easily fatigued, timorous, excitable, or blessed with high
vitality ?

The work upon these endocrine organs seems destined at length to
provide a scientific basis for the doctrine of physical signs—the tradi-
tion so dear to the popular mind-readers of every place and time. The
physical signs recommended for inspection are of two kinds: they refer
either to the physique as a whole, or more specifically to the face or
head.

The ductless glands are closely connected with body metabolism as
a whole. We seem here to find an unexpected confirmation of the
popular division of ‘temperaments’ or ‘ constitutions’ into two or
three chief types. The loose terms in vogue are, for the two extremes,
‘ nutritional ’ or ‘ vital,” and ‘ nervous’ or ‘ mental’; and, for the inter-
mediate, ‘motive,’ ‘ muscular,’ or ‘ mixed." * Three American physio-
logists—Bryant, Goldthwait, and Dunham—whose observations on this
point are more careful than most, quaintly term the triad ‘ herbivorous, ’
‘carnivorous,’ and ‘ omnivorous’ respectively, thus claiming a some-
what speculative biological derivation for the supposed differences in
digestion, metabolism, and general manner of life.* Three Italian
physiologists, Viola, Naccarati, and De Giovanni, term the two
extremes—the Hamlets and the Falstaffs of the psychological caste—
microsplanchnic and macrosplanchnie respectively, or (in language less
technical but more Shakespearean) little-bellied and big-bellied. By
means of careful statistical correlations they have tried to prove that
the ratio of height to weight. or better of limbs to trunk. may be taken
as a trustworthy index of the so-called ‘morphological type,’ and is

“It is unfortunate for the general reader that the only systematic and non-
technical account of the subiect is the somewhat uncritical book by Dr. Berman
on The Glands Regulating Personality, a work as full of ingenious speculations
as it is devoid of documented references.

5 This threefold division is fonnd in most phrenological handbooks. Of
these the least unscientific is Dr. Bernard Hollander’s Scientific Phrenoloay
(a title which is something of a contradictio in adjectivo) ; see pn. 38-48). The
distinction, in its modern form, seems to have originated with Dr.’ Alexander
Walker, a Lecturer on Anatomy at Edinburgh Universitv. and contemporary
of the English phrenologist Combe. It will be observed that the dichotomy
is apparently a simplification of the fourfold classification of temperaments,
originating with Galen (a.p. 130).

® For a convenient summary of the American literature see Lewis,
‘ Adolescent Physical Types.’ Ped. Sem., 1916, xxiii., 3.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 221

demonstrably associated with tested mental differences.’ Fat and lean
is an antithesis as old as the legend of Jack Spratt and his wife; and
modern physiology, it will be noted, agrees with the ancient rhyme in
referring the difference largely to dietetic habits, and in connecting it
in part with a difference in sex and the sex-glands. As to the con-
comitant psychical differences, fancies on this subject (if Plutarch is to
be trusted) were entertained by so eminent a master of men as Julius
Cesar.* ‘ Your fat, sleek-headed men,’ he is made to exclaim, ‘ I
neyer reck of; they sleep o’ nights. But these pale-visaged carrion,
with the lean and hungry look, they think too much; such men are
dangerous.” ‘That the new observers have confirmed the old is
more than I venture to assert. But at least they have applied the
proper method to the problem.

Of their somewhat singular conclusions the real import lies in this:
they emphasise, and justly emphasise, the supreme importance, for
right psychological diagnosis, of viewing body and mind as a single
unitary organism. A man is something more than a carcass loosely
coupled with a ghost. Material and spiritual are reciprocally involved ;
and the two together are to be treated as inseparable aspects of one
highly complex whole. Thus, in both physical and mental working,
the restless, unreliable, ‘ carnivorous’ type may be likened to a high-
compression engine, capable of short but forcible output of energy, yet
unsuited for long and steady running; the plodding, sedentary, ‘ herbi-
vorous’” type, to a low-compression engine, with a lower maximum
efficiency, but a more continuous level of sustained activity. And in
each the mental and physical symptoms are joint products of one
fundamental mechanism. It will be remarked in passing that, alike
in mind and body, the former—the slender ‘ microsplanchnic’ type—
is suggestive of hyperthyroidism, and of the tall, long-headed, active
races; while the latter—the heavy ‘ macrosplanchnic’ type—is_ simi-
larly suggestive of hypothyroidism, and of the short, round-headed,
stolid race.

Possibly the same twofold hypothesis—of racial stock and glandular
influences—may be adduced to explain what little correlations the
phrenologist ® can claim between mental characteristics and the con-
formation of skull and face. The appearance of cranial types is cer-
tainly suggestive of what is known of racial stocks. The doctrine of
stigmata of degeneration also finds a partial explanation in the double
effects of disturbances in the ductless glands, impairing simultaneously
the normal development of both skeleton and intelligence. Low,
narrow, and bossed foreheads, broad, depressed, and upturned noses,
narrow, high, and V-shaped palates, lobeless, projecting, and mal-
formed ears, asymmetrical, misshapen, and small skulls—these

7 See Naccarati, ‘The Morphological Aspect of Intelligence,’ Arch. Psych.,
No. 45, 1921. The coefficients are low. .35 or less.

8 The remark is freely paraphrased bv Shakespeare, Julius Cesar, I., ii., 191.

® Psvchologists will be astonished to hear that in spite of all the recent work
on intelligence-tests. one British Education Authority recently preferred to invite
a practising phrenologist to assist in the examination of candidates for junior
county scholarships. How many school medical officers still rely, in diagnosing
mental deficiency, more upon stigmata than tests?

222 _ SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

anatomical disfigurements were, until recently, the chief signs relied
upon in the diagnosis of mental defect. They are best seen in the
rarer clinical types of imbecility, in the mongol and the cretin, who,
as already remarked, seem to suffer primarily from a deficiency of
endocrine secretions.*°

So far, it may be thought, bodily indications are of value only in
cases of extreme pathological deviation—the obese, the emaciated, and
the physically deformed; they are symptoms for the doctor, not signs
for the plain man. Is there, then—

«2» ») oart

To find the mind’s construction in the face ’? 1
And, if not, why do so many men and women of the world claim to
divine character at a glance, and profess, on the basis of a first impres-
sion and a short superficial inspection, to gauge intelligence and tem-
perament, even among their normal fellow-creatures, with much the
same exactitude which is conceded to the dog-fancier, the sheep-dealer,
and the fellow with an eye for horseflesh in their somewhat lowlier
spheres? That their intuitions (as they term them) often correlate
highly with independent and trustworthy estimates has been shown
statistically time after time. Upon what do they rely? Is there a
sort of moral clairvoyance confined only to a gifted few? Or is the
miracle of insight into another, a knack that each can achieve? In
part these judges of men are aided, more than they themselves suspect,
by semi-social criteria—accent, phraseology, manners, the elegance
of handwriting, and the tidiness of clothes. Stevenson, you will
remember, has declared that ‘an undoubted power of diagnosis rests
with the practised Umbrella-philosopher; for, whereas a face is given
us ready-made, each umbrella is selected from a shopful as being most
consonant with the purchaser’s disposition.’ ’* And other interviewers,
besides Sherlock Holmes, draw unpalatable inferences from our taste
in hats, and socks, and coloured ties. For the rest, so far as their
procedure is unprejudiced by pseudo-scientific reading, it seems to
depend chiefly upon inferences, conscious or unconscious, not so much
from bodily structure or build, as from bodily posture and movement,
particularly the finer movements of the hand, of the eye, of the lips
and mouth, and of the vocal organs in speech. And the principle is
sound. If you are buying anything that works you ask first to see it
working, be it only for a second, and only as a sample. So with the
connoisseur of human creatures, it is function rather than framework
that should count. In the face, it is not the hard, immutable gristle
and bone, but the soft and mobile mask of muscle that the sound

19 Many of the so-called stigmata, however, together with the mental dulness
they are supposed to signify, are largely attributable to petty ailments of early
childhood—vickets, chronic respiratory catarrh, and nasal obstruction from
adenoid growths.

1 Macbeth, I., iv., 12.

12 College Papers, iv., ‘The Philosophy of Umbrellas.’ As to handwriting,
those who smile at the claims of the graphologist may be reminded that Binet,
and many experimentalists and pathologists since, have not scorned to look for
indications of character and mental derangement in the size, and shape, and
steadiness of the letters we trace with the pen.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 223

physiognomist observes. The neuro-muscular tonus—the tightness
around the eyelids, the firmness of the lips—is an index of the general
state of health and vitality upon which a man’s intelligence and atten-
tion so much depend. The changes of look and glance afford a clue,
however indirect, to the range, the liveliness, and even the character
of his interests. Above all, it is to be remembered, almost every human
emotion has its instinctive facial expression, to which, by a sort of
primitive sympathy, we ourselves as instinctively respond. The
emotions (we shall see) are the foundations of character. And the
emotional mood that predominates in a given person’s life tends, by the
simple law of habit, to leave its natural expression stamped upon the
countenance, contracting almost permanently the underlying muscles,
and deepening the furrows and the finer lines upon the skin. Thus
the bad-tempered bully comes to wear always a more or less angry
scowl, and the anxious melancholic a worried look upon the brow.™
“In many’s look the false heart’s history
Is writ, in moods, and frowns, and wrinkles strange.’

In the main, however, the gist of recent scientific work on connee-
tions between body and mind has been, from a practical though not,
from a theoretical standpoint, negative. Theories, such as that of
Lombroso and his school—the notion of criminal, defective, neurotic,
and supernormal types, each marked off from ordinary mankind by a
specific combination of physical and mental traits—have been exploded
by more careful statistical methods. The measurable correlations,
though frequently positive, are almost always too slight to be trusted
for the needs of diagnosis.'* Thus a man’s exterior is sometimes
suggestive, but never conclusive. And so we reach the safe and central
maxim of individual psychology of to-day: Judge mental functions by
mental symptoms, not by physical. The worldly moralist agrees. ‘ Tl
ne faut pas juger des hommes comme d’un tableau ou d’une vache;
il y a un intérieur et un cceur qu’il faut toujours approfondir.’ '®

2.—Mental Condition.

I proceed now to what consequently becomes the essential duty of
the practical psychologist—the direct examination of the mental state.

The positive foundations for a practical psychology of individual
differences have been laid in three broad generalisations, each the
separate suggestion of recent experimental work. They consist in
a trio of important distinctions, the distinction between intellectual
and emotional characteristics, between inborn and acquired mental

13 These deductions can be verified by the method of correlation, see Child
Study, June 1919, ‘ Facial Expression as an Index of Mentality ’; also Langfeld,
‘Judgments of Emotions from Facial Expression,’ J. Abn. Psych., xiii., 172)
and Psych. Rev., xxv., 488. The general principle underlying ‘ whatever truth
the so-called science of physiognomy may contain ’ is stated, as in the text, by
Darwin, Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, p. 388.

sig Shakespeare, Sonnets, xciii.

15 The labours of Karl Pearson and his students, following the methods of
Galton, have been invaluable in this field. Goring’s study of The English
Convict is a model for inquiries upon these and kindred problems.

16 La Rochefoucauld, Mazximes Morales, ccexvii.

1923 R

224 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

tendencies, and between special and general capacities. Upon these
three distinctions the essential portion of my ‘ psychographic scheme ’
is based. The evidence for them, as yet presumptive rather than
complete, I can but briefly touch upon in the appropriate place.

a.—Intellectual Characteristics.

With these distinctions, then, to mark our working rubrics, we
begin by. Viewing any particular mind, that comes for valuation, as pre-
senting two distinguishable aspects, the intellectual on the one side,
and the emotional on the other. The divorce of voc from O6vyd¢ is
as old as Pythagoras.

‘Two principles in human nature reign ;

Passion to urge, and reason to restrain.’
The modern antithesis is something more than a convenient revival of
the traditional contrast. It has a basis in recent statistical work."
If a large group of individuals be ranked in order for all the psycho-
logical characteristics thai can be conceived, or at least conveniently
estimated, and if the correlations between the several rankings, each
with each, be then computed, two striking facts are instantly perceived.
First, nearly ali the correlations are positive ; excellence in one respect
tends, on the average and in the long run, to go hand in hand with
excellence in every other. But, secondly, the closeness of this corre-
spondence varies suggestively in different directions. _ Intellectual quali-
ties are correlated fairly highly amongst themselves. Emotional qualities
(so far as the more meagre evidence at present shows) are likewise corre-
lated to nearly the same considerable degree. But the correlations
between intellectual qualities on the one hand and emotional on the
other, though still as a rule positive, are by comparison conspicuously
low. We are warranted, therefore, in assuming that these two aspects
are relatively independent, and in studying them separately and in
succession.

i. Inborn Abilities.

We proceed then to estimate, in the first place, the examinee’s
qualities of intellect. And here our second subdivision introduces
itself—the. distinction between what is inborn and what is acquired.
Many independent researches agree in showing that intellectual charac-
teristics are hereditary, and that to much the same extent as physical.
Eyen if a capacity (or, more strictly, the strength of a capacity) be
not hereditary, it may still be congenitally determined. | What is
inherited is necessarily inborn; but what is inborn is not necessarily
inherited. In the latter case, however, to separate endowment from
acquirement, mental capital from mental earnings, is a more _pre-
carious task. The discrimination, wherever it is possible, is of the
greatest practical moment. If a child, for example, proves to be
exceedingly backward in school work it is essential to decide whether
this backwardness is a legacy from backward ancestors, or merely an

17 See, amongst other studies, Webb, ‘ Character and Intelligence,’ Brit. 7.
Psych. Mon., I.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 225

accidental consequence of conditions subsequent to birth. In the
former case the backwardness, being inherent, is therefore incurable;
in the latter, there remains at least a hope that, by amending the un-
favourable circumstances, the backwardness may be partly remedied
or even wholly removed.

a, General Intelligence.

We have now narrowed our scope for the moment to qualities that
are intellectual and at the same time inborn; at this point we may
apply our third and last distinction. Inborn intellectual abilities are
divisible, first, into a single central capacity, pervading all that we say
or think or do; and, secondly, into a series of specific abilities, each
entering only into processes of a more or less limited kind.

For the existence of general inborn intellectuai ability (known briefly
as ‘ intelligence ’) the statistical evidence is now pretty decisive. Even
the critics of this so-called central factor no longer deny that, at least as
a matter of mathematical interpretation, the empirical data may be
formulated in these terms; and that this formulation, whatever its
ultimate psychological explanation, is of the greatest value in practice,
and, as a working hypothesis, works very well.

If further proof were demanded, the indubitable success of intelli-
gence-testing has supplied a widespread verification, sufficiently
business-like to convince the plain man. Indeed, over the whole realm
of mental science the outstanding feat of recent years has been the
application and the multiplication of innumerable tests for measuring
general ability. As everybody knows, during the War the intelligence
of nearly two million recruits was tested by these means for the Army
of the United States. And this spectacular achievement has probably

bestowed on the practical applications of psychological methods a
stronger impetus than any other single piece of work.

Since intelligence, as we have defined it,** is an inborn quantity,
the amount possessed by a given individual should, in theory, remain
constant through all the years of his life. It should thus be possible
to predict, from quite an early age, what will be the probable intel-
lectual level of a child when he is grown up. Within reasonable limits
such forecasts can, in fact, be made. Numerous investigations have
shown that what is called the ‘ mental ratio ’"—the proportion, that is,
between a child’s mental age and his chronological age—tends to keep
tolerably uniform throughout the years of growth. Hence it is safe
‘to prophesy that a child (for example), aged five by the calendar, with
a mental age of two (and a mental ratio, therefore, of 2=4() per cent.),
will probably attain a mental age of four at the age of ten, and a mental

18 The reader will understand that intelligence in this sense is not to be
conceived as a concrete organ, entity, or power, but a purely abstract poten-
tiality—like electrical energy or heat as conceived by the physicist—an entirely
hypothetical quantity, postulated and defined, like most other scientific concepts,
for the convenience of separate measurement. It is to be distinguished from
manifested intelligence (the materialisation, as it were, of that abstract poten-
tiality), which develops during childhood and decays with loss.of health or
advance of age, and is measurable in terms of mental years or of some more
concrete unit,

226 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

age of six at the age of fifteen. Since beyond the stage of puberty
inborn intelligence does not develop to an appreciable extent (another
startling paradox of psychological testing), such a person will never
rise above the six-year level, and will remain mentally defective for
the rest of his life.

From the numerous results obtained from the widespread employ-
ment of intelligence-scales, one fact of deep social significance emerges—
the vast range of innate individual differences. A famous clause in the
American Declaration of Independence proclaims that ‘all men are
created equal.’ In the psychological sense as distinct from the political,
not only are men created unequal, but the extent of the inequality sur-
passes anything before conjectured. Ina survey carried out upon all the
children in a representative London borough—a census covering more
than 30,000 cases—it was found that, within the elementary schools,
the mental ratios might vary from below 50 per cent. to above 150 per
cent. ; that is to say, the brightest child at the age of ten had the mental
level of an average child of fifteen, while the dullest had the mental
level of a little child of only five."

Over this vast scale the distribution of intelligence is neither flat
nor yet irregular; it follows a simple mathematical law. Its frequency
conforms to the so-called * normal curve,’ and the abnormal and defec-
tive are found to constitute no isolated types, but to be simply the tail-
end of a chance distribution. Probably all or most of our mental capa-
cities are distributed in the same fashion. This fact, if it be a fact,
greatly simplifies the problem of mental measurement. It should be a
recognised maxim of procedure to measure people, not by arbitrary
marks between a conventional zero and an equally conventional maxi-
mum, but by the degree of divergence above or below the average or
middle line (much as we measure the depth of the ocean or the altitude
of the hills from the intervening sea-level), the divergence being calcu-
lated in terms of the standard deviation. This is a technical hint of
special value in estimating qualities that lend themselves to no obvious
quantitative units like mental ages or additive marks.

Since variations in intelligence are so wide and so continuous, it
becomes convenient to divide the entire population into about six or
eight separate classes or layers. A classification of this kind, worked
out empirically, for children, is already implicitly embodied in the
organisation of our various schools. A second classification can be
drawn up, on an analogous basis, for adults, and will be found, in the
main, to reflect the amount of difficulty and responsibility entailed by’
their several occupations. It is interesting to find that the proportionate
number cf individuals falling into the parallel sections tallies pretty
closely both for adults and for children (see Table I).*° Tere, there-
fore, lies a simple aim alike for educational administration and for

19 The Distribution and Relations of Educational Abilities (London County
Council Reports, 1917). Mental and Scholastic Tests (London County Council
Reports, 1922).

20 Compiled partly from data published in the L.C.C. Reports (Joc. cit. sup.),
and partly from a table recently included in a paper on The Principles of
Vocational Guidance (VIIth Int. Congr. Psych., 1923). The figures and categories
given in the present table are round approximations only.

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228 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

vocational guidance. It is the duty of the community, first, to ascertain
what is the mental level of each individual child; then, to give him the
education most appropriate to his level; and, lastly, before it leaves
him, to guide him into the career for which his measure of intelligence
has marked him out.

Of this programme, the educational part is already in execution.
For the lowest section, the mentally deficient, we have begun to provide
special schools and residential homes; and, thanks to the advances of
individual psychology, the means of diagnosis are now exact and just.
There is a similar but newer movement towards the institution of special
classes for the dull and backward. It is from this larger horde of
moderate dullards, not from the tiny sprinkling of the definitely defective,
that the bulk of our inefficient adults—criminals, paupers, mendicants,
and the great army of the unemployable—are ultimately derived. Nor
will it do to confine official assistance solely to the inferior groups. The
supernormal should also enjoy a special measure of care and treatment.
Much is done for them by awarding free places at central and secondary
schools. But both the methods for detecting them and the opportunities
for educating them still admit of much improvement. Already in several
foreign countries schools have been established for Begabte Kinder. In
Berlin, the brightest children from the whole of the city are selected by
means of psychological tests, and brought together at an early age to a
special centre for individual supervision and training.

The determination of intelligence is equally indispensable for proper
vocational guidance. Respecting intelligence, indeed, vocational psycho-
logists seem unanimous that, as it is the easiest, so also it is the first and
foremost factor to be tested. The worst misfits arise, not from forcing
round pegs into square holes, but from placing large pegs in little holes,
and small pegs in holes too big for them to fill. We have already seen
that different occupational groups have different intellectual levels. For
nearly every type of employment there exists a certain minimum of
intelligence, below which a man is pretty sure to fail. For many, if not
most, there is also, in all probability, an optimal upper limit. Just
as some men are too dull for their jobs, so others are too clever. Hence,
in the interests of the employer and of the employment, as well as of
the employee and the general community, it is a blunder always to pick
the brightest candidate who applies for a given job.

In this country, for the purposes of vocational selection, the most
extensive application of intelligence-testing has been the introduction
of a psychological ‘ group-test ’ into recent Civil Service examinations.
The papers, comprising five or six graded speed-tests of well-known
types, have been drawn up, after experimentation, by professional
psychologists. Some 40,000 candidates have been. tested in this way.
And the calculated correlations demonstrate that the results of the new
methods agree, both with the total marks from the whole examination
and with subsequent reports on office-efficiency received from Govern-
ment departments, more closely than any other single paper set.

Incidentally, the extensive data so secured ratify conclusions reached
in other countries and by different means—namely, that the range of
intelligence among adults is quite as wide as that observed among

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 229

children, that the average level of inborn intelligence among adults
aged twenty to fifty is but little above that of children of fourteen, and
that the distribution of intelligence, among adults as among children,
approaches pretty closely to the so-called ‘ normal curve.’ (See fig. 1,
which shows the distribution of marks in the intelligence-tests set at
the last Civil Service examination—Clerical Class, 1922.)

DISTRIBUTION OF INTELLIGENCE.
8599 ADULTS.

NUMBER OF ‘ivil Service Exami ion—. 999 )
Re OF (Civil Service Examination—July 1922.)

1300
1200

400
300

200

0 0 2 30 40 930 60 70 80 90 10 NO 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Scale of Marks.

Fie. 1.

230 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

8. Specific Abilities.

With individual differences in general intelligence I have dealt at
disproportionate length, partly because intelligence is, in Galton’s
phrase, a human quality of the utmost ‘ civic worth,’ and partly because
it is the one mental capacity upon which a prolonged and concentrated
study has been focussed.

Over specific inborn abilities I need not linger. For them effective
tests have proved disconcertingly hard to contrive. Simple correlation
is here inapplicable. General intelligence is always getting in our way.
We think we have tested something specific. We find we have only
hit upon another test of intelligence. Its ubiquitous influence can only
be eliminated by some elaborate technical device, the procedure, fer
example, known as multiple correlation; and the complexity of the
whole task bewilders even where it does not baffle.

Nor do these special abilities, although presumably inborn, declare
themselves at so young an age as the more general. Specialisation
during the first twelve years of childhood is the exception rather than
the rule. ‘ Young turtle,’ says Epicurus, ‘is every kind of meat in
one—fish, fowl, pork, and venison; but old turtle is just plain turtle.’
Similarly, the young child contains in fresh and dormant essence the
germ of every faculty. Age alone betrays our idiosyncrasies.
Adolescence is pre-eminently the period when many of these localised
talents and specialised interests seem for the first time to mature.
Accordingly, efforts at vocational guidance and educational specialisation
must not be forced at too early a stage. At present, for example, the
system of junior county scholarships tends to sweep all our brightest
children at the age of ten or eleven into secondary schools of a some-
what academic type. When at a later period examinations are held for
trade schools, most of the best instances of special talent are missing:
they have already been creamed off and drafted into other directions less
suited to their powers.

So far as it has been successful, the results of multiple correlation,
eked out by other scattered indications, point to the following abilities
as depending upon factors relatively specific: arithmetical, manual
(drawing, writing, probably handwork of simpler kinds), verbal (reading
and spelling), literary (composition in one’s own tongue), linguistic
(learning foreign languages), artistic, and musical, the last often appear-
ing at an unusually early age. Of such specific or ‘ group’ factors
the specificity is not complete. There is much overlap; and, with every
one of them, it is extremely hard to frame tests which depend mainly
for success neither upon the ‘ central factor ’ of general intelligence, nor
yet upon some particular capacity, so limited and local that no inference
can be made from one performance to another, even within the same
presumable group.

The abilities just enumerated seem undoubtedly specialised. But
how far are they inborn? In practice what is actually tested must turn
largely upon acquired dexterity, knowledge, and interest. And acquire-
ments (as the classical experiments on formal training have taught us)
tend always to be circumscribed; they do not diffuse or spread. The

——

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 231

old doctrine of native faculties is out of favour with the orthodox psycho-
logist of to-day. We are told that there is no such thing as memory:
there are only memories ; that there is no such thing as a general power
of muscular skill: there are only separate motor habits, each inde-
pendently learnt. Nevertheless, the very way in which such acquire-
ments are limited, particularly among individuals who have had iden-
tical opportunities at school and at home, argues an innate basis; and
inquiries into heredity confirm the suspicion. On the existence and
nature, therefore, of these hypothetical ‘ group-factors ’"—inborn powers
that seem partly general but not entirely so, partly specific but not abso-
lutely so—further research is imperatively needed. How far, for
example, is there a group-factor underlying all kinds of memory, or all
kinds of imagination, every form of mental quickness, every form of
motor dexterity, and every form of apprehension through the several
senses? Of the great difficulty of the problem, the prolonged work
on mental imagery is an excellent example. The early experiments of
Galton convinced contemporary psychologists that individuals might be
classified into fairly definite types—the eye-minded, the ear-minded,
the motor-minded, and so forth. That these sharp lines of demarcation
can be no longer drawn has since been amply proved. But yet, in
spite of countless inquiries, no satisfactory tests have been devised even
for a capacity so clearly definable as visualisation; nor can we guess
how far it may be specific, and how far it may be inborn, nor
how far it is a manifestation of something more general, or how far it
is simply a question-begging term for an aggregate of yet more limited
habits or tendencies, each specific in itself.”*

il. Acquired Attainments.

I turn now from inborn abilities to those that are acquired. From
a practical standpoint these may be broadly grouped into educational
attainments and vocational attainments respectively.

For the teacher one of the most helpful achievements of experimental
psychology has been the recent elaboration of standardised scholastic
tests. Simple foot-rules have been scientifically constructed for measur-
ing a child’s knowledge of the chief school subjects—reading, spelling,
arithmetic, handwriting, drawing, composition, and the like. By the
help of such age-scales—those, for example, published by the London
County Council—it is now practicable to assign, in the space of a few

21 To hereditary differences of race, sex, and social class I have no space
to allude. The main conclusion that can be drawn from experimental work is,
I think, the following: Innate group-differences exist; but they are small.
Training and tradition account for the more conspicuous. The inborn mental
differences between class and class, between nation and nation, and between
women and men, taken on the average and in the gross, are swamped by the far
wider differences among the individual members that make up any single group.
As to the mental differences between the two sexes—the topic upon which rather
more experimental work has been done—the reader may be referred to the
recent report of the Consultative Committee of the Board of Education on
Sex-differences and the Secondary School Curriculum (H.M. Stationery Office,
1922).

232 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES

minutes, his mental level for every branch of the elementary
curriculum.”*

To measure the effects of experience or training in a trade or business
is almost as easy as to measure progress in school work. To determine
the speed and accuracy with which a typist types, or a shorthand-writer
takes down matter in shorthand, all that is needful is, first, to construct
a simple test on scientific principles, and then to draw up, on the basis
of actual experiment, standards of efficiency for work of differing diffi-
culty. Tests for such acquirements are of use chiefly in vocational
selection—where, that is to say, an employer desires to pick out for
a given job the best in a list of applicants. Vocational guidance, on the
other hand—where the adviser picks out for a given child the best of all
possible jobs—is a far more intricate task. It demands the measure-
ment, not of attainments, but of the underlying aptitudes. To test
capacity is much harder than to test acquired knowledge or skill. This
we have already seen, And to determine whether a child is endowed with
sufficient intelligence, sufficient finger-dexterity, sufficient quickness in
analysing sounds, for it to be worth while to train him as a shorthand-
typist, is an infinitely harder affair than to discover whether, once his
period of training is over, he has reached the minimum of practical
skill that will be expected from an office clerk. Here then is yet another
pressing problem for future experimental inquiry. The vocational
psychologist must work backward from the measurement of acquired
dexterities in every trade to the measurement of the related capacities.
At present most tests that he administers hinge upon a blend of both.
And, in spite of the theoretical difficulty of disentangling the two
psychological components, the methods devised hitherto have already
proved their value in factories, in workshops, and in commercial firms.
In this country vocational tests have been drawn up, and are now being
still further refined, not only for different kinds of clerical work, but
also for dressmakers, miners, and the various branches of the engineer-
ing trades. The practical results, even in these early stages, are an
unquestionable success.*°

b. Temperament.

We have now reached the most delicate portion of every psycho-
logical analysis. Hitherto we have been studying the man’s intelli-
gence, of which he is not likely to be ashamed. Now we have to study
his character, which he naturally prefers to keep private. Having seen
the full-length portrait exhibited to public gaze, our ruthless hands
must lift the picture from the wall, and turn it over, that our prying
eyes may look upon the back.

22 The teacher, unacquainted with the newer methods, will find the best
introduction to the subject in Dr. Ballard’s excelient and attractive little book,
Mental Tests.

23 Those desirous of further details may be referred to Professor Claparéde’s
little pamphlet on Problems and Methods of Vocational Guidance (International
Labour Office, Geneva, 1922); to Professor Muscio’s Review of the Literature
on Vocational Guidance (Reports of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board,
No. 12, HM. Stationery Office, 1921); and to articles and reviews in the
Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 233

Character has been defined as the sum-total of all those individual
qualities which do not constitute, or are not pervaded by, intelligence ;
to avoid the specifically moral implications that cling to the popular
word ‘ character,’ I prefer to retain the old term ‘ temperament,’ and
use it in the sense defined. ‘The qualities thus negatively grouped apart
are not without a positive aspect shared by them all. Though they
exhibit low correlations with intelligence, they yet show tolerably high
correlations amongst themselves. Analytically, they are marked by
affective and conative elements rather than by cognitive; by feeling
rather than by knowledge; by will rather than skill.

Temperament or character is always more difficult to assess than
intelligence. Intellectual qualities are relatively constant. Emotional
qualities are evanescent and evasive—hard to seize, and harder still to
measure. It is significant to note that, though the idea of
temperamental testing is almost as old as that of intelligence-testing,
it has seen quite a different career. Hyery one has heard of Binet’s tests
for intelligence. But most of us have forgotten his efforts to measure
suggestibility, conscientiousness, and fidelity of report. Of late re-
newed endeavours have been made to test the feelings and the will;
and of these the most effective are the methods of associative reaction
and the so-called psycho-galvanic reflex. Pressey has tried to detect
fears aud repulsions by getting the examinee to pick out, from a pre-
arranged list of words, those that have for him a special meaning, or
suggest a special worry or dislike. Downey has tried to measure what
she terms ‘ will-temperament’ by seeing: how far the candidate can
modify at request his style of handwriting and manner of speech.
Fernald measures self-control by the time the candidate can balance
himself upon the ball of the foot. The Porteus mazes are to some
extent a test of recklessness and impulsiveness. And the variability
in repeated tests of almost any simple kind (as measured, for example,
by the standard deviation) seems partly correlated with instability. But
no tests of temperament can claim to have passed beyond the stage of
tentative experiment.**

In assessing temperament, therefore, we must fall back upon the
method of observation in place of the method of experiment. The
personal interview is one recognised device; and another is the collation
of reports submitted by competent observers who have been acquainted
with the examinee during a long portion of his life. Both interviewing
and reporting has each its own technique; and in either case the
technique is susceptible of great improvement by the application of
simple scientific principles. Much, indeed, has already been done by
drawing up questionnaires of facts to be noted and observed,” and by

24 A good summary of the literature, with a detailed bibliography, will be
found in Cady’s article on ‘ The Psychology and Pathology of Personality : A
Summary of Test-problems,’ /. Deling., vii., 225 (1922).

25 Of these perhaps the most suggestive are those given by Webb, ‘ Character
and Intelligence,’ Brit. 7. Psych. Mon., I., and Hoch and Amsden, ‘ Guide to
the Descriptive Study of Personality,’ Rev. Neur. Psych., xi., 577. Cf. Psych.
Rev., xxi., 295

234 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

contriving rating-scales*° for the registration of such facts in terms of
a comparable scheme.

1. Inborn Emotional Qualities.

As with intellectual qualities, so with emotional, it is both con-
venient and legitimate to distinguish at the outset the inborn from the
acquired; and, so far as possible, to judge each level independently.
In both directions much light has recently been thrown by the work
of living authors. ‘The inborn mechanisms have been tentatively cata-
logued and defined by McDougall; the acquired mechanisms by Freud
and his school. The former lays stress upon hereditary factors; the
latter upon developmental. But their views, however much opposed in _
general standpoint, are not so much incompatible as complementary.
And they have this in common: both agree with one another in
emphasising the dynamic elements in mental life, in contrast to the
excessively intellectualistic preoccupation of the traditional psychology
of the past. Hach doctrine, although developed primarily as a correc-
tion of general psychological theory, is of the utmost practical value
in studying the individual mind.

To sift and winnow inborn tendencies from those that are acquired
is even harder in the realm of character than in the field of intellect.
With adults it is all but impossible. With the young a few suggestions
can at times be gleaned from the family history, or from the early
personal history of the child himself. With children, too, the dis-
crimination is more important practically. To know whether a spiteful
boy is inherently ill-tempered, or only venting some half-hidden griev-
ance; to know whether an erring girl is constitutionally oversexed, or
merely putting into practice what she has picked up from corrupt com-
panions; to separate the nervousness left by a shock from a chronic neu-
rosis rooted in the system and likely to merge into madness or hysteria ;
to discriminate the excitability that is but a brief and transitory episode
of some pubertal crisis from the excitability that began at birth and may
last a lifetime—these are distinctions that make a world of difference in
the treatment of the delinquent or neurotic while he is young.

a. Specific Inborn Emotions and Instincts.

English writers, McDougall, Shand, Drever, and others, find the
foundations of human character in the instincts with their correlated
emotions; and, taking their cue very largely from William James, they
have given us useful working classifications for our common instinctive
tendencies—inyentories sufficiently identical for the purposes of the
practical man. ‘The strength with which each instinct is inherited is
of necessity itself inborn. Accordingly, before estimating the character
of a given individual, the first step is to take the universal human

26 On rating persons either by ‘ relative position’ or by reference to ‘ key-
subjects’ (a method elaborated with some success by the psychologists of the
American Army) a rich literature has grown up. See, among other references,
The Personnel System of the U.S. Army, vols. i. and ii. ; Scott, Psych. Bull. xv.
(1918); Thorndike, J. Appl. Psych., ii. and iv. (1918 and 1920); and Rugg,
J. Educ, Psych., xii. and xiii. (1921 and 1922).

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 235

instincts one by one—pugnacity, fear, curiosity, disgust, sex, tender-
ness, gregariousness, and the like; and to ask in order with what
intensity he has inherited each. In a study of juvenile crime I have
endeavoured to show what an essential part the strength of the several
instincts plays in determining the commoner forms of naughtiness and
wrong behaviour in the young; in the elderly, and in the apparently
virtuous, whether old or young, the same fundamental motives come
more obscurely into play.

How can they be assessed? Not easily in the artificial and well-
disciplined atmosphere of school or classroom; but with fair success,
at any rate for delinquent and neurotic children, under more natural
conditions where behaviour is spontaneous, as at home, in the street,
in the playground, and in places of amusement generally. ‘A man’s
nature,’ says Bacon, ‘is best perceived in privateness, for there is no
affectation ; in passion, for that putteth a man out of his precepts; and
in a new case or experiment, for there custom leaveth him.’*” The
most serviceable method is to seek for certain standard situations, parti-
cularly those calculated to excite instinctive reactions; to observe the
conduct of individual after individual; and so to gain by experience a
notion of different grades of response. When relating to situations
equally definite, the reports of parents, teachers, and the child himself
provide suggestive supplements.

8. General Emotionality.

In a paper read some time ago before what was then the Psycho-
logical Sub-Section of this Association, I endeavoured to show that, in
a random group, all emotional tendencies appeared to be correlated one
with another in much the same way as intellectual. The child most
prone to sorrow is often exceptionally prone to joy. The coward who
bullies the weak is often the first to quake and quail before the strong.
Correlations of this nature suggest the existence of a second central
factor underlying the instincts and emotions, analogous to, but inde-
pendent of, the factor termed intelligence. I have termed it ‘ general
emotionality.’ Those who manifest this inborn emotionality to an
exceptional extent I call ‘unstable’; and the most extreme cases
‘temperamentally deficient.’ And, in varying degrees, the existence
of an unstable constitution is the chief characteristic feature of most
delinquents and nearly all neurotics.

It is my view that a classification of the separate instincts, which
shall be ultimately valid and convincing, can be reached only by the
method of multiple correlation, by first eliminating, that is to say, the
influence of the central factor, and then observing what specific factors
remain, connecting particular forms of behaviour one with another.?®
If one makes a hierarchical table for the instincts and emotions, taken
each as a unity, one seems to perceive the presence of a third set of
factors—‘ group factors’ of an intermediate level. When the influence

27 Wssays, Xxxviii., 128.

28 Only in this way can the issue between McDougall and Thorndike—whether
the specific innate tendencies to behaviour are roughly six, or more nearly sixty
or six hundred—he satisfactorily solved.

236 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of the general facter has been eliminated, there emerge positive and
negative correlations of a ‘partial’ order, which show that certain
instincts tend to go more closely together than others. On the basis of
such group-combinations we are led to distinguish certain broad
emotional dispositions of at least two qualitatively differing kinds. On
the one hand, the active or ‘ sthenic’ emotions—anger, assertiveness,
curiosity, joy, and perhaps sex—appear specifically correlated; on the
other hand, the passive or ‘ asthenic’ emotions—fear, submissiveness,
disgust, sorrow, and perhaps gregariousness—seem in a similar way to
be correlated with each other positively, but with the active or sthenic
group negatively. Jung and his followers, working chiefly with
abnormal ‘patients, have recently thrown out some very suggestive
speculations upon so-called emotional types. Their chief division con-
sists in a revival and expansion of an old dichotomy. What have
formerly been described as ‘sensitive’ and ‘ excitable’ types, or
“restrained ’ and ‘ unrestrained’ types, or ‘ subjective’ and ‘ objective ’
types, or latterly ‘ herbivorous’ and ‘ carnivorous’ types, are now re-
named ‘ introverts ’ and ‘ extroverts.’ Once more, I believe the method
of multiple correlation will afford the best way to confirm for the normal
population these interesting deductions from pathology.”

il. Acquired Emotional Characteristics.

Besides reviewing the strength of the several instincts and emotions
which a man inherits, we must also investigate the more complex
emotional tendencies that he has, in the course of his life-history, pro-
gressively acquired. These, according to the different angles from
which they are regarded, and according to their own intrinsic nature,
may be designated and sub-classified as habits, interests, sentiments,
and complexes. We have, therefore, to inquire what habits each person
has developed out of his instincts, what emotional attitudes he has
unconsciously formed, what interests be has cultivated, and what ideals
he has framed. These things are best ascertained through observation
and interview. But the possibility of moral tests is already being
investigated by the processes previously so successful in tests of intelli-
gence. Attempts at measuring ethical discrimination, for example,
have been made upon the following lines: a list of offences is drawn up,
each described upon a separate card—breaking windows, scalding the
cat, not going to church, stealing from a blind man’s hat, flirting with a
stranger, committing suicide, killing a thief, and the like; the examinee
has to arrange them in order of wickedness. The arrangements of
delinquents differ considerably from those of law-abiding children.*® A

29 T have no space to allude further to attempts to classify the basal psycho-
pathic and neurotic types. I can only repeat that the trend of current work
is to show that subnormalities in temperament and character, like subnormality
in intellect, are extreme instances of milder deviations discoverable in the normal
population. Useful references from the clinical standpoint are Wells, Mental
Regression : Its Concepts and Types; Rosanoff, ‘ A Theory of Personality based
on Psychological Experience, Psych. Bull., xyii., p. 281; and Paton, Human
Behaviour.

30 Fernald. Amer. J. Insanity, Ixviil., 547; Haines, Psychol. Rev. xxii., 303.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 237

suggestive set of tests has been recently applied, by one American investi-
gator, to a group of boy-scouts, and, by another, to groups of delinquent
and non-delinquent children. 'The child is required to trace mazes with
his eyes shut; to fill up and correct completion-tests with the key
temptingly handy on the back; to state how much he knows of various
topics, with the prospect of earning a box of confectionery if he obtains
full marks. The measure is the number of times he cheats or over-
states, and the results correlate with independent estimates of moral
character to the extent of .42.** Sometimes (as in the last research) the
examinee is also given a syllabus of questions relating to his own
character: ‘ What kind of amusements do you prefer? Do you get
on well with teachers and with other children? Would you like to
wear jewellery and fine clothes? What do you think about when you
are alone? What would you do if a lot of money were left you?’ As
a rule, however, an indirect technique is far preferable to a direct. The
moral test is, as it were, to be camouflaged in the guise of a test of
intelligence or information. |The optional question-paper is full of
possibilities in this direction. Every teacher knows how, in examina-
tions on languages or mathematics, the routine worker chooses the
mechanical questions, while the more enterprising select the problems
and the riders; the cautious prefer the prepared texts, the adventurous
the unseen translations. It is an interesting exercise to collect a set
of picture postcards, artistic, humorous, or informative, and to request
the child to arrange them in order of preference or merit. The influence
of special interests, working quite unconsciously if the cards have been
chosen with care, is nearly always obvious.

Few, however, would as yet pretend that such tests have more than
an experimental interest. As Terman has put it: ‘ The reliability and
validity of tests for moral traits have proved lower than an optimist
might have hoped for. But the correlations obtained are quite as high
as those yielded by the early intelligence tests of fifteen or twenty years
ago. And this is no small achievement.’ *”

Conclusion.

Here, then, are the main items in the programme of the mental
examiner. Here is my sketch of the skeleton of the mind.

Having tested all that he can test, having measured all measurable
capacities, having passed in review all available data that throw light
upon the rest, the psychologist must in the end bring his mixed materials
together in one synoptic survey. He must reconstruct the mind dis-
sected. The most expedient way of doing this is to plot out what is
known in this country as a ‘ psychogram,’ and elsewhere as a ‘ mental
profile.’ The various findings are to be charted diagrammatically upon
some uniform and comprehensive scale. If he takes for his unit the
percentile or the standard deviation, there is no capacity, no tendency,

%t Voelker, ‘ The Functions of Ideals and Attitudes.’ Col. Univ. Contrib. Ed.
zs)’ Cady, ‘The Estimation of Juvenile Incorrigibility, Journ. Deling. Mon.
923).
52 Preface to Cady’s paper, loc. cit. sup., p. 4.

238 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

no quality, in theory at any rate, that cannot thus be comparably
expressed.

In his conclusions he will beware of four temptations. First, he
must never court the applause of the unlearned, and the sneers of the
worldly-wise, by claiming to have caught a living soul, and to have
caged it in a formula, however technical, however abstruse. The grow-
ing mind is more than the sum of simple assignable elements; and all
personal equations must issue ina surd. Similarly, he will avoid con-
densing his data at any point into vague generalisations—the announce-
ment of a type, an average, or a total. A composite of snapshots, each
taken from a different angle—a side-view, a full-view, a half-turn, and
the rest—is no photograph at all; only an indecipherable blur. Thirdly,
he must everywhere shun the besetting sin of the mere literary
biographer—the confusing of facts with hypotheses to explain those
facts, or, worse still, the submission of bare subjective inferences
fortified by a string of anecdotes; data and interpretations the scientist
keeps rigidly apart. Finally, throughout his inquiry, he must neither
correct nor criticise, but coldly and calmly observe. His interest lies
in realities, not in values; and should be ‘ positive,’ as the philosophers
say, not ‘ normative.’ The teacher may psychologise while he is teach-
ing, but he must not teach while he is testing. Nor should he anticipate
the judgment-day by seeking to award praise or blame. His humble
function is that of the recording angel, who registers, like a watch or a
weighing machine, without audible comment.

There can be no denying that each inquiry will be slow, circuitous,
and cumbersome. How long (it is sometimes asked) should it take to
size up a single child? It was a tradition of the ancient world that no
metamorphosis could hide a god from a god. And, upon a comple-
mentary principle, it seems often assumed that no disguise or taciturnity
can save defectives or delinquents from the penetration of the mental
expert. He is expected to cast his eye round the classroom or the
prison, and to make a darting snapshot diagnosis on the spot. Our
school doctors are given about ten minutes to decide whether a boy is
deficient or not. Our magistrates take fifteen or twenty to determine
what is best for a first offender. But the laboratory tester thinks himself
a miracle of swiftness if he has measured a child’s intelligence in less
than an hour; and the psychoanalyst asks his startled patient for six
months of separate weekly sittings to unravel a single complex. A
longer period still was required by Shakespeare :

‘Tt is not a year or two shows us a man.’

And Dr. Johnson thought the intimacy of a lifetime scarcely enough :
‘God Himself, sir, does not propose to judge man until the end of his
days.’ Whether they be normal or subnormal, backward, delinquent,
or neurotic, or merely youthful applicants seeking their most appropriate
career in after-life, we can deal with human beings fairly and efficiently
only by making an intensive, individual study of each isolated mind;
there is no other way. Human personality, with all its infinite variety,
is the most important single factor in all our social life; and the
expenditure of time, howeyer lavish, will never be lost.

J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 239

Where the exigencies of the case dernand a speedy assessment, I
recommend the practical psychologist to aim chiefly at the so-called
general factors. If I were permitted to measure no more than a pair
of mental qualities, I should iook first to the degree of a man’s native
intelligence—his ‘ general ability,’ with which more special capacities
are known to be correlated; and next to the degree of his native in-
stability—his ‘ general emotionality,’ with which his special instincts
are apt to be in accord. Were I granted the grace of two or three
additional estimates, they would still be of a general type—general
physical health, general moral character, and general cultural
attainments.

It may be that I am too optimistic, and that my views are premature.
But it is my personal conviction that the main outlines of our human
nature are now approximately known, and that the whole territory of
individual psychology has, by one worker or another, been completely
covered in the large. We have viewed the whole continent from above
by rapid aerial flights towards different quarters. It remains to link up
and to co-ordinate the numerous reconnoitring pioneers ; then to descend,
and, by the laborious method of exploring feature after feature, to
correct up our maps in definite detail. Once its broad principles have
been determined, it is from the close and microscopic detection of
minutie, of tiny items and small but telling indications, that every
science is eventually built up. This must be the aim with individual
psychology in the near future. We must discover what mental traits
are relatively independent, and which are the general among the rela-
tively specific; we must construct precise working definitions for each,
and hammer out by experiment upon experiment, research upon

research, tests and rating-scales for everything that can be quantitatively

expressed, inventing new tests for traits not hitherto tested, and refining
the procedure of the old. Here rather than in any grand discovery

must further progress lie.

Finally, let me leave the would-be analyst of character with a
repetition of a warning already uttered in another place. Individual
psychology is not a code of rules and principles to be mastered out of
hand in the lecture-room or laboratory. It is not an affair of text-

book terminology or of a teachable technique. It is the product of

worldly experience acting on an inborn interest—an enthusiasm for

_ persons as persons, in the old nihil alienwm spirit. To take an unknown

mind as it is, and delicately one by one to learn its chords and stops,
to ‘pluck the heart out of its mystery, and sound it from its lowest
note to the top of its compass,’ is an art and not a science. The scientist
may standardise the methods. To apply those methods, and appraise
the results, demands the tact, the temperament, the sympathetic insight
of the genuine lover of strange souls.

1923 8

SOME ASPECTS OF THE PRESENT
POSITION OF BOTANY.

ADDRESS TO SECTION K (BOTANY) BY
A. G. TANSLEY, M.A., F.R.5.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

We meet to-day in a city which is one of the greatest seaports of the
kingdom, traditionally the main channel of our commerce and inter-
course with the great English-speaking republic across the Atlantic, and
also the main centre of the import of cotton and of the export of cotton
goods, with which the prosperity of Lancashire, and to no small degree
of the country, is so intimately associated. To the enterprise and public
spirit of the citizens of Liverpool we owe the creation and development,
within an astonishingly short period, of the distinguished university the
hospitality of whose staffs, organisations, and buildings we shall enjoy
during the coming week. Many of us can vividly remember the pride
and satisfaction with which we saw arise, especially during the last
decade of last century, one after another of the great institutes of
research and teaching which have contributed so much to the advance-
ment of science in the comparatively few years during which they
have existed. In such surroundings we cannot but be stimulated afresh
to labour to the limit of our abilities in the cause of that great human
activity—the advancement of science in all its branches—which as
members of the British Association we all have at heart.

Since the last meeting of the Association we botanists have to mourn
the loss of two striking and dominant personalities. Sir Isaac Bayley
Balfour played a great and worthy part in that revival of scientific botany
in this country which marked the last quarter of last century. During
his long tenure of the Chair of Botany at Edinburgh and of the Director-
ship of the famous Botanic Garden in that city, he was widely known
for the ability and assiduity with which he carried out the work of one
of the most important and onerous botanical positions in the kingdom,
and for the native shrewdness and sanity, the ripe judgment and experi-
ence, which he was always ready to place at the disposal of his col-
leagues. Mr. Henry Elwes was a country gentleman of a type for
which England has long been famous, who, like Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury, conceived it ‘a fine study and worthy a gentleman to be a good
botanique that so he may know the nature of all herbs and plants, being
our fellow creatures.’ To this study Mr. Elwes brought the utmost
energy and vigour, pursuing to the remotest lands, both personally and
by deputy, an untiring search for the objects of his attachment. He

K.—BOTANY. 241

will best be remembered by that magnificent work ‘The Trees of Great
Britain and Ireland,’ which, in conjunction with Professor Augustine
Henry, he produced at his own expense on a splendid scale.

I propose to deal this morning with some aspects of the development
of pure botany during the last thirty or forty years, especially in this
country, and with the bearing of these developments on the present
position of the subject. In seeking for a suitable starting-point from
which to begin the observations I have to make I naturally turned to
the address delivered by my predecessor in this chair at the last meeting
of the Association in this city. On that occasion, in 1896, the chair
of Section K was occupied by Dr. D. H. Scott, and I found at once
that the remarks with which he began his Presidential Address were
surprisingly apt for my purpose. For definiteness of outlook on the
problems of pure botany and for lucidity of expression they could not
be surpassed, and their author will, I am sure, forgive me if I use his
statement as the primary text from which to develop my critical
exposition.

‘The object of modern morphological botany,’ said Dr. Scott, ‘ is
the accurate comparison of plants, both living and extinct, with the
object of tracing their real relationships with one another, and thus
of ultimately constructing a genealogical tree of the vegetable kingdom.
The problem is thus a purely historical one, and is perfectly distinct
from any of the questions with which physiology has to do.

‘ Yet there is a close relation between these two branches of biology,
at any rate to those who maintain the Darwinian position. For from
that point of view we see that all the characters which the morphologist
has to compare are, or have been, adaptive. Hence it is impossible for
the morphologist to ignore the functions of those organs of which he is
studying the homologies. To those who accept the origin of species by
variation and natural selection there are no such things as morpho-
logical characters pure and simple. There are not two distinct cate-
gories of characters—a morphological and a physiological category—for
all characters alike are physiological.’ And then the President pro-
ceeded to quote, evidently with full agreement, from Professor (now
Sir) Ray Lankester. ‘ According to that theory’ [i.e. the Darwinian
theory], wrote Professor Lankester in ‘ The Advancement of Science,’
“every organ, every part, colour, and peculiarity of an organism must
either be of benefit to an organism itself, or have been so to its ancestors.

. Necessarily, according to the theory of natural selection, struc-
tures either are present because they are selected as useful, or because
they are still inherited from ancestors to whom they were useful, though
no longer useful to the existing representatives of those ancestors.’ And
a little further on Dr. Scott said: ‘ Although there is no essential differ-
ence between adaptive and morphological characters, there is a great
difference in the morphologist’s and the physiologist’s way of looking
at them. The physiologist is interested in the question how organs
work ; the morphologist asks, What is their history ? ’?

The way of looking at the science of biology so clearly expressed

' British Association Report, Liverpool Meeting, 1896, pp. 992, 993.
$s 2

242 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

in these sentences was by no means exceptional. Indeed, it may be
fairly called the orthodox view at that time. Thus five years earlier,
in 1891, Professor Strasburger, perhaps the most brilliant and success-
ful German botanist of what we must now speak of as the last generation,
wrote in the preface to his great work on the structure and functions of
the conducting tissues: ‘ Morphology as such is a purely formal science,
and thus corresponds approximately with comparative grammar, in that
it explains forms by deriving them. It need be as little influenced by
the functions of the forms to be derived as comparative grammar is
influenced by the meanings of words. Not that a physiological treat-
ment of the external and internal structure of a natural body would be
less fruitful than the morphological, but it forms a different discipline.’
After referring to the unfortunate effect of physiological points of view
on the work of the earlier anatomists, who called, for instance, the
water-conducting elements of plants ‘ tracheal’ because they thought
they were air passages, Professor Strasburger proceeded: ‘ With
advancing enlightenment the provinces of morphology and physiology
were separated from one another and developed on separate lines, with-

out, of course, attaining complete independence . . . in fact, organs and
functions are not separated in nature, and are only logically distinguished
in crder to subserve the building up of science. . . . Morphology finds

its task only in deriving one form from another, in tracing different forms
to acommon origin. When this is successful the goal is reached. . . .
The way which leads to morphological understanding is that of com-
parison, but only because this way involves a phylogenetic significance.
Since a direct phylogenetic proof of the origin of a given structure is not
to be had, morphology remains tied to indirect methods. It is often
supported in its task by ontogeny, but only in so far as this is capable
of giving phylogenetic points of view.’* Here we have the same insist-
ence on the separateness of the two disciplines, morphology and physio-
logy, and the same clear statement that the object of morphology is
the elucidation of phylogeny. We may note, however, one striking
difference. Professor Strasburger thinks that morphology need be
as little influenced by the functions of the forms to be derived as com-
parative grammar by the meanings of words, and he does not claim,
like Dr. Scott, that all features of an organism are, or have been in
the past, adaptive.

It is, I think, impossible to regard the views thus expressed by a
representative English and a representative German botanist three
decades ago as representing to-day an adequate outlook on the problems
of botany as a whole; and I shall be engaged this morning in endeayour-
ing to expound the view which I think we should put in its place. First,
I must pay some attention to the causes of the orthodox attitude of the
last generation, the generation in which I was botanically brought up,
and whose orientation I fear I passively accepted. The main cause
of the greatly intensified interest in comparative morphology which
led to the claim that this subject represented a separate discipline,

2 E. Strasburger, Ucber den Bau und die Verrichtungen der Leitungsbahnen
in den Pflanzen, Histologische Beitrage JIT, Jena, 1891, p. vi.

K.—BOTANY. 2438

co-ordinate with physiology, was, of course, the general acceptance by
biologists cf the doctrine of descent with modification, popularly called
evolution. Belief in the reality of this process at once invested the
comparative study of structure with a new fascination. LHvery part,
every organ of an animal or plant, could be interpreted in the light of
the doctrine of descent. All the species of a group should, according
to the theory of descent, be theoretically traceable to a hypothetical
‘common ancestor’ of the group, and these group ancestors again to
remoter ancestors. Ultimately we should be able, theoretically at
least, to reconstruct the whole genealogical tree of the plant and animal
kingdoms. It was, of course, recognised that we could never hope to
complete this task, even if we possessed an exhaustive knowledge of the
structure and development of every kind of organism now living, for
very many forms had been destroyed and had disappeared altogether
in the course of the evolution of the organic world as 16 exists to-day.
But the remains of many of the organisms which, had lived in past ages
were still preserved as fossils, and a knowledge of their structure would
substantially help us on the way to the goal, even though that goal
could never actually be reached. Though the geological record was
extremely fragmentary, yet it did bring to our knowledge many kinds
of plants, some more or less closely allied to living forms, others which
could not be placed in any living group, and others, again, which sug-
gested that they might represent or at least stand near to the common
ancestors of existing groups.

If we consider the most recent developments of the subject we find
that, on the whole, the search for common ancestors as such has been
disappointing. The ‘seed-bearing ferns’ (Pteridosperms) have turned
out to be, so far as we can tell, a perfectly independent group having
no demonstrable connection with the true ferns. The most primitive
fossil ferns known (the Primofilices or Coenopterideze of the Lower
Carboniferous) certainly represent a very ancient group. But not only,
according to Dr. Scott in his most recent statement,* do ‘ Pteridosperms
and Ferns at all times show themselves perfectly distinct’: ‘we are
dealing, in the Lower Carboniferous Primofilices, with early races
already specialised on their own lines, and probably only indirectly
connected with the main current of Fern-evolution.’

The remarkable Rhynie fossils described by Kidston and Lang from
the Lower Devonian—the oldest vascular plants with structure pre-
served that are as yet known—have revealed in the genera Rhynia and
Hornea a leafless and rootless type with large simple terminal sporangia
and a simple stele occupying the centre of the axis. These plants show
striking points of agreement with the living Psilotales, but their dis-
coverers, so far from being prepared to assert that they are prototypes
of Psilotales, create for their fossils a new class, the Psilophytales.
Thus we have now recognised six distinct classes or orders of living and
fossi! Pteridophytes,* and parallel with these six distinct classes of non-
on D. H. Scott, ‘The Early History of the Land Flora,’ Nature, Nov. 11,

_* Psilophytales, Psilotales, Sphenophytales, Equisetales, Lycopodiales
Filicales.

244 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

angiospermous seed-plants, two wholly and others largely fossil.? In
addition there are still a multitude of fossil forms, largely detached frag-
ments such as sori, seeds, leaves, or wood, which are not sufficiently
known or correlated to permit of their definite assignment to one or
other of these classes. From these and for other discoveries it may
well turn out to be necessary in the future to construct one or more
new classes.

Leaving these great series of vascular forms which played so
dominant a part in the history of vegetation during the Primary and
Secondary geological epochs, we may note that the gulf which has
always existed for the phylogenist between Pteridophyta and Bryophyta
is as wide and deep as ever, and that the same may be said of the gulf
between the Bryophyta and the Alge. The attempts which have been
made from time to time to derive various groups of Fungi from various
groups of Algw seem to me quite unconvincing. The phylogeny of the
Fungi themselves remains obscure, though certain lines of advance
among them and among the Algz are fairly probable. On the whole
the most successful phylogenetic speculations seem to me to be those
that trace some at least of the classes of Algee back to a common origin
in the great plexus of the Flagellata, which may also, perhaps, be
regarded as the likeliest recognisable starting-point of the main lines
of invertebrate evolution. Turning to the other extremity of the Plant
Kingdom, to the characteristically modern dominant vegetation of the
earth, we are scarcely able to form a trustworthy opinion as to the
nature of the plants from which the two great modern groups of Angio-
sperms sprang, though the speculations of one of my predecessors in
this chair, the late Miss Sargant, founded on wide researches and elabo-
rated with masterly ability, are certainly of great interest, and full of
suggestion as to what may have occurred. The evidence from fossil
Angiosperms is still unsatisfactory, and Mr. Hamshaw Thomas’s inter-
esting discoveries of Jurassic Angiosperms scarcely throw light on the
problem of the descent of the group. It has been the invariable history
of such researches, pursued with a view to tracing phylogeny, that the
better a newly discovered group has become known the less probably
it appears to represent the common ancestors of other existing or fossil
groups. The points of origin, the roots, so to speak, of each group
have been constantly lengthened and shifted further back in geological
time so that they become more definitely independent from one another
and appear to issue separately from a past which remains obstinately
obscure. ‘ It may be,’ said Professor Seward recently,° speaking from the
fullness of a very wide knowledge of the floras of the past, ‘ that we shall
never piece together the links in the chain of life, not because the missing
parts elude our search, but because the unfolding of terrestrial life in
all its phases cannot be compared to a single chain. Continuity in some
degree there must have been, but it is conceivable that plant life viewed

5 Pteridospermee, Cordaitales, Cycadophyta, Coniferales, Ginkgoales, and
Gnetales : see Seward, Fossil Plants, vols. IIT. and IV.

6 A. C. Seward, ‘A Study in Contrasts,’ (Hooker Lecture), Journ. Linn. Soc.
Bot., October 1922, p. 238.

K.—BOTANY. 245

as a whole may best be represented by separate and independent lines
of evolution or disconnected chains which were never united, each being
initiated by some revolution in the organic world.’ And again,’ the
development of vegetation ‘ appears as a series of separate lines, some
stretching into a remote past, others of more recent origin.’ ‘ It would
almost seem that ‘‘ missing links’’ have never existed.’ ‘ There is no
insuperable objection to the conception that terrestrial vegetation
received additions from upraised portions of the earth’s crust at more
than one epoch in the history of the earth.’ The picture of the history
of evolution here suggested makes the search for common ancestors
literally a hopeless quest, the genealogical tree an illusory vision.

But there can be no doubt whatever that the great body of work
originally stimulated and inspired by the ideal of the genealogical tree
has added very greatly to our knowledge of the range of the forms and
structures of plants, notably of vascular plants, and of the rise and fall
of the great groups during the passage of geological time. In regard to
the structures of plants, it has directed attention especially to the
vascular system of the plants of the middle grades of organisation, and
given us a much more extensive and accurate acquaintance with the
larger features of its organisation and development throughout these
grades. We have discovered that vascular structure shows a type of
progression from simpler to more complex forms which is broadly
identical along many different lines of descent, a progression closely
paralleled in the ontogeny of the individuals belonging to species which
exhibit the more complex adult structure; and we have thus learned to
correct the one-sided emphasis that used to be placed on the reproductive
organs as guides to evolution. Though these last remain, so far as we
can tell, the most trustworthy indices of affinity, yet ‘the characters
of the vascular system,’ says Professor Bower in his recently published
book on the Ferns, are ‘ the most important structural features for the
phyletic treatment of the Class.’ ®

Without question, then, morphological and paleeobotanica! work,
particularly in its extension to the internal structure of plants, has
added greatly to our knowledge of the plant kingdom, and has given us
a much fuller and juster appreciation of the range of the great middle
groups, and to some extent of their relationship, or, as perhaps we
should say, of their lack of relationship, to one another. One of the most
striking results of this work as a whole has been the increasing doubt it
has engendered as to whether many organs formerly regarded as homo-
logous in the strict sense, 7.e. homogenetic, of common origin in descent,
are really homologous in this sense at all. The principle of homoplastic
or parallel evolution has been more and more widely extended. And
our increasing though still very rudimentary knowledge of the factors
which determine organic form would suggest not only that parallel
evolution has been determined by parallel conditions of life, an idea
long familiar to biologists, but that we should expect a recurrence of the
same formative factors, producing similar structures, on different lines

7 Presidential Address to the Geological Society, 1923.
8 F. O. Bower, V’he Ferns (Milicales), 1923, vol. I, p. 192.

246 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES,

of descent, and to a large extent independently of particular life
conditions.

It seems to me that no structure which has been assumed to be
homologous throughout a large series showing many gaps is really safe
from the suspicion of having been developed independently on different
lines of descent. In a recent paper Dr. Scott writes ° of the inference
‘that the Seed Plants, of which the Pteridosperms are among the earlier
representatives, constitute an independent phylum, of equal antiquity
with any of the recognised lines of Vascular Cryptogams.’ But is it
at all certain that the Seed Plants really constitute a single phylum ?
Is it not perfectly possible that the seed with its attendant mechanisms
has been independently evolved in some or all of the six classes of
Seed Plants which, apart from the Angiosperms, ave now recognised ?
It is clear that the more such suspicions effect permanent lodgment in
our minds the more uncertain all wide positive phylogenetic conclusions
must become.

Meanwhile the whole of this branch of botany seems to leave the
great majority of the younger botanists cold. No longen under the
lunmediate influence of the revolution in biological ways of thinking
brought about by Darwin, they are not greatly interested in comparative
morphology, nor in the attempts to disentangle the past history of the
plant kingdom, sustained and even magnificent as these attempts have
been, and greatly as they have enriched our knowledge of the past life
of our world. There is, to many of them, an effect of hopelessness and
even of futility in the effort to trace out the course of the threads in an
intricately woven carpet, with no attainable certainty that we have got
them right, however long and patiently the task is pursued, partly
because so many of the threads, such large portions of the carpet, have
been destroyed for ever, partly because, as Professor Seward suggests,
we may, in effect, be dealing not with one carpet, but with many.

While we may urge that far too much time has been, and in many
places still is, devoted to the study of comparative morphology in
elementary teaching, it is impossible to deny the great interest and
importance of conclusions like those quoted from Dr. Scott and Professor
Seward. From the point of view of the ideal of the ‘ genealogical
tree ’ these conclusions are negative, but they are none the less interest-
ing and valuable, for they are giving us a truer view of the past history
of plants.

There has certainly been no less of interest in the process of develop-
ment, whether phylogenetic or ontogenetic. The unfolding of life upon
the earth, the marvellous story of development and change, of increasing
complication and endless variation on the one hand, and on the other
the great problem of how the complex organism comes to develop from
the minute zygote, can never lose their fascination for the human
mind. It is the formal comparison of the end results of this process,
with a view to the determination of phylogenetic relationships, the treat-
ment of the problem as’‘ a purely historical one,’ which seems to so
many of the keenest younger biologists a hopeless and not a very

® I'he Origin of the Seed Plants, p. 227.

K.—BOTANY. 247

remunerative pursuit. ‘Their interest is in the process itself rather than
in the phylogenetic connexions of its particular results. They want to
know what brings about development and evolution, what are the
driving forces behind these processes.

The orthcdox ‘ Darwinian’ answer to this question, so far as it
applies to phylogenesis, was ‘ natural selection.’ The organism was
supposed to be capable of indefinite ‘ spontaneous ’ but heritable varia-
tion in all directions and of various degrees, and those which happened
to be useful to the organism by giving it a decisive advantage in the
struggle for existence were preserved because the individuals which
showed them alone survived and produced offspring, which inherited
the useful variations and thus modified the species. ‘Two or more diver-
gent sets of variations might happen to fit different individuals of a
parent species to different sets of conditions, different habitats, into
which they had wandered, while the parent species remained behind
unmodified in the original habitat, and thus new varieties were supposed
to originate. By the further development of the new characters, i.e. by
the favouring of further variations in the same direction as the original
ones, these varieties became distinct species. The same process further
continued and involving also other structural features would lead to the
wider divergence of the derivatives from the original stock, and this
divergence would ultimately become so great that the different forms
would be placed in distinct genera. The sharpness of the specific and
generic distinctions would often be enhanced by the disappearance of
the original or of intermediate forms, owing for instance to the physical
conditions of life changing and becoming unsuitable for them or to
their suppression by rivals whose variations had been more successful.
In the course of a very long time, by a continuation of the same pro-
cesses, the distinctions which were at first specific, and later generic,
would become family distinctions, later again ordinal distinctions, and
so on up to the great phyla.

Alongside of the evolution of new species, genera, and families in
the same general environment, such for instance as the tidal zone, there
had been a migration of some forms to the land, or perhaps, as Mr.
Church would have us suppose, a gradual raising of the land bearing
aquatic forms above the water-level. These aquatic forms had thus
been faced by conditions of life very different from the earlier ones, so
that the variations which were preserved and perpetuated were necessarily
in new directions. and gradually built up the equipment of the land plant
—the typical leaf and root, the vascular and aerating systems, the
cuticle, the air-distributed spores. From these earlier land plants again
by further variation the heterosporous forms were derived, and finally
the seed and angiospermy, while various progressive complications and
modifications of the primitive vascular tissue, including secondary
thickening, had established both more copious and more efficient con-
ducting and mechanical systems, and thus led to the quickly growing,
largely upright, modern plants, extraordinarily ‘ fiexible ’ to various life
conditions.

I think this is a fair rough statement of what was often known as
the Neo-Darwinian account of evolution, as applied to plants, in the

248 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

last decade of last century. It was not precisely Darwin's own position,
but gained its great vogue, especially in this country, largely through
the writing of Alfred Russel Wallace, and through the germ-plasm theory
of August Weismann. All characters whatever, as Dr. Scott and Sir
Ray Lankester said, were regarded as .adaptive or useful in the first
instance, and as produced by the summation of small variations. The
origin of these variations was obscure. The fact that such variations
occurred was sufficiently established, and their occurrence was simply
taken as a datum on which natural selection could work by picking
out and establishing the favourable ones. The only characters which
were not considered adaptive at their first origin were covered by the
conception of ‘ correlated variation,’ 7.e. structural or functional changes
necessarily involved by the primary adaptive ones, though not in them-
selves useful to the organism. Later on the structural changes which
were at first useful might be so no longer, owing to their supersession
by other structures or by a change of conditions. They were, however,
or might be, still inherited, being incorporated in the constitution of
the organism’s germ-plasm, though superseded, so far as current adapta-
tion went, by more recently acquired characters, as in the familiar case
of the embryonic gill-slits of the higher vertebrates. Frequently an
organ originally acquired for one purpose was diverted to different uses,
as for instance the anterior fins of fishes, which became, in their modi-
fied terrestrial descendants, legs, arms, or wings. Thus the actual
structure of an organism could only be explained by its ancestral history.

The weak point of this theory of evolution, on the facts then known,
apart from the obscurity surrounding the origin of variations, was the
difiiculty of understanding hew the first minimal variations, which were
supposed to be the foundation of new structures, could, at least in many
cases, be of life-preserving value— survival value,’ as the phrase goes—
to the organism, and how they could avoid being ‘ swamped,’ as it was
supposed would happen, by intercrossing with other unmodified mem-
bers of the species. Various theories of segregation, geographical or
physiological, were proposed to get over this difficulty, but it was very
doubtful if they could be considered as of sufficiently wide application
for the purpose. Further, the theory required that the actual structural
differences between species—apart from * correlated variations "—should
always be adaptive; yet the greater number of naturalists who had a
wide first-hand acquaintance with species as they exist in the field, and
with the actual differences between allied species, could not find that
this was the case. Some people attributed this scepticism to ignorance
of the functions of particular structures which seemed to be useless, the
Neo-Darwinians refusing to admit that constant characters might have
no ‘ function ’ after all, unless they were vestigial or ‘ correlated’ with
others that had. The field naturalists, however, remained for the most
part obdurate. One distinguished biologist, referring to the hope that
all specific characters would ultimately be proved adaptive, added,
‘Time has been running now and the hope is unfulfilled.’ Ingenious
persons explained all sorts of peculiar structures and arrangements—
‘myrmecophily,’ the insectivorous habit of some plants, extra-floral
nectaries, the long tips of certain tropical leaves, and countless others—

ee ee

K.—BOTANY. 249

‘as of use to the species that exhibited them, always with the implication,
and sometimes with the express assertion, that they had been developed
because of their survival values. One by one, in the light of critical
research, most of these ‘ explanations’ of structure have broken down.
Not only is ‘ survival value’ almost impossible to prove in any given
case, but many of these supposed adaptive structures or arrangements
have been shown not to work in the way they were supposed to work.
Nevertheless, the habit has remained, even up to this day, not only of
looking for the ‘use’ or ‘function’ of every structural character—
quite a legitimate proceeding in itself, if we are not wedded to the belief
that it must have a‘ use —but of considering its existence sufficiently
‘explained’ when such a use has been experimentally established or
even more or less plausibly suggested.

Round about the beginning of the present century several publica-
tions of first-rate importance began to put a new complexion on these
problems. First there was De Vries’s work on mutations, '* which claimed
to show that discontinuous variation, whose widespread occurrence in
nature had already been demonstrated by Bateson and suggested by him
as the prime cause of the discontinuity of species,’ was the important
factor inevolution. In 1903 Johannsen’s work on ‘ pure lines ’* showed
in the most unmistakable manner in the case of the bean that the mini-
mal ‘ fluctuating ’ variations, on which Wallace and the Neo-Darwinians
had been accustomed to rely as the material on which natural selection
operates, are not inherited, so that if one breeds from a group of such
variations which deviate from the mean of the pure line, there is no
establishment of a deviating mean in the descendants, but a regression to
the original mean. Meanwhile, the rediscovery of the Mendelian pheno-
mena and the rapid extension of the range of characters in which they were
found to be exhibited had at last placed our knowledge of the mechanism
of heredity and variation on a secure basis. The immense quantity of
breeding and cytological work which has followed has given reality to
the conception of ‘ genetic constitution,’ or genotype as it is called in
current terminology. We now know that an ordinary ‘ Linnean ’
species is, often at least, an aggregate or mixture of crosses from ‘ pure
lines ’ in respect of different characters, each pure line with a specific
genetic constitution based on the structure of the chromosome complex.
New heritable variations of the stock are produced by redistribution of
units within the chromosomes resulting from the crossing of individuals
belonging to different pure lines or of their hybrid offspring. This
apparently occurs in the stage of ‘ synapsis ’ of the nuclei which are just
entering upon the divisions that result in the tetrads of spores and
gametes ; and it is followed by the * reduction division ’ of the mother

“cell of the tetrad, resulting in segregation of unlike units so that the

gametes of a single tetrad bear different characters. Other internal
changes in the chromosome complex may perhaps take place, but of
these we can as yet say very little.

10 Published in a serics of papers culminating in his great work, Die
Mutationstheorie. Weipzig, 1901. Vol. II, 1903.

11 Bateson, Materials for the Study of Variations. London, 1894.

12 Johannsen, Ueber Mrblichkeit in Populationen und reinen Linien. Jena,

1903.

250 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

It is to be noted that these great discoveries do not necessarily
invalidate the Neo-Darwinian position. It is still perhaps just possible
to hold, so far as this new knowledge of the mechanism of variation
and heredity is concerned, that in any given complex of forms which
we call a species, only those variations are in the long run preserved
which adapt the individuals-that show them more closely to their condi-
tions of life. But the more exact knowledge we now possess of the
way in which new heritable variations in the body of the organism
actually come to arise and maintain themselves has firmly established
the thesis, clearly stated by Bateson nearly thirty years ago, that the
primary problem of evolution is the process of variation itself and not
what happens to the variations in the struggle for life after they have
appeared. Variations from type, more or less considerable, actually
arise by new combinations of the primary chromosomal determinants—
genes as they are now called—by the loss (dropping cut) of certain
genes, or perhaps by actual changes in the nature of the genes or the
appearance of new ones; and the variations so produced persist, or may
persist, indefinitely, without any reference to selection. It is perfectly
true, of course, and must always remain true, that every organism
which survives must be viable and sufficiently adapted to the conditions
of its existence. But it is not only unproved, it is a gratuitous belief
unsupported by the evidence, that all new characters, all differences
between species, are of survival value or owe their origin in any way
to selection.

The clearest and most plausible account of the origin of new species,
in the light of our existing knowledge, is, it seems to me, that given
by the Hagedoorns.* Any group of related individuals capable of
interbreeding, so far as its somatic characters are genetically determined,
owes those characters (phenotype) to the totality of the genes possessed
by the zygotes from which they were produced (genotype). Some of
the genes present may not, however, affect the phenotype, because they
do not meet with the developmental or environmental conditions necessary
to enable them to find expression in the soma, or because some other
gene or genes, interaction with which is necessary to phenotypic expres-
sion, may be absent. The total actual ‘genetic’ variability of the group
is measured by the total range of phenotypic variability: the total poten-
tial variability is greater than this because it includes the potential effects
of the genes which are present, but which may, at any given moment,
be inoperative for the reasons cited. The total potential variability is
measured by the number of genes for which the group is not pure.
If the whole group is pure, uniform and homozygous for all characters,
it cannot, by hypothesis, vary genetically. The potential variability of
the group is increased if there are taken up into it individuals which
either possess a gene or genes not present in any member of the group
or which lack genes that are the common property of all the original
members of the group. Thus if fresh crossing takes place with fertile
individuals outside the group, the potential variability of the original

13 W. Bateson, op. cit., p. 6.
14 A. L. and A. C. Hagedoorn, The Relative Value of the Processes causing
Evolution. The Hague, 1921.

OO Ee

K.—BOTANY. 251

group is increased. But in-the absence of this, in fact in all cases where
the group is isolated, mechanically or otherwise, the potential variability
constantly tends to decrease, because the offspring of any generation are
normally produced from a small fraction only of the individuals of that
generation, and this leads to the dropping out from the breeding stock
of part of the total potential group variability. In the case of a self-
fertilised plant the reduction of variability will proceed even if all the
individuals produce offspring, because Mendelian segregation will result
in the daughter being heterozygous for only one-half the number of
genes for which the mother was impure. In the absence of crossing
_ with individuals having a different genotype, heterozygotes will produce
some homozygotes, but homozygotes can never produce heterozygotes,
‘so that the proportion of heterozygotes in such an exclusively self-
fertilised race will steadily decrease. This is an intelligible view of
the origin of the discontinuity of species. The mechanism will work
whether natural selection is in play or not.

Suppose, for instance, that from a breeding stock with a given total
potential variability a number of islands are colonised. The colony on
each island will, on random selection, have a substantially smaller total
variability than the original stock, because it will be derived from a much
smaller number of individuals, and a good part of the original variability
will be lost. Further, if the colonising groups are selected haphazard
the potential variability of each colony will be different, and the offspring
of the different colonies will form as many new ‘species,’ each of which
will in successive generations increase in purity. The differences
between these species may, however, have no relation whatever to adap-
tation, because the characters in which the new species differ from one
another and from the parent species may have no survival value in any
of the habitats. Many years ago J. T. Gulick called attention to the
fact that the species of land molluscs on the Sandwich Islands showed
differences which did not seem to be adaptive, but which were closely
related to isolation.** More recently Crampton has arrived at similar
results in regard to the forms of another land snail, Partwla, and has
actually shown that numerous new forms have arisen, as he holds by
mutation and isolation, since the distribution of the forms was accu-
_ rately recorded in 1884.*° On the other hand, if the new habitats differ,
and there is variability in the original genotype corresponding with
phenotypic characters which have survival value in relation to the
differences of habitat, selection will play its part in determining the
genotypes of the new species. Thus we can understand why it is that
geographically isolated but clearly allied species may or may not differ
in ‘ adaptive’ characters. We can also understand how it is that
different closely allied species come to exist in the same geographical
area but in different habitats—different ‘ ecological niches’ as they have
been called—between which the chances of crossing are at a minimum,
either with or without specific adaptation to the habitat. It depends

15 J. T. Gulick, ‘Divergent Evolution through Cumulative Segregation,’
Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool., 20, 1888.

16 H. E. Crampton, Studies on the Variation, Distribution and Evolution
of the genus Partula. Carn. Inst. of Washington, 1917.

252 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

upon whether the random selection of individuals which originally
colonised these habitats varied from the genotype of the parent stock
in characters of survival value in relation to those habitats or not.
Where two such habitats abut on one another and there is no specific
adaptation to the two habitats intermediates of hybrid origin are often
found along the line of contact.

In plants which are self-fertilised as a rule, but in which crossing
is not absolutely excluded, numerous species may come to exist in the
same geographical area and the same habitat, for the changes in geno-
type brought about by the occasional crossing will be fixed and the
phenotype purified, i.e. rendered more homogeneous, by the subsequent
isolation for many generations of the different families. It is in this
way that the ‘elementary species’ of such a form as Hrophila vulgaris -
(Draba verna) may be supposed to have originated. The differences
between these are small but constant, and they must be regarded as true
species. A variety, on this view, is a relatively transitory form which
may at any time be reabsorbed by crossing into the general stock of the
species.

i We cannot in the present state of knowledge reject altogether the
possibility of other modes of formation of new species. Geneticists
differ as to the occurrence of radical alteration in the nature of a gene,
or of new genes arising de novo in the genotype, i.e. as to the occurrence
of ‘ mutations ’ in the narrowest sense, while the interaction of conjugat-
ing chromosomes by ‘ crossing over’ is well recognised. We cannot, I
think, exclude the possibility of long-continued action of the enyiron-
ment actually altering genes or even creating new ones. Thus we have
only shifted the problem of variation back. We cannot as yet express
variation in terms of chemistry and physics. We do not know what
genes are. They may be definite chemical substances, they may be
physico-chemical complexes, or some may be of one, some of the other
nature. It is certain that a great number must always be present, and
that the phenotypic ‘characters’ must depend on their interaction.
We cannot analyse a race of organisms genetically except in respect of
those genes that may be present or may be absent. Many genes must be
present invariably or the working mechanism would break down—the
organism would be non-viable—and these we cannot separate by breed-
ing methods. ‘These things being so, we cannot wholly exclude the
hypotheses of orthogenesis and of epharmosis as causes of evolution,
much as we may dislike them on account of their vagueness. Modern
genetic research has been able to demonstrate to a very large extent
the exact correspondence between changes in phenotype and the drop-
ping out and new combinations of genes. But it is impossible at
present to demonstrate exactly how such possible processes as ortho-
genesis or epharmosis may work. We know nothing of orthogenesis
except as a phenotypic phenomenon, though we can conceive the possi-
bility that the genotype tends to undergo continuous progressive change
in one direction, change which might depend, for instance, on an
orderly series of dissociations of molecular complexes, and show itself
by corresponding orderly change of the phenotype in one direction.
Such a hypothesis would explain certain phyletic phenomena, but we

————

—— —

K.—BOTANY. 253

do not know that it is necessary to explain them thus: they may be
brought about in other ways. Epharmosis in the widest sense means
simply the continuous adjustment of the organism to its conditions of
life. It is often used with reference to external conditions only, but
we should not forget that adjustment to external conditions cannot be
separated, except by logical abstraction, from the total adjustment of
the organism, internal and external. The ontogenesis of each indi-
vidual is a continuous process of adjustment of every part of the organ-
ism to its internal and external environment. So much follows from
the universal law that every physical system constantly tends towards
equilibrium, and the law is abundantly illustrated in the development
of plants. The particular state of relative equilibrium represented by
the adult individual is, however, as we know, mainly determined by
the stock of genes contained in the zygote from which it is developed,
though partly by the particular environment in which it grows up.
Epharmosis as a theory of phylogenesis must depend on the belief
that the genes themselves can be considerably, continuously, and per-
manently altered by forces outside themselyes—their environment in
the wide sense—and it must be admitted that the evidence for such a
belief is neither very abundant nor very conclusive. We certainly do
not know that genes cannot be so altered; but we cannot point to cases
in which it is possible either to assert definitely that they are or to
explain plausibly how they may be. On this side the Neo-Darwinian
position has not yet, as it seems to me, been successfully attacked,
though few biologists who are interested in these questions and not
wedded to a particular theory of evolution would now be greatly sur-
prised if it eventually fell.

How, then, are we to make progress to a fuller knowledge of the
necessarily interlinked problems of phylogenesis and ontogenesis which
together make up the problem of evolution? On the one hand we
have the theoretically indispensable genes, of whose nature we have
no certain knowledge, though we know a great deal now about the effect
on the phenotype of various combinations and omissions of some among
them. On the other we have the phenotype, built up from the genes
by long and complicated processes of physical and chemical action and
interaction between the genes and their derivatives, between the sub-
stances and structures of the developing organism, and between these
and the environment. Of these ontogenetic processes we still know
extraordinarily little. Until quite recently physiology has kept its face
averted from such problems, partly as a result of that unfortunate
divorce from morphology which we have seen emphasised as a cardinal
principle of botanical methodology by distinguished botanists. It must
be admitted that these processes are difficult to disentangle, and it is
only the great development of physical chemistry, and of the so-called
biochemistry which depends so closely upon it, that has opened up
during the last twenty years the avenues through which we may
approach the problems in this field with any prospect of success. Thirty
years ago plant physiologists were mostly either occupying themselves
with measuring the ‘ functions ’ of the organs of the adult plant under
different conditions, or they were caught in the toils of the ‘ stimulus

254 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and reaction’ conception, with its postulate of a series of mysterious
mechanisms, supposed to have been built up by natural selection, and
apparently inaccessible to further analysis. That this conception was
a necessary stage in the development of plant physiology we need not
deny; but some physiologists, like some of their morphological col-
leagues, seem to have rather mistaken a transitory stage of development
for an ultimate condition of research. Within the last few years we
have begun to get developmental physiological studies of all kinds, and
some of these are at last beginning to give us some insight into the
formative processes which result in the differentiated structures of the
plant body. A number of years ago Goebel, in his ‘ Experimentelle
Morphologie,’ sketched the connexion between various characteristic
external forms of plants and definite factors of the environment. In
1916 one of my predecessors in this chair, Professor Lang, clearly
outlined the ideal of ‘ causal morphology,’ and indicated lines on which
he thought such investigations should proceed. It is, I think, quite
possible to claim that ‘causal morphology’ in the widest sense is
morphology proper; to say, with Professor D’Arcy Thompson, that
since the problems of form are in the first instance mathematical prob-
lems, and the problems of growth are essentially physical problems,
‘the morphologist is ipso facto a student of physical science.’’7 More
recently, again, Professor Priestley and his collaborators have attacked
with considerable initial success the question of the actual sequence
of events leading to the differentiation of various tissues, more par-
ticularly endodermis, cork and cuticle, and have perhaps opened the
way to a causal ontogenetic understanding of the whole of the tissue
systems of the higher plant.**

It certainly seems a far cry from a causal knowledge of these onto-
genetic processes, common to whole families or large groups of plants,
to an understanding of the way in which the genes which determine
the difference of phenotype between one species and another, or one pure
line and another, bring about the development of the corresponding
phenotype. Superficially at least the kind of character whose origin
in the ontogeny Priestley and his fellow-workers have been investigating
seems to differ in nature from the kind of character which commonly
separates species and varieties. The one is built into the constitution,
and helps to determine the economy not only of one species but of a
wide range of related species or of great groups of plants; the other, so
far as the vital economy of the plant is concerned, often seems to be of
no importance at all. To use a metaphor which is perhaps just per-
missible, the difference is like the difference between the plumbing of
a house and the decoration of its facade, or between the lay-out and

17 )’Arcy Thompson, On Growth and Form, 1917, p. 8.

18 T am aware that there are some physiologists who think that this line of
attack is overbold, that our existing knowledge of biochemistry and physiology
does not justify a direct attempt to grapple with such problems. I can only
say that I am not in agreement with this criticism. The results reached seem
to me already to justify the methods employed, though, of course, it may well
be that some of Professor Priestley’s first conclusions will have to be revised
in the light of future knowledge.

K.—BOTANY. 255

construction of its rooms and passages and the lighting of these by a
few large windows or by many small ones, where the illumination
required is equally well secured by either arrangement. I cannot here
undertake a discussion of the justification for separating the ‘ characters’
of organisms into different categories, as Professor Gates, for instance,
has tried to do,’? nor of the related controversy between those who
believe that a ‘ particulate’ theory of inheritance such as that which
has been worked out by the Mendelians is a sufficient basis for explain-
ing all the phenomena, and those who advocate the claims of the organ-
ism to be considered ‘ as a whole,’ which usually means in this connexion
cytoplasmic inheritance, through the egg and perhaps sometimes also
through the pollen. We cannot wholly exclude the possibility of
cytoplasmic inheritance, or an eventual effect on the genotype of cyto-
genetic characters; but from the broad position I am now taking I see
no good reason for supposing that the ontogenetic development of what,
for want of a better word, I may call ‘ organisatory ’ characters differs
essentially from that of the characters which are commonly used to
separate species and which obey the Mendelian laws. If we define a
gene as some substance contained in the zygote which is a factor in
the determination of the phenotype, we must believe that all hereditary
phenotypic characters alike, internal or external, separating species or
common to a great many species, important, indifferent, or disadvanta-
geous in the life economy, are developed from the genotype, i.e. from
the total stock of genes, whether contained in the chromosomes or not,
by an inevitable series of chemical and physical processes, modified, of
course, by differences of environment. Now my point is this. We can
only hope to connect the genotype with the phenotype by tracing out
these processes in detail, by following the cntogenetic history, not only
in terms of the production of organs and tissues, of cell division and
growth, but in terms of physical and chemical changes, of such processes
as pressures and filtrations, oxidations and reductions, hydrolyses and
condensations, reversible reactions and catalyses. And I think we may
perhaps begin to find a way which will ultimately lead to an under-
standing of how the genes produce the characters of the organism, and
thus of the nature of the genes themselves, by following the trail which
has recently been opened, by studying the detailed processes which lead
up to the appearance of a structure, over and above, or, as one should
perhaps more fittingly say, ‘ under and below,’ that reaction of struc-
ture upon process which we have been used to call the ‘ function’ of
the structure. It is only in this way, as TI believe, that we are likely,
for instance, eventually to get more light on the problem of ontogenetic
recapitulation, which has certainly not been rendered easier by the
Mendelian results and the conception of the ‘ species cell.’

The botanists of seventy years ago, notably that great pioneer Sachs,
in the spacious days of the new ‘wissenschaftliche Botanik’ in the
fifties and ’sixties of the last century, had in some ways a view of the
problems of structure clearer than that of their immediate successors.
It is plain that the overwhelming effect of the theory of descent on the

° R. R. Gates, ‘ Mutations and Evolution,’ New Phyt. 19, pp. 217 et seq., 1920.
1923 T

256 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

imagination of biologists, the first brilliant results of the evolutionary
interpretation of the doctrine of homology, led to an interest in structure
for its own sake which could have but a limited fertility. This interest
has in the loag run been mainly important because it has immensely
increased our actual knowledge of structure. At the same time the very
human but really quite irrational desire to find a ‘ use’ for everything
led to a facile and sweeping application of the theory of natural selection
quite out of accord with the patent facts of nature. The physiologists,
the people who really remained interested in tracing causal sequences, 1n
finding out ‘ how things work,’ and who retained the only sound method
of discovering this—the experimental method—were rather cut off from
the interpretation of structure by the assumption that it was causally
‘explained’ if it were shown or even plausibly believed to be useful to
the organism, and tended to confine themselves to measuring and deter-
mining the conditions of processes, mainly in the adult plant. Thus
there came about that separation of morphology from physiology which
was no doubt a sound methodological principle for the restricted purpose
of increasing our knowledge of certain series of facts, but which in its
general effect on botany has, I fear, tended not only to disruption but
to sterilisation. The effect of the divorce between morphology and
physiology was just as bad for physiology as it was for morphology.
As little accustomed as the morphologist himself to envisaging the plant
in its entirety as a continuously developing complex of substances and
structures, the average physiologist tended to limit himself, as has
been said, to the recording and measuring under different conditions of
arbitrarily selected functions or processes, with the result that his work
was often at least as arid as the conventional descriptions and correla-
tions of the morphologist. Needless to say, there were honourable
exceptions in both camps.

It is instructive in this connexion to consider a work which pro-
fessed to deal with tissue structure in the light of function or process—
a book thoroughly characteristic of the period I have been considering,
the first edition being published in 1884 and the latest (the fifth) in 1918
—I mean Haberlandt’s ‘ Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie.’ This book
describes and discusses each of the tissue systems of the higher plant
from the point of view of the part which it plays in carrying on the
life functions of the plant as a whole, an excellent aim, and one which
is, in the main, admirably carried out. The author makes a great
point of adducing experimental evidence for the ‘ functions’ of par-
ticular tissues wherever possible. But there is always the implicit
assumption that every tissue must have a ‘ function,’ must be of some
“use ’ to the plant, and in his effort to find that use Haberlandt is
often compelled to rely on unconvincing argument from structure or
from analogy, sometimes on little more than guesswork. It scarcely
seems to occur to him that a tissue may have no specific ‘ use’ at all,
that structures are developed as the result of the processes which take
place in the developing plant, and do not necessarily perform a definite
function which is useful to the whole organism. Many of them do,
of course; but to confine oneself to the search for such ‘ functions ’ is

K.— BOTANY. 257

not the right way to get a real understanding of the structure of a plant.
At last year’s meeting of Section K the President, Professor Dixon,
showed reason to believe that the sieve tubes of the phloem are in the
cases which he considered quite inadequate for the purpose of carrying
organic substances such as sugars from the leaves to the regions where
they are used or stored, as, for instance, potato tubers. What, then,
we may ask, is the ‘function’ of sieve tubes? It seems to me that
we should not close our minds to the possibility that they may have
no ‘function’ in this sense, that cells having the characters of what
we call sieve tubes may quite conceivably be formed simply as the result
of the processes going on in certain tracts of developing tissue, without
subsequently playing any essential part in the economy of the plant.

The analogy of the machine made by man, in which each part is
constructed with a definite object, may be very misleading if we allow
ourselves to forget that an organism is not constructed in that way at
all, but is the outcome of blind, inevitable processes, and may produce
parts which are useless or even harmful to it, provided that the whole
is still able to ‘carry on’ and reproduce itself in its actual conditions
of life. We should always approach structure through development,
the mechanics, physics, and chemistry of growth and differentiation.
It is only thus that we can ever hope to ‘explain’ structure in any real
sense. It is only thus, I believe, that we can ever hope to get back
to the real nature of the genes.

The ‘ functions’ of the various organs and tissues—‘ biological ’ and
‘ physiological’ functions in the old sense—will then appear in their
proper places as those properties or activities which actually contribute
to the growth, maintenance, and reproduction of the plant—for the
plant must grow, maintain, and reproduce itself, or the race will die.
The main essential activities are sufficiently obvious, and we can some-
times say with confidence that if such and such a structure were absent
or such and such a process did not take place, these essential activities
would be fatally impaired. When a failure of this kind takes place
owing to change of genotype or of environment we rarely see it, for it
brings extinction in its train.?” For the most part we cannot know
that apparently useful characters could not have been dispensed with,
or that metabolic processes might not equally well have taken some
other course so far as the success of the plant in the struggle for exist-
ence is concerned, while in regard to a multitude of characters there is
not only no proof but not the smallest reason to suppose that they
have now, or ever did have, any ‘survival value’ at all. Like all
structural features, they are simply products of the plant’s activity,
though they react in turn to a greater or lesser degree on that activity.
Differentiation and so-called division of labour are the inevitable result
of increase in size, and of the ensuing different relations of parts of
the body to one another and to the surrounding medium. Every type
of plant, whether it differs from its parents or not, does and must

20 In his ‘lethai factors’ the Mendelian geneticist has, however, succeed
in discovering definite heritable entities which lead to such failure dere
to death. ‘lhe real nature of these may be eventually ascertainable along the
line of research indicated above. a

258 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

‘adapt itself ’ during its development to its conditions of life. That is
to say, it does and must react to the forces, external and internal, acting
upon its several parts, and the result of the reaction must be to bring
it into closer equilibrium with the whole of those forces. It is some-'
times forgotten that ‘ adaptation’ in this sense is a wide physical con-
ception which does not imply that the whole of the characters of an
organism are ‘useful’ to it in the sense in which all the parts of a man-
made machine are useful.

Thus we conclude that the central and vital part of botany as a
science is, and must be, the study of process which creates and
modifies structure as well as of process which is in its turn deter-
mined by structure. In reality no line can be drawn between processes
of these two kinds, for the development and metabolism of the plant
form a continuous connected history in which process and structure
continually act and interact. Nevertheless, the ‘ physiological func-
tions’ of adult structures certainly have a special position in that the
processes of which they consist are, like the adult structures themselves,
the current terms of ontogenetic development, the current stages of
full expression of the given genotype under the given conditions of life.

The separation of morphology and physiology no doubt ultimately
takes origin from the two distinct types of human interest in living
organisms, characteristic of different types of mind, the one attracted by
the forms, formal relationships and classification of objects, the other
by the understanding of process, the knowledge of working. The one
naturally observes and classifies, the other observes and experiments.
This kind of separation, clearly enough seen among the older naturalists,
has been greatly enhanced on the-one hand by the enthusiastic effort
to trace phylogeny consequent on the acceptance of the doctrine of
descent, on the other by the continuous complication of the physical
and chemical knowledge and technique required by the study of physio-
logical processes. It has had a profound effect on the teaching of
botany during the past forty years. Botanists whose personal research
lay in the one field have been less and less able to take an intelligent
interest in the other, even’if they could understand the terms in which
the results were expressed. The student has perforce come to regard
and to study the two fields as wholly distinct, with very few points of
contact, and hig attention has been directed primarily to morphology
largely because it is so much easier for the beginner to examine and
cut sections of plants and draw’ pictures of them than to study the
processes which go to the making of them. Too little serious effort
has been made to overcome the difficulties of teaching students to study
process. The physiologists themselves have been too much absorbed
in their apparatus to consider the bearing of their subject on general
botany. In recent years the rise of new branches of study, such as
cytology, genetics, and ecology, has added to the distraction of the
student.

The result has been to separate botany into disconnected parts and
failure to give the student any unified notion of the subject. It is
unnecessary to say that the growth of knowledge inevitably brings in
ifs train ever-increasing specialisation in research, but that fact in no

K.— BOTANY. 259

way absolves the teacher who is responsible for the introduction of
students to the subject from the duty of displaying it as a whole, and
this he can only do by making its most vital part, the study of process,
the key to his exposition, by representing all structure as the result of
process, and, in its turn, as limiting and directing process, rather than
by concentrating the etudent’s interest on structure and the comparison
of structure for its own sake. It seems to me most misleading to
represent morphology (in the sense in which it has come to be used) and
physiology as if they were equivalent branches of the subject between
which the attention of students should be divided. It is only the most
superficial view that can regard them as equivalent. Structures are the
end results of processes, and to understand them we must study process
by observation and experiment. It is unnecessary to remark that
thorough and accurate acquaintance with facts of structure is inci-
dentally essential. But to claim the larger portion of the student’s
time and energy for the work of becoming acquainted with the details
of structure of all the various groups of plants involves, in my view,
a very serious misdirection of effort.

There should be no division of elementary botany into morphology
and physiology. In advanced work there must, of course, be differ-
entiation, as there must in research, not into morphology and physio-
logy, but into a great number of groups of connected phenomena,
because of the vast number and complicationof the phenomena of the
plant world. Some minds find their satisfaction in studying structure
for its own sake, so to speak, and in comparing the structures studied.
Their research will naturally lie in that direction, and it is certain to
increase, as it hag in the recent past already vastly increased, our
knowledge of the detailed facts of structure of the plant kingdom,
to reveal unsuspected relationships, and to establish probabilities as to
the lines evolution has followed. But this knowledge in itself, con-
sidered in relation to the science as a whole, is, and must necessarily
remain, superficial. Its conclusions even in regard to the lines which
evolution has followed can at the best never attain to more than a con-
siderable degree of probability. And its methods and aims can never
explain structure in any real sense. For that a study of process is
essential.

The great development in morphological knowledge, especially of
what I have called the middle grades of the plant kingdom, and of the
great groups of fossil plants which belong to these grades, has, as we
must all recognise, immensely increased our acquaintance with the struc-
ture of the plant world. It was a natural development of interest in
the past history of plants, stimulated and directed by the acceptance
of the doctrine of evolution. Looking back upon the history of botany
during the past half-century we must be grateful to this movement,
and proud of the leading and distinguished part our countrymen have
played in its development. But I cannot think that it has had a wholly
good influence on the progress of botany, particularly on botanical
teaching and research in this country. This has remained too long
dominated by the ideal of tracing phylogeny, has given far too much
time to the detailed morphology of the different groups which make up

260 SECTIONAL fADDRESSES.

the plant kingdom, and has correspondingly neglected the newer know-
ledge of process which must be the main avenue to a deeper under-
standing of plants. Fortunately there are now many signs of impend-
ing change. Meanwhile the younger workers, dissatisfied, especially
during the last two decades, with the older outlook, have turned more
and more to specialised physiological research, to mycology or to
genetics, with their outlets on practical life, but often without the
grounding that only a thorough grasp of the essentials of the subject
can give. One of the results has been that botany has to a large extent
become disintegrated, workers in particular parts of the subject haying
little understanding and less interest in the results of their fellow-
workers in other parts. It may be said that this is an inevitable result
of the complication of the subject, and no doubt that is partly true.
There is a type of professional worker who, having once got immersed
in a particular line of research, resolutely refuses ever to come out of
his groove and take a broader view. The subject no doubt owes a
great deal of its energetic detailed development to such workers. But
if botany, as the science of plants, is to retain any meaning as a whole,
somebody must retain the power of looking at it as a whole. And if,
as teachers, we fail to keep touch with the newer developments, and
are consequently no longer able to focus the whole subject from a
viewpoint determined by current knowledge, this power will come to
be possessed by fewer and fewer botanists, and the subject will definitely
and finally break up into a number of specialised and unco-ordinated
pursuits. ; .

Do we want that to happen? I think that most botanists would
answer ‘No!’ JI do not think there can be any question that the most
advanced research worker, as well as the student who never goes on to
research, benefits substantially by having had a training which is at
once the broadest and the most vital that is possible. As science con-
tinuously advances and necessarily specialises, the unexplored fields
which lie between the traditional lines of research become of more and
more relative importance. They cannot receive adequate attention—
the student can, indeed, hardly become aware of their existence—unless
his introduction to the subject is continuously informed by the widest
outlook and the clearest apprehension of the essential relations of the
phenomena of plant life.

THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE.

ADDRESS TO SECTION L (EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE) BY

T. PERCY NUNN, M.A., D.Sc.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

In consonance with the general aim of the British Association, the
special purpose of our Section is the advancement of educational science.
The Section owes its existence to a group of persons who saw clearly
that in education, as in all the great fields of practice, there are, and
must constantly arise, problems that can be solved only by patient
application of the methods of science. The range and importance of
these problems were illustrated by Sir Robert Blair in his Presidential
Address to the Cardiff Meeting, but I do not propose working over
any of the ground which my distinguished predecessor then surveyed.
My intention is to take advantage of the customary right of a President
to travel outside the strict bounds of his science and to deal with
questions which, the results of inquiry within its limits illuminate but
do not themselves answer.

To a President of Section L the temptation to use this wider liberty
must always be strong; for, however far the scope of educational science
may extend, the critical educational issues will always lie beyond it.
Tf the term ‘ education’ is used, as it sometimes is, to include all the

influences which affect mind and character, it is obviously much more
than an applied science. But so it is if the term is restricted, as I
shall restrict it, to those formative influences which are brought to bear
with some degree of purpose upon the minds of the young. In its
origin education is a biological process found not only in all human.
societies, however primitive, but even in a rudimentary form among
the higher animals. By calling it biological I mean that it is a native,
not an acquired expression of the race’s life, correlative to the race’s
needs; that it does not wait for deliberation to call it into existence or
for science to guide it, but has the inevitability of behaviour rooted
in instinct. Thus, as I have argued elsewhere, educational science
stands to education in much the same relation as hygiene stands to the
physical life; it is a critic rather than an originator; it scrutinises and
pronounces judgment upon ways and means, but does not and cannot
prescribe the general direction which the educational process shall take.
At most it can only help to stabilise the movement by lifting it from
the level of instinctive impulse or vague opinion to the plane of ends
clearly envisaged and consistently pursued.

What is it, then, that determines the general character of the
educational process at a given point in the history of a human society ?

262 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The answer is, briefly, that the same élan vital which brought the
society to that point urges it so to train its young that they may
maintain its tradition and ways of life. But this statement needs an
important qualification. The consensus of a society never approves
of all that goes on within its borders, and among the activities it treats
as admissible sets a higher value upon some than upon others. Accord-
ingly the biological impulse which is the mainspring of education tends
to select for the training of the young those activities which society
judges, consciously or instinctively, to be of most worth. It follows
that the education a nation gives its children is, perhaps, the clearest
expression of its ethos and the best epitome of its scheme of life. Thus
the ideas of too many of our Georgian forefathers upon the education
of the masses corresponded faithfully with their belief in the great
principle of subordination about which Johnson and Boswell talked so
often and agreed so satisfactorily. One remembers, for instance, how
hotly Miss Hannah More denied the scandalous rumour that she was
teaching the poor of Cheddar to write! Similarly, the liberal curri-
culum of our elementary schools reflects the prevalence to-day of a
widely different view of the nature and purpose of society. One is
tempted to add that the misgivings with which that curriculum is, here
and there, still regarded may be largely due to the ideas of the
eighteenth century dying hard in the twentieth.

If what children are taught is but an expression of the general
mind of their time and nation, what guarantee is there that education
shall be an instrument of social progress and not of retrogression? It
must be acknowledged that there is no such guarantee. Among the
ideas and ideals, the modes of feeling and action current in a society,
it is possible for the general mind to approve the worse rather than the
better, and so to give a fatally wrong turn to the training and outlook
of whole generations. Have not some of the great tragedies of history
thus come about? Such disasters are, in fact, avoided only where the
predominant mind of a people has a sufficient sense of the things that
belong to its peace. It follows that the ideal ‘ educational authority ’
would be neither the teacher with forty years’ experience nor the
-brilliant exponent of educational science, but the phronimos—the per-
fectly wise man who had grasped fully the meaning of man’s existence,
could see to the bottom of his people’s life, appraise justly all its
movements, and discern with sure eye its needs. Assuming that he
could also communicate his vision to his fellow-citizens, we should do
as well under his guidance as the imperfections of humanity would
allow.

Unhappily the true phronimos appears but rarely, and when he
comes bears no unchallengeable certificate of authenticity. If he is
not at hand or is unrecognised, we ordinary men and women must apply
to our problems the best insight we can attain, trusting that in the
conflict of sincere opinions the soundest will in the end prevail. For
example, I have referred to the great change in the conception of
popular education which has taken place in our time, and have con-
nected it with the steadily growing belief, first, that every member of
society has an equal title to the privileges of citizenzship; and, secondly,

4
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L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 263
that the corporate strength of society should be exerted to secure for
him actual as well as theoretical possession of his title. How the

moyement based upon that belief will ultimately affect the happiness
of our people no one can with certainty foresee; nevertheless, if one is
interested in the wider educational issues one must define one’s own
attitude towards it. I am, therefore, bound to record my opinion that
in its main tendency it ought wholeheartedly to be accepted. I think
this chiefly because it seems to be inspired by the Christian principle of
the immense value of the individual life, or, if you prefer to put it
so, by the Kantian principle that no man ought to be treated merely as
a means but always also as an end in himself. But if the movement
is accepted, public education must correspondingly assume a character
which would follow neither from the principle of subordination nor
from the principle of laissez faire. The view I submit is that the educa-
tion of the people should aim at enabling every man to realise the
greatest fullness of life of which he is by nature capable—‘ fullness ’
being, I add, measured in terms of quality rather than of quantity, by
perfection of form rather than by amount of content. That view is the
basis of all I have to say.

Having adopted it, I am compelled at once to face the question,
What are the essential qualities of a full life? It is just here that the
judgment of the phronimos would be invaluable. In his absence 1
must hazard the conjecture that he would-approve of at least the
general drift of the following observations. During the last century
we learnt, following Darwin, to look upon all biological phenomena
as incidents in a perpetual struggle wherein the prizes to be won or
lost were the survival of the individual and the continuance of his
species. From this point of view there could be only one object of
life, one causa vivendi, namely, to continue living, and the means by
which it was to be attained were adaptations to environment achieved
by an individual, and perhaps handed on to its offspring, fortunate
germinal variations, or lucky throws of the Mendelian dice. It was
natural, if not logically necessary, that the doctrine should fuse with
the view, as old as Descartes, that life is but an intricate complex of
physico-chemical reactions. Upon that view, even to speak of a
struggle for existence, is to use a metaphor admissible only on account
of its picturesque vigour; when we study the forms, processes, and
evolution of living beings we are spectators merely of the operation
of physical and chemical laws in peculiar forms of matter. Thus the
occurrence and the phenomena of life are finally and wholly to be
explained in terms of the statistical distribution of positive nuclei and
their satellite electrons.

These ideas, in either their more moderate or their more drastic
form, affected the attitude of men towards matters lying far outside the
special province of biology. National policies have been powerfully
influenced by them, and it has been widely held that the education of
children should be shaped mainly if not solely with a view to
‘ efficiency ’ in the struggle for existence. It is, therefore, relevant to
point out what tremendous difficulties are involved in their thorough-
going application. JI will not speak of those which have driven

264 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

physiologists of high standing to reject the mechanistic theory of life as
unworkable, for I am not competent to discuss them, and they do not
bear directly upon my argument. It will be both simpler and more to
our purpose to raise, as William James did in the last chapter of his
great treatise on psychology, the question of the higher esthetic, moral
and intellectual qualities and achievements of man, and to ask how
these are to be brought under the conceptions before us. To be fair
we will not press the question how the emergence, say, of Beethoven’s
Fifth Symphony is to be explained in terms of physics and chemistry ;
for even the most stalwart mechanists hardly expect that it will actually
be done; they only believe that conceivably it could be done. But it
is both fair and necessary to ask how the things of which the symphony
is typical can be accounted for on the principle of survival-value.
James, facing this question with characteristic candour, felt bound to
admit that they have ‘ no zoological utility.’ He concluded, therefore,
that the powers and sensibilities which make them possible must be
accidents—that is, collateral consequences of a brain-structure evolved
with reference not to them but only to the struggle for material exist-
ence. The premises granted, I do not see how the conclusion can be
avoided; but surely it is extremely unacceptable. If, with Herbert
Spencer, we could regard art merely as something wherewith to fill
agreeably a leisure hour, we might be satisfied by the hypothesis that
our sensibility to beauty in form, in colour and in sound, is an ‘ epi-
phenomenon * having no significance in relation to the real business
of life. But when we think of men whose art was in truth their life,
and consider how eagerly the better part of mankind cherishes their
memory and their works, it is next to impossible to be satisfied with
that view. Or take the case of science. Votaries of pure science often
seek to justify their ways to the outer world by the argument that dis-
coveries which seemed at first to have only theoretical interest have
often disclosed immense practical utility. It is a sound enough argu-
ment to use to silence the Philistine, but would the pursuit of science
lose any whit of its dignity and intrinsic value if it were untrue? For
instance, would any member of this Association refuse his reverence
to the great work of Albert Einstein even if it were certain that, in the
words of the famous toast, it would never do anybody any good? I will
not, lengthen the argument by extending it to the saints and the philoso-
phers, for its point should be already sufficiently plain. The activities
of ‘ our higher esthetic, intellectual and moral life’ have such intrinsic
worth and importance that to regard their emergence as accidental and
biologically meaningless is outrageously paradoxical. They must be
at least of equal significance with anything else in man’s life, and may
not unreasonably be held to contain the clue to life’s whole meaning.
It may be helpful to put the conclusion in other language. Man’s
life is a tissue of activities of which many are plainly conservative in
nature. By this 1 mean that their function is directly or indirectly
to maintain the existence of the race and the individual. Agriculture,
industry, defence, medicine, are obvious instances of the type, and the
list could easily be extended. But there are other activities—I have
taken art and pure science as capital instances—whose character, in

L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 265

contrast with the former, is best indicated by the term creative. The
point I have tried to make is that in any sane view of human life as
a whole the creative must be regarded as at least as significant and
important as the conservative activities.

Having travelled so far one must perforce go farther. Purely
conservative and purely creative activities, if indeed they exist, are
only limiting instances; in most, if not in all activities, the two
characters are interfused. For example, the motive of pure science is
unmistakably creative, yet its extrinsic conservative value is unlimited ;
on the other hand, the vast industrial organisations of to-day exemplify
activities which, though conservative in their genesis, yet have developed
the creative character in an impressive degree. Considerations of this
kind prepare one to see that the higher creative life, far from being
merely a splendid accident, is really the clearest and purest expression
of the essential character of life at all its levels. The poets are, as
the Greeks called them, the supreme makers, for all making has in it
something of the stuff of poetry. In short, there is no life, however
humdrum, however crabbed by routine, which is not permeated by
the self-same element whose inflorescence is literature, art, science,
philosophy, religion.

The argument might rest here, but I am constrained to carry it
still farther. I find it difficult to believe that what is true of human
life in its conscious aspect is not in some sense true of life as a whole.
Competent observers, for instance Professor Garstang, hold that in
the animal world there is something strictly comparable with esthetic
creation, but I have in view an idea of wider scope. It is the idea
developed with whimsical seriousness by Samuel Butler, namely, that
the variations or mutations which in one form or another every theory
of evolution postulates, are in essence acts of creation homologous
with human inventions and works of art—that if, for example, we com-
pare the emergence or modification of an animal organ, say, with the
creation of Hamlet or the invention of the petrol-engine, the differences
between the two things, vast as they may be, have yet less significance
than the fundamental resemblances. This view, which is implicit in
some of the older philosophies, is central in the speculations of
M. Bergson; it is congruent with the ideas of several modern thinkers
who are hardly to be called Bergsonians; and I think it is beginning to
invade orthodox biology. It is certainly incompatible with the mechan-
istic theory of life, but nevertheless leaves room for all that the up-
holders of the theory are entitled, and (I venture to think) are really
concerned to claim. That the life of an organism can be analysed
exhaustively into physical and chemical factors is a proposition which
it would be extremely rash to dispute; but it is, I think, plainly untrue
that the behaviour of the organism as an integrated unit remains within
the categories of physical science. Here I take my stand with Pro-
fessor Alexander and Professor Lloyd Morgan, holding that life is
not the mere sum of the physico-chemical reactions that occur in an
organism but a constitutive quality of the complex of those reactions—
a quality not ‘epiphenomenal,’ but substantial in the sense that it
makes a difference to what Professor Stout has called the executive

266 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

order of the world. In Dr. Lloyd Morgan’s happy phraseology, the
behaviour of an organism involves chemical and physical factors, but
depends on the ‘emergent’ quality which may properly be distin-
guished as life. If that be the case, life may well exhibit throughout
its range the creativeness which, I have suggested, is one of its essen-
tial characters. My educational argument does not stand or fall in
accordance with the truth or the falsity of this view; but if the view
were well founded the significance of the creative element in human
life would be made clear beyond dispute, and the general force of the
argument would be greatly strengthened.

The foregoing discussion has wandered some distance from the
class-room. Nevertheless it has, I think, a close bearing upon the
questions what ought to be taught and in what spirit the teaching
should be given. The curriculum, we have seen, always will be a
partial reflection of the actual life and traditions of a community, and
ought to reflect all the elements therein which have the greatest and
most permanent value and significance. Without doubt these will, in
general, be the things that have the highest significance and value for
the human family as a whole, but there can hardly be said to be a
common human tradition. There exists, it is true, a common European
tradition based mainly upon the Greco-Roman and Christianity, and
it is vastly important for the happiness of the world to deepen and vivify
men’s consciousness of it. But even this lacks the concreteness needed
to form the basis of popular education—as is seen by contemplation of
France and England, two nations that have grown up in it and have
influenced one another strongly for centuries, and yet have perfectly
distinctive cultures. In short, a nation is the largest social unit whose
ethos has the necessary individuality. Hence, though we should aim
at making our young people ‘ good Europeans,’ we can do so only by
shaping them into that particular brand of good Europeans who are
rightly to be called good Englishmen. Their education should be, in
Professor Campagnac’s illuminating phrase, a ‘ conversation with the
world,’ but the conversation must, in the main, be conducted in the
native idiom. Hence the importance of fostering in our elementary
schools the special traits of the English character at its best; of giving
English letters a chief place among the studies of our youth; of cherish-
ing the English traditions in the arts and crafts, including our once
proud art of music; even (as Mr. Cecil Sharp rightly urges) of reviving
the old dances which were so gracious and typical an expression of our
native gaiety and manners. Lest this contention should be misunder-
stood I add that I preach neither the hateful doctrine that what is
foreign should, as such, be excluded, nor the ignorant and presumptuous
doctrine that what is our own is necessarily the best, and that we have
nothing to learn from other peoples. The whole burden of my argu-
ment is that the things which have universal human value are the
things of most importance in education. But the universal can be
apprehended only where it lives in concrete embodiments. In the
cases we are concerned with, these are elements or organs of a national
culture; and the only national culture to which a child has direct and
intimate access is hisown. He should be taught to see, as opportunity

L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 267

permits, how much of it is derived from the common European tradi-
tion and how much it owes to the influences of other national cultures ;
but it should, in its concrete individuality, be the basis of his education.

Lastly, I have urged that among the strains or currents in a national
tradition the highest value belongs to those that are richest in the
creative element. These are themselves traditions of activity, practical,
intellectual, sesthetic, moral, with a high degree of individuality and
continuity, and they mark out the main lines in the development of
the human spirit. Consider what man has made of poetry and what
poetry has made of him; what a noble world he has created out of the
sounds of vibrating reeds, strings, and brass; think of the expansion of
soul he has gained through architecture and the arts of which it is the
mother and queen; of the achievements of his thought, disciplined into
the methods of mathematics, the sciences and philosophy. Do we not
rightly measure the quality of a civilisation by its activities in such
directions as these? And if so, must not such activities be typically
represented in every education which offers the means to anything that
can properly be called fullness of life ?

If the force of the argument be admitted, the principles of the curri-
culum, about which so much has been written, take a clear and simple
shape. A school is a place where a child, with his endowment of sensi-
bilities and powers, comes to be moulded by the traditions that have
played the chief part in the evolution of the human spirit and have the
greatest significance in the life of to-day. Here is the touchstone by
which the claims of a subject for a place in the time-table can be infallibly
tested. Does it represent one of the great movements of the human
spirit, one of the major forms into which the creative impulses of man
have been shaped and disciplined? If it does, then its admission cannot
be contested. If it does not, it must be set aside; it may usefully be
included in some special course of technical instruction, but is not
qualified to be an element in the education of the people.

The same criterion may be applied to the methods by which the
subjects of the curriculum are taught. We are constantly told that the
‘ educational value ’ of a subject lies in the mental discipline it affords,
and, from this point of view, a distinction is made between its educa-
tional value and its import as an activity in the greater world; thus
geometry is taught as a training in logic, the use of tools as ‘ hand and
eye training,’ and so forth. From the standpoint I ask you to adopt that
distinction is unjustifiable and may be dangerously misleading; it has, I
fear, often been a source of aridity and unfruitfulness in school teaching.
The mistake consists in supposing that the disciplinary value can be
separated from the concrete historical character of the subject as a
stream of cultural tradition. The discipline of the school workshop
consists in using the tools of the craftsman for purposes cognate with
his and inspired by his achievements. It is because this has not always
been done that methods of ‘ manual training’ have too often falsified
the expectations of their advocates. Similarly the discipline of school
geometry consists not in mastering an abstract scheme or formula of
argumentation, but in steeping one’s mind in a certain noble tradition of
intellectual activity and in gradually acquiring the interests, mental

268 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

habits and outlook that belong to it. To say this is not to mimimise
the importance of discipline or to expel from school studies the austerity
which the grave old word suggests. How, for instances, could it be
said that our school mathematics represented truly the genius of real
mathematics if we neglected the element of laborious accuracy and pre-
cision of thought which are essential to it? What is insisted on is that
the several forms of mental discipline are characters of concrete types
of creative activity, practical, esthetic, inteliectual, and that they influ-
ence the mind of the learner favourably only in so far as he pursues
those activities as adventures of the human spirit, laborious yet joyous
and satisfying, and pursues them after the manner of the great masters.
In short, true discipline comes simply by trying to do fine things in the
fine way.

The foregoing principles, stated in a necessarily brief and crude
manner, are open to misconceptions against which it is desirable to
protect them. In the first place, it may seem that I am designing the
education of the people upon a scale which may be magnificent but is
certainly impracticable. Now I recognise the need of following the
advice of a wise official friend who bids one always to bear in mind the
magnitude of the educational problem—to remember the slum school
and the remote village school as well as the happily placed schools of
rich and progressive urban authorities. It is easy, no doubt, to form
extravagant expectations, and by seeking to do too much to achieve
nothing solid at all. But the argument is concerned far less with the
standard to which school studies may be pursued than with their proper
qualities and the spirit that should inspire them. In particular, it is
directed against the attitude expressed recently by a public speaker who
asked what good is poetry to a lad who will spend his days in following
the plough and spreading manure upon the fields. Against this attitude
it urges that a man’s education, whatever his economic destiny, should
bring him into fruitful contact with the finer elements of the human
tradition, those that have been and remain essential to the value and
true dignity of civilisation. This ideal does not assume advanced
scholarship or gifts beyond those of ordinary mortals ; it implies merely
that the normal human sensibilities and powers should be directed along
the right ways.

But, it may be objected, granted the soundness of the ideal as an
ideal, the shortness of school life still makes it impracticable. This is
a criticism to be treated with respect. It is true that a study, to be of
real value, must be carried far enough and followed long enough to
make a definite and lasting impression. It is also true that some studies
can hardly produce their proper effects at all until a certain level of
maturity has been’ reached. For example, there is much of vital
moment in science which evokes no response in a pupil before the age
of adolescence. But what is to be deduced from these admissions ?
Surely the conclusion, which the public mind is slowly accepting, that
so long as children leave school for good at fourteen some of the best
fruits of education will be unattainable and the security of the others
precarious. It is not merely a question of lencth of time, but also, and
even mainly, of psychological development. The more carefully youth

L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 269

is studied the more significant for after-life the experience during the
years of adolescence is seen to be. Its importance is not a modern
discovery ; for even the primitive races knew it, and the historic Churches
have always taken account of it in their teaching and discipline. But
the problems of what has ever been a fateful period have acquired under
modern conditions of life a new urgency. Parents and teachers have
worried over them, devoted club-workers have wrestled with them,

' novelists and psychologists have studied them. In connection with the

psychologists, mention of Dr. Stanley Hall’s monumental work is as
inevitable as it is now superfluous; reference should, however, be made
to the recent memoir in which Dr. Ernest Jones has freshly illuminated
the old idea that the onset of adolescence marks a definite break and
recommencement in mental growth. Especially interesting is the
parallelism he establishes between the successive phases of childhood
and the corresponding phases of youth. But though in a sense the
adolescent retravels a psychological route which he has already traversed
in childhood, he is, of course, capable of vastly deeper and wider vision
and experience. The case for universal education beyond the age of
fourteen depends ultimately upon the importance of shaping his new
capabilities in conformity with the finer traditions of civilised life.
Public opinion, regretting the generous gesture of 1918, has not at the
moment accepted the larger view of the mission of education; but as
the nation learns to care more for the quality of its common manhood
and womanhood and understands more clearly the conditions upon
which that quality depends, the forward movement, now unhappily
arrested, will certainly be resumed. For that better time we must
prepare and build.

There is another objection to which I should think it unseemly to
refer if it were not a stumbling-block to so many persons of good will.
A liberal public education will, they fear, make people unwilling to do
much of the world’s work which, though disagreeable, must still be
carried on. The common sense of Dr. Johnson gaye the proper reply
a hundred and fifty years ago. Being asked whether the establishment
of a school on his friend Bennet Langton’s estate would not tend to
make the people less industrious, ‘ No, sir,’ said Johnson, ‘ while learn-
ing to read and write is a distinction, the few who have that distinction
may be the less inclined to work; but when everybody learns to read
and write it is no longer a distinction. A man who has a laced waist-
coat is too fine a man to work; but if everybody had laced waistcoats,
we should have people working in laced waistcoats.’

Lastly, complaint may be made that in all this discourse about the
finer values nothing has been said about the ordinary utilities, and the
ironical may ask whether it is an error to suppose that the education
of the people should furnish them with useful knowledge and abilities.
Now the test of utility which the plain man applies to education is, in
principle. sound and indispensable; it is, in fact, congruent with the
biological origin and function of the educational progress. The only point
doubtful is whether the test is always based upon a sufficiently broad
idea of utility. The only satisfactory definition of the useful is that it
contributes definitely and positively to fullness of life. From that point

270 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of view it is useful to teach a ploughboy to love poetry and not useful
to teach a public schoolboy to hate Greek. This is not, I remark, an
argument against teaching a subject whose disappearance from our
education would be an irreparable disaster. It means merely that the
literatures of the ancient world, when taught, should be taught in such
a way as to contribute positively to the quality of a modern life. But
the term ‘ useful,’ according to the definition, certainly includes utility in
the narrower sense. The daily work of the world must be kept going,
and one of the essential tasks of the schools is to fit the young to carry
it on under the immensely complicated conditions of present-day civilisa-
tion. There is no incompatibility between this admission and the
general line of my argument. The only relevant limitation imposed by
the argument is that what is conservative in purpose shall be creative
in its method and, being so, shall embody some dignified tradition of
practical, esthetic, or intellectual activity. The condition may be
satisfied by a technical education based upon many of the great historic
occupations of men and women—for example, upon agriculture, build-
ing, engineering, dressmaking—provided that inspiration is sought from
the traditions of the industry or craft at their noblest. Anyone who has
a wide acquaintance with the schools of the country will know some
whose work accords with these high requirements and gives to prac-
tically minded boys or girls an education truly liberal in aim—that is,
an education which tends to free their minds from bondage to sordid
tastes and petty interests and to make them happily at home among
large ideas and activities of wide and enduring importance. What these
schools have done and are doing should be borne in mind when Article 10
of the Act of 1918 comes again to life or is replaced by legislative pro-
visions of still bolder design. To conceive ‘ secondary education for all ’
as meaning ‘ the grammar school curriculum for all’ would be to make
a most serious blunder. The only mistake more serious would be to
exclude adolescent boys and girls, even of the humblest station, from
any essential part of the national inheritance of culture. But this error
may be avoided while full account is yet taken of the far-reaching differ-
ences in the talents and ingenium of individuals and the rich diversity
of the valuable currents, intellectual, practical, and esthetic, in the life
of the community, of which any one may be made the basis of a course
truly liberal in quality.

The eminent philosopher, Professor Giovanni Gentile, now Minister
of Public Instruction in the Italian Government, has in more than one
brilliant work—notably in his eloquent lectures on ‘The Reform of
Education ’—exnounded views largely congruent with those expressed
in this paper. JI welcome his agreement not merely because it may be
presumed that the principles he upholds are the principles informing
his administration, but even more because the philosophical positions
from which we start are widely different. Signor Gentile holds, as I
do. that the proper aim of education is to shape the activities of the
individual spirit in accordance with the best traditions of the human
movement. In particular, he does not shrink from insisting that the
simplest instruction in the primary schocls should be offered in the true
spirit of culture. And he also maintains that the education of the

L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 271

people must be national in its general setting. Indeed, I venture to
think that he sometimes carries this idea too far —appearing to advocate

as an end in itself what should surely be only the means to a broader

end, and to forget his noble declaration that the teacher must always
stand for the universal. This is an error hard to be avoided by a philo-

sopher whose inspiration is largely Hegelian; moreover, it is easily
pardonable in a patriotic speaker with the glorious cultural history of
Italy behind him and before him the elementary school teachers of

Trieste redenta. But although I regret Signor Gentile’s adhesion to what

I consider a false view of the relation between the individual soul and
society, his book has high value, for it expresses a passionate conviction
that during the last century the development of the great European
neoples went in some respects sadly astray, and that their moral health
can be restored only by education inspired from top to bottom by a true
judgment of values. Here he is, I believe, fundamentally right. The

last hundred years have greatly accentuated the gravity of a problem

which was discerned by the poet Schiller and diagnosed in the famous
‘Letters on Asthetic Education’ he published in 1795. ‘To this

diagnosis Dr. C. G. Jung has devoted an interesting chapter in his

book on ‘ Psychological Types.” In Schiller’s view the immense pro-
gress of the modern nations has been purchased at the expense of the

development of the individual soul, so that, in spite of the greatness of

.
|

ae Say

our achievements, we are, man for man, inferior to the various and well-

_ rounded Athenians of the best days. It is the division of labour essential
to a large scale organisation of society which has at once made general
_ progress possible and individual impoverishment inevitable, for it has

cut individual men off from experiences that are indispensable to the

full well-being of mankind. If this was true in the days of the French

Revolution, how much more true it is to-day, and how much more grave
the evil. We are told that before the era of industrialism the great
mass of our people enjoyed a culture which, though simple, was sincere
and at least kept them in touch with the springs of beauty. What truth
there is in the picture I do not know, but it is certain that with what is
¢alled the industrial revolution the conditions that make it credible

largely disappeared. Torn from the traditions of the old rural life and
domestic industry and herded into towns where in the fight for mere
existence they lost their hold on all that gave grace to the former life,
and where the ancient institutions which might have helped them to

bnild up a worthy new one were themselves submerged in the rising tide
of featureless and monotonous industrial activity, the folk who now

j constitute the bulk of our population were cut off effectually from

“ sweetness and light.’ That was the situation when the task of public
education was taken seriously in hand, and that, notwithstanding a creat

amelioration in details, is for far too many the situation to-day. There

are some who think that the onlv remedv is to cry halt to the modern

movement and return deliberatelv to mediwvalism. This is, I fear. a
_ counsel of despair ; instead of indulging idle dreams it will be more profit-
able, assuming the unalterable conditions of modern life. to consider

how the rest may so be modified as to place the true dignity and grace

_ of life within the reach of all who are qualified to achieve them. That
Pu 1923 vu

272 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

can be done only by a system of education which brings the things of
enduring and universal worth to the doors of the common people. It is
what has been done by many an elementary school teacher, sometimes
with scant assistance from public opinion, simply because, face to face
with his helpless charges, he was impelled to give them the best he had
to give. It will be done with increasing happy results the more clearly
it is seen that the proper function of the elementary schools is something
much more than to protect the State against the obvious danger of a
grossly ignorant populace or to ‘ educate our masters ’ in the rudiments
of citizenship. And unless it is done, unless the natural hunger of the
people for knowledge and beauty is wisely stimulated and widely
satisfied, no material prosperity can in the end save the social body from
irretrievable degradation and disaster.

SCIENCE AND THE AGRICULTURAL
CRISIS.

ADDRESS TO SECTION M (AGRICULTURE) BY

CHARLES CROWTHER, M.A., Px.D.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

In addressing the Section as President I would confess at the very
outset to a pride that I should be permitted to occupy a post of such
great honour, for which my chief qualification must be that of having
graduated through every other office provided for in the Sectional
organisation.

I could only have wished that the honour had fallen to me in any
year other than the present, in which my energies have been fully
absorbed by the duties of a new appointment of a peculiarly difficult
character; and it is with some misgiving that I venture to address the
Section to-day, being conscious of haying nothing to offer but a faw
random thoughts, incubated at odd moments, and reduced to verbal
form under conditions which have not permitted the careful revision
that the occasion demands.

For the second consecutive year the Section meets in a great sea-
port, a city whose activities are written large across the history of
British agriculture throughout the past century, and have contributed
in no small degree to the anxieties with which the industry is beset at
the present day. The part played by the port of Liverpool in shaping
the fortunes—or misfortunes—of British agriculture might well have
formed an appropriate subject for the Presidential Address to this Sec-
tion, had I possessed the competence and leisure to deal with it effec-
tively, but I must confine myself to matters falling more closely
within the range of my everyday activities.

When the Section met last year British agriculture was reeling
under the shock of a second disastrous year, which in large sections of
the industry, notably those dependent primarily upon the direct sale
of crops, seemed likely to produce a crisis of the gravest character,
and greatly accentuated the existing anxiety even in sections of the
industry less directly affected. This atmosphere of crisis still unfortu-
nately persists, though permeated now perhaps by a rather more
optimistic note, and it must necessarily receive the consideration of this
Section of an Association which aims at intimate touch with the every-
day life of the nation.

It is generally recognised that the primary causes of the present
difficulties of British agriculture are strictly economic in character, and
not due to any gross and general failure to apply present-day scientific
knowledge to the technique of farming, although the great disparity
which exists between the average production of the country and that
secured by the more competent farmers on soils of the most diverse
( uv 2

274 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

natural fertility suggests that with a higher general level of technique
and education the intensity of the crisis might have been sensibly
reduced. So far, however, from there having been any appreciable
lowering in the general standard of our farming, as measured by the
application of the teachings of agricultural science, it is the common
experience of those of us who are in close touch with the farming com-
munity that recent years have witnessed a very marked and rapid
development amongst farmers of interest in agricultural education and
research. Throughout the more intelligent section of the older farmers
and the whole body of the younger men the old antagonism between
‘practice’ and ‘ science’ is rapidly disappearing. Whether it be a
case of the ‘ sick devil’ or not, the agricultural community is at present
in a more receptive mood towards scientific advice than at any time I
can recall in some twenty years’ advisory experience, and I believe
the moment to be opportune for a forward movement in agricultural
education, which, if wisely developed, may remove the last vestiges
of opposition and establish education and research firmly in their rightful
places in our agricultural organisation.

I have referred to the causes of the present crisis as being strictly
economic, and such palliative measures as have been adopted or sug-
gested have been almost entirely aimed directly at immediate economic
relief. There is, indeed, the danger that if the exponents of agricultural
science remain silent the impression may get abroad that we have
nothing substantial to offer towards the alleviation of the crisis, and
it is my main purpose to-day, therefore, to indicate some of the direc-
tions in which I believe help can be given, and some of the lines along
which development of our scientific and educational organisation is,
in my opinion, more especially necessary at the present juncture.

Our agricultural educational system may be likened to a pyramid
with research at the apex, elementary education and general advisory
work at the base, with intermediate education, higher education, and
higher advisory work occupying the intervening parts. Our pyramid
has grown within the last thirty years from a very modest structure of
low elevation into an imposing edifice, which perhaps appeals to the
mind’s eye more through its height than its spread, the upward growth
having taken place at a proportionately greater rate than the expansion
of the base. Such, at least, it appears to me, and I shall suggest to you
later that the essential need of the moment is a broadening of the base
with a view to greater stability and a more effective transmission of the
results of the activities of the upper portions to the maximum basal
area over which they can beneficially react.

For the purposes of my survey it will be convenient to follow the
customary classification of our work into research, advisory work, and
teaching. Of these three divisions I propose to deal but very briefly
with the first, that of research, since the potentialities of research for
the advancement of agriculture are too patent to require exposition,
the ultimate object of all agricultural research being the acquisition of
knowledge which will enable the farmer to comprehend his task more
fully, and to wield a more intelligent control over the varied factors
which govern both crop production and animal production.

———————

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 275

Agricultural progress must be dependent upon research, and no
phase of our agricultural educational system is so full of great promise
for the future as the comprehensive research organisation, covering
practically every field of agricultural research, which has been brought
into existence during the past twelve years, and developed upon lines
which ensure an attractive career to a large number of the most capable
research workers coming out of our universities. In praising the
Research Institute scheme I am not unmindful of the needs of the
independent research worker and the spare-time research work of teach-
ing staffs—the type of research work to which we owe so much in this
country—and it is with some anxiety that I have watched the distribu-
tion by the Ministry of Agriculture of the modest resources available
for the support of this class of work. I trust that my fears are ground-
less, but I am afraid of a tendency to deflect such resources towards
the work of the Research Institutes, a tendency which in common
fairness to the independent worker should be most strenuously resisted.
With a sufficiently liberal conception of the class of work which can be
effectively carried through by the independent worker there should
be no difficulty in allocating these moneys to the purposes for which
they are intended.

In suggesting, as I did a few moments ago, that in proportion to
the means available agricultural research is perhaps more adequately
provided for at the moment than other branches of agricultural educa-
tional activity, nothing is further from my mind than to imply that
greater resources could not be effectively absorbed in this direction,
but I am guided by the feeling that a due measure of proportion should
be maintained between research and the organisation behind it designed
to translate the findings of research into economic practice, and to
secure that each advance of knowledge shall be made known quickly

and effectively throughout the industry.

no Aa

It is chiefly in the latter direction that agricultural science can make
an immediate and effective contribution to the alleviation of the present
crisis, since agricultural research in the main does not lend itself to
the ‘ speeding-up ’ necessary for quick action. The same applies also
to formal educational work, which must necessarily exert its influence
on the industry but slowly.

The one line of approach along which agricultural science can make
its influence felt quickly is that of advisory work, which consists in the
skilful application of existing knowledge to the solution of practical
problems, or at most the carrying out of investigations of a simple
type, with a view to securing guidance as to the solution of the problem
in time for effective action to be taken.

It is, therefore, to the possibilities of such advisory work that I
propose to turn my attention in more detail. The root difficulty of
agricultural educational propaganda in the past has been to secure a
sufficiently intimate and widespread contact with the farmer, and for

_ this purpose no agency at our command is so valuable as advisory work,

_ since it ensures a contact with the individual farmer which is both direct
and sympathetic, originating, indeed, in most cases out of a direct

request for help. The difficulties in the way of extending advisory work

276 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

greatly I shall turn to presently, but I wish first of all to outline some
of the mcre immediately helpful forms of advisory work which have
fallen within the scope of my own personal experience.

When some four years ago I undertook to develop for the late
Lord Manton a research and advisory organisation to furnish guidance
in his extensive farming enterprises, I was obliged in the first instance
to take account of the fact that the resources at my disposal, though
large, would not serve to cover the whole field of agricultural problems,
and so far as specialist work was concerned it would be necessary to
concentrate on two or three fields of activity, outside which only general
guidance could be afforded by the departmental staff, and for specialist
assistance it would be necessary to have recourse to the national advisory
organisation set up by the Ministry of Agriculture. Eventually, after
careful consideration, the fields of work selected for special attention
were those of soils, plant nutrition, plant breeding, and animal nutrition,
and it is to these that I propose to refer more particularly. No specific
provision was made at the outset for dealing with diseases, either plant
or animal, partly for reasons of economy, but mainly because it was
felt that the outstanding disease problems could be more effectively
dealt with by co-operative effort through the national organisation than
by a small isolated advisory station.

In making provision for soil work as one of our principal lines of
activity I was actuated by the conviction that soil investigation is the
most fundamental of all forms of agricultural research. Soil factors
dominate the growth of crops from germination to maturity, and must
influence the utilisation of the crops by the animal, which is their ultimate
destiny. In stressing the importance of soil advisory work I am not
unmindful of the fact that, despite the enormous volume of investiga-
tion relating to soils which has been carried out, the task of the soil
adviser still remains a very difficult one, and except in a few directions,
and over a comparatively small area of the country, the interpretation
of soil analytical data is rarely clear. It is a sobering thought, indeed,
to recall the abounding optimism with which soil analysis was entered
upon some eighty years ago, and contrast the hopes then held with
the realities of soil advisory work as we find them to-day. The initial
mistake—so common throughout a large part of our agricultural in-
vestigational work of the past—lay in a failure to visualise the com-
plexity of the problem, even with due regard to then existing knowledge.
The problem was approached as if the soil were to be regarded solely
as a reservoir of plant food, whose capabilities for crop production
should therefore admit of complete diagnosis by chemical analysis.
The conception is fascinating in its simplicity, and has dominated the
greater part of our soil work down to the present time, repeated en-
deavours being made by variation in the methods and intensity of the
analytical, attack to improve the persistently low degree of correlation
between analytical data and crop results. Parallel with this at a later
date was developed the mechanical conception which found the major
part of the explanation of the differentiation of fertility in the physical
properties of the soil particles, whilst still later soil biology has asserted
its claim to provide the ‘simple solution.’ The work of recent years,

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 277

however, so brilliantly led in this country by Sir John Russell and his
colleagues, leaves us with no excuse for such restricted conceptions
of soil fertility, which must now be regarded as the index of the
equilibrium established by the mutual interactions of a highly complex
series of factors, the variation of any one of which may affect the
interplay of the whole, with consequent effect upon the rate or character
of plant growth.

The problem of fertility being so complex, one might perhaps be
inclined to despair of attaining to anything really effective in soil
advisory work, which must necessarily be dependent upon rapid and
somewhat superficial examination, and such apparently is the view
held by the Ministry of Agriculture if one may judge by the con-
spicuous neglect of chemical and physical science in recent extensions
of advisory facilities.

My own conception, however, of the present possibilities of soil
advisory work is more optimistic, and from experience covering the
most diverse parts of the country I am confident that an extension of
facilities for soil advisory work would be of immediate and progressively
increasing benefit to the farmer.

It is the common experience of all engaged in soil advisory work
that, although what may be termed the ‘average soil’ offers great
difficulties, there are many soils in all parts of the country which are
distinctly not ‘ average’ for the areas in which they are situate, and
for which our converitional methods of chemical and mechanical
analysis, crude though they be, and imperfect the premises upon which
their interpretation is based, do yield guidance which on application in
practice proves to have been substantially sound. The real difficulty
at the moment is that for large tracts of the country we lack the neces-
sary data to enable us to determine what is the ‘ average soil’ for each
particular area, and until provision is made for specific soil work in
these areas, which comprise the whole of the great agricultural areas
of the Midlands, our advisory work relating to this raw material of
crop production must of necessity remain superficial, and only too
frequently ineffective.

In no direction has the need for extended soil advisory work become
more evident in recent years than in the revelation of the extent to
which large areas of our soils have become depleted of lime. Cases
come almost daily to our notice in which this lack of lime is clearly
the chemical ‘ limiting factor,’ and the annual waste due to unremunera-
tive expenditure on fertilisers on such land must indeed be very great.
In many cases, fortunately, the depletion has been detected at a stage
at which it is still economically remediable, but in others, unfortunately,
this is no longer the case, and unless soil-survey facilities be greatly
extended it is certain that large areas of our land must steadily fall into
the latter category, with the inevitable development in the near future
of a problem of such magnitude as will require national action for its
solution. It is worthy of note also in passing that this problem will
probably be accentuated rather than diminished as a greater proportion
of our arable land reverts to grass.

A further direction in which great scope remains for the work of

278 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the soil adviser is in the economic manuring of crops. More attention
has probably been paid to the subject of manuring than to any other
branch of agricultural science, and this branch has been perhaps more
definitely systematised than any other; but inadequate and improper
manuring is still widely prevalent, and the annual wastage of resources
thereby incurred must represent a very large sum. A considerable part
of this wastage is due to the widespread use of proprietary compound
manures, more often than not compounded without any special reference
to the soils upon which they are to be used, or even without intelligent
adaptation to the special needs of the crops for which they are supplied.
It is not uncommon, indeed, to find mixtures of identical composition
offered for the most diverse crops. In far too many cases also the prices
charged are extravagantly disproportionate to the intrinsic value of the
ingredients of the mixture, and in all these various ways costs of pro-
duction are made higher than they need be. In claiming that improved
manuring achieved through extended advisory guidance might effect a
sensible alleviation of the present difficulties of the arable farmer, I am
not unmindful of the fact that even the best practice may result in loss
when the value of produce sinks to the low levels recently touched by
many crops, and the best manuring will not make it possible, for
example, to grow potatoes profitably under present conditions for sale
at 30s. per ton. Where loss is inevitable, however, this will usually be
lowest at a level of production involving the reasonable and intelligent
use of manures.

Passing on from soil and manuring, we come to the sphere of seed
and sowing problems, presenting obviously abundant scope for advisory
work. The need for good and pure seed is axiomatic and is recognised
by the existence of the Seeds Act, which remains to us as a legacy,
more beneficent in its operation than many others, of the war-time
interest of the State in agriculture.

Seed must not only be good, however, but it must be of the right
kind, sown under proper conditions and at the most suitable time, and
the value of advisory guidance on these points has always been recog-
nised, especially with reference to the choice between different varieties
of each particular crop. The variety tests carried out on the various
college farms and elsewhere have always proved helpful in this respect
in so far as they serve to demonstrate the general characteristics of
the different varieties. Whether they have been equally successful in
measuring the cropping capacities of the different varieties is more
than doubtful, owing to their restriction to single, or at most double
plots of a kind, and this has been recognised in the more elaborate
schemes devised for the purpose by the National Institute of Agricul-
tural Botany, which it is to be hoped may furnish a practical scheme
for more accurate quantitative field tests in the future.

Given good seed, the improvement of crop possible through seed
selection is perhaps not in general so striking as that frequently obtain-
able by manuring, but it may nevertheless be substantial, especially
with crops such as barley, where improvement of quality may have a
special value. There is also a rapidly extending field for seed advisory
work in connection with the laying down of land to grass for varying
periods.

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 279

During the growth of the crop advisory work is largely restricted to
the domain of diseases and insect pests, whose ravages take incalculable
toll of our crops. ‘This section of advisory work | am not competent
to discuss, but I am continually impressed by its importance as I note
how largely such matters bulk in the inquiries for assistance which
pass through my hands, and I believe science can make no more directly
effective contribution towards the removal of at least the technical
difficulties of the farmer than the elaboration of effective preventive
measures against pests and diseases.

In some directions, as in the circumvention of certain diseases of
potatoes and cereals, very striking advances have already been made,
to the great benefit of practice ; but in all too many cases the adviser at
present can go little beyond the stage of diagnosis, although, with the
greatly increased number of research workers now available, there are
good grounds to hope that the lines of preventive action may before long
be worked out.

I must pass on, finally, to the utilisation of crop products as food for
animals, the line of work with which my own personal interests and
activities have always been most closely associated. Looking back over
twenty years of advisory activity, I realise that the position of the
adviser in animal nutrition is infinitely stronger to-day than when I
first assumed the réle.

At the outset of this period the feeding of animals was regarded
simply as a matter of supply of suitable proportions of digestible protein,
oils, and carbohydrates, more or Jess regardless of the character of the
materials in which they were supplied. Little further could be done in
the way of differentiating the values of different food materials beyond
a comparison upon the basis of gross digestible energy, although the
conclusions to which this led were notoriously unreliable and in many
cases in flagrant conflict with practical experience. Material for a
great advance was, however, rapidly accumulating in the work of
Kellner, which was finally reduced by him to a practical system of food
evaluation in his classic ‘ Ernibrung der landwirtschaftiichen Nutztiere,’
published in 1905, and universally acclaimed as representing a great
advance in the application of nutritional science to the practical feeding
of farm live-stock. The advance lay essentially in the discrimination
between the available energy and the net energy of foods, and the
carrying out of a sufficiently large number of determinations of the latter
to furnish a fairly adequate basis for generalisation. With these to
supplement his classic determinations of the values of protein, fat, and
carbohydrate for the production of fattening increase, he was able to
devise a practical scheme of assessing the production-values or net
energy-values of foods, which he preferred for reasons of practical con-
venience to express in terms of starch. The significance of the great
practical advance made by Kellner was not at first clearly grasped in
this country, critical attention being directed, in accordance with true
British conservatism, more to the admitted shortcomings of the starch-
equivalent than to its merits; but as time revealed its superiority over
the older methods it came generally into use, and now serves as the
basis of all our advisory work in farm nutrition.

280 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Although primarily designed for the case of the fattening animal,
it has proved practically useful for other classes of stock, and even,
with slight modification, for the case of the milk-producing animal.

The last twenty years has also witnessed the great developments of
protein investigation which have thrown much light upon the problems
of protein metabolism and the productive efficiency of the proteins of
different foods. Lastly, we may recall the remarkable developments in
nutritional science of recent years, consequent upon Hopkins’ discovery
of the ‘ accessory growth factor,’ and also the attention which is now
being directed to the importance of the mineral ingredients of foods.

With all this newer knowledge at his command, the adviser in
nutrition can now approach his work with far greater confidence, and
evidence of the increasing practical value of his work is rapidly accumu-
lating. This is particularly the case with advisory work in milk pro-
duction, a branch of feeding which lends itself more readily than most
to carefully regulated rationing owing to the ease with which the
amount of product can be determined. Few branches of advisory work
have proved more directly helpful to the farmer in recent years than
this advisory control of the feeding of dairy cows, the extension of
which has been greatly aided by the development of milk-recording
societies, in whose activities such rationing advice is rapidly becoming
regarded as an indispensable feature. Much success has also been
met with in advisory work in pig-feeding, and to a less extent in the
feeding of cattle, the lower degree of success in the latter case being due
not so much to an inferior capability of the adviser to help as to the
difficulty of dispelling the tradition that beef production represents the
supreme accomplishment of the British farmer, as to which there is
nothing left for him to learn. The work already accomplished repre-
sents, however, but the very beginnings of economy in the feeding of
live-stock, and wasteful feeding of both home-grown and purchased
feeding-stuffs for lack of the necessary advisory guidance is still far too
widely prevalent.

Such are only a few of the aspects of advisory work, which, if
extended more widely, might exercise a very profound effect upon the
economy of the industry. Such extension implies, however, greatly
increased resources in men and money and more efficient means of
bringing the advisory facilities to the notice of the farmer.

I am inclined, indeed, to think that a more efficient propaganda is
perhaps the first need of the situation, as one finds in all parts of the
country an astonishingly large number of farmers who are totally
unaware of the existence of advisory facilities of any kind. A more
extensive propaganda will be useless, however, unless accompanied by
increased provision for advice, since the present resources are already
more than fully taxed by the relatively moderate volume of calls for
assistance that now arise. It is the universal complaint of the County
Agricultural Organisers that they cannot secure the personal contact,
which it is the most important part of their functions to establish,
with more than a very small fraction of the farmers within their area,
and it is for a great extension of this type of advisory assistance that
there is the most clamant need. Most of our counties have, at present,

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 281

only one agricultural adviser—some, indeed, have none—and yet this
slender organisation represents in large measure the base of contact with
the industry upon which the whole pyramid of our advisory and educa-
tional work rests. It is here where I see the most immediately profitable
outlet for any further moneys that may be available for agricultural
education in the near future. The facilities for organised instruction
in agriculture are at present adequate for the numbers of students coming
forward, or likely to come forward, in the near future, the present
problem in this sphere being indeed rather that of finding suitable
openings for the numbers of students passing through our courses—a
matter to which I shall return presently.

I have already alluded to the chemical gaps in our specialised
advisory organisation, and I might also have indicated the similar and
eyen less comprehensible inadequacy in the provision for specialist advice
in economics; but these are relatively small matters compared with the
paucity of the less highly specialised but scientifically trained advisers of
the County Organiser type, whose business it should be to secure the
confidence of the individual farmer by personal contact, and the render-
ing of assistance either directly in the simpler problems or with the help
of the specialist staff standing behind them in more complex cases,
whereby a more widespread and real appreciation of the practical value
of agricultural education and research than now prevails might quickly
be developed.

A great extension of advisory work such as I suggest must neces-
sarily involve heavy expenditure, and further, an exceptional measure
_ of care in the selection of men, since in the direct approach to the farmer
personal qualities may in the first instance count for more than technical
proficiency. Furthermore, if the full measure of success is to be
achieved, it is essential that a more closely organised and intimate
contact should be established between the various units of the advisory
organisation, from the research station through the scientific adviser,
to the practical adviser. Our present organisation is too indefinite and
too widely permissive in this respect and calls urgently for consideration
by all concerned, both county authorities and advisory and research
workers, with a view to more effective co-ordination and co-operative
effort.

I have laid great stress upon the potentialities of advisory work as a
contribution to the alleviation of the present crisis, but I cannot close
without some reference to the far greater contribution to the future
prosperity of British agriculture which we can make through our educa-
tional system, if wisely pursued, in the training of the farmers of the
future. t}

I have already expressed the opinion that the existing facilities for
organised agricultural education—at least so far as universities and col-
leges are concerned—are adequate to deal with the numbers of students
presenting themselves. There is indeed at the moment a considerable
excess output of the class of student who is either unwilling or unable
_ to take up practical farming and must needs have a salaried post. This
problem, which is becoming an increasingly serious one, especially for
the non-university institution, such as my own College, hardly falls,
however, within the scope of my present theme, except in so far as the

282 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

extension of advisory facilities I have advocated would tend to absorb
this surplus and restore the balance of the whole organisation.

Of more immediate concern is our comparative failure to secure for
our educational courses more than a small fraction of the sons of farmers,
upon whom the future of the industry will largely rest. I have testified
to the greatly awakened interest in agricultural education which has
been displayed amongst farmers in recent years, but it is yet far from
having developed into a conviction that such education is to be regarded
as a vitally essential part of the farmer’s training. One must perhaps
be content with gradual advance towards this goal by internal develop-
ment, although the possibilities of more rapid advance by external
pressure should not be overlooked. One such that might have a more
potent influence than any other in filling our colleges with farmers’ sons
I would submit for the consideration of my distinguished predecessor
of last year, in supplement of his able exposition of the part to be played
by the enlightened landowner in the progress of agriculture. It is that
in letting his farms—at any rate so far as young applicants are con-
cerned—the enlightened landowner should show his faith in agricultural
education by giving first preference—other considerations being equal—
to men who have received adequate instruction in the principles of agri-
culture in addition to practical experience.’ So long as the private
ownership of land continues—and I trust that it may be very long—the
landowner will have it in his power to render the most powerful aid to
the progress of agricultural education, and by action along the lines I
have suggested might exert more good in one year than is attainable by
many weary years of propaganda. Whatever the character of our land
tenure system of the future, it is certain that sooner or later some
guarantee of efficiency for the productive occupation of land will be
demanded from the would-be farmer. We cannot continue indefinitely,
on the one hand, to proclaim that the jand is our greatest national asset,
to be maintained with the help of, and in the interests of, the State in
a highly efficient state of productivity, whilst, on the other hand, the use
of the land is left open to all, regardless of fitness for its effective use.
This vision of farming reduced to the status of medicine and law as a
close profession regulated by an entrance examination, may perhaps be
stigmatised as a horrible nightmare; but some movement in that direc-
tion I believe to be inevitable, and, with nationalisation of the land,
might well come more speedily than one would venture to contemplate.
None will question, at any rate, that, should such a day arrive, education
in the principles underlying the calling will loom as largely as practical
training in determining the standards of admission to the use of the
land. I will conclude on this highly imaginative note with an expres-
sion of my firm conviction that the genius of the British race for the
management of its affairs on lines of voluntary action will not desert
us in this particular, and that with wise guidance and intelligent adapta-
tion of educational curricula and methods to the changing needs of
the times the penetration of our practice by science will proceed
smoothly and with such rapidity as to render interference from outside
not only unnecessary, but unwarrantable.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE

ETC.

Seismological Investigations.— Twenty-eighth Report of Com-
mittee (Professor H. H. Turner, Chairman; Mr. J. J. Saw,
Secretary; Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. EK. Crompiz, Sir Horace
Darwiy, Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Guazesroox, Dr. Haroup
JEFFREYS, Professor H. Lams, Sir J. Larmor, Dr. A. CricHtTon
Mircueiu, Professors A. EK. H. Love, H. M. Macponatp, and
H. C. Pruummer, Mr. W. E. Puummemr, Professor R. A. Sampson,
Sir A. Scuuster, Sir Naprrr SHaw, and Dr. G. T. Waker).
[Drawn up by the Chairman except where otherwise mentioned. |

General.

Once again the Committee has to deplore the loss of one of its eminent and
active members in Professor C. G. Knott, who has been associated with the work
from the time (1883) when he became a colleague of John Milne in Japan. He
was the author of a standard work on earthquakes, ‘ The Physics of Karthquake
Phenomena’ (Oxford University Press, 1908), which represents a series of
carefully thought-out lectures on the science; and more recently he undertook
a laborious investigation of the paths of earthquake rays within the earth,
including the times to different points (Proc. #.S.L., 1919, vol. xxxix., part II.,
No. 14). This important research was the starting point for the investigation
of depth of focus of earthquakes, mentioned in the last Report, and in this.

The clerical work at Oxford is still being carried on in the ‘Students’
Observatory,’ since the tenant of the house purchased by Dr. Crombie’s bene-
faction continued to declare himself unable to find other quarters. But the
situation may be modified by the recent death of this tenant. His widow is
still living in the house, and it is yet too early to say how soon it will be
available for Seismology.

International.

The relation of the Committee to the Seismological Section of the International
Union for Geodesy and Geophysics was mentioned in the last Report, and the
suggestion was made that at the end of 1917 the Bulletins of this Committee,
which have aimed at giving a summary of observations of the important earth-
quakes, should become the official publication of the Union. Accordingly, as
mentioned below, the title was altered with the year 1918 to that of ‘ The
International ‘Seismological Summary.’ But the subsidy received from the
Union (10,000 francs annually) is only sufficient for a fraction of the cost of
this publication, and at the next meeting of the Union in 1924 application
will be made for an increased grant. Meanwhile the extra expense is being met
partly by the annual grant of 100/. from the Caird Fund of the British Associa-
tion, and partly by a further and special grant of 200/. from the Royal Society.
These funds (and former grants of the same kind) have been applied to the
routine expenses of calculation and printing, and to the maintenance of the
modest instrumental equipment (first at Shide and recently at Oxford). Super-
vision has been provided voluntarily by the Chairman and Secretary of the
Committee ; but during the last year a very welcome addition to the resources
available for supervision has been made by the further generosity of Dr.
J. E. Crombie, who has provided a salary during the year for Mr. J. S. Hughes,
me? Br New College, Oxford, in order that he may give his whole time to

is work.

284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Instrumental.

‘he Milne-Shaw seismograph in the basement of the Clarendon Laboratory
at Oxford has worked well throughout the year. It is one of the early machines
of this pattern, and the scale is smaller than that on more recent machines.
The question of replacing it by one with a more open scale has been con-
sidered, but it is thought better at present to supply the improved pattern to
distant stations, from which there has been a succession of demands sufficient
to keep Mr. Shaw closely at work.

During the year he has dispatched machines to Ottawa (2nd component),
Hong Kong (2nd component), Strasbourg, Hyderabad, Perth (W.A.), and Stony-
hurst. Of these only that for Perth is the property of the B.A. Committee,
and represents a loan (again owing to the generosity of Dr. J. E. Crombie) ; the
others are all purchases. But they are mentioned here to show the distribution
of machines of the type which is essentially the product of this Committee ;
for Mr. Shaw began his experiments at the request of John Milne.

It was mentioned in the last Report that a machine had been taken
to Christmas Island by the eclipse observers from the Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. An accident to the time-clock on the voyage led to considerable
delay in setting up the instrument, which was only erected just before the
observers left, after the eclipse, for home. It was expected that records would
have been received before this, but nothing has yet come, and Mr. Jones is
kindly making inquiries into the matter.

Mr. Claxton has kindly sent to Oxford for examination most of the Hong Kong
films which contain earthquake records, and they are naturally of great interest to
us as showing the effects of disturbance at distances so much smaller than those to
which we are accustomed. The record for March 24 last is specially noteworthy.
The earthquake was very destructive in a region (32° N. 102° E.) not far from
the destructive earthquake of December 16, 1920 (35°.5 N. 105°.5 E.).

Bulletins and Tables.

The Bulletins to the end of the year 1917 have been printed and distributed.
The title of the publication was then changed, as above mentioned, to ‘ The
International Seismological Summary,’ the first number of which contains the
results from January to March, 1918; the next number, April to June, 1918, is
passed for press; July to November, 1918, is ready in manuscript, though some
checking of the later months is still required. The work steadily increases
owing to the communication of results from new stations, and the receipt of
arrears from older ones.

The Tables for P and S have been expanded to give results for every tenth
of a degree, and will be distributed with the next number of the Summary.
This expansion has been delayed in the hope of first obtaining corrections of the
tables, but it becomes clear that this may take some time owing to the compli-
cation introduced by consideration of focal depth, and in any case the present
tables will be applicable to a great deal of work already in print.

Depth of Focus.

It was mentioned in the last Report that the time of arrival of the earliest
disturbance at the opposite side of the earth gives valuable indication of the
depth of focus. The number of instances then available was small, but several
more have been found during the past year, and successfully treated by the
provisional formule then given. As they are fully dealt with in the Bulletins
and Summaries there is no need to reproduce them here, but new light has been
thrown on the possibilities by a paper by the late Prince Galitzin, dated 1919
but only recently received from Petrograd. From a study of the angles of
emergence he was led to infer three critical surfaces at depths 106, 232, and 492
kilometres below the earth’s surface: or 0.017, 0.036, 0.077 in terms of the
earth’s radius. ‘This work is quite independent of the investigation of focal

a a a i 8 i

ae o> eae, ee ee

;
;

——— ee, ae

ew =

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 285

depth, but the results provisionally obtained for focal depth do collect them-
selves roughly into three groups, which may possibly refer to foci at these
critical surfaces; at any rate the intervals between the groups correspond to
the intervals between the surfaces. The information about focal depth was
entirely relative, and we had no means of judging the absolute focal depth. If,
however, this identification is confirmed the missing constant is supplied.

In a note to this effect (Geop. Sup. to Mon. Not. R.A.S., Jan. 1923) the times
of arrival of [P] at the anticentre from foci actually on these surfaces are
found to differ from the adopted tables by

Group : ; F m3 II. rior
Depth : : of OOS —0°036 —0°077
Diff. from normal - +0°019 0°000 —0°041
Time for [P] : - +14s. —3s. —39s.
To Group I. we may assign the following :—
dex «he © ° s.
1916 Oct. 38 i 14°0S 74°5 W [P] =+16
TOG) Oct.—20 «17 180 S 173°0 W =+16
1917 June 13 6 30°2S 1777 W =+15
oy ae May, 1 4,18 29°28 177°0 W =+13

In the Jast case the solution printed in the Bulletin is probably in error,
as is seen by detailed comparison with June 13, 1917, probably from the same
focus : and a corrected solution will be given, subtracting 25s. from the adopted
T,. To this group we may provisionally assign also

1914 June 26 4 13°08 166°8 E [P]=+8
Lot6 van, 1. 13 5°5 154°0 E (P]=+7

To Group II. we assign the great majority of -earthquakes. Several cases
where [P] can be well determined are collected in the paper in vol. i. No. 1, of
the Geop. Sup.; its values are as follows :—

+3s., —1s., —4s., —4s., —5s., —7s., —9s., —9s., —12s. (—17s.),
but these cases have not been yet fully revised.

To Group III. we assign the following :—

d. h. c S Ss.
1913 Noyv.10 21 18'0S 170°0 E [PP] =—26
1914 . Feb. 26 4 1608S 61°0 W —42
1915 Jan. 5 14 16°5S 168°5 EB —27
1916 June 2l 21 1708S 57°0 W —48
1916 Sept. 3 ¥f TOS 1550 E —28
1917 April 21 0 37° 2 Ni 704 EK —26
1918 Feb. 7 5 65N 127°0 B& ?
1918 April10 2 440 N 131°0 E —57
1918 May 22 6 1708 1775 W —42
1918 May 25 19 31°08 91°0 W —15?

It is admitted that at the present stage there is too much scattering within
the group and too much overlap between groups; but a great deal of the
material is still rough, and we may be content to await further developments.
It will be seen that there is some appearance of local restriction in the groups.
Thus the epicentres of Group I. are all south and west. But this may be an
accident due to the distribution of observing stations. No case has been
included at this stage unless there is a good determination of T, from stations
near the epicentre and also of [P} from stations near the anticentre, and one or
other of these may fail for want of observing stations (or of observations from
them) in the appropriate neighbourhood. Thus the earthquake of 1918 January
30d. 21h. at 47°.5 N. 129°.0 E. has some large residuals which suggest an abnormal

_ focal depth, but the South American stations give us no information about [P],

unless we accept a single observation at La Paz iP=+18m. 6s. as an observation
of [P] with residual [—104s.], which is far too large to help us. It seems more
likely that the observation refers to the P wave, with residual +31s. from
adopted tables as printed.

286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Periodicity.

A periodicity near 21m. was mentioned in the last Report. It was detected
in the Jamaica earthquakes tabulated by Maxwell Hall (Geop. Sup. M. N.,
vol. i. No. 2), and the period assigned as 21.001451m. But this led to the
examination of a long series of Italian earthquakes (kindly lent by Mr. R. D.
Oldham for the purpose), which very soon indicated a correction of one whole
period in ten years. The discussion of the Italian series is not yet completed,
but the Jamaica series was revised (Geop. Sup. M. N., vol. i. No. 3), for the
new period 0,014584282d. or 21.001366m., which was found to suit them better.
But there were fluctuations of six months’ period and of four years’ period in
the position of maximum, the former with a range of 7.8m. (3.9m. on either
side of the mean position), the latter with an even greater range of 14.0m.
(7.0 on either side). A further fluctuation of fifteen months’ period was
detected after the paper had been sent to press, but is discussed in a supple-
mentary note to the paper. This fifteen months’ period had already been
detected in ‘ Earthquake Phenomena’ (see the B.A. Report for 1912), and its
elimination from the Jamaica series had the satisfactory result of removing a
double maximum which previously affected the mean curve.

We thus have three new periodicities in addition to the main one of 21m. :
.viz. 4 years. 15 months, and 6 months. The 15 month (or 104/7 months more
accurately) has independent support as above stated, though as yet we have
no hint of its origin. The 6-month period, if real, is doubtless connected with
the year. There remains the 4-year period which stood unsupported. But it
was noticed that it affected the general frequency of Jamaica earthquakes
(apart from its effect on the 21m. period); and also that of the Italian earth-
quakes. An examination was made of the Chinese and Japanese long series
and of other shorter series, and they were all found to be affected. The results
are given in a paper now in the press (Geop. Sup. M. N., vol. i. No. 4).
When the paper was read it had been inferred that the maximum travelled
round the earth from east to west in 8 years (a double cycle, indicating a double
polarity), but on checking the proof a serious error was detected in the Japanese
reduction which rendered this view no longer tenable. It was found, however,
that there was a travel in latitude from the Equator to the North Pole in the
N. Hemisphere. What happens in the §. Hemisphere is donbtful, as we have
only the single case of New Zealand to give information. But for what it is
worth it indicates that the sweep is in the same direction (S. Pole to N. Pole).

But for the further elucidation of these matters more material, and more
accurate material, is required: and it would appear that our best line of advance
at present is to continue the identification of evicentres and times for as many
earthquakes as nossible. Hence this work of identification has been continually
expanded (in the ‘ Bulletins’ for 1917 and their successors the ‘ Summaries’
for 1918) in spite of the consequent delay in catching up arrears.

The General Propagation of Earthquake Waves.

The announcement of the 21m. periodicity in the last Report had the incidental
consequence of leading Dr. Jeans to undertake a new investigation of the whole
auestion of earthquake wave propagation, and in a paper contributed to the
Roval Society (Proc. R. S., A, vol. 102. 1923, n. 554) he points ont that in
addition to the Rayleigh waves denoted by L. which travel with velocity 0.92
(w/o), there are two whole series of surface waves of which the terminal
members travel with velocities of VW(u/o) and W[(A+2u)/o]. Taking velocities
sugeested bv the Oppav explosion. these waves would travel round the earth
in 126m. and 222m., and Dr. Jeans suggests that returns of these waves to the
epicentre (or perhaps the anticentre) may act as triggers for new earthauakes.
‘Since this revort was sent to press a number of cases favourable to this view
have heen noticed.] Independently of this possibility (which chiefly concerns
periodicities) the paper must be of great value for the interpretation of seismo-
crams, though no opportunity for testing it in this connection has yet been
found.

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 287

iculation of Mathematical Tables.—feport of Committee
(Professor J. W. Nicuouson, Chairman; Dr. J. R. Atrey, Secre-
tary; Mr. T. W. Cuaunpy, Professor L. N. G. Fron, Colonel
Hrertsuey, Professor E. W Hosson, Mr. G. Kennepy, and
Professors A. Lopasr, A. E. H. Love, H. M. Macponatp, G. N.
Watson, and A. G. WEBSTER).

In the Report for 1922 reference was made to mathematical tables calculated for the
_ Association without the assistance of grant from the Committee. The publication of
these tables was deferred ; the Report for the present year includes in Part I. the
tables of sin 9 and cos 0 for 0 in circular measure from 1 to 100 radians, supplementing
: those computed by Dr. Doodson in the 1916 Report, viz. sin 0 and cos 0 to fifteen

places of decimals for 9 = 0 to 10 by intervals of 0-1 radian.
Tables of Bessel and Neumann functions, where the order and argument are equal
_ or differ by unity, have been calculated to six places of decimals and published in the
Report for 1916, the order and argument having integer values only. In Part II.
will be found tables of these and other functions, the integrals of Schliifli and the
_ Lommel-Weber functions, where the order and argument are not restricted in value,
but contain both integral and fractional values, the order of the functions ranging
from 0 to 10 by intervals of 0-25. The work of calculation, especially that of the
_ preliminary tables required for Part II. of the Report, has been much relieved by the
use of an arithmometer kindly lent to the Secretary.
Recently, Prof. A. E. Kennelly has placed at the disposal of the Committee tables—
_ to six places of decimals—of Bessel functions for a complex variable. These functions
are equivalent to the classical ber, bei, ber’ and bei’ functions of Kelvin, but are more
} convenient to use in electrical engineering problems. On account of their practical
importance, the Committee feel justified in undertaking their publication in Part ITT.
_ of this Report.
The other functions referred to in last year’s Report, Bessel-Clifford functions
-C,(#) and C(x) and Lommel-Weber functions Q,(%) and Q(x), and further tables of
the sine and cosine functions are reserved for later publication.

Part I.
Sines and Cosines (9 in radians).

The values of the sine and cosine of unit angle (radian) have been calculated* to
105 places of decimals by Bretschneider. Using only 30 places, the sines and cosines
of the following angles (radians) were found in succession, 5, 10, 50, 100, the last
calculation being correct to 25 places of decimals. To obtain the values of these
functions for intermediate angles, e.g. 20, 30, 40, etc., it was found convenient to
construct a table of the first hundred multiples of sin 10 and cos 10 to facilitate the
calculation of the products when sin 10 or cos 10 is a factor. In a similar way, by
employing a table of multiples of sin 1 and cos 1, the remaining values of sin 0 and cos 0
were obtained. Hach result was checked by those already computed, sin 54 by sin 52,
and so on.

A further check was made by a direct calculation of sin 7] and cos 71.
Thus 71 (radians) = 22-6x+ 9, where
; 6 = 0-00000 60288 70672 81074 42595.
Hence sin § = 0:00000 60288 70672 77422 20829
and 1— cos § = 0:00000 00000 18173 64079 46837.
Also sin 71 = sin 22-67% . cos 6+ cos 22-6x . sin 0
P = cos 18° . cos —sin 18° . sin 9
= + 0:95105 46532 54374 63665 6570
cos 71 = cos 22:6 . cos 8 —sin 22-6r . sin 0
= —sin 18°. cos 0 —cos 18°. sin 0
= —0-30902 27281 66070 70291 7494
verifying the values in this example, and indirectly the whole table, to 24 places of
decimals. Vifteen places only are given in continuation of Dr. Doodson’s table.

* C. A. Bretschneider, Archiv der Math. u. Phys., vol. 3, 1843, pp. 28-34.
1923 x

288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Sines and Cosines of Angles in Circular Measure.

0 Sin 6 | Cos 8
1 +0°84147 09848 07897 | +0-54030 23058 68140
2 +0-90929 74268 25682 —0:41614 68365 47142
3 +0-14112 00080 59867 —0-98999 24966 00445
4 —0:-75680 24953 07928 —0-65364 36208 63612
5 —0°95892 42746 63138 +0:28366 21854 63226
6 —0-27941 54981 98926 +0:96017 02866 50366
i +0°65698 65987 18789 +0:75390 22543 43305
8 +0:98935 82466 23382 —0:14550 00338 08614
9 +0-:41211 84852 41757 | —0'91113 02618 84677
10 —0°54402 11108 89370 —0:°83907 15290 76452
TY —0:99999 02065 50703 } +0-00442 56979 88051
Tah | —0-53657 29180 00435 | +0°84385 39587 32492
13 +0-42016 70368 26641 +0:90744 67814 50196
Vas") +0:99060 73556 94870 +0-13673 72182 07834
15 +0-65028 78401 57117 —0-75968 79128 58821
le || —0:-28790 33166 65065 —0:95765 94803 23385
17 —0°96139 74918 79557 —0:27516 33380 51597
1a —0-75098 72467 71676 -+0-66031 67082 44080
1o=s +0-14987 72096 62952 +0:98870 46181 86669
Pekioon™ ny +0°91294 52507 27628 +0-40808 20618 13392
2 +0:83665 56385 36056 —0:54772 92602 24268
we —0:00885 13092 90404 —0-99996 08263 94637
23 —0°84622 04041 75171 —0-53283 30203 33398
24 —0:90557 83620 06624 +0-42417 90073 36997
25 —0°13235 17500 97773 +0:99120 28118 63474
26 +0:°76255 84504 79603 +0-64691 93223 28640
27 +0-95637 59284 04503 —0-29213 88087 33836
28 +0:27090 57883 07869 —0-96260 58663 13567
29 —0:°66363 38842 12968 —0:74805 75296 89000
30 —Q:98803 16240 92862 | +0:15425 14498 87584
31 —0:40403 76453 23065 +0-91474 23578 04531 %
32 +0:55142 66812 41691 +0:°83422 33605 06510
33 +0°99991 18601 07267 —0:01327 67472 23059
34 +0:52908 26861 20024 —0-84857 02747 84605
35 —0:42818 26694 96151 —0-90369 22050 91507
36 —0-99177 88534 43116 | —0-12796 36896 27405 ’
37 —0:64353 81333 56999 +0:76541 40519 45343 :
38 +0:29636 85787 09385 +0:95507 36440 47295
39 +0:96379 53862 84088 +0:26664 29323 59937
40 +0:74511 31604 79349 —0:-66693 80616 52262
41 —0:15862 26688 04709 —0:98733 92775 23826
42 —0°91652 15479 15634 —0:39998 53149 88351
43 —0-83177 47426 28598 +0:55511 33015 20626
| 44 +0:01770 19251 05414 +0-99984 33086 47691
45 +0-85090 35245 34118 +0°52532 19888 17730
46 --0:90178 83476 48809 —Q:43217 79448 84778
47 +0°12357 31227 45224 —0:99233 54691 50929
48 —0-76825 46613 23667 | —0:64014 43394 69200
49 . —0:95375 26527 59472 --0-30059 25437 43637

50. s| —0-26237 48537 03929 +0°96496 60284 92113

CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES

Sines and Cosines of Angles in Circular Measure.

+-0-67022
+-0-98662
+-0:39592
—0-55878
—0-99975
—0-52155
+-0:43616
+0-99827
-+0-63673
—0-30481
—0-96611
—()-73918
+0-16735
+0-92002
+-0-82682
—0-:02655
—0-85551
—0-89792
—0-11478
+-0-77389
+0-95105
+ 0-25382
—0-67677
—0-98514
—-0-38778
-+-0-56610
+-0-99952
+0-51397
—0-44411
—0-99388
—0-62988
+0-31322
+0-96836
+0-73319
—0-17607
—0-92345
—0 82181
+0:03539
+0°86006
+ 0°89399
+ 0-10598
—0:77946
—0-94828
—0-24525
+0-68326
+0-98358
+0-37960
—0-57338
—0-99920
—0-50636

77454
77390
18719
68341
56411

86912
47825
84537
39138
02217
08393
49223
02807
96791
90103
23967
75322
89291
83187
57889
54375
62036
87308
68247
09430
98180
80731
87535
07508
23375
74454
33085
00185
73292
48587
04060
30823
33661
12453
00558
51157
15805
69947
67654
36121
34345
27522
90423
86354
09759

Cos 0

+0-°74215
—0-16299
—0-91828
—0-82930
+0-02212
+-0-85322
+-0-89986
-++0-11918
—0-25810
—0-95241
—0-25810
-+-0-67350
+0-98589
+0:39185
—0-56245
—0-99964
—0-51776
+0-44014
+0-99339
+0-63331
—0°30902
—0-96725
—0-73619
+0-17171
+-0:92175
-+ 0-82433
—0-03097
—0-85780
—0-89597
—0-11038
+0-77668
+0:94967
+-0°24954
—0-68002
-—0-98437
—0-38369
+0-56975
+0-99937
+0:51017
—0-44807
—0-99436
—0-62644
+0-31742
+0-96945
-+-0-73017
—0-18043
—0-92514
—-0-81928
+0-03982
+0-86231

41968
07807
27862
98328
67562
01077
68269
01354
16359
29804
16359
71623
65815
72304
38512
74559
97997
30224
03797
92030
27281
05882
27182
73418
12697
13311
50317
30932
09467
72438
59820
76978
01179
34955
66433
84449
03342
32836
70449
36161
74609
44479
87015
93666
35609
04492
75365
82452
08803
88722

13783
95705
12119
63150
61956
22584
69194.
48819
38267
15156
38267
23586
82550
29550
38172
66350
89505
96041
22272
86300
66071
73882
27316
30778
24749
07558
31216
44988
90963
39048
21631
82543
73338
87339
94042
49742
65312
95125
41669
29170
28202
10339
19702
69988
94820
91084
96414
91459
93139
87684

290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Part II.

Bessel and other related functions of equal order and argument.

(A). Tables of the Bessel function J,,(x) and the Neumann functions G,,(z) and Y,(z),
where the order and argument are equal or differ by unity, have been published in
the 1916 Report, the values of n and x increasing by unit intervals in the earlier part
of the tables. There does not appear to be any record of the computation of these
functions for fractional values of the order and argument. The values of the argument
of the Bessel functions J,(x), Jy_;(7) and the Neumann functions Ny(2) and Ny_,(x),
tabulated below, range from 0 to 10 by intervals of 0-25, the order of the functions
being equal to the argument or less by unity.

For small values of the argument, the functions J1(2) and J43(x) were calcu-
lated from the ascending series, J}(x) and J—3(x) together, the terms of these series
being simply related.

Oe 2 ig a 3). a } ‘
SP (1/2)! (2 5 ome igeoae ttt! )
4)\2,
J 3(4)— SEN. (1 — x? +- m0. Rati ate den aie ) etc.
ane): BIN 2:5 2:3-5-9
4/\2
5 ;
The use of the recurrence formula, Jy+,(%) = —JSy(a) —Jy_,(z). gave the values

entered in the following table.
The Neumann functions were easily obtained from the relations
J_y(z) = Jy(x) . cos vz — Ny(x) . sin vz
N_y(«) = Jy(z) . sinva + Ny(x) . cos vz.

For large values of the order and argument, the functions were directly calculated
from the asymptotic series, viz. :

Iwo) = seal) T (3) aaa) (3) atmos) TG) + |

with similar series for Jy_,(v), Ny(v) and Ny_,(v). The results were checked by
2
Nyy . Jy —Ny . Jya= =n

ae r G ar t
| 4y | Jy(v) Jy_a(v) | = —Ny(v) —Ny_(v)
0 | — 1-000000 0-000000 | co ott |
1 | 0647832 1-230518 | 1252815 ; —1-551122
2 0540974 =| = 0990245: || 0990245 —0-540974
3 0480568 0855013 || —«0-861905 ; —0-232820 :
4 0-440051 0-765198 ||: 0*781213 —0-088257
ag 0-410288 : 0-699974: | 0724086 «=| —0-006067
| 6 0387142 | 0649838 | ——-0680560 0-046083,
| 7 | 0368420 | 0-609742 0644714 : 0-081608
8 | 0-352834 0-576525 0617408 0-107032 :
9 | 0-339572 : 0-548919 0:593338 : 0-125900
10 0-328091 0:525080 0572630 : 0-140293 :
| 1 0-318012 ; 0-504345 0:554541 0-151510
12 0-309063 0-486091 0-538541 : 0-160400 :
13 0-301038 0-469858 : 0-524243 0-167544
14 0-293783 : 0-455298 : 0-511351 : 0-173345 :
15 0-287179 0-442140 | 0499642 0-178099 :
16 0281129 0-430171 | 0488937 0-182022
17 | 0-275557 | 0-419222: || + —-0-479094: 0-185276
18 0-270401: = «0-409155. =|, ~S(0-470000 0-187986
19 0-265610 | 0:399856: | 0-461559: | 0-190249:
20 | 0-261141 0391232 |S s«0-453695 = s«é- 192142:

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 291

4y Jy(v) Jyi(v) | Ny(v) —Nya(v) |
21 0-256957 0-383205 0-446340 : 0-193725
22 0-253028 : 0-375708 0-439441 0-195047
23 0-249329 0-368684 ; 0-432949 : 0-196148
24 0-245837 0-362087 0-426825: | —-0-197061
25 0-242532 0-355873 : 0-421034 : 0-197812 :
26 0-239398 0-350007 : 0-415545 : 0-198425
27 0-236419: | 0:344458 | + 0-410332 0-198918
28 0-233584 | 0:339197 | 0-405371 0-199307
29 0-230879 0-334199 ; 0-400641 : 0-199605
30 0-228295 : 0-329445 0-396125 : 0-199824 :
31 0-225823 : 0-324914 0-391806 : 0-199974 :
32 0-223455 0-320589 0:387670 0-200064
33 0-221183 0-316455 0:383703 0-200100
34 0-219000 : 0-312498 | 0:379893 0-200089
85 0-216901 : 0-308706 | 0-376231 0-200036
36 0-214881 | 0305067 | 0:372705: | 0-199947
a 0-212933 0-301571 : 0-369309 0-199825
38 0-211054 | 0-298210 | 0366033 0-199674
39 0-209239: | 0-294974 | 0-362870 0-199498
40 0-207486 0-291856 | 0359814 0-199299

(B). When the order of Jy(«) is not an integer, the function can be represented by

=
i i ~ —xsinh@ —vé
Jy (2) == | cos (vO — x sin 6)d0 — co 2a eaere ata)
J 0

Tw Jog

as shown by Schilifli.
Tables of the second integral, F(z) for both positive and negative values of v
have been computed, for small values of the argument, from the ascending series, viz.

Fy(z) = Sey(z) + V8) 7 4 FT yim,

y sinvr
h ; epee aa eT oP ats 4)
where Sp-y(«) ae Y) (2— v2)(32— v?) ar (12 — v2)(32— v2)(52— v2)
x xf

PA 2 we) * Ee

and for large ae of the argument, where x = y + «, from the asymptotic series,

a= sl) G)-a(Z)T (g)taG)-s(e) 1 G)+ --]

the functions o, . having the following values :

and 8, <tr)

o,=«
poe ce ae
a re
taal

6 15

2
a!

a= * — =n, etc
"94 ~24° 280°

8 28, 24s,
oe Ts @)=[ 55+ Gn)? * x\8 tes ‘ene! * |

~ ‘The Lommel-Weber Q function and its application to the problem of electric
Waves on a thin anchor ring.’ Proc. Roy. Soc. A., vol. 94, 1918, pp. 313-4.

292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
where s,;=Kk
[come | |
are
kK we
io °3
Ko p> ak

$,= ——_—+ =. ete.
= 9494 ' 79

4y Fy(v) Fav) | Fw) F_y,a(y)
0 60 1000000 co co
1 2-299108 0-869189 1-323320 : 4-725067
2 1-889991 : 0-817059: =| 0817059 : 1-889991 ;
3 | 1-677630: 0-781670 | 0590469 | 1-101069
4 | 1-548758 | 0-754610 | 0-451242 | 0754610
5 1-437873 : 0-732641 | 0377600 0-566189:;
6 1-359567 | 0-714131: =| — 0-319299 | 0449854
7 1292436 | 0-693696 | 0-285219: | 0871698: — |
8 1:243478 0-684060 | 0-243478 0-315940
9 , 1-198512 | 0-671492: —||_——(0-217500 | 0-274327 :
10 | ‘1159994 0-660545 | 0-196682 : 0-242332
11 1125211 0-649803: | 0-179120: =| 0216627:
12 | 1094702 | ° 0640316: || 0-164557: =| —-0-195872
13. | 1.067289 ; 0-631550 | 0-152172 0-178688
| 14 | = 1-042462; 0-623419 | 0-141457 0-164277 :
yd 1-019839 : 0-615799 | 0-132221: | 0+151932
| 16 | 0-999076 0-608678 | 0-124076 0-141322
17 0-979924 : 0601976: | ~——-0-116872 : 0-132082 :
18 0-962179 0-595652: || —0-110455 0-123968 :
19 0-945664 : 0-589666: | 0104703 : 0-116787
20 0-930242 0-583986: | — 0-099518 0-110386 :
21 0-915788 0:578584 | 0-094820 : 0-104647 ;
22 0-902200 : 0:573434 | 0090545 0-099472
23 0-889393 : 0-568548 | 0-086637 0-094782 :
24 0-877290 0-563808 0-083051 : 0-090513 |
25 | —0-865826 0-559296 0-079750 0-086610 :
26 | 0-854943: | 0-554965 : 0-076700 : 0-083029 :
hae 0-844593 | 0-550802 | 0073875 0:079731
| 28 | 0834730: | 0-546794 0-071250 | 0-076684
| 29 | 0825317 | 0-542930 : 0-068804: | 0073861
30 0-816317 : 0-539204 0-066521 0-071237 :
31 | 0807701 0:535604 0-064384 — 0-068793 :
32 | 0-799440: | 0-532121 0-062380 | 0066511 ;
33 0-791510 | 0528751 0-060496 : 0-064375 :
34 | 0783887 : 0-525486 0-058723 | 0:062372 ;
35.) 0776552 0-522320 0-057050: | — 0-060490
36 «0769486 0-519248 0-055471 0-058717 :
37 | 0762672 : 0-516264 ; 0-053976 0:057045:
38 0-756095 | 0:513364: | 0-052559: 0-055466 |
39 0-749741 0-510544: =, =: 0-051215: 0-053972 )
40 | 0-743596 | 0-507800 _ -0:049938 0:052555: |

(C). The Lommel-Weber Q function, defined by the integral
Bale fm) .:
Qy@) = =| _ in (vo — 2 sin 9) do,

when the order and argument are equal or differ by unity occurs in the problem of
the electro-magnetic waves on a thin anchor ring. In addition to the Royal Society

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 293

paper already cited, reference may be made to two papers by C. W. Oseen.} No method
of evaluating these functions is given, however.
The function has been calculated from the expression

Oy(z) = 1— SVE. (1 —8,.y) FESR - Sy

for small values of y and w; and from

Qy(e) = Ny(e) +

for large values.

2 (a e-* sinh (g? + cos vt. e*) dO

TJ Oo

By means of the recurrence formula,
Qwale) =™ - Ay(e) — Qvi@) + ye’
=aN41 - Vv vl TX

functions of higher or lower order may be found from the table below.

4y | QOy(y). | QOy_a(v). | 4y Qy(v). Oy -a(v).
| 0 0-000000 --+-0-636620 , 20 | —0-189267 : -+-0-028883 :
. 1 —0-223134 -+-0:764280 21 | —0-176178 +-0:013998
2 —0-388643 -+-0-801051 : 22 —0-152262 § —0-012517:
3 —0-460801 -+0-729461 || 23 —0-:130347 | —0-:036507
4 —0-438162 : +0-568656; || 24 —0-121139 : | —0:046406 :
5 —0°351335 : -+0:-366713 | 25 —0:127483 : —0-039277
| 6 —0-247796 : +0:181232 || 26 —0:143408 : —0-021774
7 —0-171114 -+-0-056955 | 27 —0-158117 : —0-005646 :
8 —0-144095 +0-010144 28 | —0-162347 : —0-000847 :
9 —0-162886 -+-0-026096 : | 29 —0-153421 : —0-:010160
10 —0-203545 : -+ 0-069837 | 30 —0-136283: | —0-028190:
11 —0-236690 : --0-104088 31 —0-120215 : —0-044970 :
12 —0-242467 ; +0:105767 |] o2 —0-113344 —0:051856
13 —0-218764 : -+-0-073703 33 —0-118141 —0-046283
14 —0-179525 +0-025095 34 —0-130374 —0-:032821 :
15 —0-145256 : —0-016280 : 35 —0:141887 : —0-020161 :
16 —0-131426 —0-033258 | 36 —0:145427; —0-015975
17 —0-140869 —0-023390 eco —0-138692 —0-022653 |
18 —0:163728 : +0-001615: | 38 —0-125360 : | —0-036265
19 —0:184111 : -+-0:023738 : 39 —0-112693 -—0:049134 :
20 —0-189267 : +0-028883 : 40 | —0-107224 : | —0-054390 :
Part III.

Bessel Functions of negative semi-imaginary argument.

Bessel functions of a negative semi-imaginary argument zV/ 1, Jo(z\ 45°)
and J, (2\45°), from <=0 to z=10, by intervals of 0-1; communicated by A. E.
Kennelly, Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; also
of their application to the determination of the alternating-current skin-effect im-
pedance ratio Z’/R, of straight uniform round copper wires, remote from other
active conductors, according to the formula

B’ _#\ 48° To @\ 45°)
2 Jy (@\45°)

i (a) Uber die Elektromagnetischen Schwingungen an diinnen Ringen.

(b) Uber das Elektromagnetische Spektrum eines diinnen Ringes.
Archiv. f. Matematik, Astronomi och Fysik—Vol. 9. Nos. 12 and 28 1913-4.

294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

where z=XV/ 4rypo and numeric /
Z’=linear impedance of the wire to alternating current, abohms-cm. /
R =linear resistance of the wire to continuous current, abohms/cm.

X =radius of wire, cm.

Wea

m™ =3-14159... 4
1

Y= apy of the wire, abmhos/cm., taken as 0-580 x 10™.

re) = =resistivity of the wire, abohm-cm.

yu. =magnetic permeability of the wire, taken as unity.
@ =2nxf=angular velocity of alternating current, radians/sec.
f =trequency of alternating current, cycles/sec.

X’=linear reactance of the wire to alternating current, abohm-cm.

Z_R’ € . x!
on * 1?

then the real term ad is taken as the skin-effect resistance ratio and the imaginary

term, 7. =~ is taken as the skin-effect reactance ratio.

R
Thus, for 2=3-0\ 45°, J,(3-0 \ 45°) =1-950192 796° . 51810

J,(3-0\ 45°) =1-°799908 /15° . 71317
and 1-318095-+7 0-950812=1-625244 735° . 80493

7! 3.0\a5° 1950192 96". 51810,

=1-318095+7 0-950812.

Yn this case, the wire would offer an apparent resistance 31-8095 per cent. in excess of
its continuous-current resistance. For the purposes of engineering practice, a much
lower arithmetical precision would ordinarily suffice.

The table was computed by Mr. P. L. Alger, in the electrical-engineering department
of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

References :

(1) Jahnke and Emde ‘ Funktionentafeln,’ Berlin, 1909, p. 147, and (2) ‘ Experi-
mental Researches on Skin Effect in Conductors,’ by A. E. Kennelly, F. A. Laws
and P. H. Pierce, Proc. Am. Inst. Elec. Engrs., September 16, 1915, p. 1795.

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

Q9 4 O° =Jo(z \ 45°)

ee ct ie
n

SHHDAIATK WYK SOHDAIGDAURwWNHHOSDHAIADAKRONHSOSDISARDHKHSCHAGHRAWNHOS

QU ED eS HS HH HH 09/09 G9 G9 G9 G9 09.09 G9'G9 BO RO BOND BOND BO BD BS BO et tt

1-000000
1-000002
1-000025
1-000126
1-000400
1-000976
1-002023
1-003746
1-006383
1-010208
1-015524
1-022663
1-031977
1-043832
1-058608
1-076683
1-098431
1-124210
1-154359
1-189195
1-229006
1-274054
1-324576
1:380788
1442891
1511077
1-585536
1-666461
1-754059
1-848554
1-950192
2-059250
2-176036
2-300894
2-434210
2-576414
2°727979
2-889430
3061341
3244342
3°439118
3646413
3867032
4-101845
4-351790
4-617878
4-901190
5:202885
5524210
5866494.
6-231163

Ser

From z= 0 to z= 5:0.

07-0000)
0°-14324
0-57295
1-28908
2-29142
357943
515199
7-00708
9-14144
11-55014
14-22621
17-16021
20-33996
23-75036
27-37335
31-18812
35°17157
39-29897
43-54474
47-88336
52-29034
56-74301
61-22116
65-70751
70-18793
7465141
79-08990
83-49801
87-87265
92-21259
96-51810
100-79055
105-03208
109-24535
113-43328
117-59889
121-74517
125-87499
129-99099
134-09558
138-19092
142-27889
146-36112
150-43897
15451357
15858586
162-65657
166-72627
170-79538
17486422
178-93300

[++

Q, £ 9,°=d, (2 \ 45°)

P1 20,
0-000000 —45°-00000
0-050000 —44°-92838
0:100000 |-+- 1) — 44-71352
0150003 |+ 7| — 44:35543
0-200013 — 43-85411
0-250041 | — 43-20960
0-300101 — 42-42198
0-350219 — 41:49137
0-400427 — 40-41797
0:450769 3] — 39-20210
0-501301 — 37-84423
0-552095 — 3634498
0-603235 — 3470522
0-654824 — 32-92605
0706982 — 31-00887
0-759849 — 28-95542
0:813585 — 26-76784
0-868370 — 24-44866
0°924407 — 22-00085
0-981924 — 19-42786
1:041167 — 16-73361
1-102410 — 13-92251
1165949 — 10-9994]
1-232102 — 7:96961
1-301211 — 4:83883
1373641 — 1-61311
1-449780 + 1:70124
1-530036 + 5-09768
1-614838 + 856957
1-704638 12-11027
1:799908 15-71317
1-901139 19-37183
2-008844. 23-08004
2-123559 26-83188
2:245840 30-62180
2-376269 34-44468
2°515453 38-29581
2-664026 42-17094
2-822653 46-06628
2-992031 49-97850
3-172896 53-90471
3-366022 57-84242
3°572227 61-78953
3-792378 65-74429
4:027394 69-70526
4-278251 7173-67127
4545990 77-64139
4-831719 81-61489
5-136619 8559122
5461949 89-56996
5-809059 93-55081

296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

From z=0 to z=5'0.

oaks Ese: fe: eZ Jo
MZ £°=Impedance Ratio=M (cos B+7 sin B)= 3 \45° J, |
| | | Resistance | | Reactance
Z M A, | ZB |, Ag | — Ratio. "| AGW Saati: A
| | | | MeosB Msin8 |
| |
1-000000 | 0°-00000 | 1-000000 0-000000
1-000002 | 0°-07162 | 1-000001 | 0-001250
1-000021 +31 0-28647 |— 17 1-:000009 |+15 0-005000 |—1
1:000105 +29 0:64451 |— 29 1:000042 |+-10) 0-011250 |—1
1-000333 32 1:14553 54 1:000133 14 0-019999 |—1l
1:000813 30 1-78903 86 1:000325 10) 0-031245 4
1-001685 26 2-57397 116 1-000675 13} 0°044985 4
1:003119 28 3-49845 154 1-001250 12} 0-061212 5
1:005311 73) 4-55941 193 1-002130 13} 0-079915 9

1008485 +16 5215225) ale 226

1-003407 7| 0-101078 7

1-012888 | +10 7-07044 253 1005186 (+10) 0-124676 | 12
1-018783 + 2 8°50519 269 1-:007579 6} 0-150677 | 13
1-026443 —4 10-04518 263 1010708 |+ 8 0-179037 | 15 |
1036143 | 19 11-67640 243 1:014701 (+ 1) 0-209699 | 16
1:048154 27 13-38221 191 1019694 |+ 1) 0242591 17
1-062728 37 1514354 |—121 1-025824 |— 4| 0-277625 | 21
1-080090 50 16-93941 |— 42 1033229 |— 6| 0-314696 | 17

1-100428 51 18-74763 |+ 54 1-:042043 |—12) 0-353678 | 18
1-123880 62 20-54559 + |+150 1052394 (—13) 0394428 | 21
1-:150533 | 59 22-31122 231 1-064398 19} 0-436785 | 13
1-180412 57 24-02395 290 1078158 24, 0-480567 | 13
1-213483 58 2566552 338 1-093758 24 0525579 | 11
1-249655 46 27-22057 357 1-111258 27| 0-571613 |—3
1-288779 37 28-67712 344 1-130694 31) 0-618450 0
1-330660 34 30-02676 323 1:152075 26) 0665868 |+5

1375066 17 31-26452 289 1-:175379 31} 0°713645 | 14
1-421731 —7 32-38866 239 1-:200558 24) 0-761563 | 15
1-470372 —4 3340033 190 1-227533 22} 0809418 | 18

1520699 | + 9 34-30307 141 1256201 21| 0857021 | 25
1572418 | +17 3510232 97 1-286437 11) 0-904201 | 29
1-625244 20 35-80493 | +53 1-318095 |—10} 0-950812 | 27
1-678909 25 36:41872 | +23 1-351018 |— 1) 0-996737 | 25
1-733165 30 36-95204 —ll 1385039 (+ 1) 1-:041885 | 31
1-787789 28 37-41347 —33 1-419990 |+ 5} 1-086194 | 23
1-842588 28 37-81148 d4 1-455704 13) 1-129627 | 23
1-897397 32 38°15421 58 1-492019 12} 1-172174 | 20
1-952079 25 38°44936 69 1-528786 14) 1-213847 | 15
2-006529 26 38:70405 69 1-565868 20) 1:254678 | 13
2-060667 19 3238-92471 69 1603142 15) 1-294714 |+5
2-114439 21 39-11708 68 1-640505 17; 1:334015 /|+8
2-167810 14 39-28621 64 1-677869 16} 1:372646 |+1
2-220766 13 39-43647 62 1-715163 14; 1-410680 0

CODING WONWHOOHDADUARWNHOCODIUAARWHHOCODIAMARWHHOOHAAUNKWHHO

COR Rb RR RR i O9 Oo GD DEDEDE WO IIIIVISISI IIIS Se

2-273307 9 39-57159 54 1-752332 16) 1-448191 |—3
2-325446 9 39-69468 46 1:789335 9} 1-485253 |—6
2:377205 | + 3 39-80831 45 1-826147 11} 1:521937 |—2
2428615 0 39-91459 36 1-862752 7| 1-558308 |—9
2:479710 | + 5 40-01518 33 1899145 7 1:594429 |—6
2530524 | — 3 40-11138 23 1-935328 4) 1-630354 |—6
2-581096 —1 40-20416 23 1:971310 |+ 2] 1:666131 /|—8 |
2-631462 —1 40-29426 —17 2:007104 (+ 6) 1-701802 |—5
2-681657 — 5} 40:38219 | —13 2:042725 |— 2) 1:737401 |—5

ON CALCULATION OF -MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

From z=5'l to z=10.

Pol 60, = Jy (2\45 ) ei 2 OP =4, (2\45 )

z Pv | A, £04 | A, Pi Ay £ 6,
5-1 6-619737 |+110 | 183°-00185 | —2 | 6:179388 {+109 | 97°-53356
5-2 7-033841 |+-120 | 187°-07083 —7 | 6:574474 |4+113 | 101°-51806
5:3 7-475210 123 | 191-13998 | —1 | 6-995964 123 | 105-50424
54 7-945699 133 | 195-20927 | —1 | 7-445618 | 133 109-49203
5:5 8-447286 144 | 199-27866 —2 | 7-925319 138 | 113-48141
5-6 8-982082 151 | 203-34810 | 0 | 8-437083 152 | 117-47237
5:7 9-552342 164 | 207-41752 +1 | 8-983064 160 | 121-46492
5-8 | 10-16047 17 | 211-48685 —l1 | 9:565568 173 | 125-45907
5-9| 10-80904 20 | 215-55603 +1 | 10-18706 17 | 129-45482
6:0} 11-50079 17 | 219-62499 +1 | 10-85018 20 | 133-45217
6-1| 12-23866 24 | 223-69367 2 | 11-55775 20 | 1387-45111
6-2 | 13-02576 21 | 227-76202 —2 |, 1231279 24 | 141-45164
6:3 13-86544 25 | 231-83001 +3 | 13-11852 23 | 145-45375
6:4| 14-76126 27 | 235-89759 +1 | 13-97840 25 | 149-45741
6:5 | 15°71703 27 | 239-96474 —l | 14-89612 28 | 153-46259
6:6 | 16-°73683 29 | 244-03145 +1 | 15:87562 29 | 157-46925
6-7 | 17-82501 32 | 248-09770 +3 | 1692112 31 | 161-47736
6-8 | 18-98621 35 | 252-16348 —3 | 18-03713 35 | 165-48688
6:9 | 20-:22539 37 | 256-22881 +2 | 19-22847 33 | 169-49775
7-:0| 21-54786 37 | 260-29368 +1 | 20-50031 40 | 173-50992
7-1| 22-95930 43 | 264:35810 —l1 | 21-85815 40 | 177-52335
7-2| 24-46576 44 | 268-42209 +1 | 23:30789 43 | 181-53799
7-3| 26:07372 49 | 272-48566 —l | 24-85583 48 | 185-55379
7-4| 27-79010 50 | 276-54883 +1 | 26-50870 49 | 189-57068
7-5 | 29-62231 55 | 280-61161 0 | 28-27371 53 | 193-58862
7-6 | 31-57826 57 | 284-67402 0 | 30-15856 56 | 197-60756
7-7| 33-66641 65 | 288-73608 | —1 | 32:17148 62 | 201-62746
7-8 | 35:89579 65 | 292-79781 +1 | 3432126 68 | 205-64826
7-9| 38:27608 73 | 296-85922 —l | 36-61731 65 | 209-66991
8-0} 40-81761 75 | 300-92033 +2 | 39-06972 75 | 213-69238
8-1} 43-53144 81 | 304-98115 —2 | 41-68923 81 | 217-71562
8-2| 46-42938 89 | 309:04171 —l | 4448733 85 | 221-73958
83} 49-52405 95 | 313-10202 +1 | 47-47632 90 | 225-76424
8-4| 52-82896 97 | 317-16208 2 | 50-66935 97 | 229-78955
8:5 | 56-35857 108 | 321-22190 —2 | 5408047 104 | 233-81547
8-6| 60-12831 115 | 325-28151 —2 | 57:72470 110 | 237-84197
8-7 | 64-15469 123 | 329-34092 +3 | 61-61810 119 | 241-86901
8-8 | 68-45537 131 | 333-40012 —1 | 65°77783 124 | 245-89656
8-9 | 73-04924 137 | 337-45913 —l | 70°22224 135 | 249-92460
9-0 | 77-95650 152 | 341-51796 +1 | 7497092 143 | 253-95310
9-1| 83-19872 163 | 345-57661 +1 | 80:04481 153 | 257-98203
9-2) 88-79899 169 | 349-63509 —3 | 85-46628 160 | 262-01138
9:3 | 94-78203 184 | 353-69342 +1 | 91-25923 176 | 266-04115
9-4 | 101-17425 195 | 357-75159 | +2 | 97-44916 181 | 270-07133
9-5 | 108-00390 212 | 361-80960 —2 | 104-06333 197 | 274-10194
9-6 | 115-30118 224 | 365-86747 | 0 | 111-13081 206 | 278-13300

| 9-7 |123-09841 (+240 | 369-92520 -+1 |118-68264 222 | 282-16455
|} 9-8/131-43015 /|+260 | 373-98279 —l |126-75192 | 232 | 286-19665
9-9 | 140-33336 | 378-04025 | 135:37397 290-22939
10-0 | 149-84760 382:09758 144-58643 294-26289

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

From

> —

5*1 to z=10.

MZ 8-=Impedance Ratio=M(cosf& +7 sin B) = 5 Nos
Fa 1

|
|
}
|

LSLOOGGOGOOGOSSHHHHHHHOHMHAIIIIIAIIIAIRVPMMREHRMOMOUNAAATAAAA
SHBAANEWWKHSCOBABDUARWNHHKOCOHDUIAREWHHOOSHDUAMRONHOOHUGAR MODE

—

2°731715
2-781665
2°831534
2:881345
2-931117
2-980868
3:030612
3-080358
3:130115
3-179889
3-229684
3:279504
3°329348
3379215
3°429105
3-479018
3528951
3°578902
3628868
3°678847
3728838
3°778837
3°828843
3°878854
3928868
3:978883
4-028899
4-078917
4-128935
4-178951
4-228966
4-278981
4-328996
4-379011
4.429028
4-479049
4-529074
4-579106
4-629148
4-679204
4-729278
4-779374
4-829500
4-879662
4-929868
4-980127
5030451
5-080852
5131342
5181939

40°-46829
40°-55277
40-63574
40°77124
40-79725
40-87572
40-95259
41:02778
41-10122
41-17283
41-24256
41-31038
41-37626
41-44018
41-50216
41-56220
41-62033
41-67660
41-73106
41-78375
41-83474
41-88409
41-93187
41-97815
42-02299
42-06646
42-10863
42-14955
42-18930
42-22795
42-26554
42-30212
42-33777
42°37253
42-40644
42-43954
42-47191
42-50356
42-53453
42-56486
42-59458
42-62371
42-65226
42-68025
42-70766
42:73447
42-76065
42-78614
42-81086
42-83470

Resistance

Ratio.
M cos B

Reactance
Ratio.
M sin B

| |
_
a0

Ap | anal ee [t esl

++ | ++

CNW ORE EHH ORE OCORWE WH WN OH HOHE WHONWNREONWHEENHWO

Dar

ee geal fe

2-078194
2113530
2-148753
2-183881
2-218933
2253926
2-288876
2-323795
2-358696
2-393589
2-428482
2-463382
2-498293
2533218
2-568162
2-603126
2-638111
2-673117
2-708143
2743188
2-778252
2-813333
2-848430
2-883541
2-918663
2-953796
2-988939
3-024092
3-059252
3-094416
3-129586
3-164761
3-199939
3-235120
3-270304
3-305492
3-340683
3-375879
3-411080
3-446290
3:481510
3-516744
3-551997
3-587275
3-622585
3:657936
3693339
3-728808
3°764359
3-800011

1-772957
1808494
1-844030
1-879577
1-915146
1-950742
1-:986367
2-022023
2-057710
2093425
2:129164
2:164924 .
2-200702
2:236492
2-272290
2-308093
2-343899
2-379703
2415502
2-451294
2-487077
2:522849
2-558610
2-594360
2-630097
2-665820
2-701531
2-737231
2°772920
2-808598
2-844266
2-879926
2-915579
2-951227
2-986872
3°022516
3:058161
3093809
3°129464
3°165128
3-200805
3°236499
3272214
3°307954
3°343722
3°379523
3415361
3°451239
3°487159
3-523125

ON TIDES. 299

Tides.— Report of Committee to assist work on the Tides (Professor
H. Lamp, Chairman; Dr. A. T. Doopson, Secretary ; Col. Sir C. F.
Cuiosze, Dr. P. H. Cowetu, Sir H. Darwin, Dr. G. H. Fow.er,
Admiral F. C. Learmonts, Professor J. Proupman, Major G. I.
Taytor. Professor D’Arcy W. THompson, Sir J. J. THomson,
Professor H. H. Turner). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

1. The process of reduction of the tide-gauge records at Newlyn has not been
earried much further than is indicated in the Report for 1921, except that ‘ residues ’
from a complete year’s record are now available. Further analyses have been carried
out in the manner indicated in 1921 and revised harmonic constants for the usual
Darwinian constituents are given later in §6. The residual semi-diurnal oscillations
are not yet reduced to law and direct analyses of these have not been attempted,

_ but two hypotheses concerning them have been considered. Further consideration
] has been given to the shallow water problem, and some conclusions have been
formulated in §5.

Friction.

. The first hypothesis concerning the residue of unknown origin was suggested
by “Scat Proudman, and he contributes an appendix dealing with the effects of
friction on tidal motion. The effect of friction is definitely to introduce harmonic
constituents which are not in the original tidal motion or among the ordinary ‘ shallow
water constituents.’ ‘ Application of the law suggested by him has been made to the
Newlyn tides, but so far without much result, the reason for which is probably the
difficulty of isolating this frictional effect from other and larger perturbations.
Powerful support for such a hypothesis, however, has been obtained from a study of
the tides at St. John, N.B., in the Bay of Fundy. Attention was called to the
relevant features of these by Dr. Bell Dawson, Superintendent of the Canadian Survey
of Tides and Currents.

The M, Constituent at St. John, N.B.

3. The results of analyses for M, for over nineteen years were available, and these
showed that the amplitude (R) of the constituent varied in a period of nineteen years
from 9-45 ft. to 9-99 ft. Darwin’s factor f should give H=R'f as the amplitude of the
_ principal term of this constituent and H should be constant from year to year. It
was found, however, that H varied in a period of nineteen years from 9-54 ft. to
10-07 ft. so that the factor f was futile. Dr. Bell Dawson suggested that the theoretical
factor should not be used for St. John, but that the variation actually found should
be used to give a new factor for local use. This, of course, would meet the case in
practice, but the explanation of the behaviour is very important. Investigations
showed that this constituent M, is effectively composed of three terms of speeds,
6,6+N, o—N, where o is the speed of the principal term, and N is the rate of revolution
of the moon’s nodes. Now the full development of the potential* gives no indication
ot the term with speed c—N, but an explanation of the occurrence in actual tides is
immediately furnished by Professor Proudman’s theory.

Unfortunately, there are no long sequences of analyses for British waters, but the
evidence tends to show that Liverpool * constants ’ are affected similarly to those of
St. John, while the ‘ constants ' for Indian Ports show the effect in a smaller degree.
‘These and other perturbations of harmonic constants due to deficient analyses and to
secular changes of unknown origin are to be discussed by the Secretary in a separate

aper.

**The Harmonic Development of the Tide-generating Potential, by A. T.
Doodson, D.Sc., Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), vol. 100, 1921.

300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Meteorological Tides.

4. The second hypothesis mentioned in $1 deals with the effects of the varying
distribution of atmospheric pressure, both statically and by the operation of wind,
on sea level and tides. A paper is being written by the Secretary on this subject, to
be published elsewhere; the main results are recorded in the Journal of Section A
and also in the Tidal Institute Reports for 1922 and 1923. A great deal of numerical
work has been done and the Newlyn residues have been of very great value ; in fact.
much of the work would have been impossible without them.

Definite evidence of perturbations of tidal motion has been obtained, but the law of
operation is somewhat complex. It is clear, however, that these effects are second-
order effects, and are governed by the product terms in the equations of motion and
continuity in just the same way as are the shallow water effects discussed in 1921.
The product terms involve currents as well as heights, and since the meteorological
current and height are probably fairly well represented by linear combinations of
atmospheric pressure and its gradients in two directions, it is obvious that the product
terms will give a rather complex law for meteorological tides. This law has not yet
been obtained. It is, however, possible that contributions of importance arise from
the long period changes in the distribution of atmospheric pressure, in which case the
law will be simplified. The effect will show itself as a perturbation of harmonic
‘ constants,’ or, alternatively, as new harmonic constituents, and this may be the
explanation of a part of the residual semi-diurnal oscillation at Newlyn. It may
possibly account for a perturbation of 0-5 foot and period of half a year in the M,
constituent at Liverpool for the year 1918. Further analyses, however, will be
necessary before this matter can be adequately considered.

Shallow Water Effects.

5. It was shown in the Report for 1921 that a simple relation exists between the
quarter-diurnal tide and the square of the semi-diurnal tide. The sixth-diurnal tide,
according to the theory of motion in a shallow canal, should be proportional to the
sixth-diurnal part of the cube of the semi-diurnal tide, with a constant factor and
constant phase shift, while tests on tidal records at Liverpool confirm this law and
also a similar law for the eighth-diurnal tide. We can investigate the shallow water
effects, therefore, as follows.

Taking the time-origin at High Water of the semi-diurnal tide and writing C,, for the
nth diurnal tide, we have the compound tide given by

C€=6461+C.+ Cet Acie ie We P
with C.= RB cos ot
a= c, R? cos (26¢ + 4) (1)

Z,= ¢; B® cos (3ot + 75)
Ca= Cs R4 cos (40¢ + 7s)
where ¢,, 7,, are constants.
High Water of the compound tide will occur when
sin ot = — 2c, R sin (2ot + 74) — 3c, R* sin (Sat + 7)
— 4c, R’ sin (4ct + 75) — - . Perky)
The constants c,, 7, can be determined from the harmonic constants for the principal
lunar constituents, for when R is equal to the amplitude of M, then the tide is
correctly represented by M,, M,, M,, M,, .
The data for Liverpool are
9 ie}
M, ; Hs 9:975 ft. «= 320:7
M,: H= -691ft. «=—211 10°,—-695 y,= 70
M,: H= -196f. «=—331 10’,=-197 ¥,— 272
M,: H= -068ft. «=255 10!c,—-069 y,— 308

whence we can construct the following table :

R 5 10 15

eR? 174 695 1-564
c,R® 025 -197 665
c,R! 004 -069 “350
2¢,R 070 -139 -209
3c,R2 O15 059 133
4c,R® 004 028 -093

pana

ON TIDES. 301

The upper part of the table gives the amplitudes in feet of the contributions to %,
while the lower part gives the coefficients of the sine terms contributing to sin of for
determining the time of High Water. Since ot is small for High Water then approxi-
mately 1 minute in time is represented by -01 in sin ot. | We can draw the following
conclusions from this table, supplementary to those given in 1921 ;—

1.—The use of M, and M, as sole representatives of C, and , is entirely inadequate ;
for

(1) at spring tides C, and C, are thereby under-estimated in amplitude to the
extent of 0-47 ft. and 0-28 ft. respectively, while at neap tides C, is over-
estimated in amplitude to the extent of 0-15 ft. ;

(2) the time of H.W cannot be given accurately at spring tides, the error being
about 10 minutes, and if navigators use interpolation methods for heights
at times other than H.W., the error resulting from this 10 minutes may
mean nearly a foot at half tide.

I1.—The use of the partial tides C, to €, alone, evenif these are correctly represented,
cannot give accurate representation of spring tides; for

(1) the slow convergence of the sequence of amplitudes of G,, C,, C,, at springs
indicates a possible error of 0:3 ft., and this expectation is confirmed by
tests on Liverpool tide records.

(2) the slow convergence of the amplitudes of the contributions to sin ot also
show that C,, and ©. cannot be neglected even if we desire to predict
only H.W. times and heights.

IiI.—The large number of constituents required by the harmonic method to express
at all adequately even the partial tide C, and the necessity for partial tides of higher
order, render the harmonic method unsuitable for the adequate representation of the
shallow water effects. It is necessary, therefore, to consider alternative methods.

One method which avoids the use of constituents, but which deals with partial tides,
is that used in the Report for 1921, where the tide is dealt with as a whole. This method
uses the forms given in (1) but the calculations become very intricate, and experience
on Liverpool records leads to the conclusion that the use of partial tides is
unsatisfactory.

The formula (2) for the time of H.W. shows, however, that ¢ is essentially a function
only of Rando, and ascis practically constant for the semi-diurnal tide we may consider
fas a function of R alone. Similarly the height of H.W. is a function only of R, and
consequently a simple table is possible giving the necessary corrections to the time
and height of the H.W. of C, alone to give the compound H.W. data.

It is necessary to state, however, that the form of (1) is based upon theoretical work
on non-reflected waves in a canal of infinite length, and some care might have to be
exercised on dealing with actual tides. At the worst, however, it might only be necessary
to take into account the rate of increase of R. A further word of caution needs to be
given, for friction will give sixth-diurnal tides whose amplitudes vary as R? and not
as R* (see Appendix) ; on this point the general principle, however, remains true, that
the shallow water effect is essentially a function of the range of tide.

Further, the shape of the tide curve is also a function of the range of tide, and if
hourly ordinates are required this principle can be used.

The work required for the construction of these tables is comparatively small ;
the tide curves should be grouped according to range and the average shape determined
as a function of the time, measured from H.W. in each case. Analyses of the resulting
curves by the usual methods with the appropriate period for each value of R will give
the semi-diurnal part, and thence the tables required are easily constructed.

Though there are difficulties yet to be overcome in the application of this method,
e€specially when the diurnal tide is large, yet it is suggested that it offers some hope of
solution of this difficult problem.

Revised Harmonic Constants for Newlyn.

6. The analysis explained in the 1921 Report has been applied to the residues from
the whole of the year 1918 at Newlyn, and the following table of harmonic constants
replaces that given in the 1921 Report. An error of sign with f” in the formula for B,

_ of §17 has been found, and consequently the exposition given later in that paragraph

_is only correct for f’=0. In dealing with the residues and with N=30 the effect of f”
is entirely negligible, and the results of analyses are unaffected by this error.

302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The values of « given in 1921 are not correctly given. In order to reduce to k as
defined by Darwin 22°-18 should be subtracted from the phase lags for semi-diurnals
and 11°-09 from the phase lags for diurnals. For a given constituent we denote the
lag of its phase behind the simultaneous phase of the corresponding equilibrium
constituent

(a) at Newlyn, by «
and (b) at Greenwich, by y
Thus y=nt+ pL

where Lis the Longitude in degrees West of Greenwich and p=0, 1, 2, for long period,
diurnal and semi-diurnal constituents respectively. It may be remarked that y is much
more useful than « both for analysis and prediction, as we need only use Greenwich

Mean Time and the ‘ astronomical arguments’ only need to be evaluated for the —

Greenwich Meridian. This is essentially the U.S.A. practice.

Newlyn: Latitude : A= 50° 6’1N.
Longitude; L= 5° 32”6W.
Tide-gauge record : one year for semi-diurnal constituents, six months for diurnal
constituents, commencing Oh., Jan. 0-1, 1918, G.M.T.

Method of analysis : special, as in B.A. Report, 1921.
Amplitudes : in feet.

pettes0., 168. 179-5 M, : 5-620 124-7 135°8 §,: -010 329-5 335-0
: | 22°83 33:9 | P,: -071 102-6 108-2
160-2 | v,: -226 111-3 122-4 | K,: -200 102-2 107-

ABD mn
wow nr
KOSS
OO bo
Noe
me bo
He OO
SH
me bo
bo
ia
ce
oo
to
mM
ta
=
ey
o
(ee)
«J

s) 491 165-8 176-9 N,: 1-066 103-1 114-2 | O,: -180 334-2 339-7
L,: +189 122-7 133-8 | wu,: -197 159-8 170-9 | Q,: -060 281-3 286-8
de 102. 100-7 111-8! 2N,: -089 89-5 100°6 |

APPENDIX.

By J. PRoupMAN.
(Being part of Adams’ Prize Essay, 1923.)

In constructing the dynamical equations of the tides it is necessary to introduce
terms representing the forces of friction of external origin, due mainly to the retarding
effect of the sea-bottom.

T. Young (1813), followed by W. Ferrel (1874), made the hypothesis that the
magnitude of the external frictional force is proportional to the square of the speed
of the current, and adapted this hypothesis to the consideration of harmonic
constituents in the way indicated below. Ferrel pointed out, as an important
result, that one of the effects of friction on the tides produced by a harmonic
disturbing force was to give rise to another constituent of speed three times as great.

In his work on tidal friction in the Irish Sea, G. I. Taylor (1918) made the same
hypothesis as Young, and in extending Taylor’s work, H. Jeffreys (1920) remarks that
even in the empirical prediction of tides, friction may have to be taken into account.

Tf u, v denote rectangular components of the current, and F, G the corresponding
components of external friction, then the hypothesis gives

F = ku | (w+ v2)! |)
G = kv | (u2 + v3 |) 5 | ; : (1)
where k is a constant.

First suppose that

u=U,cosct ,v=0 j , ‘ : (2)

so that
| (uw? + v?)2 | =u | cos ct |.

ON TIDES. 303

Then
F = ku," | cos at | cos ot

‘es 18 ku {cos ot , cos 3ct cos 5ot

== hug see = SOR oe "
Tw 3 1.3.5 3.9.7

eae cos (2n-+ l)ot |

a Or (2n — \eetl@ata orf r 3)

The term involving cos 3ct corresponds to the remark of Ferrel.

Each term in the frictional force will, of course, generate a tidal constituent of

equal speed, so that the relations (2) will be disturbed, but such disturbance will

usually be relatively small.

Now all the constituents indicated by (3) have usually been allowed for in the

practical harmonic analysis of observations, though often under the heading of

shallow water constituents. But we next proceed to indicate the existence of con-

stituents which do not appear to have been considered hitherto.

Suppose that

} u—=uycosct-+ujcosot ,8—=0 , . = - (4)
while
ot =710) ot =m oa) ke : ; : (5)
n being an integer; then

F=£ | up cos nO + wu’, cos (n+1)0| {up cos nO + w’o cos (n + 1)0}
and this is periodic in 0, so that
F =4a, + a cos0+ 6, sn @+....-+4a,cos'0+46, sin" 0+.... . (6)

‘It is a straightforward matter to elaborate formule for the coefficients of (6), but we
will restrict ourselves to the approximate form where w,’/u, is small. We have

UW = (Uy" + Quy’ cos 9 + w9'2)8 cos (nO+) ,
where

noe
u
tane = 0 us. 6
Uy + wy’ cos 0

and if we neglect ¢ we obtain

F = k(u,? + 2uyu’) cos 9 + w’,?) | cos nO | cos nO
cos nO , cos 3n8

oe gage

cos (27 + 1)n0

= 5 bu? + u0") {

i eet act uid] l
et)" Or 1) eee
8k, { cos (n — 1)0 + cos (n + 1)0
= a Ug 9 | <= 3 pe ae
fs cos (3n — 1)0 + cos (3n +1)0 _
; . 1.3.5 y ir caae

The constitueat of (7) of speed o has the coefficient

Sk a
8x (uo? + U7),
result which is of value in calculating, for example, the frictional force of M, speed
ue to a combination of M, and §, currents.

But some of the constituents of (7), e.g. that involving cos (n—1)0, may have
speeds other than those present in the astronomical disturbing forces or in the
1923 ¥

304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

constituents associated with the product terms in the equation of continuity and the
expressions for acceleration (see §3).

Such constituents were revealed by Dr. Doodson as shown in the Report for 1921,
and the present considerations suggest a hypothesis as to at least part of Doodson’s
residue for Newlyn. His work on shallow water constituents at the same station
indicates that the currents are roughly proportional to the elevations, and assuming
this to be the case we get the following rule for the frictional constituents of a small
range of speed.

‘Square the actual elevations, attach the sign of the elevation itself, multiply
by an empirical factor and apply an empirical time-lag.’

It is, of course, necessary to remove from the result all the ‘ Darwinian’ con-
stituents in order to reveal the presence of new constituents. Fig. 1 gives the results

Fic. 1.—Residue from | € | €, Newlyn, January, 1918.

of calculating || ¢ for 30 days’ Newlyn observations and then removing the con-
stituents §,, T,, K,, L,, 2,, M,, 28M,, v,, N>, U2, 2N,, together with the greater part of
the sixth diurnal portion. It will be seen that there is a well-marked residue,
reaching about 16 per cent. of the original, and consequently the law of friction we
have assumed will produce constituents of speeds other than those present in the
disturbing forces or due to shallow water.

REFERENCES,
1813. T. Young. Misc. Works, v. 2, pp. 262-290.
1874. W. Ferrel. Tidal Researches (U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey).

1918. G.I. Taylor. Phil. Trans Roy. Soc. (A), v. 220, pp. 1-33.
1920. H. Jeffreys. Ibid., v. 221, pp. 239-264.

2452 fe

ON COLLOID CHEMISTRY AND ITS INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS. 305

Colloid Chemistry and its General and _ Industrial
Applications.— Summary Report of the Committee (Professor
F. G. Donnan, Chairman; Dr. W. Crayron, Secretary; Dr. E.
Arprry, Dr. E. F. Armsrrone, Sir W. M. Bayriss, Professor
CG. H. Descu, Dr. A. E. Dunstan, Mr. H. W. Greenwoop, Mr.
W. Harrrson, Mr. BE. Hatscnex, Mr. G. Kina, Professors W. C.
McG. Lewis and J. W. McBary, Dr. R. S. Moretu, Professors
H. R. Procrer and W. Ramspen, Sir E. J. Russevn, Mr. A. B.
SmARLE, Dr. S. A. SHorrER, Dr. R. E. Suave, Mr. F. SPROXTON,
Dr. H. P. Stevens, Mr. H. B. Stocks, Mr. R. WHymper).

Tux Fifth Report was published by the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, and contains an index to the five reports now issued. Six papers
have been contributed, of which the following are brief abstracts :—

(I.) The Measurement of Surface Tension. By Allan Ferguson, M.A., D.Sc.
(East London College).

‘This report deals with recent advances in the methods and technique used
in the determination of surface tensions. It advisedly concerns itself with
methods rather than results, for it is now clearly recognised that an accurate
knowledge of the tension in surfaces separating a liquid from a vapour phase,
and, more especially, of the tension in a liquid-liquid or a liquid-solid interface,
is a first condition for the quantitative discussion of many of the problems of
colloid chemistry and physics.’

The very important subject of the measurement of contact-angles is first
dealt with, and then the various methods for determining the surface tension
at a liquid-gas interface, special attention being paid to the capillary-rise method.

The methods used in determining interfacial tensions are discussed, the
modern work of Harkins and his collaborators receiving detailed treatment.
The great defects in the drop-number method are clearly pointed out, and atten-
tion is directed to a promising new method of determining interfacial tensions
now being investigated by the author.

(II.) Report on Collagen and (relatin. By Professor H. R. Procter, D.S8c.,
F.R.S. (University of Leeds), and J. A. Wilson, D.Se. (Chief Chemist,
Messrs. A. F. Gallun & Sons Co., Milwaukee, U.S.A.).

The authors present separate accounts of the work done in Europe and
America, the latter being dealt with first.

The comprehensive work of Loeb on gelatin is well summarised, his experi-
ments seeming to indicate that proteins combine only with cations on the alkaline
side of the iso-electric point, and only with anions on the acid side. According
to the Procter-Wilson theory, the combination of protein and hydrogen ion is
governed by the law of mass action, and Loeb’s experiments are in keeping with
the theory. The work of Loeb and of Procter and Wilson on the Donnan mem-
brane equilibria is briefly dealt ‘with.

In connection with the European work, discussion is made of the researches

of Miss D. L. Lloyd on the swelling of gelatin in relation to the p, of the
medium, and of Atkins’ papers on the same subject.
_ The elucidation of the ultimate structure of jellies, and especially of gelatin
jelly, occupies considerable space, dealing with the work of Hatschek, Procter
and Wilson, McBain, von Gaza, Bradford, Barratt, and others ; incidentally, the
Liesegang phenomenon is dealt with. Kubelka’s important work on collagen
concludes the paper.

(III.) Colloid Phenomena in Bacteriology. By Eric K. Rideal, M.A., D.Sc.
(University of Cambridge).

The subject is treated under the headings: Bacteria as colloidal systems ;
bacterial growth; surface adsorption; chemical constitution and adsorption:
selective action ; conclusions.

¥2

306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The author concludes : ‘In addition to the factors such as the presence of
suitable food materials, optimum temperature, p, and the like, the growth rate
of micro-organisms is greatly influenced by the concentration at the bacterium
surface of the various substances present. The surface concentrations may
already be considerable, even when scarcely detectable amounts are present in
the bulk of the medium. The conditions necessary for favouring high-surface
concentrations are shown to depend on the action of the substance on the inter-
facial surface tension. The magnitude of this action can in many cases be
estimated by the effect of the solute on the air/liquid interface. Adsorption
appears to be a chemical process, reaction occurring between reactive groups
in the material adsorbed and the one (acceptors) in the micro-organism. Single-
point reaction leads to a simple differentiation between acid and alkaline reactive
groups, whilst multi-point action increases the selective nature of the reaction,
which ultimately became entirely specific.’

(1V.) Industrial Applications of Wetting Power. By W. H. Nuttall, F.1.C.
(The Ioco Rubber and Waterproofing Co., Ltd., Glasgow.)

The ability of a liquid tc wet a solid surface—i.c. to give an even, continuous
film over it—is dependent upon three surfaca tensions: the surface tension
liquid/air (T,), the surface tension solid/air (Tz), and the interfacial tension
liquid/solid (T,,,). For the liquid to wet, T, must be greater than T,+T, 5.
The explanation of ‘ wetting ’ is, however, still obscure, and our views on the
subject are in a state of transition, largely as the result of the work of Langmuir
and Harkins on molecular orientation at interfaces.

The industrial applications described are: Mineral separation by flotation,
separation of bitumen from rock, cattle dips and horticultural medicaments,
anti-dimming preparations, and lubrication.

(V.) Colloids in Relation to the Manufacture of Inks. By C. A. Mitchell,
M.A., F.1.C.

This is a short paper, drawing attention to a little-discussed aspect of applied
colloid chemistry. The ordinary writing inks of the present day consist of a
more or less soluble tannate of iron, and, on exposure to air, there is a gradual
change into a black colloidal tannate, which remains in suspension and imparts
a dark colour tothe ink. The use of acids in the ‘ blue-black’ inks is explained.

(VI.) The Manufacture of Artificial Silk in Relation te Collcid Chemistry. By
Edward Wheeler, A.C.G.1., A.I.C.

‘The four processes for the manufacture of artificial silk in use to-day are :—
(a) Cuprammonium process (also known as Glanzstoff or Pauly process).
(b) Nitrocellulose process (Chardonnet process).

The bearing of colloid chemistry on each of these processes is discussed in
relation to the raw materials used, the preparation of the solutions, the coagula-
tion of the thread in spinning, and the after-treatment necessary in each case.
The properties of artificial silk as a colloid system are then considered in relation
to the requirements of the textile industry.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 307

Photographs of Geological Interest.—Twenty-first Report of
Committee (Professors E. J. Garwoov, Chairman, and S. H.
Rzynonps, Secretary; Mr. G. Binary, Dr. T. G. Bonnuy, Mr.
C. V. Croox, Dr. R. Kinston, Mr. A. 8. Rem, Sir J. J. H.
Trauy, Professor W. W. Warts, Mr. R. Wencu and Mr. W.
Wuitaker). Drawn up by the Secretary.

Stnce the issue of the previous report (Edinburgh, 1921) 238 photographs have
been added to the collection, which now numbers 6,310.

The Committee are glad to welcome new contributors in Mr. H. T. Harry,
who sends a set illustrating raised beaches on the south coast of Cornwall ;
in Mr. F. H. Edmonds and My. F. B. A. Welch, both of whom contribute
prints from the Bristol district and elsewhere; in Mr. F. G. Jenkins, who
illustrates Read’s Cavern, Burrington, which has been studied by the University
of Bristol Speleological Society; in Mr. P. B. Roberts, who sends a set of ex-
ceptional interest illustrating marine erosion at Bexhill-on-Sea; and in Mr.
J, B. Philip, who illustrates the coast of Kincardine and Aberdeen. Dr, Wool-
acott sends an excellent set illustrating raised beaches and boulders from
Durham, and Dr. T. O. Bosworth subjects from Llangollen.

Mr, C. J. Gilbert contributes prints illustrating his paper (Q. J. G.S. vol.
Ixxv.) on certain Glacial and other strata from Little Heath, near Berkhamsted.

Among former contributors Mr, J. W. 'Tutcher sends a few excellent photo-
graphs illustrating the Lias of Somerset, Mr. J. J. Hartley a fine series from the
Lake District, and Mr. B. Hobson some from the Channel Islands. Other
photographs frem various localities are contributed by the Secretary. Special
mention should be made of a’ fine series of Irish photographs from Prof. Gren-
ville Cole; no less than thirteen counties are represented in this set.

The negatives of the published series of geological photographs which had
been missing since before the war have fortunately been recovered, and prints
and lantern slides are obtainable through the Secretary at the following rates :—

va. | Oe

1st issue—22 Bromide Prints, with letterpress, unmounted |... Seno RTs.
a pV) ia 5 ne mounted on cards On 4 20

“A 22 Lantern Slides Ee <3 ae 43 eee 2S 4)

9nd issue—25 Bromide Prints ,, “a unmounted ... a Leet SH 8
a 25... a 5 ee mounted on cards OFA” 0

aA 25 Lantern Slides ~ -! oe ae 210 O

8rd issue—23 Bromide Prints ,, a unmounted Ti 14.. 6
“A 23 3 e «J mounted on cards 2G. 60

as 23 Lantern Slides __,, ae 2° 6 *0

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed.

TWENTY-FIRST LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
From SepremBer 1, 1921, ro Aucust 31, 1923.

List of the geological photographs received and registered by the Secretary of
the Committee since the publication of the last report.

Contributors are asked to affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their
negatives, for convenience of future reference. Their own numbers are added
in order to enable them to do so. Copies of photographs desired can, in most
instances, be obtained from the: photographer direct. The cost at which copies
may be obtained depends on the size of the print and on local circumstances over
which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photograph included in
this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications for permission to
reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers direct.

Copies of photographs should be sent, unmounted, to

Professor S. H. Reynotps,
The University, Bristol,

308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC,

accompanied by descriptions written on a form prepared for the purpose, copies
of which may be obtained from him.
Yhe size of the phetographs is indicated as follows :—

L=Lantern size. 1/1=Whole plate.
1/4=Quarter-plate. 10/8=10 inches by 8,
1/2=Half-plate. 12/10=12 inches by 10, &e.

E signifies Enlargement.

ACCESSIONS.
England.
Cornwatu.—Photographed by H. 'T. Harry, B.Sc., Northleigh,
Tywardreath, Par Station. Postcard size,
. No.
6072 *i1) W. of Par Harbour Pier, Raised Beach on Devonian. 1922.
St. Austell Bay

6073 (2) W. of Par Harbour Pier, .* 5
St. Austell Bay

6074 (3) W. of Par Harbour Pier, ‘ A
St. Austell Bay

6075 (4) W. of Par Harbour Pier, me $
St. Austell Bay

6076 (5) W. of Par Harbour Pier, bs 55
St. Austell Bay

6077 (6) W. of Par Harbour Pier, BS 45

St. Austell Bay

Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D., The University,
Bristol. 1/4.

6078 (1923-31) Trelissick, Falmouth Minette dyke in killas. 1923.

Harbour

6079 (1923-32) Pen Voose, Lizard Kennack gneiss enclosing coarse gabbro.

1923.
6080 (1923-33) Pen Voose, Lizard . Kennack gneiss. 1923.
6081 (1923-34) Carn Brea, near Cam- Granite hill. 1923.

borne
CumBERLAND.—Photographed by J. J. Harrury, Church Walk,
Ambleside. Postcard size.

6082 (B6) Pooley Bridge, Ullswater Mell Fell Conglomerate. 1921.
DERBYSHIRE.—Photographed by S. H. Rrynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/4.

(1921-46) Knot Low, Millersdale Spheroidal weathering of basalt (Upper

6083

‘ Toadstone). 1921.

6084 (1921-47) “3 ie Spheroidal weathering of basalt (Upper
Toadstone). 1921.

6085 (1921-49) As 53 Spheroidal weathering of basalt (Upper
Toadstone). 1921.

O86 (1921:50 = As Spheroidal weathering of basalt (Upper
be Toadstone). 1921.

1921-51 Spheroidal weathering of basalt (Upper
SOB, if 4 Toadstone). 1921.

6088 (1921-40) W. of Longstone Station Cutting in Ds. 1921.

6089 (1921-38) N. of Great Longstone Chert in Ds. 1921.
6090 (1921-39) Chert in D3. 1921.
6091 (1921-42) Qu. 1 mile N. of Head- Lithostrotion wregulare in Dy. 1921..

stone Head

<_< lc rt eS

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

309

Regd. No. ; ; =) ae ] :
6092 (1921-43) Qu. 1 mile N. of Head- Clisiophyllids in D.. 1921.

6093 (1921:36) Ashford, near Bakewell ‘Black marble quarry’ (Ds).

stone Head

1921.

Drvon.—Photographed by H. C. Griaa, B.Sc., 47 Hillfield Avenue,

6094

Fishponds, Bristol.

( ) Sharkham Point, Brix-
ham

1/2.

Exposure of Schalstein. 1922.

Photographed by S. H. Reynotps, M.A., Sc.D., The University,

6095
6096
6097

6098
6099

6100
6101
6102
6103
6104
6105

6106

6107

6108
6109
6110
6111
6112

6113

Bristol.

(1921-2) Saltern Cove, near
Paignton

(1921-3) Saltern Cove, near
Paignton

(1921-4) Saltern Cove, near
Paignton

(1921-5) Hunter’s Tor, Lustleigh
(1921-6) Horsham Steps, Lust-
leigh

(1921-7) Packsaddle Bridge, near
Lustleigh, Dartmoor
(1921-13) Livermead, Torquay
(1921-14) &, i
(1921-15) z, Y
(1921-16) an .
(1921-17) ra re
Photographed by F. B.
Cheltenham.

(A13) Skainer’s Hole, Lee Bay

Dorset.—Photographed by S.
The University,

(1922-20) Pondfield Cove, Wor-
berrow
(19229) Man of War Cove,

Lulworth
(1922-22) Bacon Hole, Lulworth

(1922-31) Lulworth Cove, W. side

(1922-32) 9 "

(1922-27) Holworth House, near
Osmington

(1922-25) Osmington

1/4.
Unconformity, New Red on Devonian.
1921.

Shattered and veined rock. 1921.

Buckled Upper Devonians. 1921.

Weathering of granite. 1921.

Granite boulders forming natural
causeway across stream. 1921.

Granite intrusion in Culm. 1921.

Marine erosion of Permian breccias.
1921.

Permian breccias. 1921.

A. Wetcu, 6 Paragon Parade,

31x 91,
Relation between bedding and cleav-
age. 1922.

H. Reynoups, M.A., Se.D.,

Bristol. 1/4.

Contemporaneous brecciation in Lower
Purbecks 40 ft. above Broken beds.
1922.

Man of War rock (vertical Port-
landian) from W. 1922.

Lower Purbecks and Upper Portlands.
1922.

Disturbed Cypris freestone. 1922

Faulted ‘Cockle beds.’ 1922.

Portlandian section. 1922.

Rencliff grit ‘doggers’ on shore.
1922.

DurHam.—Photographed by D. Woouacorr, D.Sc., 8 The Oaks West,

6116
6117
6118

Sunderland.
(1) Easington
(2) of
(¢ ) ””
(4) Warren House Gill
(5) 33 3?

1/4.
60 ft. Raised Beach.

Lauvigite boulder.
Gneiss boulder.

310

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

GLoUcESTER.—Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,

The University, Bristol.

Regd. No.
6119 a 22°54) Sodbury railway cutting

6120 (1922-53) » »”

6121 (1922-56) a4 »

6122 (1922-60) oe or

6123 (1922-61) » »

6124 (1922-62) » »

6125 (1922-64) y 55

6126 (1922- ‘iy Hallen railway cutting

6127 (1922-2) » ”

6128 (1922-3) »

6129 (1922-48) Tyther ington railway
cutting

6130 (1922-49) “Grovesend qu., Tyther-

ington railway section
(1922-50) Hardwicke qu., Tyther-
ington railway section

6131

6132 (1922:51) Tytherington railway
cuttin

6133 (1922-52) Church Quarry, Tyther-
ington

Photographed by J. W. Turcusrr,

6134 (5c) Willsbridge lime works,
near Bitton
Photographed by F. 8. Wattis,

6135 (A) Fishponds Asylum, Bristol

6136 (B) ” ”

1/2 and 1/4.

Grit masses in D,. 1/4. 1922.
Grit or sandstone mass in D,.
1922.

1/4.

Weathered surface of Concretionary
Beds (S2). 1/4. 1922.
Spongiostroma layers in §;. 1/4.
1922.
Shattered Z, limestone. 1/4. 1922.
Algal nodules in Cy. 1/4. 1922.
Spongiostroma layers $,. 1/4, 1922.
Gypsum in Keuper. 1/2. 1922.
2) 29
Z, and Fe jbods, 1/2. 1922.
Z. and top of Z;. 1/2. 1922.
C, (sub-oolite and Caninia-oolite). 1/2.
1922.
C3. 1/2):i022!
Si and S2. 1/2. 1922.
57 Berkeley Road, Bristol. 1/2.

L. Lias with A. bucklandi Sow. in situ.
1902

Ph.D., Bristoi Museum. 1/2.
Sigillaria trunk in Pennant Sandstone.
23.
Lepidodendron trunk in Pennant
Sandstone. 1923.

Photographed by F. B. A. Wetcu, 6 Paragon Parade, Cheltenham. 1/4.

6137 (C.N.2) Cuckoo-pen quarry, near
Air Balloon, Birdlip

6138 (C.N.8) Cleeve Hill, near
Biches

Current bedding in Upper Freestone.
1922.

Faulted Pea Grit. 1922.

Hants (Isne or Wicutr).—Photographed by F. H. Epmunps, B.A.,

28 Jermyn Street,

) High Down .
) Walpen Chine

6139 (
6140 (

Photographed by KE. R. Martin, 114 Southlands Road, Bromley.

6141
6142

(2) Ladder Chine
(4) Alam Bay

London, S.W.

1/4.

Coast erosion of chalk cliffs. 1922.

Commencement of wind erosion. 1920
1/4.
Wind erosion. (24 pl. joined). 1920.

Rain eroded gullies in vertical Reading
beds. 1920.

Photographed by 8. H. Reynoutps, M.A., Sc.D., The University,

' Bristol.

6148 (1923-9) Brook
6144 (192312) Compton Bay i
6145 (1923-15) Gore Cliff, Niton

1/4.

‘Pine Raft.’ 1923.

Carstone and Sandrock series. 1923.
1923.

Chert beds of Up. Greensand.

a Se

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 3il
Regd. Ni

6146 “(1923 18) Cowleaze Chine . Chine formation. 1923.

6147 (1923-21) Culver and Redcliff Succession Wealden to Chalk. 1923.
section

6148 (1923-23) The Crackers, Ather- Concretionary masses of calcareous and
field ferruginous sandstone. 1923,

6149 (1923-25) Colwell Bay, N.W. end Fold in Headon beds. 19238.

6150 (1923-26) Cliffsabove ‘Crackers,’ Recession of cliffs by foundering.

Atherfield 1923.
6151 (1923-27) Culver : . . Shore platform and storm beach. 1923.
6152 (1923-28) Culver . 2 . Storm beach. 1923.

Herts.—Photographed by J. T. Newman, Berkhamsted, and
presented by C. J. Grupert, F.G.S. 1/2.

6153 (6) Little Heath, near Berk- Glacial beds on ‘loamy sands.’ 1919.

: hamsted
6154 (7) Little Heath, near Berk- Glacial beds on ‘loamy sand’ on
hamsted ?Pliocene gravel. 1919.
6155 (8) Little Heath, near Berk- Glacial beds on ‘loamy sand’ on
hamsted ?Pliocene gravel. 1919.
6156 (10) Little Heath, near Berk- Glacial beds on ‘loamy sand’ on
hamsted ?Pliocene gravel. 1919.

LancasHirE.—Photographed by J. J. Harriny, Church Walk,
Ambleside. Postcard size.

6157 (Bl) Tilberthwaite. : . Glacial river channels. 1921.

6158 (Bs) Birk Fell . . Erratics of Harratn tuff. 1921.
6159 (2-22) Hill Fell road section . Concretions in L. Coniston Flags.
1922.

Norruampron.—Photographed by B. G. Cuincorr, Guernsey. 1/4.

6160 (30) Brixworth . : : . Glacial gravel on Inferior Oolite iron-
stone on Upper Lias. 1921.

6161 (31) Brixworth . z 3 . Chalky boulder clay overlying Glacial

; sand with small erratics. 1921.

6162 (32) Cranford, near Kettering . Anticline in Upper Lias to Lower
Estuarine beds. 1921.

6163 (33) S.W. of Islip . E . Cornbrash on Great Oolite, clay above,

; limestone below. 1921.

Somerset.—Photographed by L. Barrow, c/o Mzssrs. J. S. Fry
& Sons, Bristol. 1/2.

~=6«d6164 = ( th aba ae Hams, Messrs. Fold in Lower Lias. 1922.

8. Fry & Sons’ new factory

on
6165 ( ) Keynsham Hams, Messrs. Lower Lias section with ‘calcicosta
J. S. Fry & Sons’ new factory bed.’ — 1922.
site

Photographed by F. H. Epmunps, B.A., 28 Jermyn Street,
London, S.W. 1/4.

6166 ( ) Woodspring, Weston- Tuff showing lapilli. 1922.
super-Mare (2nd exposure)
6167 ( ) Woodspring, Weston- Pipe rock structure in sandstone over-

super-Mare (2nd exposure) lying tuff. 1922.

312

Photographed by F. G. JENKINS,
34 x 24 and 1/4.

Bristol.
Regd. No. .
6168 (2) Read’s Cavern, Burrington
6169 (3) 2? »”
6170 (4) ’ »
(5) » »

6171

REPORTS ON THE-STATE OF SCLENCE, ETC.

6 Brandon Villas, Park Street,

Mushroom-shaped stalagmite. 1919.
34 by 24.

Breaking and distortion of stalactites.
1/4. 1919.

Folded limestone slabs fallen from roof
of cave. 1/4. 1919.

Anticlinal fold in roof of cave.
1919.

1/4.

Photographed by S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D., The University,

Bristol.
6172 (1921-81) Cadbury Hill, Yatton

6173 (1922-44) Fore Hill quarry, Por-
tishead

6174 (1922-46) Weston Big Wood, K.
quarry

6175 (1922-47) Weston Big Wood, W.
quarry

6176 (1923-2) Ciasitonibe Bay, N. of
levedon

6177 (1923:3) Redcliff Bay, N. of

Clevedon

Photographed by J. W. TuTcHER,

6178 (20) Quarry at Dunkerton colliery,
3 miles N. of Radstock
6179 (46b) Keynsham Hams, Messrs.
J. 8. Fry & Sons’ new factory
site. The railway siding
6180 (47a) Keynsham Hams, Messrs.
J. S. Fry & Sons’ new factory
site. The railway siding
6181 (46a) Peo at Hams, Messrs.
J. S. Fry & Sons’ new factory
site. The railway siding

Photographed by F. B. A. Wetcu,

6182 (c.n.11) Portishead,
round lake

6183 (c.n.12) Portishead,
B

new road

Woodhill

ay
6184 (c.n.14) Portishead, Woodhill

Bay

Sussex.—Photographed by P. B. Rosrerrs, 9 Westbury Hill,
Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

(1) Bexhill-on-Sea

(2) Bexhill-on-Sea, W.
W. Promenade

(3) Bexhill-on-Sea ;

(4) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade

(5) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade

(6) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade

6185
6186

end of

6187
6188

6189
6190

57 Berkeley Road, Bristol.

upper angulatus zone). 1922.
6 The Paragon, Cheltenham. 1/4.
Anticline in K-beds. 1922.
Old Red Conglomerate showing
rounded nature of pebbles. 1922.

1/2 and 1/4.

1921.
1/2.

Seminula pisolite.

1/25
Lower

Zaphrentis beds. 1922.

Vertical Z2. 1/2. 1922.

22 >

Dolomitic Conglomerate unconformable
on O.R.S. 1/4. 1928.

Dolomitic Conglomerate unconformable
on O.R.S. 1/4. 1923.

1/2.

Fold in Lower Lias. 1912.

Fold in Lower Lias (angulatus zone).
1922.

L. Lias,
1922.

lower part angulatus zone.

Folds in L. Lias (lower Bucklandi and

Small thrust in O.R.S. and thinning
out of grit. 1922.

1/2.

Winter 1909-10.
Winter: 1909-10.

Marine erosion.
Marine erosion.

Marine erosion. Winter 1909-10.

Before ‘ erosion wave’ had reached
this point. Winter 1909-10.
Beginning of removal of beach.

Winter 1909-10.
Further stage in removal of beach.
Winter 1909-10.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

Regd. No. ;
6191 (7) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6192 (8) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
, ade
6193 (11) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6194 (12) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6195 (13) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6196 (14) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6197 (15) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-
ade
6198 (16) Bexhill-on-Sea W. Promen-

WESTMORLAND.

7 ®

ade

Ambleside.

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Photographed by J. J.

Postcard size.

313

Beach all removed; threat to Parade
bastion. Winter 1909-10.

Woodwork erected to protect bastion.
Winter 1909-10.

Eating away of Parade and outflank-
ing bastion. Winter 1909-10.

Destruction of Parade beyond bastion.
Winter 1909-10.

Bastion shattered; ineffective barrier
of hurdles. Winter 1909-10.

Destruction of hurdle barrier and
shifting of massive blocks down the
beach. Winter 1909-10.

Remains of bastion and widespread

destruction of Parade beyond (to
E). Winter 1909-10.
Preparations to meet erosion. Spring

1910.

Hartuey, Church Walk,

6199 (B2) The Park, Ambleside Roche moutonnée. 1921.
6200 (B3) Kirkstone Pass . Moraines in Stock Gill Valley. 1921.
6201 (B4) Whitemoss, near Grasmere Pot-holed _junction of andesite and
bedded tuff. 1921.
6202 (B7) Grisedale Pass . Flow-brecciated andesite. 1921.
6203 (1:22) Ambleside, 200 yards S. Thick-bedded tuff in Borrowdale
of gasworks series. 1922.
6204 (3:22) Wrynose Pass . Fault in bedded tuff (Scafell ash
group). 1922.
6205 (422) The Helm, Grasmere Bedded tuff in Borrowdale series.
1922.
6206 (5-22) Bowfell, between summit Bedded tuff (Scafell ash group). 1922.
and ‘Three tarns’
6207 (6:22) Ambleside, 200 yards §. Thick-bedded tuffs in Borrowdale
; cf gasworks series. 1922.
6208 (7-22) Bowfell, between summit Bedded tuff (Scafell ash group). 1922.
and ‘Three tarns’
6209 (8-22) The Helm, Grasmere Bedded tuff in Borrowdale _ series.
1922. ~
6210 (9-22) Bridge over Brathay, N. Bedded tuff in Borrowdale series.
of Wrynos2 Pass . 1922.
6241 (10-22) Patterdale, 50 yards S. Coarse felsitic tuff. 1922.
of Post Office
Yorksuire.—Photographed by Goprrey Binetey, Thorniehurst,
Headingley, Leeds. 1/2.
6212 (6968) Red Cliff, Caytor Bay Boulder Clay on Middle Oolite. 1905.
6213 (6933) Osgodby Nab : Boulder Clay on Lower Oolite. 1905.
6214 (6939) N. of White Nab, near Section in Hstuarine series (L. Oolite)
Scarborough 1905.
6215 (7389) Cliff near Holbeck Gar- Estuarine series (I. Oolite). 1906.
dens, Scarborough
6216 (7390) Cliffs S. of Spa, Scar- Joint caves in Up. Estuarine series.
borough 1906.
Photographed by F. B. A. Wencu, 6 The Paragon, Cheltenham.
6217 (1914) Filey Brig Boulder Clay on Caleareous Grit
series.

314

Regd. N

6218

6226

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Wales.
AnaLEsEY.—Photographed by S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,

The University, Bristol.

oO.

(1923-36) Newborough

(1923-38) %

(1923-37) i

(1923-39) a

(1923-40) if

(1923-41) ” .
(1923-42) 4

(1923-43) ay

(1923-44) mene See

» Contorted Tyfry beds.

1/4.
Blown sand with protruding ridges of
spilite. 1923.
Pillow lava (spilite). 1923.
Spilitic ellipsoids. 1923.
Pillow lava (spilite). 1928.

Exceptionally large spilitic ellipsoid.
1923.

Spilite spheroids with interstitial
chert or jasper. 1923.

Interstitial jasper between spilitic
ellipscids. 1923.

Interstitial limestone between spilitic
ellipsoids, 1923.
1923.

DensiaH.—Pholographed by T. O. Boswortu, M.A., Sc.D.,

12 Giles Street, Northampton.

1/2.

6227 (1) Craig Arthur, Eglwyseg, N. Carboniferous Limestone on Ludlow

6228
6229

of Llangollen
(2) World’s End, Plas Uchaf,
4 miles N. of Llangollen
(3) N. of Plas Uchaf, 4 miles
N. of Llangollen

slates.
Carboniferous Limestone transgressing
on to Ordovician grit.
Carboniferous Limestone on Ordovi-
cian grit.

Ravnor.—Photographed by S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Se.D.,

6230

The University, Bristol.

( ) Block of Woolhope Lime-

1/2.

Patches of Solenopora gracilis. 1922.

ABERDEEN.—Photographed by J. B. Puiuip, 8 Belvedere Crescent,

6231

1/2.

stone, Old Radnor Church-
yard
Scotland.
_ Aberdeen.
(10) Dunbuy Rock, N.E. of

Cruden Bay

Marine erosion of granite.

Ayr.—Photographed by 8. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D., The University,

6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239

Bristol. 1/4.

(1921-53) Near §. end of Loch Inclusions of grit in granite. 1921.
Doon

(1921:56) Near S. end of Loch Peat on granite. 1921.
Doon

(1921-54) Near S. end of Loch ‘Feisite’ vein in granite. 1921.
Doon

(1921-58) Craigmulloch, near Altered grit inclusions in granite
8.W. corner of Loch Doon margin. 1921.

(1921-59) Craigmulloch, near Altered grit inclusions in granite
§.W. corner of Loch Doon margin. 1921.

(1921-62) Craigmulloch, near Altered grit inclusions in granite
S.W. corner of Loch Doon margin. 1921.

(1921-63) Craigmiulloch, near Grit altered by granite. 1921.

S.W. corner of Loch Doon
(1921-55) Near 8. end of Loch
Doon

Glaciated rock. 1921.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 315
Fire.—Photographed by S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Se.D.,
The University, Bristol. 1/4.
Regd. No.
6240 (1921-67) Lh. of St. Andrews Agglomerate of vent and adjacent
sediments. 1921.
6241 (1921:80) Elie Ness : Agezlomerate of vent. 1921.
6242 (1921-70) St. Andrews, W. of Hzmatite in sandstone. 1921.
Buddo Rock
6243 (1921-71) Lion Rock, St. Agglomerate of vent. 1921.
Andrews
6244 (1921-73) St. Andrews, E. of Current bedded Calciferous Sand-
Rock and Spindle stone. 1921.
6245 (1921-74) St. Monans : . Basalt dyke. 1921.
6246 (1921-75) Ardross Castle, St. Erratics on shore. 1921.
Monans
6247 (1921-78) Chapel Ness, Ele ‘ White trap ’ margin of basalt. 1921.
6248 (1921-72) St. Andrews, E. of Part of vent and adjacent sediments.
Rock and Spindle 1921.
6249 (1921-81) §. of Cambo Ness, St. Erratic on shore. 1921.
Andrews
6250 (1921-82) S. of Cambo Ness, St. Current bedded Calciferous Sand-
Andrews - stone. 1921.
6251 (1921-83) S. of Cambo Ness, St. Hematite in current-bedded Calci-
Andrews ferous Sandstone. 1921.
6252 (1921-84) S. of Cambo Ness, St. Stigmaria in Calciferous Sandstone.
Andrews 1921.
6253 een) Wormit, S. end of Tay LJrratic on shore. 192i.
ridge
6254 (1921-88) Wormit Bay Volcanic conglomerate. 1921.

KincarDINe:—Photographed by J.

Aberdeen.

6255 ( )i m. 8. of

station

Cove Bay

6256 (2) Nigg Bay . : -

6257 (3) Nigg Bay and Girdleness

6258 (4) Shore { m. S. of Cove Bay
; station

6259 (6) Coast at Muchalls

6260 (8) Muchalls

6261 (%) Shore near Muchalls

B. Puiuip, 8 Belvedere Crescent,
1/2.

Roches moutonnées and Boulder clay.

Boulder clay section. 1920 or 1921.
Shingle Beach.

Dalradian rocks with granite intru-

sion. 1921.
Coast erosion of Dalradian rocks.
1920.

A sea stack of gneiss, the ‘Old Man’
of Muchalls. 1920.

Marine erosion of gneiss. 1920.

Ireland.

Anrrim.—Photographed by Grenvintn A. J.
Carrickmines, Co. Dublin.

6262
6263 (17) N. of Ballymena

(16) Coast W. of Fair Head

Couns, F’.BR:S.,
ier.
Coal Seam in LL. Carboniferous Sand-

stone
Tree-stumps in bog.

Armacu.—Photographed by G. A. J. Comm, F.R.S., Carrickmines,

Co. Dublin.

6264

(19) near Armagh

LL.

Tertiary basalt dyke in Carboniferous
Limestone.

316

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

DongeGaL.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coz, F.R.S., Carrickmines,
Co. Dublin. I.

Regd. No. :
6265 (22) Quarry N. of Fintown, E.

of Glenties
(24) Mullaghderg, Inishfree Bay
6267 (24) N. of Gweebara River and
of Glenties
(25) W. of Doocharry Bridge

Granite dyke in composite Dalradian
gneiss.

Orbicular granite.

Bog-covered lowlands.

Sheets of mica-schist, residues ot

Dalradian sediment, in granite.

Down.—Photographed by G. A. J. Cong, F.R.S., Carrickmines,

Co. Dublin.

6269 (18) N. slope of Slieve Donard

Dusuiy.—Photographed by G. A.
Co. Dublin.

of Dublin
Mountain
N.W. of

6270 (1) Lowland SE.
from Three Rock

(2) Carrickgallogan,
Bray

(3) The Scalp (Dublin
Wicklow border)

6271

and

6272

6273 (4) By River Dodder, N. of
Rathfarnham

6274 (5) Greenhills, N. of Tallaght

6275 (6) River Dodder, Tallaght
Bridge

6276 (7) Dodder valley, Tallaght

Joints in granite controlling course of
stream.

J. Cott, l'.R.S., Carrickmines,
L.

Granite Tor and drift-covered
boniferous plain.

Dome of Cambrian quartzite with
foreground of Ordovician.

Gorge cut across granite spur by over-
flow-water from glacial lake.

Vertical Boulder Clay cliff.

Car-

Section in esker.
River-channel cut in Boulder Clay.

iver-terraces cut in glacial drift.

Gauway.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines,

Co. Dublin.

6277 (28) Joyce’s river valley, S. of
Leenane

6278 (29) W. of Oughterard

Kurry.—Photographed by G. A.
Dub

Co,

side of Valencia Td.

6279 (32) 5S.

(33) E. of Kenmare

6280

lin.

ling

Silurians on nearly vertical Dalra-
dians.

Overfolded and contorted Dalradian
crystalline Limestone.

J. Corn, F.R.S., Carrickmines,
‘lp.

Subsoil forming
Devonian slate.
The Cloghvorra, an erratic of Carbori-

ferous Limestone on O.R.S.

from massive

KinkenNNy.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines,

Co. Dublin.

6281 (31) N. bank of the Suir,

Waterford

Old Red Sandstone uncorformable on
Ordovician.

Mayo.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines,

Co. Dublin.

(26) Pontoon Bridge, W. of Roches moutonnées.

6282
Foxford
6283 (27) Croaghpatrick

live

Characteristic weathering of quartzite
mountain,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 317

Roscommon.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines,
Co. Dublin. L.
Regd. No

6284 (21) View W. from Slieve Bawn, Characteristic lake-set Carboniferous
S. of Carrick-on-Shannon . Limestone plain.

Stiao.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines,
Co. Dublin. UL.

6285 (20) Ben Bulben : : . Carboniferous Limestone flat-topped
hill.

— WarerrorD.—Photographed by G. A. J. Corn, F.R.S., Carrickmines,
Co. Dublin. L.

6286 (30) Lough Coumshingaun, Tarn at base of cirque- -cliff of O.R.S.
Comeragh Mts. :

Wicktow.—Photographed by G. A. J. Coun, F.R.S., Carrickmines.
Co. Dublin. LL.

6287 (8) Upper Lough Bray. . Moraine separating the two lakes.

6288 (9) Lough Nahanagar, Leinster Block-moraine holding up lake.
granite chain

6289 (10) Fall of Dargle river, Fatl is determined by junction of rela-
Powerscourt tively soft schists with hard granite.

6290 (11) R. Liffey above Pollaphuca Post- glacial ravice in Ordovician
fall (Wicklow and Kaildare slates.

border)

6291 (12) Pollaphuca fall of R. Liffey Central shelf due to andesite bar in
(Wicklow and Kildare Ordovician slates.
border)

6292 (13) Near head of Glenmacnass Roots of trees in peat on granite 600 ft.
above present tree lim:;.

6293 (14) E. of Luggela above Round- Granite erratics on mica schist.

wood
6294 (15) Ovoza Valley. ; . Mines (Cu and Fe pyrites and ochre).

Channel Islands.

Jursey.—Pholographed by S. H. Reynoups, M.A., Sc.D.,
The University, Bristol. ‘1/4.

6295 (1921-20) La Moye . 2 . Basic dyke. 1921.

6296 (1921-21) Belval Cove, St. Coarse Cambrian and Conglomerate.
Catherine’s Bay 1921.

6297 (1921-22) Anne Port . - . Columnar rhyolite. 1921.

6298 (1921-24) Mt. Orgueil ‘ . Mica trap dyke. 1921

Gurrnsrey.—Photographed by B. Hopson, M.Sc., Thornton,
Hallamgate Road, Sheffield. 1/4.

6299 (F1) Looking E. from Corbiére Basic dykes cutting gneiss. 1921.
promontory

6300 (E4: Les Tielles (S. coast) . Basic dykes in gneiss. 1921.

6301 (E6) Moulin Huet Bay . . Marine erosion of gneiss. 1921,

318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Photographed by 8. H. Reynotps, M.A., Sc.D., The University,
Bristol. 1/4.

sd. No.
6302. (1921-26) Belle Greve é - Coarser diorite veined by finer. 1921.
6303 (1921:29a) N. of St. Peter’s Port TFelsite enclosing gneiss lenticle. 1921.
6304 (1921-30) St. Sampson’s . . Worm castings. 1921. .
6305 (1921:32) L’Eree . 2 . . ‘Submerged forest.’ 1921.
6306 (1922-39) S. of Grand Havre . Raised beach on granite. 1922. :
6307 (1922-43) Grand Havre . . Microgranite veins in diorite. 1922.

SarK.—Photographed by B. Hopson, M.Sc., Thornton,
Hallamgate Road, Sheffield. 1/4.

6308 (F-3) Port du Moulin = . Lenticles of hornblendic rock. 1921.
6309 (F-5) Les Autelets (W. coast) . Sea stack of gneiss. 1921.
6310 (F6) Les Autelets . : . Sea stacks of gneiss. 1921.

Naples Table.— Report of Committee (Professor E. 8. Goopricu,
Chairman; Professor J. H. AsHwortu, Secretary; Dr. G. P.
Bipper, Professor F. O. Bowser, Dr. W. B. Harpy, Sir F. S.
Harmer, Professor S. J. Hickson, Sir EH. Ray Lanxrster,
Professor W. C. McIntosu) appointed to aid competent investi-
gators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces of work
at the Zoological Station at Naples. (Drawn up by the Chairman
and Secretary. |

‘HE British Association Table was occupied by Dr. Cresswell Shearer, F.R.S.,
from April 10 to June 21, 1923, and he has sent in a report as follows :—

‘1 was engaged on the problem of the respiration of the growing parts of
embryos. ‘The main result of my work was a confirmation (by direct manometer
measurements) of Child’s work on the determination of oxidation-gradients of
the embryo, by the susceptibility methods, using cyanide and other chemical
agents. JI was able to carry the problem a step farther than Child, in that
I was able to find the acetone powders of parts of the embryo still retained (in a
reduced form) the different (respiratory) relationships they showed in the living
embryo, in that an acetone powder of the embryo head had four to six times
the oxidation-rate of a similar quantity of powder prepared from the trunk
and tail region of the same embryo.’

We understand that Dr. R. Dohrn has been appointed Administrative Director
of the Zoological Station, but we have as yet no details of the other changes
involved.

The Chairman and Secretary believe they are interpreting the wishes of the
Committee in applying for reappointment of the Committee with a grant of 100/.

ON ZOOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION. 319

Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Peport of Commutiee
(Prof. E. B. Pounron, Chairman; Dr. F. A. Barusrr, Secretary ;
Mr. BE. Heron-Auten, Dr. W. Evans Hovis, Dr. P. CHALMERS
MITCHELL).

SEVERAL requests from workers both at home and far away for the Circulars and
Reports of the Committee have been received during the year, and have in
some cases given rise to a useful correspondence. Advice was given on the
following questions :—

(a) Mode of reference to previous publications : see Report for 1916, and
Circular Letter. Emphasis was laid on the need for contracting the titles of
periodicals in a way intelligible to workers in all branches of science ; ¢.g., Ber.
Annalen, Beitrige, Monatsb., without further qualification, are quite meaning-
less, Too many workers ignore all fields outside their own garden-plot; but
with the transgression of the old boundaries now so frequent, as for instance
in Biochemistry, this attitude is an obstacle to would-be readers. For similar
reasons it is advisable to give initials of authers, at least in the case of such
surnames as Smith, Jones, Miller, Meunier, Perrin, and Peterson.

It is always permissible to employ brief contractions composed ad hoc,
provided that a list of them with their interpretation accompanies the memoir.

(b) Repetition of the Title and other details on each leaf.—A case arose
in which one or two leaves were issued at intervals, and bore no reference to
the volume of which they were supposed to form part. The ideal is attained
(and attained without difficulty) when every page-opening shows the title,
volume-number, and month of publication.

(c) Insertion of unnecessary or even misleading dates.—In attempting to
ascertain the date of publication of a new species, it was found necessary to
contend not only with the date of reading the paper, and with the month
and year for which the part was ostensibly issued, but also with various dates
inserted by the printers, presumably indicating the actual day on which each
sheet or cover was worked off on the press. None of these dates can be of
any value, except as yielding one date before which the part cannot have been
published. The Committee would, therefore, insist once more that the actual
date of issue should be definitely indicated, as closely as possible, upon each
separate part of a periodical or serial publication. It is, however, equally
important that this date, when given, should be correct, and should not, like
‘that on a recent volume of Palaontographica italica, be three years out. A
letter on this subject has been sent to the Revue critique de Paléozoologie.
(d) What constitutcs Publication?—This question was raised by Dr. Henry
Fairfield Osborn in August, 1922, in consequence of the private issue of a
‘pamphlet containing a number of new names. The Secretary of this Com-
mittee expressed the principles consistently guiding its recommendations for the
past twenty-five years, and his observations were included by Dr. Osborn in
his paper entitled ‘Publication Standards in Vertebrate Paleontology ’ (Feb.
1923, Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, xxxvi., pp. 1-6). Since, however, this is
‘a matter of importance to all systematic biologists, and consequently to all the
other workers who must follow their lead in nomenclature, it seems advisable
that the views of this Committee should be published here in definite form.

(1) The term ‘private publication,’ though frequently used, is self-contra-
dictory, for that which is private cannot be public, and that which has been
made public is no longer private. A writer must make up his mind: il faut
quwune porte soit ouverte ou fermée.

(2) The term ‘private printing,’ though often used erroneously, has no
application to this question. A privately printed book is one printed by an
amateur on his private press; and such a book may subsequently be published
or distributed privately. On the other hand, a work printed at a press so
public as, say, the Clarendon, may be rigidly kept from publication.

(3) A correct term to express the procedure under discussion is ‘ private
issue,’ and this, adopted by Dr. Osborn, will be used here. It may be defined
as the presentation by the author, or authors, of a limited number of copyes

1923 Zz

320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

of a work, multiplied by any mechanical process, to his, or their, personal
acquaintance. This definition, however, lacks precision in respect of the words
‘limited’ and ‘acquaintance.’ The practical interpretation is that the ordinary
person is liable to be refused a copy.

(4) The publication of a written work must consist in the multiplication of
copies, and in their distribution either to all who demand (as in the case of
certain Government issues, or other matter scattered urbi et orbi), or to all
who pay the price asked. Here, again, the practical interpretation is that no
unavoidable difficulty shall be placed in the way of a would-be acquirer. The
ordinary dictionary definition and the trade custom agree with this definition
by insisting on either sale or universal distribution.

(5) It is now clear that a work may be written, printed, and placed on
sale by an individual who is not by profession a publisher, and that such work
will none the less be published, provided that the law of the country of pro-
duction is in other respects complied with, e.g. the Copyright Act of Great
Britain. It is, however, most desirable that in all cases, whether by Govern-
ments or individuals, in which publication is not through ordinary trade
channels, reasonable annotncement of the fact should be made through that
section of the public press which may be expected to reach parties interested.

(6) There are certain limitations of distribution which create difficulties.
When a number of people club together and subscribe to produce a book for
themselves and themselves alone, it seems clear that this does not constitute
publication; and proof of this is that the method is sometimes adopted to
escape police prosecution. If this be accepted, however, a difficulty seems to
arise in the case of the few learned societies which refuse to sell any part
or volume of their serials to one who is not a member; we hold that this action
is in restriction of the advance of knowledge, and that it should therefore
wot be regarded as publication.

(7) We have ir our second Report (Toronto, 1897, Recommendation No. 3)
dealt with the private distribution of authors’ separates before publication of
the part er volume; many societies have since acted on our recommendation,
and have placed a price on such pre-prints, as well as on their own abstracts ot
proceedings, formerly distributed to members only.

(8) The application of the foregoing principles to zoological (and botanical)
nomenclature brings us up against a fresh difficulty. It is generally recognised
that for our purposes publication must be limited to such books and serials as
our fellow-workers may reasonably expect to contain such matter. Conse-
quently a new specific name cabled to The Z'imes, or printed in a trade-journal
or a literary review, would, rightly, be ignored by systematists. If there is
any doubt in a particular instance it should be decided by the International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature.

(9) We have not dealt here with the other conditions required to validate a new
systematic name. Publication is only one condition. So far as that is con-
cerned we may sum up thus :—

Publication of a new systematic name is effective only when the volume,
paper, or leaflet in which it appears is obtainable at a price in the way of
trade by any applicant, or is distributed widely and freely to circles interested,
it being always of a character suitable to the publication of such matter.

Your Committee asks for its reappointment, with a grant of 1/. to meet
incidental expenses, and requests that this Report be published.

i ag ie ie

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 321

Geography Teaching. Report of Committee (Professor T. P.
Nunn, Chairman; Mr. W. H. Barker, Secretary; Mr. L. Brooxg,
Professor H. J. Furure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarrs, Sir H. J.
Macxinver, Professor J. L. Myrus, and Professor J. F. UNstEap,
from Section HE; Mr. Aviam, Mr. D. Berripce, Mr. C. EK.
Browne, Sir RicHarp Grecory, Mr. EH. SHARwoop SmitrH, Mr.
HK. R. Tuomas, and Miss O. Wricut, from Section L).

Prefatory Note.

Ar the Edinburgh Meeting of the British Association the discussion, in both
Sections E and L, on the effect of the Regulations of the Board of Education
upon the position ot geography in secondary schools, was followed by the
appointment by the General Committee of a Research Committee ‘ to formulate
suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of geography both to matriculation
standard and in advanced courses ; to report upon the present position of the geo-
graphical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon; and to
report, as occasion arises, to Council, through the Organising Committee of
Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of
Education affecting the position of geography in training colleges and secondary
schools.’ The members of the Committee were Professor T. P. Nunn (Chair-
man), Mr. W. H. Barker (Secretary), Mr. C. E. Browne, and Sir Halford J.
Mackinder. ' ;

During the period that the Committee carried on its investigations the
Council had correspondence with the Board of Education on the subject, and
obtained from the Board a statement relating to Revised Regulations for
Secondary Schools, England, 1921, as follows :—

(1) The effect of Article 7 is to make it necessary that the course of work
should be arranged as to secure that every pupil who remains in the school till
the age of sixteen shall during his school life have passed through an adequate
course of graduated instruction in each one of the subjects named in the Article.

(2) In a circular issued in 1919 it was stated that Geography ‘necessarily
holds, as an essential part of all proper study of histcry, an important place in
all courses belonging to Group B and Group C; and that the definition of Group C
embodied in the current Regulations affords special opportunity for increased

attention to Geography in connection with the work in history.’ ‘This view is

also applicable to the new Group D courses allowed under the recent Regulations.

(3) Geography is not accepted as a main subject in Group A (Science and
Mathematics).

The groups B, C, and D, referred to in (2) above, refer to main subjects of
study in advanced courses and, as defined in the Regulations, consist respec-
tively of ‘ (B) Classics, viz. the civilisation of the ancient world as embodied in
the language, literature, and history of Greece and Rome; (C) Modern Studies,
viz. the language, literature, and history of the countries of Western Europe
in modern and medieval times; (D) the civilisation (i) of Greece or Rome and
(ii) of England or another country of Western Europe in modern times as

_ embodied in their language, literature, and history.’

The correspondence embodying the above statement was published in the
press by order of the Council, with the consent of the Board.
The Council, after further correspondence with the Board, were gratified to

learn from the draft Requlations for Secondary Schools, 1922, that the position

of geography in the curriculum was to be materially strengthened, and that it
was to be included as a principal subject in advanced courses (Group E).1

The new regulations referred to in the above Report (see also ‘ Higher
School Certificate,’ p. 335) so materially altered the position of geography in
schools that the Committee decided to withhold its report and to recommend

1 See Report of the Council, 1921-22, pp. xiv-xv.

322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

that a new and larger Committee be appointed with the same terms of reference.
This vecommendation was carried out by the General Committee at the Hull
Meeting, 1922.

In the course of its deliberations the Committee has had frequent occasion
to consult with the heads of schools, teachers of geography, examinations boards,
and universities, and desires to express its appreciation of the help which
invariably has been given.

Introduction.

The definition of Geography as the study of the surface of the earth has
by its very vagueness made both for progress and for retrogression. On the
one hand, the various possible interpretations have encouraged’ the inclusion
of the subject within the curriculum; on the other, the same considerations
have given rise to criticism which has urged the inclusion of geography, wholly
or in part, within the teaching scope of another subject, this inclusion to begin
at some period ranging from the middle forms of the secondary school to the
university stage.

For these reasons, difficult though it is to define the scope of any subject in
few words, especially when, as in school work, educational discipline and co-
ordination of knowledge must also be considered, any attempt to carry out the
Committee’s terms of reference demands a restatement of the content of the
subject. Conceived on a world scale, the earth’s surface constitutes a sphere
whose physical form arises from the interpenetration and interplay of the litho-
sphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Physical forms and forces, however, are
but part of the constituents of the earth surface, and organic life—flora and
fauna—enter into its composition. In addition, man, with his ability to transmit
experience and knowledge. has an accumulating power to influence the other
concomitants, physical and biological, of his existence. Some of his work, indeed,
is of the magnitude of the works of Nature—e.g. the Suez Canal, the Forth
Bridge, the Simplon Tunnel, the irrigation of Egypt, &c. Though he cannot
alter to any appreciable extent the maior phenomena, yet in almost every small
region the evidence of his work may be seen. The ‘surface’ of the earth is,
therefore, at any moment the resultant of many complex processes, each of which
is in a constant state of change, of greater or less rapidity. Structure, relief,
climate, vegetation, human agency, and many other factors operate together.
modifying the action of one another continually as change takes place in anv
of them. From the earth as a whole to the smallest hamlet, movement and change
of form constantly and continuously take place. imparting to a region many of
the characteristics of an organism, and giving life to the subject of geography.

Only an all-embracing intelligence could comprehend even for one region all the

interweavings of all the phenomena and calculate the relative yalues of each,
which makes the knowledge of the region full and complete.

Nevertheless, it is not only possible but necessary for an appreciation of
world conditions to-day to make a synthetic study of certain major phenomena.
Such wvhenomena, for example, are the effects of the rotation and revolution of
the planet with its axis at 664° to the plane of the ecliptic; the character and
interpenetration of lithosphere. hvdrosphere, and atmosphere; the major dis-
tribntions of land and water: the circulations of air and water: the distribution
of vegetation zones; the distribution of peoples and their control hy and eventual
control over the complete and resultant conditions mder which thev live.

In the first place, geographical study is necessarily descriptive of the regional
life as it is, though with the consciousness that in very few areas is there even
an approximation to stability. The one area where scholars mav see and ohserve
this multiplicity of phenomena in geographical unity is that of the home—.e. the
district whose limits are defined by its accessibility for direct observation bv
them. Here may be seen the various forces operating to give the characteristic
life of the region—the altitude of the sun, weather changes, relief and soils.
vecetation, buildings, works, public utilities. and the contacts with the larcer
world. For the Jearner ‘home’ is the centre of his world. Jt is also the
lahoratory in which geographical observations and records are made. It is here
that the pupil must obtain measures and standards by which to estimate the
other regions of the earth

ipeiey

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 325

‘The continuous study of the home gives the best possible training not only
in geographical thought but also in geographical method. The record ot
observations, besides turnishing the basis for synthetic study, gives the training
in map and chart interpretation—the reading of the geographical alphabet—
upon which the study of other regions must be based.

Necessarily the regional study of the world will be less intensive than that
of the home, but the character ot the study remains the same. Mere description
develops into an analysis and synthesis of the major components with the view
of establishing their relationships, and for those studies the pupil must learn
to use maps and diagrams and to understand how they are made. From the
study of the major regions it is possible to establish certain worid-generalisations
which may be regarded as the highest aim of geographical study.

_It is well to notice that man with his power to transmit the results of experi-
ence and knowledge is becoming increasingly a factor which makes for change
and consequent readjustment. ‘The application of science to modify the con-
ditions of lite constitutes, along with the production of charts and maps and
their manipulation, the closest bond between the fields of geographical and
scientific studies.

Thus far, geography has been defined as the study of the earth’s surface as
it is. Description of regions as they are develops into an analysis and synthesis
of the components w-th a view to establish reasons for the special and peculiar
relationships, and essential to this study are the reading and interpretation of
maps. But the present is the outcome of the past, and though much that has
been is displaced by that which is, certain events continue their influence
markedly into the present and must be regarded as concomitant factors. Such,
for example, is the upfolding of the Pennines which has resulted in the special
relationship of the northern coalfields of England and their connecting routes,
and has influenced present occupations through the effect of the uplift on such
other components as climate, drainage, &c. ‘Lhe effects of the West African
slave trade of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries operate to-day
in the geography both of the United States and of West Africa. Indeed, for
almost all regions the effects of certain outstanding events of the past continue
to operate, and must be considered by the geographer.

As applications of modern science connote the affinity of geography with the
sciences, so this bringing forward of the past to help in the interpretation of
the present connotes links between geography and historical studies, including
geology and archeology. It should be noted that this is not historical geography,
but pure geography in which present conditions are considered as fully as possible
in order to appreciate the reasons why a region is as it is.

Historical geography may be defined as a sequence of geographies to which
the conception of historical development is applied. At any period of the past
each place had its ‘geography,’ defined as the balance or resultant of forces
then operating. So might be reconstructed, for example, the geography of Britain
in the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the periods of the Romans, Saxons, Normans,
&c., until we arrive at our own times. By a process of evolution the passage
of these ‘ geographies’ one into the next gives that combination of geographical
and historical processes which is the subject-matter of historical geography.

Geography, as ordinarily understood, deals with the world of to-day, pro-
ceeding from the description of a region by map, chart, or words to an investiga-
tion into those causes of which the present geographical ‘form’ or ‘shape’ of
the region may be regarded as the result. Some, indeed most, of these causes
have their origin in the past, and this is specially true of man and his work.
Moreover, because man is able to transmit his knowledge and experience from
generation to generation and from one group to another, the importance of the
human factor in any region is steadily and rapidly increasing. Wor this reason,
geography, especially as interpreted and limited for the purposes of school work,
Occupies a special position in the study of human conditions at present obtaining
= the various parts of the earth and the tendency of the changes taking place
therein.”

2 For a scientific statement on the content of geography see the forthcoming
Geographical Essays by Sir Halford J. Mackinder.

324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The Aim and Functions of Geography in Education.

The claim of a subject to a place in the schcol curriculum must ultimately
be measured by the value of its contribution to the history of the human spirit,
the development of culture and civilisation, and what may be called the educated
mind of the age. The principle assumed here is that the development of the
individual mind and character is best fostered by the moral, intellectual, and
zsthetic traditions which have been, or promise to be, of most significance in
the upward movement of the race. .The criterion guarantees the position of the
older disciplines, and also justifies the admission of others, such as natural
science and geography, which have only in modern times attained to the distinct-
ness of aim, the individuality of method, and the coherence of content which
have made them important elements in the life of civilised peoples. It points,
moreover, to a practical maxim of great weight. A subject, to have its full
educational value, must be so taught as to represent faithfully in the class-room
the spirit and character of the corresponding movement in the wider intellectual
world. This means, for instance, that school geography must be the geography
of geographers : not the mere learning of geographical data and results, but a
training in the geographer’s characteristic methods and principles of interpreta-
tion and an assimilation of his characteristic point of view. Only when a subject
is taught in this way are the items of knowledge communicated given their true
relations and significance, so that the subject as a whole makes its special con-
tribution to the pupil’s outlook and habits of thought.

In the preceding section an attempt has been made to characterise geography
as the modern geographer conceives it. It must, however, be recognised that
this conception is not one which can be placed before pupils at the outset, but
is rather a goal towards which their teacher should direct their studies as they
pass from stage to stage of mental growth and experience. In the earlier phases
of their progress it will be appropriate to emphasise aspects which will fall into
subordinate positions when the subject has reached its full systematic develop-
ment. These will include the romantic and descriptive elements which may
properly predominate in the earliest lessons, and the utilitarian or ‘ human’
elements which naturally occupy the focus of interest in the middle school
period.

With regard to the latter it should be remarked that a knowledge of geo-
graphical facts is important for men and women in all walks of life, and the
utilitarian value of the subject should never be overlooked in school teaching.
But the main aim of the teaching should be to enable pupils, by study of the
regions of the world, to realise how the peoples of the world live and work,
and how their life and their work are related. This aim coincides with the
nature of the contribution which geography can make to the training of future
citizens, estimated in relation to the fundamental needs of our time. In study-
ing the world and its regions the geographer must pay attention to the dis-
tribution and iater-relations of all the relevant phenomena of land, water, and
air, and of the life of plants, animals, and men, but for school purposes, at
least below the stage of the advanced course, the emphasis should be on man.
In view of the comparatively short time that is given to geography in most
schools there must he a careful selection of subject-matter and a concentration
upon essentials. It is also necessary that the material selected should appeal
to the interests of young people of school age, should equip them with adequate
geographical knowledge so that they may be able to take an intelligent interest
in the world and its affairs, and should make them familiar with the working
of great geographical principles. These objects can best be achieved by empha-
sising the distribution and activities of man, and, in the main, by restricting
what is taught concerning the other geographical distributions to what is
necessary in order to understand the life of man.

Thus, whilst a school course of geography should provide for adequate work
of an observational character, for practical work in the making, use, and under-
standing of maps, and for an examination of those geographical distributions
and special processes necessary to understand the life of a region, the main
aim should be to show the distribution and activities of man in relation to his
physical environment. If this aim is accepted it is clear that schemes of

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 325

geographical instruction in schools, at least up to and including the stage of the
First Examination, should not show separate schemes of physical geography.
The groundwork of the physical basis must be covered during the four years
course, but the treatment should be incidental and the topics arranged according
to the needs of the regional studies and the age and ability of the pupils.

The Stages of School Life.

The success of any scheme of instruction depends largely upon a scientific
adjustment of teaching and training to the natural movement of mental develop-
ment. ‘The total school period may be taken to run from the age of six to the
age of eighteen. In this period there occurs one life-change of the greatest
importance—the advent of adolescence. The physical, intellectual, and spiritual
developments of that critical period constitute the division between primary
and post-primary education. Adolescence cannot be fixed at any particular date
or year. It is a period or epoch which appears at different times in different
children, and therefore for administrative purposes it is necessary to fix upon
some date. The age of 11+ has been generally adopted as the dividing line
between the two main periods of school life. It is at this age that the scholar-
ship holders leave the elementary school for the secondary school. Each of the
main periods 6 to 114+ and 11+ to 18 may be subdivided for the purposes
of administration. In the first period occurs the transfer from infants’ school
or kindergarten to the junior or preparatory school. In the second it is possible
for education to cease at 14+ for the great majority of the pupils of the elemen-
tary schools. The majority of the pupils in secondary schools remain until the
end of the ‘four years’ course,’ which covers the period 11+ to 16, and some
remain for an ‘advanced course’ followed from 16 to 18. This report is con-
cerned with secondary schools, and principally concerned with the post-primary
or secondary period from 11 + onwards, the period of the ‘four years’ course,’
and the ‘advanced course,’ but many schools have also pupils belonging to
the later years of the primary stage. This report is not concerned with pupils
belonging to the earlier years of that period.

The School Course.

The principles which should guide the formation of a syllabus of geo-
graphical instruction in secondary schcols may be stated briefly.

I. Tue Later Primary StacE—aces 9 To 11+.

Pupils of this age will, in most cases, have heard stories of the lives of
children in typical environments. They will also have been introduced through
nature study to the simple facts of natural phenomena. They are, however,
still children, and cannot appreciate instruction of too formal a character.
They love outdoor activities, they are full of imagination and adventure, and
they revel in the wonderful things of the world in which they live. It is then
the period for a wide basis of instruction, for the déepening of impressions of the
homeland and of lands and peoples far away, and for an abundance of work
having the concreteness and freshness of open-air experience. It is the period in
which are laid the foundations upon which a consciousness of imperial and
world citizenship may later be built.

The Secondary Period.
II. Tue ‘Four Years’ Course ’—aces 11+ ro 16.

This stage covers the main part of the secondary school, and includes
the most important of the years of adolescence. It is a common mistake to
make the work of the earlier years too formal and bookish, thus neglecting
the fact that young people passing through the years of early or pre-adolescence
show, though on a higher level, many of the characteristics usually associated
with children, e.g. the love of make-believe. Thus while the work gradually
becomes more formal in character and the pupils are trained to rely more and

326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

more upon their own resources and less on those of their teacher, there should
be no abrupt change from the methods of the primary stage. ‘ }

During the four years’ course the groundwork of the general and regional
geography of the world should be covered. The method of work will be illustrated
by a first-hand study of the home district to which reference will be made at
all stages. In the study of the home district and the British Isles direct exper1-
ence and observation play an important part, and maps and charts, such as the
maps of the Ordnance Survey, weather charts, &c., should be read and
interpreted. ?

The emphasis on the human factor in all the teaching will be welcomed and
eagerly developed by pupils passing through the experience of adoiescence

roper.
ae Ill. Tue Apvancep CoursE—acGeEs 16 To 18.

At this stage the adolescent has begun to surmount his difficulties, and
steadying influences appear. In this stage the beginnings of specialisation can
be introduced with profit, and the pupil can be thrown more and more upon
his own initiative. In geography he is now able to engage in more detailed
regional studies, and to pursue courses in specialised branches of geographical
instruction, e.g. meteorology, geomorphology, surveying, historical geography, &c.

Outline Schemes for each Stage..

T. Tue Later Primary Srace.

Formal geography cannot be taken in these years, but the principles which
underlie geographical study should serve as a guide in the selection of story
and description. One group of lessons should be preparatory to the study of
the ‘home.’ It should be related to familiar things, and involve a good deal
of observation. The complexity of the ‘home’ arises from—

(i) its position on the surface of the earth ;

(11) the local conditions of relief, soil, climate, &c. ;

(iii) the activities of man in field or factory, on road or railway.

All these may be introduced by a teacher who possesses a geographical ‘ sense.’
The farmer, the woodlands, a winter’s day, the thunderstorm, the market cross,
old street names, these and a thousand other circumstances may be selected
round which to weave the threads of a geographical study. The farm with
meadowland by the river should be contrasted with the farm consisting mainly
of hill pasture. Seed time must ultimately be coupled with harvest time, and
both with the seasonal change of climate, and the cattle market with the shops
in the High Street.

The home district must also be used to teach the elements of geographical
notation by means of simple maps. Similarly, in the choice of descriptions
and stories of other lands and peoples, the basis must be as fine a geographical f
conception as possible. Eskimo life in winter must have as complement the —
life in summer. The prairie, as the former home of the Indian, needs another
picture of the prairies as the home of the present wheat cultivator. The
wheat farm of Canada needs as its corollary the factories of the Black
Country, and both involve the romance of the ship by which the wheat and
manufactures are exchanged.

_ The story of explorer and adventurer in Africa and Australia needs to be
linked with the story of the development of these same lands under modern
conditions. Folk-lore, not as isolated stories but carefully selected as to area
and with points referring to local conditions, faithfully related, can be made
to render valuable aid in these early years of instruction.

As the work proceeds so it becomes possible to ‘locate’ the scenes of the —
stories. For local setting the first rough map may be built and orientated on
the floor or table, showing the position of school, church, market, farm, wood, —
&c. Distant scenes should be located on a black-surfaced globe, the character of _
the region being indicated so that on completion the major regions of the earth
—climatic, vegetational, and industrial—have been placed, and great world ocean
and railway routes of commerce have been marked.

Thus by the end of the primary stage the pupil has some elementary

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 327

conception of the ‘home’ and of the world, and has been introduced to the use
of map and globe as a means of localising his ideas.

Il. Tue Four Years’ Course.

This period of four (or five) years is the one in which the foundations of
formal and advanced geographical studies are laid. It is terminated as a rule
by the School Leaving Examination, which as determined by most examination —
syllabuses tests a knowledge of the world in general, and of one or more
important regions in somewhat greater detail. It is obvious that the work
done, say, at age 12, on any particular area would not be of the character or
standard required for the examination at the age of 16. Equally obvious
is it that the whole work for the examination cannot be done in one year.
Were either of these possible the position of geography in secondary education
would be seriously prejudiced, and rightly so.

Experience has shown the possibility of most diverse treatment of the
subject during these years, but, ignoring for the moment the sequence of study,
the underlying principles in the teaching of the home district, the British Isles,
and the world may be set out thus :—

The ‘Home.’

The home district, which includes the whole of the area which can be
studied on the spot by a whole class, forms the first geographical laboratory in
which, while the formal study proceeds, observations are made and recorded,
including the measurement of the length of the day, rainfall, wind direction,
altitude of the sun, the time of the budding of trees, hay and corn harvest, &c.
These form the beginnings of the study of the synoptic (weather) chart, one of
the valuable documents of geographical study. Relief, rivers, soils, villages,
roads, &c., plotted at first as the study proceeds and always orientated when
additions are made, lead to the study of the Ordnance Survey maps, and of
the geological maps in so far as they help the study of the relationship of
structure to relief and vegetation and of cultivation to the general character
of soils. The distribution and activities of man are studied in relation to all
these factors, and the whole is made as far as possible a model for the regional
study of lands which cannot be visited.

This home study may be followed either by :

(i) A descriptive study of the British Isles where the lessons, observations,
maps, and diagrams of the ‘home’ may readily be applied; or

(ii) The simple study of general world phenomena for which the local study
- Beenbiltty of the day and seasons, the climate, &c., forms a suitable intre-
uction.

The World.

The use of the globe and generalised maps of relief, climate, &c., enable
elementary ideas to be acquired according to the principles already enunciated.
These world conceptions lead readily to°regional subdivisions, though there
is much variation in the manner of subdivision. Whether the teacher selects
for treatment the land-masses iying in an east and west direction (e.g. the
Southern Continents, North America, and Europe or Eurasia), or in a north
and south direction (e.g. the Americas, Asia and Australasia, Africa and
Europe), or in any other order, it is imperative that the order should be thought
out carefully so that it permits of a proper development of the teaching. The
aes must not be selected for detailed regional study in haphazard
ashion.

Whatever method is adopted the data are supplied largely by generalised
maps, charts, and diagrams. It is, therefore, an integral part of geographical
work at this stage to continue the study of the ordnance maps, weather charts,
and meteorological charts of the great oceans, both as correctives to these
generalisations and to give proficiency in the expression of geographical know-
ledge through the notation of geography.

One important value of geography in education is the opportunity it gives
to express thought in diagram and sketch no less than in words.

328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The British Isles and the World.

Towards the end of the third year the elementary principles of world
geography and the interpretation and use of maps and diagrams have been
acquired. In the ‘home’ study the geographical complex could be realised
because of the smallness of the area. In the world study the emphasis becomes
more particularly the influence of natural conditions. In the last year or so
the other viewpoint may be given—viz. the activities of man as he utilises the
resources of nature. The economic study of the British Isles, for example,
enables the previous study to be considerably amplified; and, moreover, by
the links of all kinds which bind Britain to her overseas Dominions and to
other parts of the world, the previous regional studies both of Britain and of
the world may be revised and completed.

At this stage the use of graphs and diagrams for statistical purposes should
be used along with the map and diagram studies begun in the first and
second periods.

The Secondary Stage: The Advanced Course.

The present system of advanced courses under the Regulations of the Board
of Education demands that each principal subject must satisfy the following
conditions :—

(i) That the study may be usefully carried to an advanced stage within the
school, and occupy approximately six hours per week of the time-table.

(ii) That it should be capable of forming a co-ordinated and uniform body
of study with the other principal subjects (generally two in number).

During the ordinary school course the outline of general and regional
geography, with a fairly detailed study of the British Isles, has usually been
attempted. As a general rule there have been no separate courses in the
physical basis of geography, and the relations between geography and history
have only been illustrated in a general way.

The lines of the direction of advanced study in school are thus clear. In
the first place, there should be a more advanced treatment of the world as a
whole, and also of the regional geography of selected areas in which a more
comprehensive analysis and synthesis is possible than at an earlier stage.
In the second place, especially if history is one of the other main subjects, there
should be some examination of the influences which geography has had upon
the course of history, and this may take the form of studies either in historical
geography or the history of geographical discovery, or both. Thirdly, and
particularly where a science forms one of the main subjects, it is possible to
take an extended course of study on some geographical phase for which the
scientific subject makes a suitable preparation, e.g. the physical basis of geo-
graphy where physics or geology are taken, or the distribution of plant and
animals in connection with studies in biology, botany, or zoology. In most
cases studies of both kinds would be included.

Although advanced studies of three kinds are mentioned only the regional
studies would form a necessary part of every course, although it is highly
desirable that all three aspects should be represented. Where either the second
or the third is omitted, special attention should be given to its leading features
in the teaching of the regional studies.

As the regional studies are of special importance it is necessary to indicate
their character. In the first place, the world as a whole should be studied in
more detail and with more understarding than was possible during the four-
years’ course. The emphasis could be cn the economic conditions of the
modern world. In the second place, there should be a more detailed regional
study of two or more smaller areas from some particular point of view—for
example, an area such as the ‘ Land of the Five Seas,’ where the rise and fall
of ancient civilisations has been followed by centuries of desolation and decay,
with a revival under modern economic conditions; or France, in which there
has been continuous development, and in which internal economy and external
contacts offer a wide circle of study; or an area such as one of the British

Baie Hh

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 329

Dominions, the United States, or Argentina, which has developed comparatively
recently under the conditions of modern times. Thirdly, wherever suitable the
home district, or a district which is within easy reuch and can be visited on
several occasions, should be studied in considerable detail and by personal investi-
gation, and the results of the study should be assembled on maps. All three
types of regional studies should be accompanied by cartographical studies of
an order comparable with the detail given to their study.

Geography in Relation to other Subjects of the Curriculum.
SCIENCE.

The various forces or phenomena which, as previously stated, may be
regarded as components whose resultant is the ‘life’ of any region, may in a
general way be divided into three groups: (i) physical, (ii) biological, and
(iii) human. Though this division cannot be pressed too far, it serves to indi-
cate that geography may have important relationships with studies belonging
to each group. Forced correlation should never be attempted, but such har-
mony as may reasonably be observed by the simultaneous study of two or more
subjects should be carefully maintained. The natural and biological sciences,
applied science, and history, as well as literature, art, and the social sciences,
often demand or reflect a geographical setting.

Science in preparatory and secondary schools is taught almost entirely under
the headings of nature study, experimental science, physics, chemistry, and
botany—the last-named branch of science being mostly confined to girls’ schools.
Each of these subjects includes certain facts and principles of essential value
for the scientific study of geography. (Qn the other hand, syllabuses of the
chief schoo! examinations in geography prescribe knowledge of instruments
and phenomena usually dealt with in the ordinary science courses.

Among the topics which are common to school science (including nature
study) and geography are the following :—

Determination of north and south points by observations of the sun and
Pole Star.

Annuai changes of the sun’s altitude.

Phases of the moon in relation to tides.

The thermometer and its use in determining temperature; temperature
scales; maximum and minimum thermometers.

Records of wind in relation to weather.

The atmosphere and barometric pressure.

Graphical records of meteorological phenomena.

Dew, fog, clouds, rain, snow, rain-gauge, ice.

Water : spring, river, and sea.

Filtration ; distillation ; solution.

Change of physical state of water.

Latent heat ; specific heat.

Cooling of air by expansion and heating by compression.

Radiation and absorption of heat.

Conducticn and convection of heat in relation to winds and ocean currents.

Factors determining climate.

It will be obvious, therefore, that a pupil who has been taught to observe
and describe natural occurrences and phenomena in a nature-study course,
and has afterwards followed the usual experimental course in physics and
chemistry, should possess a knowledge of the scientific facts and principles
required tc understand physical factors of geographical significance. It is
neither necessary nor desirable that teachers of geography should give instruc-
tion, as part of the geography course, in what amounts really to a general
scientific vocabulary. They expect their pupils to have a working knowledge
of arithmetic and the English language, and may similarly ask for acquaint-
ance with the rudiments of science.

In actual school work difficulties arise from two causes. First, there are
still teachers of geography who have not had a training in science; and next,
there is often no correlation between the various stages of school courses in

330 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

science and geography. The first cause will be removed only when it is under-
stood that geography is a scientific as well as a humanistic study, and that
it is desirable that those who teach it, even up to the standard of the First
School Examination, shall have received a training in practical science and
scientific methed. It is thus specially important that geography should have
a full place in the courses of the Faculties of Science in our Universities ; and
it can in its turn contribute to those faculties an important humanist element.
The separation of faculties now in vogue has probably been carried too far,
and it seems important that some students at any rate should grow up with
reasonable knowledge of method on both sides. The attention of universities
and of their schools of geography is invited to this point.

Assuming that the teacher possesses this knowledge, and is therefore capable
of making correct use of whatever scientific facts are required to comprehend
particular geographical differences, relationships, or consequences, the lack of
correlation between his course and that of the science teacher results frequently
in his requiring certain scientific knowledge from his pupils before they have
reached the subject in their science lessons. It has been shown that almost
all the topics of which an understanding is necessary to make the scientific side
of geography intelligible are included in the school science courses normally
followed. All that is wanted, therefore, is an adjustment of the syllabus on
the one hand in the science course, and on the other in the geography course.

On account of varying conditions in schools and different interests of
teachers it is difficult, and perhaps undesirable, to lay down hard-and-fast lines
as to the course in which the rudiments of science required in geography should
be taught. A Report lately issued by the Science Masters’ Association, on
‘Elementary Sciences, Nature Study, and Practical Work in the Preparatory
Schools and in the Lower Forms of Secondary Schools’ (Oxford University
Press, 1s.), refers particularly to the advantage of freedom in this matter to
adapt schemes of work to teaching powers or periods available. In this Report
the scheme of work in nature study includes observations and experiments on
subjects of astronomy, meteorology, physics, physical geography, and so on,
which are also to be found in the suggested course in practical geography.
{he overlapping is said to be intentional, as the subjects may in some schools
be taught as nature study and in others as geography or science.

Duplication can be lessened by considering nature study, science, and geo-
scaphy as a whole, so that each topic fits naturally into a particular section of
the curriculum. ‘There should be true co-ordination, so that no science subject
need be taught as such in the geography course (though it may have special
geographical aspects), and no such subject should enter into the geography
course until it has been studied in the nature study or science course. Teachers
of geography should make special efforts to come to an understanding with their
colleagues teaching the elements of science to ensure that general observational
work has been begun early, and that a pupil by the end of the first secondary
school year has some knowledge of the practical uses of the thermometer and
barometer, and of the recording of simple data derived from the use of these
instruments. With care it is possible so to dovetail the courses in geography
and in sciences that each may materially strengthen the other, e.g. precise
consideration of thermal influences on the earth should be deferred in the
geography course until after pupils have received instruction in heat in the
science laboratory.

In certain types of schools, and provided that suitably qualified teachers
are available, it is possible to introduce a composite scheme in geography,
nature study, and physical science, in which each topic considered desirable
to teach has its appropriate place, and the requirements of the geographical
argument are taken as the unifying principle of the course. It is maintained
that the adoption of such a plan up to the stage of the First School Examina-
tion would tend to improve the teaching both of geograpny and of science:
for it would humanise the science by keeping prominent the relation of scientific
activity and results to general human interests, and would at the same time
facilitate the task of the geography teacher. It has also been suggested that
where complete unification of the courses in geography and science up to the
age of sixteen is not adopted, most of the simple observations of biological
and physical phenomena prescribed for pupils up to the age of twelve should

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 331

be related directly to their work in geography, and that the stage immediately
after the age of twelve might begin with a course in the simpler parts of that
branch of knowledge which Huxley called physiography—a plan suggested by
Sir Joseph Thomson’s Committee on the Position of Natural Science in the
Educational System of Great Britain. One of the advantages of this is that
it gives opportunities for out-of-door observation, to which we attach great
importance not only at this stage but throughout the school course. The
course in physiography should include the simpler astronomical phenomena,
which in the hands of a good teacher may be made an excellent training in
reasoning and observation. Geology is not oft2n taught as a special subject
in classes before the School Certificate stage, but it might well be the care of
the geographer to introduce his pupils to some important principles of that
subject, which is so closely related to his. An introduction of this kind
will be planned so as to utilise the pupils’ neighbourhood and its data as far as
possible, but the excursions‘of the School Journeys Association and of the
_ branches and the Touring Committee of the Geographical Association offer
additional opportunities which should be utilised. In South-Eastern England
the study of chalk and flint in relation to their origins as well as to their
chemico-physical characters offers opportunities, as also does the study of
soils in their relation to water. The study of land-forms of glaciated regions
in geography may be used as a means of introducing pupils to the idea of an
Ice Age in Britain and the days of early man. Senior pupils may well be intro-
duced to the idea of fold mountains and fractured blocks, and, with some
knowledge of the main periods of geological history and of contrasts between
volcanic, plutonic, and sedimentary rocks, they may be prepared on the one
hand to take up geology, and on the other to appreciate something of the
relative ages and the phases of history of various parts of the earth’s surface.

While the pupil will usually be introduced to geology through geography,
the beginnings of teaching in nature study and geography will be taken at
about the same time, and each may make notable contributions to help the
other. The geography teacher will naturaily help his classes to appreciate
the different associations of plants found under different climatic influences,
and he should try to use such descriptive references as those of the Old Testa-
ment, Homer, Herodotus, and so on, as well as of Marco Polo, Huc, Darwin,
Wallace, Doughty, and others, in this connection.

In the Report on Science in Secondary Schools (Brit. Assoc., 1917, 2s. 6d.),
the late Mr. F. W. Sanderson, Headmaster of Oundle School, made the im-
portant forecast that ‘every branch of knowledge in the years to come will
be influenced by the study of biology and the humane studies in history,
economics, sociology will be rewritten under the same.’ Since school geography,
as the study of men in their various environments, is developing so fast, the
geography teacher not only has a great part to play in this process of develop-
ment of knowledge and thought, but also has the duty thrust upon him of
trying to gain an understanding of science, including biological science, on the
pee hand, and of the humane studies, especially history and languages, on
the other.

History.

The relationship of geography to history may be viewed from several
angles. Presuming agreement with the general definition of Geography as con-
cerned with the comparative study of distributions in space (simultaneous dis-
tributions in pure geography; sequences of such distributions in applied geo-
graphy), and with the general definition of history as concerned with the
interpretation of sequences of events within a given geographical region, it is
obvious that economy of effort and efficiency of result must depend upon rea’son-
able co-ordination of geographical and historical teaching. On the part of
the geography teacher it is essential for his interpretation of the present that he
look back into the past to find some explanation of the facts which he presents.
Geology, archeology, anthropology, and history may all be drawn upon for the
elucidation of the region which forms the subject of his study. It is thus
obvious that the geography teacher must often rely upon himself for the historical
_ data which he requires, and that the greater his knowledge of historical events

332 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

whose influence still operates in the present, the richer and truer will be his
teaching of geography.

Similarly, a further link between history and geography can and should
be forged by the history teacher. Many of the events of the past find their fullest
interpretation when studied in their geographical setting ; thus, the greater the
geographical knowledge of the teacher of history the fuller and truer is his
history teaching. This, however, does not mean that historical teaching must
not be begun at all until a later stage than geographical. Important aspects
of the relations between men in organised societies are so far purely social or
political as to be intelligible either without any reference at all to the control
exercised by geographical factors, or at all events without mora precise know-
ledge of geographical environments than the pupil’s own daily experience can
supply. For example, in introducing a class to the elements of English
political history it is not necessary to deal expressly with the climate or
natural products of the British Isles. On the other hand, the systematic study
of Mediterranean or Oriental history (including even the study of the Old and
New Testaments so far as this is specifically historical) should be postponed
until the pupil has been prepared to appreciate the differences between an
English town or village on the one hand, and a Greek city-state or Palestinian
village on the other, which result from their respective geographical
surroundings. Indeed, from the point at which such mutual reliance begins, of
the geographer and the historian on materials contributed by the other, it is
essential that the periods and regions prescribed for special study should stand
in intelligible relations with one another. There is obvious want of correlation
if a class is confronted in the same term with the geography of India or China
and with the history of France or the British oversea Dominions, or with the
Mediterranean or African geography and the history of the British Isles or of
Germany.

The one great difficulty, so far as the pupils are concerned, is that, in relation
to the particular section of history taken, their geographical background may
be inadequate for the full appreciation of the teacher’s geographical references,
and vice versa for the study of geography.

In so far as historical allusions are introduced into geographical teaching,
or geographical allusions into historical, they should be such as either are
intelligible without explanatory digression, or are supplementary to the subject-
matter of the other course, and not a partial repetition of it. As example of
this last type of correlation, the geographical position of cities or distribution
of products or industries should be illustrated as far as possible from places in
the region of which the political history can be presumed to be most familiar
to the class, but the social and economic conditions of which have had to be
treated more summarily in the history lesson.

The most satisfactory solution is that as far as possible the schemes of
history and geography should be so co-ordinated as to allow the two studies to
enrich each other. The local study is essentially one in which geography and
history combine with each other and with the sciences. It is possible, however,
to take more or less simultanecnsly such studies as British history and the
geography of the British Isles: colonia] history and the geography of the British
Empire; European history and the geography of Europe; classical and biblical
history and the geography of the Mediterranean lands.

The Committee has had before it one scheme at present in use in which the
history of geographical discovery is the basis of the geography course. There
the regional study of the world follows in its treatment the discovery, explora-
tion, and development of the world, beginning with the lands of Egypt, Meso-
potamia, and the Mediterranean, and finishing with the highly industrial lands
of the North Atlantic with their world market and almost world control. The
proper use of travellers’ narratives is to illustrate by example the habit of mind
by which experienced observers attack unfamiliar material. And examining
even the barest nucleus of geographical and historical knowledge, the same atti-
tude of mind (mutatis mutandis) may be induced in elementary pupils by using
incidents from the history of geographical discovery as illustrations, and a short
survey of this department of history may even be admitted, if time allows, as

3 See Appendix IT.

Peet

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 333

supplementary to the ordinary course at any stage. But it is probable that an
intensive study of the history of geographical discovery should be limited to
those students whose knowledge of history and geography is adequate to appre-
ciate both the historical and geographical backgrounds of the subject.

There is a further course of study, possible probably for students of advanced
courses and in the Universities, which is definitely a fusion of history and
geography. For any region, large or small—e.g. England, Wales, the Mediter-
ranean—if the requisite data are available, the geographies of bygone times may
be re-created, as they were at the dawn of history and at suitable epochs from
that time to the present. This application of the sequence of history to the
geographical evolution of a region may best be called ‘historical geography,’
and shows the strongest possible link between geography and history. To all
intents and purposes the ‘local’ study becomes one of historical geography.

Regulations Governing the Teaching of Geography in Schools.

In so far as the subject is concerned, the inclusion in the curriculum is
governed to a certain degree by the Regulations of the Board of Education.
The syllabus is often determined by the regulations of the examination for
which the scholars are being prepared. ‘The following extracts from the
‘Regulations for Secondary Schools, England, 1922,’ give the essential informa-
tion relative to geography :—

CuRRIcuLuM (p. 11).

Art. 6. ‘ The curriculum (with time-analysis) of the whole school must
be approved by the Board, and must provide for due continuity of instruc-
tion in each of the subjects taken, and for an adequate amount of time being
given to each of these subjects. The Board may require modifications in
the curriculum or the time-table if a subject is taught which is not of
educational value, or if the time spent on particular subjects interferes
with proper instruction in other subjects, or if the time given to any subject
is insufficient to allow of effective progress being made in it, or for other
similar reasons.’

7. ‘The curriculum must provide instruction in the English Language
and Literature, at least one Language other than English, Geography,
History, Mathematics, Science, and Drawing.’

PROVISION FOR ADVANCED CouRSEs (p. 19).

48. (a) ‘The main subjects of study in any such course must be selected
from one or other of the following groups :—

A. Science and Mathematics.

B. Classics.

C. Modern Studies.

D. The civilisation (i) of Greece or Rome and (ii) of England or another
country of Western Europe.

E. Geography, combined with two other subjects approved by the Board,
of which at least one must be History or a Science.’

(c) ‘In all Advanced Courses adequate provision must be made for the
study and writing of English by every pupil either in connection with the
main subjects of the course or otherwise. In other respects full freedom is
left in the choice and arrangement of additional subjects so long as the
syllabus . . . for an E Course (provides) for some substantial work in a
subject or subjects complementary to the main subjects of the Course.’

The new position thus defined in Group E above should lead to a revision
of the ‘Memorandum on Teaching and Organisation in Secondary Schools’
(Cire. 826 (1913), Curricula of Secondary Schools) and the ‘ Memorandum on
-Advanced Courses’ (Circ. 1112, 1919). The former contains the following
statement :—

“It is not necessary that separate instruction in both History and Geography
should be given in all forms. In schools in which the pressure on the time-
table renders it necessary, a shortened cuurse of Geography terminating at the
age of fourteen or fifteen may be accepted. In this case, however, the course

334 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

must be so arranged as to include the fundamental principles of Physical and
Mathematical Geography.*

This appears to single out geography for inadequate treatment in a crowded
curriculum, and the Committee is informed that heads of schools have been
strongly advised to act on this instruction. Whatever justification there may
have been in the past, the new position of geography in advanced courses
warrants a revision of this circular.

Similarly the Memorandum on Advanced Courses appears to need revision,
and the Committee expresses the hope that the Board of Education will take
an early opportunity of issuing a Memorandum on the Teaching of Geography
in Secondary Schools similar to those on History, English, Science, &c.

The examination of pupils under these Regulations is delegated by the
Board to the following approved School Examinations Boards :—

. Bristol University.

. Cambridge University

. Durham University.

University of London.

Northern Universities Joint Board.
Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board.
Oxford University.

Central Welsh Board.

Of recent years there has been an attempt to standardise these examinations,
which has met with a fair measure of success. There is still, however, much
divergence of view on the place which geography should occupy in the examina-
tions and in the syllabuses under which the examinations should be held. All
the examining bodies group the subjects for the First or School Leaving
Examination (age 15-16) into the following :—

I. English group.
II. Language group.

IIT. Science group.

IV. Miscellaneous group.

Candidates must pass in one or more subjects within each group, as well as
the examination as a whole.

Geography in Group I. only is permitted by the Boards of Bristol, London,
and Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board.

Geography in Group IIT. only is permitted by Durham, Northern Universities
Joint Board and Oxferd.

Geography in Group I. or Group III. is permitted by Cambridge and the
Central Welsh Board. It should be noted, however, that by the regulations
of Cambridge and the Northern Universities a candidate cannot pass Group III.
on geography alone.

The general tendency to include geography in Group I. along with English
(compulsory) and history makes it a serious proposition to schools whether
geography should not be alternative with history, which is unfortunate con-
sidering the complementary value of the two subjects in any scheme of education.

The syllabuses of the eight examining boards are substantially in agree-
ment, and require (i) a general knowledge of the world and especially of the
influence of physical conditions on plant and animal life and of the natural
environment on the social life and occupations of peoples; (ii) a more detailed
knowledge of the British Isles, and (iii) either a detailed knowledge of a special
region or a study of several regions in varying detail.

There is, however, a marked difference in the character of the examination
questions set on these syllabuses. In the majority, the questions are framed
to test ‘physical’ geography by its application to some regional or economic
problem. Others set a ‘ physical’ paper distinct from the ‘ regional’ paper.

The popularity of the subject in the schools may be gauged from, the
examination statistics for 1921, which if the figures for the Oxford and Cam-
bridge Joint Board are omitted give 27,438 candidates (80 per cent.) taking
geography out of 35,224 taking the examination. Even including the figures for
the Joint Board, which examines a number of Public Schools, not all of which
give geography an important place in the curriculum, the percentage is as high

VD Te 90 ty

4 See, however, Appendix IT.

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 335

as 73. Under the Central Welsh Board, in 1921, out of 3,319 candidates
examined 2,851 offered geography as one of their subjects.

Higher School Certificate.

Great as are the differences in the position which geography occupies in the
First or School Leaving Examination, it is still greater in the Higher School
Examination. Indeed, the position is so varied that the Committee hopes the
new Regulations of the Board of Education permitting it to be a main or
principal subject will result in an immediate amendment of the regulations
of some of the examining bodies. The regulations for Bristol, Cambridge,
Durham, the Northern Universities Joint Board, Oxford and the Central Welsh
Board allow geography to form one of the principal subjects in either a group
of modern studies or a group of sciences. London has a group consisting of
Geography, Economics and either the Economic Development of the Empire
or Economic History. . The regulations of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board
do not permit it to be taken as a principal subject in any group. The regula-
tion (see Prefatory Note) which states that geography may be taken as a
principal subject with history or a science indicates that examination regula-
tions should be framed to allow the subject to be taken in either the ‘ Science’
group or the ‘Modern Studies’ group.

As an ‘additional’ or ‘subsidiary’ subject to any group there is the utmost
freedom in almost all cases, so that there is no need for any scholar to break
the continuity of his geographical study between the ordinary four-year course
and the University.

The Training of Teachers of Geography.

The staffing of schools for geographical studies has in the past presented many
difficulties. Formerly it was often customary to use geography for the purpose
of levelling up the teaching hours of the general staff, so that the subject was
liable to be taken by teachers who had little interest in and less knowledge of
it. Of recent years there has been a tendency to concentrate the work into the
hands of teachers who have a special interest in geography, and have in many
instances made remarkable advances both in their own studies and in the
standard of schoo! work.

The Summer Schools held by the Board of Education and by various Univer-
sity authorities have been of special value in assisting those teachers who have
taken up geography after entering on their teaching career. Many, too, have
taken advantage of the Diploma in Geography of London and other Univer-
sities or of the evening schools held in London for internal degrees in geography,
so that their academic qualifications have been materially improved.

The most important factor, however, both on the grounds of academic
training and on account of the scale of salaries determined by the Burnham
Committee, is the establishment of honours schools in geography at the Univer-
sities. At present honours schools of geography have been established in the
Faculty of Arts in the following Universities: Aberdeen, Aberystwyth, Cam-
bridge (Tripos), Leeds, Liverpool, London (internal and external), and Man-
chester. At Sheffield the honours school is in the Faculty of Science. The

University Colleges of Nottingham, Reading, Southampton, Exeter, and

Leicester prepare for the external honours degree of London.

The above Universities in the majority of cases, together with Bristol and
Glasgow, make provision for geographical studies, more or less extended, for the
ordinary degrees of B.A. and B.Sc. Oxford has a diploma course which may be
taken either as a graduate course, or as the equivalent of two of the three subjects
required in the final examination for the ordinary B.A. degree, or as part of
the preparation for other examinations such as those of the history school and
the honours schools of philosophy, politics, and economics. The other Univer-
sities make little or no provision at present for courses of study which may
be regarded as adequate for those who desire to become teachers of geography.

The courses of study in the various honours schools differ considerably in
detail, though the main requirements are the same, the differences arising
through the emphasis which is given to particular aspects of the subject, or
to the character of the individual study which each school demands from its

1923 AA

336 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

students. Thus there is general agreement that students of geography should
study geology, history, and political economy at least to intermediate standard ;
that the general principles of geography should be studied with reference to
the world as a whole and to certain major regions; that map-reading and
interpretation should be an integral part of the geographical course, and tha*
some area should be studied in detail as an introduction to the methods of
geographical research. In addition to these purely geographical studies, there
are others of an applied character determined generally by the interests ot
special circumstances of the department. Such are the geography of man,
including the distribution of the principal human varieties and the simpler
types of human societies; the geography of trade and transport; historical
geography ; the history of geographical discovery; the geographical distribution
of plants and animals; geodesy, surveying, and cartography.

There is among the geographers of this and other countries a consensus of
opinion that the first and principal aim of advanced geographical study is an
interpretation of the modern world, and to this extent the study has a regional
basis. But there are upon the borders, as it were, of this study many fields of
research for which a geographical knowledge is such an admirable training
that some courses of honours post-graduate work have become specialised in
this direction.

For those who intend to be teachers of geography, however, the Universities
specified above give adequate tuition in geography and make provision for
their training as teachers.

The number of graduates specifically trained in the education departments
of the Universities with a view to teaching geography in secondary schools
has hitherto been emall—partly because, until quite recently, the heads and
the governing bodies of secondary schools have, as a body, laid little stress
upon professional training as a qualification for their appointments, partly
because the provision of academic instruction in geography has been inadequate.
In both these respects the situation is now rapidly changing. On the one
hand, the Teachers’ Registration Council, acting as the organ of the profession,
insists upon the importance of post-graduate training for secondary school
teachers, the rules of the Burnham Committee encourage it financially, and
the Board of Education by permitting four-year students who graduate in
honours to be transferred to the secondary training departments have done a
great deal to facilitate it; on the other hand, the growth of honours schools of
geography, already referred to, should before long remedy the present deficiency
of graduates with the academic qualifications presupposed by any effective
system of training teachers for teaching the subject in secondary schools.

Institutions which offer post-graduate training in the teaching of geography
to students qualified to receive it will probably find it advisable to follow in
principle, though with healthy variation in detail, the methods fairly generally
pursued in regard to the better established subjects of the curriculum. The
prospective teacher of geography must study side by side with the teachers of
other subjects the general theory of education and the general principles which
determine efficiency in all kinds of teaching; but in addition should receive
definite instruction in the special craftsmanship appropriate to his subject.
Under the guidance of the University expert (who may in some instances be an
experienced school teacher associated for this purpose with the University
department) he should be led to review and re-examine the subject-matter of
geography from the point of view of its value and use as an educational instru-
ment; should consider the natural stages in the presentation of the subject
to growing minds, the character, range, and proper sequence of the topics
appropriate to each stage, and the most fruitful methods of teaching them;
and should inquire how boys and girls may best be taught to use the arts
of map-reading and simple cartography, how observational work and practical
geographical measurements may best be conducted, and, in general, how the
study of the home region may most effectively be pursued under the conditions
of school life and work. In addition, he should learn how instruction in
geography may most usefully be correlated with the teaching in other subjects,
and may for that purpose attend classes in which the methods of teaching
those subjects are discussed. be

spieti 4

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 337

It is essential that the student’s studies in the theory of teaching geography
should be closely asscciated with actual work in school, that he should have
the opportunity of watching accomplished craftsmen at work goes without
saying; but it is still more important that he should himself teach under
expert guidance and criticism in a good secondary school, where, as he feels
his feet, a definite if small area of responsibility should be assigned to him,
and where he should be able to take part in geographical expeditions and
learn, by experience, the practical details of all sides of the art of teaching
geography. :

Simultaneously therefore with the new Regulations of the Board of Educa-
tion and the modifications in school examination syllabuses, there is a steadily
increasing number of trained geographers leaving the Universities to take up the
work. The result undoubtedly will be not only a more thorough and scientific
study of the subject, but a general increase of accurate knowledge of the
Empire and the rest of the world, which will affect the everyday life of the
community through its economic and political relationships with other countries.

APPENDIX I.

The following syllabus has been drawn up merely to serve as a type course
based upon the principles enumerated in the Report and having due regard
to the requirements of schools as indicated in the many syllabuses actually in use
which the Committee carefully considered. The Committee desires to emphasise
the fact that this syllabus is of the nature of a suggestion from which all kinds
of departures and variations are possible according to the special circumstances
of schools.

SYLLABUS OF WORK FOR A SCHOOL

CONTAINING (@) PREPARATORY FORMS (FORMS I. AND 1.); (b) THE NORMAL
SECONDARY SCHOOL COURSE (FORMS III. TO UPPER V.); (C) ADVANCED COURSE
(FORM VI.).

General Principles upon which the Syllabus has been drawn up.

Tue First Form studies the Homeland from the immediate neighbourhood very
carefully, the land not seen or known less intensively. The school for which the
syllabus is drawn up is assumed to be situated near to a large open space, with
undulating land in a natural condition, so that accurate ideas of geographical
terms can be taught and a scale formed by which ideas of other areas may be
built up. Theoretically, one should go slowly from the known of the home
to the neighbourhood, and work through England and the lands beyond the
Channel to the more remote and unknown lands of the world. As a matter of
fact, something of the world at large is known very early, and what is
beyond the horizon by a few miles is generally as little known as if it were
thousands of miles away. Thus in the Second Form there is a jump to learn
of the World as a whole, from the point of view of the homes of its peoples.

The pupils are now ready to make their first simple regional study of the
British Isles.

In the 7’hird Form those boys who have been through the preparatory forms

meet the new entrants who come from the Elementary Schools, about the age
of 114 years, as Free Place Scholarship holders. Both sets make a new
beginning at home by considering the British Isles from many points of view.
In this year, however, the teacher must be prepared to vary his scheme, and,
Owing to the varying standards of attainment which he will find among his
new pupils, may find it necessary to spend perhaps a whole term on the out-
lines of World Geography. An alternative course in this year might well be a
simple study of the regional geography of the world, with more detailed refer-
ence to the British Isles.
The Americas are considered in the Lower Fourth Form because they
exemplify points in physical geography which can now be appreciated, and also
because in North America the European peoples, and especially British people,
find scope for their surplus population, so that its study naturally follows that
of the British Isles,

AA 2

338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Asia and Australia present entirely new problems to the Fourth Form. The
boys are now ready to make a more systematic study of climate than has hitherto
been possible, and it is at this stage that geography can receive considerable
help from the science lessons.

In the Fifth Form Africa and Europe are taken, most of the threads can
be pulled together, the boys can now begin to appreciate what is meant by
a natural region, and more attention can be given to the economic conditions
of the modern world.

Finally, the normal Secondary School closes in Form Upper V., where the
regional geography of the world is revised and special attention is paid to
the position of Britain and her Empire among the nations of the modern world.
At the end of this year the Virst Hxamination is taken.

Throughout the whole of the work of the forms mentioned above no hard-
and-fast line is drawn between regional geography and general, including
physical, geography. There are no separate courses in physical geography,
map-drawing, or the observation of weather phenomena. The attempt is made
to take these things as far as possible with particular regions which supply
good illustrations; to grade the subjects so that they fit into the curriculum
of the school as a whole (especially nature study, mathematics, and science)
and the capacity oi the pupils, and to revise continually the general ideas already
learned when studying fresh regions.

In the Sixth Form considerable individual work and modified specialisation
can be introduced with success.

FORM T.
Averace Acr, 9} YEARS.
Two Lessons per week. No homework.

1. The Homeland.

(a) Plans (1) of the Geography Room; (2) of the Geography Room, the
corridor outside the room, and the class-rooms on the other side of the
corridor ; (3) of the whole school; (4) of the school, playground, and roads and
railway touching it. Further maps of the district are constructed to introduce
(i) the routes of the railways and roads close to the school, where they go.
and where they cross, (ii) the ‘ highlands’ of the open heath and park Jand
near the school, and the direction of stream-flow. Orientation is emphasised
throughout.

(b) The foregoing lead on to the idea of the Thames Basin (or other river
basin in which the school is situated), the towns in the basin, the hills to north
and south.

(c) Great Britain very generally. The highlands in the North (Scotland)
and West (Wales); the seas round it; a few selected towns.

2. Other Lands: Mountains, Plains, Coastlands.

Other Climates : Cold and Wet, Hot and Dry, Hot and Wet.

Other Vegetations : Deserts, Forests, Grasslands.

Maps are made (i) of known areas, to explain and accustom the pupils to
the ideas of mapping, and (ii) of unknown areas, to teach further ideas; but
there is no abrupt break: the maps merely decrease in scale. Other lands,
climates, and vegetations are taught without maps, except the globe, and by
means of lantern pictures and stereoscopic views. Typical countries are
selected—Norway, Switzerland. Greece, Egypt, the Congo Basin, &c.

Observations are made of the shadows cast by the sun at midday through-
out the year, for the purpose of suggesting the idea of varying altitude, and
of direction.

FORM II.
Averace Acr, 105 Yrars.
Two Lessons weekly. No homework.

The World and its Peoples.

(i) A few introductory lessons on the globe.

(ii) A study of the peoples of the world following the historical sequence —
of the unfolding of the various regions.

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 339

During this study extensive use will be made of pictures, the electric lantern
and stereoscopic views, as well as of stories of travel and discovery by sea
and land. ‘The study will follow these lines :—

(a) The fertile crescent of Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia, with their ancient
civilisation, based on the flood plains and the winter rains, forms an excellent
starting-point because of the wealth of ideas already learned from Biblical
narratives.

(6) Within the crescent nomad shepherds pastured their flocks or caravans,
followed the age-long beaten track between the desert and the sown, while
boatmen plied their trade on the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean.

(c) Euro-Asia as a larger study of a similar kind—round the interior
grass-lands of horsemen and herdmen of Central Asia are the fertile forest-
fringe lands of the cultivators,

(d) The riches of the East and West passed across the continent by the
combined routes of sea and land until the European seamen searched the
unknown ocean for a seaway to the East.

(e) These new ocean routes brought the European to the homes of other
peoples—the negroes of Africa, the Indians of America, the Eskimo and
Samoyede of the cold North, and the poverty-stricken Blackfellow of Australia.

(f) Some of these discovered lands became new homes for Europeans where
wheat and meat and raw materials were obtained for Europe, which, with
the discovery of coal, became the home of miners and manufacturers.

(g) The world became a great market where Western Europe and Hastern
North America sell their manufactured goods and buy food and raw materials.

The study of human activity in each case is based on a simple geographical
study of the region.

Observations to be made at 9 a.m. throughout the year of the direction of
the wind and of the character of the weather. The midday altitude of the sun
measured in degrees (in conjunction with the geometry course to introduce the
idea of degrees).

FORM III.
AVERAGE AGE, 11 YEARs.
Two Lessons weekly. One homework (not exceeding half-hour) weekly.

The British Isles—The descriptive geography of the regions of Britain
along the following lines :—

(a) The British seas.
(6) The highlands of the North and West.
(<) The English plain.
(d) Seas, highland and plain as related features in the development of a
national life.
(e) Rural England. Agricultural life. The villages and the market centre.
The regions of the English plain.
(f) South-west England.
(g) The hills and vales of Wales.
(h) Moorland and Lakeland.
(i) The industrial regions of England.
(7) The Scottish Lowlands and Uplands.
(k) The Scottish Highlands.
(2) Ireland.
(m) Communications of Britain.
(n) Britain and the world.

Bartholomew’s half-inch maps are used as wall-maps to introduce the idea
of map-reading. Now that Highlands and Lowlands are conceived as areas,
‘the pupils are introduced to simple studies of contour lines. Contour lines are
constructed and sections are drawn. For this work visits are paid to a con-
venient local prominence, and each boy is provided with 1-in. and 6-in. map
of the district. Many exercises in reading this map are set and worked, and in
this part of the work the help of the teacher of practical mathematics is enlisted.
Daily observations are made of maximum and minimum temperatures and

340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

wet and dry bulb temperatures. These are correlated (in connection with the
science lessons) with the observations made by Form II. The records are
plotted in graphic form in the mathematics lesson.

FORM LOWER IV.
AVERAGE AGE, 12 Yrars.
Z'wo Lessons weekly. One homework (half-hour) weekly.

The Americas.—The larger area of North America is considered in detail
in a similar way to that in which Britain was treated in the previous year.
South America provides many sharp contrasts, but also some comparisons.

In addition the pupils are introduced to d

(i) Some idea of the formation of mountains, plateaus, and plains.

(1) The work of rivers as illustrated on a large scale by the Colorado and
the Mississippi, and as seen by actual cbservation of the local streams. (Hven
small streams are often most suitable.) i

(iii) Some idea of geological history as exemplified in (a) the Coal Period,
(6) the Great Ice Age. te

(iv) The principles of the construction of maps from statistics, as shown
by the construction of population maps of different areas of the United States.

(v) The use of curves of rainfall, temperature, &c.

The daily reading (at 9 a.m.) of the rain-gauge.

FORM IV.
AveRAGE Acs, 14 Yuars.
Three Lessons weekly. Two half-hour homeworks weekly.

1. Studies in Climate.—Size and shape of the earth; movements of the
earth; day and night; the seasons; the annual and seasonal distribution of
temperature, pressure, and winds and rainfall; ocean currents; natural
vegetation.

(In actual teaching this is presented in the form of a series of problems
usually consisting of the making of a map to illustrate some important distribu-
tion and the writing of a clear account of what the map shows. The work is
done partly at school and partly at heme.)

2. The Regional Geography of Asia, with special reference to the application
to Asia of the principles learnt during the climatic studies. The following
areas will be taken for more detailed regional studies: The N.W. Lowlands;
the Land of the Five Seas; the Monsoon Lands (India, Indo-China, China,
Japan) ; the Interior Plateaus; the East Indian Archipelago.

3. Australasia is rapidly taken, and is treated in such a way as to test
whether the principles already learned have been mastered.

During this year the following topics of Physical Geography receive special
attention : Fold and block mountains; plateaus and plains (with general geo-
graphy of Asia) ; rift valleys (with Land of Five Seas) ; volcanoes (with Japan) ;
deltas (with Ganges, &c.); river work (Chinese rivers).

The barometer is read daily (at 9 a.m.), and is corrected for height and
temperature.

FORM V.
Averace Acs, 15 Yuars.

Three Lessons weekly. Two weekly homework periods (half-hour each).

1. The detailed General and Regional Geography of Africa and Europe.

In connection with Africa an attempt is made to teach definitely the idea
of the natural region.

_ The general physical and climatic geography of Africa gives a good opportu-
nity for revising the general principles of climatology, especially of those facts
associated with the apparent seasonal migration of the sun. In the regional

studies, the economic point of view is emphasised, and stress is laid on the
relations between the natives and their European administrators.

ehee :

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 341

The regional method is also pursued in Europe, but the political unit is
the unit for teaching purposes. (In Africa the teaching unit 1s the natural
region.) Whenever suitable the relations between history and geography are
carefully noted, and comparisons between different countries are studied in
detail.

2. In connection with the British Isles the opportunity is taken to study
continental shelves and tides. The two continents also give ample opportunities
for the revision of rift valleys, types of mountains and lakes, the work of ice-
sheets and glaciers, the influence of rock character on surface features, &Xc.

3. During the study of the British Isles practical map exercises of the
following types are set: the construction of January and July temperature
maps from the statistics given in the Appendix to the Daily Weather Report;
wind force and rainfall diagrams for periods of one year or over (using same
sources); the construction of population, agricultural, industrial, and trade
maps from information given in agricultural reports, trade returns, &c.

4. Map Studies.—A short course of study, in the Summer Term, of the
area shown on one of the one-inch sheets of the Ordnance Survey. Some
conveniently situated area is selected (e.g. the Reigate Sheet for London
Schools), and during the term at least one whole-day visit is paid to study
some of the special features of the area at first-hand.

FORM UPPER V.
AVERAGE AGE, 16 YEARS.

Three Lessons weekly. ‘T'wo weekly homework periods.

In this form the First Examination is taken, and its requirements must
be borne in mind. The world has been covered by the end of the previous
year, and the boys can normally take the examination ‘in their stride’ without
special preparation. Some parts of the world, however, have not been taken
for some time and must be re-taught ; others must be revised.

1. The Regional Geography of the Americas, with special attention to the
principal centres of population.

2. The study of the Daily Weather Report (including practical work in
analysis of the synoptic charts), leading to a revision of the British Isles and
Europe.

3. The monsoon lands of Asia.

4, A rapid revision of the outlines of world geography leading to a division
of the world into its major natural regions. Special emphasis to be given to the
more important parts of the British Empire not already taken above.

Throughout the revision work mapping exercises are extensively used, and
memory maps are demanded to test whether the work has been mastered. Mere
copying of maps is not required, but the boys are trained to map geographical
facts with speed, clearness, and accuracy. In addition, essays on geographical
subjects are set, and very simple research problems are given to individual boys
or groups of boys.

Norr.—If there were no advanced work in geography the opportunity would
be taken in this year to provide a short course of lessons on (a) the making of
maps, (6) map projections or network.

FORMS VI. AND UPPER VI.
ADVANCED COURSES.
Syllabuses for three types of courses are given.

Course 1.—In this course Geography is a subsidiary subject in a Science
and Mathematics Course. Three teaching periods per week. Two years’
course, ‘additional’ paper taken at the Second Examination.

(1) Physical Geography.

(a) Elementary studies in meteorology and climatology, geomorphol
(6) Map-making and map projections. ld IE ata

342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

(2) Regional Geography.

(a) The outlines of the economic geography of the world.

(b) The detailed geography of one of the following regions: The Mediter-
ranean Region, Western Europe, the Asiatic Monsoon Lands.

(8) Uhe Geographical Background of History, illustrated by one of the
following :—

(i) The world relations of history and geography; (i1) The historical geo-
graphy of the British Isles or of Europe; (iii) The history of geographical
discovery.

Coursr 2.—In this two years’ course Geography is a subsidiary subject in a
Modern Studies’ Course. Four periods per week are allowed. At the end of
the course geography is taken as a compulsory subject in the London Inter,
B.Sc. Econ. or Inter. B. Com. Examination.

A. World Geography.

1. The distribution of the sources of power—coal, oil, water—especially
in relation to the New States of Europe.

2. The distribution of foodstuffs, and raw material for the chief manu-
facturing industries.

3. Trade routes by land and sea, with special reference to the natural ways
of Europe and their modification by tunnel and canal.

4. The distribution of the population. Regions in Europe which could
support greater numbers. Regions which export people, and the lands to
which they go.

B. fegional Geography.

1. The major natural regions of the world.

2. Detailed study of the industrial regions of the world, especially W.
Europe and Eastern States of N. America.

3. Markets and localisation of industries; to what extent this is illustrated
in Europe.

4. The geographical aspect of production and exchange in Europe and the
New World.

5. The economic position of the Great Nations, especially the British
Empire, France, U.S.A., Japan, Germany.

The teaching includes a thorough study of the physical geography necessary
for an understanding of the various topics, and the opportunity is taken of
comparing ap area of rapid development in modern times (e.g. Argentina or
Australia) with an area of long history (e.g. the Mediterranean Region or
China or India).

Coursr 3.—In this course geography is a main subject in an advanced
course. The general lines are those of Course 1, but the work is more detailed,
and there is more opportunity for individual and practical work. Six hours
per week are given to the subject.

[The syllabus given below is that recently adopted by the Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate for the Higher Certificate Examination. The subject
may be taken either in Group II. (with History) or Group IV. (with a Science).
This does not differ materially from the regulations of other Examinations Boards
which make provision for Geography as a principal subject.]

I. Puysica, GEOGRAPHY.

The Atmosphere.—Its composition and extent. The temperature and pres-
sure of the atmosphere. Isotherms and isobars. Estimation of altitude by
the use of the thermometer and barometer. Barometric gradients. Influence
of atmospheric pressure on winds and weather. Weather charts; methods of
forecasting weather. Isothermal and isobaric charts of the world. Move-
ments of the air. The aqueous vapour in the atmosphere; evaporation; modes
of condensation. Dew and its formation; dew-point. Fogs, mists, clouds,
rainfall, snow. Different forms of clouds. Measurement of rainfall. Climate,

—

ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 343

and the conditions determining it. The climatic characters of different regions
of the earth. The influence of climate and soil on the distribution of the
chief animal and vegetation types.

Uhe Hydrosphere-—Vhe distribution and depths of the oceans and seas.
The general contour of the ocean floor, and the methods of representing it on
maps; comparison with the contour of the land. Composition of sea-water.
Temperature of the oceans and enclosed seas. Movements of the sea; waves,
currents, tides, and their causes. Tide charts. The courses of the main ocean
currents. Marine deposits, terrigenous and pelagic; their character, distribu-
tion and origin. Coral reefs and coral islands.

The Lithosphere.—Land masses, their outline and shape. Character and
origin of the principal types of islands. Mountains, valleys, plains, deserts ;
watersheds; springs, rivers, lakes, glaciers, ice-sheets, icebergs. The changes
produced on the land by rain, rivers, and other surface agents; by under-
ground water; and by the sea. Coast-lines. Internal drainage areas and salt-
Jakes. The characters and origin of the various deposits formed on land. ‘The
nature and distribution of volcanoes; the principal types of volcanoes; fissure
eruptions. Earthquakes; slow movements of the land. Evidence of elevation
and depression.

Map Work.—The method of construction (treated simply), and the conse-
quent advantages for some purposes and disadvantages for other purposes, of
the more important map projections. The methods of representing the relief
of the land and the various topographical features on maps. ‘The making of
a map of a small area.

II. Tue Reeronat, Porirican anp Economic GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD.

The major ‘ Natural Regions’ of the world. The geographical conditions
which make it possible to divide the world into natural regions. Comparisons
between regions. The distribution of the chief agricultural and mineral pro-
ducts and of industries as controlled by physical conditions. The influence of
geographical factors upon the organisation of commerce, the development of
communications and transport, the great trade routes, the growth of towns
and the distribution and density of population. The interaction of physical
and human conditions with economic activities. Geographical factors affecting
the development, unification, frontiers, and political relationships of States.

A detailed knowledge of the whole world will not be required, but candi-
dates will be expected to have paid particular attention to the British Isles
and the more important parts of Europe and the British Empire.

II. Tur Deraitep GroGRapHy or Two Sprcrat Recions.
A. Hither the Mediterranean Region or the Monsoon Lands of Asia.

In these lands of long history, in addition to the detailed regional treatment,
the following points should receive special attention. The relations between
geography and history. The modification of geographical values in the course
of history. The geographical factors favourable and unfavourable to the early
development of civilisation. Geographical conditions as favouring conquest
or defence, determining routes of invasion, and affecting subsequent settlement.

B. Hither the United States of America or Australia.

In these lands of comparatively recent development under modern conditions,
in addition to the detailed treatment the development of the region should be
compared with that of the selected region of long history, and particular atten-
tion should be given to the problems involved in its future development.

Practican Work.

Tt will be assumed in setting the papers that attention has been given to
practical work along the following lines.

I. Physical Geography.—Observations of temperature of the atmosphere
and the conditions affecting variations of temperature. Making isotherm maps

344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OL SCIENCE, ETC.

from furnished data. Determination of dew-point. Use of the barometer.
Kinding heights by means of the barometer. Making isobar maps from fur-
nished data. The prediction of weather from weather charts and observations.
Observations of the direction and strength of winds. Observations of rainfall
by means of the rain-gauge. The study of rainfall maps. Determination of
the amount of snow-fall, and the amount of water produced by melting a given
amount of snow. Observation of ground temperature. Observation of clouds
and their different forms. Observation of rainbows.

Study of pilot charts and other maps showing (1) depths of the sea,
(2) ocean currents. Study of tide-charts and _ tide-tables>; relation of
tides to the movements of the moon. The determination of the density of
sea-water.

Drawing sections from contour maps. Study of maps of the school district
drawn to various scales. Making map of small area in the neighbourhood.
Study of natural features of the country in the neighbourhood of the school.
Observations of the flow of a stream and of the amount of matter carried in
suspension and in solution. Relation of the shape of the coast-line to the
nature of the rocks, direction of currents, &c. Forms of cliffs. Evidence of
slow movements of the land seen near the coast.

II. Regional and Economic Geography.—The construction of population and
economic maps, graphs, &c., from census and other returns. The correlation of
simple geological, orographical, climate, population and economic maps. The
study of colonial and consular reports, commercial reports, and statistics.

APPENDIX II.

Extract from recent Board of Education Pamphlet No. 37, ‘The Teaching
of History’ :—

‘Connections with Geography.—We have not found, nor have we thought it
desirable to recommend, any forced or artificial relation between the history
taught and the other subjects in the curriculum. Of all these subjects geography
is clearly the closest and offers the most fruitful ground for interesting matter,
sometimes introductory, sometimes complementary, to the history lessons. The
connection is by no means always overlooked, but we have often noticed that
the history work would be much improved by a better grounding in geography.
This connection has received more attention in French schools than in our own,
and, among ourselves, recent attempts at promoting ‘‘ Regional Surveys” are
a move in the right direction. To those teachers who are specially interested
in World History, the connection with geography offers special attractions, for
in geography we have always aimed in our schools at some knowledge of the
whole world, and if the history, as we found in one case, is more closely
connected with the geography, it tends also to become the history of the world.
In this case the work in the two lowest forms was introductory to a systematic
treatment both of general World History and World Geography. In the Middle
Forms the history was dealt with in chronological periods, English and general
history receiving parallel treatment, and a two years’ course on the history of
exploration was given to the third and fourth forms with a fortnightly lesson.
This aspect of history offers a valuable link between the two subiects, and
im the school reterred to the work was completed in the Upper Forms by
essays of considerable scope on topics of present interest.

‘The influence of geography is, of course, a matter of profound and con-
stantly recurring importance, and should receive more attention than it often
does. Trade routes and naval and military history are obvious examples. The
fact that geography too often disappears from the curriculum of our secondary
schools before the later years of the historical course is from this point of
view a disadvantage.’

®> As given in Whitaker’s and other almanacks.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 345

On Certain of the More Complex Stress Distributions in
Engineering Materials.— Report of Committee (Prof. E. G. Corr,
Chairman ; Profs. L. N. G. Firon and A. Roperrson, Secretaries ;
Profs. A. BARR, GILBERT Cook, and W. HE. Datsy, Sir J. A. Ewrne,
Mr. A. R. Futton, Dr. A. A. GrirritHs, Prof. J. J. Guest, Dr.
B. P. Haren, Profs. Sir J. B. Henperson, C. E. Ines, F. C. Lea,
A. KE. H. Lover, and W. Mason, Sir J. E. Pretavet, Dr. F. Rogers,
Dr. W. A. Scope, Mr. R. V. SourHwett, Dr. T. EK. Stanton,
Mr. C. EK. Stromeyer, Mr. G. I. Taytor, and Mr. J. 8. Witson).

Introduction.

Tue Committee submit as their Report the following contributions embodying :
(1) A report on Stresses.in Bridges; (2) accounts of recent researches on alternating
stress; (3) further investigations on the Thermodynamic theory of fatigue and
rupture; (4) an account of a new graphical method of obtaining the stress system
in a plate from photo-elastic observations ; (5) a discussion of the stresses in reinforced

pipes.
I. The Stresses in Pipes reinforced by Steel Rings. By Prof. Gilbert Cook, D.Sc.

II. The Graphical Determination of Stress from Photo-Elastic Observations. By
Prof. L. N. G. Filon, F.R.S.

II. Thermodynamic Theory of Mechanical Fatigue and Hysteresis in Metals. By
Prof. B. P. Haigh, D.Sc., M.B.E.

TY. Stresses in Bridges. By J. 8. Wilson and Prof. B. P. Haigh, D.Sc., M.B.E.

VY. The Distribution of Stress in Round Bars under Alternating Torsion or Bending.
By Prof. W. Mason, D.Sc.

VI. The Repeated Bending of Steel Wire. By Dr. W. A. Scoble.
The Committee ask for reappointment, with a grant of 501.

The Stresses in Pipes reinforced by Steel Rings.
By Prof. Grupertr Coox, D.Sc., King’s College, London.

Is a contribution to the Report of this Committee for 1921 the author has given
the results of a theoretical and experimental investigation of the influence of a flange
on the stress distribution in a pipe under internal pressure. The close agreement
between the calculated and observed stresses proved the method of analysis to be
adequate for the purpose, and may justify its application to the analogous problem
of the reinforced steel pipe.

In large hydro-electric installations working under high heads the design of the
pipe line presents considerable difficulties. For a given discharge and head at the
power station, considerable economy in material is effected by increasing the size
and reducing the number of the pipes, but in a plain welded pipe a limit is imposed
to the size by the maximum thickness which can be satisfactorily welded, which may
be taken to be about 14 inches. A type of construction recently introduced whereby
large diameters may be used for high heads without an excessive pipe thickness
consists in reinforcing the pipe by means of steel rings shrunk on at intervals along the
pipe. The author has not been able to discover any published account of the method
by which the strength of such pipes may be estimated. The investigation which
follows has several points of interest, amongst these being the question as to the
conditions undér which a reinforced pipe may be made lighter than a plain pipe

346 REPORTS’ON'THE STATE OFJSCIENCE, ETC.

even when no difficulties of welding would be encountered. It also leads to some
unexpected conclusions regarding the relation between the spacing of the rings and
their effectiveness.

It was shown in the previous paper that the radial displacement at any point of
the pipe wall is given by the equation

Bim? ® die, Bee

m?—1° 12° dxt" R27’

where R is the mean radius of pipe, ¢ the thickness, P the internal pressure, EK Young’s
1 : : : k >

Modulus, a Poisson’s Ratio, and z the radial displacement at any point x measured

along the axis from some fixed origin, the longitudinal stress being assumed zero.
The solution of the equation is

2
z= cos nx (A cosh nz + B sinh nx) + sin nx (C cosh na + D sinh nx) + = Sal),

4 Or (een +985
Se Peroni? 1: = if : for steel be taken as 0-3. If 7 be the

where 2 = ass syste
m* 4/tR m

LEDILEDEIET IE LE ELISSLITOLLOEL 1S OE EE EIEIO ILE

I Eo OL aa ca ao

Ss Ss RSs SS

Fie. 1

length of the pipe between successive rings (fig. 1) and 2 be measured from A as
origin, then, assuming that the pipe wall remains cylindrical under each ring,

where 2, is the radial displacement at the ring.
Evaluating the constants A, B, C, D, equation (1) becomes

2 D 2
be — — ea — Ze) (cosh nx cos naz — H sinh na cos nz + H cosh nx sin nx
—Lsinhnesinnz) . é : erinu (2)
j cosh nl—cosnl , — sinh nl — sin nl
wee ~ sinh nl + sin nl’ ~~ sinh nf + sin nl

In determining the radial displacement at the ring it will simplify the work if,
as will always be the case in practice, the radial thickness h of the ring is small com-
pared with R, and the small error involved in taking R to be the radius of the
ring be neglected.

Considering the portion of the pipe in contact with the ring, the forces acting
upon it in the radial direction will be (1) the internal pressure, (2) the external
pressure produced by the ring, and (3) the shearing force across the pipe wall at each
side of the ring. Denoting by P the pressure per unit area exerted by the ring on

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 347

the pipe, and by F the shearing force per unit length of the circumference, the
equivalent pressure tending to increase the radius will be

oF
Na a >
being the width of the ring, and therefore
R2 2k é
“= 4 (P-p +=) ; i ¥ ? a

The value of P depends on the amount of ‘ shrinkage’ allowed in fitting the rings,
and on the radial displacement z). Let s be the shrinkage, ¢.e. the amount by which
the radius of the ring is less than that of the pipe when both are in the unstressed
state. Then the actual stress in the ring is

E(s + 29)
R

and _ Els ms an)ih i
nae 4 2 : : :

Again, applying the method described in the previous paper to the determination
of the shearing force F, we have
Em? 8B dz

B m2—1 12 dx

which from equation (2) leads to

Em fe
m—1_3 \ Et

iF= “s) oe amet : : =) (dD)
Substituting the values of p and F given by equations (4) and (5) in equation (3), we
obtain .
2 2 3
PRP ppae a
cm? —1- 3
Em? # :
m—1 3 Hr

B(tth) +R.

_ PR? — cEsh + 1-55 PR? RH
cE(t+h)+1-55 Eit/ik.H

The radial displacement z at any point is then obtained by substitution in equa-
tion (2), and the circumferential stress

ote
eS
In all cases of any practical importance q will be greatest at the point midway between
consecutive rings, and an expression for its value at this point may be more con-
_ yeniently obtained by determining the constants A, B, C, D in equation (1), taking
_ the middle point as origin, so that the boundary conditions are
l
z—2,and = 0 forx = + 3

We then obtain, for the radial displacement at the centre, where x == G,

PR? PR? )
At a —*) fu
7
sinh sa cos - -+- cosh S sin 5

where M =
MN ieceere Tob ni. nl
cosh 2 sinh ) + cos 3 sins

348 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

and the stress q1 at the centre is given by

aj ed
1 a
_PR_4,/PR_ 1 | cPR*—cEsh + 1-55 PRA )
t ( ¢ x ct-+h)+1-55tHViR }
ne PR _ Mch PR Es
ict h). A: “ab EAB (P oa) (7)

ne Pett
oe
rel, LIN Po
2) Ney
aa lUSSReORSeCOne
—4 il

(7983.84

Fie. 2

The values of M and H are plotted in fig. 2 on a base of al Given the radius R and
thickness ¢ of the pipe, and the distance apart / of the rings,

mw teh ee

JiR
the values of M and H may be read off from fig. 2, and the maximum stress gq! readily

obtained from equation (7).
The stress that would be produced in a pipe of the same dimensions without

PR : : ‘
reinforcing rings is equal to aa and it would appear, therefore, in order that the rings
should have any strengthening effect, that M must have a positive value greater than

zero. It will be seen from fig. 2 that this is only the case when Mig less than 2-36,

or 1<3-66V/R.
This limiting length is independent of the amount of shrinkage given to the rings.
When / is greater than 3- 66/, tR and less than 8-54/tR, M has a negative value, and

. Ti uk oe

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 349

the tensile circumferential stress is greater than would occur in a plain tube of the

same thickness. It will further be seen from equation (7) that under these condi-
_ tions an increase in the shrinkage allowance results in an increase in the tensile stress
between the rings. Evidence of a similar effect was clearly shown by the experi-
ments described in the previous paper, the stresses being increased by a constraint
which would, at first sight, be expected to reduce them.

Through the courtesy of the Chief Electrical Engineer to the Department of
Public Service, City of Los Angeles, the author has been supplied with details of the
dimensions of a reinforced pipe which forms part of the pipe line to the power
station of that city, and it will be instructive to investigate the stresses which may
occur in it under certain assumed conditions.

The internal diameter of the pipe is 80 in., and the thickness 0-63 in. The
reinforcing rings are 4:45 in. wide by 1-575 in. thick, and are spaced 11-05 in. centre
to centre, leaving an unsupported length of pipe equal to 6-60 in. The working
pressure is stated to be 642 ft. of water, or 278 lb. sq. in. For this case we have

1-285 we N

——= = 0-255, ml _ 9-841, H =0-800, M = 0-925.
The circumferential stress which would be produced in a similar pipe without
reinforcing rings would be

ae = 17,900 Ib. sq. in.

The actual maximum stress in the pipe, from equation (7), is

s
his 2 ese fi Sa
qi=0°5 aes 0 re

—_———--- =

The stress gy in the ring is most readily obtained from equation (6); thus

PR? 1 (=

io. ) Mantis, Be

and I — "EF *) _ 9.490 (

Tt
The author has no information regarding the amount of shrinkage allowed for the
rings. The manner in which, according to this theory, the stress in the rings and the
maximum stress in the pipe vary with the initial shrinkage is shown in Table I.

TABLE I.
Initial Shrinkage s | Stress in Rings qo Max. Stress in Pipe q?
(in.). (Ib. sq. in.). | (Ib. sq. in.).
0-000 8,780 9,450
0-002 9,500 8,750
0-004 10,230 8,060
0-006 10,950 7,360
0-008 11,680 6,670
0-010 12,400 5,970
0-013 13,490 4,930
0-016 14,57 3,880
0-020 16,020 2,490

Assuming a maximum working stress of 6 tons per sq. in. in the rings, the
_ shrinkage would require to be 0-013 in., but under these conditions the maximum
stress in the pipe, viz. 4930 lb. sq. in., would appear to be unnecessarily small, The

350 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

weight per foot of the reinforced pipe is 1090 lb. The thickness of a plain pipe
designed to carry the same pressure with a stress of 6 tons per sq. in. would be 0-842
in., and its weight 722 lb. per foot.

If a working stress of 6 tons per sq. in. be assumed for both the pipe and the rings,
the working pressure may be 408 Ib. sq. in., and the shrinkage necessary 0-0014 in.
To sustain this pressure a plain pipe would weigh 1059 lb. per foot, which is still
lighter than the reinforced pipe. It is, of course, evident that for a given maximum
stress and pressure a plain pipe must have the advantage in weight owing to the
fact that the stress is uniformly distributed through the material.

The possibility of allowing a higher working stress in the rings than would be safe
for the pipe does, however, enable a reinforced pipe to be made lighter than a plain
pipe, provided that the rings are sufficiently close together. Thisis shown by Table II.,
which gives the results of a calculation based on the dimensions of the Los Angeles
pipe, assuming a stress of 10 tons per sq. in. for the rings and 6 tons per sq. in. for the
pipe. In this table the pressure and the initial shrinkage required to produce these
stresses are given for various distances apart of the rings, and the weights per foot
of the reinforced pipe and a plain pipe to carry the same pressure with a stress of
6 tons sq. in. It will be seen that the spacing of the rings must be less than 12 in.
in order to obtain a lighter pipe.

TaBeE II.
Distance Initial Workin Weight pera
| between Rings Shrinkage Seer Ee | |
| le } LAr 7 d ‘4 = | | |
| uoentd Beg a ‘ (Ib. sq. in.) Reinforced Pipe’ Plain Pipe
| (in.) (in.)
| (Lb.) |, % (libs) |
—}— — — = _ | ——— ee |

| 3-0 0-0122 720 Ly” 1850 E77 en
5-0 0-0131 628 1180 1645
| 6-6 0-01.45 541 1085 | 1410
9-0 0-0187 448 | 988 | 1170
| 12-0 0-0258 345 905 : 896
| 18:5 0-0394 209 | 800 | 536
25-1 0-0425 175 740 450

43-0 0-0395 209 | 595 | 536
| | | >

IL.

On the Graphical Determination of Stress from
Photo-Elastic Observations.

By Prof. L. N. G. Fmon, -M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., University College, London.

1. In the 1914 Report of this Committee various methods were given by Prof.
Coker and the author for obtaining the stresses in a plate of transparent material
strained in its own plane from the ‘ isochromatic ’ and ‘ isoclinic’ lines (B.A. Report,
1914, pp. 201-210). It was there shown that the isoclinic lines, together with the
conditions at the boundary, theoretically determine the stress-system completely.
Before, however, this determination can be carried out, it is necessary to fit exact
functional relations to these isoclinic lines, and this is a very difficult matter in practice.

In the same report a method was given whereby the stresses xa, yy, xy could be
derived from a knowledge of both the isoclinic and the isochromatic lines. If P, Q
are the principal stresses at any point, and the stress P makes an angle @ with the
a-axis, then

zy = (P — Q) sin ¢ cos @ : ; : ; «Ly

and is thus known everywhere.

e
‘

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 351

Step-by-step integration of the stress-equations

Oxx , Ory _, Oxy , Oyy _
BPN RIG Tay FN Ie or onivg Bo weith gutbaP)

along straight lines parallel to the axes then gives xa and yy at every point if their
values (as is usually the case) are known at the boundary.
The weakness, however, of this last method in practice is that the observations

—~

are never really accurate enough for the differential coefficients oy So be deter-
mined with sufficient exactness from the values of xy given by (1), using the observed
values of @ and P — Q.

For these reasons neither of the methods given in the report referred to has been
employed in practice to obtain the stress-system.

The method at present generally used is one which has been described fully by
Prof. Coker in various places, in particular in his Presidential Address to Section G
of the British Association in 1914 (Report, p. 495), and which was originally suggested
by Mesnager. It consists in obtaining the sum P + Q of the average principal
stresses in the plane of the plate by measuring the lateral contraction of the plate
at the point in question.

This method has given good results, but it is not, from the theoretical standpoint,
entirely unexceptionable, for in the calculation it is assumed that the material is
perfectly elastic, with a definite Poisson’s ratio, which has to be measured by a separate
experiment. But, as a matter of fact, the experiments of Filon and Jessop (Phil.
Trans., A., vol. 223, pp. 89-125) have shown that celluloid exhibits considerable strain
ereep for limits of stress well below those which occur in the large majority of photo-
elastic experiments, and this introduces an undesirable element of uncertainty into
the results, unless, as in Coker’s investigations, the material employed is selected
with the greatest care.

Moreover, it should theoretically be possible to deduce the stresses completely
from observation of the isoclinic and isochromatic lines alone, and the introduction
of a strain measurement really brings in superfluous data, with a possibility of in-
consistencies which it may be difficult to trace to their source.

Finally, the measurement of such minute lateral contractions is one of extreme
delicacy, and very few investigators have at their disposal the necessary apparatus
for carrying it out.

For the above reasons it appears of importance to describe in some detail a practical
method of deriving the stresses in a transparent plate directly from the isoclinic and
isochromatic lines, and to give an actual.example of its application.

It is believed that this method is free from the defects inherent in the other method
of step-by-step integration, described in the 1914 B.A. Report, p. 206, and referred
to previously. :

2. The method is based upon equations given by A. Mesnager (Annales des Ponts
et Chaussées (partie technique) ; Sér. 9, tome 16, vol. 4, pp. 135-186) for the space-
rates of change of the principal stresses, taken along the lines of principal stress.

If we denote by s,, sz, arcs taken along the lines of principal stress corresponding
to stresses P, Q respectively (fig. 3), ds, being obtained from ds, by a counter-clock-
wise rotation of 90°; and if p,, p, are the radii of curvature of the two lines of principal

stress, being measured positive when the tangents to the curves rotate counter-
clockwise as the arcs s1, s increase, we have the equations

oP P—Q

OF =i : P : : ele
pit : (3)
0Q Bae es 4
a, t i =0 : : : . . (4)

These equations are very readily obtained by considering the equilibrium of a
‘ curved elementary rectangle’ bounded by four near lines of principal stress, and
expressing the conditions that the total force resolutes parallel to the tangents to the
lines of principal stress at one corner A are zero, it being assumed that the plate
is under no ‘ body-force.’

1923 BB

352 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

These equations, it will be noted, are quite independent of stress-strain relations,
and hold equally in a plastic and in an elastic solid.

If we start from a point O, where the P-stress is Py, and proceed along the corre-
sponding line of principal stress to any point A, we have, integrating (3),

A ~

P=P—[*P-Qdain 2

And, similarly, if we proceed from O along a line of Q-stress to a point B, we have
B

Q=%-["P-AQdsln 2 sO)

Now there are two ways in which we may conveniently compute the integrals
on the right-hand sides of (5) and (6). Call ¢ as before the angle which ds, makes
with the positive direction of the axis of x.

Then 1/p, = oe

(7984. A.)

Fic. 3

Now consider a point A (fig. 3) through which passes the isoclinic of parameter ¢,
and let CD be a near isoclinic of parameter ¢ + dd, which meets the line of P-stress
through A at C and the line of Q-stress through A at D. Then

1/p. = dp/AD,
and ds, = AC. .*. ds,/pp =do x (AC/AD).
Let y be the angle through which the line of P-stress has to be rotated (counter-

clockwise) in order to bring it upon the isoclinic. [
Then from fig. 3, AD/AC = — tan y, and thus

[pee 1 +(2 (P—Q) cot ddp . . ‘ sevtg('7)
0
Equation (6) will then take the symmetrical form
Q=Q +(° (Q—P) cot ydp, . : Oe fea]
0

where yf is the angle through which the line of Q-stress has to be rotated to bring it
upon the isoclinic. :

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 353

Now the value of P — Q can be read off at any point from observation of the
isochromatic lines or by direct measurement with a compensator.

The values of y are obtained from the isoclinics by subtracting, from the inclination
to the z-axis of the tangent to the isoclinic, the parameter of the isoclinic itself.

The isoclinics are usually well-defined brushes, of which the direction, at any
point, can be observed with considerable accuracy. Accordingly y should be read off
with an error of only 1° or 2° in most cases.

It is necessary, of course, to draw the lines of principal stress, since these are the
paths ofintegration. But, given the isoclinic lines, this usually presents no difficulty ;
and, as a rule, this is the most accurate and immediate deduction from the optical
data.

Once the lines of principal stress have been drawn, P — Q and y should be noted
for the various points at which a given line of stress meets the successive isoclinics.
The values of (P — Q) cot y can then be calculated and plotted to ¢, and the area of
the curve so found obtained by any of the usual methods.

3. In this way P and Q can be obtained for any point on the line of stress, provided
Py (or Qo) is known.
Now, at the boundary, both principal stresses can be obtained if the applied
traction is entirely known. If the P-stress line makes an angle x with the normal
n to the boundary, s denoting the direction of the boundary itself,

ss — nn = (Q— P) cos?x, !

and nn, ns being supposed known, 38 is given by this equation.
The simplest and most important case occurs when we are dealing with a part of

the boundary entirely free from traction. In this case nm = ns =0, the boundary
itself is a line of principal stress (say Q-stress) and

a= Q=P

as given optically ; P, of course, being here zero.
We may thus follow any one line of principal stress which starts from a free portion

of the boundary, and the stresses P, Q are completely known along this line.
, It may be that this will allow us to reach directly all the region of the plate which
_ we wish to explore, in which case the problem is solved.
If, however, this is not the case, we may now take any point already reached as
; starting-point and proceed from it along the orthogonal line of principal stress. In
; this way the whole of the plate will ultimately be reached.
; 4. The formula (7) becomes highly inaccurate if y be small, in which case a slight
error in y makes a large error in cot y; and also, the isoclinics being then nearly
parallel to the line of principal stress considered, the intervals along the path of
integration are too large for the method of quadratures to give accurate results.

In this case we have to treat equation (5) by a different method.

Let Ay (fig. 3) be the intercept, measured perpendicular to the path of integration
between two near isoclinics in the neighbourhood of the point considered, whose
parameters differ by Ap. Then L/p,= 4/4y approximately. And if we take the
interval Ap constant throughout, which will usually be the case since the isoclinics
should be drawn for constant differences of , we have equation (5) leading to

Ap
P=P)— A9|. 9 ae, Sout. ammtve med)

»
_and the integration can be proceeded with graphically as before.

This method is specially useful when, as not infrequently happens in cases of
symmetry, there exists a line of principal stress which is straight, and therefore is
_ also an isoclinic. Ay is then the intercept between this line and the nearest (curved)
isoclinic, measured perpendicular to the (straight) path: of integration, --.

BB 2

354 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

5. As an example of the method, a small disc of a transparent insulator called
bakelite was placed in a straining-frame and compressed along a diameter. The
disc carried a network of reference lines and the appearances were projected on a
screen, upon which the isoclinics and isochromatics were traced with a pencil.

Bakelite was selected because its stress-optical coefficient (recently determined
as 50 brewsters by Mr. I. Arakawa in a M.Sc. dissertation of the University of London)
is at least five times that of celluloid, and therefore, for a given thickness, a far larger
number of isochromatic lines is brought into the field. The difficulty with this
material is usually that it shows considerable optical effect in the unstrained state,
but it was found possible, by a method due to Mr. H. T. Jessop, to obtain almost
perfect annealing of this particular specimen.

The disc compressed along a diameter was selected as a type of stress because its
mathematical solution is simple and well known (See Love, Theory of Elasticity,
3rd edition, Art. 155) and would afford a basis for comparison. It was found, however,
in practice, that the compressing pieces flattened the disc and the pressure was spread
out over a quite considerable arc.

The straining-frame used did not allow of the total pressure being found directly. —

The ratio of this to the stresses has been deduced from the observations themselves.

—— Isochromatic Lines.
- Isoclinic Lines.
65° ~~~ Lunes of Principal Stress,

order of Isochro-
matics us shown By
. Roman Numer

5°
70°
5°
t FoR
(7994.2) IV IL I
Fic. 4

In like manner it will appear that neither the stress-optical coefficients of the bakelite,
nor its elastic constants, needed to be determined; and these points are of some
importance, as they show how, in many cases, the method is largely independent of
subsidiary determinations.

6. The isoclinics (drawn for every 5° of #) and the isochromatics, of orders 1 to 8,
are shown in fig. 4, for one quadrant of the disc only, the others being deducible
from symmetry. The isoclinics are shown in fig 4 by thin lines and the isochromatics
by thick ones, the isochromatic of order zero being the boundary itself. The lines of
principal stress, drawn from the data supplied by the isoclinics, are shown by the
dotted lines, which should be coaxial circles according to theory. Those surrounding

the point Y show a certain amount of ellipticity which agrees with what one would

expect if the pressure is spread out on either side of Y.
The first step was to use the method of §4 to obtain P and Q along OX, P being

here horizontal. The radius r of the circular image was 3}in., and measurements

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 355

were taken in inches. The results, however, are not affected by the scale of the
diagram.

Unit stress was taken to be that which produced the retardation corresponding
to the ‘ tint of passage.’

A preliminary curve was drawn giving P — Q to x, as obtained from the inter-
sections of the isochromatics with Ox. Krom this curve the values of P — Q corre-

_ sponding to z/r = 0-1, 0-2, 0-3, etc., were read off, and 4y was the vertical intercept

aa a ,

for those values of x between the isoclinics ¢ = + 5° and @ = — 5°, so that Ap
= are 10°. The results are shown in Table I.

TABLE I.

CALCULATION OF P atone OX.

| 2 |

| ay z P P > Q Q

| ar | P—Q He

(inches) + Graphical) Theory |Graphical| Theory

0 4-08 co 0 0-84 1-06 —3:24 | —3-18
0-1 3°94 3°05 0-226 0-81 1-02 —3-13 | —3-10
0-2 3-53 2-03 0-304 0-72 0-90 —2-81 | —2-86
0:3 3°04 1-45 0-366 0-61 0-74 —2:-43 | —2-51
0-4 2-53 1-08 0-409 0-48 0-56 —2-05 | —2-09
0-5 2-03 0-88 0-403 0-35 0-38 —1-68 | —1-66
0-6 1-50 0-74 0-354 0-23 0-24 —1:27 | —1-23
0-7 1-00 0-65 0-269 0-13 0-12 —0:87 | —0-85
0-8 0-60 0-59 0-178 0-06 0-05 —0-54 | —0-52
0-9 0-28 0-59 0-083 0-01 0-01 —0-27 | —0-23
1-0 0 0-60 0 0 0 0 0

The integration for P (graphical) was carried out by simple addition of mid-
ordinates. The columns marked P (Theory) and Q (Theory) were computed as follows:
The values of Q obtained graphically were taken from the seventh column and

+r
| Que computed. This was found to be 10-84, and this value was taken as the
—?r

total applied force F ; and the theoretical stresses for a disc under forces F diametri-
cally applied were computed. The Q values are seen to agree quite well. The P
values shown by the graphical analysis are somewhat lower (but not really by large
absolute amounts) than the theoretical values ; but the spread of the applied pressure
already mentioned would act in this sense.

7. The next step was to compute P along the lines of stress marked A, B, C, D in
fig. 4 (E was omitted as the observed lines were too crowded for the drawing to have
been sufficiently accurate).

Formula (7) was now used, bearing in mind that at the boundary Py is zero; and
the observed values are tabulated for the intersections of the stress line with the

_ successive isoclinics.

356 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

TABLE II.

CALCULATION oF P Atona Lines A, B, C, D oF PRINCIPAL STRESS.

p y P-Q P Q
(obs.) (obs. ) (obs. ) (Q—P)ecoty (Graphical) | (Graphical)
( u7e — 0 0 0 0
15° 161-5° 0-40 1-20 0-02 —0-38
A 10° 157-5° 1-50 3-62 0-18 —1-32
5° 151-5° 2°72 5-00 0:56 —2-16
0° 90° 4-20 0 0-93 —3:27
32° 30’ — 0 0 0 0
30° 144-5° 0-28 0-39 0-01 —0:27
25° 144° 0-89 1-23 0-06 —0-82
B 20° 143° 1-60 2°13 0-21 —1:39
5 137-5° 2-50 2-72 0-42 —2-08
10° (BH 3-27 2-84 0-67 —2-60
aye 124° 3-91 2-62 0-92 —2-99
0° 90° 4°35 0 1-06 —3-29
48° — iat 0 0 0
45° 134° 0-43 0-42 0-01 —0-42
40° 131° 0-83 0-72 0-06 —0:77
Bop 129° 1-44 1-17 0-14 —1-30
30° 129-5° 2-00 1-64 0:27 —1-74
Cc 25-e. 124° 2-90 1-94 0-42 —2-48
20° 121° 3°60 2-16 0-60 —3-00
15° 122° 4-15 2:57 0-80 —3-35
10° 115-5° 4-55 2-18 1-02 —3:53
be 108° 4-82 1-54 1-18 —3-64
0° 90° 4-85 0 1-25 —3-60
63° — 0 0 0 0
60° 128° 0-75 0-58 0-01 —0:74
55° 118° 1-90 1-01 0-08 —1-82
50° 114° 2-85 1-27 0-17 2:68
45° iss 3-40 1-44 0-29 —3-11
40° 113° 3-90 1-65 0-42 —3-48
D noe 113° 4-25 1:80 0-57 —3-68
30° 115° 4-70 2°19 0-74 —3-96
25° 114°] 5-15 2-29 0-93 —A4-22
20° 108° 5-55 1-80 1-12 —4-43
15° 105° 5-90 1-58 1-27 —4-63
10° 101-5° 6-15 1-25 1:39 —4-76
ayy 97° 6-30 0-77 1-48 —4-82
0° 90° 6-40 0 1-50 —4-90

In computing the above table the values of (Q — P) cot ¥ were plotted to ¢ on
squared paper and the areas read off by counting squares.

It will be noticed that we have now a system of values of P and Q which practically
cover the whole of the disc, excluding the immediate neighbourhood of the points
of application of the load. Our problem is therefore practically solved. . |

8. Comparison with the theory along the diameter x = 0 shows divergences,
e.g. the progressive rise, as we move away from O, in the value of P, which in the

i al

J
)
)
:

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 357

theoretical example should be constant ; but these discrepancies might be plausibly
. for by the fact that the theoretical distribution of load is not accurately
realised.

The real test of the validity of the method lies in the agreement between the
values of P and Q obtained at the same point by integration along lines of principal
stress belonging to different (i.e. orthogonal) systems.

In order to apply such a check, the value of Q at = 1-5”, y = 0, where the line
of principal stress marked c in fig. 4 begins, was interpolated from Table II. and found
to be —1-845 in our units. Q and P were then computed for various values of >
along the line c from the data given in Table III., each successive entry in the fifth
column being obtained by adding to the preceding the arithmetic mean of the two
corresponding entries in the fourth column.

TaBLeE III.

”

CALCULATION OF P anp Q ALONG THE Linz ‘‘c” oF PRINCIPAL STRESS.

(P — Q) cot y
> ¥ Bi" x arc 5° Q P
0° 90° 2-25 0 —1-85 0-40
5° 67° 2-33 0-086 —1-89 0-44
10° Bie 2-38 0-135 —2-00 0-38
15° 47° 2-53 0-206 —2-17 0-36
20° 41° 2-70 0-271 |; —2-41 0-29
25° BY ie 3°30 0-471 | —2-78 0-52
30° 29° 4-00 0-630 | —3°33 0-67
35° 24-5° 4-70 0-900 —4-09 0-61
40° 18° 5-50 1:477 —5-28 0:22
|

SS SSS ss ss eee

Finally, if we estimate the values of » at the four intersections Ac, Bc, Cc, De,
and compare the values of P and Q obtained from Tables II. and III. by interpolation,
we obtain Table IV. below.

TABLE LY.

CROSS-CHECK OF STRESSES.
¢ Point P (II) P (III) Q (II) QU)
ae era eed |
6°5° Ac 0:45 0:43 —1-91 —1-92 |
15° Be 0:42 0-36 —2-08 ile A
23-5° Cc 0-47 0-45 —2-64 2-66 |
33° De 0:64 0-63 —3-79 —3-79 |
|

The slight difference shown in the values of P — Q in the above is due to the fact
that the values of P and of Q were interpolated for separately.

Looking at these values, however, the agreement is singularly good, and may be
looked upon as a remarkable confirmation of the accuracy of the method.

It appears, therefore, that it is practically feasible to obtain the complete stress
system in a transparent model from purely optical observations and without reference
to the elastic properties of the material.

The best thanks of the author are due to Mr. H. T. Jessop, M.Sc., of University
College, London, who actually annealed the specimen of bakelite used in these
observations and who obtained the tracings of the isoclinie and isochromatic lines.

358 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
TIT.

Thermodynamic Theory of Mechanical Fatigue and Hysteresis
in Metals.

By B. Parker Hatan, D.Sc., M.B.EL., M.Inst.C.E£., Royal Naval College, Greenwich.
Introduction.

In contributions to the reports of this Committee, in 1919 and 1921, the
author outlined a thermodynamic theory of ductile strain, and showed how that
theory could be applied to deduce an approximate relation between the different
elastic limits exhibited by a given metal when subjected to stresses of different kinds,
tensile, shear or complex combinations of different principal stresses. The theory
was summarised in a convenient quadratic equation giving the elastic limit combina-
tion («, y, z) for a complex stress in terms of the ordinary tensile elastic limit (f) and
Poisson’s ratio (o = 0-25 to 0-30)—

(2?-+-y?+-2*) — 20 (y.z+2.24+2%.y) =f?

It was shown that this theoretical relation is well supported by experimental evidence
published by many different investigators; thus, for example, fig. 5, reproduced
from the report for 1919, shows how closely the calculated strength of a thick-walled
tube agrees with experimental determinations carried out with the greatest care for
accuracy.

7 7. 2 851 een
6ocar) Ratio k-~External/ Internal Diameter of Tube.
Fig. 5

It is proposed, in the present paper, to extend the application of thermodynamic
principles to investigate the problem of mechanical fatigue and the relation between
the phenomena of fatigue and hysteresis. It will be shown that fractures produced
by steady tensile stress, or by alternating or pulsating stresses, have certain features
in common ; and that these indicate an action distinctly different from that ‘ gliding’
action which affords a sufficient explanation of ductile or plastic strain. In the view
of the author, fatigue and hysteresis are associated with, and directly due to, a dual
process of decrystallisation and recrystallisation, substantially equivalent to the
dual process of solution and recrystallisation that was shown, in 1861, by the late
Professor James Thomson, to occur when a crystal immersed in its saturated solution
is subjected to stresses tending to change its shape. Such a process is associated with
thermal actions; evolution, absorption and conduction of heat, and with the con-
version of mechanical work to heat; and is subject to the established thermodynamic
laws that govern also the actions of working substances in heat engines.

An introduction to these thermodynamic relations will be found in two papers
published by Thomson in 1861. In discussing the apparently plastic flow of ice,

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 359

in an extension of the theory by which, in 1849, he had already calculated the depression
of the freezing point by pressure, Thomson states: ‘ Stresses (of any kind) tending to
change the form of any crystals in the saturated solutions from which they have
crystallised must give them a tendency to dissolve away, and to generate, in sub-
stitution for themselves, other crystals free from the applied stresses.’ It does not
appear that Thomson applied this principle for metals; nor was the subject then
ripe for such an application. Thomson states: ‘I have not... any clear conception
of continuous crystalline structure admitting of what may be called ductile or malle-
able bending. . . . What may be the nature of the molecular arrangement induced
by bending them I cannot say ; but I suppose that... their crystalline structure is
materially altered, and rendered discontinuous where, before, it was continuous.’

Beilby’s memorable work identified the change in question as the physical change
from the crystalline to the vitreous state. Ewing, Rosenhain, and Humphrey demon-
strated microscopically that the change occurs on gliding surfaces within the grains ;
and showed that ductile strain is due to numerous small displacements on surfaces
spaced at finite distances that vary in different circumstances. It is understood that
the ‘ vitreous’ theory of plastic strain is now widely accepted, although, since it
asserts that the phenomena of strain depend upon a change of physical state, its
acceptance involves a variety of thermodynamic consequences which hitherto have
not been fully investigated or verified.

While the vitreous theory of non-elastic strain affords an explanation of plastic
flow, on the assumption that the changed metal behaves as a viscous liquid, and offers
an incomplete explanation of the hardening action of cold-work, on the assumption
that the same changed metal behaves as a rigid vitreous substance, it remains to be
shown that the two requirements are not mutually incompatible. As a deduction
from the first law of thermodynamics, the author will show that the changed metal
must be formed at high temperature, such that it may well be viscous during the
short period of time that elapses before it cools to the temperature of the surrounding
metal.

It will further be shown that the phenomena of hysteresis are attributable to the
action of a dual process of decrystallisation and recrystallisation occurring in a cyclic
manner that is always irreversible in the thermodynamic sense, but may be mechani-
cally reversible or irreversible according as the range of applied stress lies within or
beyond the fatigue limit of the metal; and that the incidence of fatigue may be ex-
plained by the formation of small cavities in the metal, in consequence of the imperfect
mechanical reversibility of the action when it occurs with undue energy and on too
large a scale.

Thermodynamic Elasticity.

In the usual definition of elasticity, reliance is placed on a phrase ‘ no permanent
strain after removal of stress’ ; and attention is focussed on the comparison of measure-
ments taken before and after loading. Since the behaviour of the material during
loading and unloading is not usually specified, the phenomena of ‘ elastic hysteresis ’
often escape attention, or are regarded as of minor importance and to be ascribed to
‘molecular friction.’ For theoretical purposes it is desirable to define a more ideal
type of elasticity, as exhibited by cold vitreous substances such as glass, free from
hysteresis.

Thermodynamic elasticity may be defined—without reference to Hooke’s approxi-
mate law of proportionality—by regarding as an ideally elastic change an action that
is thermodynamically reversible : the work done on the metal, in straining it, shall be
completely recovered when the stress is released. On this basis, a definition may be
given as follows :—A test-piece is thermodynamically elastic if, in an experiment in
which the applied stress is varied within limits and under specified control of tem-
perature and other external conditions, the strain observed at any stage of loading or
unloading is found to depend solely on the stress applied at that stage, being inde-
pendent of whether that stress is rising or falling.

Thermodynamic elasticity does not necessarily entail fulfilment of Hooke’s law :
thus the compression of water is thermodynamically elastic although the bulk modulus
varies with the applied pressure. In the absence of hysteresis, however, metals would
doubtless fulfil Hooke’s law even more approximately than they do in actual
experiment.

360 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
On the assumption that Hooke’s law is fulfilled, the work done by external forces
in straining unit volume of an isotropic substance under a combination of three

principal stresses, x, y, and z, may be expressed in terms of Young’s modulus, HB, and
Poisson’s ratio, o, thus:

te + y? + 2)—26 (y.z24+ 2.2 + 2x.y)]
Under a single tensile stress, f, this reduces to f?/2E ; or under a single shear stress, q,
the work is g?/2C, where C is the modulus of rigidity. It is conceived that these
quantities of work are stored in the metal in virtue of changes in the relative positions
of the molecules or atoms, or in their orbital or oscillatory movements. In a metal
that is thermodynamically elastic, the resilience and, doubtless, also the internal
arrangement and motions of the molecules or atoms depend wholly on the state of
stress and temperature.

Again, on the assumption that Hooke’s law is fulfilled, the quantity of heat ab-
sorbed from surrounding bodies by unit volume of an isotropic substance, strained
without change of temperature, may be expressed :

Work per unit volume =

Heat per unit volume = 6.a.f

where a, is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion and f is the tensile stress applied ;
@is the absolute temperature.

The above expressions were used by Lord Kelvin to calculate the slight fall of
temperature that occurs when a test-piece is extended adiabatically ; and, also, the
ratio in which the adiabatic modulus slightly exceeds the ordinary isothermal value.
It appeared to the author, at one time, that hysteresis might be due to conduction
effects associated with the transferrence of such small quantities of heat into or out
of the test-piece as a whole ; but simple calculations show that the influence is of too
small an order, and usually quite negligible. Moreover, the slight conduction effect
varies, with stress and frequency, in a manner quite different from the action of
mechanical hysteresis. In metals of highly complex microstructure, comprising
intermingled constituents with widely different expansibilities, the conduction effect
may be the cause of a perceptible part of the total observed hysteresis; but in general
it appears that a more important cause of hysteresis must be sought in another action.

First Law of Thermodynamics in relation to ‘ Gliding’ Strain:

Any heat given out by a test-piece, during a cyclic process of strain in which the
piece is restored to its original dimensions, must be derived from one or other of two
sources ; viz., work done by the forces applied in straining the test-piece, or change of
internal energy associated with change of physical state. In the case of ductile
strain, the heat given out is almost exactly equivalent to the work done on the test-
piece; the quantity of metal that suffers change of state and energy, in the slip-bands,
is but a very small fraction of the total mass.

Since the whole of this large quantity of energy is converted to heat within the

relatively small masses that suffer the change of state and the subsequent gliding
movements that result in plastic strain, it follows that the changed metal must attain,
temporarily at least, a temperature much higher than that reached by the test-piece
asa whole. Unless the specific heats differ more widely than is currently believed, the
temperature ratio must be nearly the inverse of the mass ratio; and the changed
metal must attain a temperature of the order of a bright red heat sufficiently high to
account for a variety of phenomena which, otherwise, might appear inexplicable.

So long as the changed metal is maintained at this high temperature, we may
expect that it will behave as a highly viscous liquid and act as a lubricant between
adjacent crystalline masses, allowing of gliding movements such as result in plastic
strain. But films as thin as slip-bands may be expected to cool rapidly, in contact
with cold unchanged metal, and when the vitreous metal cools it becomes hard and
rigid, acting as a cement between the crystalline masses. Thus the dual nature of
the vitreous-liquid, required for the explanation of ductile strain, is completely in
accord with the idea that the energy available on formation is rapidly dissipated by
conduction. It is-interesting and significant to note that the more ductile metals
are commonly good conductors of heat.

a ae

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 361

A large part of the total quantity of heat evolved during ductile strain is produced,
doubtless, during the gliding movement and therefore after the occurrence of the
change of physical state which, according to the Beilby theory, must occur before
gliding is possible within a crystal. This part of the energy is drawn from the strain-
energy of crystalline layers on either side of the slip-band, which layers are thereby
relieved of further tendency to glide until restrained by change in the applied forces.
The period of duration of any one glide is probably limited to the short period of time
during which energy is transmitted, with the speed of detonation, across short dis-
tances proportional to the pitches between adjacent slip-bands, pitches which depend
on the configurations and elasticities of the grains and their boundaries. There is
little evidence to suggest that fatigue is directly due to repeated to-and-fro slipping on
one and the same series of slip-bands ; and it seems highly improbable that this is
the real nature of the action that leads to fracture. The slip-band is stronger than the
original crystal, and less liable to fail under a second application of the load.

The complex action of gliding may be likened to the release of a spring resisted by
a dashpot containing a very viscous liquid that congeals when the exhausted spring
is no longer able to supply the energy required to keep the liquid warm. The incom-
pleteness of this analogy is one of its more interesting and valuable features: It is
apparent that energy would have to be supplied to melt the dashpot initially, before
the release of the spring could supply further energy to compensate the loss of heat
by conduction and thereby maintain motion.

This initial quantity of energy is discussed in the next section. The author con-
ceives that the energy with which the first few molecules are endowed, as they leave
the crystalline lattice and enter the vitreous assemblage, is supplied by the strain
energy between these molecules and their immediate neighbours in the lattice, and
is intimately related to the limiting value of the strain-energy required to bring the
metal to its elastic-limit. ;

Second Law of Thermodynamics in relation to Change of State.

When one and the same change can be produced in matter at a given temperature,
by the agency of different forces acting in manners that are thermodynamically
reversible, the work done by these forces in producing the change is always the same.
Applications of this principle in the theory of heat engines are well known, and other
applications are established in physics and chemistry.

The application of the principle is fraught with difficulty on account of the
incidence of the phrase ‘thermodynamically reversible.’ If the quantity of work in
question is measured experimentally, the observed values will be more or less accurate
according as the experimental processes approach, more or less closely, to the ideal
of reversibility ; or if the quantity is calculated theoretically, the process of change
considered must be ideally reversible although not necessarily such as can be carried
out in any actual experiment.

In contributions to the reports for 1919 and 1921 the author showed how this
principle might be applied to deduce an approximate relation between the elastic
limits of a ductile metal for different simple and complex stresses ; and showed that
that relation was approximately fulfilled in the wide range of experiments covered
by published data. The principle will now be applied to deduce the thermal conse-
quences of the dual process of decrystallisation and recrystallisation which has already
been described as being conceived to be the cause of mechanical hysteresis and of
fatigue in metals.

The change from the crystalline to the vitreous state, in the process of ductile
strain, is followed by consequences that are far from reversible. In the presence of
any shear-stress, gliding ensues, and the action of the shearing forces is resisted by
viscous friction, so that large quantities of strain energy are converted to heat. On
account of these complications the total quantities of work actually absorbed are
usually much greater than the invariant quantity required to effect change in a
reversible manner. In the author’s earlier papers, the resilient strain-energy alone
was taken as a close first approximation to the invariant quantity.

In attempting to calculate the ideal invariant quantity in terms of the applied
stresses and the elastic constants of the metal, we are confronted with two funda-
mental difficulties as follows: (1) On account of the non-isotropic properties of
crystalline matter, work done on an ordinary test-piece, containing large numbers
of grains, is not uniformly distributed among those grains. (2) Itis difficult although

362 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

not impossible to visualise a probable nature for the ideal reversible stages which,
in any real process of change, must precede the irreversible gliding motion which
can occur only in the changed metal. The same two difficulties are met with when
we attempt to study the change in relation to hysteresis and fatigue.

The reversible process of change is conceived to occur in two distinct stages.
In the first stage the metal is gradually strained—elastically—to the stress at which
the change will occur; and in the second stage the first few molecules or atoms are
projected out of the continuous lattice into the discontinuous assemblage. Even
without a detailed mental image of this latter stage, it may still be regarded as in-
herently reversible, for if the first projected molecule struck an imaginary rigid body
normally, immediately after its projection and before it had suffered loss of energy
by viscous resistance or conduction, it could only rebound into the lattice and re-
establish its position ready to make a second sortie. A number of considerations
lead. the author to the view that the work done in the second stage, per unit volume
of metal suffering the change, must be nearly independent of the applied stresses, or
small in comparison with the strain-energy imparted to the metal in the first stage.
In such circumstances the equation of constant resilience may be used, as described
in the introduction, as a relation between the elastic limits under simple and complex
stresses. Thus, for example, the elastic limit in shear should be approximately
62 per cent. of the tensile elastic limit (instead of only 50 per cent., as is often
assumed).

On the assumption or hypothesis that fatigue also is due to consequences that
follow from the change of physical state in the metal, and no matter exactly what may
be the processes that connect the change of state with the opening of the crack,
we may infer that the same quadratic equation will afford an approximate relation
between the fatigue limits of a ductile metal under different combinations of complex
stresses. Since the fatigue limits under complex stresses are difficult of determina-
tion, and are still uncertain, it cannot be said that this relation has yet been verified.
But a considerable bulk of rough evidence is available to show that the fatigue limits
in shear and direct stress approximately fulfil the rule; and it is understood that
recent more accurate experiments support the validity of the 62 per cent. ratio, at
least as a close approximation.

Tensile and Fatigue Fractures: Comparison and Cause.

Although the tensile and fatigue fractures of a ductile metal commonly differ
widely in appearance, the two have features in common; and the differences are of
degree rather than fundamental. In both types of fracture, it is considered, rupture
is associated with and directly due to an action other than that gliding which is
regarded as a sufficient explanation of plastic shear strain.

The tensile fracture of a ductile metal exhibits two characteristically different
zones. The outer annulus, of ‘ cup and cone’ form, is admittedly due to shearing :
the surfaces coincide with the planes of maximum tangential stress, as in the typical
plane fractures observed in torsion tests. Within the annulus is observed a second
zone of characteristically different appearance, nearly flat in many metals, granular
or even toothed in others. Since this second zone lies on the plane of symmetry of
elongation, precisely on the cross-section of minimum area, while the surfaces of the
cup and cone run outwards to edges of greater diameter, it is inferred that the cracking
of the inner zone is the determining cause of fracture, and interrupts the continuous
gliding movement of shear which, in other circumstances, might continue further
without necessarily resulting in fracture. The relative size of the two zones differs
in different metals that exhibit different local elongations and reductions of area ;
and varies also with the character of the applied stress, whether steady, pulsating, or
alternating. The cup-and-cone annulus is to be regarded as characteristic of duc-
tility, and the inner zone of inherent or induced brittleness.

In a ductile metal, brittleness may be induced by the action of the complex stresses
associated with local elongation, which sets in at a particular stage of elongation,
when the capacity of the metal for hardening—by the cold-work of elongation—falls
below a certain limit that is unable to compensate the reduction of area. In this
physical sense, the ultimate strength of a ductile metal is not directly related to its
resistance to rupture, but is related to its cold-working capacity only. As there
appears to be much misconception of this point, it may be well to put the matter in

British Association, 91st Report, Liverpool, 1923. [PLATE I.

I'tG. 6.—Comparison of fractures of one and the same steel: under tensile
stress, right : and under pulsating tension, left.

Illustrating the Report on Certain of the More Complex Distributions
in Kngineering Materials.

[To face page 363.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 363

“mathematical terms. The ultimate tensile strength is the maximum value of the
nominal stress given by the term (f.a/A), where A is the original cross-section of
the test-piece, and f is the stress on the reduced cross-section a. It follows that
the ultimate strength occurs when the differential of (f.«) is zero; t.e. when

(f.da) + (a. df) =0;

where df is the increase of yield stress produced by a further elongation, dl, on the
already extended length J. The ultimate tensile strength is therefore the particular
“nominal ’ stress that corresponds to a definite stage of elongation at which

th rgb

al eat
that is, at which 2 per cent. increase of yield stress (reckoned on the reduced area, as
in wire-drawing) is produced by a further 1 per cent. elongation (reckoned on the
already extended length).

The necking that occurs in a ductile metal strained beyond this stage produces
lateral pull stresses in the core of the bar: the exterior layers, subject to tension, are
held in their curved positions by these lateral tensions. When the curvature is con-
siderable, it may happen that the core is subject to an almost symmetrical ‘ triple-
tensile’ stress. It is of interest to consider, therefore, the probable action of this
unusual type of stress, regarding which we have but little direct experimental
evidence. According tothe ‘ strain-energy’ theory, symmetrical triple-tensile stress of
sufficient intensity promotes change of state, from crystalline to vitreous, but causes
no tendency to glide. The metal becomes ‘ pseudo-rigid,’ ceasing to glide although
suffering the change of state. If such an action occurs in the core of a tensile test-piece,
we may expect that that core will take up an undue share of the applied load, will
suffer increasingly rapid change without the relief that might be derived from gliding,
and will rupture in the manner characteristic of a brittle metal that breaks without
plastic strain.

The above description of the action of triple-tensile stress, in promoting fracture
in a ductile metal, is supported by evidence from wire-drawing operations. In the
process of wire-drawing, the occurrence of triple-tensile stress is prevented by the
lateral pressure exerted by the dies; and, as a consequence, more shear strain can
be imposed without fracture, so that the metal can be hardened much further than by
simple tensile elongation. The profile and lubrication of the dies are of importance,
not only on account of their dragging action but also because they affect the mag-
nitude and location of the lateral pressure that neutralises the destructive triple-
tension which, in the absence of the dies, would promote rupture. In ‘ cupped’
wire, internal cracks occur in a manner suggestive of a deficiency of this action.

The view that rupture can be caused by change of physical state resulting in the
formation of cavities, with or without gliding motion, is supported by several con-
siderations. When the densities of crystalline and vitreous metals are compared,
using dilatometer methods at temperatures such that the change occurs without
stress, the vitreous metal is found to occupy the smaller volume ; and, on account of
the different thermal contractions, it is probable that the difference of volume is still
greater at ordinary temperatures. Moreover, the slight but definite expansions that
accompany distortion by tension, shear, and even compression, are regarded as evidence
that the change of state results in the formation of cavities, even when it is followed
by gliding movements which tend to seal together the gliding faces. The author
holds the view that gliding is to be regarded not as the cause of rupture. but rather
as an imperfect protection against rupture caused by the opening of cavities and the
spreading of a crack, much in the same manner as occurs evidently in a ‘ notched-bar’
test for brittleness.

When fatigue occurs under a pulsating pull that attains only a moderate crest
value, not necessarily exceeding the yield-point and much lower than the ultimate
tensile stress, the fatigue fracture assumes a characteristic form intermediate between
the typical tensile fracture and the typical fatigue fracture under alternating
stress. Fig. (6 illustrates the comparison, and shows how the pulsating stress

364 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

fracture might be taken, at first sight, to be that of a more brittle quality of steel.
The pulsating stress fracture shows the cup and cone, but less markedly than the
tensile fracture.

Through all the variations of form of the fatigue fractures produced by different
combinations of steady and alternating stresses, the flat face of the fatigue crack
may be identified as corresponding, in some measure, to the flat inner zone of the
tensile fracture ; while the final distorted tear of the fatigue fracture corresponds to
the regular cup and cone of the tensile. It is inferred that the determining cause
of fracture is the same in the two cases: that fatigue is associated with the formation
of small cavities within the metal, without the protective action of gliding. Whereas,
in the tensile test, these cavities form only when the metal becomes brittle—through
the agency of triple-tensile stress in metals that are normally ductile—their formation
occurs under alternating stress even while the metal retains its full ductility. General
observation shows that fatigue is associated with little if any of that hardening effect
which, otherwise, is invariably associated with such gliding movements as produce
ductile strain. It is inferred that fatigue is due to the formation of cavities under
conditions such that the openings cannot be healed by gliding movements ; that the
action originates from numerous zones of exceedingly small dimensions, zones at
which undue stress concentrations are present, and are so small that the numbers of
molecules involvedinsimultaneous motion do not suffice to allow of gliding—probably
because their movements are too rapidly quelled by loss of thermal energy by con-
duction. Itis, of course, to be understood that gliding motion may occur under alter-
nating stresses as well as in simple tension—for example, when the fatigue limit lies
near to or above the tensile yield-point, or when a certain amount of slipping occurs
in the initial stages of a fatigue test; but this slipping or gliding movement is not
regarded as the cause of that fatigue which, after the repetition of many millions of
cycles of stress, breaks the metal in such a characteristic manner.

The development of a fatigue crack is attributed, therefore, to the formation of
cavities in the metal, these cavities being produced initially by the contraction of
volume that accompanies change of state, and extended gradually at each application
of stress. The detailed action may be pictured as follows: In a test-piece composed
of crystalline grains and intermingled vitreous matter (or other constituents) present
before the start of the test or produced during the test by gliding movements that may
have converted crystalline to vitreous, certain molecules are nearly unstable. Some
are nearly ready to spring out of the crystalline mass into the vitreous, while others
are nearly ready to fall into the lattice from the vitreous assemblage. Both actions
may be precipitated by a change of energy, due to change of stress or temperature ;
but both are very local, involving only small numbers of molecules. When the
temperature of the metal is raised slightly, as by boiling, in Dr. Muir’s well-known
experiments, these molecules fall into positions of greater stability ; and, in subse-
quent mechanical tests, only still smaller numbers are influenced by any change of
stress that may be imposed upon the metal. Thus the metal is rendered more nearly
elastic, in respect that hysteresis is reduced.

It is conceived that this dual action may occur indefinitely without necessarily
causing fatigue, provided that the effects of crystallisation completely neutralise
those of decrystallisation: that is, if the action is mechanically reversible—the
molecules that are displaced at one extreme of the stress cycle falling back into their
original places at the opposite extreme, or at the mid-stroke. But it is clear that
such a dual action, occurring with sufficient violence, would speedily open a crack if
the two parts of the action did not exactly compensate. The nature of the action
is such that it must either die away gradually, leaving the metal unbroken, or increase
gradually, leading to fracture; but its increase or decrease may be so gradual that,
in tests continued only for moderate periods, it may appear constant in magnitude. -

We may next ask what evidence, if any, may be expected of such an action as has
been described above—a dual change in which the two parts nearly neutralise one
another. If the change involves no gliding motion, we can expect no changes of
shape or volume such as would afford a basis of measurement. But since the two
parts of the change involve the giving out and absorption of quantities of heat, and
occur at different stages of the stress cycle, we may expect that the action will be
irreversible in the thermodynamic sense ; and accompanied, therefore, by a conver-
sion of mechanical work to heat, on an overall balance. The irreversible action
must be accompanied by an increase. of entropy. Evidence of such an action is
at: hand in:the phenomena of hysteresis, described in’ the following section: 4

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 365

If the action occurred in.a metal endowed with zero thermal conductivity, we
might expect that the action would be ideally reversible, the heat given out during
one stage of the dual change remaining ready to be absorbed in the second stage of
the action. But in actual metals, of good conductivity, the heat produced in the one
stage is dissipated by conduction, and in the second stage must be received back
from the surrounding metal by conduction in the opposite direction. The action as
a whole must be similar to that.of a reversed heat-engine (refrigerator) taking in a
quantity of heat at one temperature and giving out a greater quantity at a somewhat
higher temperature, the balance being made good by mechanical work supplied
by an external source. A still closer analogy would be that of a refrigerating

engine working under conditions such that thermal leakage was an important effect.

The operation of such an engine, thermodynamically irreversible, might still be

mechanically reversible ; thus the action does not necessarily involve fatigue.
Hysteretic heating is not, therefore, to be regarded as evidence that the metal will

necessarily fail from fatigue if the test be continued long enough; but merely as

evidence of an action that may result in fatigue if the quantities of energy involved
‘exceed certain limits. The evolution of a given quantity of heat from a large number

of small zones, each containing only a few molecules, may cause no perceptible growth
of cavities; but the same evolution of heat from a smaller number of large zones
may involve so many adjacent molecules in simultaneous movement that orderly
replacement is impossible, so that change of submicrostructure proceeds apace,
forming internal cavities that eventually develop into cracks.

Experimental Evidence of Hysteresis.

The term ‘ mechanical hysteresis’ has long been used to describe a group of
actions that occur in metals subjected to cyclic variations of stress, within determined
limits less than the yield-point. These actions are revealed by phenomena of two
kinds, viz. (1) the absorption of a quantity of work, represented by the net area
of the stress-strain loop for the cycle ; and (2) the giving out, during each cycle, of a

_quantity of heat that produces a slight or moderate rise or gradient of temperature in

the test-piece. Hysteresis may be measured mechanically or calorimetrically ; and
experiments have shown that the quantities of work and heat are very approximately
equivalent.

When hysteresis is measured mechanically, by means of an extensometer or
torsion meter used in conjunction with a suitable testing machine, the results are
readily expressed in absolute units, but the degree of accuracy is unsatisfactory, because
the hysteretic strains can be determined only by a process of subtraction involving the

much greater elastic strains. Nevertheless, reliable measurements are obtained with

moderate stresses, and sensitive instruments reveal definite hysteresis under very low
stresses. The hysteretic work may be measured also by observing the decrements of

a amplitude of a test-piece oscillating im vacuo ; and this method, many years ago, was

‘used by Lord Kelvin in torsional experiments.

Calorimetric measurements offer the advantage that the hysteretic energy may be

‘measured directly—without reference to elastic effects—in terms of the rise or gradient

- of temperature in the test-piece, which is considerable when a large test-piece is stressed

ata high frequency. This method was first applied successfully with high frequencies
in Prof. Hopkinson’s laboratory at Cambridge; and to the Cambridge group of
investigators we are indebted for many interesting results regarding hysteresis. It
was shown that the heat generated is very approximately equivalent to the work
absorbed, and that this work is practically independent of the time occupied in
making the cycle of stress, at least within wide limits from 0-01 second upward ; also

‘that the actions in shear and in direct pull and push are very similar, and that the work

per cycle varies as a function of the range of stress and is measurable down to very
low stresses. It was further observed that hysteresis is much greater in annealed
than in cold-worked metal; but this last conclusion requires important qualification.
In these early investigations, however, attention was directed solely to the hysteresis
exhibited in the earliest stage of fatigue tests, or to that observed in static tests ; and
no attempt appears to have been made to follow its characteristic changes during the
course of a complete fatigue test resulting in fracture after many million repetitions.

‘In pursuance of the view that fatigue is closely associated with hysteresis, the author

has carried out special experiments to measure hysteresis sensitively during the con-

tinuance of tests that led-to fracture or, alternatively, left the test-piece still unbroken

after many million cycles of stress.

366 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The electro-magnetic fatigue-testing machine designed by the author and used in
these tests has been described elsewhere (Journal of the Institute of Metals, 1917; also
in The Engineer, 1920), and it will suffice here to mention that this type of machine
offers great advantages for measurements of hysteresis, because a considerable body
of metal is subjected to the full range of stress—not merely a thin film as in
rotating cantilever tests—and because the range can be measured with accuracy, and
the frequency of reversal is rapid (2000 cycles per minute).

The test-piece used was fitted with a special form of sensitive thermocouple
arranged in such a manner that errors due to the conduction of heat from extraneous
sources were almost wholly eliminated, so that the gradient of temperature in the
test-piece was measured with accuracy. The galvanometer used, therefore, gave a
direct measure of the rate at which heat was being given out by the metal at any
moment, under any desired range of stress. The thermocouple was attached to the
test-piece before the commencement of the test, and the readings of the galvanometer
were observed at intervals during the continuance of the fatigue run,

The changes of hysteresis during such fatigue tests differ widely in different metals
and with the range of stress. The more important conclusions indicated by a study
of many records, for test-pieces that did or did not break under the applied loads, are
summarised below :

(1) In many metals, particularly those which have been annealed, the great
hysteresis commonly observed in static tests dies away rapidly and gradually during
the first few minutes or hours of a continued fatigue test: Such hysteresis may be
termed ‘transient’ or ‘ primary,’ and is ascribed to gliding motion in the crystals
resulting in hardening action akin to that of cold-work of any other kind. This
primary hysteresis disappears long before fracture in a test under moderate stress, and
is not regarded as the cause of fracture, but rather as a protective action that allows
of beneficial redistributions of stress within the metal, particularly in parts of complex
shape, such as the plates of riveted joints studied by Wilson and Haigh (British
Association : 1922).

(2) In test-pieces that are not going to break under the applied range of stress,
hysteresis decreases continuously during a very long period, but does not completely
disappear. Moreover, the definite decrease may not show itself, in some cases, until
several millions of repetitions of stress have been imposed. This ‘ continuous’ or
“secondary ’ hysteresis is regarded as evidence of the irreversible thermodynamic
action that has been described.

(3) In test-pieces that are going to break under the range of stress applied in the
test, hysteresis continues to increase gradually, after the disappearance of the initial
transient effect, sometimes for many millions of cycles before fracture. This pheno-
menon is regarded as evidence of the gradual unstable extension of the zones at which
‘secondary ° hysteresis is occurring.

(4) Immediately before fracture hysteresis increases rapidly, and often to very
high values, such that the heating effect is obvious and occasionally painful to the sense
of touch. This final stage may be described.as ‘ tertiary > hysteresis, and is ascribed
to the rapid extension of cavities, probably with gliding motion, associated with the
formation of open cracks in the metal.

(5) In many metals, particularly cold-worked or otherwise hardened, hysteresis —
that is initially slight or almost imperceptible increases slowly but greatly (e.g. in ratio —
20 : 1) during the first few million cycles of stress, and thereafter remains more or less
constant, or fluctuates, until the rapid rise sets in after many more millions have been
imposed.

(6) If, at any stage in a long fatigue test under constant range of stress, the
hysteresis is measured for a series of different ranges—and plotted against these
different ranges—the result is a smooth graph with no distinct indication of the
fatigue limit. Cursory inspection may give the impression that fatigue increases
rapidly near the known fatigue limit ; but the impression is illusory, being dependent
on the scales employed for plotting.

(7) The hysteresis observed under a given range of stress, and the form of the
‘ hysteresis-range of stress’ graph, vary widely in any given metal according to the
treatment given to the metal immediately before the tests. Thus static elongation, —
or a short fatigue test under a high stress, greatly increases the hysteresis ; and con-

versely, boiling a steel test-piece, or applying a moderate range of stress fora fairly long
period, tends to reduce the hysteresis observed under this and other ranges.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 367

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368 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Many other conclusions might be added for particular metals, butitis believed that
the foregoing summary gives a general survey, and affords a suitable basis for criticism
of the theory that has been set forth.

The diagram fig. 7 represents two fatigue tests on samples of the same steel with
different heat treatments, and serves to illustrate generally two typical forms taken
by the hysteresis-time diagram. The total hysteresis measured may be regarded
as comprising three parts: transient, or primary; continuous, or secondary ; final,
or tertiary.

Transient hysteresis has been ascribed above to gliding action, and is associated
with all the phenomena of cold-work. It preponderates in static measurements of
hysteresis, and in the earlier stages of fatigue tests on an annealed metal. Being
usually completed long before the appearance of the rapid rise that signals the approach
of fracture, and absent in many metals that are none the less liable to fatigue, 1t is not
regarded as the direct cause of fatigue, but rather as an imperfect protection against
fatigue.

Continuous hysteresis maintains a variable activity throughout the whole duration
of a fatigue test, and, in a test-piece that is going to break, increases in magnitude for
a long period before the appearance of the final rise. This continuous hysteresis is
conceived to be due to the dual process, of decrystallisation and recrystallisation, that
has been described as comparable with the process of solution and recrystallisation that
occurs in a mixture of strained crystals immersed in their saturated solution. Con-
tinuous hysteresis is regarded as evidence of an action that is thermodynamically
irreversible and mechanically irreversible, or reversible according as the metal will or
will not eventually fail by fatigue.

Final hysteresis occurs immediately before fracture, and is regarded as evidence
of the gradual extension of small cavities to form cracks. The action may be only a
development of the preceding continuous hysteresis, but may differ in respect that it
is often associated with gliding movements and ductile strain.

As regards the bearing of this theory, and of the foregoing experimental work, on
the practical testing of fatigue in metals, it appears that the observation of hysteresis
should be a useful weapon of research, adding greatly to the information derived from
any fatigue test in which a considerable body of metal is subject to uniform range of
stress,

IV.
Stresses in Bridges.

By J. 8. Wison, A.C.G.I., Assoc. M.Inst.C.H., and Professor B. P. Hatcu,
D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.

In recent years the stresses in iron and steel bridge members have been investigated
in detail, and have been demonstrated by experiment and mathematical analysis
to be of a complex nature. The investigations have an important bearing on the
choice of maximum or nominal stresses adopted in bridge design. The question
of allowable stress and its complement, loading, in relation to railway bridges, has
during recent years received a great deal of attention in America, India, and this
country. Here and in India elaborate experimental researches are still in progress.
These investigations were rendered necessary by the gradual increase in locomotive
weights and the necessity of deciding on the renewal of some of the older bridges.

in this country we have the oldest railway bridges in existence, many of which
have successfully carried all locomotives and trains without restriction for upwards
of sixty years, and, as the stresses in these bridges have an important bearing on the
subject, the system followed in their design is of interest.

Method of Design by Coefficient.

It is important to note that the strength of these early bridges and girders was
not estimated in relation to the stresses in them till 1859. Before that time the
working strength was always referred to the breaking strength of the girder, which
was calculated from the dimensions with the help of a coefficient determined experi-
mentally for the different types of girder section. Thus at about the date mentioned,
Sir William Fairbairn wrote :

‘ After the completion of the Conway and Britannia tubular bridges, and during
the early stages of wrought-iron bridge constructions, the engineers of this country,

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 369

and the Board of Trade, had adhered to the principle that every bridge composed of
wrought iron, whether designed upon the plate, lattice, or tubular principle, should
have a resistance, tending to break the bridge, (sic) of six times the rolling load,
exclusive of its own weight.+

* Owing to the success of these undertakings (the Britannia and Conway tubular
bridges) there was a general demand for wrought-iron bridges in every direction,
and numbers were made without any regard to first principles . . . so clearly and
satisfactorily shown in the early experiments. The result of this was a number of
weak bridges, many of them so disproportioned in the distribution of material as
to be almost at the point of rupture with little more than double the permanent
load.

‘The defects and breakdowns which followed the first successful application of
wrought iron to bridge-building led to doubts and fears on the part of engineers ;
and many of them contended for eight and even ten times the heaviest load as the
safe margin of strength. Others, and amongst them the late Mr. Brunel, fixed a
lower standard; and, I believe, that gentleman was prepared in practice to work up
to one-third or two-fifths of the ultimate strength of the weight that would break
the bridge. Ultimately it was decided by the authorities of the Board of Trade, but
from what data I am not informed, that no wrought-iron bridge should with the
heaviest load exceed a strain of 5 tons per sq. in.’?

The coefficient to give the breaking strength was used in the simple formula :

adc
W= dia
W = breaking load in tons applied at centre of girder;
a sectional area of flange in tension ;
overall depth in inches;

length in inches between supports ;
coefficient.

R
Holl i A

Applied to cast-iron girders, for instance, in which the tension flange had an area
six times as great as the compression flange, the coefficient was 26. For wrought-iron
tubular or box girders it was 80, for plate-web girders 74, and lattice girders 67.

These coefficients were based on experiments made on large-scale models, in which
the most satisfactory distribution of sectional area for tension and compression was
determined, and coefficients were applied to full-size girders with the metal in the
flanges similarly distributed. This system, not being based on stress, did not assume
a straight-line distribution of stress ; but with a coefficient based on a breaking strength,
when parts would be stressed beyond the yield-point, it must of necessity indirectly
assume other than a straight-line distribution. Among the many famous iron bridges
built on this coefficient principle are the Britannia and Conway tubular bridges
(c = 80), and the Tay bridge (Highland Railway) (c = 74).

The introduction of the stress method revolutionised the system of design, and
the distribution of stress had to be considered. The fixing of a stress of 5 tons per
sq. in. as the maximum, without any details as to its application to different parts, led
to great uncertainty, but also to further most important investigations. In applying
the coefficient method the reduction of area by rivets in the tension flange had been
disregarded, as it was also disregarded when determining the coefficients experi-
mentally. The unexpected necessity of measuring the strength of a girder in a
new unit with which engineers were not familiar naturally led to inquiries as to how
the new standard compared with what had been proved by actual practice to be
satisfactory. Fairbairn having at that date (1859) just completed the Spey bridge,
and the Board of Trade taking exception to it on account of the stress being above.
5 tons per sq. in., it was decided to make a test on a riveted girder roughly of the
proportions of the Spey bridge. To quote Fairbairn: ‘. .. the Board of Trade
threatened to stop the traffic which had been at work some months over the bridge.
To make everything smooth, it was ultimately arranged that the bridge should be

1 Researches on the Application of Iron to Buildings. W. Fairbairn.
2 Philosophical Transactions, 1864, p.316. ‘ Experiments to Determine the Effect
of Impact, Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load on Wrought-iron
_ Girders,’ by W. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
cc2

370 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

strengthened up to the standard adopted by the Board of Trade, on condition that
the Treasury should grant £150 to defray the expense of experiments to ascertain
the durability, and the measure of strength to be allowed, of wrought-iron bridges,
subjected to changes, shocks, and vibrations of a continued and variable load.’ !

This fatigue test carried out on a riveted girder 20 ft. long is unique. Dr. W. C.
Unwin, F.R.S., who assisted Fairbairn in making this remarkable experiment, which
continued for two years, remembers the circumstances well and has kindly helped to
supply information. The load was applied at the centre of the girder at the rate of
about eight changes per minute and the shock was sufficient to make the girder
vibrate vertically for some seconds at every application.

The details of the experiment are rather scattered among Fairbairn’s books and
Reports. Some particulars with additional figures are given in the appendix hereto.

The experiment proved that the metal of the girder would withstand over three
million repetitions of a stress, accompanied by shock, of 6°25 tons per sq. in.
on the net area, and we know now that if three million repetitions fail to rupture,
the stress can be little if any greater than that which may be applied an unlimited
number of times.

Notwithstanding the result of the experiment, the 5-ton limit remained un-
altered, and this preliminary reference to the introduction of the stress system of
design and the fixing of the 5-ton limit is given in order to emphasise the fact
that the limiting stress fixed was not based on any very thorough investigation of
the stresses in the successful or unsuccessful iron bridges built before the introduction
of the new limit. Among the bridges still in daily use, therefore, we have, as stated
in the extract from Fairbairn above, bridges designed intentionally with various
factors of safety. The stress limit having been fixed, however, any disregard of it
led to delay in the opening of new railway extensions,” consequently all new railway
bridges had to be built to that limit. Although stipulated as the maximum, stresses
in those days were only calculated approximately, and tke 5 tons per sq. in. can
only be regarded as a nominal stress.

Stresses Considered in Design:

Changes of stress in bridge members can be determined with considerable accuracy
by strain meters, as has been done in the recent investigations. An increase of stress
measured in this way * while an engine or train passes over at speed would generally
be greater than that measured with the engine standing. Both these measured stresses
would be different from the figure arrived at by calculation in the usual way even
for the exact axle-loads of the engine and train. Denoting the several stresses by
symbols, we have:

fo = stress increase measured under travelling load;

LOSS os rE » standing load;
jp = a = calculated for $ 33
fa = stress due to dead load of structure.

The difference between f, and f, may be due to speed combined with its concomitant
vibrations of bridge and load ; that between f, and f, to the method of calculation
not being sufficiently exact as to stress distribution or inclusion of secondary stresses.

The difference between f, and f,, though not actually measured in the early days,
was nevertheless realised from the beginning, and some system was required for the
graduation of the nominal stresses so as to enable bridge members to withstand the
expected increase without damage. The next development was the preparation by
several engineers and various railway authorities of designing specifications which,
in addition to fixing the stresses, gave instructions regarding details of design and
formule for compression members. Two distinct methods have been followed in
drawing up these specifications.

1 Researches on the Application of Iron to Buildings. W. Fairbairn.

2 See reference to Torksey Bridge at Hull Meeting, Engineering, Sept. 15, 1922,
p. 350.

3 A stress deduced thus from strain must of necessity be the increase due to the
live load. The dead-load stress cannot be measured, as the girder cannot be relieved
of the dead load.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 371

Graduated Stress Specifications.

In one is given a series of stresses, carefully graduated according to the length and
character of the bridge member having regard to the relation of fz + f. to fa, and the
expected effect of fatigue combined with the relative values of f, and /,.

. The late Sir Benjamin Baker’s well-known specification for steel main-line bridges
is of this type and has been extensively used in the design of a very large number of
bridges and other structures in this country and abroad. This specification was
prepared in 1892 and published later.!

In another form of graduated stress specification, the graduation is done according
to the range of stress. The following are examples of formule which have been
used by two British Railways :

Maximum permissible stress in member or part,
Minimum load or B.M.

aero? (1 + 2 x Maximum load or Sm) gee bee

HA (1 4 Minimum load or B.M. ) t r
cerca pon ee 2 Xx Maximum load or B.M./ °07* Per 84: 17.

These graduated stresses are obviously extensions of the simple stress limiting
rule originally made by the Board of Trade. The type of specification may be
called the graduated stress specification. It is perfectly definite and easy to apply
and has many advantages over the alternative form.

Standard Stress and Impact Specifications.

The second type may be called the single or standard stress specification. In
it the-load or moment to be borne by any particular member is increased by a factor
so that that larger load represents the increased or more damaging effect of the actual
load travelling at speed and of any other influence. The pazticular member is then.
designed to carry this increased load on the basis of a standard maximum stress.
This type of specification is of American origin, and there are many variations of it.
One of the first formule for getting this increase of load to be added appeared

1 The graduated stresses are as follows :
TENSILE STRESSES,

For Main Girders, Cross Girders and Rail Bearers of plate construction :
Tons per sq. in.

Under 20 feet span . - ; : : ‘ - 43
20 feet and under 25 feet . ; : ‘ ; : 43
25 ,, Pi 30 .cjonn ‘ : : ‘ : 5

30 ,, i 50) 45! « 3 : : 3 , 5}
50 feet and above . - é ; 4 2 54

For Truss or Lattice Girders :

80 feet and under 160 feet span—
Bottom chords F : : I ; ; 5
Diagonals . 5 . :

160 feet and under 200 feet span—-

Bottom chords { : 2 : 5
Diagonals . ; 5 ; : c ; . 44 to 5%
200 feet to 400 feet—
Bottom chords . : : ¢ . . en Gutons
Diagonals . : 2 - : ‘ é - 44 t07
For wind bracing, all spans F : : i - : 84
For floor suspenders cf 24

Norr.—The 4} tons stress on the diagonals will apply to those at the central por-
tion of the span, and to the counterbracing at the same point. The higher stresses will
apply to those at the end portions of the span where the variations of stress are not so
great. Intermediate diagonals will be subject to stresses lying between the two limits.
‘The object in all cases of the varying working stresses is to guard against the relatively
destructive action of suddenly applied loads on lightly loaded girders or members
of girders, having reference both to the effects of impact and to the inferior ultimate
resistance of material subject to considerable and frequent variations in stress.
Special regard must be had to these conditions in the general design of the bridgework,
and in the form and proportion of gussets and other minor details.

372 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

in a specification prepared by Mr. Schneider for the Pencoyd Co., and is now well
known as the Pencoyd formula.!

The additional allowance termed ‘ impact’ is based on the loaded length of the
girder when the greatest load or bending moment is brought to bear on the member
considered. The addition to the load thus made, taken in conjunction with the
standard stress allowed, covers the necessary provision for fatigue and vibration, etc.

This formula and slight modifications of it have been very extensively adopted.?

Recent Investigations.

The question of bridge renewal in America led to the elaborate investigations
made by the American Railway Engineering Association, from 1907 to 1909, described
in their Bulletins of 1910. In addition to the question of loading, the important
30,000

30,000 +L? “*s

subject of impact was investigated and a modified coefficient

adopted, as preferable to that in the Pencoyd formula.

The investigations of the Indian Railway Bridge Committee, carried out for the
Government of India, were started in 1917 and are still in progress.’

The work has been directed principally to the consideration of the ‘ impact’
question, and the possible substitution of a new formula for the Pencoyd one which
was adopted for Indian Railway bridges in 1903.

The experimental work in this country has been done by the Ministry of Transport,

and investigations made in 1920 are given in the Report of 1921.4
, ; . 120
In that report the impact coefficient suggested is +L

In connection with each of these investigations, a large number of experiments
have been made in which strains taken on various lengths, and deflections of girders,
‘have been measured with the object of getting values of fo=fe

In some cases only the maximum strain during the passage of the load is measured,

as with the La Touche gauge, and in others a complete photographic record of the

1 Wxtract from the section book of the Pencoyd Co. :

‘ Effect of impact.—In proportioning the members of the structures, the effects of
impact and vibration shall be considered and added to the maximum strains resulting
from the above-mentioned engine and train loads. The effect of impact is to be
determined by the following formula :

300 )

Se (; + 300
where I = impact to be added to the live-load strain,
S = calculated maximum live-load strain,
L = length of loaded distance in feet which produces the maximum strain
in member.

‘ Permissible Tensile Strains.—All parts of the structure shall be so proportioned
that the sum of the maximum loads, together with the impact, shall not cause the
tensile strain to exceed :

On soft steel, 15,000 pounds per sq. in.

On medium steel, 17,000 pounds per sq.’in.

The same limiting unit strains shall also be used for members strained by wind
pressure, centrifugal force, or momentum of train.’

2 An interesting comparative table giving the flange areas of rail bearers, cross
girders, and main girders required to satisfy five representative specifications applied
to a particular bridge has been prepared by Mr. Conrad Gribble, Proc. Inst. C.E.,
vol. cc., p. 238.

3 Indian Railway Bridge Committee :
lst Report 1917, Technical paper 187.
2nd ,, 1918 > 198.
ord ss eLOLo os 211.
4th’ 4) "1920" Vol. IT.’ 224.
4th’''5.’'° 1920: Vol. IT. ';; 225.
5th "",,*) 1921 “p 228.
See also Technical papers 194 and 199.

4 Ministry of Transport, ‘ Testson Railway Bridges inrespect of Impact Effect,’ 1921.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 373

strains against a time base is made, as with the Fereday-Palmer instrument.
The value of the ratio obviously depends on a large number of factors relating to the
locomotive and train as well as the bridge itself, such as :

The moving load and its distribution among the axles.

Speed.

The unbalanced revolving and reciprocating parts.

Stiffness of springs.

Longitudinal and lateral oscillations of the loads.

Weight and various characteristics of stiffness, period of vibration, etc., of the
whole bridge as well as of any particular part under investigation.

The analysis of the experimental records is difficult, owing to the large number of
variable factors which affect the results. In some cases, to assist in the analysis of
the strain-time records, the positions along the girders at which the effects of un-
balanced weights would take effect have been recorded. These positions can be
controlled within limits, but equally powerful influences, such as those of the pitching
and rolling and side-lurching of a locomotive travelling at speed are so far
uncontrollable.

A very large number of measurements are available, 362 made by the Ministry
of Transport, and about 3000 by the Indian Railway Bridge Committee, in addition
to a large number of American records. Deflections and strains can be measured
accurately enough under stationary and slowly moving loads; but when the movement
is rapid, vibrations of the bridge and its parts combined with the inertia of the instru-
ment have resulted in many of the records being considered of doubtful accuracy.
The measurements made by the Ministry of Transport, and 1500 of those made by
the Indian Bridge Committee, were taken with the Fereday-Palmer photo-recording
instrument, a carefully designed and accurately made apparatus, the records of
which are considered accurate. All the most accurately measured ratios of the Indian
experiments are plotted in fig. 8,2 in which the graphs of the various impact formule
are also drawn. ‘The points marked * are considered unreliable by the investigating
officer because the ‘ measured static stress on which they are based are extremely
low.’ It will be seen that for each particular loaded length up to 200 feet the
numerous ratios are distributed comparatively evenly over a range of from 0 to
45 per cent. The same ratios plotted against speed fall into no recognisable order, as
the following figures show. For instance, the ratio for 18 miles per hour is higher
than that for 45-4 miles per hour, and all that can be deduced is that generally they
rise with increase of speed.

Impact Impact Impact
4 Ratio. Speed . Ratio. gp et ; Ratio.
1 Per cent. De Per cent. oh Per cent.
7:8 7:5 30-2 36-0 39-7 28-0
12-0 3:5 31-7 22-5 40-8 36-5
16°5 10-2 32°3 32-0 43-8 20-0
18-0 36-0 34-3 25-0 44-3 56-0
18-5 32-0 36-7 22-0 45-4 33-5
24-7 43-5 37-0 45-0 46-3 46-0
25-7 17-5 37°8 20-0 49-6 56-5
27-2 16:0 39-0 31-0 55-6 46-0 |

1 An instance is given by Baker in Long Span Bridges of the destructive effect
of these influences. The platform and shallow cross girders of a bridge were com-
pletely destroyed in four years by locomotives of short wheel-base and long overhang,
although the calculated stresses in the ironwork did not exceed 4 tons per sq. in,

Also the single very high impact ratio of 159 per cent. obtained by the Ministry
of Transport in their experiments was measured on one side of a shallow-trough rail-
bearer, a case where lateral movement and the exact lateral position of the application
of the load would have a marked effect on the stress.

2 From the Fifth Report, Indian Railway Bridge Committee.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

374

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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 375

The widely varying nature of these ratio measurements is obviously due to
vibrations set up by the uncontrolled causes; indeed, ratios that would plot along
a defined graph could hardly be expected. Exhaustive and very skilful attempts
to analyse various strain-time records have been made by Messrs. C. W. Lloyd-Jones
and H. 8. Sales, of the Indian Bridge Committee, but even with the assistance of
freely made assumptions the results are disappointing. The dominating causes in
producing vibration are the kinetic characteristics of the moving load combined
with the vibration periods of the bridge and its various parts, together with the
degree to which one synchronises with the other. This leads to the unavoidable
conclusion, suggested by Mr. Lloyd-Jones, that to interpret records requires both
the locomotive and bridge to be ‘calibrated’ experimentally with respect to the
above characteristics. With a calibrated bridge and calibrated locomotive a strain-
time record taken with all variables under control could probably be analysed so as
to determine the maximum ratio producible in members of that bridge by that
locomotive.

In view of the above it seems obvious that,in making attempts to arrive
at the impact ratio by measuring strains, the same load might be run over
a bridge, under identical conditions so far as could be controlled, very many times
before the maximum value on a member might be registered.

The solving of the impact ratio problem will therefore necessitate a large amount
of research, for, with the variety of bridges and numerous types of more or less well-
balanced locomotives, many combinations will have to be investigated.

Having attained exact maximum ratios, however, the likelihood of their
taking effect except at long intervals would have to be considered in fixing the standard
stress to be adopted with them.

An alternative course to that suggested above would be to treat a number of the
older bridges as full-size experiments which have been under test for the last fifty
or sixty years. Strain measurements under simple definite static loads would give
the relation of actual stresses to those calculated in the usual manner, and similar
measurements under stationary loads equal to those which the bridges have carried
successfully at speed would provide nominal or basic stresses for guidance in design.

Choice of Standard or Graduated Designing Stresses.

Except in cases where design is considerably at fault, damage to a bridge is the
result of the repeated loading and stressing of its members, and in nearly all cases
the first signs are loose rivets and cracks which develop at rivet-holes and extend
from them.! :

It has been established that the resistance of steel and iron to fatigue by simple
tensile and compressive stresses is dependent on the ratio of its yield strength to its
ultimate strength and to the relation of the maximum and minimum stresses im-
pressed on it. The maximum and minimum stresses are most conveniently expressed
in terms of a steady stress with a push-and-pull pulsating stress added ; thus :

Calling S = steady stress and A = pulsating stress,

then the maximum stress would be S + A;
and the minimum of eye oA

Fig. 9 represents to scale the general fatigue properties of a mild steel of about
22 tons per sq. in. ultimate strength. This was the quality used for some fatigue
tests on thin perforated plates described at the Hull? meeting, and some details of
them are given below.

The base line represents different ‘steady component stresses,’ S; Y represents the
yield-point, and U the ultimate tensile strength. The ordinates represent the
‘alternating component stresses,’ A, applied in the fatigue tests. Any point in the
diagram, with co-ordinates § and A, represents the combination of stresses applied
in a particular experiment. The line YY’, whose equation is S + A = Y, may be
described as the ‘ yield line’; thus the steel yields when the maximum stress, equal
to (S + A), exceeds the yield-point Y. In any fatigue experiment the stress-point

1 Numerous instances are given in The Anatomy of Bridge Work, by W. H. Thorpe.
2 Engineering, Sept. 8, 1922.

376 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

must be kept below this yield-line, since otherwise the metal will yield before fatigue
can develop. In the thin plates used in the experiment buckling would occur if
the minimum stress (S — A) became compression. Hence, as a second limitation
in this instance, the stress-point must be kept below the line OZ, whose equation is
A=S8S. Combining these two theoretical limitations based on the yield stress and
non-reversal, we see that the stress-point must keep within the 45° isosceles triangle
OTY, of which the apex T is the intersection of the loci OZ and YY’ which run at
right angles to one another.

For a low tensile steel such as that used in the experiments, the ‘ basic’ fatigue
limit is about 45 per cent. of the ultimate strength, say 10 tons persq.in. = Ay. Thatis,
when § = zero, fatigue can occur only if A exceeds this value Ay. This point, marked

Tons per Sy. Inch.

0 5 My Is, 20 U 25
(7492.6) Tons per Sg. Inch,

Fic. 9

on the axis of the diagram, is joined to the ultimate strength point U by two graphs :
the one a parabola (Ay, Gerber, U) and the other a straight line (Aj, Goodman, U).
According to Gerber and to Goodman respectively, fatigue can occur under different
combinations of S and A only when the stress-point lies above the one or other locus
respectively. Thus the metal is liable to fatigue when, and only when,

A> Ao(1—(s/u)?),

where the index 2 is to be taken as 2 according to Gerber, or 1 according to Goodman.

It will be observed that, in the scale diagram fig. 9, even the Goodman locus lies
wholly above the triangle OTY, indicating that fatigue should not occur under the
limiting conditions explained above. The Gerber locus lies still farther above this
limiting triangle; and accumulated evidence! indicates, at least for mild steel as
used in practice and in this investigation, that the Gerber locus is the more correct
of the two. It appears, therefore, improbable that fatigue can occur under stresses
within the yield range, unless these stresses reverse in direction—acting as pull and
push alternately. This conclusion has been verified in an experiment (A) described
below, using metal with a low value of the ‘ yield ultimate’ ratio; and a further
experiment (B) on steel with a high value of this ratio serves to limit the sphere of
application of the conclusion.

In experiment A, the test-plate was 1} in. in width, narrowed to # in. for a length
of 1 in. in the middle, and joined to the ends by smooth transition curves such as
would cause no appreciable concentration of stress. A fatigue test was made with
S = 64.and A = 6 tons per gq. in., as represented by the point P (fig. 9) just below
the apex of the limiting triangle. After 2852 millions of cycles of stress the test-
piece was still unbroken. The steady component was then increased to 7$ tons per

1 Haigh, Brit. Assoc. Report of Stress Committee, 1914.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 377

sq. in., giving a maximum of 134, and it was found that the test-picce yielded slowly
but steadily.

Referring to fig. 9, it will be seen that the increase in S from 64 to 73 puts the stress-
point just above the yield-line TY. Thus the non-occurrence of fatigue in the first
test and the occurrence of yield without fatigue in the second are both in agreement
with the theory given above.

To show that in steel having a high ‘yield ultimate’ ratio fatigue may occur
under unidirectional stresses that do not suffice to cause elongation by yielding :

In experiment B, a test, similar to the above, was carried out on a sample of
cold-rolled steel with Y = 45-5, U = 46-1 tons per sq. in., corresponding to a ratio
Y/U of nearly 99 per cent. In this case the apex-point T is given by S = A= Y/2=
22-7 tons per sq. in. A fatigue test was made with S = 20 and A = 16, well within the

‘

ES
29

R
& 40

29 of §
veo
Tons per Sq. Inch
Fig. 10

triangle corresponding to OTY (fig. 10), and it was found that the test-piece grew
quite warm and fractured after only 60,000 cycles of stress. The contrast between
figs. 9 and 10 and the different behaviour of the two steels may be explained, in the
first place, by the fact that the triangle OTY for the harder steel is relatively larger
than for the soft one on account of the high ratio Y/U; and, in the second place, by
the Goodman and Gerber lines being relatively lower for the hard steel because the
ratio Ao/U is usually lower than the 45 per cent. value assumed for the mild steel.

These experiments were made with the Haigh alternating-stress testing machine,
on test-pieces shaped to secure uniform stress conditions and avoid concentrations
at shoulders. In this machine the pulsations have a frequency of 2,000 per minute,
and experiments have shown that the frequency of pulsation does not within wide
limits appreciably influence the results of fatigue tests.

The perforations for rivets in bridge members introduce stress concentrations of
great magnitude in the metal. In certain simple cases the local concentration of
stress round an opening may be investigated mathematically ; and the conclusions
hold rigorously when the stresses lie wholly within the elastic range. Thus
Dr. Suyehiro 2 has shown that for a circular hole in a plate of unlimited width the
greatest stress occurs on a transverse diameter and is three times the mean intensity,
and Professor Inglis * has extended the mathematical analysis to a variety of other
openings.

_ The most common form of perforation in steel structures is of course the circular
hole, which is more or less perfectly filled by the rivet. The exactitude of fit and the
proximity of adjacent holes unquestionably affect the distribution of stress and present
conditions too complex for mathematical treatment.

1 The Engineer, July 29, 1921.
2 Engineering, September 1, 1911.
3 Transactions Inst. Naval Architects, vol. 55, p. 219.

378 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Local concentrations of stress may be deduced also from experiments on elastic
materials, and one of the authors! helped to measure these stresses in an exact
representation of the filled rivet-hole of practice. A number of holes were made in
a slab of rubber (9 in. wide, 3 in. thick) and accurately plugged with the same material.

Fic. 11

The results are represented in fig. 11, and show that the maximum longitudinal stress
at the sides of the holes is nearly double the mean stress. It will be noticed that, owing
to the hole being filled, this longitudinal stress is accompanied by a transverse
compressive stress.

Many other cases, including plates with circular perforations, have been investi-
gated by Prof. Coker,” using perforated strips of celluloid and polarised light for
determining the stresses.*

In cases that can be compared, the results obtained experimentally agree with
the conclusions drawn from mathematical investigation, and the experiments on
groups of holes show that when a number are pitched on a transverse section the
maximum stress concentration is less than the three-times mean value applicable
to a single hole in a wide plate, and depends on the ratio of the diameter to the pitch.

1 Institution of Naval Architects, April 1911: experiments by Wilson and Gore
described in discussion on Prof. Coker’s paper. Also see Hngineering, April 21, 1911.

» See Edinburgh Report of this Stress Committee; also Cantor Lectures, Royal
Society of Arts, 1913.

* That stresses measured in celluloid and other materials truly represent the
stresses sought within a negligible margin of error has been completely proved by
Prof. L, N. G. Filon, F.R.S8., Edinburgh Report of this Committee.

Ne — — <= —-—

EeaeEeEEEEeE———EEE——E—E—— ————————==—

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 379

If these stress concentrations due to perforations seriously increased the liability
to fatigue, only very moderate stresses could be used in practice. For instance,
assuming that the steel used in a perforated member were of 30 tons per sq. in. ulti-
mate tensile strength, and that its fatigue limit for pulsating unidirectional stress
were 40 per cent. of this, say 12 tons per sq. in., then if the stress-concentration ratio
were as great as 3:1, fatigue would be inevitable if the mean stress pulsated from
zero to 4 tons per sq. in. This supposition is not supported by the results of the
experiments.

The experiments were carried out by the authors on model plates 14 in. wide
and ,}, in. thickness, 6in. in length. These dimensions were adopted to suit the test-
ing facilities available, and to reproduce the proportions found in a typical full-size
plate in a bridge member, 9 in. x 3 in., with +3-in. holes to suit {-in. rivets. To
simplify the preparation of the test-pieces the holes were not plugged.

To test the stress-concentration effect under conditions more comparable with
theory, a test-piece shaped as in experiment A and ? in. wide at mid-length was
drilled with a very small hole in its centre line. The test-piece thus approximately
fulfilled the conditions for giving a 3 to 1 magnification of stress at the margin of
the hole on a transverse section.

The results of all these experiments are in agreement with what would be expected
from practical experience with steel structures, for the stress concentrations appear
to have little effect. The results are given in the following table. Test-pieces E
had five holes side by side transversely, and the others had rows of three and two holes
at various pitches giving a staggered arrangement. The stresses are calculated on the
gross sections, for with staggered holes the net sectional areas cannot be given
definitely ; but if the net area ratios given in the table be assumed correct, it will be
seen that these test-pieces withstood maximum stresses approximating to the yield
stress, applied for from 0-45 to 1-2 million times before fracture. These numbers
are high enough to indicate that a slight reduction of stress would enable the tests
to stand an indefinite number of repetitions.

Experiment E E G F F
Holes in rows 5 5 2 and 3 2and3 | 2 and3
Pitch between rows _— — # in. } in. 2 in.
Endurance millions. -908 1-224 0-538 0-534 0-456
§ tons per sq. in. 4-01 3-24 4-18 4-89 5-13
A tons per sq. in. : 2-76 2-78 2-87 3°50 3-67
(S-+-A) tons per sq. in. 6-77 6-02 7-05 8-39 8-80
(Net section)

(Gross section) 0-48 0-47 (?) 0-69 0-69
Holes deducted . 5 5 (2) 3 3

Experiment D on the specimen drilled with the fine hole gave the following record :

Maximum stress 9-5, minimum 0-5 tons per sq. in. (S = 5, A = 4-5). Unbroken
after 5-69 million.

Maximum stress 10-5, minimum 0-5 tons per sq. in. (S = 5:5, A = 5-0).
Unbroken after 2-976 million additional repetitions.

Maximum stress 11-5, minimum 0-5 tons per sq. in. (S = 6:0, A = 5-5),
Unbroken after 2-768 million additional repetitions.

Maximum stress 12:5, minimum 0-5 tons per sq. in. (S = 6:5, A = 6-0).
Fractured after a further 0-998 million repetitions.

These stresses are calculated on the gross sectional area.

The test proves that, in spite of stress concentration, a stress closely approaching
the yield stress (about 13 tons per sq. in. for the material) was necessary to fracture
by fatigue.

In each of the tests failure occurred by cracks starting at the holes. They always
developed at the ends of the transverse diameters of holes and extended along the
transverse section. Adjacent holes, placed comparatively closely but not on the
same transverse centre line, do not appear to affect the development of the crack or
cause it to deviate from the transverse path,

380 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

From the general point of view, therefore, with material having a low yield-
ultimate ratio as in mild steel, in the case of simple direct stresses the concentrations
caused by rivet-holes do not greatly affect the endurance of the metal, so that
under these conditions, if the real maximum stress could be accurately anticipated,
then a standard stress a little below the yield-point could be adopted.1

Nevertheless, as is shown by the above experiments, fatigue can occur in per-
forated mild-steel pieces subject to unidirectional stresses: and it is desirable and
important to avoid arrangements of rivets that produce undue concentrations of
stress. This is particularly true for metals having comparatively high yield-points,
for if higher stresses were allowed in such metals, fatigue would become imminent as
indicated in Fig. 10. But even in very mild steel it is desirable that the range of
alternating stress (A) should not exceed some definite fraction of the basis fatigue
range (A,) no matter what value the steady stress may have. The values of this
fraction, itis hoped, may be determined—for different perforations and joints—in
the course of further experiments.

If a high stress approaching the elastic limit be fixed as the standard for design,
the stresses must be exactly calculated, allowing for secondary stresses in order to
arrive at the actual stresses in the members, and the impact allowance must also be
known with certainty, for the margin of strength, or, more exactly, margin of
endurance, will be in the difference between the yield stress and the standard stress
and in the impact allowance.

The conception of ‘factor of safety’ has to be considerably modified when
strength is related to endurance. The record of the test D shows that a maximum
stress of 114 tons per sq. in. could be endured millions of times, but that anything
above 124 would have produced fracture in a few thousand repetitions. . Assuming
the load and impact damaging effects to be at their maximum and repeated uniformly,
a member designed on a standard stress of, say, 114 tons per sq. in., to use the above
figures, would do its work for an indefinite period, whereas, if designed on, say, 12?
tons per sq. in., it would not immediately fail, but would deteriorate rapidly. The
factor of safety cannot be related to these two stresses or to the number of repetitions
necessary to produce failure in each case.

Considering two such comparative designs with respect to normal traffic condi-
tions, the occurrence of the maximum impact effect, depending on the worst engine
and train combination travelling at a critical speed, might be so infrequent
that the 123 stress design would show no more signs of deterioration than the other,
and both would have a substantial margin.

Evidence of the magnitude of impact factors and the frequency with which maxi-
mum impact effects occur is afforded by the bridges which have withstood such effects
for many years. For instance, if in a girder the measured maximum stress under a
stationary locomotive or train were 9 tons per sq. in., it is certain that the impact
factor cannot have been 100 per cent.; it is equally certain that the margin in the
strength of the girder has been sufficient to withstand all the impact effects. It is for
reasons similar to that suggested above that the measurement of actual static stresses
in proved bridges promises a solution of the impact question. Measured stresses
could be related to stresses as calculated in the usual way, and nominal working
stresses adapted to different conditions could be fixed.

The Relation of Measured Strains to Actual Stresses.

By means of extensometers and recording strain-meters, strains in bridge members
caused by stationary or slowly moving loads can be accurately measured. With
rapidly moving loads the vibration of the bridge member, combined with that of the
moving parts of the instrument, render the strain measurements less reliable, although
the strain records obtained with Fereday-Palmer photographic instruments are
considered very satisfactory. The conversion of the measured strains to the actual
stresses introduces some difficulties. The rivet-holes in bridge members introduce

1 Tt is interesting to note that where the permissible stress has to be raised to
its highest limit to avoid rebuilding old bridges, in one instance the elastic limit has
been fixed as the standard stress by one of the American Railways.—Indian Railway
Bridge Committee, Fourth Report, vol. ii.

’ COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 381

stress concentrations and alter the elastic properties, and the modulus of elasticity
applicable to an unperforated plate cannot be used to get the stresses accurately ;
a corrected modulus is necessary.

The writers have found no records of experiments on the effect of the perforation
on the modulus, and made the experiments of which details are given in fig. 12. The
two test-pieces measured 14 in. wide by about ;'; in. thick and 12 in. long; one was
plain and one had holes drilled along its length, so that it formed the model of a plate
15 in. wide, jin. thick, with holes jin. diameter at 3in. pitch. Both were of the same
mild steel. The strains measured with a Ewing extensometer are plotted in fig. 12
as parts in 10,000. The full lines represent the first measurements on an increasing

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stress, and the dotted ones represent the elastic lines up and down which the strains
lay after the stress had been carried up to about 8 tons on the net area in each case.
The modulus corresponding to the dotted line of the plain test is 12,150 tons per sq.
in., and to that of the perforated plate 10,150 tons per sq. in.*

In applying the corrected modulus it saves confusion to apply it to the gross area.
Thus in the experiment, assuming the area to be 1 sq. in., the change in load to produce
a strain of 4 in 10,000 was 4-86 tons, and on the perforated plate the change in load
for the same strain was 4-06 tons total. This load converted into stress on the net
area (0-741 of gross) would equal 5-48 tons.

_ + The ratio of the two moduli a = 0-835.
In comparison
2
tr tio ae of perforated ue) ~ 0-870,
volume of plain plate
Sad a/ net length along perforations ae ae,
gross length of plate

382 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The error introduced by not applying the corrected modulus in this example would
be as follows:

Correct mean stress on gross area 0-0004 x 10,150 = 4-06 tons per sq. in.
Approx. ,, 5s 0-:0004 x 12,150 = 4-86 ,, ,, 4, error 20%.
Correct mean stress on net area 0-0004 x 10,150 + 0-741 = 5-48 tons per sq. in.
Approx. ,, 4 BS 33 0-0004 x 12,150 + 0-741 = 6°56, ,, ,,

error 20%,

The discrepancies often found between calculated stresses and those deduced from
measured strains are no doubt partly due to inaccuracy in the modulus, as well as to
stiffness of end connections, etc.

Conclusion.

The intricacies of the problem suggest that useful progress can best be made by
experiment and measurement undertaken in a systematic manner.

The course by which the required knowledge can be most readily acquired would
appear to be by treating existing bridges as full-size experiments. What can be done
in this direction was demonstrated in the extremely valuable paper by Messrs. A. C.
Cookson and J. S. Nicholas ! read at the Hull Meeting.

A bridge’s history and the traffic it has carried is on record, and the strengths and
stresses can be determined as accurately as required; also the loads they have carried
can be related to the stresses calculated in the usual simple manner.

With this information, by the use of similar calculations and similar nominal
stresses, girders with the desired endurance could be designed. This course avoids
the numerous difficulties of secondary and indeterminate stresses to which reference
was made at the Hull Meeting by Mr. Conrad Gribble? in a paper full of valuable
suggestions,

The investigations outlined above, together with some experiments to determine
the relative damaging effects of want of balance in old locomotives compared with
new ones, would permit of allowances being made for changes of that nature. As
suggested by Mr. Gribble, the testing to destruction of old bridges on their removal
from service would provide valuable additional data, especially if fatigue tests were
applied.

The other course, which necessitates the establishment of accurate allowances for ~
impact and a standard stress, has, in addition to the impact difficulties, to overcome
that of fixing the stress and details of the method of its application.

Some of the difficulties are reflected in the following resolution® passed by the
Indian Railway Bridge Committee after four years’ work:

* After carefully studying the Fereday-Palmer extensometer records of 1500 tests
on bridges of spans varying from 15 feet to 358 feet on the North-Western Railway,
the Committee are of opinion that, although these tests do not afford sufficient in-
formation to warrant their recommending any modification of the Pencoyd formula
for impact at present, the records indicate that a single load concentrated at the
main driving-axle of each engine passing over a bridge more accurately represents
the true allowance for impact than a uniformly distributed load. The Committee
are also of opinion that many more tests are required before a scientific formula
covering all sources of impact can be evolved.’

APPENDIX.

Faticur Test oF A RIVETED GIRDER 20 Fert LONG, MADE BY
Sirk WinL1AM FArIRBATRN.

Particulars of the experiments are given in the Report published by the Board of
Trade *in 1864, and additional information will be found in various papers and in
Fairbairn’s books.

1 Engineering, September 8, 1922.

2 Engineering, September 8, 1922.

3 Indian Railway Bridge Committee, Fifth Report. -

* Report of Mr, Fairbairn to the Board of Trade, Command Paper 1864.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 383

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384 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The results of the tests and calculated stresses are given in the table opposite.

It is unfortunate that exact details and observations of this very remarkable
fatigue test are not on record. Full details of the girder are not available. The
plates attached to the Board of Trade Report have been assumed correct in pre-
paring fig. 13. The total weight is given by Fairbairn as 7 ewt. 2 qrs., but the weight
of the girder shown (assuming the stiffeners to be double 3” x 14” x 2” tees joggled
on to the main angles) is below that figure.

The rivets were }in. diameter and arranged as shownin elevation ; the pitch would
be about 44 inches. The arrangement of riveting in the flanges is not shown. In
estimating the net area of the bottom flange it has been assumed that there were
two rivets in line breaking pitch with the rivets in the vertical legs of the angles. It
is important to note, however, that in Fairbairn’s calculations of the stresses in the
net area he has deducted 0-625 sq. in., which is the area of the three rivet holes.

The stresses given in the table have been calculated in the following ways :

Fairbairn’s, by the formula

tress =
stress =——
4 ad

1 = span in inches, taken as 240, the clear span ;

w = the weight at the centre in tons ;

d = overall depth (16 in.) ;

«a — area of the flange, the total sectional area of the plate and two angles (2-4 sq.
in. gross, 1-775 sq. in. net).

Method I. (a), by moment of inertia, ignoring the rivet holes and then increasing
the stress in the ratio of the gross to net areas. Two rivets allowed for. The span
of girder taken as 21 feet.

Method II. (a), by moment of inertia calculated with the two rivet holes out.
Span, 21 feet.

The testing arrangements were intentionally made so that the load should be applied
with a jarring effect, and under (6) of Methods I. and IJ. an increase of from 7 to 10
per cent. is made for the velocity with which the load was probably applied.

Illustrations of the testing arrangements indicate that the load was applied to the
bottom flange, as shown in fig. 13. Severe secondary stresses must have been set
up in the flange with every loading, and although the calculated stresses required to
cause failure were comparatively high, they would probably have been much higher
had the load been applied to the top flange. The distance from the centre of the
point where the flange failed is not recorded.

The endurance of some of the rivets is remarkable. In referring to the first test,
Fairbairn writes: ‘It is satisfactory here to observe that during the whole of the
1,005,175 changes none of the rivets were loosened or broke.’ At the centre of the
beam the rivets holding the lower angles to the web must have been very severely
loaded. The 4-ton load, if taken by the three nearest rivets, would give a bearing
pressure of 21-3 tons per sq. in., but a shearing stress of only 3-4 tons per sq. in.

A second experiment was made on the same beam. It was ‘ repaired by replacing
the broken angle-irons on each side, and putting a patch over the broken plate equal
in area to the plate itself.’ The results of the second test are given in the table.

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 385

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386 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The Distribution of Stress in Round Mild Steel Bars under Alternating
Torsion or Bending.

By Professor W. Mason, D.Sc

Abstract.

The distribution of stress in round bars overstrained in alternating torsion or
bending is studied with the object of finding a relation between stresses in hollow
and solid specimens.

The probability of linearity of strain distribution is discussed.

Alternating torsion or bending of round bars leads to a condition in which the
range of strain, at a given range of torque or bending, increases to a stationary value,
provided that such given range is less than the fatigue range and greater than the
primitive elastic limit range.

For mild steel in this stationary condition of strain the following assumptions are
made concerning the distribution of strain and stress throughout the body of the
specimen at instants of maximum strain of the cycle:

(1) A distribution of strain linear from axis to skin.

(2) (a) A distribution of stress conforming to Hooke’s law (7.c. of perfect elasticity)
from the axis for a portion of the radius. (b) For the remainder of the radius, a
relation between stress and strain similar to the linear relation found experimentally
between the ranges of strain and stress in thin-walled tubular specimens in alternating
torsion.

Applying these assumptions, it is found that the results of certain alternating tests
of solid specimens in torsion become practically identical with those of hollow
specimens, and that the results of the author’s alternating tests of hollow and solid
specimens in bending (bending always about the same axis) are in fair agreement.

The author concludes that the difference between (a) fatigue stresses calculated
from the range of torque or bending moment on the usual assumption of linearity of
stress, and (b) the actual fatigue stresses, must be greater than is commonly supposed
for solid specimens, and also for hollow specimens in alternating bending.

Aim of the Work.

When the elastic limit of a round bar has been exceeded in bending or torsion,
the stress in it is unknown, except in the case of a hollow bar with thin walls under
torque. If the stresses are cyclic, asin a torsion or bending fatigue test, the range
of stress throughout the body of the specimen follows a straight line distribution only
so long as the elasticity is unimpaired. If the ranges of stress at the skin of the
specimen are calculated, as is usual, by a formula which is founded upon linearity
of stress, considerable error results, even when the ranges of stress are of the magnitude
that produce fracture by fatigue. One object of this paper is to form an estimate
of the amount of this error in accordance with certain experimental data.

Linearity of Strain Distribution.

Imagine a wedge bounded by a pair of planes passing through the axis of a round
bar and by a pair of planes perpendicular to the axis of the bar. Suppose that the bar
is overstrained in torsion. Linearity of strain entails that the latter pair of planes

Fig. 14

remain plane after the overstraining, and that the radial lines of intersection of the
two pairs of planes remain straight lines. Suppose these radial lines do not remain
straight, but take any deviation from the radial direction such as shown by the dotted
lines in fig. 14. Now at each section normal to the axis the relative position of lines

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 387

A,B and BO must be identical, and any distortion producing an angle such as A, BO
must be common to every section, except perhaps near the ends of the twisted
specimen. A displacement of A to A, at each section would be due to a sliding or
distortion common to each portion along the length of the specimen, and a distortion
of this kind would not be produced by equal and opposite torsional couples except
perhaps near the gripped ends. Thus any deviation of these radial lines AO from
straightness is difficult to imagine for torsional strain of the amount met with in fatigue
tests.

Consider a uniform bar under a bending moment uniform over its length—the
conditions the author is herein concerned with. It is clear that the strained shapes
of equal slices A and B (fig. 15) must be exactly alike, and that such slices must fit

HriGs 15

together to make the strained whole. It seems impossible that these conditions can
be fulfilled unless the sectional surfaces of the slices remain plane. It appears to
the writer—possibly, however, by defect of imagination—that any other than linear
distribution of strain is not conceivable.

In the following work linearity of strain distribution will be assumed. In the
tests to be cited, the strains at the skins of the specimen were measured ; with
linearity of strain distribution from the axis, the strains at any radius are, of course
ascertainable.

Stress-Strain Curves for Alternating Stress Tests.

Tf a test-specimen is subjected to increasing stress of equal + and — maxima

a series of hysteresis loops is obtained such as shown in fig. 16. At any one constant

range of stress the width of the loop increases, and if the range of stress is not too

great, this width increases to a maximum value and remains constant at that value.

The increase of width to a maximum is illustrated by curves in a former paper by

the writer.1 We will suppose that the loops of fig. 16 represent a series of these

constant maximum loops for a corresponding series of increments of stress. We may

suppose that the loops are obtained for increments of either torsion or bending. The

loops then represent the cyclic stress-strain condition at the skin of the specimen

when constancy of cyclic strain has been reached. ‘The writer has found that points

such as B, C, D, lie on a straight line when the ordinates parallel to OY are the semi-

ranges of the torque (or bending moment) ; or when(what amounts to the same thing)

the ordinates are semi-ranges of stress at the skin calculated from the torque

or bending moment by the formula founded on the assumption of perfect elasticity.

In the writer’s experiments the ranges of strain at the skin—not the whole loop—were

observed ; and the stress-strain curves (an example of which is the curve ORDF of

fig. 20) from which he begins his argument are of values of these ranges (or rather

semi-ranges), when constancy of range has been reached, plotted to the semi-ranges

of stress calculated on the assumption of perfect elasticity.

_ Considering an abscissa ON of any point C, on B, C, D, (fig. 16) with linearity of
strain from the axis outwards, the strain at any radius 7 in the body of a specimen

of outside radius ry will be ON x= at the epoch when the constant value of the
0

skin-strain ON has been reached at a range of ‘ calculated’ stress NC,. That is,

distances from O along the z-axis represent, to the scale on which ON represents

the semi-range of strain at the skin, the semi-ranges of strain at corresponding radii;

in other words, at any one such epoch, abscisse represent both radii and semi-

‘ranges of strain at those radii.

1’ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Feb. 1917. See fig. 8, p. 129; fig. 12, p. 134.

388 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Though the strains are known at any epoch of constant strain-range, the real
stresses are not known, even at the skin. Consider the epoch at which the semi-
range of skin-strain is ON,, and suppose the stress calculated from the torque by the
usual formula on the assumption of perfect elasticity (i.e. on assumption of linear
stress distribution) is represented by N,D,. If the strain and stress each vary as the
distance from axis, then the strain and stress must be proportional to each other,
which is obviously wrong, except for regions of the bar near the axis. This point
may be illustrated (fig. 16) by joining the points O and D,; the straight line OD,
represents proportionality between stress and strain from axis to skin. It is clear
that both stress and strain cannot have a linear distribution. If the stress did vary
as distance from axis, then the distribution of strain, in the case of torsion of a solid
round bar, would be represented by some line, not straight, such as A, BO in fig. 14.
As mentioned previously, such a distribution of strain is scarcely conceivable. It

Fic. 16

seems clear, then, that the stress cannot have a linear distribution, except near the
axis, where the elasticity will not be impaired. Part of the real stress-strain graph
through the body of the bar will evidently be the line OA for all epochs such as
mentioned above. In order to ascertain, if possible, the parts of the true stress-strain
curve, other than OA, for any epoch of the test (an epoch immediately subsequent to
a number of cycles sufficient to establish constancy of ranges of stress and of strain
throughout the specimen is considered only), it is necessary to examine the true
stress-strain curve for a thin-walled tube under alternating torsion.

Hollow Tubular Specimens under Alternating Torsion.

If the thickness of wall is less than about 20 per cent. of the radius of the tube, the
actual stress at the middle of the wall can be calculated with very little error. What-
ever may be the variation of stress through the wall, it is obvious that the stress at

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 389

the mean radius of the tube will be very little different from the stress calculated on
the assumption of uniform distribution of stress throughout the tube-wall.

Let q, = shear stress on assumption of uniformity of stress,
ry = outside radius of tube ;
r, = internal radius of tube ;

then the resisting moment of the section

9
oT (75? — 13).

Let gm = real stress at middle of tube-wall, then g, cannot differ appreciably
from qu.
Qarqin

And resisting moment = (ro25—13).

Now, since it has been convenient to express the resisting moment in terms of the
stress at the skin (= q,, say) calculated on the assumption of linearity of stress,

Aa Tannai
Resisting moment = /¢ . = (To — 11’).
ee
Hence
9.
aT. 9m 1.3 3) Ie ni
peepee Ti ee cee (fg 1 3*)s
3 ry 2
and
Qu 3 1—14/to*

qe 4 1—r,3/r0°

This formula has been used to calculate the values of q,, for four mild-steel tubular
specimens—viz. B22, B27, Al0, and A2. Full data concerning these will be found
in the former paper referred to by the author.t Table I. gives certain data taken
from that paper, as well as other items of which use is now to be made. These speci-
mens were not made to the same dimensions, though all were of the same general
form.’ It has been convenient to reduce the observed scale readings—in cms. (which
are proportional to the angle of twist)—to values of the shear strain. This has been
done by assuming that the elastic modulus of rigidity was the same for each specimen.
All the four specimens were from the same batch of steel; B22 and B27 were cut
from one long bar, and Al0 and A2 from another bar. The value of the elastic
modulus has been assumed to be 12-1 x 10° lb. per sq. in., a value which is consistent
with other measurements made while each specimen was below the elastic limit.
Thus, for specimen B22, a range of 5-86 cm. of scale was observed under a range of
stress of + 5-00 tons per sq.in. If Fis a factor for converting cm. on scale to strains
at the skin, then—

5:00 x 22
5:00 x 2240 = 12-1 x 10%,

2
5:86 x F

and
5-00 x 2240

ee | ats eocaal | Um
RBA Ole 10s,

Factors F, given in Table I., have been calculated for each of the four specimens
using the same value of modulus, 12-1 x 10% In this table, strains at the skin for
each specimen are given for a number of epochs when the range of strain had become
constant. The number of cycles is not in all cases sufiicient to make the range of
strain quite constant; but constancy of range had been approximately attained,

at least, in each case. The curves of fig. 174 have been plotted from the values of
the strain and stress (at middle of tube-wall) given in Table I.

These curves have, by reason of the method of plotting just described, a common

elastic line, whose inclination is 12-1 x 10° lb. per sq.in. ‘The curves then turn away

1 Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Feb. 1917.
2 Tbid. See fig. 1, p. 122.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

390

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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 391

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392 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

at their respective elastic limits (under torsional cycles), and afterwards proceed in
sensibly straight lines, whose inclination is nearly the same. ‘The average inclination

of these lines corresponds to a value of Asie) 2-50 x 108 Ib. per sg. in. This

A (strain)
stress is not a ‘ modulus of elasticity,’ but it will be convenient to denote it by the
,

symbol C’, while the elastic modulus 12-1 x 10® is denoted by C. The ratio a
for these four specimens is thus approximately 0-225. The feature of these curves,
then, is that for increments of range of stress beyond the elastic limit—the cycles at a
range of stress being continued until the strain attains a constant value—the incre-
ment of range of strain is proportional to the increment of range of actual stress.
This proportionality, it will be observed, is for the middle of the tube-wall.

Distribution of Stress throughout Wall of a Tube subjected to Alternating Torsion.

The distribution of stress throughout the tube-wall has not entered into the pre-
ceding calculation, the stress at the middle of the wall only having been calculated
and plotted in fig. 174.

Let RS (fig. 18) represent a curve like those of fig. 174. At an epoch 1, after
cycles of an actual range of stress -- B,S, (at the middle of tube-wall), numerous
enough to attain constancy of strain at this range of stress, let the constant semi-
range of strain attained be OB, at the middle of wall.

BB, _tm—"1

Set off a length B,B, such that Te sre where 7, is the internal radius
¥ 2 m
and 7, the mean radius ;
or, what amounts to the same thing, lay off OB, so that oa = Now, suppose
1 1
OB, and B,S, to be the strain and corresponding stress respectively, at the middle
of wall, after a sufficient number of cycles at the larger range of stress B,S,. Then,
by the previous section, S, will lie on RS. Now with linearity of strain, OB, must be
equal to the strain at the internal radius.r; at epoch 2. The assumption will now be
made provisionally that the stress at the inner skin at epoch 2 will be equal to B,8).
This is a large assumption to make, and it can only be considered to have validity
if the deductions from it have experimental confirmation. Stated in general terms,
and including in its scope solid as well as hollow specimens, this assumption amounts
to the following : At any epoch after a number of cycles sufficient to produce constant
range of strain, the relation between the ranges of stress and strain at any point of
the specimen is expressed thus :

q = Cee + C'(e— e),

C being the elastic modules ;
A (stress)

Cie ee waluesoL AiGtrain) corresponding to the line RS (fig. 18) ;

Cs) s », semi-range of strain corresponding to the intersection of OP and RS
(fig. 18) ;

e semi-range of strain corresponding to the range of stress ++ q.

9° 39

Illustrating this assumption a little further by the aid of fig. 18, lay off BB,
such that

Led
OBS Hom,

Let OB; and B,S, be the semi-ranges of strain and stress at middle of wall at an
epoch 3. Then linearity of strain makes the range of strain at inner skin at epoch 3
equal to OB,, and the above assumption makes the range of stress at inner skin equal
to B.S,. Thus the stresses and strains at the inner skin of the tube at various epochs
ccd be represented by the same graph as the stresses and strains at the middle of the
wall.

In the same way, following the above assumptions, the graph RS represents the
relation between the ranges of strain and stress not merely at the middle of the tube-

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 893

S
AN
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2
S
6
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Range of Srrain af shia
Oe eee ce RN eg ee pee >N

Tia. 19

394 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

wall, but it also represents the relation between the ranges of strain and stress at any
point of the tube-wall, provided that constancy of range of strain has been reached.
The validity of this provisional assumption will be tested with reference to solid
specimens.
Alternating Torsion of Solid Specimens,

Specimen A7 was cut from the same batch of steel as the foregoing hoilow speci-
mens. It was tested at the various ranges of torque shown in Table II., and at each
range the strain was allowed to reach a constant value before the next higher range
was imposed. Since this was also the method of testing the hollow specimens (Table L.),
the author proceeded as follows. The average value of the shear stress at fracture
of these hollow specimens was found to be 6-14 tons per sq. in. (see Table IV.). The
shear stress at fracture of A7 ought presumably to have approximately the same
value; hence, as a first trial of the foregoing assumption, the real ultimate range of
stress at the skin was also taken to be 6-14 tons per sq.in. The distribution of stress
through the body of the specimen was, following the above assumption, taken to be
represented by lines such as OP, RS, fig. 19 (see also fig. 18). _The’inclination of the
line OP corresponds to the modulus C = 12-1 x 10% Ib. per sq. in. ; the point S is fixed
by the ultimate range of strain = 1-935 x 10~*, and by NS, the ultimate (fracture)
range of stress, which is taken to be 6-14 tons per sq. in. If the strain throughout
the specimen is represented by a line such as RS, then the inclination of RS will be
fixed by equating the torque imposed to the resisting torque. That is,

N
Torque imposed = [2e. 7, aT = q-

This calculation (see Appendix I.) makes the inclination of the line RS to correspond

, 7

to a ‘ modulus’ C’ of 2-18 x 10° Ib. per sq. in., and 2 =0-18. The ratio a for the

hollow specimens was, as mentioned previously (p. 392), 0-225. The line RS,
with this inclination, is plotted in fig. 20. In fig 20 ORDF represents to scale the
ranges of strain and stresses (as usually calculated) for the skin of specimen A7.
The ranges of strain had reached constant values at the ranges of stress plotted.

It will be observed (fig. 20) that the inclination of the line RS makes the point
of elastic breakdown in the body of the specimen to be at R for the ultimate range
of constant strain 1-935 x 10~%. Scaling from the figure gives ER = 5-15 tons
per sq. in., as against 5-30 tons per sq. in. (see Table I., col. 1), which is the average
of the four hollow specimens before cited.

It is, of course, more than probable that, if the true distribution of stress through-
out A7 at the ultimate range of stress and strain is represented by the lines OR, RS,
the change of modulus at R is not a sharp one as shown on fig. 20. The stress near
R would be represented by the dotted line, and the calculation of the resisting torque
will be affected somewhat. ‘The error of assuming a sharp change at R will, however,
be small, especially for the larger ranges of stress and strain. Ordinates to a straight
line OD represent the stress throughout the specimen on the basis of linearity of stress,
at the epoch when the range of strain at the skin had settled down to OB,: the

strain and stress at a radius 7 = OB, * (radius of specimen) at this epoch appearing
2

respectively as OB, and B,D,. This linear distribution of stress throughout the
specimen is, of course, an absurd supposition, inasmuch as the material near the core
cannot have suffered a change of modulus. On the basis of the provisional assumption,
at an epoch when the semi-range of strain at the skin had settled down to OB,, the
semi-range of stress would be B,S,; and the strain and stress at the same radius
‘7? (above) would be OB, and B,S, respectively.

The result of applying to A7 the provisional assumption regarding distribution
of stress seemed to the author to bring that test so nearly into line with the tests
of the hollow specimens that he made the torsional tests now to be described.

Confirmation of the Assumption concerning Distribution of Stress.—In order to
obtain further evidence concerning the validity of the assumption of p. 392, tests
were made of four specimens of another steel—the 0-35 per cent. carbon steel provided
by the Aeronautical Research Committee. Two of these were hollow and two solid,
and all were tested under alternating torsion. The stress was not applied in steps as
in the former tests cited. The elastic limits of two of them (see Table III.) were

Rn, <iy

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 395

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396 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

found under torsional alternating cycles, and then the full alternating torque was
applied for a large number of cycles. The elastic limits of the other two were not
found; alternating torque of one constant range only was applied and continued
until the test was completed. In all four tests a constant range of strain was attained
long before the cycles of torque were discontinued or long before the specimen broke,
as the case might be. It will be observed that one hollow and one solid specimen
fractured, and that the limiting fatigue range must presumably lie between the real
stress of the unbroken and the broken specimens.

What will be called, provisionally, the ‘real’ stress at the skin of the hollow
specimens was calculated by a method similar to that employed (see p. 389) for the
other hollow specimens (see Appendix I.), the only difference between the methods

being that various values of the ratio rom (p. 392) were now taken, and a position
of the RS line (see fig. 19) was found by equating the range of resisting moment, for
each value of a ; to the range of the applied torque. Any one of the RS lines so found
satisfies the essential condition of equality of range of applied torque and range of
resisting moment; but, of course, the values of (a) the ultimate range of ‘ real’

stress and (b) the range of elastic limit stress at the internal surface of elastic break-
,

down vary widely according to the value of ues The values of (a) and (b) are given

C
respectively in Tables IV. and V. An examination of these tables leads to the con-

clusion that the most probable value of - for this steel is about 0-30, because this

value of - makes the ultimate ranges of stress of the fractured hollow and solid
specimens agree, and it makes the highest ranges of the unbroken hollow and solid
specimens also very close (Table IV.). This value of = also (see Table V.) brings

the stresses in the solid specimens at the locality R, where the modulus changes,
approximately to the elastic limit 7-0 tons per sq. in. observed during two of the
tests. Thus the stress at R for the broken solid specimen appears as +7-25 tons
per sq. in., and the stress at R for the unbroken solid one as -- 6-82 tons per sq. in.

C ; : ; : 2
Thus the value € =0-30 brings the tests of hollow and solid specimens into substantial
correspondence with each other. Table IV. gives the comparison of the ultimate
ranges of stress for the torsion specimens for various values of = , and Table V. gives
the stresses at the point R for these various values of = It appears that the value

0-18 for 2 previously obtained is the most probable value a for the steel of 0-12 per

cent. carbon. It will be observed that not only does the value C7 0-18 make the ulti-

mate and elastic limit ranges of stress very approximately the same for A7 as for
the hollow specimens of the same material, but that the curves of distribution of stress
at the ultimate range for A7 and the hollow specimens, while not in exact coincidence,
are in fair agreement.

The author thinks these results confirm in a rather striking manner the validity
of the assumption provisionally adopted as to the distribution of stress in a round
bar under alternating torsion when the range of strain has become constant.

It is of some interest to compare for the three solid specimens the ratio of the
ultimate stresses (a) calculated on the author’s assumption of stress distribution
and (6) calculated on the assumption of perfect elasticity.

C’ stress (a) 6:14
A7. 0-12 t. C broken= =0- eben pe adie) — 7:
per cen roken 0-18 streas (6) 7-49 = 9 83
C’ 8-67
0-1. 0:35 t. C unbroken = = 0- = =0:
per cent. C unbroken 0-30 “0 10-0> 0° 865
y C’ 9-09
1-2. 0:3 t. © br kk fan 0s —) ——— — ie
5 per cen roken 0-30 * 10-5 =9 865

—————— ee CU

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 397
Round Specimens under Alternating Bending.

The distribution of stress under alternating bending is more difficult to treat,
because, unlike hollow specimens in torsion, the stresses in hollow specimens cannot
directly be even approximately estimated. The author has used some data obtained
in tests! of hollow and solid specimens bent to and fro under ranges of alternating
bending moment, and has calculated the ultimate ranges of stress at the skin and
throughout the specimen on the same assumption as that made use of for torsion.

Mrernating Bending

21 LA. .
the curnges of Sfresses plofléd are Wt Solid
Colewlaléd by The formuta , —
Stress = (radu) x (¢naing momeat] AIG. holiow
(M- of inerlia of section) A le. hallow
ta he. linearity of Stress 1s assumed.

inch

»
e

Range oF Stress
IS per 4

*
an

Mal} = Range eh SCI A SIAL Shan DACs

z & 6 6 19 2 1? a
Hie. 21

Briefly stated, the method has been: To assume a stress distribution (at ranges of
bending moment continued long enough to give constancy of range of strain) like

that of fig. 19; to calculate the ranges of stress at the skin for various values of E

(’ and E being the moduli corresponding to the lines OP and RS (fig. 19); and,
by equating the range of resisting moment to the applied bending moment, to ascer-

tain which value or values of = give approximately the same ultimate skin stress for

hollow specimens on the one hand and for solid specimens on the other. Then,
finally, to see if the curves of ‘ true’ stress and strain for hollow and solid specimens

coincide.

Table VI. gives data concerning the specimens, two of which are hollow and two

solid. In calculating the bending strains from the observed ranges of bending in
ems. onscale, 30 x 10° per sq. in. has been taken as the elastic modulus. The curves

of fig. 21 have been plotted from columns 2 and 5 of Table VI. It will be observea
1 Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Feb. 1917.

398 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

that the upper five plotted points of specimen A15 lie on a straight line—corre-
spondingly to the torsion specimens—but that the upper part of the curve of All
is not quite a straight line. The upper three points of Al6 and the upper two points
of Al4 lie on straight lines. It may be assumed that the range of strain had become
approximately constant for those upper points that lie on a straight line. The bend
at the elastic limit is not so sharp as in the case of torsion.

The formule for, and method of, calculating the ultimate ranges of stress, and
the range of stress at the point in the specimen where the modulus changes, are given
in Appendix II.

Tables VI. and VII. show the result of the calculations; fig. 22 represents these
results graphically. It appears (Table VII. and fig. 9) that the elastic limit point R

for all values of a is below the elastic limits observed in making the tests. Even

for = = 0 (i.e. RS horizontal), which gives the highest value of elastic limit stress
in the body of the specimen, this is the case. Of course the stress-strain curve will
be rounded off in the neighbourhood of R. ‘This rounding off will have most effect
on the calculations (7.e. in equating of resisting moment to applied moment) in the
case of the solid specimen Al5. The curved line in fig. 23 shows a hypothetical
rounding off for A165 for the case of H’ = 0; the effect is to raise the right-hand part
of RS by a stress of 0-28 tons per sq. in. The effect for the other specimens would

be less, and for other values of = the raising of the line RS will be smaller as =

increases. It is clear, then, that the main issue, viz. the position of the line RS, is
little affected by rounding off in the neighbourhood of R.

It will be observed (fig. 22) that the line RS for specimen A16 (which has the
thinner wall of the two hollow specimens tested) is always above the RS lines for the
E
considered as having equal probable weight with the others. The effect of rounding
off will be to raise the RS line of this specimen less than the raising of the others,
but this consideration does not account for more than about one-third of the

difference in stress between the RS line of Al16 and that of the others.

Further examination of the RS lines of fig. 22 shows that while a value of =

somewhere between 0:2 and 0-3, makes the RS lines come nearest together, this
ta

other specimens for all values of So far as the author knows, this test has to be

value is apparently about the middle of the wide range of = from 0 to 0-5, all values

between these limits bringing the RS lines fairly close together. Considering the
ultimate ranges of stress which produced fracture, the agreement between these
/

is closest for values of 2 from 0-2 to 0-3. The assumption of a definite value of

A (stress)
A (strain)
to the results for torsion. One reason for the uncertainty of this result obviously
lies in the circumstance that the area of layers of the circular section (providing resist-
ing moment to bending) diminishes rapidly towards the skin farthest removed from
A (stress)
A (strain)
may not be an absolute constant, the general inclination of the RS stress-strain line
through the outer part of the body of the specimen will most probably not be greater

for bending thus leads to results that are somewhat indefinite, in contrast

the neutral axis of bending. It seems clear, however, that although

than 0-4. The extreme value of = = 1, i.e. the assumption of linearity of stress
from axis to skin, which is usually adopted for calculating the skin stresses, is palpably

wrong.

Some idea of the probable amount of the error made by calculating skin stresses
of fatigue tests on the assumption of linearity of stress from the axis outwards may
be obtained from Table VIII.

Taking 0-3 as the most probable value of

2s the error for hollow alternately

bent specimens would be about 15 per cent., and for alternately bent solid specimens

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 399

Miernating Bending Hollow & Solid Specimens Stress
linear

Dragrams showiag varias possible distribuhons of Stress, Au from
corresponding To varcods ralues of EE! over aus leo

, skin

Seclton of Specimens at eltimale slage of Test.

(0 tensfa'(f. «e)

all

fo Tans/a fe = 36)

All H ;
10 fnsfa’ (Ease

All so tensfa' (E'= 1g 6)

AIS

fe #0 fansfo* [E'= o)

14 Y, eet ft Abscrssae represent strains and also represent,
a) vs B® another soak, distances from gee ae
yy f of bending ON represents raduss of Speeimens
> / Ordinales. Te avod Confusion he graphs ere pled
yY e/ wh a differen? origin for tach value of FE, ali a
eo orgins Berng on OY
RY, Fact graph represents a aistrbulor Of Siress, for
tach of four specimens, 25 follows, -
4 from aris fer @ portion of We radccs EC adbxto’”
for remaining portion of redeuss AlsPress) aE’
With values of E' as marked an A(8fram). 4
(Re Sreph
Malf-Renge of Stren x 10” N
> 2 a 6 6 © 2 &
Fie. 22.

1923 EE

400 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

about 24 per cent. These figures refer not to alternate bending of a Wéhler rotating
specimen, but to alternate to-and-fro bending about a fixed axis. ‘The error intro-
duced, by calculation on the usual assumption, of the skin stresses of a Wohler test
will be less than the above, because the magnitude of the extra-elastic strain in
the Woéhler test is less when the bending is to-and-fro about a fixed axis. The
magnitude of the probable error of the calculated skin stresses in a Wohler test is
very difficult to calculate, because the whole of the material outside some radial
distance from the axis is impaired elastically.

A deduction of the above percentage amount from the calculated (on usual
assumption) ultimate skin stress of a fatigue test by alternating bending will, for
steel of the mildness of the author’s specimens, bring the skin stress down to a value
very little greater than the elastic limit determined by increasing the alternating
bending upon a specimen previously unstrained. This would not be surprising,

2/2

rn) |

O28 Tans) »

“ am,
tf) > Ss

t é'n0

268

Alternating Bending

+6 Sold Specimen AIS

Showing effet oF raunding off (a Re }

nergh bouhood o R_ for fhe case of |
E'= @

Range of Stress

Half - Rage ef Strom xX fQ* a
g z 4 6 8 (o Pe 1

in view of the preceding results for torsion, and also for results of alternating direct —
stress. ,
A point arises here with regard to the known effect of ‘ understressing ’ in fatigue —
tests by bending. The author is inclined to believe, in view of the foregoing results, —
that the extent of raising of a fatigue limit by ‘ understressing ’ may be overestimated
in a bending test.

Wher a range of torque or bending is imposed that will lead ultimately to fracture, —
the stresses on the specimen at the first outset will be nearly those calculated by the
usual formula, whereas the range of real stress at fracture will be considerably less —
than the range of stress initially induced by that same constant range of bending —
moment. Damage may be done by the higher initial stresses, and such damage i
may be consummated in fracture at the lower stresses in the ultimate stage of the |
test. Some carefully made Wohler tests, which gave lower fatigue ranges when the
whole load was put on in a few seconds, would be explained by an initial ‘ overstressing
effect’ of this kind. If the range of bending moment is imposed by increments up

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 401

to the fracture range, the range of real stress will never attain the higher real value
reached when the full bending moment is put on the (mild) steel in its primitive

elastic condition.
The author does not, of course, put forward initial ‘ overstressing’ in bending

tests as an explanation of ‘ understressing,’ which is a phenomenon observed also
in alternating direct loading. Initial overstressing of the above kind would cause
overestimation of the effect of ‘ understressing ’ in torsion and bending tests.

The author is indebted to Mr. N. P. Inglis, B.Eng., for making the torsion tests
of the A.R.C. steel.

APPENDIX I.

CALCULATION OF THE RusistING MOMENT OF THE SECTION OF A Sorry Rounp BAR
ON WHICH THE SHEAR STRESS DUE TO TORSION HAS A DISTRIBUTION LIKE THAT

SHOWN IN F ia. 5.

Referring to fig. 18—

Let C be the elastic modulus corresponding to the line OP ;
C’ be the modulus corresponding to RS—

Pa ny A (stress)

A (strain)’ between R and 8.

N
Resisting moment of the section = | 2. ft. Qt
0
where q is the stress at radius r.

With linearity of strain throughout body, and distxibution of stress as in fig. 18—

Between O and R, stress = Ce : A A z : : sh (09)
== irs

: : ; e
where ¢ is the strain at radius r and k =-.
t

Between R, and §, stress = C.k.r, + C.k.(r — r®)
=(C—Ckire+C. kur. f P eh a(2)

where? is the radius at which the modulus changes from C to C’.
The above expression for the resisting moment may now be written as :

Ve - i)
2n.C. | dr + 24 (C—C’). kore rir +24. 0'.8. | dr

0 Te Ye

» 4 " .
= 2m. O.bE + 2m. (CC) deere M58 4 De. Of, b, tet

where r, is the outside radius.

The resisting moment, calculated on the usual assumption of linear distribution of
stress from axis to skin

|
ins

9 + Wes

where q, is the stress at the skin calculated in this manner.
EE 2

402 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Equating the two expressions for the resisting moment we obtain

i CC a(t
eC | 1b Cae ina

e) being the strain at skin, 7.e. for 7 = 1.
> 0

For the distribution of stress as fig. 18—

Let qo = stress at 1;
Ge = stress at 7, ;
e, = strain at r,.

Equation (2) may now be written—

Go = Ge + C’(@ — ee) - : : . : (4)

Thus, given gp, €, GJ, and C, equations (1), (3), and (4) determine C’ and the
remaining quantities ; this was done in the case of specimen A7.

Since the values g, and gy were required for a number of values of C’ (see Table IV.),
it was found convenient to plot a graph of the function on the right-hand side of

equation (3) against values of < as abscisse, and to solve (3) graphically.
0

APPENDIX II.

CALCULATION OF THE ReEsISTING MOMENT OF A CIRCULAR SECTION ON WHICH THE
Drrect STRESS DUE TO BENDING HAS A DISTRIBUTION LIKE THAT SHOWN ON
Fic. 5.

Referring to fig. 18—
Let E = Young’s modulus, corresponding to the line OP ;

A(stress)
A! (strain)

;, E’= modulus corresponding to RS, 7.e. EK’ = between R and §;

,, ¢€ be the strain at distance y from neutral axis of bending ;

»» € be the strain at y, ye being the distance from the neutral axis at which the
modulus changes from E to B’;

»» €o be the strain at the skin, i.e. at radius 7, 7) being the external radius of the
specimen.

Assuming linearity of strain, and that the material behaves similarly in tension
and compression, then e = k.y, ¢¢ = k.Ye, €9 = kyo.

Between O and R, stress = E.k.y ; “ : : 4 s GQ)
Ss R and §, stress = E.k.y, + H’ eaves (E—E’)k.ye + EH’.k.y. (2)

The resisting moment of the section
R
=2| b.dy.k.y. By +2. b.dy.k.ye E. y+2l b.dy.k (y— ye) Ey
)

(‘b’ being the breadth at distance y from the neutral axis)

Ye To To
=2.4.8| by2dy + 2hk.y-.(E — EH’ | byiy + 28.87. by?dy.
: ome Ye

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 403

Now, calculated on the assumption of linearity of stress from axis to skin—

Ate TI 9° ! ‘
Resisting moment = Sake pe for a solid section ;
n(rot— 7° : : 3
- a = 1) pe for a hollow section of internal radius 7,,

4
where p, is the stress at the skin calculated on that assumption.

Equating the two expressions for resisting moment—

For a solid section—

7 a \
‘ i = Di
Be po = 4h.B."* (o— *) "0
¢@=0
diy; (EB — ay liebe Sa
— 4ky. (E — E’) = [ cos e| Gi ‘
3 ta neo Cae 3 5 (3)
To
@ Tv
4 “ =>
+4.h.E/ [9 SR SE) 2
@=sin “
9
whence
ipo bs BY bi by ees pare ae 761 8/8 Be
Z {ee Eon’ EB = Bo sin Fe sin (1 sin 2 + 5 a cos (sin ‘a (4)

For a tubular section—

provided that y. <7, resisting moment

__(vight-hand side\ __ /same expression as right-hand side of (3), but
a ?e =\ of equation (3) with r, written instead of 7) throughout

a n) oe. (22 aif w)
4 (1 lie BE = K’ €o

Hil , 1 =H en pe

= : sin = Te sin (4 sin | a ae cone (sin 2)
T\4f 1. a/Ye %o hee: (ae elt | 4 Ve To a in* (¥e.%8)\ os
—("*) 9 Sin (Fs.)—g and ge To a +31 ry cos pe Ware) (5)

Given p, e, E, and EH’, equations (1), (2), and (4) serve to determine ¢,, pe, and p®
for the case of a solid section; and equations (1), (2), and (5) determine the same
quantities for a tubular section.

Since the values of p and po were required for a number of values of E’, it was
found convenient to plot graphs of the right-hand side of equation 4, and also of the

Ye as abscisse. The value of ue which

To 0
‘satisfied (4) or (5), as the case might be, could then be found from the graph. Having

right-hand side of 5, both against values of

got as the values of p- and py can be found from equations (1) and (2).
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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS, 405

TABLE II.
ALTERNATING Torsion. Sonrp Sprctmen A7 (0-12 ppr Cent. CARBON STEEL).

Ranges of Strain (at Skin) which had become constant at certain Ranges of Stress.*
Quantities in columns 4 and 5 are plotted in Fig. 20.

1 2 * 1 tae 5
Elastic Limit) Range of Range of Ye vere
Stress. Strain at Skin F | Shear Strain ines i
Tons per | Cms. on (see p. 389) | at Skin Bian
sq. in. scale = R =FxR TEGa es geo
5-60 9-56 1°32)K10 | | 1°26 x10") +6735
about 10-96 | 1-445 ,, 6-65
| 12-24 | 1°615x «, 6-90 |
is 1855 | 1-785 x ,, ple P|
14-67 | 1°936 x 5, 7:40

* Ranges of stress calculated by usual formula for perfectly elastic condition.
For data of columns 1, 2, and 5, see Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Feb. 1917.

406

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

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| COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 407

TABLE IV.
ALTERNATING TORSION. Sotrp AND HoLLow SPECIMENS.

This table gives the ultimate ranges of stress at the skin calculated on the assump-
tion that the stress has a distribution, throughout specimen, as shown in fig. 13.

) Specimen | Ultimate Range of Stress at Skin
Sa Pile |
| | Tons per sq. in.
hollow 3D Lis Mean value = 6-14
i). 5 = 2 +6-27 tons per sq. in.
Ae, 8 So | +6-35
Ss |
o . g, | Ultimate range of stress at skin calculated
sls tb
= s for various values of 5 ct
° SS | for for for for for
QS Cz ‘ C’ Cs 4
of |guils bes 21 | = -25 | @ =-30 c= 4
A7 solid 2 | £6-14 | +6-21 [/ +6-30 | +6-40 | +6-63 |
© |
3-4 hollow -O SS > | +8-91 | +8-94 | 49-00 | +9-07 | 49-17
ae Orog Sr | ~s.68 | ~ 8-70 | 8-77 | ~ 8-84 | ~ 8-98
0-1 solid miese" | 8-34] 8-40] 8-54) 8-67 | 8°90 |
12 ,, ) cod a 8-80 | 8-85 | 8-96| 9-09 | 9-34)

A (stress)
A (strain)
+ Obtained from graphs of fig. 17B.

{ For method of calculation, see Appendix I.

* C = elastic modulus. C’ = for extra elastic conditions.

TABLE V.
ALTERNATING TORSION. SoxLtp Specimens at ULTIMATE RANGE OF STRESS.

Distribution of stress as shown in fig. 18.

Stress at R (fig. 18), where modulus changes, for various values of rt

Stress at R,

Specimen. Elastic

oa . . * |
(See also Table IV.) Limit rag Rein | exe for eee

\C’=-18C|C’= -21C C’= -25C\C’= -30C| C’= - 40
| ee]

‘Tons per Tons per|Tons per |
| sq. in. sq. in. | sq. in. | sq. in. | sq.in. | sq. in.
A7 0-12% C (broken) | +5-30 +5-15 |+5-08 |+4-92 |+4-66 |+4-08
|

\Tons per Tons per Tons per

O1 0-35 % C(unbroken)} 7-00 | 7-33 | 7-20 | 7-06 | 6-82 | 6-17
1-2 »» (broken) 7:00 | 7:80 | 7-65 | 7-48 | 7-25 | 6-63

}

* Under alternating torsion.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

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COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 409

TABLE VIII.

ALTERNATING BENDING.
y - P
Values of =
F
where p, = skin stress at ultimate stage of test calculated for a distribution of
stress as in fig. 18.
Pe = skin stress at ultimate stage of test calculated on usual assumption
of linearity of stress from axis throughout specimen.

Value of “2
| e
Specimen | |
for for for for for for
KE’ i’ Ek’ 10 i’ i’ os
. 995) — —0- — = =

VI.

The Repeated Bending of Steel Wire.
By Waurter A. SCOBLE.

As a preliminary to the testing of complete wire ropes, single wires were taken
from the cables and tested by repeated bending, under several tensions, over pulleys
of different diameters.

The wire was special acid patent steel left black. Two sizes of wire were used,
of 0-021 and 0-036 in. diameter. The elastic limit stress was 64 and the breaking
stress was 85 tons per sq. in.

Under test a wire passed over a freely running pulley and was given a reciprocating
motion. It passed from the straight on to the pulley, then it moved back into the
straight again. Pulleys of different diameters were used. Direct tension could be
applied to the wire under test, and experiments were made at several tensions on
each pulley.

The wire was stressed by bending it to the radius of the pulley, and it was
anticipated that an additional direct tension would reduce the number of bends
necessary to produce fracture. The endurance of stranded wires is reduced on a
given pulley if the tension is increased.

The results obtained from the 0-021 in. were confirmed by the tests of the 0-036 in.
diameter wire, therefore attention will be directed particularly to the former.
The usual formula used to obtain the outside fibre stress in the bent wire is, f = Ed/D,
and if ‘ f’ be taken as the yield stress of the wire in tension, 64 tons per sq. in., and
* E’ as 13,400 tons per sq. in., it appears that the wire would be stressed to its yield
point when bent on a pulley of 4-4 in. diameter without an added longitudinal
tension. Under simple tension this wire yields at 50 and fractures at 66 lb. approxi-
mately.

The experimental results may be divided into four sections according to the pulley
diameter. On a pulley which was much too small for the wire the number of bends
to fracture was low but approximately constant up to a particular tension, above which
the number of bends was negligible. This is illustrated by :

410 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Test ON 1-INCH DIAMETER PULLEY.

Tension on wire, lb. . 10 15 30 35 40
Number of bends to

fracture j 2662 2630 2240 34 148

142 62

TEST ON 2-INCH DIAMETER PULLEY.

Tension on wire,lb. . 10 20 30 40 50
Number of bends to
fracture ; AP EEE 8526 10,304 5733 61
12,009 8269

The next stage took the pulley diameter up to the theoretical minimum, and
here the number of bends to fracture was not greatly reduced at pulls equal to or
greater than the yield-point tension of the wire. For éxample:

TrEstT ON 3-INCH DIAMETER PULLEY.

Tension on wire, lb. . 10 20 30 40 50
Number of bends to
fracture . . 34,437 32,595 35,452 39,742 29,127
Test ON 4-INcH DIAMETER PULLEY.
Tension on wire, lb. . 15 30 40 50 60
Number of bends to
fracture ‘ . 67,348 63,737 105,172 78,050 53,627

59,826 91,600 63,315

When the pulley diameter slightly exceeded the critical value, 4-4 in., the un-
expected result was obtained that the number of bends necessary to fracture the
wire increased with the tension to which it was subjected. The following furnishes
an example of this character :

TrEst ON 6-INCH DIAMETER PULLEY.

Tension on wire, lb. . 10 20 30 40 50
Number of bends to |
fracture : 107,359 163,232 214,747 268,693 468,351

On still larger pulleys this wire was not in general broken after a million cycles ;
in all cases the endurance was very considerable, and it appeared that the bending
stresses had been so far reduced that they were negligible for single wires.

The apparent inconsistencies in the results, illustrated where an experiment was
repeated, were doubtless caused by the inequalities which were known to exist along
a length of drawn wire, particularly in the finer gauges.

No satisfactory explanation of this behaviour of wire under repeated bending
is given here. The consideration of a single case on the usual lines is attempted,
because it appears to show that these and the allied phenomena are not understood.

The example chosen is the test of the 0-021-in. wire over a 6-in. pulley under a
tension of 50 lb., in which it required nearly half a million bends to break the wire. In
fig. 24 the strain in tension and compression is graphed against the diameter of the
wire for the case when the wire is bent round the pulley under no tension. The next
portion of fig. 24 shows the strain deduced as follows. As an approximation it is
assumed that when the metal yields the stress remains constant. This is not quite
correct, but it does not materially affect the conclusions. The wire was under
the yield-point tension, consequently it appears that it was under this tension right
across the section to allow the total tension in the metal to equal the pull on the wire.
Therefore, it is concluded that the bending caused yield all over the section. The
next stage was the straightening of the wire under tension, which, reasoning in a
similar fashion, seems to have caused further tensile yield, equalising it across the
wire. The wire had 1-4 per cent. elongation right across the section from one com-
plete cycle of bending, yet it withstood half a million such bends. It is clear that

COMPLEX STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING MATERIALS. 411

this line of reasoning must be seriously at fault. Alteration of the mechanical
properties of the wire, such as raising the yield-point stress, can hardly be assumed,
because load-extension diagrams for the wire, taken on a specially built machine,
showed little difference between wire when it was new and after it had been bent
over a pulley many times.

The usual wrapping test for wire demands that it shall be closely wound round
itself and be re-straightened without failure. If the radial diameter is unchanged
the wire must elongate on the outside and shorten on the inside 50 per cent. lf a
bar of steel be taken large enough to be marked off by circumferential lines and others

8
oe
:
~~
:

+0:007— O0048
< Strain in bent | Strain in bent wire = Strain in restraighlened
wire under no tension. at 50/bs tension wire under 5O0/bs ténsion.
Fig. 24

parallel to the axis, after it is bent it can be seen that changes of length of this order
actually occur, but the percentage elongation at fracture of such steel in tension
is probably about sixteen times that of this wire, for which the value is about 1-6.

In a recent paper (Lngineering, June 15, 1923) Sir Alex. Kennedy shows that
when metals are tested by bending to yield the calculated stresses are greater than
those obtained from tension tests, particularly when the region of maximum stress
is reduced. He offers alternative suggestions, either that the maximum stress under
bending actually exceeds the tenacity of the material, or that the accepted formule
must be radically modified to allow for an altogether different distribution of stress
intensity.

The further results given here appear to indicate that the boundary of an
unexplored region has been reached, that in which the,strains vary from point to
point, and are not entirely elastic.

412 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—/nterim Report
of Committee (Professor J. L. Myres, Chairman; Mr. Haroup
PEAKE, Secretary; Mr. Lestim ArRMsTrRoNG, Dr. G. A. AUDEN,
Mr. H. Baurour. Mr. L. H. D. Buxton, Mr. O. G. §. CRawFrorp,
Sir W. Boyp Dawexins, Professor H. J. Fureurz, Mr. G. A.
GarrFitT, Professor Sir W. RmpcEway).

Tuer Committee has had throughout the assistance of Dr. H. 8. Harrison, representing
the Royal Anthropological Institute, and Lord Abercromby, representing the Society
of Antiquaries of Scotland.

The Committee’s draughtsman, Mr. C. H. Howell, was ill for several months and
unable to work, and the number of cards completed during the year is proportionately
less. On the other hand the amount of voluntary assistance received has been con-
siderable, for many Curators of Museums have made sketches of implements in their
keeping or arranged for someone to do so ; others have forwarded their specimens to
the Secretary. In cases where this could not be arranged, Mr. Graham Gordon has
visited Museums for this purpose, and some further paid work has been arranged for
elsewhere. But the vast majority of such work has been performed by voluntary
helpers, and much of this is still in progress.

The number of cards completed on July 14 was 6,570, and the number of sketches
completed but not yet copied was 795; most of these will have been copied on cards
by the end of September, by which date several hundred more may be expected.

All the Museums in England and Wales have been dealt with except 17, and in the
case of 11 of these the work is in progress or has been promised. Besides the latter,
which contain an estimated number of 1,450 implements, there remain five Museums,
with an estimated number of 900 implements, and about 800 specimens in the British
Museum. To these must be added implements in private collections estimated at
425, bringing up the total number outstanding in England and Wales to 3,575. There
are about 1,000 still to be done in Scotland.

These figures are necessarily tentative, as it has been found impossible in many
cases to ascertain the exact numbers, and fresh specimens, sometimes in considerable
numbers, are acquired each year; new and unexpected private collections are also
coming to light.

It will take at least another year to complete the work in England and Wales,
and this work cannot be completed by Michaelmas 1924, unless an extra expert
draughtsman be employed to draw on cards the remaining specimens in the British
Museum, and paid workers be employed to make sketches in the five other Museums
not yet arranged for. The total cost of this, including travelling and administrative
expenses, is estimated at not less than 315/. from July 14, 1923, to September 30, 1924,
of which the sum of about 55/. is in hand, leaving a balance of about 260!. to be found.

The following sums have been received :— roa rh
The British Association . : : - 100 0 0
The Society of Antiquaries : ; ; 5 0 0
The Lord Abercromby . : ‘ : 10 0 0
R. Vernon Favell, Esq. . , 5 F 10 0 0
Richard F. Nicholson, Esq. F 3 . 10 0 0
The Earl Iveagh : : 3 : 5.0 0
Robert Mond, Esq. . 5 0 0
A. C. R. Carter, Esq. : PAS A)
George Cadbury, Esq., Junr. ZOO
Parker Brewis, Esq. 2 10 0
The Lord Leverhulme . I yaad I
Thomas G. Barnett, Esq. . 110
James Boothe, Esq. . 1 58°
Henry R. Beeton, Esq. Los Lak
J. Reid Moir, Esq. Peer
Frank R. East, Esq. 010 6

156 17 6
Balance brought forward : 42 8 2
Total receipts = 5 - 199 5 8

BRONZE AGE IMPLEMENTS—ROMAN SITES IN BRITAIN. 4138

The expenditure has been :—

C. H. Howell, salary ‘ fi F 96 10 0
G. Gordon, daywork é ; ? . 16 0 0
C. G. Whitlock, piecework : : ; Bone) ill
O. Kew, piecework ~ : : : 0 8 3
—— £116 1 3
C. H. Howell, expenses. - A : 6clbe
G. Gordon, expenses is ; 5 Or lorea
—. 1610 9
Globe-Wernicke Co., cards 3 : : 819 0
A. Chivers, boxes . ; C 4 : L6G 0
Cheque-book . : : : 4 0 4 2
a 1019 2
Total expenditure ; : . = £143 11 2
Total receipts . . : é . oy LOO” coe

Total expenditure . . . . - 143 11 2

Balance, July 14,1923 . P A ms SOD, 14) 1G

Committee to co-operate with Local Committees in
Excavations on Roman Sites in Britain.—Sir W. Rince-
way, Chairman; Mr. Haroup Praker, Secretary; Dr. T. Asupsy,
Mr. Wi.toucusy GarDNER, Professor J. L. Myrzs.

OwineG to the high cost of labour, excavations were again suspended during
1921 in the Dinorben Hil! Fort, which was being examined by the Abergele
Antiquarian Association, the Cambrian Archeological Association, and the
Board of Celtic Studies in co-operation with this Committee.
Work was continued by Mr. Willoughby Gardner upon the site during 1922,
but too late to bring before the Hull Meeting; his Report is now presented.
The Committee asks to be re-appointed.

Abstract of Report on Further Excavations in Dinorben, the Ancient Hill Fort in
Parch-y-Meirch Wood, Kinmel Park, Abergele, N. Wales, during 1922.

By WitLoucusy GAarvner, 1.8. A.

The exploration of this native hill-fort (see Reports of the British Associa-
tion, 1912, 1913, 1915 and 1920) was continued during a period of five weeks
in 1922. The principal objective was to endeavour to reach and to uncover
the remains of the earliest hill-fort erected upon the site, but now buried deep
beneath the accumulated ramparts of three later constructions. These remains
have now been excavated in five different sections, proving that the defences
of the first hill-fort consisted of a stone-faced rampart with a rock-cut ditch
in front, and, at one point on the south-west side, a second similar ditch. In
the first section cut the rampart was found to be completely thrown down
into the ditch; in the second, its ruined wall face stood from one to three feet
high; in the third, it stood four feet high, showing reparations, and in the
fourth and fifth, one course of stones only remained; in every case the ditch
in front was filled with the stones and earth forcibly thrown down from the
ramparts behind.

Untortunately, the relics found in connection with this earliest fort were
few, and consisted principally of such undatable objects as broken bones
of animals consumed for food, boiling pebbles, pounding stones, charcoal, and
several sawn antler picks; but on the berm, between the ruined wall and the
_ ditch, an iron axe-head was unearthed of a native type current in Britain

414 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

during the centuries immediately before and subsequent to a.D. In the hope
of finding something more datable, two stretches, thirty-five and forty feet long
respectively, of the ditches belonging to this first hill-fort were completely
emptied, but without better success.

In a section cut immediately west of the south-east entrance, a new feature
was revealed in a half-moon, bastion-like projection of the wall belonging to
the hill-fort of the second period; this was built against the ruins of the
wall of the first hill-fort and curved round to fcrm a previously undiscovered
sidewall of an entrance also belonging to the second period. Four roadways
had already been found in this main entrance of the hill-fort, three super-
incumbent and one a few yards to the east. But definite ruined sidewalls
belonging to three only of these roadways had been previously discovered.
Now, the existence of four consecutive main entrances is proved by ruined
sidewalls as well as by roadways.

Further patches in the interior area of the hill-fort were also excavated.
Here many relics belonging to the last occupation were unearthed, similar to
those previously described; also, on the same horizon, for the first time upon
the site, several pieces of native hand-made pottery, showing that this rude ware
continued to be made here after the importation of the better Romano-British
vessels.

To sum up the results of the excavations made in this hill-fort during five
seasons. They show that—

1. There were dwellers upon this hilltop before its fortification, as proved
by relics found.

2. There were four successive hill-forts built by the natives upon the hill-
top, the ruins of which have been brought to light.

3. Each of these four hill-forts in turn suffered attack and forcible destruc-
tion from the hands of an enemy.

4, The first hill-fort was defended by a stone-faced rampart with a deep
ditch cut in the rock some ten feet in front of it. Its destruction was shown
by relics to be during the later Iron Age, and it was so complete that one
can hardly doubt that it was the work of Roman legicnaries invading the
district. ‘The remarkable Late-Celtic bronze horse-trappings found with quan-
tities of human bones at the foot of the precipice at the west side of the hill-fort
would seem to synchronise with this.

5. The native builders of the second hill-fort constructed oblong guard
houses at the main entrance. This apparently points to an acquired knowledge
by this time of Roman methods.

6. The second and also the third construction at Dinorben, like the
neighbouring hill-fort at Pen-y-Corddyn, were apparently occupied for short
periods only, as shown by the small amount of silting found at the bottom of
the ditches and by the paucity of relics left behind by the occupiers.

7. The destructions of both the second and third hill-forts occurred before
peaceful trading relations between the natives of this district and the Romans
were established, as shown by the absence of Roman objects in the layers of
occupation of these periods, so far as they have been uncovered.

8. The natives returned in numbers to the hilltop later; they refortified
themselves there and occupied the stronghold continuously during the third
and fourth centuries a.p. During this period they traded extensively with the
Romans.

9. Apparently about the close of the fourth century the stronghold met
with its final destruction, probably at the hands of Irish and other raiders
from overseas.

ne 1 eee

ON LAKE VILLAGES IN SOMERSET. 415

Lake Villages in Somerset. — Report of Committee-(Sir W.
Boyp Dawkins, Chairman; Mr. WinLoucusy GARDNER, Secretary ;
Mr. H. Baurour, Mr. A. Bunurip, Mr. F. S. Patmer, Mr. H. J. E.
PEAKE) appointed to investigate the Lake Villages in the neigh-
bourhood of Glastonbury in connection with a Committee of the
Somerset Archeological and Natural History Society.

Tue Committee for exploring the Lake Villages in Somerset beg to report that
the excavations were reopened on Monday, August 28, 1922, under the direction
of Messrs. Bulleid and H. St. George Gray, and were continued for two weeks.

The Meare Lake Village consists of two distinct groups of mounds, extending
over portions of six pasture fields and estimated roughly to consist of one
hundred dwellings. The field in which the excavations were carried on is one
of four occupied by the western group of mounds, and the ground opened up
was directly continuous with that explored in 1921.

The following dwelling mounds were examined :—

Mound XXI, a large and important dwelling site, partly explored in 1921,
was completed, and about one-half of Mounds XXIV, XXVI, and XXNXIiY.
Mound XXI consisted of three, superimposed clay floors supported by a well-
arranged timber foundation, the lowest layer of which was 7 feet below the
surface.

Mound XXVI consisted of five superimposed floors supported by a founda-
tion of timber and brushwood ; the total thickness of-clay near the centre of the
dwelling measured 6 feet. The hearths, central posts, and other structural
features were of much interest and will be described in detail in the final
description of the village.

Among the smaller objects of interest discovered the following may be
mentioned :—

Bronze.—A few fragments of bronze and one fibula of La Tene III type.

Tin and Lead.—Flat ring of tin, diam. 35 mm. Piece of lead ore.

Tron.—Parts of a sickle and of a knife; awl of round section at one end.
square at the other.

Crucibles.—Large crucible, highly coloured, and parts of other crucibles.

Glass.—Three ring-beads of opaque yellow paste, and another bead of pale
blue glass.

Kimmeridge Shale.—Parts of five plain armlets, and a bead (diam. 18 mm.).

Antler.—T wo weaving combs and parts of two others; several pieces of sawn
red-deer antler and one piece of roe-deer antler.

Bone.—leven worked and perforated scapule of ox and horse; perforated
tarsal bones of sheep; and a modelling tool.

Pottery.—In some quantity, including a large number of parts of pots finely
ornamented.

Spindlewhorls.—Three stone spindlewhorls.

(Juerns.—Parts of a few saddle querns; also some whetstones.

Flint.—Five scrapers and a knife.

Human Remains.—Parts of a child’s skull found in the foundation.

Cereals.—This season we came across, especially in Mounds XXIV and
XXXIX, Floor I, a quantity of grains of barley and also a few oat grains.
These cereals are proving of considerable interest and are being examined by
Prof: R. H. Biffen, of the School of Agriculture, Cambridge.

416 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Progress of Anthropological Teaching.—Tirst Report of Com-
mittee (Dr. A. C. Happon, Chairman; Professor J. L. Myrgs,
Secretary; Professor H. J. Funure, Dr. R. R. Marerr, Professor
C. C. SELiemay).

‘'ars Committee was appointed at the Hull Meeting, 1923, ‘to report on the
progress of anthropological teaching in the present century.’ The materials
collected by a former Committee of the Association (which reported at the
Cambridge Meeting, 1904) have been placed at its disposal, and will be incor-
porated in its eventual retrospect. Some progress has been made in collecting
the required information from institutions in the Dominions and in foreign
countries; but in compliance with a request from the Royal Anthropological
Institute’s Joint Committee on Teaching and Research for a summary of the
present facilities offered by British institutions, this section of the report, which
was already practically ready, has been completed and submitted in advance
of the rest. It is hoped that it may be of use to research students as a guide
to the principal collections of material and centres of anthropological study.

Provision for Anthropological Teaching and Research in Universities
and other Institutions in Great Britain.

This information is presented in alphabetical order of the principal centres
of study in England, Wales, and Scotland. No answers have been received to
any inquiries addressed to similar institutions in Ireland.

England and Wales.

Bristol—The University has a small collection of representative crania and
casts. The archeological and ethnological collections of the Bristol Museum,
adjacent to the University, are open to research students, by permission of the
Director. The library is open to registered students and, by permission of the
Librarian, to others, and there is ample accommodation for research students.

The Professor of Anatomy, Dr. E. Fawcett, gives instruction in Physical
Anthropology, which is included in the curriculum for the degree of B.Sc. in
Human Morphology. There is an independent Department of Geography under
a Lecturer, and the Bristol Museum has a Curator of Ethnological Collections.

The Bristol Speleological Society conducts explorations and assists students
in their fieldwork.

Cambridge.—The University has important collections in Physical Anthro-
pology, Ethnography (especially those of the Torres Straits Expedition), and ©
Archeology (especially Jocal and other British antiquities), There is laboratory —
accommodation for research students in all branches of anthropology, and
students are admitted to departmental libraries on the same terms as to the
University Library.

Besides the Professor of Human Anatomy, Dr. J.T. Wilson, there is a ~
Reader in Human Anatomy, Dr. W. H. L. Duckworth, who gives anthropo-
logical instruction; a Reader in Ethnology, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S.; and the ©
Disney Professor of Archeology, Sir W. Ridgeway, F.B.A., gives instruction ~
in prehistoric archeology. ‘here are also ‘recognised lectures’ in Cultural —
Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology, and the Bronze and Early Iron
Ages; and there is an independent Department of Geography, under a Reader.

A Board of Archeological and Anthropological Studies is generally responsible
for teaching and research in these subjects, which qualify for the degree of
B.A. (in the Second Part of the Tripos), for the degrees of Ph.D. and M.S8c.,_
and for a Diploma, according to the length and nature of the course.

The Cambridge Antiquarian Society has records of local finds, and assists —
students in regional surveys and other fieldwork.

Durham.—The University has no anthropological collections, except a few
skulls of different races in the College of Medicine, which is at Newcastle-
on-Tyne. a

The Professor of Philosophy, Dr. F. B. Jevons, gives instruction in Social
Anthropology, which is an optional subject (under the head of Comparative —
Science of Religion) for the degree of B.A.

ON PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL TEACHING. 417

Hxeter.—The Royal Albert Memorial University College for the West of
England has no collections, but utilises those of the City Museum, which is
established in the same building.

There is no course in Anthropology, but instruction in human distributions
is given as required in the Department of Geography.

Liverpool.—The University has the following collections : in its museums of
Zoology and Anatomy, collections of skulls and other material; in the Museum
of Zoology, ethnographical collections from the Malay States; in the Museum
of Geology, a collection of prehistoric implements; in the Museum of Public
Health, illustrations of Roman drainage systems ; in the Institute of Archeology,
Classical, Egyptian, and Central American antiquities. The Museum of the
City of Liverpool has the Mayer Collection of Egyptian and other antiquities,
and large ethnographic collections from West Africa and elsewhere.

There is laboratory accommodation for research students in all the depart-
ments to which anthropological studies are related. Students who are not

_members of the University may be recommended for admission to the depart-
mental libraries.

Instruction is given in Physical Anthropology by the Lecturer, Dr. W. H.
Broad ; there is also a Lecturer in Palxontology, Mr. E. Neverson, M.Sc.

There is no Department of Ethnography, but an Honorary Lecturer, Dr.
H. W. Williams, gives instruction in the Ethnography of the Russian Empire.
At the University Institute of Archrology courses of lectures are given in
Classical Archeology by Professor J. P. Droop; in Egyptology and Assyriology
by Professor T. E. Peet; and in the methods and practice of Archeology by
Professor J. Garstang (who is also Director of the British School of Archeology

_ {in Jerusalem). There are also non-resident Readers in Egyptian Art (Professor
P. HE. Newberry), Medieval Archeology,(Dr. F. P. Barnard), and Lecturers
in Central American Archeology (Dr. 'T. W. F. Gann) and Numismatics (Mr.
J. G. Milne. There is a fully equipped Department of Geography, under
Professor P. M. Roxby.

Archeology may be offered as a subject in the course for the degree of
B.A., and in the Honour School of Ancient History, and is an approved depart-
ment for research for the degree of Ph.D. The University also gives a Diploma
and Certificate in Archeology.

__ London.—The multiplicity of provision for teaching and research of all
kinds makes it necessary to reclassify the information received from each
institution under the principal divisions of the subject.

___ Physical Anthropology.—The Royal College of Surgeons has a large collection
of skulls, skeletons, brains, and in some cases dissections, representing all races
and the people of all countries; it contains about 5,000 specimens, numerous
remains of ancient man and (in rare cases) of his handiwork. There is accom-
“modation for research students in the Museum itself and its workrooms.
Students are admitted to the Library on the recommendation of a member or a
Fellow of the College. A research worker endowed by the Department of
Scientific and Industrial Research is preparing a new catalogue of the Anthropo-
logical collection. No formal teaching is given.

__ University College has collections of material in the Edwards Library of
Egyptology, in the Galton Laboratory of Eugenics, and in the Rockefeller
Institute. All these have departmental libraries and laboratory accommodation
for research students. Instruction is given by the Professor of Anatomy, Dr.
G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S.; by the Professor of Eugenics, Dr. Karl Pearson,
.R.S.; and by their demonstrators.

King’s College has anthropological material in its Department of Anatomy,
nd laboratory accommodation for research students. Instruction is given by
the Professor of Anatomy, Dr. E. Barclay-Smith, and the Reader in Anthro-
pology and Morphology, Mr. R. J. Gladstone.

The Francis Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics is especially designed
for the statistical study of man’s heredity, mentality, physique, and capacities
mn the race or mass. It has about 5,000 crania of various races, nearly 700
eletons, casts of the chief paleolithic finds. paleolithic reconstructions, and a
considerable collection of flint implements. There is laboratory accommodation
for 12-18 research students, but as a rule only a few research workers are
occupied with anthropology. There is a studentship for anthropometry and

i 2

418 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

craniometry. The library contains most of the foreign transactions and
journals on anthropology, and memoirs on anthropometry and craniometry.
In the anthropometric laboratory, which is one of the most complete of its
kind, physical, mental, and medical measurements are made under a special
medical officer. In anthropometry and craniometry provision is only made for
graduate workers; but undergraduate students of anthropometry are admitted
occasionally, and a complete course of anthropometry could easily be organised
if there were any demand for it.

The Natural History Department of the British Museum, in South
Kensington, has important collections of early remains of man and associated
handiwork, as well as of typical modern crania; research students may be
permitted to use the Departmental Library and workrooms.

Ethnography and Archwology.—The national collections of ethnographical
and archeological material and literature are in the British Museum, in Blooms-
bury. The India Museum at South Kensington and the Horniman Museum
have considerable ethnographic and archeological collections.

University College has a collection of Egyptian antiquities in the Edwards
Library, but in view of the proximity of the British Museum in Bloomsbury,
this and other collections of anthropological material at University College are
intended for teaching and demonstration rather than for comprehensive study.
Instruction is given in Egyptology by the Edwards Professor, Sir Flinders
Petrie, F.R.S., and by the Senior Lecturer, Miss M. A. Murray; in Archeology
by the Yates Professor, Dr. E. A. Gardner, and by the Lecturer in Comparative
Art, Mr. H. G. Spearing. The Department of Economic Geography has
occasional courses in general ethnography.

King’s College has special libraries and research material for Slavonic coun-
tries, Spanish-speaking regions, and medieval and modern Greece.

The School of Oriental Studies at the London Institution is mainly con-
cerned with languages and literatures, but has a general library and a small
collection of anthropological photographs. In the examination for the Diploma
in Bantu Languages a paper is set on Anthropology and Ethnology.

The London School of Economics and Political Science has a considerable
teaching collection of ethnographical specimens, casts, photographs, and lantern
slides. The Professor of Ethnology in the University, Dr. C. G. Seligman,
F.R.S., gives instruction at the School in Ethnography, including Technology ;
and Mr. T. A. Joyce gives instruction in Ethnography at the School and
demonstrations in the British Museum. Professor Seligman also lectures on
European Prehistory, and gives special courses on Human Geography, intended
for teachers. Laboratory accommodation is not provided, but there are rooms
for research students, and the General Library of the School is open to students
duly recommended.

Social Anthropology.—University College has a Reader in Cultural Anthro-
pology, Mr. W. J. Perry; and instruction is also given in special aspects of
the subject by the Quain Professor of Comparative Law, Mr. J. E. G. de
Montmorency, and by Miss M. A. Murray in the Department of Egyptology.

The Martin White Professors of Sociology, Dr. L. T. Hobhouse and Dr. E.
Westermarck, and the Reader in Social Anthropology, Dr. B. Malinowski, give
instruction at the London School of Economics; the courses of the Professor |
of Ethnography include instruction in fieldwork, intended for officials, |
missionaries, and others going among primitive and barbarous peoples. At the |
Imperial Institute special courses in Ethnology form part of the Tropical |
Services course for officers of the African Civil Service.

Besides the Libraries of the British Museum and the constituent Colleges of
the University, of the India Office, Colonial Office, and other Government
Departments, and of learned Societies such as the Royal Anthropological Insti-
tute, the Royal Colonial Institute. the Royal Asiatic and Royal Geographical
Societies, the Folk-Lore Society, Japan Society, and the like (which are open
to students duly recommended, as well as to their own members or Fellows).
there is much valuable material in the Library of the London School of
Economics and Political Science. which includes a special section for Social
Anthropology, open to recommended students. At Leplay House (65 Belgrave |
Road, Westminster) there is, in addition to the library of the Sociological”
Society, a collection of material for regional surveys of present-day communities, —
and the Department of Surveys contemplates the training of survey workers.

ON PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL TEACHING. 419

Academic Status of Anthropology and General Facilities for Study and
Research.—In_ the University of London, Anthropology may be offered in
Honours and Pass Examinations for the degrees of B.A. and B.Sc., and as an
optional subject in the B.A. Honours course in Geography; it is recognised as
a subject for the degrees of M.A., M.Sc., D.Litt., D.Sc., and Ph.D., for the
Diploma of Psychology, and for the College Certificate in Egyptology. An
attempt is now being made by the constituent Colleges to make full provision
for teaching and research in all departments of Anthropology. The Royal
Anthropological Institute, on the invitation of the British Association and other
bodies interested in anthropological studies, has established a joint committee,
on which such bodies are entitled to be represented, with the object of ensuring
to students from the Dominions and foreign countries all needful facilities for
their researches, and information as to material available in public archives
and in private collections.

Manchester.—The Victoria University has a small collection of typical crania,

a large collection illustrating the arts and crafts of primitive peoples, and

_ important Egyptian material. Laboratory accommodation can be provided for

research students, but there is no Department of Anthropology, nor recognised

teachers; occasional courses of lectures are given, however, on some branches
of the subject.

Nottingham.—The University College has a working collection of human
osteology and of stone implements. The Professor of Geology, Dr. H. H.
Swinnerton, and the Lecturer in Physiology, Miss H. J. Hutchinson, give
instruction on Physical Anthropology, and the Lecturer in Geography, Mr.
C. G. Beasley, in Ethnography and Social Anthropology. The Distribution of

_ Man is a subject in the Honours Course in Geography for the degree of B.A.

Oxford.—The University has important collections of Physical Anthropology,
in its Department of Human Anatomy; of ethnographical material, in the Pitt-
Rivers Museum and the Indian Institute; and of the antiquities of the Mediter-
ranean and ancient East and of the Oxford district, in the Ashmolean Museum.
There is laboratory accommodation for research students in the Departments
of Human Anatomy and Social Anthropology. The Bodleian and Radcliffe
Libraries, the Tylor Library of Anthropology, and the departmental libraries
of the Ashmolean, Pitt-Rivers Museum, and School of Geography are open to
members of the University and to other students duly recommended.

Research students desiring facilities for their work, or information on the
subject of it, should communicate with the Secretary of the Committee for
Anthropology.

_ Regular courses are announced in Physical Anthropology by the Professor
of Anatomy, Dr. A. Thomson, and by the Lecturer in Physical Anthropology,
‘Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton; in Ethnography, by the Curator of the Pitt-Rivers
Museum, Mr. Henry Balfour; in Prehistoric Archeology, by Mr. E. T. Leeds,
Assistant Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum; and in Social Anthropology, by
the Reader, Dr. R. R. Marett. Informal instruction is given and occasional
public courses are offered on the anthropological aspects of their respective
subjects by University teachers of Geology, Geography, Ancient History, Juris-
prudence, Prehistoric and Classical Archeology, Egyptology, Assyriology, and
the principal Oriental languages. These are announced in the terminal pro-
grammes of the Committee for Anthropology, and in the lecture lists of the
Faculties of Literee Humaniores, Law, Oriental"Languages, and Natural Science.
The Oxford Architectural and Historical Society has its library and records
in the Ashmolean Museum, and assists students in regional survey work.

_ There is no Honour Course in Anthropology for the degree of B.A., but the
Diploma in Anthropology is awarded on courses of study of at least one year,
and this Diploma is reckoned as equivalent to two of the three subjects reyaired
for the ordinary degree; the third subject must be one of the languages pre-
scribed by regulations. Separate Certificates are awarded for proficiency in
Physical and in Cultural Anthropology (Technological or Social), each equivalent
to one such subject for the degree of B.A. Anthropological research is
admissible for the degrees of B.Litt., B.Se., and Ph.D.

Special provision has been made from time to time for officers of the
public services who have been sent by the Colonial Office for short courses of

420 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF{SCIENCE, ETC.

anthropological study, and for candidates and probationers of the Indian Civil
Service.

Sheffield.—The University has a type collection of crania and skeletons, and
there is archeological material in the City Museum. There is laboratory
accommodation for research students. There is no teacher of Anthropology,
but the Professor of Anatomy, Dr. C. J. Patten, gives instruction in Physical

Anthropology as required, and there is a fully equipped Department of
Geography.

Wales.—In the University of Wales, Anthropology is an important part of
the Honours Course in Geography for the degree ot B.A., and is a recognised
subject of research for the post-graduate diploma in Geography and for the
degrees of M.A. and M.Sc.

The University College at Aberystwyth has a teaching collection of Physical
Anthropology, Ethnography and Archeology, and a special library for Ethno-
graphy and Anthropology in the Department of Geography. Instruction is
given by the Professor of Geography and Anthropology, Dr. H. J. Fleure;
special attention is given to anthropological surveys and other regional work,
with the help of graduate students in various parts of Wales; and important
correlation-data are already available in the School of Geography for the use
of qualified students. Training is given in excavation and other branches of
fieldwork.

The University College at Cardiff has a teaching collection for Physical
Anthropology, and the departmental Library of Anatomy is open to qualified
students. ‘he Professor of Anatomy and Anthropology, Dr. D. Hepburn,
C.M.G., F.R.S.E., gives instruction in Physical Anthropology, which is a
compulsory subject for students of Medicine in the course for the degree of
B.Sc. There is no recognised teacher in other branches of Anthropology, but
lectures and instruction in Archeology are given as required by Dr. E. R. M.
Wheeler, of the National Museum of Wales.

Scotland.

Aberdeen.—The University of Aberdeen has Museums of Anatomy and
Anthropology and an Anthropometric Laboratory. There is an illustrated cata-
logue of the anthropological and archeological collections (1912, price 1s.), with
a supplementary catalogue of the ethnographical collections of Sir William
Macgregor. The Library is open to students. The Professor of Anatomy,
Dr. R. W. Reid, F.R.'S., gives instruction in Physical Anthropology, which is
a subject qualifying for the degree of B.Sc. There is no special teacher of
Ethnography, Archxology, or Social Anthropology, but lectures are given on
Greek Sculpture and the History of Architecture. These subjects qualify for
graduation in Arts (M.A.). ;

A Students’ Anatomical and Anthropological Society, founded in 1899, meets
at least once a month during the winter session for discussions and for addresses
by experts in these subjects.

St. Andrews.—The University of St. Andrews has a small collection of
crania, fairly representative. The library is open to matriculated students and
research workers. There is laboratory accommodation for research students in
Physical Anthropology, which is included in the Department of Anatomy. The
Professor of Anatomy, Dr. D. Waterston, F.R.S.E., gives instruction in Physical
Anthropology, which may be taken as part of the course for the degrees of
M.A. and B.Sc.

There are no collections or courses of instruction in other branches of
Anthropology. :

Edinburgh.—The University of Edinburgh has a collection of over 1,900

grania (of which 298 are Australian) and a large number of other bones of various.

races. The departmental Library of Anatomy is used as a research room and is
fully equipped; it is open to all students who wish to do research. ‘
The Professor of Anatomy, Dr. A. Robinson, gives instruction in Physical
Anthropology, which is a subject qualifying for the degree of B.Sc.
The University has no collections or systematic teaching in other branches

Ee ae

.
ON OENOTHERA, ETC. 421

of Anthropology, but the Munro Lecturer gives ten lectures each year on
Anthropology or Prehistoric Archeology.

The Royal Scottish Museum and the Scottish National Museum of Antiquities
have important collections of Scottish and other antiquities, and the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons a large collection of anatomical material.

Glasgow.—The University has a fair teaching collection for Physical Anthro-
pology with about 300 skulls, representing most of the racial groups. The
Hunterian Museum contains the considerable Turner collection of ethno-
graphical material from the South Seas; a representative collection of Scottish
antiquities, prehistoric and Roman; an important collection of ancient coins,
and other classical and Egyptian material. The Library is open to matriculated
students, and research students also may be admitted. Laboratory accommoda-
tion for research students is provided as required.

The Professor of Anatomy, Dr. T. H. Bryce, F.R.S., gives instruction in
Physical Anthropology, and the Hon. Curator of the archeological and ethno-
graphical collections of the Hunterian Museum. There is an independent
Department of Geography, under a Lecturer; and instruction in Classical
Archeology is given in the Departments of Greek and Latin.

Except in Physical Anthropology, no ordinary degree or diploma of the
University includes anthropological studies; but a research student may
present a thesis in any branch of Anthropology for the degree of Ph.D. after
three years’ research in the University or in a College affiliated thereto.

Oenothera, &c.— Final Report of Committee (Dr. A. B. Renpxe,
Chairman; Prof. R. R. Gates, Secretary; Prof. W. Bateson,
Dr. W. Brieruey, Prof. O. V. DarpisHire, Dr. M. C. Rayner)
appointed to continue Breeding Experiments on Oenothera and
other Genera.

Correlated cytological and genetical experiments with a number of genera
have been continued at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Regent’s Park, during the
past year. These genera include Oenothera, Celosia, Lathyrus, Brassica, Tiarella,
and Lactuca. In Celosia the inheritance of several colour varieties and of
fasciation is being studied. In Lathyrus the investigations include a cytological
study of the pollen development, with particular reference to (a) the dominance
of long pollen; (b) the inheritance of pollen sterility; (c) the cytological basis
of crossing over. With wild cabbages a study is being made of the variability,
the effects of cultivation, and the self-sterility. In Viarella cordifolia, a form
with orange anthers is found to be usually almost wholly sterile in its pollen, and
the ovules are also often imperfectly formed. Further studies of this condition
are being made. Numerous species of Lactuca are being grown for a com-
parative study of their chromosomes and external characters.

In the Oenotheras, which probably show more genetic and _ cytological
peculiarities than any other groups of organisms, a number of problems have
reached definite conclusions which link up their behaviour in various ways with
the more usual Mendelian inheritance. In a paper on present problems of
Oenothera research which is now in the press in the Mendei Memorial Volume of
the Prague Celebration, it is pointed out that the differences between the twin
hybrids frequently obtained in crosses are probably all determined by a single
pair of chromosomes. Much of the differentiation of the group appears to have
been concerned with this pair. The well-known gametic and zygotic sterility
of this group can also be accounted for, as well as the persistent heterozygous
condition of the species, by the presence of a pair of zygotic lethal factors and
a pair of gametic lethal factors in different pairs of chromosomes. This obviates
the necessity for assuming that crossing-over occurs, a hypothesis for which
there is no cytological basis in Oenothera, although there is evidence of such a
process in Lactuca. The usual presence of 50 per cent. of empty seeds and
functionless pollen and megaspores can thus be explained by the presence of
lethal factors arising, as in Drosophila, through mutations. The presence of

422 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

these conditions of sterility is thus not necessarily a proof of crossing in the
ancestry. It is at least equally reasonable to suppose that the persistently
heterozygous condition which is characteristic of various Oenothera species,
including some of the small-flowered self-pollinating forms, has resulted from
the development of lethai factors by mutation.

A study has been made of the reduction divisions in Oenothera rubricalyx
x Oe. gigas. The behaviour of the chromosomes in this triploid hybrid explains
the origin of the wide range of chromosome numbers found in the offspring of
such hybrids. This paper is now in the press in the Annals of Botany, as well as
another on ‘The Trisomic Mutations of Oenothera.’ In the latter paper a new
mutation with fifteen chromosomes is investigated, and the numerous forms
having an extra chromosome are discussed. An explanation of their origin,
their peculiar genetic behaviour, and their unique relationships to each other,
is put forward, based on the behaviour of the chromosomes. The fact that
certain forms with fifteen chromosomes can give rise to others with the same
number, and that certain of these may in turn give rise to the first, can be
explained by double non-disjunction. This behaviour, as well as other facts,
such as the paucity of Mendelian mutations, leads to the view that the chromo-
somes of Oenothera are probably less highly differentiated from each other than
in some other organisms.

A study of the inheritance of petal-size in four generations of an Oenothera
hybrid (‘ A peculiar type of variability in plants,’ Journ. of Genetics, 13, 13-45,
fig. 24) shows a new type of behaviour, which is in some respects intermediate
between Mendelian inheritance and fluctuation. Fixed size units are apparently
not involved, various irregular sizes of petals being obtained on the same plant
and even in the same flower. It is suggested that these size differences may
be determined in part by the cytoplasm rather than the nucleus, which would
account fer the irregularity in their behaviour. A general explanation of the
size inheritance of repeated parts is offered as an alternative to the current
hypothesis of multiple size factors.

A number of apparently unrelated cytological and genetical features of
Oenothera behaviour are thus being brought under one co-ordinated point of
view, and the innumerable complexities of Oenothera genetics are being explained
hy hypotheses which apply also to other genera of plants and animals. The
Committee do not seek reappointment, as other sources of funds are found to
be sufficient for present purposes.

Training in Citizenship. — Report of Committee (Right Rev.
Bishop Wetupon, D.D., Chairman; Lady Suaw, Secretary; Mr.
C. H. Buaxiston, Mr. G. D. Dunkerury, Mr. W. D. Eaaar,
Dr. J. C. Maxweii Garnett, C.B.E., Sir Ricnarp GreEcory,
Mr. Spurtey Hey, Miss E. P. Hucnes, LL.D., Sir THEoporn
Morison).

Tur Committee have met twice during the current year, and beg leave to report
that they have now completed the work for which they were originally appointed.

Considerable interest has been aroused throughout the country, and many
experiments are being tried with the object of fitting persons of all ages for
the performance of their duties as good citizens at home and abroad.

The Committee desire to emphasise the opinion that training in citizenship
depends as much upon environment and example as upon positive teaching. It
is in the atmosphere created by the teacher that the spirit of citizenship is
born and flourishes. The Committee express their sympathy with those teachers
who are suffering disabilities, but deprecate unconstitutional methods in the
search for remedies. The Committee therefore urge the necessity for greater
care in the appointment of educational authorities and the choice of persons to:
serve in the schools.

The work among adults and in the higher classes of the schools is of para-
mount importance in the direct teaching of civics, and the Committee would!

ON TRAINING IN CITIZENSHIP. 4.23

urge this upon all associations which are formed for the instruction or recreation
of the people. The formation of local parliaments, showing the practical work
of the Government in the discussion and promotion of the laws, would be of
inestimable value in the constituencies. Such parliaments could, by admitting
the public as audience to their deliberations, demonstrate to the electors their
individual responsibility for the framing of laws and for the observance of due
decorum in public discussions.

_ The associations for young people—Scouts, Guides, Brigades of all denomina-
tions, Clubs—are invaluable; but a word of caution may be uttered against these
institutions militating in any way against the home duties of the young citizens.
Home life is the bedrock of civilisation ; with adequate housing home life should
reach a standard at present unattainable.

The Committee beg leave to lay a record of the year’s work before the
Education Section.

During the year 1,000 copies of the Committee's Report were presented at
Hull, and 1,500 circulars advertising this and the two Reports already in
circulation have been obtained; 1,335 circulars have been distributed and 165
sold. Three hundred and thirteen of the 1920 Report, 286 of the 1921 Report,
and 239 of the 1922 Report have been sold. The sum realised by the sales is
21. 8s. 11d.

At the Hull meeting a sum of 71. 1s. 9d., the proceeds of the two years’
sales of Reports, was handed to the British Association, and 50/. of this was
granted to the Committee for the current year’s expenses. A statement of
accounts shows that 15/. Os. 8d. has been spent, leaving 34/. 19s. 4d. With
the amount realised by sales the balance in the bank is 56/. 18s. 4d. The
Committee ask permission to use this balance, or such part of it as may be
needed, in the preparation of an anthology illustrating the evolution and literary
expression of the dominant ideas of citizenship in the course of the history of
civilisation ; they believe that such an anthology would be useful as supplementing
~the labours which the Committee have undertaken and accomplished in the
preparation of their Reports.

The Committee ask for reappointment without further grant for one year.
1923-4, for the completion of the anthology.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.!

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL
SCIENCE.

(For references to the publications elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 503.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Joint Discussion with Sections B and G on Cohesion and
Molecular Forces, opened by Sir Wiri1am Brace, F.R.S.

2. Prof. 0. G. Darwin, F.R.S.—The Recent Work of Prof. A. H.
Compton on ihe Scattering of X-rays.

3. Prof. C. G. Barxua, F.R.S.—X-ray Absorption and the J Discon-
tinuities.
4. Dr. W. M. Smarr.—Lecture on Navigation.

Friday, September 14.
5. Senatore Viro Vourerra, For. Mem. R.S.—Liquid Jets.

Hitherto the case considered has been that of movements parallel to a plane,
using the theory of functions. In the present research several cases are solved
of symmetrical and unsymmetrical movements which are not plane movements.

6. Sire Outver Lopez, F.R.S.—Matter and Radiation.

Speculations as to the relation between radiation and matter and the possible
generation of electrons by otherwise waste radiation. The momentum of a
wave-front and some photo-electric phenomena are responsible for the sugges-
tion, which has probably occurred to others. The velocity with which all
matter is moving may also be taken into consideration.

In the theory of relativity, matter and energy are closely related, and an
expression is forthcoming for the absolute energy of a moving body; whereas
what has been always hitherto dealt with is the energy of relative motion. The
absolute term in the expression for energy must be energy of constitution, and
its form suggests a specialised portion of a turbulent ether circulating with the
‘velocity of light. Turbulence confers upon an incompressible massive fluid the
power of transmitting tranverse waves.

All ordinary motions could then be regarded as only local modifications of
this general ethereal circulation, in the same sort of way as.a wind is a modifi-
cation of mclecular motion. Ordinary motion would be equivalent to change
of mass, and might be expressed as a slight addition to the individualised
and specific portion of ethereal circulation which constitutes the original mass.
What we call matter would be the way in which this kind of localised ether
motion appeals to our senses. In the case of an electron, the absolute term in —
the expression for energy exhibits itself to us quantitatively as the energy of
its electrostatic charge.

* Excursions which were arranged as part of the programmes of certain
Sections, for the purpose of field work, &c., are recorded in these transactions. —
In addition, other items in the general programme of excursions were arranged
with reference to the interests of particular Sections.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 425

Light is also a motion in the ether, and an advancing wave-front is known
to exhibit some of the properties of matter; it also ejects electrons in a curious
way. The problem, not yet solved, is to find a method of converting wave-
energy into stationary vortex motion, which may be the converse operation to
that of exciting light or X-rays by accelerating electrons. When light is gene-
rated it has to advance at a certain speed. Whenever matter is generated,
any surplus energy might account for its motion through space. All matter
seems liable to be affected with considerable locomotive energy. If spiral nebulz
are dust-clouds, their high velocities appear significant.

If all the motion of matter is a modification of circulatory constitutional
motion, and if we can represent energy as a change of mass, it seems possible to
represent all material phencmena as changes in the intrinsic rotational motion of
the ether of space. This would have the advantage of being absolute, having
reference only to a universal stationary ether, instead of being relative to other
pieces of matter, which is the appearance that things present to our senses.
Rotation even of matter has always had an absolute appearance ; but rotation of
ether is probably the real absolute, and may ultimately be expected to serve as a
fundamental representation of universal phenomena.

7. Mr. G. Sreap and Miss B. Treveryan.—The Production of
Triatomic Hydrogen. (2?)

Hydrogen is subjected to intense electronic bombardment in a cylindrical
thermionic tube with open grid and no anode. With a grid potential of
30 volts and over, a blue glow, consisting of primary and secondary hydrogen
lines, is observed near the filament. The glow spreads progressively along
the tube, the current increasing similarly till it suddenly falls to a small value,
and the glow simultaneously runs back. <A regular oscillation of the glow
and current is maintained, and the pressure in the tube follows the current
changes.

It appears that a polymerised modification of hydrogen is periodically
formed and decomposed. If a tube surrounded by liquid air is attached no
oscillation takes place, but nearly all the gas disappears rapidly. It is re-
liberated on removing the liquid air, and is stable, but easily decomposed by
electric discharge, showing an increase in volume in the ratio of 1.5 to 1.
The decomposed gas shows bright primary and secondary spectra of hydrogen.
The optimum pressure in the tube is about 0.05 mm. of mercury.

8. Capt. D. Brunt.—Energy of the Circulation of the Atmosphere.
The kinetic energy of the average circulation of the earth’s atmosphere is
estimated as of the order of 3.10?7 ergs, while that of a particular but repre-
sentative cyclone is given as 1.5x1074 ergs. The diameter of the latter being
1400 km., this represents an addition of 50 per cent. to the kinetic energy over
the same area of the average circulation, assuming this uniformly distributed
over the earth’s surface.

The rate of dissipation of kinetic energy due to the effect of turbulence is
considered in two parts. For the region from the ground up to the height
where the gradient wind direction is realised, a formula is obtained which
leads, under a set of representative natural conditions, to a rate of loss of
kinetic energy of 3 x 10-* kilowatts/(metre)?. An examination of recorded
wind distributions at greater heights leads to an average vaiue for the layer,
extending from the one just considered to the stratosphere, of 2x10-* kilo-
watts/(metre)?, so that the rate at which the kinetic energy of the earth’s
atmosphere is being dissipated by turbulence is of the order of 5x 10-* kilowatts
per square metre of the earth’s surface.

If this rate of dissipation were maintained for 1{ days the whole kinetic
energy of the general circulation would be destroyed in that time. Or, assuming
the rate of dissipation to be proportional to the total kinetic energy, the total
kinetic energy would be reduced to one-tenth its original value in three days.

This does not happen, and it is next shown that the conversion of a little
over 2 per cent. of the effective incoming solar radiation into kinetic energy
will maintain the level of the kinetic energy of the general circulation.

The means of conversion is not yet fully understood, but, following Sir

426 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.

Napier Shaw, the ascent of only 0.1 (km.)? of heated air per second over the
tropics, rising to 15 km. moving polewards and descending in latitude 60°,
would contribute work sufficient to make good the kinetic energy dissipated by
turbulence.

9. Dr. A. T. Doopson.—Meteorological Effects on Sea Level and
Tides.

The effect of the distribution of atmospheric pressure, statically and by the
operation of the resulting wind, may have a magnitude of 3 feet or more on
the sea-level at Liverpool. The greater part of the effect € can be expressed
quantitatively by the relation

(=«B+AE+p~N-+ constant,

where «, A, » are constants, and B, E, N denote respectively the local atmo-
spheric pressure and its gradients East and North. The constants are deter-
mined from observational data. The correlation between fluctuations of sea-
level and atmospheric pressure is greatest when the sea-level is taken three
hours earlier than the atmospheric pressure, whereas the correlation between
sea-level and the easterly gradient of pressure, corresponding, roughly, to a
south wind, is greatest when the mean sea-level is taken about fifteen hours later
than the corresponding pressure gradient. For the northerly gradient (easterly
wind) the time difference for maximum correlation is practically zero. At
Liverpool a §.W. wind, and not one blowing directly into Liverpool Bay, is
most effective in raising sea-level. A quantitative separation of the relative
effects of winds in the Atlantic and in the Irish Sea shows that the former
are 50 per cent. more effective than the latter for a given pressure gradient, and
that the most effective wind for raising sea-level at Liverpool is almost due south
when operating in the Atlantic, and almost due west when operating in the
Irish Sea. On the British coast of the North Sea the most effective wind-
directions for raising sea-level are also from the west (i.e. off-shore). Local
configuration of coast-line*plays only a small part in this phenomenon.

The height and time of high-water are affected in a somewhat complex way,
and no simple law has yet been formulated.

10, Mr. T. Smiru.—Apocoptic Kxpansions.

In the expansion of a general function, as by Taylor’s theorem, it is custo-
mary to consider a number of leading terms and find limits between which the
remainder lies for a definite range of the independent variable. The poly-
nomial so obtained is in general not as close a representation of the function
as is possible with a polynomial of that order. This and other expansions,
as well as the usual formule for numerical interpolation, represent curves of
order n, say, which pass through n+1 selected points on the fundamental curve.
The polynomial of order n which represents the latter curve with the highest
possible accuracy is constructed by causing it to pass through 2n+2 points,
none of which lie on this curve. The coefficients are functions of n as well
as of the derivatives of the function represented.

11. Rev. A. L. Corrrs.—Series in Magnetic Disturbances.

(1) The magnetic disturbance of 1923, March 24, during which the extreme
range of declination was 66’, and in horizontal force 238y, was the greatest
since the exceptionally violent storm of 1921, May 13-15. It was accom-
panied by unusual earth-currents, and by displays of aurora borealis. It was
preceded, at an interval of twenty-six days, by a disturbance somewhat less
intense in 1923, February 26. This disturbance was alsc coincident with earth-
currents and aurora borealis. These two were not isolate1 disturbances, for
they were members of a series, at a mean interval of 27.2 days, from 1923, —
January 30 to June 13.

(2) The occurrence of this series of disturbances, and especially of the
greater storm of March 24, is noteworthy, because the sun has been almost
entirely free from spots and bright facule since the beginning of the year.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 427

Of ninety-eight days of observation at Stonyhurst in the five months, January
to May, 70 per cent. have been spotless. The mean area, too, of such spots
as have been observed has been very small, not more than 32 millionths of the
visible disc. The facule, though extensive, have been very faint. The
minimum of solar activity in the cycle has almost been reached.

(3) But one small spot in latitude —6° and longitude 3.2°, observed 1923,
April 19-29, is connected with the recent series of magnetic disturbances, and
the faint facule observed have clustered about the same mean position. More-
over, this spot and the facule mark a patch or region of the sun’s surface
which has been intermittently disturbed since 1923, November. Similarly, the
recent series of magnetic disturbances of 1923 is a continuation at each synodical
solar rotation, with one period of magnetic calm excepted, of a long series
beginning 1921, October 27, and extending altogether over 594 days.

(4) The mean synodical interval of this long series is exactly twenty-seven
days. This corresponds to a mean daily rotation in are on the sun’s surface
of 14.32°, which is the rotation period, adopting a mean value from Carrington’s
and Spoerer’s formula, for latitude +8.7°. The mean value of the longitude of
the sun’s central meridian for all the days of this long magnetic series was
336.6°. The mean value of the latitude of the intermittent solar disturbance
was —6.1°, and of the longitude 343.5°. There is, therefore, complete accord
between the series of solar disturbances and the series of magnetic disturbances.
Consequently, a definite region of the sun can affect the earth magnetically
even when there are no visible disturbances upon it.

12. Mr. W. M. Morpey.—Lecture on Some Recent Studies im
Alternating Magnetism. (Illustrated by Experiments and
Lantern Slides.)

The following experiments, amongst others, were shown and described :—

(1) Repulsion from an alternate current multiphase magnetic field, of iron
magnetite and other magnetic substances placed at a distance of several inches
from the poles.

Attraction of these substances to the magnet when the distance is small.

(2) Steady movement or migration of these substances through the magnetic
field, and repulsion from that field.

(3) Repulsion from a 1-phase magnet of specular hematite which forms a
halo round and at a considerable distance from the poles.

Absence of lines of force in the halo.

(4) Illustration of lines of force in alternating fields of various substances,
including Heusler alloys.

(5) Water containing certain magnetic materials driven uphill and discharged
from a multiphase field—a surface tension effect.

) Separation of certain mineral substances from their gangue in multiphase
fields.

(7) No movement of finely divided aluminium in these alternating fields,
indicating that the above effects are not due to eddy currents, and that they are
due to or associated with hysteresis.

f2. Mr..S. G. Brown, F.R.S.—Demonstration of the ‘ Freno-
phone,’ or Friction Operated Loud-Speaker.

Apparatus in which very high magnification of the received signals or
speech is obtained by means of the friction existing between a polished glass
dise and a small cork pad rubbing upon its surface. The disc is rotated by
clockwerk. The received telephonic current is applied to the coils of a receiver
of the reed type; the reed presses upon the pad, which in turn bears upon the
disc. The vibratory pressure of the pad causes large vibratory changes in the
frictional drag imparted to the pad; and by linking the pad to a telephone
diaphragm, so that it is caused to vibrate as the result of the tangential vibra-
tions due to the drag of the disc upon the pad, very loud speech, &e., is set
up in the sound-emitting trumpet.

428 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.

Monday, September 17.

14. Presidential Address by Prof. J. C. McLmnnan, F.R.S., on
Origin of Spectra. (See p. 25.)

15. Prof. N. Bour.—The Correspondence Principle.

‘The quantum theory of atomic constitution rests upon the following two
postulates :—

I. Among the conceivably possible states of motion in an atomic system there
exist a number of so-called “‘ stationary states’ which, in spite of the fact that the
motion of the particles in these states obeys the laws of classical mechanics to a con-
siderable extent, possess a peculiar mechanically unexplainable stability, of such a
sort that every permanent change in the motion of the system must consist of a com-
plete transition from one stationary state to another.

II. While in contradiction to the classical electromagnetic theory no, radiation
takes place from the atom in the stationary states themselves, a process of transition
between two stationary states can be accompanied by the emission of electromagnetic
radiation, which will have the same properties as that which would be sent out accord-
ing to the classical theory from an electrified particle executing a harmonic vibration
with constant frequency. This frequency v has, however, no simple relation to the
motion of the particles of the atom, but is given by the quantum relation

inv Rt hy dlgetly ie) Lae

where his Planck’s constant, and K’ and EK” are the values of the energy of the atom in
the two stationary states that form the initial and final states of the radiation process.

It will be the purpose of these remarks to show how, notwithstanding the funda-
mental departure from the ideas of the classical theories of mechanics and electrody-
namics involved in these postulates, it has been possible to trace a connection between
the radiation emitted by an atom and the motion of the particles which exhibits a
far-reaching analogy to that claimed by the classical ideas of the origin of radiation.

Consider an atomic system of s degrees of freedom for which the motion of the
particles is governed by the canonical equations

SG) ON: OSD
aks p= oe

t > Ie ee 3 - oe . . 2
Cts uel ( ) (2)
where Eis the total energy of the system considered as a function of the generalised
co-ordinates gq; . - - gq, and the conjugated momenta p, . .- p, Now the

selection of stationary states among the solutions of these equations claims that these
solutions exhibit certain periodicity properties which involve that the displacement of
each particle in any given direction can be represented as a function of the time by
means of an expression of the form

b=, se Ts 208 [27(tTya;+ -.. HOt Ye, er il Set)

where t, . . . T, are positive or negative integers and m,. . . w, represent the so-
called fundamental frequencies of the motion. The number of these frequencies, the
degree of periodicity, is fixed by the condition that no relations exist of the form
m,o,+... +m, @, = O where m .. . m, are positive or negative integers. In
general the summation in (3) is to be extended to all positive and negative values of
the integers T,. . - Tp.

The stationary states of such an r-double periodic system are now determined by a
set of r quantum relations of the form i

J,p=n h (L=Verton ye Py A 3 3 - (4)
where his again Planck’s constant andz,. . .m,are integers, the so-called quantum
numbers, while J,. . .J,isaset of quantities which characterize certain mechanical —

properties of the motion, and which fulfil the relation

SE =La,0J;, . . . : _ ¢ (5)
k

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 429

where the symbol of differentiation 5 refers to two neighbouring solutions of the
equations (2). By this relation the quantities J are fixed apart from arbitrary additive
constants. These constants, however, are fixed by the further condition

Do,.Jp= 29: . . . . . ° (6)
k t

where the member of the right side represents the mean value of the expression under
the horizontal line taken over a time interval long compared with the fundamental
periods of the motion.

According to the quantum relations (1) and (4) we get now for the frequency of the
radiation emitted by a transition between two stationary states characterized by the
quantum numbers n’,;. . .”, andn). . . n”,, respectively

Lepr et [ ' my.
v=; (E/E i Yoth= Sm eather? soophaa Mnees)
where the mean value of the last expression is to be taken over such solutions of the
equations (2) which in the r-dimensional J-space are represented by a straight line
connecting the points (J’, . . . J’,) and (J’; . . . J”,) indicating the two
stationary states involved in the process.

In the limit where the values of the quantum numbers are large compared with
their differences »’,—n”;, we may consider the frequencies w, as constants in the
mean value in equation (7), and get the asymptotical relation

Vm Xo»;,(n",—n”;,). . . . . ° . (8)
k

In this limit the frequency of the radiation will accordingly coincide asymptotically
with the frequency of that harmonic component in the motion represented by (3)
for which the relations

é
T=1N',—Nn"), (cle ret) : é ‘ sial@)
are fulfilled.

This result opens a possibility in the limit of large quantum numbers to obtain
a connection between the statistical results of the quantum theory and the classical
theory of radiation. It must be emphasised, however, that here we have by no means
to do with a gradual disappearance in this limit of the fundamental difference between
the quantum theory and the classical theory. In fact, according to the latter theory
the radiation from the atom will take place continuously and consists of the simul-
taneous emission of a multitude of wave systems with different frequencies, each
corresponding to one of the harmonic components in the motion, while on the quantum
theory each train of waves is emitted by an independent process of transition between
stationary states, the relative occurrence of the different processes being governed by
laws of probability. Just this circumstance leads us to consider the connection between
the harmonic components of the motion and the various processes of transition traced
in the region of large quantum numbers, as evidence of a general law holding for all
quantum numbers. According to this law, the so-called ‘‘ correspondence principle,”
every transition process between two stationary states given by (4) can be co-ordinated
with a corresponding harmonic component in the motion defined by (9). This co-
ordination involves that the probability of occurrence of the transition depends on
the amplitude of the corresponding harmonic component in a way analogous to that
in which, according to the classical theory, the intensity of the radiation emitted from a
particle performing a harmonic oscillation would depend on its amplitude. At the same
time, the state of polarisation of the radiation emitted during the transition is assumed
to depend on the shape and orientation of the corresponding harmonic oscillation in a
way analogous to that in which, on the classical theory, the polarisation of the radiation
would depend on the orbit of tne emitting particle.

In this discourse it was shown by examples from the investigation of the spectra
of the elements and of the effects of electric and magnetic fields on spectral lines, how
this correspondence principle has been supported to an extent that seems to justify
us in using it as a guide also in more complicated cases, which we meet in the theory
of atomic constitution, and where it has not yet been possible to fix the stationary
states in an unambiguous way by use of symbols borrowed from classical mechanics.

430 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.

16. Prof. P. Enrenrest.—Remarks on Quantisation. (See p. 508.)

17. Prof. P. Lanceviy.—The Structure of Atoms and their Magnetic
Properties. (See p. 510.)

18. Prof. R. W. Woop, For. Mem. R.S., and Dr. A. ELLETT.—
The Effects of Weak Magnetic Fields on the Polarisation of
Resonance Radiation.

The resonance radiation of mercury vapour in vacuo, at a pressure of about
0.0001mm., excited by polarised 2536 radiation, is polarised to the extent of
90 per cent. This polarisation is completely destroyed by a magnetic field
of 1 or 2 gauss, directed towards the observer. The magnetic field of the
earth reduces the percentage of polarisation to less than fifty. Other orienta-
tions of field produce polarisation of the radiation in directions in which it is
normally absent, e.g. in the direction of the electric vector of the exciting light.
Sodium vapour, similarly excited by D,D, radiation, exhibits less than 10 per
cent. of polarisation in the absence of any magnetic field. This small trace
of polarisation is destroyed under circumstances similar to those which obtain
with mereury vapour, except that a field of about 100 gauss is required. With
the field oriented in other directions the percentage of polarisation is increased
to thirty or mcre.

With the exciting light (electric vector perpendicular to the plane of paper)
and the magnetic field parallel and in the plane of the paper, we have strong
polarisation in directions perpendicular to the plane of the paper. Jn the
absence of magnetic field no polarisation would be exhibited in this direction.
If the field is rotated through 90°, remaining in the plane of the paper, the
plane of polarisation turns with the field, the electric vector of the resonance
radiation being horizontal when the field is vertical. If, however, the electric
vector of the exciting light is in the plane ‘of the paper (i.e. vertical) the
polarisation diminishes as the magnetic field is rotated, becoming zero with the
field at 45°, and rising to a maximum again when the field is vertical. These
relations are difficult to describe without the aid of a diagram. It seems quite
evident that we are dealing with an orientation of the molecules in the magnetic

field.

19. Mr. I. O. Grirriru.—Note on the Measurement of Very High
Temperature.

The high temperature is obtained by means of an arc burning in a gas at
high pressure, and is determined by measuring the ratio of the intensities of
the light at two wave-lengths. Under a pressure of 80 atmospheres the tempera-
ture is found to be approximately 8600° absolute. Owing to difficulty in keeping
the are constant at high pressure this is probably a minimum value, and there
are indications on some of the plates of the existence of a higher temperature.

Tuesday, September 18.

20. Discussion on The Spectra of the Lighter Elements.

Prorrssor McLennan referred briefly to some theoretical and experimental —
aspects of the ultra-violet and X-ray spectra of the lighter elements, and
attention was drawn to fundamental differences in the origin of these spectra.

The merits of the photo-electric and absorption methods of determining the ~
wave-lengths of soft X-rays were discussed, and the advantages possessed by
the ruled and crystal grating methods were emphasised.

An analysis was made of the experimental results obtained by the different
methods with the object of showing that the radiations which atoms of the —
lighter elements can be made to emit are such as one would expect to obtain —
with the scheme of electronic orbits provided by Bohr for the neutral atoms —
of the elements.

Proressor Bour discussed certain problems connected with the bearing of —
spectroscopic evidence of an atomic constitution, |

eee LL eee

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 431

Proresson Mitiikan forwarded a summary of the results obtained to date
by various investigations on the extreme ultra-violet spectra of the elements.

_Prorressor Fowzer dealt with optical spectra. Alternation of doublet and
triplet series in the spectra of elements of successive groups in the periodic
classification. General relations between the spectra of the elements of the
same group, and departure from these relations in the case of some of the lighter
elements. Remarks on the spectra of the lighter elements for which series
have not yet been traced. The spectra of ionised elements; the displacement
law. The spectra of certain elements, including silicon, at successively higher
stages of ionisation. General accordance of the phenomena with Bohr’s theory.

21. Dr. D. Coster.—On High Frequency Spectra and the Theory of
Atomic Structure.

Moseley showed that the characteristic X-ray spectra have a very simple
structure. The square root of the frequency of a given X-ray line is a linear
function of the atomic number. The great changes in physical and chemical
properties, which mostly occur when proceeding from one element to the next
one in the periodic table, are not expressed in the X-ray spectrum.

Recent researches have revealed that some peculiarities of the periodic table
find expression in the X-ray spectrum. If we plot Moseley curves not for the
lines themselves but for the spectral terms,! we observe at different stages
sudden changes in the slope of these curves. These irregularities correspond
with regions of the periodic table where, according to Bohr, an inner group of
electrons is being completed—i.e. in the neighbourhood of the iron group, the
palladium group, the platinum group, and in the case of the rare earth metals.

Recently X-ray spectroscopy has led also in a more direct way to a confirma-
tion of the Bohr theory. According to Bohr, the element of atomic number 72
should not belong to the rare earth metals, but must be a homologue of
. This conclusion of the theory was verified by the discovery of

afnium.

22. Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S.—Further Determinations of the Con-
stitution of the Elements by the method of Accelerated Anode
Rays.

23. Mr. R. W. Rosertrs.—The Magnetic Rotary Dispersion in
certain Paramagnetic Liquids.

It is well known that the presence of iron salts in aqueous solution will
cause a diminution of the magnetic rotation of the solvent. It was found
by Richardson, Roberts, and Smith that the same is true for cobalt salts at
ultra-violet frequencies, but not for nickel salts. As the effect shown by
cobalt salts might be a dispersive one, the ordinary dispersion of aqueous
solutions of several cobalt salts in the visible and ultra-violet portions of the
spectrum has been investigated. The results obtained show that the depression
in the magnetic rotation exhibited by aqueous solutions of cobalt salts is a
true paramagnetic one superimposed on the usual positive rotation explained
by the Hall effect.

24. Mr. RB. Asierr.—The Angle of Contact—Variation with Relative
Motion of Solid and Liquid.

When a cylinder with its axis horizontal is partially immersed in a liquid
to such a depth that the liquid surface is horizontal right up to the cylindrical
surface, then the tangent at the line of contact makes an angle with the
horizontal equal to the angle of contact §. This has been found to be
104°34'+5’ for paraffin wax and water at 10°C. On rotating the cylinder
uniformly the angle on the side emerging decreases towards a minimum value

1 Every line frequency may be represented by the difference of two terms,
each of which, corresponds with, the energy of the atom in one of its stationary
states. j

1923, GG

432 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A, B.

65, whereas that on the other side increases towards a maximum @;. At every
speed $(0,;+0,)=0. Beyond the critical speed of 0.44mm. per second 6, is
constant (113° 10’) and also 0, (96° 20’).

Drops of water sessile on a plane wax surface have been photographed, and
the plates obtained projected through a lantern, and the angles of contact
measured. For a fresh horizontal surface 6=104° 40’; for the surface inclined
until the drop just slips 6;=113°00' and 6,.=96° 00’.

These results clearly account for the hitherto unexplained discrepancy in
the values of @ obtained by different methods—some obviously giving values
between 6 and 6, and others between 6 and 6, according to the type of
experiment involved.

25. Report of the Seismology Committee. (See p. 283.)

SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 504.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Joint Discussion with Sections A and G on Cohesion and
Molecular Forces, opened by Sir Wiuu1am H. Braae, F.R.S.

2. Prof. Sven Opnn.—The Formation of Precipitates.

3. Prof. G. 8. Wuirsy.—The Nature and Significance of the Resin
of Hevea Rubber.

The resin of raw rubber, which constitutes about 3 per cent. of the material,-

has been found to contain liquid unsaturated acids, a new solid fatty acid
(Heveic acid), a phytosterol glucoside, a phytosterol ester, a free phytosterol,
quebrachitol, and d-valine. The acids have a marked influence on the vulcanisa-
tion of rubber in the presence of catalysts. The introduction into the rubber
of strong bases has a striking effect in increasing the rate of vulcanisation
with catalysts and in enhancing the tensile strength of the product. This effect
is not due merely or mostly to the elimination, by neutralisation, of the retarding
influence of acids, but is due largely to the dispersing action on the caoutchouc
of the soaps produced. The total resin-acid-content of different samples of raw
rubber varies greatly. Such variation is probably an important factor in
vulcanisation by rubber samples. The ability of the resin constituents and of
certain related substances to act as emulsifying agents has been studied. The
ability of a wide range of organic substances to swell rubber has been studied
in relation to the question of the mode of occurrence of the resin constituents
in latex and in rubber.

Friday, September 14.

4. Presidential Address by Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., on The
Physical Chemistry of Interfaces. (See p. 59.)

5. Prof. G. N. Lewis.—The Quantum Theory in Chemistry.

6. Dr. N. V. Sipewicx, F.R.S.—The Bohr Atom and the Periodic
Law.

7. Dr. G. Hevesy.—The Chemistry of Hafnium.

Though hafnium is to be placed in the periodic table between zirconium

and thorium where formerly cerium happened to be placed, its chemical pro- —

¢
%
vy
i
4

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 433

perties are not intermediate between those of zirconium and thorium, but much
nearer to the former element.

While the fluorides and double fluorides of thorium are practically insoluble,
the corresponding zirconium compounds, and still more the hafnium compounds,
are fairly soluble in cold, very soluble in hot water. By this method zirconium
can easily be separated from hafnium. ‘lhe mineral is melted with KFHF,
and by crystallising the potassium double fluorides the hafnium concentrates in
the mother-liquor. Most of the preparations exhibited have been obtained by
this method.

Hafnium oxalate is, like zirconium oxalate, soluble in an excess of oxalic
acid. The oxychloride of hafnium is less soluble than zirconium oxychloride.
When crystallising compounds of zirconium sulphuric acid like (NH_,),[Zr(SO,),];
(NH,),[Zr,(OH),(SO,),] hafnium concentrates in the mother-liquor. Hafnium
is more basic than zirconium; accordingly the latter is more easily precipitated
by ammonia, sodium thiosulphate, &c.; and while zirconium sulphate begins
to decompose above 400°, the temperature at which hafnium sulphate undergoes

-a marked decomposition lies about 100° higher. Thorium phosphate is easily
dissolved by strong mineral acids, zirconium phosphate much less, whereas
hafnium phosphate is found to be still less soluble.

The close relationship of zirconium and hafnium is also clearly exhibited by
the fact that zirconium extracted from different minerals always contains
4-30 per cent. hafnium, while in none of the typical thorium minerals could
hafnium be detected. We must conclude that ‘zirconium,’ hitherto thought
to be an element, is a mixture of two elements, of zirconium and hafnium.

8. Joint Discussion with Section I on The Physical Chemistry of
Membranes in Relation to Physiological Science, opened by
Prof. H. E. Roar.

9, Dr. E. B. R. Prmraux.—Membrane Potentials considered as
Diffusion Potentials.

Through most ordinary membranes, such as vegetable and animal parchment,
&e., a slow diffusion of electrolyte takes place, and the membrane potentials at
these are not due to the impermeability, but to the selective permeability, of
either anion or kation. These potentials are generally higher than the corre-
sponding diffusion potentials, and may be considered as diffusion potentials
in which the transport numbers or the relative mobilities of one ion are modified
by the membrane. A suitable case already investigated was that of sodium
benzoate. The investigation has now been extended to potassium benzoate
and salicylate. A comparison of the mobility of the anion determined by con-
ductivity with the present measurements of diffusion potentials, viscosities,
and membrane potentials, shows that the mobility of the benzoic anion has
indeed been diminished by the parchment to a value which is apparently definite
_ both for potassium and for sodium salts. The mobility of the salicylic ion has
been diminished in a higher ratio. :

10. Miss Epirn H. Usnerwoopv.—The Activation of Hydrogen in
Organic Compounds.

In the first part of this paper it is shown that a great variety of organic
~ chemical phenomena depends upon one and the same molecular condition. This
condition is then defined in terms of molecular structure, and the result follows
that tendency to undergo reactions of many different kinds is referred to certain
definite and easily recognised structural features. Thus, without instituting
any proposal as to the root cause of organic reactions, and with a minimum of
tacit hypothesis, a collation of diverse data is obtained, and, in addition, an
instrument for the prediction of new phenomena.

The usefulness of the view in this latter connection is illustrated by reference
to certain phenomena predicted from theory, and experimentally verified by
the author within the last few months (e.g. the formation of rings with the aid
of the nitroso group; the reversibility of the aldol reaction), and also by noting
hitherto unverified consequences, on which the author hopes, to obtain evidence
in the immediate future,

GG2

ASA SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B.

Monday, September 17.
11. Dr. E. F. Armsrrone, F.R.S.—Enzymes.

Enzymes are to be regarded as colloid catalysts. It is customary to think
of them as definite chemical entities, but the activity associated with them is
connected with certain aggregates of groups in a very much larger molecule.
Probably the enzyme, as such, is incapable of existing, and the larger molecule
may well -be variable in its nature. Their activity in the main is hydrolytic—
that is, they activate water molecules, and in special cases they also bring
about synthetic action; there is also the class of oxidising and reducing enzymes
which act again in activating water so as to give oxygen to one and hydrogen
to another acceptor. The study of enzymes is thus intimately bound up with
that of the behaviour of water in solutions.

Enzymes are obtained from animal and vegetable tissues in a concentrated,
as opposed to a purified, condition; their outstanding and indeed remarkable
property is their very highly specific character. In every instance their action
is restricted to one or to a few substances very closely related in structure,
and there is obviously the most intimate correlation between the structure of
the substrate and of the enzyme complex.

Enzymes behave essentially as particulate colloids in an extremely fine
state of division, and as such are naturally very unstable or, in other words,
susceptible to outside influences. Their great activity as catalysts is due to this
development of active surface, enzyme action taking place essentially at solid
surfaces and not in solution; the older phrase ‘ soluble enzymes’ is a misnomer.

Under ideal conditions, when the influence of secondary changes and of the
products of action is eliminated, the rate of change conditioned by enzymes
is such that equal amounts of substrate are changed in successive equal intervals
of time.

Taking into consideration the intimate structural relationship between enzyme
and substrate, there is every reason to assume that change is preceded by.the
formation of an unstable intermediate complex with the substrate at the surface
of the colloid enzyme, the attractive force being chemical; the alternative
theory pictures adsorption at the active surface, the layer being at most little
more than one molecule thick and the attractive force being physical. The
difference between the rival theories is practically only one of phraseology.

Subsequent action in which the activated water molecules take part results
in the breakdown of the intermediate complex in all possible ways.

We have still to form a clear mental picture of how the energy necessary to
effect this is derived. This problem, however, is primarily one for the student
of the processes operative in solutions.

12. Dr. K. G. Farx.—The Relation of Certain Enzyme Actions to
Tissue Differentiation and Tumour Growth.

The comparative lipase actions on a number of different esters and protease
actions on several protein preparations, of different tissues and organs of rats
as well as of the Flexner-Jobling rat carcinoma, were studied. Well-defined
differences in the actions were found. A number of tumours of human origin
and some normal human tissues were studied similarly. In general, the tumours
showed the same comparative lipase actions on the different esters. These
relative actions were similar to the relative actions found with the Flexner-
Jobling rat carcinoma. A more complete study of the enzyme actions of
fibromyoma of the uterus indicated in some cases enzyme actions similar to
those of the rat carcinoma and other tumours, in other cases enzyme actions
of the growths similar to those of uterus muscle, and in some cases both types
of actions present in the material obtained from different parts of the same
specimen. The enzyme results corresponded to the histological examinations of
the same materials. The absolute amounts of the enzyme actions of the tumours
of various origins were small in comparison with the enzyme actions of some
of the tissues. The significant differences were found to be in the characters
of the actions rather than in their magnitudes.

The materials for the enzyme tests were prepared by extraction with water —

after suitable grinding. The solid residues were also tested in a number of
experiments. The enzyme actions were determined ynder comparable conditions.

——

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 435

13. Mr. W. G. Patmer.—Catalytic Actions in the System Copper,
Copper-Oxide, Oxygen, and Gaseous Reducing Agent.

The rate of oxidation of a copper film about ,,4;mm. in thickness can
readily be found from observations on the increasing electrical resistance ;
similarly the rate of reduction of oxide can be followed by observmg the
decrease of resistance. Such a film conducts electricity normally, but is suffi-
ciently thin for the effects of gaseous diffusion to be absent.

Mixtures of reducing gas (such as carbon monoxide or hydrogen) with oxygen,
when brought into contact with copper at 250° C., oxidise the metal more
rapidly than does pure oxygen. This effect is very marked even when equal
volumes of reducing gas and oxygen are used. The reduction of copper oxide
by carbon monoxide or by hydrogen at low temperatures takes place only in
the presence of copper, and the rate of reduction is simply proportional to the
amount of metal present.

When hydrogen is used for reduction the water formed acts as a ‘ negative’
catalyst, and the reduction is soon brought to a standstill unless the water is
removed by exhaustion. Attempts to explain the effects described are greatly
aided by the simplicity of the reactions concerned.

14, Prof. W. Vrrnapsxy.—Alwmosilicates.
We can distinguish in alumosilicates bodies of different chemical functions :
anhydrides ; Al,SiO; sillimanite
Al,Si,O, leverrierite
Al,SiO,F, topaz, &e.
acids; H,Al,Si,0; . H,O—kaolinite
H,Al,SiyO;2—pyrophyllite, &c.
salts : K,A1,Si,0;,— orthoclase, &c.
All these bodies in the solid condition can give addition products,
€.9. zoisite 3CaAl,Si,0; . Ca(OH).
grossularite CaAl,Si,O, . CaySiO,
where the alumosilicate group dominates the properties of the compound,
the salts and their addition products can be divided into three groups :

1. Sillimanite salts—of acid H,Al,SiO, and their addition products ; group of
chloritoids.
2. Leverrierite salts—of acids H,Al,Sic+,0.4+0n n=0, 2, 4, 6, 8.
p.e. KoAl,Siy0s—phacellite
K,AI,8i,0;.—leucite.
The addition products correspond to general formula
pA qB where A—alumosilicate
B—group of elements of secondary importance.
p=—1.2.3....
B22.
These compounds have a chromogene constitution.

All these compounds contain a nucleus M,AI,Si,O,, give by weathering clays
(kaolinite H,Al,Si,0, . HO), and are obtained by natural and synthetical reactions
from kaolinite. The common nucleus can be expressed in cyclic form :

|
Al

MO
Zeolites, felspars, nephelines, garnets, epidote, scapolites, &c., belong to this group.

436 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B.

3. Salis of polybasic acids of anhydrides Al,SiO,, AlpSivO,, Al,SisO, . . .
Chlorites A1,Si0;_»(EO) op AlpSizO;_(HO)on

Mostly hydrated Mg and Fe compounds.
Melilites, polygorsaites, &c., are products of addition pA gB
A—silicate
B—contains Al
and do not belong to the alumosilicates.

Tuesday, September 18.

15. Miss Euizasera S. Semmens.—The Biochemical Effect of
Polarised Light.

That plane polarised light has a distinct accelerating effect on the breaking
up of starch grains in the presence of diastase can be shown under the micro-
scope. At laboratory temperatures below 20° and with small concentration of
diastase, starch grains exposed to light polarised by reflection or by a Nicol
prism erode quickly and give crystals of sugar, controls in ordinary light or
in the dark remaining almost intact. If the diastase is concentrated, the starch
grains exposed to ordinary light also undergo hydrolysis. Above 25° erosion
takes place in the controls kept in the dark.

16. Dr. R. G. Farguer.—Cotton Waz.

The term ‘ cotton wax’ has been applied by different writers to the extracts
obtained from cotton by means of organic solvents, and even to the material
removed by boiling the cotton with dilute sodium hydroxide. Generally, it
includes fat, wax, and the more readily soluble portion of the resin present
in the cotton, the proportion of fat being relatively small. This material
interests the spinner and manufacturer, as it probably lubricates the hairs
during spinning and the preceding processes, and to some extent cements them
in the spun yarn; whilst the bleacher and finisher consider that it must be
efficiently removed if the maximum effect of certain finishing processes is to be
attained.

Comparison of the extracts obtained with a number of organic solvents
indicated that carbon tetrachloride removed the fat and wax and left the
major portion of the resin undissolved; whilst chloroform, using a ‘ hot’
soxhlet, dissolved fat wax and resin. The characteristics of the crude wax
obtained from three cottons—American Upland, an almost pure strain American
cotton grown in the Mississippi Delta, and Egyptian Sakellaridis—are given.

Special analytical methods have been devised for dealing with very small
quantities of material.

The character of cotton wax indicates that emulsification must play a con-
siderable part in its removal during scouring; this has been shown to be the
case by large-scale trials. :

17. Dr. D. A. Cuispens.—The Absorption of Methylene Blue by
Cotton.

A quantitative investigation of the conditions which determine the absorp-
tion of methylene blue by bleached cotton from neutral solutions of methylene
blue hydrochloride. The object of the work has been to provide a method for
determining the efficiency of cotton-bleaching processes with respect to their
production of pure cotton cellulose. The bleaching of raw cotton involves two
distinct series of operations : (a) ‘ scouring,’ which consists of a treatment, or
series of treatments, with hot dilute alkalis, and which effects the removal of
the greater part of the non-cellulose impurities, and (6) the bleaching process
proper, in which the scoured material is treated with dilute oxidising solutions.
Measurements of the absorption of methylene blue at various stages of a bleaching
process show :—

1. The absorption by raw cotton is high, and is a property not of the cellu-
lose itself, but of certain acidic non-cellulose impurities.

2. The absorption diminishes progressively; it indicates and measures the

ll a elt

SECTIONAL, TRANSACTIONS.—B, C. 437

progressive purification of the cotton cellulose. A sufficiently energetic scouring
process results in a minimum absorption which is not further diminished by
more prolonged treatment, but if the scouring process is not efficient the bleached
material still shows a high absorption. The minimum value referred to above
is not, however, the same for all cottons, but is determined by the origin of
the material, and is much higher in the case of Egyptian than in that of
American cottons, the latter being characterised by a very low and constant
‘minimum absorption.’

_8. The absorption by scoured cotton is not further affected by normal
bleaching, though excessive treatment with oxidising agents, so-called ‘ over-
bleaching,’ causes chemical attack of the cellulose itself and results in an
increased absorption of the basic dye due to the presence of acidic oxidation
products (‘oxycellulose’). This fact has long formed the basis of qualitative
dyeing tests for the presence of oxycellulose in bleached cotton, but it has not
been generally realised that a positive result given by such tests may be due
either to ‘under-scouring’ or to ‘ over-bleaching,’ and that comparable results
can only be expected from similar types of cotton.

18. Prof. H. E. Frierz.—The Sulphonation and Nitration of
Naphthalene.

The author has investigated the interaction of naphthalene and sulphuric
acid, and has been able to show that the rule established first by Armstrong and
Wynne holds good in every case where the system naphthalene and sulphuric
acid is involved.

The quantitative aspect of this reaction has been studied in detail, and the
many errors of the scientific literature have been corrected.

Several of the free naphthalene-mono and disulphonic acids have been pre-
pared and described. The crystals were measured and compared with the
corresponding metal salts. Over 100 were investigated. It was found that the
crystallographic shape is exclusively determined by the anion, and the free
acids and the salts are very similar in all cases.

The nitration of the acids has also been studied, as well as the reduction
of the nitro-sulphonic acids. It is shown the beta-naphthalene-mono-sulphonic
acid is capable, under exactly defined conditions, of yieiding quantitatively a
new diazonium salt of technical interest. The other acids do not behave in
the same way.

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 504.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Prof. P. G. H. Boswetu, O.B.E.—Lecture on the Geology of
the Liverpool District.

2. Discussion on The Geography of the Liverpool District from
Pre-Glacial Times to the Present. Opener, Sir AUBREY
SrraHAN, F'.R.S.

The estuaries of the Mersey and the Dee form the outstanding features of
the Liverpool district. Indeed, the comparatively recent development of
Liverpool as a port and business centre, and its outstripping of the ancient city
of Chester, have been determined by the nature of the estuaries on which they
are respectively situated; yet, for some reason not now obvious, the Dee
attracted the Romans while the Mersey was ignored. It becomes of interest,
therefore, to inquire whether there is any geological evidence of change in
the character of the estuaries which will account for the shift of commercial
centre.

438 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.

That the estuary of the Dee has existed in approximately the same position
since early Pleistocene times is highly probable, for borings have revealed the
fact that Boulder Clay extends far below sea-level under parts of it. It
appears, however, that the post-Glacial estuary does not exactly coincide with
that which existed before the Glacial Period, and that the pre-Glacial course
of the river after it left the Welsh hills was not recovered after the ice
retreated. ‘The changes in the upper reaches have been investigated by Mr.
L. J. Wills (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixviii., 1912, p. 180). Lower down
at Holt, Alford, and Chester, as shown in the Geological Survey Memoir on
Flint, 1890, p. 161, the pre-Glacial course was so blanketed by Boulder Clay
that the river cut a new course, partly in solid rock. A depressed area ranging
through Pulford, Kinnerton, and Dodleston, presumably marks the site of the
buried valley, and leads to a tract on the south side of the modern estuary,
where Boulder Clay has been found to extend to a great depth below sea-level.

Similar changes seem to have been forced upon the Mersey as a result
of glacial conditions. One diversion near Runcorn was made known by
Mellard Reade, who showed that the pre-Glacial course ran north of Westbank
under Ditton Marsh (Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 1871-2). He was led to
anticipate that a pre-Glacial channel would be encountered in the Mersey
Tunnel, as proved to be the case (op. cit., vol. v., 1889, p. 74). In several
other places also along the present course of the river great depths of Boulder
Clay, sometimes far below sea-level, were recorded by him and others. It
would not be safe, however, to assume that all the cases of deep drift are
referable to the pre-Glacial channel of either the Mersey or the Dee. The soft
Triassic rocks were deeply scored, and yielded vast quantities of the material
which was carried southwards to form the glacial drift of Cheshire; shallow
rock basins, as well as river channels, may lie buried beneath the glacial drift.

The changes which have taken place in post-Glacial times are of a different
character, and due to a different cause. Evidence is furnished by buried land
surfaces on the Lancashire, Cheshire, and North Wales coasts that the land
has stood at a higher level in post-Glacial times than now. In South Wales
the difference in altitude was ascertained to be not less than 55 feet (Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lii., 1896, p. 474), and the occurrence of polished flint-
implements proved that one at least of the submerged surfaces was of Neolithic
age. The deposits of this age lie in and below the present foreshore, and
extend inland under the recent alluvial deposits of the valleys. | Wherever
exposed to the scour of the tide they are being rapidly swept away, and the
assumption that they once extended far beyond their present limits is not only
legitimate but supported by tradition, whatever that may be worth, concerning
lost lands off the coast of North Wales. We may assume, therefore, that the
coast was fringed by a low-lying forest-grown tract, and that the estuaries were
bordered by similar uninviting ground. Sinking of the land and the sub-
mergence of these tracts were the first stages in the development of the estuaries
as we see them. The admittance of the tide led to the further stages.

So far, however, we have found no good reason why the Dee was preferred
to the Mersey by the early settlers. More than one hypothesis has been put
forward to account for the preference. It has even been suggested that the
Mersey estuary had no existence in Roman times, and that the river then
formed a tributary of the Dee. The second-century maps of Ptolemy show
what is witheut doubt the estuary of the Dee, but represent no estuary corre-
sponding to that of the Mersey. Further support for the suggestion was found
in the existence of a valley which runs near Stoke from one estuary to the
other. That such a valley exists is true; it is, moreover, occupied by a con-
tinuous strip of alluvium which connects the alluvium of the Gowy, a tributary
of the Mersey, with that of the Dee. The theory that it formed a free passage
for the Mersey is founded on the continuity of the alluvium, on the occurrence
of marine shells of recent species along it, and, lastly, on the authority of a
map of the time of John Scott, eighth Earl of Chester, 1232-1237, in which it is
represented as being occupied by water for its whole length from the Mersey
to the Dee. These arguments, however, are worthless, for the alluvium,
though continuous, forms a gentle slope rising to a height of 40 feet above the
sea. A subsidence sufficient to submerge this slope would put under water

ra ©

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 439

many of the ancient roads of the district, and is known not to have taken
place in post-Roman times. The marine shells occur as boulders in the Boulder
Clay which forms the sides of the valley, and have no significance as regards
its post-Glacial history. Lastly, in the same map Alford Brook is also repre-
sented as a continuous stream connecting the Dee and the Gowy by Tattenhall.
Such a continuation of this brook can never have existed. There is, in fact,
no geological evidence that the broad alluvial lands extending up to and beyond
Warringtor ever drained in post-Glacial times in any other direction than
between Liverpool and Birkenhead.

The difficulty is not lessened by the fact that the navigation of the Dee
estuary is intricate for small vessels and impossible for large. Notwithstanding
this, the Irish packets sailed from Parkgate for many years, and it was not
until the channel in its meanders through the shifting sands betook itself to
the opposite side of the estuary that Parkgate ceased to be a port. Chester
as a port had been abandoned in 1449. In 1700 an Act was passed to enable
the Mayor and citizens to recover and preserve the navigation, and in 1833
a banked artificial channel had been made, and upwards of 7,000 acres re-
claimed. About 1870 a bank was carried from Burton Point to Connah’s Quay,
but it was broken by a high tide, and the area enclosed by it was overflowed,
and so remained for many years, until the Cheshire Lines branch railway was
constructed. (Maps showing various stages in the reclamation of the estuary
are reproduced in the Geological Survey Memoir on Flint, &c.)

In the meantime Liverpool was developing. In the twelfth century it was
a small fishing village. In 1715 the first dock was built—that is, about the
time when the Mayor and citizens of Chester were striving to recover their
river. At the present day Liverpool is one of the great ports of the world.
The problem, then, on which I wish to see light thrown by this discussion
relates to the preference shown through several centuries for the estuary of
the Dee, and the apparent neglect of the open tideway of the Mersey. It is
no new question, for so long ago as 1849 Sir James Picton, in a paper on
changes of level of the West Coast of England (Proc. Lit. and Phil. Soc.,
Liverpool, vol. v., p. 113) commented on the ignoring of the Mersey by the
Romans, and speculated on the Mersey estuary having had no existence until
after the Roman occupation.

For my own part I can only suggest that the land surfaces which were
not submerged until the close of Neolithic time still extended so widely in the
estuary and on the adjacent coasts as to create difficulties in navigation. There.
may, however, have been geographical and political reasons depending on other
than geological considerations.

3. Mr. C. B. Travis.—Recent Geological Changes on the Northern
Shore of the Mersey Estuary.

The area described forms part of the South Lancashire coast on the north-
eastern side of Liverpool Bay, between Waterloo and Hightown.

This tract of coast, about four miles in length, consists superficially of
Blown Sand, which in places rises in dunes to elevations of 30 to 50 feet. The
sand lies on a platform of post-Glacial deposits, which are well exposed on the
foreshore in a fine section about a mile in length and 50 yards in breadth.
These deposits consist of the ‘Upper Peat and Forest Bed,’ underlain by Grey
Sands and Silts, which rest in turn on unexposed Boulder Clay. The bed-
rock which has not been exposed along the coast has been proved in borings
to consist of an undulating surface of Keuper Marl, while inland at a short
distance Keuper Sandstone outcrops. The River Alt breaks through the sand-
hills at. Hightown, and flows along the shore in a southerly direction, falling
into the Victoria Channel at Crosby.

During the past ten years marine erosion has been very active along this
coast, and the sandhills between Crosby and Hightown have suffered severely.
This is due to tidal action and to changes in position of the River Alt on the
foreshore, leading to a considerable lowering of the level of the beach. The

_ Peat and Forest Beds and associated sediments are being rapidly fretted away,

while the dunes have been cut back to a maximum distance of 85 yards within
eight years. This wasting of the coast has caused the destruction of valuable

440 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.

residential property, and has become a serious local menace. Owing to a land-
ward swing of the Alt the wide expense of sandy shore formerly exposed at
low tide is no longer available as a source of supply to the marginal dunes
which have been strongly denuded and in places levelled during heavy gales.
To the south, towards Waterloo, however, erosion diminishes with the recession
of high-water mark from the margin of the land and the seaward bend of the
Alt, and a marked accretion of sand is now taking place. A comparison of
old maps and charts with the latest Ordnance Survey shows the changes which
have taken place in the form of this part of the coast in the last three centuries,
an important example of accreticn being furnished by the development of the
sand-dune salient of Formby Point, while in later times a broad tract of dune-
land, forming the Altcar Rifle Range, has been built up by artificial means in
less than a century.

4 Mr. T. A. Jones.—The Middle Bunter Sandstones of the

Liverpool District and their Pebbles.

Of the various divisions of the Triassic sandstones, the middle series of the
Bunter, generally known as the Pebble Beds, is most in evidence in the neigh-
bourhood of Liverpool. They cover a large part of the Wirral Peninsula,
where their thickness has been estimated at from 750 to 950 feet, and underlie
the greater portion of the City of Liverpool and its suburbs, where the maximum
thickness reaches 1,200 feet. They form hard, massive beds of a predominantly
red or brown colour, varied by bands of grey, and have furnished the principal
building stone of the district. Cross bedding is frequently seen, and marl
bands several feet thick are of common but irregular occurrence.

In the almost complete absence of fossils from the Liverpool Trias, interest
is largely confined to questions relating to the origin of the material constituting
the sandstones and the methods of its transport and accumulation. On these
points a study of the pebbles which occur in great number and variety in the
Middle Bunter beds affords:one of the most promising directions in which to
seek for definite information. The pebbles are distributed in a very sporadic
manner, and include in greatest number quartzites and grits of many kinds,
with a small proportion of granites, felstones, and a very interesting group of
metamorphic rocks characterised by the presence of tourmaline in many forms.
The igneous rocks also are mostly schorlaceous, and in one granite pebble garnets
were found in addition. The constant presence of tourmaline naturally sug-
gests that the metamorphic rocks, together with the felstones, may all be related
as contact rocks of the same intrusive mass, of which the schorlaceous granite
pebbles may possibly be marginal samples. These pebbles resemble very closely
those of the Bunter beds of the Midlands as described by Professor Bonney.

Fossiliferous pebbles are extremely rare, but one obscure specimen seems
to indicate that the Ordovician quartzites found in the Midlands and at Bud-
leigh Salterton may not be entirely absent. As these quartzites contain fossils
which have never been found in the Ordovician sediments of the British Isles,
but which occur abundantly in the Gres de May of Normandy, a southern origin
of some portion at least of the Bunter deposits is suggested, notwithstanding
that, following Professor Bonney, the majority of the quartzites are generally
regarded as of northern origin. Support is lent to this view by the fact that
the tourmaline-bearing pebbles, on the whole, seem to be most readily matched
from outcrops still found in the south and south-west of England.

Whatever theory is adopted the great variety of the pebbles, no less than
the enormous volume of the deposits, demands an extensive area of supply, and
there is evidence of the existence at the dawn of the period of land masses
extending on the west from north to south, where metamorphic rocks of the
kind required, or conglomerates and breccias containing them, may have been
exposed to denudation. From widely separated parts of this region torrents and
rivers in flood may have carried down fragments and scattered them as pebbles
over the sandy eastern plains.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to Hall Road and Crosby
Shore to examine the sections described by Mr. C. B. Travis. (See
No. 3 above.) .

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 441

Friday, September 14th.

5. Presidential Address by Dr. Gurtrupe L. Exes, M.B.E.,
on Evolutional Paleontology in Relution to the Lower Paleozoic
Rocks. (See p. 83.) .

6. Prof. P. F. Kenpann.—On Quaternary Isostatic Readjustments
in N.W. Lurope.

Jamieson’s theory of Isostasy formulated to explain the raised beaches and
submerged forest of Scotland has been applied in detail to Scandinavia and
parts of North America, but some implications fully recognised by him have
not been specifically adopted.

When an area is depressed by overloading a wave of sub-crust material
must be generated which travels outward, producing a transient elevation. When
the loaded area is again unloaded a return-wave travels inward. The latter
alone has been recognised, e.g. by Upham, Gilbert, Brogger, and de Geer.
In both movements there appears to be considerable lag.

The advance of the Scandinavian ice-sheet upon the Yorkshire coast was
preceded by an uplift whereby the coast-line was deserted by the sea—perhaps
for a prolonged period. Depression ensued at a later stage, represented by the
Kirmington deposits and perhaps by the much disturbed Burstwick Gravels.
Post-glacial movements have restored the land levels to their pre-glacial position.

In Scotland, though similar effects were most probably produced, they have
been masked by the deformations due to native ice-loads. The isostatic
recovery of Scotland deformed the strand-lines, though not to so marked a
degree, nor in so clear a fashion as in Scandinavia, yet the effects are well seen,
e.g. on the shores of the Forth.

Scandinavia furnishes a clear example of the lagging of the isostatic
recovery and its wave-like progression. Brégger has shown that during the
retreat of the ice-margin from the Outer to the Inner Ra depression was
continuing, though the ice-load was diminishing. Simultaneously the wave of
recovery was advancing across Denmark.

In Upham’s monograph on Lake Agassiz it is shown that the recovery was
delayed until the ice-margin had retired for a distance of 250 miles.

The movements in the North Sea Basin seem to lend no support to de la
Mothe’s speculations—they were diastrophic not eustatic—with the doubtful
exception of that recorded in our submerged forests.

In the interpretation of the records it is necessary to take account of the
effect of the closure of the North Sea by the ice-sheet, whereby a condition
with regard to salinity would be produced comparable to that of the Baltic.
This would explain the estuarine character of the faunas.

7, Prof. P. G. H. Boswetu, O.B.E.—The Structure and Succession
of the Silurian Rocks in the Eastern Part of the Denbighshire

Moors.

Previous work on the area includes that of Ramsay, Professor Marr,
McKenny Hughes, and Dr. Elles. This paper consists of a detailed description
of the succession of the Ludlow deposits of the eastern part of the Denbigh-
shire Moors. The rocks are mainly mudstones, siltstones, and fine sandstones,
often flaggy and usually graptolite-bearing. They are of shallow-water
character, ard in places are slightly calcareous. Several of the graptolite zones
of the Ludlow as worked out on the Welsh borders are present, and lithologically,

the sequence most nearly resembles that recently described by Dr. L. J. Wills

in the Llangollen district. The zone of M. tumescens is, however, developed
in the Denbighshire Moors, where it lies above beds of Nant y bache type.
Rolling siltstones and mudstones with abundant graptolites (the Nantglyn
Flags, of nilssoni-zone, as described by Dr. Elles = the ‘ Slab’ horizon of Dr.
Wills) occupy a large part of the area.

Owing to the amount of faulting the thickness of the various divisions is
difficult to estimate. The Nantglyn Flags consist of at least 1,000 feet of

442 SECTIONAL {TRANSACTIONS.—C.

banded siltstones and mudstones containing abundant graptolites, which include
M. bohemicus, M. colonus, M. dubius, M. uncinatus var. orbatus, M. salweyi,
&e., belonging to the nilssoni-zone.

Succeeding these are 900 feet of cleaved, striped, and current-bedded sandy
flags with bands of calcareous mudstones (=Nant y bache of Dr. Wills), and at
the top, fine sandstones. Graptolites are not common, and are badly preserved,
but are of dubius and colonus types. | The sandstones occur as several thin
bands, and are badly crumpled. The cleavage strikes approximately east-west,
and dips north.

About 1,200 feet of flaggy beds and mudstones overlie these beds. Cleavage
becomes less pronounced, and practically disappears in the mudstones. The
uppermost beds are flaggy and contain JM. tumescens and rarely M. scanicus.
The mudstones contain M. dubius, M. colonus, Dayia navicula, Rhynchonella
nucula, Acidaspis hughesi, &c. M. leintwardensis has not yet been found.

The country is broken into blocks by normal faulting. The dominant
system courses approximately north-south, with usually the downthrow to the
east. A similar series of fractures throws down the Carboniferous and Trias
on the eastern margin of the area, and forms the western boundary of the
Vale of Clwyd.

8. Prof. P. F. Kenpatu.—The Formation of Inter-lake Deltas.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to North Wirral and
Storeton Quarries.

Saturday, September 15th.

In connection with the general excursion to Lake Vyrnwy a geo-
logical party, led by the President of Section C and Mr. W. B. R. King,
visited sections in the Upper Ordovician and Lower Silurian rocks.

Sunday, September 16th.

A full-day excursion to Flintshire took place. (Holywell Shales,
Carboniferous Limestones and Cherts, Glacial deposits, &c.)

Monday, September 17th.
9. Dr. R. L. Saertock.—The British Rock-salt Deposits.

British rock-salt deposits are confined to the New Red rocks. Two areas
are recognised: (1) a Western District containing the deposits of Cheshire,
Lancashire, Isle of Man, North Ireland, Staffordshire, Worcestershire, and
Somerset; (2) an Eastern District comprising Co. Durham and Yorkshire.

In the Western District the rock-salt is in the Keuper Marl; in the Eastern
District its age has been a matter of controversy, and it is described by different
authors as Keuper or Permian.

In the Western District there are frequently two beds of salt separated
by a band of marl, as in Cheshire, Lancashire, North Ireland, Staffordshire,
and Worcestershire. This leads to the conclusion that the two salt beds in
these counties are contemporaneous, as probably are those of the Isle of Man
and Somerset, where, however, the two beds have not been recognised.

The Cheshire deposits occur in a Top and Bottom Bed separated by from
20 to 45 feet of marl. The Top Bed is from about 30 to 90 feet thick, and
the Bottom Bed from about 60 to 91 feet, the Top Bed being the more variable.
This is in part owing to subsequent denudation. A recent investigation! indi-
cates that the salt-field is much more extensive than had been supposed,
covering an area of about 375 square miles.

* R. L. Sherlock. Rock-salt and Brine. Special Reports on the Mineral
Resources of Great Britain, vol. xviii., Mem. Geol. Surv., 1921.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 443

In the Eastern District there are also two beds of salt, but both are
present in only a few places. Comparing different borings it is apparent that
the main (upper) salt-bed at Middlesbrough is in the ‘Upper Permian Marl’?
of Nottinghamshire, and the lower one in the ‘ Middle Permian Marl’ of that
county. It has, however, been shown that the so-called Permian of Notting-
hamshire passes laterally into Trias northwards, and it is believed that there
is no Permian System in Britain. The horizons of these salt-beds are lower
than those of the Western District, and they have probably a different origin.
The Eastern deposits are associated with gypsum, anhydrite, and dolomite,
whereas in the Western District only secondary gypsum is known. It is
inferred that, while the Eastern salts were deposited in the (Zechstein) sea,
the Western salts originated in lakes in a desert, at a somewhat later period.

10. Miss M. Worxman.—The Permian Rocks of Skillaw Clough.

Outcrops of Lower Permian rocks occur at Bispham, near Ormskirk, in
Skillaw Clough, and also along Bentley Brook.

The Millstone Grit described for comparison is found in Skillaw Clough,
and forming a ridge of hills behind Parbold; its junction with the Permian
is probably unconformable.

In Skillaw Clough the Magnesian Limestone overlies purple-red fossiliferous
marls resting on soft bright-red and hard brown sandstone; in Bentley Brook
purple-red fine sandstone with shale bands is found above the Magnesian Lime-
stone, which in turn overlies interbedded compact purple-red shales and sand-
stones. The cementing material is calcite with dark-red limonite.

The ‘heavy’ minerals include pyrite, magnetite, garnet, zircon, rutile,
anatase, xenotime(?), tourmaline, ilmenite, hematite, hypersthene,* muscovite,
epidote, chlorite, and monazite.

‘The shale sandstones and grits of the Millstone Grit series contain the
following ‘heavy’ minerals: Pyrite, garnet, zircon, xenotime (7), rutile, tour-
maline, ilmenite (and other iron ores), hypersthene,* topaz, muscovite, chlorite,
and monazite. This assemblage is very similar to that found in the Millstone
Grit of Leeds by Dr. Gilligan, as well as to that of the Lower Permian of
West Lancashire. There is also a great similarity between the latter and
other Permian, whether found east of the Pennines or in Devonshire.

As to derivation—the condition of the quartz, felspar, and garnets, and the
presence of monazite indicate that the materials of the Permian came princi-
pally from the Millstone Grit which had a northern origin. Some basic or
ultra-basic rocks. probably of the Highland complex, must have furnished the
hypersthene, epidote, and chlorite. The rocks were apparently laid down in
an arid climate on the shores of an inland sea which afterwards covered them.

11. Prof. G. Hicxrina.—The Tectonics of the Lancashire Coalfield.

The paper gives some conclusions resulting from a study of the South
Lancashire Coalfield (excluding the Burnley basin) by means of a precise
contoured plan showing the present configuration of the surface of one stratum,
the Trencherbone coal-seam.

The Coal Measures attain a thickness of over 7,500 feet in the eastern part
of the field. and show a striking westerly thinning to about 3,500 feet near
Prescot. The greater part of this reduction is due to the dwindling of the
Upper Coal Measures, in which both actual thinning of the measures (with
loss of coal) and overlap by the Permian and Trias play a part. The Middle
Coal Measures diminish from 3,500 feet on the east to 2,000 feet on the west.
The coal-seams are brought nearer together by the reduction of the intervening
strata, but little coal is Iost. On the other hand. the area of Middle Coal
Measures south of Bolton and Bury is remarkable for the failure of the lower
seams (below the Cannel). The Lower Coal Measures are believed to be fairly
constant, with a thickness of about 1,500 feet. ;

2 BR. UL. Sherlock. Relationship of the Permian to the Trias in Nottingham-
shire. Q.7.G.S., vol. Ixvii., 1911, pp. 75-117 and pl. V,
3 The first record for this system,

444, SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.

The Coal Measures in this area are covered by
(3) Bunter Sandstones ;

(2) Permian Marls with Limestones ;

(1) Collyhurst (? Permian) Sandstones.

The Collyhurst Sandstones are mainly confined to the area around Man-
chester and Stockport, and their rapid and irregular variation in thickness
(from 0 to 1,500 feet) within that area is only intelligible on the supposition
that they are separated from the overlying Permian Marls by a strong un-
conformity. They appear to be separated from the Coal Measures below by
a further unconformity. There is no definite evidence in this area of uncon-
formity between the Bunter and the Permian Marls.

The Lancashire Coalfield occupies the N.E. angle of the rhomb-shaped
‘ Cheshire basin,’ which may be regarded as bounded by the Ribble anticlines
(N.E.-S.W.) on the north-west, the Audley anticline (N.E.-S.W.) on the south-
east, the Pennine elevation on the east, and the Clwydian elevation on the
west. The basin was probably subdivided in pre-Triassic by an E.-W. elevation
passing a little south of Macclesfield and Chester, while the northern part of the
basin is further subdivided by the Rossendale anticline (E.-W.), cutting off the
Burnley basin, with the Knowsley anticline (N.E.-S.W.), which continues it
to the south-west. A minor anticline of the N.E.-S.W. series modified the
eastern side of the basin near Stockport.

The Lancashire Coalfield is probably separatcd from the Flint Coalfield by
the N.-S. anticline which passes near Prescot, and which is probably con-
tinued under the Triassic cover to the south.

The partial basin with the limits just defined has a diameter of about
thirty miles, and an area about three times that of the exposed coalfield.

This basin is further modified by two very pronounced troughs, due princi-
pally to faulting, which cross the exposed coalfield—the Irwell Valley trough
and the Wigan trough. Both trend N.W.-S.E., and within each there is minor
folding, which appears to be related to the faulting. In each case the depth
of the trough increases towards the margin of the basin. A third trough
between St. Helens and Prescot has exactly the same characters, except that
its boundary faults trend N.-S.

The detailed study of the faulting of this area fully substantiates the recogni-
tion of two main groups N.W.-S.E. and E.-W. The former series includes all
the largest faults. A third series trending nearly N.-S. is almost restricted
to the eastern and western sides of the basin. While these directions are on
the whole clear and distinct, and the dominance of the N.W.-S.E. series is very
pronounced, there appears also some tendency to a convergence of these latter
faults towards a point on the buried extension of the Ribble anticline about
five miles south-west of Preston, suggesting a possible torsional strain.

The great majority of the faults are very regular planes, cases of apparent
irregularity being due as a rule to combination of several faults. In the
middle of the coalfield are several very instructive cases where displacement
has attempted to follow a line midway between the N.W.-S.E. and the E.-W.
fractures; the result being a zigzag fault following first one direction, then the
other. Only one notable case of a fault following a curved course (turning
through some 80°) has been met, the Bickershaw Lane fault.

The faulting is on a larger scale than in any other British coalfield. The
1,000 yards fault (Irwell Valley) is famous. There are seven or eight with
throws exceeding 500 yards, and as many again nearly approaching that figure.
One fault mapped may have a displacement of 1,500 yards or more.

The hade of the faults can be demonstrated only in a minority of cases.
It is very variable in large and small faults alike. Several of the largest
have a hade of 45° or more, while others are nearly vertical. The average hade
is probably not far from 30°. Most of the E.-W. faults appear to be very
steep, but with that exception there is no apparent relation between the trend
or direction of throw and the hade.

A rough estimate of the lateral expansion of the area necessary to allow
for the formation of the faults met with between the east and west ends of
the coalfield gives a minimum increase of 21 miles in a present length of

;

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 445
thirty miles. The folding along the same line cannot represent a contraction
of more than one mile.

Many examples of astoundingly rapid variation in throw are found, the most
extreme case proved being a change from over 700 yards to nil in a distance
of 14 miles. Such cases are associated with the change of strike at the ‘ bends’
in the rim of the basin.

A few cases of actual crossing of important faults have been found, but
they are not common. There are several large-scale examples of reversal of
throw along the same general line of fracture. No clear case of extensive
lateral displacement along a fault-line has been found.

It is obvious that a large part of the folding and faulting was pre-Permian,
and-that it was continued through Permian and Triassic times.

The deepest part of the present basin lies nearer to its eastern side, a little
south-west of Manchester. Both the Coal Measures and the Collyhurst Sand-
stone thicken towards this region, and thus suggest early movement roughly
coincident with the later folding. ‘

Certain cases of rapid changes of strata associated with faults suggest
possible fault movements during Coal Measure deposition. There is no clear
indication that any of the three fault-systems is older or younger than the
others, though the marked dominance of the N.W.-S.E. series may indicate
that it was first in the field.

The form of the coal basin indicates a large area of buried measures in
which the coal should be at workable depth. The determining factor in actual
development will be the thickness of the Permo-Triassic and Upper Coal
Measure cover—not the depth of the coal-basin.

12. Mr. G. Suatrer.—Observations on the Nordenskidld and Neigh-
bouring Glaciers of Spitsbergen, 1921.

The Nordenskisld Glacier.—As seen from Bruce City the gathering ground
of this glacier is approximately marked by two great nunataks, Mts. Terrier
and Ferrier. From these it passes downwards as a narrowing wedge-shaped
mass deflected seawards by a long frontal moraine, the result of which is the
formation of a compressed zone of ice in the south-western corner.

The front of the glacier stretches two miles across the deep waters of Adolf
Bay, forming partly submerged cliffs of ice, from which bergs are wrenched
off at frequent intervals.

The floor of the glacier has a fairly steep gradient, and consists of hard
rocks of the pre-Devonian basement series associated with igneous rocks, whilst
across the more central part is a buried ridge ot highly metamorphosed rocks.
These rocks form the englacial moraine layers of the lower part of the ice,
while the softer Permo-Carboniferous: rocks from the surrounding mountains
furnish material for the surface moraines.

The glacier may be divided into two main zones according to the distribution
of tension and pressure. The central portion consists of an amphitheatre of
broken ice dissected by two sets of crevasses into rectangular blocks, while
towards the sides the ice assumes a rounded form.

Directed concentrated pressure is indicated in the south-western portion
by a zone of hummocky surface neve ice associated with thrust-planes, which
passes into smooth, finely-corrugated uncrevassed ice dissected by inclined
longitudinal fissures running parallel with the englacial bands and associated
with ribbon-structure. Here the ice becomes increasingly stagnant towards
the periphery, not one of the six surface moraines of this area reaching the
sea.

The ice in the central area moved 51.1 feet per day as determined in
August by Mr. Mathieson with a theodolite.
The englacial rim of ice adjoining the. frontal moraine was apparently

stationary.

Measurement of the overhanging ice-cliffs of the south-western compressed

q ‘area showed irregular differential slide over the lower dirt-filled ice associated

with marginal crevasses. The upper hummocky ice moved by thrust-planes
towards the lower compressed area.
The glacier is in a retreating phase, and the average retreat of the ice

446 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.

adjoining the moraine is estimated at about 13 feet per year, and this is sup-
ported by a comparison of the position of the ice on the top of the frontal
moraine in 1910 with its position eleven years later.

Lbba Glacier.—This is fed from the same gathering ground as the Norden-
skidld.

lis special feature is the upper ‘neck,’ where the ice is nipped in by and
passes over a ridge of pre-Devonian rocks, afterwards fanning out as a rounded
dome-shaped glacier with radiating crevasses.

Sections at the neck showed bands of crevassed and contorted ice filled with
englacial material. This section compares well with the model of ice action
described by Professor Sollas.

A side section of the glacier near its termination showed banded ice with
masses of included gravel, and the frontal face showed an exceptional amount
of banded englacial material.

A smooth, rounded roche moutonnée occurs in front of the glacier, and is
evidently the cause of the inclination of the englacial bands.

The Sven Glacier forms part of the Horbye Glacier. Its upper part rests
on a highiy inclined ridge of Devonian rock exposed through the ice in places.
Over this the neve ice passes, and is traversed by innumerable thrust-planes
~esembling strain-slip cleavage.

The effect of exceptional pressure of neve ice is seen in a side section of the
4lacier : masses of contorted ice curve upwards along thrust-planes over a lower
zone of ice filled with morainic matter. The upper surface of the ice is much
wrinkled, and contains scattered mounds of morainic material composed of
angular fragments. c

13. Mr. K. W. Earte.—Preliminary Report on the Geology of the
Windward and Leeward Islands.

The Windward and Leeward Islands, with the exception of the Virgin
Islands on the extreme north, are composed entirely of Tertiary and Recent
rocks. The basement beds consist of Hypersthene- and Augite-Andesites of
? Kocene age, and are overlain spasmodically by sedimentary tuffs and lime-
stones of Eocene and Oligocene age. These are covered and incorporated
with later eruptive rocks—chiefly of the pyroclastic type, but varied by basaltic
lava-flows—ejected at all periods from -Middle Tertiary to Recent times
(e.g. Mt. Pelee and St. Vincent). ;

While such islands as Anguilla show little but the sedimentary deposits un-
obscured by later eruptives, the majority are extremely mountainous, and the
sedimentary deposits are largely denuded or obscured by the later ash and
boulder deposits. The occurrence of marine limestones in. almost every island,
sometimes at a height of 800 to 1,000 feet, indicates extensive oscillations in
the chain, and that the old distinction between the volcanic and purely sedi-
mentary islands must be abandoned.

With the exception of fhe Virgin Islands the chain bears no resemblance
either to the Cuba-Porto Rico belt of islands or to Barbados and Trinidad,
which latter island is essentially South American in type. There is, however,
evidence in Grenada that fhe islands have in part been subjected to the same
earth movements as Trinidad. t

The writer is of opinion that the old Continental theory of the origin of
the Lesser Antilles must be abandoned and the islands recognised as the
denuded cones of submarine volcanoes operating at various foci from earliest
Tertiary times.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to Scarth Hill, near Orms-
kirk, and Skillaw Clough, near Parbod.

Tuesday, September 18. :
14. Mr. C. P. Cuarwin.—A New Gasteropod Fauna from the Chalk.

This communication dealt with a collection of numerous small gasteropads
found in the mucronata zone of Norwich, ;

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C, D. MA

15, Discussion on Metamorphism. Opener, Dr. J. S. Fuurr, O.B.E.,
F.R.S.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to Green Collieries and
Brick Pits in Coal Measures.

SECTION D.—-ZOOLOGY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 504.)

. Thursday, September 13.

7 1. Presidential Address by Prof. J. H. Asuworrs, F.R.S., on
Modern Zoology: Some of its Developments and its Bearings on
| Human Welfare. (See p. 108.)

2. Prof. E. B. Pouuron, F.R.S.—The Meaning of the Transparent
Under-surface of the Wings in Certain Butterflies.

Mr. W. J. Kaye has recently shown that the dead-leaf-like under-surface of
the Neotropical butterfly Protogonius is transparent, so that the upper surface
alone is seen when the insect is sailing overhead. Although these butterflies
have been known for 150 years, no one until the last few months has thought
of holding a specimen up to the light! When the species, or more probably
geographical races, of this genus are studied from various parts of tropical
America, they are always found to resemble dead leaves on the under, and the
dominant association of distasteful butterflies found in their locality on the
upper surface. Everywhere this latter pattern is the one seen during flight
and the leaf pattern only at rest with the wings closed. Mr. Kaye’s important
discovery has suggested a new point of view in the study of insect patterns
which has already led to many interesting and surprising results.

3. Reports of Committees. (See pp. 318 seq.)

4, Mr. J. T. Cunnincuam.—Origin of Adaptations: Present Position
of the Question in relation to Recent Research.

The novelty and interest of many recent discoveries have so absorbed the
attention of biologists that the problems and the phenomena which occupied the
minds of a former generation are in danger of being neglected and forgotten.
The younger generation are apt to think that most, if not all, of the habits and
deals of the Victorian era were merely the outward and visible signs of an
rlier and less advanced stage of evolution. But just as from time to time the
present generation finds it has to deal With the same problems of human life
and society as had its parents and grandparents, so it is important for biologists
to consider how far the new facts recently discovered help to explain the old
phenomena and solve the old problems.

Prof. Poulton, at a meeting of the Eugenics Society in July, described and
showed lantern slides of some very extraordinary cases recently investigated of
secondary sexual characters in male moths and caddis-flies. He described facts
hich in his opinion showed that sexual selection actually occurs. Prof.
Poulton was not in this case following any of the new doctrines, but upholding,
as he thought. the original Darwinian theory. Yet he was forgetting the fact
that the essential point in secondary sexual characters was their limitation in
‘inheritance (not in heredity) to one sex, and that Darwin himself pointed out,
his volume on ‘ Sexual Selection,’ that the selection would not bring about
he difference between the sexes unless the variations selected were already

H H

448 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.

2nd edit., Chap. XV.). The problem to be explained is the sexual limitation
of inheritance, and that we know now is due to the action of the sexual hormones.

At the meeting of the Association last year Mr. J. 8. Huxley discussed the
question of time-relations in amphibian metamorphosis, especially with regard
to the discovery that the metamorphosis is to a great degree influenced by the
internal secretion of the thyroid. Administration of thyroid hastens meta-
morphosis in the frog, causes it in the Axolotl, but fails to produce it in
Perennibranchiates such as Necturus. ‘The question to be considered is the
relation of these facts to the old problem of metamorphosis as a recapitulation
of successive stages of evolution. It is this problem which is being overlooked
and forgotten.

On the other hand, we have the discoveries of the geneticists, especially the
occurrence and nature of mutations. These are of quite a different character
from the changes indicated by recapitulation, and a careful comparison will
show that mutations like those observed could never, for example, have
resulted in the evolution of terrestrial from aquatic vertebrates.

None of the recent discoveries throws any new light on the question of the
origin of adaptations, except one—namely, that the sexual limitation of inherit-
ance is due to the influence of the sexual hormones.

5. Mr. H. R. Hewer.—-Colour Changes in the Common Frog.

1. A hormone from the posterior lobe of the pituitary (pars intermedia) has
been established as the chief factor (central control) of coiour change in the
common frog.

2. The effects of environmental stimuli have been determined to a certain
extent.

Low temperatures, moisture, and black background tend to produce darkening
of the skin.

Medium to high temperatures, dry surroundings, and white background tend
to produce pallor. :

The effect of light and darkness is obscured by the effects of background,
but it would seem that the former tends to produce pallor and the latter
darkening of the skin.

3. The receptors ot these stimuli are discussed. The only ones definitely
known are those for background—namely, eyes and some kind of receptor in ~
the skin.

4. Evidence has been brought forward to show that the stimuli transmitted —
from the eyes to the pituitary are inhibitory in nature, and probably pass by —
way of the parasympathetic nervous system.

5. It is stated that the weight of the evidence goes to show that the dermal —
melanophores ‘ expand’ and ‘ contract’ by means of movements of the granules i
alone.

6. No evidence has been brought forward to show how the pituitary hormone
brings this about.

6. Mr. Junian S. Huxtey.—Lecture on The Physiology of Develop-
ment in the Frog.

a gee ee

Friday, September 14.

7. Prof. James Jounstone.—Rhythmic Change in the Plankton.

This paper is an account of the results of a series of plankton hauls made |
by Sir William Herdman in Port Erin Bay during the years 1907-1920. The
catches have been worked through by Mr. Andrew Scott and the numbers”
of the larger organisms have been estimated in each example. These quanti-
tative results are tabulated and means for the series of fourteen years are
calculated. There is a very clear seasonal change in the case of each organism,
and this repeats itself from year to year throughout its period. The time of
occurrence of the maximum of abundance may vary, throughout the series, by
a month or more, and there is also a variation in the actual quantities of each |
organism taken. There may be no similarity, even in the case of closely related

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 449

species, in these variations of absolute abundance and time of culmination of
the invasion, and each species appears to be affected differently by the environ-
mental conditions. The factor influencing actual abundance appears to be a
statistical one—a chance association of sub-factors, and not at all any single
physical event, or even a few main physical events, in the sea.

8. Mr. B. Storrow.—Age, Growth, and Maturity of Herrings.

The 1918 year-class of the North Sea in 1920-21 divided into two sections;
one migrated north, the other south. The northern section grew rapidly in
1921-22. The area of greatest growth was west of the passage between the
Orkneys and Shetlands. Growth is influenced more by environment than
heredity. Atlantic water activity is followed by a prolonged spawning
season, formation of new spawning grounds, more extensive or more obvious
migrations, and a mixing of shoals. The formation of races in the North Sea
is a physical impossibility. Spring spawners of the Forth come from northern
waters, and so do the East Anglian shoals. Whilst the conditions of the year
preceding hatching are held to be of the most importancs in the production of
good year-classes, those occurring in the herring’s third year may modify the
yield from the fishery.

9. Dr. Marie Lesour.—The Feeding of some Plankton Organisms.

Living plankton organisms, consisting chiefly of Celenterates, were kept
alive in the laboratory in plunger jars, in order to study their food and methods
of feeding. Others were examined fresh from the tow-nets. It was found that
a large number of species of Meduse were able to capture and digest small
larval and post-larval fishes; this applied also to Pleurobrachia, Sagitta, and
Tomopteris. Aurelia, from the scyphistoma and the smallest ephyra up to a
breadth of at least an inch and a quarter, was able to feed largely on fishes ; other
Medusez, beginning at less than a millimetre across, were eating young herrings,
sprats, and sand-eels. It is thus shown that many of these plankton organisms are
true enemies of the little fishes, although most of them, practically omnivorous,
are able to eat a variety of other food.

10. Mr. A. C. Harpy.—Plankton in Relation to the Food of the
Herring.

As part of the general scheme of investigations at present being carried out
by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries into the natural history of the
North Sea herring, a study has been made of its food at all ages, and that of
the mature fish at different seasons of the year. Plankton samples have been
taken simultaneously with the catch of fish, and selection of food in the plankton
is shown to take place by both young and adult fish. The change of food
during the period of growth and throughout the year is described and such
points as the following discussed : the apparent dependence of the young post-
larval herring on the copepod Pseudocalanus elongatus ; the suspension of feed-
ing in the spawning season; the preference for small fish, notably sand-eels,
rather than copepods in the spring; the importance of Oikopleura; the distribu-
tion of the principal food forms and, briefly, the relation of the herring to the
plankton in general.

11. Mr. J. N. Carrutuers.—North Sea Currents in Relation to |
Fisheries.

In view of the fact that the economics of a fishery are bound up in the
fate of the passively floating eggs, larve, and planktonic food materials, many
investigations into the nature of the currents of such an important fishing area
as the North Sea have been made.

Valuable work by Fulton, some twenty-five years ago, threw light upon the
source of the plaice stock of the Scottish coastal areas. 5

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries emharked, in 1920, upon an
extensive experiment designed to elucidate the non-tidal movements of both
surface and bottom water in the southern North Sea. Drift bottles, both of
the surface-floating and bottom-trailing types, were put out from each of seven

HH 2

450 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.

light-vessels in this area. Twenty-five of each kind were liberated each week
at each ship. The resulting information from this experiment shows very
suggestive relationships with fishery-research problems.

12. Mr. H. C. Cuapwick.—Ezhibit of Microscope Slides and Lantern
Slides of Plankton Organisms.

This exhibit consisted of forty to fifty lantern slides and a few microscope
slides of plankton organisms. Amongst these were some little-known forms.

13. Dr. P. L. Kramp.—Meduse in relation to Hydrographic Con-
ditions.

Planktologists have frequently called attention to the importance of pelagic
organisms as indicators of sea-currents, but actually very little advantage has
been taken of the fact. Mere lists of species, or enumerations of individuals, are
insufficient. The first) condition for drawing general conclusions from the
occurrence of the organisms is knowledge of the biological habits of each
species: distribution, breeding, growth, requirements of hydrographic con-
ditions, &c. The Danish species of Hydromedusz have been studied from this
point of view. Faunistically the Danish seas are particularly interesting, because
they connect an extensive brackish-water area (the Baltic) with the ocean, and
receive inflows of water of very different origin. If we take into constant
consideration the life-history, &c., of the snecies, the Medusan fauna becomes
a great help in tracing the origin of the different bodies of water. The cruise
of the ‘Dana’ in April-May 1923 serves to illustrate this statement.

14, Dr. TH. Morrensen.—Observations from the Danish Expedition
to the Kei Islands, Malay Archipelago, 1922.

The expedition was undertaken in order to find the best place for the
establishment of a marine biological laboratory for the study of deep-sea
organisms. Previous researches (‘ Challenger,’ ‘ Siboga’) suggested the Kei
Islands as offering unusual advantages, and this was fully confirmed through
the investigations of the expedition. The sea-bottom round these islands was
found to form a regular plateau, ca. 2-400 m., affording excellent dredging-
ground, with a rich, genuine abyssal fauna distributed all over it. The rela-
tively small depths and the rather high bottom-temperature (10-129 C.) make
access to the living deep-sea animals exceptionally easy. The shallow-water
fauna being likewise very rich, health conditions good, communications good
and regular, the place seems ideal for such a laboratory, which would naturally
become a central institution for biological investigation of the eastern part of
the Malay Archipelago (Banda Sea, Arafura Sea, Moluccas, New Guinea). Cost
of establishing such a laboratory and annual expenses would be relatively small.

15. Prof. W. J. Daxtn.—The Food of Aquatic Organisms, with
special reference to the Theory of Piitter.

16, Dr. Jous. Scumipr.—The Dana Expeditions and their work on
the Life-History of the Eel. Popular lecture, illustrated by
lantern slides and cinematograph film.

Saturday, September 15.

By the kindness of the Lancashire and Western Sea Fisheries Com-
mittee there was a whole-day dredging trip on their steamer the ‘ James
Fletcher.’

Monday, September 17.
17. Prof. F. J. Corn.—The Vascular System of Myzine.

Three features which are of unique interest in the vascular system of
Myxinoids are the presence of a heart on the portal vein driving blood to the

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 451

liver, the existence of a pair of hearts in the tail operated by extrimsic mus-
culature connecting up the blood and lymphatic vascular systems, and the
occurrence throughout the body generally of large ‘lymphatic’ sinuses, trunks,
and vesseis which always contaim a percentage of red biood. Aithough it is
often asserted that the presence of red blood in the lymphatics is due to acci-
dental extravasation, it can be demonstrated beyond question that its occurrence
there is a normal phenomenon. ‘his being so, it is obvious that there must be
a regular circulation in the lymphatics, and it should be possible to show how
red blood enters and leaves the so-called lymphatic system. As regards the
latter point there are four definite places where the contents of the lymphatic
spaces are directed by valved openings into veins : (1) the contents of the large
subcutaneous sinus are drained by the caudal hearts and pumped into the
caudal vein, whither they pass into the paired posterior cardinal veins; (2) the
last or sixth pair of peribranchial sinuses discharge into the venous anastomosis
between the right and left anterior cardinal veins immediately in front of the
heart; (3) the lingual sinus discharges posteriorly into the inferior jugular
vein; (4) each anterior cardinal vein is constituted in front by the union of a
superficial and a deep factor; the former originates in the brain, but the
latter arises directly and without the intervention of capillaries from the
hypophysio-velar lymph sinus.

In addition to these veno-lymphatics, however, a true lymphatic system,
arising as blind capillaries and discharging into the venous system, can be
established in Myxine. An undoubted lymphatic capillary plexus is found on
the gall-bladder and everywhere in the wall of the gut. In the latter case it
forms a typical and beautiful plexus of almost microscopic vessels lying super-
ficially to the blood capillaries and discharging into a longitudinal lymphatic
duct which accompanies the portal vein. At its two extremities and at intervals
along its length this duct communicates with the sub-chordal lymphatic trunk,
from which the lymph can enter the blood-stream by three routes via the caudal
hearts. There is another elaborate plexus of, however, coarse lymphatic capil-
laries on the surface of the ventricle of the heart. This plexus discharges into
the lymph sinus which surrounds the ventral aorta, from which the lymph
reaches the anterior cardinal veins via the peribranchial sinuses. A further
coarse plexus is associated with the fin rays of the caudal fin. This opens
into the subcutaneous sinus, and thus communicates with the caudal vein as
already described.

In addition to the system of lymphatic sinuses and ducts, there occurs also
in Myxine a series of segmental lymphatic units which originate largely from
capillaries in the somatic musculature. They differ from the segmental arteries
and veins in that they course in contiguous pairs, which occur sometimes in most
segments of the body and sometimes in alternate segments. They empty into
a paired sub-chordal trunk which passes almost from one end of the body to the
other. Each segmental lymphatic has a special connection with the e%tensive
subcutaneous sinus, and its contents may reach the venous system by several
routes.

18. Prof. J. H. Asuworru, F.R.S.—The Life-history and Affinities
of Rhinosporidium.

Rhinosporidium secberi causes proliferation of the connective tissue and
overlying epithelium, producing growths in the nose, conjunctiva, &c. Recorded
from Argentina, India, and U.S.A.

Earliest stages about 6 in diameter, spheroidal, with chitinoid envelope,
vacuolated cytoplasm, and vesicular nucleus the chromatin of which is contained
in the karyosome. Chiefly between or among connective-tissue cells. Granules of
protein and fat globules soon begin to appear in cytoplasm, and increase until
cell reaches a diameter of about 602, when chromatin issues from karyosome,
four chromosomes are formed, and a spindle with centrosome at each pole, and
mitosis takes place. Succeeding nuclear divisions result in formation of 4, 8, 16,
32, and 64 nuclei. At each division the nuclei undergo synchronous mitosis.
About the time of the seventh nuclear division (128 nuclei) the envelope becomes

- much thickened by deposition of material indistinguishable from cellulose on its

inner surface, except at one point where the future pore will be formed for
escape of the spores. In sporangia with about 2,000 nuclei the cytoplasm begins

452 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.

to condense around the nuclei, and by the time the next nuclear division is
completed the cytoplasmic division is also complete; thus are formed about
4,000 rounded cells trom wiich, by two further divisions, some 16,000 young
spores are produced. ‘The central spores begin to enlarge, their cytoplasm
becomes vacuolated, and refringent spherules appear, each lyimg in a vacuole,
until ten to sixteen are present. ‘he spherules have been previously mistaken
for sporules, as many of them exhibit, in iron-hematoxylin preparations, a more
deeply staining central portion of denser material or of different composition,
which, however, is not a nucleus. The thin film over the pore of the sporangium
ruptures, and the ripe spores issue; the majority of them escape in the nasal
secretion, but others become distributed in the tissue, where the stages of trans-
formation from spore to trophic phase have been met with.

It is suggested that the nearest relatives of Rhinosporidium are not the
Sporozoa, but the lower fungi (Phycomycetes), such as the Chytridine.

19, Dr. J. W. Hestor Harrison.—Polyhedral Disease in the
Vapourer Moths of the Genus Orgyia.

Certain Lepidoptera, in particular the Liparide, are subject to diseases
known as polyhedral diseases, not up to the present recorded from the British
Islands. However, an epidemic, quite typical in its symptoms, broke out in a
series of cultures of Orgyia antiqua reared for genetical research from wild
Aberdeenshire ova. In these batches the larve attacked succumbed for the
most part just before reaching full growth, but others managed to pupate
before doing so. Only rarely were imagines reared from diseased broods.
Affected caterpillars, immediately after death, disintegrated into a brownish
liquid having a faint, nutty, and not unpleasant smell. Microscopical examina-
tion showed this to be crowded with bodies roughiy polyhedral or crystalline
in appearance, which originated within the nuclei of blood, fat, tracheal and
other cells.

Attempts made to infect the larve of Gipsy and other moths met with but
little success, although many Orgyie forms proved very susceptible, and from
them passage infections were carried out. Clearly, unless the Italian race of
Liparis dispar employed is immune, the disease is not identical with that
attacking the Gipsy Moth.

In the successful experiments certain hybrids and races were more resistive
than others, and the males more so than the females. This immunity of the
male is more apparent than real, and depends on the fact that the male Orgyia
larva has one less instar than the female.

Evidence was secured proving that the disease could be transmitted through
the egg.

20. Mr. A. D. Peacocxk.—Parthenogenesis in Saw flies.

Revised list of parthenogenetic species; recent additions to list. Partheno-
genetic condition within the group and the problems arising therefrom—e.g.
thelyotoky and arrhenotoky within the same genus, deuterotoky. New observa-
tions on the breeding habits and their significance in relation to sex-ratio ;
dechandry and adechandry, impotence. Sex-change experiments (1) by dieting ©
larve with chemically treated food; (2) by X-ray, electrical, and chemical
treatment of eggs. Species used : Pteronidea ribesii, facultatively arrhenotokous,
occasionally deuterotokous; Pristiphora pallipes (in which the male is exces- i
sively rare), thelyotokous; Atlantis pallipes, obligatory thelyotokous. Brief |
reference to gametogenesis. #

u
21. Mr. BE. R. Spryver.—The Evolution of Aphids with Complex Life-

cycles.
Researches upon the Larch Chermes (Cnaphalodes strobilobius Kalt) have }

brought to light certain processes of development relating to regular increase
of one type of individual over another in successive generations, independently
of environmental conditions, and to a regular alternation of form controlled by _
an internal mechanism. From these principles it is possible to arrange the
existing species of Chermesine in an evolutional series, starting from the
earliest period at which parthenogenesis correlated with apterism resulted in a

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 458

simple alternating cycle. Subsequent stages in evolution comprise complete
loss of sexuality, migration, and morphological changes through natural selection
in a second environment, evolution of a return migrant, and recent acquirement
of long-lost sexuality through individuals with few characters in common with
other individuals of the cycle, and a final recapitulation of the original cycle on
the definite host-plant.

22. Dr. H. A. Bayuis.—Some Considerations on the Host-range of
Parasitic Nematodes.

The nematodes parasitic in vertebrates show great variety in the extent to
which they are limited to particular hosts. A review of a considerable number
of genera shows that they may be divided broadly into a section with more or
less strict ‘ specificity’ and a section with members occurring in various hosts,
often of quite distantly related groups.

Many of the genera with wide ranges have an intermediate host (commonly
an invertebrate) during their earlier phases, and it is suggested that these
forms, being introduced into the final host at a more advanced stage than those
which have a direct development, are better able to withstand violent changes
of environment, and thus better able to adapt themselves to a variety of final
hosts.

Since ‘ specificity ’ can only be rightly considered in its relation to evolution,
it is suggested that among forms with a direct development those which show
the strictest specificity are the most specialised, this being often correlated
with specialisation, in habits or otherwise, of the hosts, while those which
_ have a wide range have retained a primitive adaptability.

23. Discussion on The Systeniatic Position of the Nematoda, opened
by Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R.S.

24, Prof. B. Buackiock.—The Tumbu Fly, Cordylobia anthropophaga
Griinberg, and the Congo Floor Maggot, Auchmeromyia
luteola. Fabricius, in Sierra Leone.

The Tumbu Fly is a troublesome fly in tropical regions of Africa on account

of the habits of its larve. ‘lhese enter the skin of animals and proceed to grow
and develop there until the larve are full-grown and ready to pupate, when
they leave the skin and continue their development on the ground. Man and
many animals are affected by them, and suffer from painful boils as a result
of the presence of the larve in the skin. Young animals are very heavily
infected and frequently die as the result of the disease. It has been possible
to obtain large numbers of wild and laboratory-bred flies, and as a result a
study of the various stages from egg to adult has been possible. Many new
facts on the morphology of the stages and on the bionomics have been observed,
and it has been determined that wild rats are an important factor in the
preservation and spread of the infection.
; The Congo Floor Maggot is a parasite which has a totally different life-
history. This maggot’s unique habit of sucking blood from human beings lying
asleep on the floor of their huts was discovered by Dutton, Todd, and Christy
in 1904 while on an expedition of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine to
the Belgian Congo. This larva is incapable of penetrating the skin, but it
has a special arrangement of the mouth apparatus by which it is enabled to
adhere firmly to the skin while sucking blood.

The adult flies of the two larve are similar in appearance and belong to the
same sub-family Calliphorine of the Muscide. A comparative study of myiasis
due to these and other larve is outlined.

25. Mr. H. Granam Cannon.—On the Post-naupliar Development oj
an Estherid Crustacean.

The post-naupliar development of an Estherid Crustacean from Baghdad has

been worked out. The larva hatches as a true nauplius. The mesoderm of the

_ post-naupliar region forms a continuous sheet around the gut, This very early

_ splits along the mid-dorsa] line, thus forming the cardiac cavity. Ventrally

a
:

454 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.

the mesoderm separates from the gut forming the perivisceral cavity. The
ventral mesoderm shows a transitory segmentation that soon becomes obliterated
by growth. A little later the dorsal parts of the mesoderm develop a series of
seven pairs of pouches. From these pouches fhe heart tube is formed exactly as
in Peripatus. The pouches ultimately) dwindle in size, their cavities dis-
appearing and their collapsed walls forming the pericardial floor. The cavities
in no way open into the general body cavity. In the maxillary segment the
ventral mesoderm remains in connection with the dorsal pouch, and in this ventral
portion a cavity appears which becomes the end sac of the maxillary gland.

Tuesday, September 18.
26. Dr. F. A. E. Crew.—Sez-reversal in the Domestic Fowl.

Eight cases are described which form a consistent series illustrating the
process by which the female of the domestic fowl undergoes a sex-transformation
and comes to possess the sex-organisation of the male. One bird in the series
having functioned for three years as a female ultimately became the father of
chickens. It appears that it is the presence of growing oocytes which prevents
the assumption of the male characters by the female, and that if this inhibiting
physiological influence is removed through disease the internal environment may
become such as encourages the differentiation into spermatic tissue of the sex-
cords which periodically invade the sex-gland. It can be anticipted that in all
hens in which growth of oocytes has ceased spermatic tissue in some form will
be found. The phenomenon is interpreted in terms of Goldschmidt’s hypothesis.

27. Dr. J. W. Hestop Harrison.—Sea in the Salicacee and its
Modification by Hriophyid Mites and other Influences.

The members of the Natural Order Salicacew are typically dicecious, although

ocasional plants are encountered in the genus Salix departing from this condition.

These are of two types: (1) the so-called androgynous form restricted to

hybrids, in which the catkins bear varying proportions of male and female

ee |,

- = =

flowers, and (2) the metamorphosans variety, in which plants, primarily male, ~

produce catkins with the flowers forming a chain of intergrades between male-
ness and femaleness.

Regarding sex-determination in dicecious plants as proceeding on the same
fundamental basis as in animals, it is suggested that the explanation of the
androgynous form lies in environmental influences temporarily affecting the
general metabolism of male plants, necessarily regulated by chromosomes derived
from different species, and therefore in a state of unstable equilibrium.

Irregularities of the metamorphosans type are peculiar to male plants of the

section Capree, and affected catkins are invariably infested with Eriophyid —

mites. Cytological examination of such catkins always shows that their tissues,
whether in male, female, or transitional areas, are built up of cells uniformly

endowed with the chromosome complement proper to the species and intrinsically —

of male potentialities. Thus the development of the intersexes cannot depend
on non-disjunction or other mitotic irregularities postulated to account for
gynandromorphs, but rather upon a metabolism modified locally by external
stimuli toward the level typical of the opposite sex; agents affording such
stimuli are seen in the parasitic Eriophyide.

In diploid Salices a census of the sexes made in the field reveals practical
equality in numbers, but in tetraploid and hexaploid species a great pre-

ponderance of females is noted. ‘To account for the latter observation two ~

explanations are advanced. Firstly, the evolution of the tetraploid and hexaploid
species almost necessarily implies a duplication of the sex chromosomes in their

micro- and megaspores, so that disturbance in the sex ratios of later generations,
favouring the female, are to be anticipated; and, secondly, the polyploid species”
are facultatively apomictical, and the progeny so produced in Salix is always_

female.

28. Prof. W. J. Daxin and Mr. S. T. Burrienp.—An Attempt to

Influence the Sex of the Fetus by means of Antibodies.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 455

29. Mr. Junin S. Huxtry and Prof. A. M. Carr-SaunpEeRs.—
Failure of Attempts to induce Hye-defects by Antibodies.

Thirty female rabbits have been treated, some more than once, in an attempt
to influence their embryos in utero by means of antibodies against lens substance.
The number of treatments was forty. ‘he treatments were varied as follows :
(1) The most usual treatment was injection of serum from fowls treated with
rabbit-lens; (2) injection of serum from fowls treated with ox-lens; (3) direct
injection of rabbit-lens; (4) direct injection of ox-lens. No fowl serum was
used unless it gave precipitation reactions with rabbit-lens in vitro. Over sixty
young from treated females were examined, but none showed any abnormality
of eye or lens. If the animals died very young the lenses were dissected out;
otherwise an ophthalmoscope was employed.

Guyer and Smith report having produced eye-abnormalities by method (1)
above in about 6 per cent. of the offspring from treated parents. The above
negative results show at least that this considerable percentage cannot always
be expected. Reinvestigation on a large scale is necessary to discover the extent
to which the effect is really operative.

30. Mr. Joun R. Baxer.—Geneiic Intersexuality in Pigs.

Intersexual pigs occur commonly in the New Hebrides. ‘The individual
examined differs from the usual intersexes in pigs and goats in that there is
no sign of uterus or of vagina, while there is a vulva, clitoris, and urinogenital
sinus just like that of a female. A tendency to intersexuality is imbherited.
The hypothesis is suggested that these intersexes are virtual males carrying a
sex-chromosome which differs in potency from the ordinary sex-chromosome.
The effect of this sex-chromosome is to make the various organs less easily
affected by the interstitial hormone, so that they develop past the point at
which they can be affected before they have changed completely to the male
condition. They thus remain permanently in an intermediate or intersexual
condition.

31. Dr. A. S. Parkes.—The Value of the Sezx-ratio at Birth as
Evidence regarding Sex Determination in Mammals.

In mammals the ratio between the sexes is only readily obtainable at birth,
and therefore the ratio at this time has to be used in discussing sex determination
in mammals. This is unsound in so far as the ratio at birth may not be the
same as that at the time when sex is determined. In the absence of complete
sex reversal the only way in which the sex-ratio can be changed during gestation
is by pre-natal mortality having an unequal sex incidence.

All the available evidence goes to show that both abortion and reabsorption
of embryos are processes which fall preponderatingly upon the males. As the
amount of foetal elimination may be very considerable, the sex-ratio at birth
is often very different from that at the time when sex is first determined, and
is therefore not good evidence upon which to discuss theories of sex
determination.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to Delamere Forest.
Leader, Prof. R. Newsteap, F.R.S.

Wednesday, September 19.

32. Prof. W. C. McIntosu, F.R.S.—On Two Remarkable Polychaet
Tubes (probably of Polyodontes) from the Cape and Cuba; and
on the Discharge of the Ova in Thalepus.

(1) The tube from South Africa has a diameter of about two inches, and the
anterior region consists of silky fibres, chiefly longitudinal, and arranged at
intervals in transverse rows, loosely felted externally and smoothly and finely
felted internally, the thickness of the whole being about 3 to 4 mm. The
posterior region is firmer, transversely wrinkled, and devoid of the silky aspect
of that in front. The Cuban tube is 4 feet 6 inches long and 13 inches in

456 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.

diameter in front, rounded and firm for fully a foot anteriorly, flaccid posteriorly.
it 1s composed of simiar tne bres secreted by the annelua, the exterior targer
(4 mim. thick) bemg denser, the interior (%.5 mm. thick) sotter. ‘I'he structure
of both tubes 1s unique.

(2) The discharge of the ova in 7’halepus takes place apparently by two
comparatively large and neatly finished elliptical apertures between the sixth and
seventh setigerous processes (one on each side). No such apertures have hitherto
been found in the group. The ova are large.

33. Dr. Stantey Kemp.—Notes on the Fauna of the Siju Cave, Garo
Hills, Assam.

The Siju Cave is situated in the southern part of the Garo Hills, Assam,
on the right bank of the Someswari River. Vhe cave is in nummulitic lime-
stone of Middle Eocene formation, is about three-quarters of a mile in length,
with a stream flowing through it, and has no opening other than the entrance.
The fauna comprises about 100 species, of which only twenty-two occur in the
inner parts at distances exceeding 500 yards from the entrance. ‘The vast
majority of the fauna consists of species which are found, or might be expected
to be found, outdoors, and only five or six show definite adaptation to caverni-
colous existence. Of the latter the most interesting are a tresh-water prawn
(Palemon) with eyes well pigmented but less than half the normal size, and a
small gastropod (Upeas) in which the retinal pigment is completely absent in
6 per cent. of the individuals collected.

34. Dr. A. J. Grove.—Some New Observations on the Sexual Con-
gress of the Earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris.

The accounts of this process in the text-books in common use show a sur-
prising lack of unanimity, particularly with regard to the nature of the
exchanges. Direct observations have confirmed the account by Hering (1857),
that, after the approximation of the two worms in the usual ‘ head to tail’
position, and adhesion by their clitella, seminal fluid issues from the apertures
of the vasa deferentia of each worm and travels backwards along a groove or
furrow, which has been termed the seminal groove and extends from segment 15
to the clitellum. On reaching the clitellum the seminal fluid collects as a white
mass between it and the adposed ventro-lateral surfaces of the 9th-11th segments
of the co-operating worm. Later the spermatozoa become aggregated into two
masses lying in the grooves between segments 9 and 10 and 10 and 11, and
thence pass into the spermathecz.

The nature of the seminal groove has been much in dispute, probably owing
to its temporary character. 1t is brought into existence and operation by a
special musculature which extends from segment 14 to the end of the clitellum.

The adhesion of the two worms is largely effected by the clitella, the
apposition of the ventral portion of this region of one worm to the ventral
portion of segments 9-11 of the other being very close. The sete in this region
are also instrumental in maintaining the connection. ‘The structure of the
ventral portion of the clitellum differs from that ot the lateral and dorsal
portions.

The pores of the ventral setal sacs in the clitellar region, and also in certain
other segments of the body which show tissue of a similar character on the ventral
surface, have simple glandular diverticula in connection with them, which are
not present in other parts of the body. The secretion of these glands is not
mucin, such as is secreted by the goblet cells of the epidermis.

35. Miss M. S. G. Breeze.—Invasion of the Tissues of the Higher
Plants by Protozoan Parasites.

Recent work on the pathological condition of sterile and otherwise diseased
tissues points to the presence of protozoan or protistan parasites in plant tissues.
The research falls under three headings :—

(i) The discovery of various species of Leptomonas and other protozoa in
the latex of many plant families. These organisms were first demonstrated in
1909 by Lafont, and his results have been confirmed by many other medical
research workers, including Laveran, Mesnil, Franca, and Franchini.

—

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, E. 457

(ii) The discovery by Matz in sugar-cane, by Knakel in corn, and by Palm in
tobacco of less well-defined organisms, some of which are amceboid in structure
and are found in plant tissues affected by mosaic disease.

(iii) The demonstration of protistan organisms causing widespread sterility
in a large percentage of the anthers and ovaries of cultivated plants.

The above investigations lead to the suggestion that some of the unexplained
virus diseases of plants may be due to the attack of protistan organisms having
phases in their life-history which hitherto have eluded observation.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 505.)

Thursday, September 13.

). Presidential Address by Dr. Vauauan Cornisu on The Geo-
graphical Position of the British Empire. (See p. 126.)
2. The Region arownd the Mersey and Dee Estuaries.
Three papers dealing with the area which is being studied by the Liverpool
and District Regional Survey Associaticn, having Liverpool as its centre, and
extending nearly to Southport on the north, Wigan and Warrington on the
east, and including the western portion of Cheshire and the northern slopes
of the Flintshire range of hills beyond the estuary of the Dee.

(a) Mr. W. Hewirr.—Phystographicai Features.

The sandstone ridges; low-lying coastal plains and alluvial areas; sand-
dune belt; ancient inland mossland, and meres; influence on site of early
settlements ; contrasted features and history of the two estuaries; tidal inlets
on the Mersey and their utilisation; isolation of south-west Lancashire.

(b) Mr. H. Kina.—Distribution of Population.

Method of representation ; consideration of distribution in 1801 in relation
to (i) the coalfield and other industries, (ii) the port of Liverpool, (iii) the
agricultural areas, (iv) means of communication. Evolution of the present
distribution in relation to (i) expansion of industries and trade, (i1) development
of railway system and extension of residential districts. The effect of institu-
tions on the relative density. Desirability of retaining existing thinly popu-
lated areas between the industrial districts and the coastal towns.

No single dominating industry but many of importance. Liverpool itself
More a centre of commerce than of industry, but has long association with
alkali, sugar-refining. milling, engineering, &c. Well-defined industrial areas
within region. Problems in connection with origin and growth of industries,
and the situation in relation to communications and supply of raw materials.

In the afternoon an excursion to the Docks took place.
3. Report of Committee on Geography Teaching. (See p. 321.)

Friday, September 14.
4. Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E.—The Marmora Region.

Low-lying but mainly land-locked, between Continental plateau of Asia Minor
and ‘ Balkan ’ highlands of Europa Minor, permits intercommunication between
them ; but as their convergent drainages skirt instead of intersect it, such inter-
course is inevitably subject to local controls, especially as the basin itself sinks so
- low as to be traversed by an open sea-way from the Bosphorus to the Dardanelles,
- This makes the Marmora also a region of transition and traffic between the
_ gean Archipelago and the Black Sea even more strongly contrasted in physique
and products than are the Continental areas of Europe and Asia. Yet this

458 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E.

sea-way does not result from the main structure of the region, but interrupts it,
giving to the shores exceptional control over the channel, while the channel pene-
trates a district otherwise not maritime. Consequently, while its place in history
mainly results from events in the four iarger regions interacting through it,
the peculiarities of the Marmora itself modify this interaction, sometimes pro-
foundly. Seldom populous or productive enough for political independence, it
has repeatedly offered exceptional facilities for imperial administration over
adjacent and even distant provinces; and for mercantile exploitation of wide
areas. Possession of it has been, and is, contested by States which experience
its geographical control; but hitherto its political, no less than its economic,
relations have been so varied as to be irreconcilable. It is the site for a great
capital without commensurate provinces.

5. Joint Discussion with Section H on The Place of Man and his
Environment in the Study of the Social Sciences. Opened by
Prof. J. L. Myrzs.

Doubts on this matter arise partly from defective nomenclature of these
branches of knowledge, partly from accidents of personality and convenience
in the growth of existing organisations for the study of them. Recent con-
ferences between sociologists and representatives of kindred studies went far
to define the frontiers, but left it uncertain whether social science itself as it
actually exists is a pure science, tracing biological development in human
behaviour; an applied science, employing criteria of value to select modes
of behaviour for imitation in practice; or a branch of philosophy, standing
in the same relation to Anthropology, Psychology, and History as Meta-
physics to Physics or Astronomy. As a branch of natural science, sociology would
appear to merge in the ‘social’ or ‘ cultural’ aspect of Anthropology; as a
study in correlations between men’s behaviour and their environment it overlaps
the human department of Geography ; as an aspect of Philosophy, it is difficult
to distinguish from what was formerly called the ‘ Philosophy of History.’

In the afternoon an excursion to the Wirral Peninsula took place.

Monday, September 17.

6. Mr. O. H. T. Risupera.—Australian Railway Development: a
Study in Political Geography.

The great continental new-lands offer striking human contrasts with the
more individualised home-lands of Western civilisation. Australian railway
development symbolises Dominion as contrasted with European social and
political life. North-Western Europe, owing to physical and racial characters
and history, intensely individualised; progress of social and economic synthesis
slow and painful: railway development refiects this. Australia, starting with
European traditions but with more homogeneous physical and human conditions,
is rapidly discarding its essentially artificial pclitical and social conditions ;
railway development reflects rapid growth of spirit of Commonwealth. Outline
forecast of future of Australian railway system.

7. Mr. R. R. Watus.—The High Plateau of Brazil.

Geological structure. The evolution of the plateau. Physical features.
Climate. Resources. Inhabitants and social conditions. Development and
future.

8. Prof. J. W. Grecory, F.R.S.—To the Aips of Chinese Tibet.

Problems of the mountain system of South-eastern Asia. The plateau of
Yunnan. The three views of Chinese Tibet. The Alps of Chinese Tibet and
the glaciers past and present.

9. Rev. W. Weston.—The Influence of Environment on the
Characters of the Japanese.

Japan’s position as advanced frontier of East Asia; influence of that con-
tiguity on national character, religion, art, and history. Three-quarters of

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS —F, F. 459

Japan mountainous and uncultivated. Geological formations very varied.
Mountains have tended to mould religious ideas, to preserve local characteristics,
and to shape course of much internal history. Soil only moderately fertile

-conduces to industrious habits, ingenious methods, &c., of people. More than

half population are ‘on the land.’ Every type of climate found in Japan.
Widespread natural beauty has refining influence on tastes and customs of all
classes. Abundance of water modifies surface and responsible for rich vegeta-
tion, and for periodical inundations which on one hand destroy much property,
and on the other have led to skill in riparian work.

10. Joint Discussion with Section L on Geography as a Basis for a
General Science Course. Opened by Sir R. A. Grecory.

Tuesday, September 18.
11. Mr. J. A. Sreers.—Orfordness.

General description of the spit. Action of the sea. Evolution of the beach.
Historical changes.

12. Mr. H. A. Marryews.—Mediterranean Climates of Eurasia and
the Americas.

Similarities and differences. In Mediterranean the enclosure of a warm
branch of the Atlantic results in typically marine phenomena such as autumn
rain from lcw-pressure centres over warmer sea. In California and Chile
relief and exposure to a cold sea result in (i) abnormally low coastal tempera-
ture in summer and high temperature gradient between coast and inland
_ stations, while (ii) autumn rainfall is of far less importance than spring rainfall.

13. Mr. J.N. lL. Baxer.—Some Geographical Factors in the Develop-

ment of Irrigated Lands.

__ The development of irrigated lands regulated partly by local conditions,

Betlading general climatic influences, the nature of the soil, and the type of the
crop grown, and partly by external factors, the chief of which are availability

of markets, costs of production, facilities for transport, and presence of labour

|
|

supply. The factors operate in different ways in the old world and in the new,

resulting in contrasted production, but in both cases the development of irrigated

lands may be regarded as an attempt to solve local problems.

14, Mr. W. H. 1. Arpen-Woop, C.I.E.—Changes in the Courses of
Rivers in the Alluvial Plains of India in their Relation to Man

and his Activities.

oh the following list of transactions, see p. 505.)

SECTION F.

j ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

; (For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in

é Thursday, September 13.

F 1. Mr. C. E. R. SHerrinaton.—A Comparison of the Probable
7 Economic Results of the United States Transportation Act,

1920, and the British Railways Act, 1921.

_ This paper described shortly the conditions which led up to the passing
‘into Jaw of the Transportation Act, 1920, in the United States, and the British
Railways Act, 1921, in Great Britain.

460 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. :

The provisions of each Act, and the probable economic effects, were dealt
with in each case. These may be divided into—

(1) The relation of employee and employer in railway service. 7

(2) The financial effects which may be expected from the advised amalgama- —
tion in one case and the compulsory amalgamation in the other.

(3) The effect on the traffic working and methods of operation.

(4) The effect on the relationship of the Government and railways.

(5) The economic results caused by changes in the services rendered by the
carriers as between one area and another.

(6) General economic effects on the countries concerned, which may be sub-
headed into (a) the result of possible lower rates, with the consequent widening
of the market; (b) the result of a greater degree of co-operation amongst the
transport facilities offered.

The paper ended with a comparison between these probable economic conse-
quences in the two countries concerned.

2. Joint Discussion with Section J on The Inter-connections
between Economics and Psychology in Industry. Opened by
Mr. Eric FARMER.

The fundamental concepts of economics cannot be fully understood
without paying attention to their psychological aspects. Economic Jaws ~
do not work in a pure field, but in a field in which psychological factors are
also operative, and the work of the industrial psychologist is to endeavour
to measure the effect of these factors. Although this branch of psychology is
comparatively new, yet sufficient progress has been made to throw considerable
light upon such problems as the most economic spell of work and type of
movement; and there is little doubt that as the work continues a definite body
of laws will be established which will tend to make our knowledge of the
factors governing production more accurate than at present.

In the afternoon an excursion to the Docks took place.

Friday, September 14.
3. Prof. Henry Cuay.—-The Post-War Wages Problems.

The settlement of wages before the War was facilitated by the existence of
well-understood and stable relations between wages in different occupations,
kept in close correspondence with commercial exigencies by continual small
modifications. The effect of the War was to dislocate these relations, interrupt
this modification, and bring wages into correspondence with War-time economic
needs instead of normal commercial needs.

The post-War problem is to restore the stability in the relations of wages
and the close correspondence with commercial possibilities that existed before
the War. This involves changes from pre-War relations, and the recognition
as lasting of changes that are still regarded as temporary, in order to allow for
certain important changes since 1914 in the factors underlying wages. The chief
of these are changes in the distribution of workers among different occupations ;
changes in the organisation of wage-earners; changes in the character of work
required ; and changes in the markets of British industries.

It is difficult to ascertain whether the general level of real wages has risen
or fallen, and impossible to forecast its level in the future ; so far, however, as
a general level has to be assumed for the purpose of settling particular rates,
it will prove necessary to take the average level of wages in export industries as
the norm, rather than continue the present custom of taking the pre-War level
of money wages, and raising it to compensate for the increased cost of living.

A, Joint Discussion with Section M on The Economic Outlook for
British Agriculture. (See p. 501.)

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 461

Monday, September 17,
5. Mr. H. D. Henpverson.—Stability in the Standard of Value.

The assumption of stability in the purchasing-power of money fundamental
to our economic life, based on the exchange of commodities and services, and
the undertaking of future obligations in terms of money. The degree to which
this assumption was realised before the War, with gold standards generally
adopted. The great disturbance in the purchasing-nower of gold arising from
the abandonment of gold standards during the War. The possibility of a
similar disturbance in the event of a general return to gold standards. The
peculiar monetary position of the United States. The evolution of the idea
of attempting to ‘ control’ the purchasing-power of gold so as to secure stability.

The connection of trade fluctuations with changes in the price-level, and
the possibilities of diminishing these fluctuations by securing a stable standard
of value. The far-reaching social consequences of trade fluctuations, and the
immense social advantages which would result from their removal.

The present monetary policy of Great Britain. The advantages—real and
sentimental—of a return to the old gold standard. The uncertainty of future
monetary policy in the United States. The respective advantages of exchange
stability and price stability. The desirability of combining both if we can
do so; the greater advantages of the latter if we have to choose between them.

6. Presidential Address by Sir W. H. Beveripar, K.C.B., on
Population and Unemployment. (See p. 138.)

Tn the afternoon the Liverpool Cotton Association, St. George’s Hall,
was visited.

Tuesday, September 18.

7. Dr. P. Sarcanr Fuorence.—Individual Variations in Efficiency
and the Analysis of the Work-Curve.

Evidence of unanalysed work-curves published and unpublished; the effect
on efficiency of long spells of continuous work, of overtime and the long
working day, of deliberate restriction of output, and of the type of work
engaged in. Typical curves for work on furnaces, on power-driven lathes,
on automatic looms, and for dexterous and muscular handwork.

Practical and scientific value of work-curves : The best distribution of hours
of work: the industrial manifestation of practice, spurt, incitement and
fatigue: distinction between cyclical and cumulative fatigue.

Need for further analysis (1) of the behaviour of the individual leading
him to produce a given work-curve, (2) of the degree to which individual work-
curves conform to the average work-curve.

(1) The work-curve as the combined effect of variations in small voluntary
pauses and in the speed of work. Recent American observations of lathe-
work. The attainment of rhythm in sporadic runs of high speed. Conflicting
conceptions of rhythm in industry.

(2) Variations in individuals’ daily and hourly outputs; recent American
evidence as to form of distribution. Variations in individuals’ work-curves ;
evidence of approximation of a squad of individuals at similar work to one
type of curve.

8. Prof. F. Y. Enaeworrs.—Women’s Wages in Relation to
Economic Welfare.

The Presidential Address to Section F, 1922, dealt with the question : What
relation between the wages of men and women is most productive of wealth ?
In this sequel the inquiry is directed to a higher aim—welfare. The satisfac-
tions which constitute economic welfare depend on Distribution as well as
Production. If the wealth of a community is increased or diminished, the
gain or loss of satisfactions devends not only on the amount added or sub-
tracted, but also on the proportions in which the benefit or burden is shared.
Pre.

462 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F.

It is now a recognised principle of taxation that the burden is to be adjusted
so that the aggregate sacrifice incurred may be a minimum. If the taxation
exacted by the State consisted of services instead of money, presumably ‘ more
would be expected from the powerful man’ (Stamp, Principles of Taxation).
But in general it would be unsafe to proportion the remuneration of labour to
fatigue suffered rather than to work done. It would be inconsistent with the
action of competition. However, competition is not a finely graduated instru-
ment. It determines the integers, so to speak; but leaves the decimals to be
settled by collective bargaining (Address, § 10). So within narrow limits
some differentiation in favour of weaker workers is consistent with Competi-
tion. Even within those limits it might be unsafe to favour any class if the
numbers of the class could be increased through an inflow attracted by the
favours. But this objection does not apply to discrimination (within limits)
in favour of the weaker sex. To make some distinction in favour of the sex
would be the more practicable because in keeping with the manners of Chris-
tendom. loss of wealth to the community is not to be apprehended from a
slight infraction of competition; in virtue of the principle that a slight varia-
tion in the conditions determining a maximum is generally attended with a
very slight diminution of the quantity maximised (/oc. cit., § 8). The relaxa-
tion of competition now proposed is not, like that before advocated, based
on the requirements of family life, nor limited to mothers of young children.
The claims before made on their behalf on the score of wealth (including
an efficient progeny among products) (loc. cit., § 21) are now strengthened by
considerations of welfare. But there is no weakening of the objections to the
sustentation of families—normally and on a large scale—by the State (loc. cit.,
§ 20). Whether proposed on the ground of wealth or welfare or some other,
non-economic, ground—the various and serious economic evils attending such
schemes are not to be ignored.

9, Myr. J. A. Bowre.—The British Coal Agreement of 1921.

Over 60 per cent. of the cost of production of coal is spent on wages, hence
the necessity of their rapid adaptation to the varying prosperity of the
industry. The report of a Committee of the Mining Association in 1916 and
the evidence of Lord Gainford and of Professor Cannan before the Coal
Commission foreshadowed the 1921 Agreement.

The Details of the Agreement considered under the following headings :
The district basis, wage-regulation clauses, National and District Boards,
standard wages and profit, the surplus profit and the recoupment clause. The
Acreement is a notable industrial charter ; it means measurement and publicity,
the co-relation of wages and profits, and it is democratically administered.
Yet it was hurriedly drafted, and calls for amendment in certain details.

Wednesday, September 19.

10. Mr. J. J. Cuarxe.—Some Factors Relating to the Re-housing of
Slum-dwellers.

Importance of the subject as one of the consequences of the War. The
treatment in three main divisions—viz. (1) Pre-War re-housing ; (2) immediate
post-War re-housing; (3) the future.

Re-housing before the War.—The function of the private builder. Some
reasons which prevent the continuance of his operations. Re-housing by Local
Authorities. Their powers and duties. The example of Liverpool and com:
parisons with other towns. General and Vital Statistics. ‘

Re-housing after the War.—The difficulties presented by the cessation of
building during the War. The problem of overcrowding and its relation
to slums. The conditions as represented in certain typical towns in this
neighbourhood. Liverpool — Birkenhead — Bootle — St. Helens — Wallasey—
Warrington. The Assisted Housing Schemes as one solution of the problem.
Why it has failed to reach the slum-dweller. Building rings. Economic rents.
The example of Birkenhead. The effect on character.

The Re-housing of the Slum Dweller in the Future.—Two main con-
siderations of this problem—viz, (1) The industrial town, (2) the large city.

—

SS oe

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F, G. 468

Wallasey a difficult example. Bootle, St. Helens, and Warrington as industrial
towns capable of expansion. London and Liverpool as examples of the large
city. Why we re-house on the slum area. The difficulties of transport.

Suggestions for the Future.—The tenement or the flat? Social Institutes.
Progress by means of the linking up of tramways and railways. A proposal for
the Liverpool area. Encouragement of house-purchase by means of Municipal
tien The Unemployment Problem may be solved by a National Housing
cheme.

SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 505.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Joint Discussion with Sections A and B on Cohesion and
Molecular Forces.

2. Joint Discussion with Section J on Vocational Tests for
Engineering Trades. (See p. 482.)

Friday, September 14.

3. Presidential Address by Sir Henry Fowzer, K.B.E., on
Transport and its Indebtedness to Science. (See p. 162.)

4. Mr. A. E. Berrman.—Road Transport.

___[ntroduction.—Kssential to consider the engineering side against a back-
ground representing the broader political and commercial aspects of inland
transport as a whole. Businesses most dependent on distribution can least
afford to ignore any mode of conveyance that offers economic advantages.
(1) Freight Transport by Road versus Rail—Railway freight charges and
revenue. Causes of diversion of freight from rail to road. Comparison of direct
cost by rail and by road. Importance of a high load factor. The Railway Bill
for road transport powers. Fundamental technical advantages of rail traction.
Need for increasing freight mobility on railways. Could more use be made of
the container principle?

(2) Types of Commercial Vehicles and their Suitability for Different Pur-
poses.—Petrol, steam, petrol-electric, electric. Producer gas. ‘Semi-Diesel’
engines. Throttled efficiency. Six-wheeled vehicles and track machines.

_ (8) Passenger Vehicles, Private and Public.—Private vehicles and private
incomes. Motor-cycle with side-car. Front-wheel brakes. The high-speed
engine. Influence of racing. Mean effective pressure and piston speed. The
ondon bus. Railed traffic on road surfaces. The trolley *bus. Private hire
services. The side-car taxi. The pneumatic tyre.

_ (4) Roads Improvement and Traffic Control.—Mileage and classification. Cost
of maintenance and the contribution from motor taxation. The rating con-
troversy. Vehicle classification. Automatic traffic control by warning signs.
- Can this be improved by adopting the principle of a right of way on the primary
road at crossings? Traffic congestion in America.

5. Col. E. O’Brien, D.S.0.—The Future of Railway Transporta-
tion.

The probability of future progress must be viewed in the light of the
past. The introduction of railway transportation has had a profound influence
on the mode of life of the human race; its further development may produce
even more striking changes, more especially as the railway penetration of Asia
‘and Africa progresses. The engineering development has been rather in improve-

A |
me 1923 It
x

464 ; SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.

ments in detail and material—with consequent possible increase in weight and
speed of trains—than in the introduction of any radically new principle; in
principle the steam Jocomotive is unchanged since its introduction. The one
radical change has been the introduction of electric traction; the application
of this new system of transport has’ been very limited in Great Britain, but
extensive in America. The cost of electric power delivered for use in loco-
motives is practically as great as that of coal delivered for the same purpose,
except where coal is very dear and water-power available, a fact which retards
development of the system. In conclusion, it is evident that the general use of
steam locomotives will persist for many years to come, but that there is a great
future for electric traction for suburban trafiic and busy main-lines in Great
Britain and elsewhere.

6. Major-General Sir Serron Brancker, K.C.B.—Air Transport.

Development of British Empire transport system one of to-day’s outstanding
problems. The world’s history a history of transport development. Empire
adminstration and Empire trade dependent on communications. Solution of
problems of maintenance of Empire bonds depends on efficiency and rapidity
of its communications. Air transport, properly handled and steadily developed,
an antidote to some of these difficulties and may prove to be the most important
factor in preservation of the Empire.

Air transport has the same problems and the same basic factors as other
means of transport; but the exact rules which govern established means of
transport must be modified in dealing with the new element.

Financial failure of air transport in the past. Lack of State encouragement
sufficient to attract solid capital and solid business organisations. Delay in
provision of State financial support towards development; subsequent lack of
fixed policy or guarantee of security of tenure.

Operational success considerable. Government considering definite long-
dated policy.

Certain facts established. Bad visibility the only deterrent to completely —
reliable operation of air transport. Air transport safe with highly efficient
administration. British operating services proved that that administration can
be achieved. No fatalities to passengers in services of last two years.

Services to Paris, Brussels, and Amsterdam, experiments by which these
facts have been proved. These routes too short to show material time-saving.
Extensions to Manchester, Cologne, and Berlin give very material saving in ©
time, and more constant traffic should be obtained. Present international situa-
tion a temporary handicap.

Cost per ton-mile with existing equipment achieving a speed of 100 miles ©
per hour varies from 3s. 6d. to 5s.

Making due allowance for possible head-winds, 100 miles an hour the |
economic speed for cross-Channel air transport.

With substantial traffic available, cost per passenger-mile at 50 per cent. |
load is 84d.; maximum fare to be expected is 6d. With established traftic —
increase in load factor can be anticipated; technical development will reduce |
running costs. 4

Value of newspaper, mail, and goods traffic on long routes ; with short routes
ground delays in handling render time-saving in transit of little value.

Bad visibility and high costs the present weak points in air transport.

Wireless a corrective of bad visibility. Dependable communication with
machines in the air achieved. Pilots kept informed of meteorological conditions
along the route and at terminals. By means of direction-finding stations pilots”
given, on request, their exact position. Perfection of this system will entirely
eliminate danger of pilots losing themselves and enable them to select clear |
landing-grounds. In addition, definite progress being made towards greater
stability in aircraft. Probable early elimination of loss of control of machines
in fog or cloud. Possible future ability to land in fog, though even without
this no reason why air transport should not become as reliable as other forms
of transport in bad visibility.

Heavy traffic will reduce high costs considerably; insurance costs already
falling, and with maintenance of efficiency will fall still lower. New aircraft
being developed which will carry greater paying load per horse-power and he

4
|

{
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 465

less costly to maintain. Use of heavy oil will effect enormous reduction in

fuel and engine maintenance costs.

Basic problem unsolved—the education of the public. Public support
dependent on realisation of safety and reasonable fares. Duty of the Govern-
ment to give financial assistance to enable such fares to be charged until
increased traffic and improved aircraft make air transport commercially self-
supporting.

Operational problems being studied ; present experience points to 2,000 hours’
flying per machine per annum as practicable and desirable, and to a 200 per
cent. engine reserve per machine; 600 hours’ flying per annum not an undue
strain on pilots. 5
. Passenger comfort being studied and improved. Experiments being carried
out in heating, ventilation, silencing and general comfort. Silencing the greatest
difficulty, but progress being made.

Air-sickness not nearly so prevalent as alleged; most uncommon in open
_aireraft; in closed machines limited to a small proportion on rough days;
eauses being investigated; improvements in heating, ventilation, and silencing
will do much to eliminate.

Rival merits of airships and aeroplanes; conflicting claims of large and

small aeroplanes.
Airships and aeroplanes not rivals; the airship the instrument of sustained
flight; latest designs permit twelve days’ continuous cruising with day and
night flying; rates for commercial loads lower by airship than aeroplane. Little
practical experience of transport work by big rigid airships; estimates there-
fore largely theoretical. Large capital expenditure involved in airship organisa-
tion ; destruction of an airship fleet unit a serious financial loss.

Aeroplane operational costs now estimated on bases of practical experience ;
measure of reliability similarly capable of estimate; the aeroplane easily and
cheaply handled and able to land frequently and to deal with local traffic; the
aeroplane more adaptable to frequency of service.

Broadly, the economic airship stage is never less than 1,000 miles; the
economic aeroplane stage rarely more than 300 miles. The two should grow
up together, and one will help the other.

Design expert opinion calls for an airship of not less than 34 million cubic
feet to provide an economic service, and is satisfied that ships of such size can
be constructed easily and handled ‘efficiently ; the scheme now under considera-
tion by the Government caters for a bi-weekly service to India with an eventual
extension to Australia.

Present difficulties of night-flying by aeroplane; due to lack of visibility
coupled with lack of inherent stability; when stability is secured night-flying
completely practical for aeroplanes;-in these circumstances the aeroplane will
achieve speed superiority over airships on long-distance routes, but the airship
will still provide greater degree of comfort.

Large aeroplanes, carrying 100 passengers, will come, but the first step is
to develop the efficient small aeroplane and utilise on new services; the small
aircraft more easily handled; gives a greater load percentage and the advantages
of frequency of service.

Standardisation of operational methods on every route impossible. Cross-
hannel air services require high speed to compete with established transport,
frequent services, absolute regularity in spite of adverse weather conditions ;
on a route such as Cairo-Baghdad these considerations do not apply. Each
route must be taken on its own merits, bearing, however, in mind the economic
value of standardisation on connecting routes; reduction in fleets and stores
which would result from standardisation on routes now radiating from London,

distance, non-stop flights.

_ Desirability of transport experts taking part in development of air transnort.
New trade routes available to air transport; utilising the shane of the globe;
the North-East passage to the Pacific; weather conditions in the Arctic Circle
‘probably more friendly to air transport than those of London; cold but fine and

Lr 2

466 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.

eminently suited to the airship; even in future a possible practicability for
aeroplanes.

Conclusion. Air transport safe and reasonably reliable. Costs still high;
capable of reduction. Government assistance necessary in early stages. Air
transport an Empire necessity. The necessity of educating the public to utilise,
support, and demand the development of British air transport. The nation’s
debt of gratitude to pioneers who have placed British air transport in the
premier position it holds.

7. Mr. A. T. Watt, O.B.E.—A Broad Outlook on the Future of
Transport and its Past Obligations to Science. Transport by
Sea.

Use of iron and steel. Armour. James Watt and steam propulsion.
Turbines and internal-combustion engines. William Froude and resistance of
ships. Shipyard machines. Early mathematical work on stability. Loss of
H.M.S. ‘Captain.’ Magnetic and gyroscopic compass. Gyroscopic gun control.

Problems awaiting solution. Factor of ignorance. Need for research work.
Difficulties to be overcome. Early possibilities. High elastic-limit mild steel.
Electric welding. Improved metals.

Necessity for training. Importance of experience and practice. Antagonism
between theory and practice. Need for co-ordination. Engineering becoming
more complicated. Level of engineers’ knowledge must be raised. Need for
the scientific practical man. Walue of pure theory. Science applied to experi-
ence. Absolute and comparative science. Science becomes practice. Finance,
practice, and science.

In the afternoon Messrs. Cammell Laird’s Shipyard, Birkenhead,
was visited.

Monday, September 17. j

8. Mr. J. Parry.—Conservation and Control of Water Resources.

(1) The need long felt for more effective control over the appropriation and
distribution of our sources of water supply.

(2) The various sources to be dealt with: (a2) Upland catchment areas;
(b) direct river supplies; (c) underground supplies.

(3) Claimants for upland areas: (a) Town supplies; (b) rural supplies;
(c) power schemes.

(4) Principles on which allocation of sources should be based.

(5) Distinction to be drawn between a survey and administration.

(6) Recommendations of Water Power Resources Committee. Objections to
same. Alternatives.

(7) Desirability of inquiry by a Royal Commission. Questions requiring —
investigation.

9. Capt. J. A. Suzz, C.B.E.—Recent Developments in the Applica- i
tion of Wireless Telegraphy to the Mercantile Marine. q

The chief improvements which have been effected during the last eighteen ~
months are as follows :— }
(1) The introduction of high-speed automatic transmitters and receivers in ~
the largest transatlantic ships. Speeds up to ninety words per minute can be
used at distances up to about 700 miles.
(2) Improvements in protective tuning in receivers for continuous-wave —
telegraphy, avoiding almost all of the serious interference which was experienced —
due to the larger number of powerful continuous-wave stations now in use. By
(3) The use of directed ‘beams’ of very short wave-length, which can be-
employed to inform ships of the bearings of the transmitter. This form of
apparatus is entirely independent of the ordinary wireless outfit, and the
receiver can be operated by the navigator.
(4) Steady progress in the accuracy of direction-finders fitted on board ship.
(5) Experimental work on the subject of extending to ships the facilities

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 467

of the land-telephone service. In England a modest beginning has beer made,
_and in the United States much more ambitious results are being attempted.

10. Mr. W. Barnes.—The Development of the Single Bucket
Hacavator (with cinematograph illustrations of machines at
work).

Early history illustrating an old under-water excavator of the sixteenth
century. ‘The first steam navvy, the Otis, in 1839. The Dunbar and Ruston
in 1875. Mechanical features involved in these and the latest ‘ power shovels.’
The first crane or full-circle navvy in 1887. The latest machine of this type
on caterpillar tracks, illustrating recent striking developments. The Dragline
excavator ; its fundamental principles and uses. ‘he latest Dragline, weighing
300 tons, and destined for India to do the work of approximately 1,000 coolies.

Interesting applications of excavators to various classes of work. Their
economic value in developing a country.

11. Mr. J. B. C. Kersuaw.—Smoke Abatement and the New Bill.

The author first summarised the provisions‘of the Bill introduced into the
House of Lords this year, with the object of consolidating and strengthening
the various laws and enactments relating to the excessive emission of black
smoke by works and factories of the United Kingdom, and then discussed the
educational and voluntary methods which have been found most useful in
combating the evils arising from industrial smoke.

The work of the ‘ Verein fur Rauchbekampfung,’ of Hamburg, was described,
and figures showing the remarkable development of this voluntary organisation
of steam-users were given.

The paper closed with a plea for the wider application in this country of
similar voluntary methods of improving the efliciency of combustion, and for
minimising the evils resulting from black smoke.

12, Dr. Huperr Mawson.—Analytical and Experimental Investiga-
; tions relating to Water Turbines.

The first part of the paper deals with an analytical method of predicting
the form of the characteristic laws for a water turbine, the experimental
verification of these and their application to the design, and the prediction of
the laws for similar turbines.

The second part gives analytical methods of estimating the rise of pressure
in the pipe lines, and the rise of speed of the turbine when the load is removed
and the motion of the controlling vanes is known. The results are checked by
experiments in which use is made of a timing device consisting of a vibrating
tuning-fork and pendulum-controlled pens to obtain the variation in the above
quantities after the load is removed.

13. Mr. W. J. Kearron.—The Strength of Forked Connecting Rods.
There are two distinct types of forked connecting rod; one has the gudgeon
pin attached to the crosshead, and the other has the gudgeon pin integral with
the fork. Both are statically indeterminate structures, and the formule given
in text-books for calculating the stresses in the fork are based on erroneous
assumptions. The paper shows how the stresses in a forked connecting rod in
which the gudgeon pin is integral with the fork may be calculated. The stresses
for an actual rod are worked out in full, and an account is given of experiments
which verify the calculated results.

In the afternoon the Helsby Works of the British Insulated and
Helsby Cable Company were visited.

Tuesday, September 18.

14. Joint Discussion with Section L on The Teaching of Dynamics.
Opened by Sir J. B. Henperson, K.B.E.

468 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.

15. Mr. T. M. Newastu.—Description of Work in progress at Glad.
stone Dock. ‘

16. Report of Committee on Complex Stress Distributions in Engi-
neering Materials. (See p. 345.)

17; Prof. E. G. Coxrer, F.R.S.—A Comparison of Eaperimental
Methods for obtaining the Stress at a Point in a Plate by Optical
and Mechanical Methods.

In the afternoon the new Gladstone Dock Works of the Mersey
Docks and Harbour Board were visited.

Wednesday, September 19.

18. Prof. E. W. Marcuant and Mr. T. H. Turney.—On a Method of
Improving the Shape of the Voltage Wave of Alternators by
External Means.

This paper describes an arrangement of shunts which can be used, especially
on three-phase generators, when it is necessary to correct the wave shape of an
alternator without rebuilding it. The essential features of the device are, first,
shunts adjusted to have zero reactance for the ripples which it is desired to ©
get rid of, and, second, a limiting inductance arranged in the neutral of the
three-phase supply, through which the shunt current produced by the ripple |
flows. The shunt circuit consists of an air-core inductance and condensers
arranged in series, the condensers being of fairly large capacity in order to
reduce the voltage on them as much as possible. ‘The limiting reactance in the
neutral may be an iron-core inductance. Curves are shown in which the method ©
has been used on four machines with bad wave shapes. A demonstration of
the device was given at the meeting.

19. Prof. E. W. Marcuant.—On the Currents Flowing between the
Earth Neutral of an Alternator and the Earth Sheath of the —
Cable System. :

In some modern power-stations it is found that there is a considerable current —
flowing through the earth lead from the neutral point of the alternator, even —
when only one machine is earthed. It has been found that the current so ~
flowing is of three times (or a multiple of three times) the fundamental fre-
quency. This current is due to a ripple in the pressure curve of the alternator
between each phase and the neutral point. If such a ripple exists, a current
corresponding with it will flow from each core of the three-phase cable network —
to the sheath, and the currents so passing, if they are of three times (or a
multiple of three times) the fundamental frequency, add up and do not cancel —
each other, as do the three-phase capacity currents of fundamental frequency. —
Oscillograms of currents observed in the earth circuits of the neutrals of —
alternators in two large power-stations are given in the paper. n

i a etl

20. Mr. F. H. Ciouan, C.B.E.

Consideration of power and speed of screws. Propelling machinery—recipro-
cating steam engines, steam turbines, Diesel engines. Reasons for adopting
steam turbines; need for speed-reduction mechanism. Single and double reduc-
tion gearing. Tooth pressures, lubrication, increased stresses due to accelera-
tion and faulty alignment i

Electric transmission of power—alternating and direct current. Comparison

Electric Ship Propulsion.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 49 ,

of size and weights of electric motors and gear wheels. Description of opera-

tion of electric generators and motcrs—magnetic forces; revolving fields. Model

showing action of forces and speed-reduction features. Control. Operation of
_ excitation and reversing switches. Analogy with motor-car control. Model to
_ show operation of control.
; Further considerations of electric transmission—efficiency, reliability, repairs,
ventilation.

Effect of electric transmission on turbines and propellers, superheated steam,
reversing blades. Use of double-ratio transmission for naval vessels.

Electric transmission for Diesel-engine ships. Simplicity of starting, sub-
division of engines; use of most suitable speeds.

Examples of electric ships and experience obtained with them.

21. Mr. R. L. Morrison.—Conversion from Alternating Current to
Direct Current by means of Mercury Are Rectifiers.

The need for a simple stationary converter that can be compared with the
static transformer. Valve action of the mercury arc, with fundamental con-
siderations underlying it. The efficiency of this form of converter, high for
high-pressure D.C. conditions, thus making it eminently suited to main-line
electrification. Single and polyphase rectifiers with wave forms. Special trans-
ormer enabling both halves of alternating wave to be utilised. Construction
of large rectifiers. Sealing against atmosphere. Anode material and its effect
on the continuous operation of the plant. Main auxiliaries—i.e. vacuum pump,
ignition converter, &c. Sizes at present manufactured. Operation in conjunc-
tion with other types of converter. Overloading. Rectifiers specially for high-
tension D.C. work, with details of those at work on the Midi line of France.
Upkeep. Automatic control. Advantages and general information.

22, Dr. T. F. Watu.—Squirrel-cage Induction Motor with High
Starting Torque and Low Starting Current in the Line.

The rotor conductors are built up as composite bars as follows: A central
copper rod is surrounded by a steel sheath, and the outside of the steel sheath
is copper-plated to a suitable thickness.

Each rotor conductor is thus in effect a simple form of transformer, the °

central copper rod being the primary winding, the steel sheath being the
magnetic core, and the outer copper-plating the secondary winding.
In accordance with a well-known result in the theory of transformers, the
desired result is obtained that the resistance of the rotor winding is automatically
increased at starting, whilst when normally running it has the same value as
for a standard type of squirrel-cage motor.

23. Prof. W. M. Tuorntcn.—The Mechanism of Gas Ignition.

The two modes of spark ignition used in engineering are by disruptive
discharge at high voltages and by the arc formed at the point where a circuit
is broken. The former is a well-known case of ionisation by collision, but
ignition does not depend solely upon the sparking voltage. There is for each
inflammable mixture a certain intensity of spark necessary for ignition. Below
this it is possible to pass sparks indefinitely without explosion resulting. A
certain rate of production of ions is necessary, which bears little or no relation
to the total energy dissipated in the spark. Ignition occurs when a critical
rate of electrical activation of the combining gases is reached.

The case of the momentary arc at break is less simple. That it is mostly
ionic and not thermal has been shown by a long series of observations, in which
wide but regular differences between the ignitions of various gases under varied
electrical conditions have been found. Kecent observations on the ignition of
hydrogen-air mixtures give more direct evidence of its nature. Working with
alternating currents at a frequency of 250 a second and a circuit voltage of 85,
the following results were regularly obtained: After breaking a 10-ampure
circuit fifty times in air alone, iron poles being used, ignition of a 35 per cent.
hydrogen-in-aee mixture occurred with a circuit current of 0.4 ampere. After

470 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.

sparking freshly cleaned poles the same number of times in pure hydrogen,
ignition of the 35 per cent. mixture could not be obtained with less than
6.0 amperes, giving a large thick arc. It is clear that this kind of ignition also
does not depend upon the energy of the arc, which is 225 times greater in the
latter case. Heating the metal in hydrogen to arc temperature destroys that
which causes ignition of a subsequent explosive mixture. The direct and only
chemical effect of heating iron in pure hydrogen is to reduce an oxide film
or to burn out oxygen absorbed in the surface. In cooling, hydrogen may be
absorbed; if so, its presence greatly retards ignition, though it facilitates
electron discharge.

The evidence is that ignition does not depend upon the heat energy of the
arc, nor upon the total electron discharge, which is greater since the current
is so much larger, but upon the emission of that which is suppressed by the
hydrogen. This can only consist of oxygen normally absorbed or absorbed by
the poles in contact with air and activated by the combined effect of the
thermionic discharge and strong electric field at break.

24. Prof. W. M. Tuornton.—A Safe Method of Lighting Coal Mines.

The remarkable increase in the number of cases of nystagmus amongst coal-
miners, known to be produced by imperfect lighting at the coal-face, calls for
improved methods of illumination. The direction in which this has been
hitherto sought is by the use of more powerful portable low-voltage electric
lamps. The maximum voltage permitted at the face for signalling purposes
is 25, direct or alternating, and with this unarmoured cab-tyre flexible cables
may be used. An evident method of improving illumination is to use 25 volts
with fixed or portable lamps. The objections raised to any such scheme are
solely those of ignition, since shock is impossible at such voltages and the
circuits are non-inductive.

Recent observations on the influence of frequency on the ignition of methane
(fire-damp) show that by the use of much ‘higher frequencies than those now
employed for power purposes a higher factor of safety can be obtained. For
example, ignition of the most explosive mixture of fire-damp in air—9.5 per
cent.—by the break of a 200-volt direct-current circuit occurs at 0.5 amperes.
At a frequency of 50 the least igniting current is 6.5 amperes, while at 160 it
rises to 23 amperes. At a voltage of 20 and a frequency of 160 it is impossible
to ignite this mixture with a clean break of less than 150 amperes. Now the
currents taken by 15-watt gas-filled lamps suitable for use at the face do not
exceed 1 ampere. There is, therefore, a wide margin of safety possible.

A system now being tested consists of a 160 frequency supply at 15 volts,
each circuit having about twenty portable lamps. These have double filaments ; the
shorter of the two, connected to the battery contained in the lamp, gives 2 candle-
power, by which the miner travels. ‘Ihe larger one carries 15 volts, by which,
when connected to a plug housed in a heavy movable block, the illumination at
the working face can be raised to 15 or more candle-power, the shorter filament
being then cut out. In the case of failure of supply, work can be continued on
the lamp battery. Each plug has a special interlocking contact by which a
break of circuit is prevented until the lamp is switched over on to the portable ~
cell. ‘There is, therefore, no risk of open sparking. The plug-box also contains —
a fuse, by which, in the event of a short circuit in a lamp, that alone is cut
out. The less likely case of a short circuit on the main heavily cab-tyre flexible
cable which runs through all the plugs is provided for by a choking coil per-
manently in circuit, which limits the current to less than that which could
cause ignition of a 9.5 per cent. mixture if broken in the open. The system is
therefore protected by all the usual devices against excess current, but its
chief safety is in the use of currents of such frequencies that, without any
other change, the factor of safety is raised to a high value.

25. Mr. J. Scorr-Taccart.—Developments in Wireless Reception.

Particulars are given of various developments in wireless reception, these —
being of an original character. The application of the methods to the recep-
tion of continuous waves, spark signals, and telephony is discussed, and circuits
particularly suitable for the reception of broadcasting are described. Attention
is given to the provision of stable and reliable dual amplification circuits for
wireless reception.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 471

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 506.)

Thursday, September 13.
1. Dr. Avs. C. Krauyt.—The Stone-using People of Central Celebes.

Among the immigrants who came to Celebes was a people who made large
pots in stone and earthenware. In the first they kept the corpses of their dead ;
in the earthen pots they preserved the bones of the deceased. The name of
these pots means ‘ vessel’; it was their intention to send back the deceased
members of their family to their native home on the other side of the sea.

They erected menhirs and statues in memory of their dead. 1n making
these objects they used bronze axes, and it is certain that they did not know
iron. It is probable that they cultivated grain, for many stone mortars for
poundirg grain are found. If they grew rice it was planted in dry and not
in irrigated fields.

The contact of this stone-using people with the aborigines whom they
found in the country must have been peaceful; but they fought strenuously
with another immigrating people, the Betel people, who came after them,
and introduced iron. Owing to the influence of these various peoples the
culture of the present inhabitants of the Toradjas is of a very composite
character.

2. Mr. W. HE. Armstrone.—The Inhabitants of Rossel Island.

Rossel Island is the most easterly island of the Louisiade Archipelago,
which lies to the east of New Guinea. Its culture differs fundamentally from
that of the Massim peoples who occupy all the islands between it and the
mainland. The religion is elaborate. ‘Lhere are numerous gods, one of whom
is supreme; most otf these partake of the nature of snakes and human beings.
Connected with these gods are numerous places rigidly taboo. Cannibalism of
a peculiar kind occurred until recently, the death of a chief necessitating the
ceremonial consumption of one or more persons. Polygamy is common, and
there is a supplementary form of pseudo-marriage, according to which one
woman may be owned for sexual purposes by a number of men; she is also
let out on hire on festive occasions. A remarkable currency occurs, all but a
few low values of which are believed to have been made in the beginning by
pe These coins are so denominated as to simplify the calculation of interest-
charges.

3. Mr. E. Torpay.—Native Traders in Central Africa.

Commerce has played an important 7ré/e in the opening of Africa; it might
be said that without its stimulating influence it would probably still be rightly
called the ‘Dark Continent.’ To the white men and Arabs we owe a great
debt for our knowledge of its ethnology, and there are good reasons to believe
that the native traders, who long before them travelled widely over the con-
a have considerably influenced its history and the customs of its various
tribes.

Usually trade is limited to the village and the tribe and its immediate
neighbours, but there are to-day people, like the Bamputu, the Badjokwe, and
the Bateke, who embark on long expeditions, and spread their activity over
hundreds or thousands of miles. This we know as historical fact of the Bateke,
‘whose very name means ‘those who sell’; the Bushongo traditions of
expeditions, and circumstantial evidence, such as the rapidity with which useful
plants, insect pests, and diseases nave overrun the continent, or, again, the
finding of implements and currency, whose source can be traced to very distant
tribes, show that before the advent of the white man there was a certain

AG2 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.

amount of commercial communication spread over large areas. Some of the
old trade routes are known, but it would be of the greatest interest to trace
others; they might serve to explain many problems which have baffled

ethnologists.

4, Mr. W. Bonser.—The Magic Practices of the Finns in Relation
to those of other Arctic Peoples.

Primitive Arctic culture survived owing to its isolation, but was modified
and complicated in Finland owing to its contact there with Christianity. The
Shaman derived his powers from the supreme god, who was himself, therefore,
the greatest sorcerer. The powers, together with the familiars, were heredi-
tary. The Lapps, being the original inhabitants, were reputed greater magicians
than the Finns. The sorcerer was baptised, usually by his mother, both for
initiatory and protective purposes. It was usual to remove the clothing for
practising magic, but to put on extra clothing as a protection against the
magic of others. The efficacy of magic was increased by the neighbourhood
of rocks and stones, especially those of a variegated nature. The dead Shaman
was more potent than the living one: wherefore the underworld was a store-

house of Shamanic wisdom.

5. Prof. C. A. Broprs Brockweiu.—The Evolution of Arithmetic
as Exemplified in Plato’s Millennium Cycle, erroneously styled

his Geometrical Number.

Ancient statements show that pre-Christian Mediterraneans used arithmetical
processes without analogy in modern arithmetic. Western treatises on arithmetic
of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries show that our arithmetic tables had not
been invented at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Modern scholars,
through ignorance of these things, have misinterpreted almost all ancient
numbers, have obscured the meaning of most ancient time-determinations, have
failed to discriminate between cause and effect, and so to unfold the evolution
of ancient Mediterranean social and cultural institutions.

Plato’s dynastic abacus is a typical exemplification of Mediterranean arith-
metic worked by processes belonging to different stages of social evolution. The
apparent contradictions of ancient dates and longevity numbers, &c., have arisen
from the custom of transmitting one and the same date, or number, in the styles
of different stages of arithmetical evolution.

6. Mrs. Scoressy Rovurtepar. — Mangarevan Folk-lore: Some
Results of an Expedition to the Austral Islands and Mangareva.

While there exist numerous megalithic remains in the Austral Islands, and
interesting maraes on even the neighbouring island of Temoe, there have never
been on Mangareva any stoneworks of importance.

Mangareva is, however, rich in folk-lore, and is possibly unique among
Pacific islands in possessing written history in the native tongue. This dates
from about the middle of last century, the work being instigated by the early
R.C. missionaries; it appears to be a genuine record of events for about the —
two hundred years preceding, und comprises yet earlier legends. Interesting
additions to the written histcries are still recounted verbally.

A large number of folk-tales, more purely domestic or mythical in character, —
have been transmitted orally and are well known.

The number of songs is enormous. A large collection has been made in
writing by a Mangarevan recently deceased. They refer frequently to the folk-
tales, but many cannot be explained. There are interesting points of contact
with the Easter Island script.

The general knowledge of folk-lore has been kept alive through dances or
dramatic representations, when the best-known stories are depicted with stage
properties and accompanied by songs.

7. Capt. A. G. Parz.—lIs there a New Race Type?

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H 475

Friday, September 14.

8. Prof. E. Exwauu.—The Early History of Lancashire in the Light
of Place-names.

Introductory remarks : The chief subject is the history of Lancashire, but
by way of illustration some remarks will be offered on adjoining counties—
the value and limitations of place-names as evidence. Place-names should be
used in connection with other evidence (archzological, historical, &c.).

1. Britons in Lancashire.

There are no unequivocal traces in place-names of a pre-British population.
Notes on British place-names in England generally. Various types of names
and their distribution. Place-names point to the survival of a fairly consider-
able British element in parts of Lancashire, and of a strong British element
in parts of Cumberland.

2. Anglians in Lancashire.

Time of invasion. Districts first colonised. Menians and Northumbrians
in Lancashire.

3. Scandinavians in Lancashire,

Remarks on the interpretation of the evidence. Distribution of Scandi-
navian names. Danish colonies. Norse colonies.

4, Irish-Gaelic elements in the Lancashire place-nomenclature. These are
bound up with Norse elements and need not indicate a considerable Irish-Gaelic
immigration.

9. Joint Discussion with Section E on The Place of Man and his
Environment in the Study of the Social Sciences. (See p. 458.)

10. Prof. H. J. Funure.—The Prehistory of Wales.

Archeology in Wales has special difficulties of dating finds. Flint is absent
save on the beaches; metal apparently was rare in prehistoric times; so, apart
from polished stonework, Wales is at a disadvantage. Probably in earlier
times, as now, agriculture was subordinate to stock-raising following hunting,
so settlement was less developed in Wales, and ancient pottery is rare. As
pottery is most valuable for dating, workers in Wales have a special difficulty.
Again, for the last 2,000 years, Wales has been a centre of preservation of old
phases of life; probably this characteristic has marked it from still earlier
times. Finds which are related in type to those of known periods elsewhere
may thus be later in Wales. On the other hand, Wales shows interesting
developments in megalithic monuments and in polished stonework.

A very short sketch of the phases of human activity in Wales, so far as
they can be inferred, through prehistoric time was attempted.

11. Dr. R. BE. Mortimer Wuereter.—dHill-Forts in North Wales:
Their Historical Background.

Several contour-camps or ‘hill-forts’ which have been partially excavated
in North Wales are of various types, but have yielded homogeneous results
indicating occupation during (though apparently not before) the Roman period.
Certain features suggest that these hill-forts may in part be a result of new
social or political tendencies, which, during the first centuries B.c. and A.D.,
found expression in the great native oppida of Gaul and southern Britain. If,
as the evidence suggests, this series of Welsh hill-forts was not built before
the end of the first century a.p., the gradual north-westward diffusion of these
new tendencies is logical both in time and in space. The survival of native
hill-towns or ‘hill-forts’ in Wales throughout the Roman occupation is
explained by the very incomplete Romanisation of this rugged frontier district,
and it is even possible that under the later Empire, when the coasts were
increasingly harassed by Irish and other invaders, the building or rebuilding
of strongly fortified native settlements such as Dinorben may incidentally have
assisted the Roman frontier organisation in the defence of the coast-line,

A474 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.

21. Mr. IL. T. Huaures.—Field-Notes on the Earthworks of North
Cardiganshire.

This is part of a survey scheme, based on principles laid down by the
Board of Celtic Studies, to interpret the earthworks of Wales by means of
large-scale plans and contours at 25 feet intervals, thus supplementing any
omissions of the O.S. sheets. The 28 hill-top camps between the River Dyfi
and the Upper Teifi-Wyre line form one of the well-defined groups of Wales.
Different types occur here, all lying within the limit of present-day cultivation.
They well show their landward and seaward strategic value, and are found
to be definitely related to important valley routes, to metalliferous areas, and
to ridgeways, which branch from the old hillside road from the Dovey Estuary
to Lledrod. Gwyddel place-names, together with flint and bronze implements
of Irish design, are associated with this region, the former being noticed about
the ‘ Dinas,’ and near the best landing-places. The ‘Dinas’ is larger than
the ‘ Caer’ or ‘ Castell,’ and seems to stand in some relation to ancient terri-
torial divisions. So far, these camps may be considered as first or second cen-
tury Brythonic constructions, on the forest edge or forest clearings, wherein
some military chief lorded over the cultivable lands—conditions closely analo-
gous to those of the Achzans of Pre-Classical Greece.

Monday, September 17.

13. Presidential Address by Prof. P. EZ. Newsrrry, O.B.E., on
Egypt as a Field for Anthropological Research. (See p. 175.)

14, Capt. L. W. G. Matcoum.—Plurality of Souls in Egypt and in
the Western Parts of Africa.

15. Dr. J. Sampson.—The Origin and Early Migrations of the
Gypsies.

In default of historical data the origin of the Gypsies must be sought
in their language. An analysis of the recently collected specimens of Syrian
Romani, and a comparison of this dialect with those of Armenia and Europe,
throw new light upon the speech of the original Gypsies and their wanderings.
Romani resolves itself into two main branches, which may be termed respec-
tively the speech of the Ben and Phen Gypsies. As neither dialect is derivable
from the other, both must have originated in the Indian tongue spoken by
the Gypsies who entered Persia about the ninth century. On the separa-
tion of the two bands, about a century later, the Ben Gypsies travelling south:
wards to Syria became the ancestors of the present Nawar of Palestine, the
Karaci of Persia and Transcaucasia, and the Helebis of Egypt; while the
Phen Gypsies, after settling for a time in Armenia, migrated westwards through
Kurdistan and Byzantine Greece, reaching the Peloponnesus before the end of
eleventh century, whence (c. 1440) they overspread Europe.

16. Mr. T. H. Watxer.—The Races of the Middle East.

17. Discussion on I'he Origin of Domesticated Animals and Plants.
Opened by Prof. Percy E. Newserry.

During the past twenty years many important discoveries have been
made relating to the early history of cultivated plants and domesticated
animals, but botanists and zoologists have paid little attention to

these subjects. Anthropologists need their help and co-operation. That the ©

cultivation of a plant began in the country where that plant was found
growing wild is obvious, yet how little is really known about the native habitats
of many of our common cultivated plants. Where, for example, was the
original home of flax, or of the date-palm, or of the vine? A subject of great
interest to the anthropologist would be the study of weeds. Schweinfurth,
when in Central Africa, noted the preponderating Indian origin of the
common weeds of the wide stretch of country between Tondy and the Dyoor,

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. A475

and he pointed out that a better acquaintance with the geographical facts con-
nected with them would probably be as trustworthy an indication of the various
migrations of an uncivilised people who have no history as either their dialect
or their physical development. Cornfield weeds are most important evidence
for the original home of wheat and barley. There are many questions relating
to domesticated animals that have as yet received no satisfactory answer. From
whence came the domesticated sheep and goat? From whence the ass, the
horse, and the camel? Notwithstanding the work of Rolleston and others we
know hardly anything about the origin of the domesticated breeds of swine.
And where was the ox first brought under domestication? These are some of
the many questions that can only be answered satisfactorily by botanists and
zoologists working in co-operation with anthropologists; the answers to them
must necessarily throw considerable light on the early migrations of man.

Tuesday, September 18.

18. Prof. W. J. Sontas.—Miocene Man.

The late Mr. A. Westlake, of Fordingbridge, Hants, spent six months in
1905 digging out so-called eoliths from the Upper Miocene gravels of Aurignac.
- He amassed a magnificent collection of some 4,000 or 5,000 specimens.

During his life he entrusted a number of these to the author for description,
who has subsequently had renewed facilities for continuing his investigation.

The universal absence of incipient cones on the broken faces of the flints
excludes any appeal to the action of torrents in explanation of their form, which
resembles in a remarkable manner that of instruments made by design.

Movements of the soil, accomplished under pressure, have in many cases pro-
duced such remarkable simulacra of genuine implements that considerable hesita-
tion may well be felt before arriving at conclusions hased solely on the form of
supposed implements.

In the present state of our knowledge it cannot be understood how the eoliths
in question can have been formed by natural agencies. They seem to bear
cogent evidence of design.

19. Mr. Srantey Casson.—The North Aigean Coast in the Bronze
Age.

Little or nothing is yet known of this region in the periods preceding the
Early Iron Age. In view of the probability of future excavation and research
all available scraps of evidence are of interest. In the western half of this
area, from the Haliacmon to the Strymon, a homogeneous culture with incised
pottery belonging to the full Bronze Age has been revealed, partly by chance
finds on tumuli and partly by the excavation of a stratified site near the Vardar
valley. With the remains of this culture must be associated traces of Mycenan
culture from the south which are found along the coast, and Mycenzan weapons
imported into the interior.

From the Strymon to the Maritsa are numerous traces of the Chalkolithic
Moldavian culture, with painted pottery, but neither the Macedonian Bronze
_ Age nor the Mycenzan period seems to be represented. Hast of the Maritsa
ie the Moldavian nor the Macedonian cultures are represented, as far as
is known.

20. Mr. Sranuey Casson.—Prehistoric Sites in the Dardanelles and
Bosporus.

The recent identification of two prehistoric sites of the Neolithic or early
Chalkolithic period, one at the western extremity of the Gallipoli peninsula,
the other opposite Constantinople at Kadikeui, has made it possible to establish
the extent of habitation and the interrelation of sites in the Straits. Troy I.
and its companion sites in the Troad thus acquire a greater importance than
has hitherto been attributed to them. The shores of the Straits except at
these points seem to have been but sparsely inhabited.

476 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.

21, Baron F. Noprsca.—House-building and House Implements in
Northern Albania.

22, Miss BE. H. McLaan.
toft Lordships.

23. Mr. HE. Torpay.—Hungurian Folk-Music. (With instrumental
and vocal illustrations.)

The study of folk-music, and particularly of folk-songs, is a perfect
treasure-mine for the ethnologist, and yet, as far as civilised people are con-
cerned, it has not received sufficient attention. Take the case of the Magyars.
Of their early culture we have none but foreign records, and many of their
customs, especially those connected with their religious rites, must have escaped
the observation of these chroniclers. In old songs, the few that have survived,
we find, however, indications of practices they knew nothing of. None of the
chroniclers speaks of human sacrifices, yet the various songs connected with
the festivities of St. Ivan show us that they existed, and were made to the
fire-god ; other songs show us that the usage of sprinkling on Easter Monday
is a survival of the drowning of human beings in honour of the water-god.

From the point of view of antiquity the songs of St. Ivan are the oldest docu-
ments we possess ; they are characteristic of the pagan period when songs brought —
from the old home were still in vogue. Then followed the advent of Chris-
tianity, and with it the influence of the Church. The third stage was reached
with the arrival of the Gypsies, who soon, in the sixteenth century, became the
executants of the popular airs. The idea, originated by Liszt, that Gypsies
were the creators of the modern form of Hungarian music has been duly dis-
credited; that it is a fallacy can be proved by the various versions of the
same tune as produced in Magyar, Roumanian, or Ruthenian regions, and by
giving the form in which the Gypsies play it. But it would be equally un-
reasonable to say that the Gypsies, who for centuries were its interpreters, have
not left their mark on Hungarian songs; by comparing music of the three
periods we find that, though they have brought no new elements into it, they
have been responsible for the emphasising of those characteristics which distin-
guish Magyar music from that of other nations. t

Survey Maps of Humberstone and Scrap-

24, Prof. J. Srsenmn.—On the Composition of Early Bronzes. i

25, Sir Artuur J. Evans.—Crete as a Stepping-Stone of Early Cul-
ture: some new lights.

The geographical position of Crete, lying almost midway between Europe,
Asia, and Africa, marked it as the point where the primitive culture of our
Continent was first affected by that of the older civilisations of Egypt and the
East. Its original affinities were rather with Anatolia—answering to late geo-
logical conditions. Neolithic affinities point that way. New light is thrown on
this by discovery of a Late Neolithic house at Knossos, showing fixed hearths.
The rise of ‘ Minoan’ Culture in Early Metal Age coincides with cultural impact
from the Nile Valley and the possibility of actual immigration of members of the _
Old Race in Egypt at the time of the dynastic conquest must be considered.
Evidence of continuous relations exists throughout Early and Middle Kingdom. —
Knossos is a principal goal. Traces of an important transit route thither across
the island from havens near Phestos on the Libyan Sea have been found. Middle
Minoan and Algean influences extend to Malta. Minoans were intermediaries
in trade in vitreous beads with the Iberic West and Early Bronze Age Britain.
New discoveries illustrate an intensive influence from the Nile Valley and the —
opposite Libyan Coast at the opening of the Late Minoan Age (16th century —
B.C.), as is indicated by wall paintings of Soudan Monkeys and Negro mercenaries _
found at Knossos. From the beginning of the Age of Palaces in Crete (MML.,
ec. 2200 B.c.) a growing influence is perceptible from the Syrian and Babylonian
side. Cylinders found of Hammurabi’s time. Cult customs and costumes were
affected. Horses and chariots were introduced. Cretan civilisation became —
cosmopolitan, The diffusion of Minoan elements in Central Augean islands was —

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 477

followed by widespread conquest in Mainland Greece. Later a ‘ Mycenzan’
culture fusion of Minoan and other Aigean elements with native ‘ Helladic ’
took place. Colonia! expansion from Sicily to Cyprus. The Adriatic amber
trade connected with Minoan survivals at Glasinatz, &c. There was a great
set-back of civilisation in Crete and Greece owing to the Achzan and Dorian
invasions, but there was a return-wave later from the Ionian side, where Minoan

tradition had a strong hold.

Wednesday, September 19.

26. Mr. ve Barri CrawsHay.—An Outline of the Life and Work of
Benjamin Harrison, of Ightham, Kent, including an Account
of the Original Discovery of Eoliths.

Born December 14, 1837; at fifteen studied the deposition of gravel high
above present river levels; discovered Neolithic Dwelling Sites at Rose Wood
in 1856; Paleoliths at 300 O.D. and 500 O.D. in 1863.

In 1866 he observed ochreous flint drift upon the surface of the Chalk
Plateau at 520 O.D. which contained Eoliths and Paleoliths.

In 1871 he found Palzoliths east of Oldbury, which proved to be related
to the Rock Shelters under which he excavated in 1891.

In 1889 and 1891 Prestwich introduced Harrison’s discoveries at Geological

Society and Anthropological Institute.

In 1894 he proved the drift beds of the Plateau near South Ash, finding
Eoliths in situ, exhibiting them at British Association Meetings, Edinburgh
1892, Oxford 1894; Royal Society 1895, and many times since.

In 1895 the Geological Society conferred a moiety of the Lyell Fund upon
him.

He gave great numbers of specimens away; afterwards countless Museums
and private individuals acquired collections.

He lived for his home and science, dying on September 30, 1921, in full
possession of his faculties to the last.

27. Mr. ve Barrer CrawsHay.—Eoliths from the South Ash (Kent)
Pra bon! .

This was sunk upon the position where Benjamin Harrison in 1866 first
observed ochreous flint drift which contained Eoliths.

A seam of flint gravel at 2 feet deep, resting at 4 feet deep on clays and
sands, contained Eoliths; there was ample evidence of ice movement by the
_ festooning of the gravel into the overlying loamy clay ; numerous stones stand-

ing on their sharper ends, some being striated.

Separated from the above seam by horizontally bedded clays is a second
seam of larger flint gravel, also containing Eoliths, and presenting the same
characters except the festooning, the largest stones invariably standing on
their ends.

At 7 feet 6 inches clean clay appeared mixed with a few flints.

Tertiary Pebbles were very rare; no Palzxolithic implement was found; and
the chalk was not reached by probing a couple of feet deeper.

28. Mr. Rocer Tuomas and Mr. Evan Dupuyxs.—dA Prehistoric
Flint Factory at Aberystwyth.

Situation :—
Just south of Aberystwyth at the foot of Pen Dinas hill, and above the
shore and rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol.

Soil Formation :—

(2) Upper 18 inches disturbed by cultivation, and contained flint chips,
clay-pipe stems, modern pottery, and lead; mixed together,

(6) Layer with flints immediately upon :—

(a) Boulder clay.

478 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H, I.

Finds :—

Numerous microliths, mainly acute triangular, also cores, scrapers, flakes,
knife-blades and limpet scoops. Flint derived from the sea-heach on which
it has accumulated from boulder clay brought down the Irish Sea. The finds
from this station may be compared with those from numerous others, especially
those of Western Europe, e.g. Svaerdborg and Mullerup. It is suggested
that the microliths are related in type to those usually allowed to be of late
Tardenoisian age, though in date we cannot decide whether they may not be
later. Animal remains, which would help in dating, are absent.

SECTION 1I.—PHYSIOLOGY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 506.)

Thursday, September 13.
1. Prof. H. E. Roar.—The Analytical Mechanism of the Cochlea.

2. Mr. T. C. Anaus.—A Recording Katathermometer.

This instrument is an adaptation of Prof. Leonard Hill’s well-known kata-
thermometer by which the ventilation conditions of buildings can he measured.

The cooling-power of the air, depending on its temperature and movement,
is found by the rate of cooling of a large bulb thermometer of known thermal
capacity and dimensions.

In this instrument the lengths of a succession of cooling periods are recorded
side by side on a moving paper, and a curve is thus drawn whose height at
any time gives the cooling power of the air in millicalories per sq. centimetre
per second.

3. Presidential Address by Prof. G. H. F. Nurratn, F.R.S.,
on Symbiosis in Animals and Plants. (See p. 197.)

—— ee

4, Prof. H. ZwaarpemaKer. — Bio-radioactivity and Humoral
Environment.

(1) Normal bio-radioactivity depends on the normal potassium content of
the cells. (2) An important part of this content is the potassium in the super-
ficial layers of cells. (8) The ionic balance is itself a condition. A heart
perfused with Noyons’ glucose solution shows the balance at its lowest level.
When the balance has been brought to a higher or lower level than the normal, —
there is, respectively, an increase or decrease of radioactivity. (4) The sensi-
tivity of the tissues to radioactivity is regulated by the blood hormones, so that
a normal activity is guaranteed under very different conditions.

5, Prof. R. Macenus.—Carbon Dioxide and Adrenaline as Regu-
lating Factors for the Musculature of the Bronchi and
Pulmonary Vessels.

Experiments by Lohr and De Lind van Wijngaarden on surviving perfused
cat’s lungs in the author’s laboratory have showed that the bronchio-spasm
produced by defibrinated or hirudinised blood, &c., is relaxed by the addition
of from 1.4 to 30 per cent. of CO, to the air respired. Carbon dioxide in con-
centrations from 1.4 per cent. upwards causes in most cases constriction of the
lung vessels, but when adrenaline is present in the blood in amounts over 1 per ©
milliard the effect of CO, is to cause dilatation. Alteration in the concentrations —
of oxygen and nitrogen in the blood are without influence on the bronchial or —
vascular tone. 2,

It is concluded, therefore, that carbon dioxide in physiological concentra- _
tions helps to keep the air-way patent, and, in presence of physiological amounts —

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 479

of adrenaline, to facilitate the pulmonary circulation. An increased alveolar
CO, tension may, under pathological conditions, also have some important
regulating influence.

6. Prof. J. M. Beartiz.—The Action of Finely-divided Particles of
Slate, &c., on Toxins.

Friday, September 14.

7. Mr. J. R. Bruce and Prof. W. Ramspen.—Irreversible Coagula-
tion of Albwmin at Free Surfaces.

8. Mr. J. Brooks and Prof. W. Ramspen.—Factors Determining
which of two Liquids forms the Droplets of an Emulsion,

9, Prof. H. KE. Roar.—The Oxygen Conlent of Methemoglobin.

10. Dr. 8S. Moncxron Copeman, F.R.S.—Diet and Cancer.

This investigation was undertaken with the object of determining the ulti-
mate effect, in the adult, of a dietary deficient in the fat-soluble A. vitamin.
Work on the normal individual having shown that the requirements of the
human adult are extremely small, patients suffering from cancer were placed
on a diet from which foodstuffs of animal origin containing the fat-soluble
vitamin were excluded, in the hope of obtaining some differential effect on the
growing tumour.
Treatment on these lines, in suitable cases, has been found capable of
affording increased expectation of life, together with freedom from pain,
which may be so complete as to obviate entirely previous need for anodynes.

11. Joint Discussion with Section B on The Physical Chemistry of
Membranes in Relation to Physiological Science.

12, Dr. S. C. Brooxs.—The Electrolytic Conductance of Micro-
Organisms.

Monday, September 17.

13. Dr. W. W. Watier.—Red Blood Corpuscles under the Micro-
: scope.

Fallacy due to glass.—Alkali causes a characteristic series of microscopic
hanges in the corpuscles. Glass slides act as alkaline surfaces. Once this
fallacy is recognised and eliminated, it is seen that the corpuscles keep their
‘Shape in a wide range of salt concentrations (in the absence of serum).
Corpuscular Membrane.—Acid reverses the normal negative charge, but we
cannot yet explain the ionic interchanges in terms of Membrane Equilibrium.
zmolysis by alkali shows marked contrast microscopically with acid hemo-
ysis, and in the latter case the corpuscles remain visible. The normal shape
ay be explained teleologically as enabling the corpuscle to change volume
ithout alteration of surface area, as does the box of an aneroid barometer.

4, Prof. C. Lovarr Evans.—Ezperiments on the Contraction of
Plain Muscle.

_ Experiments on plain muscle from various sources have shown that the
oxygen usage is practically independent of the state of tonus of the muscle.
The lactic acid content is also under all circumstances considerably lower than
that of striated muscle. The amount of glycogen in plaiu muscle is so sriall
that it seems doubtful whether it can be regarded as the source of the lactic
acid. Since the usual effect of increased H-ion concentration of the muscl> is
1923 K K

480 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I.

to cause relaxation (as experiments carried out in conjunction with Dr.
S. W. F. Underhill have shown), change of reaction of the muscle appears not
to provide an explanation of the phenomenon of contraction. A more feasible
explanation seems to be that some potent metabolite is responsible for the
contraction, that the circulation in the contracted tissue is greatly reduced, with
the result that lactic acid and carbon dioxide accumulate, so causing relaxation.

15. Prof. H. BE. Roar.—Measurement of Colour Blindness in terms
of Wave-lengths.

16. Dr. F. W. Evrmce-Green, C.B.E.—The Effect of the Blood in
the Retina on Colour Equations.

Whilst the effect of the pigment of the yellow spot has been frequently
discussed, that due to the absorption by the blood in the retina has been
generally overlooked. It is known that the phenomena attributed to the visual
purple of the rods gradually diminish in the rod-free portion of the retina.
Curves constructed by Hecht show that the rod-free portion behaves as if
there were dilute visual purple in this region; this would naturally follow if
the visual purple has to flow into the liquid surrounding the cones of the fovea.
Numerous equations are valid both for the fovea and the peripheral portion of
the retina, but if an equation be made of red A 650, (corresponding to an
absorption band of hemoglobin) and green A 553.8un to match the white light
of the tungsten arc, it will be found that more green is required in the equation
when the image falls on the retina 15° from the centre of the fovea, in which
there are no blood-vessels. |

17. Dr. M. C. Grasuam.—Dental Caries at Porto Sanio.

The object of this paper is to stimulate inquiry and to suggest that the
mineral waters of the island possess some influence in resisting the development
of caries. Porto Santo is a small island of the Madeira Archipelago, and its
water-springs are highly mineralised with chlorides, carbonates, and sulphates,
in. contrast to the sweet waters of the principal island. The outstanding
features of the people’s diet are that the food is taken cold, no green vegetables
or milk are included, and there is nothing to require grinding mastication.
The people drink moderately. Consumption is frequently present, while there
is no scurvy, no alimentary disorders, and no malignant disease as far as the |
author can ascertain. But the teeth of the district are characterised by a thin
yellow line across the upper incisors, which in after-life spreads and stains
the teeth generally. The stain is unknown in Madeira. The writer states with”
confidence that the yellow stain on the incisors is a sure indication of a sound”
set of tecth, and its regular occurrence is believed to furnish conclusive
evidence of the permeation of the blood fluids in the interstices of the columnar
enamel, and is certainly due to some constituent in the local and highly
mineralised water. A

18. Prof. J. J. BR. Macueop, F.R.S.—Lecture on Insulin and
its Value in Medicine, followed by discussion.

19. Mr. J. C. WatitEer.—Conditions which Determine the Direction
of the Photo-Hlectric Current in Green Leaves. f

A. D. Waller showed that the electric effect of illumination upon the green
leaves of Iris, Begonia, and Nicotiana is negativity of the illuminated part ; in
the green leaves of Mathiola and Tropeolum the effect is positivity of the
illuminated part. -
Photographic records of the two types have been obtained, using Geranium
(which belongs to the Iris type) and Tropzeolum. %*
The type of response in Geranium can be brought to resemble that of
Tropeolum by keeping the plant for long periods in darkness. yi
The type of response of Tropxolum resembles that of Geranium under certain
conditions not yet defined, but apparently connected with the previous action
of sun and wind. Ht

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 481 |

Tuesday, September 18.

20. Prof. J. S. Macponap, F.R.S.—Cycling at a Constantly Main-
tained Speed with Varied Brake. (Carried out with the help
of the late Mr. A. Wallis.)

These experiments form a continuation of experiments previously made
by direct calorimetrical methods (Proc. Roy. Soc., B., vol. 89, 1916, p. 394, &c.).
They were carried out by indirect calorimetry (Douglas Bag and Haldane’s Gas
Analysis method) over the greater range made possible by this change. The
results confirm those already reported.

21. Prof. J. 8. Macponatp, F.R.S.—Variation of Length of Step
in Walking.

Previous observations have been made on the length of step by the Webers,
by Marey, and by others. These new experimental data are in agreement in
showing a definite relationship between step and velocity, which is departed
from notably at a certain higher range of velocity. At this maximum the
step-length fails to undergo any further increase : below it the relationship in

5 : 8 : : anaes
each case is approximately = =k when & is constant in each individual case

and has a definite relationship to the height of the individual in different
individual cases.

22. Miss Marcarer S. Macponaup and Prof. J. S. Macponatp,
F.R.S.—The Cost of Walking.

Experiments have been made on a number of subjects—male and female,
adult and young. The results are generally capable of being plotted out best
2

in relation to v%. Utilising the observation that = is almost a constant,

attempts have been made to analyse these results in the general form

ELS ar La vy ‘ea
v s \v

and a general formula developed in which it has been found possible to insert
“pendular characteristics of length of time,’ involving the length of the leg
and its square root. In this general formula the area of the surface of the
body is inserted in unconventional fashion (a) as determining a cooling factor
which reduces the sum due to basal metabolism and to vertical movement, and
(6) as the measure of ‘ wind resistance’ impeding progression and increasing
the sum due to movement. This procedure follows the line suggested by the
cycling experiments. ‘

23. Dr. T. W. Wapsworty, Prof. J. S. Macponatp, F.R.S., and
Mr. Geo. Macponaup.—Variation in Character of Step.

Observations have been made on the pressure exerted by the heel in walking,
and on the time occupied by heel-pressure, also in cruder fashion on the lift
of the body at each step.

. Dr. F. A. Durrie~p.—Cycling at Varied Rate and Work.

Experiments have been made with a modified ‘rope brake’ ergometer,
devised so as to ensure maintenance of the load as exactly as possible, and
he simultaneous operation of taps on the Douglas-bag apparatus. Two sub-
jects have been utilised. In one case the results are such as to justify the
statement that each rate of movement determines a base line of metabolism
ipon which the value of the brake erects a directly proportional increment.
In the other case the statement of results is evidently not so simple, and experi-
nents are being continued to study the significance of the requisite modification
n statement.

482 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I, J.

(Lasoratory DEMONSTRATIONS.)

25 Dr. F. A. Dourrienp.—Demonstration of the Method used for
the Measurement of the Cost of Cycling at Varied Rates and
Work.

26. Prof. Cuartes E. Wanker and Miss F. M. Tozer.—Cytological
Demonstration.

27. Prof. W. Ramspen.—<Adsorption Films.

28. Mr. R. Watson Jones.—The Metabolism of the Frog at Different
Temperatures.

Two series of six-hourly experiments were conducted with frogs, at tempera-
tures varying between zero and 35° C., using a slightly modified Haldane-
Pembrey apparatus. The CO:z production was estimated, and found not to
increase regularly with every rise of temperature, it being quite constant
between 15° and 20° C. This confirms some experiments by Pembrey, where
the range of temperature was 9° to 19° C.

At temperatures which are normal for the frog—0° to 20° C.—the animal
has some control over its metabolism, so that the increased CO: output,
associated with a unit rise of temperature, becomes smaller as the temperature
is raised. Between 20° and 35° C. (abnormal temperatures for the frog) there
is no control, and the frog behaves simply as a chemical mass, the CO2 output
increasing two or three times for every 10° C. rise of temperature.

The CO, production in frogs at 37° C. is—per kilogram of body weight—the
same aS In a resting man.

SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 506.)

Thursday, September 13.
1, Prof. T. H. Pear.—Imagery and Mentality.

Importance of realising that the thinking processes in different persons may —
employ different vehicles and proceed along different routes. The importance
of various kinds of imagery and of imageless thought in the mental life of the
individual. Abilities and disabilities accompanying the predominance in an
individual of a particular kind of imagery. The influence upon psychology
itself of writers whose mentality is strongly coloured by a certain imagery type.

2. Joint Discussion with Section F on The Inter-connections
between Hconomics and Psychology in Industry.

3. Joint Discussion with Section G on Vocational Tests for Engi-
neering Trades. i

The importance of vocational tests in the selection of employees, and in —
the guidance of juveniles to future careers.

The general principles of selection. General intelligence, specific abilities,
temperament and physique as factors in the choice of workmen. The difficulties
of vocational testing in the engineering trades owing to the variety of types
of work, and the different types of machine used. The four general methods of
arriving at the type of vocational tests. Vocational testing in engineering on
the Continent and in America. The use of group tests and individual tests in
vocational selection. Analysis of engineering trades according to specific abili-
ties and temperamental factors required. How such an analysis may be arrived

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 483

“at. Special abilities common to most engineering trades. A consideration on
some of these abilities, with specific examples in vocational testing.

4 Dr. G. H. Mines.—Lecture on Vocational Guidance.

Friday, September 14:
5. Dr. G. H. Mines.—Effects of Glare in Industrial Lighting.
6

.
|

. Mr. W. Prercy.—The Relations of Psychology and Economics.

7. Presidential Address by Dr. C. Burr on The Mental Differ
ences between Individuals. (See p. 215.)

8. Miss Evetyn Fox.—Mental Deficiency.

9. Mr. H. Banister.—The Relation of Phase and Pitch in the
Localisation of Tones.

Triode oscillators were used to produce the tones used. Each observer,
who was seated by himself in the sound-proof room, noted the deviation caused
in the apparent position of the sound by varying the phase difference of the
two notes from 0° to 90°. Two observers reported constant amounts of devia-
tion (90° and 45°) for all frequencies; tivo others gave constant deviations of
45° for all but low frequencies, for which larger deviations were obtained ;
other observers gave reports showing individual differences. The results are
compared with those obtained by other experimenters.

10. Mr. J. H. Kenneru.—Mental Reactions to Olfactory Stimuli.

Experiments were made on fifty persons, with a view to investigating mental
reactions to smells, particularly in order to determine the effects and associations
induced by certain odorous substances.

While variations in the effect produced by a given odour are noted, a
standard effect can be determined, and marked deviations from this effect can
be explained in some cases. Sexual differences in the effect can be observed in
he case of certain stimuli—e.g. musk. Metabolic causes can be ascribed to
alteration of the effect in female subjects.

Associations were given in the majority of cases, and their classification
presents difficulties. Certain associations are more common than others, how-
ever; individual associations cannot be foretold. | Word associations to smells
an be investigated and utilised in a similar manner as those to words.
Owing to the vivid and extensive character of the associations, a carefully
selected series of odours can be used as an adjunct to the usual psycho-analytic
methods. Conversion phenomena (particularly psycho-galvanic reactions),
delayed reaction time, and other complex indicators have been noted, and some
'amnesize have been revealed. Certain odorous substances produce a greater
variety of associations than others, and further experiments on a large scale
are required in order to determine which osmyls are most valuable in this
respect.

Dr. Marauerite E. Bickersteta.—Psychograms: An HEzxperi-
mental Investigation of the Genesis and Development of
Number Forms.

Mr. Eric Farmer.—Lecture on A Psychological Inquiry into
Coal-mining.

_ A new method of using the pick, in which greater attention was paid to

the natural rhythm of the body, was taught to certain groups of miners by

eans of a metronome. The miners themselves approved of the change, and

said they went home feeling less tired than when they employed the usual

nethod ; their output also increased.

434 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J.

Laboratory experiments were carried out te determine the relative efficiency
of different methods of lighting, by measuring the number and duration of the
after-sensations caused. These experiments showed that a diffused light was
less painful than the ordinary type, and that although a 28 per cent. loss in
intensity was caused by using an opaque cylinder, yet its efficiency, as measured
by visual acuity, was equal to that of the ordinary lamp. These new lamps met
with the miners’ approval and are being generally adopted in the pit.

Monday, September 17.

13. Joint Discussion with Section L on The Delinquent Child.
(See p. 497.)

14, Dr. J. Drever.—Colour Preference: Some Experimental Results.
15, Dr. R. H. Tooutess.—Theories of the Soul.

SHort LEecTurgs.
16. Mr. R. C. Moozge.-—Educational Tests.

17, Mr. T. P. Tomiinson.—A Mental Scale for School Surveys.

18. Dr. Lu. Wynn Jones.—Galvanometric Tests of Emotion.

Tuesday, September 18.

19. Mr. J. A. Fraser.—Methods of Selection and Training of Opera-
tives for the Weaving Industry. :
(1) The relative importance of training and selection in the weaving industry. ©
(2) Existing methods of selection of operatives.
(a) Consideration of methods used in different factories. ©
(6) Some defects of these methods. :
(c) Suggested lines of improvement.
(3) Existing methods of training operatives.
(a) Consideration of methods used in different factories.
(6) Some defects of these methods.
(c) Suggested lines of improvement.
(4) Conclusions and problems for further research.

20. Dr. S. Dawson.—Variations in the Mental Efficiency of Children
during School Hours.

The mental efficiency of 1,200 children was tested by giving them ten-minute
spells of arithmetical work at different hours during the school day, and it
was found that children over nine years of age worked equally well at 9.30,
10.30, 11.30 a.m., 1.30 and 2.30 p.m.; that children below that age showed signs
of a falling-off in efficiency at the last of these periods; that the effect of a
small amount of practice was comparatively large; and, finally, that the best
work was done in the hour at which the children had heen accustomed to have
their arithmetic lesson.

21. Mr. J. C. Futeeu.—Fatigue Curves with School Children.
22, Prof. K. P. Carucart.—A new Type of Pursuitmeter.

23. Miss W. SrreuMan.—Vocational Tests for Dressmakers’ Appren-
tices.

Tests for dressmakers’ apprentices are desirable both for vocational guidance

and for vocational selection. An analysis was therefore made of the factors

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J, K. 485

determining efficiency in this trade, and tests were devised to measure these
factors. The tests are not sample needlework tests, but aim at measuring the
factors directly, thus finding aptitude rather than present skill. The diagnostic
value of the tests is indicated by the results obtained.

24, Mr.S. Wyatr.—Monotony.

25. Miss Isasex Burnerr.—An Laperimental Investigation of Repe-
titive Work.
(1) The problem of monotony, and the aims of this line of research. The
question of individual differences.
(2) Disposition of experiment.
(a) Subjects. Method of selection.
(6) Nature of work, material, and conduct of experiments.
(c) Distribution of rest pauses.
(3) Results obtained.
(a) Comparison of intelligence ranking with output ranking, illustrated
by output curves and statistics.
(6) Discussion of individual output under different conditions of work.
Curves obtained from each individual on each different day.
(c) Capacity to do a specific task is not necessarily correlated with the
(4) General conclusions and suggested line of further research.

26. Miss Auice G. Ikin.—An Inquiry into the Qualities Desirable in
a Foreman.
(1) (a) Importance of a foreman in relation to the management and workmen.
(6) Inadequacy of many existing methods of selecting foremen, and com-
parative lack of adequate training.
(c) Capacity to do a specific task is not necessarily correlated with the
capacity to instruct or lead others.
(2) Methods of obtaining data concerning qualities required.
(a) A comparative examination of opinions obtained from
(i) Managers ;
(1i) Foremen.
(6) Inquiry into and observation of foremen’s duties.
(3) Need’for vocational tests for and improved methods of training foremen.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 507.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Presidential Address by Mr. A. G. Tansuey, F.R.S., on The
Present Position of Botany. (See p. 240.)

2. Miss E. R. Saunpers.—EHvolution and Reversion in the
Eheadaies.

Certain structural characters and relationships exhibited by the carpels in
a large number of spermophyte families, notably among those included in the
Rheadales, are difficult to explain on the accepted view of the composition of
the gynecium.

There is abundant evidence that in the course of evolution of existing types
of flowering plants the gyncecium has undergone varying degrees of reduction,
consolidation, and sterilisation.

‘he manner in which these processes have taken effect can be traced in many
families both of Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, while in some few cases

486 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.

they can be observed actually in progress, either habitually or occasionally, under
specially favourable circumstances.

As a result we are able to account for certain of these apparent morphological
anomalies and to discard others as fictions, as e.g., the commissural stigma.

3. Prof. H. H. Drxon, F.R.S., and Mr. Nicen G. Bauu.—The
Extraction of Sap from Living Leaves by means of Compressed
Air.

Branches of Vilia americana and Sambucus nigra were enclosed in a strong
cylinder in such a way that their cut ends protruded. Compressed air at
pressures up to 20 atmospheres was admitted into the cylinder, and the liquid
which exuded from the cut end of the branch was collected. This liquid was
found to be completely, or almost completely, free from sugars. Experiments
carried out in early and late summer gave similar results. After the leaf-cells
had been made permeable by means of toluene vapour the sugar in the expressed
sap amounted to about 5 per cent.

4. Prof. W. Nreitson Jones.—Regeneration of Roots and Shoots in
Cuttings of Seakale.

Experiments on the regeneration of roots and shoots in root-cuttings of
seakale point to the following conclusions :—

(1) The end of the cutting nearest the original root apex shows a marked
capacity for producing roots. There is only a slight tendency for this capacity
to extend any distance from this end, and none of the methods tried has been
successful in appreciably lengthening this distance.

(2) The end of the cutting nearest the original stem apex shows a marked
capacity for shoot production. There is a strong tendency for this capacity to
spread along the cutting. Various means accentuate this tendency.

(3) Short pieces of root when they regenerate always produce shoots from
both ends. Any roots that are produced arise from one end only.

(4) Repeated attempts have been made to correlate this ‘regeneration
gradient ’ with a gradient of electrical potential or hydrogen-ion concentration,
but without conclusive results.

5. Dr. M. C. Rayvner.—Contributions to the Biology of Mycorrhiza
im the Ericacee.

(1) ‘ Digestion ’ stages in roots.

The root mycorrhiza of Calluna vulgaris exhibits digestion stages resembling
those found in the root-cells of orchids. It is believed that the relations between
root-cells and fungus show seasonal periodicity, the digestion of mycelium
reaching a maximum during the autumn months.

(2) Formation of mycorrhiza in ‘ cuttings’ of Calluna.

The roots of shoot cuttings, struck under controlled conditions in sterilised

sand, show infection of the same type as that exhibited by other young roots.
The observations recorded by Christoph have not been confirmed.

6. Dr. F. G. Grecory.—The Interrelation of Light and Temperature
in Growth and Assimilation.

(1) Growth of leaf-area and increase of dry weight in the greenhouse. The
method of studying growth in leaf-area and the errors of the method. Growth
of leaf-area during summer and winter. The compound-interest law of leaf-
growth and its modifications when light intensity is comparatively low.

(2) Growth under continuous illumination at different constant temperatures.
The effect_of temperature on the growth of single leaves and of the total leaf-
surface. The effect on the net assimilation rate. Total assimilation is dependent
primarily on leaf-surface growth. Growth at supra-optimal temperatures. The
law of the optimum and the law of limiting factors. Growth and assimilation
conditioned by light intensity and temperature under all conditions.

(3) The energy-etficiency of plants. Variation of efficiency with temperature.
The hypothesis of shifting optima and the law of limiting factors.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 487

7. Mr. C. Hunrer and Miss K. M. Ricu.—Observations on the Effect
of Carbon-diexide Accumulation on Root Elongation.

Variations of carbon-dioxide concentration affect the rate of root elongation.
Plants show different degrees of sensitiveness to this factor. Attention is here
restricted to the reactions exemplified by Vicia Faba and Impatiens Balsamina.
Modifications of the rate of root elongation due to the addition of carbon
dioxide or the removal of accumulations of this gas can be detected by direct
measurement. The occurrence and duration of minute fluctuations during root
elongation are affected by this treatment. The addition of carbon dioxide
disturbs the equilibrium of the condition of the root as indicated by changes
of its electrical resistance.

8. Mr. F. Y. Henperson.—The Direct Effect of Light on the Rate
of Water-loss from the Mesophyll of the Leaf.

The evidence for and against the control of transpiration by stomata is
reviewed. The question of the direct action of the mesophyll cells in such
control is discussed, and experimental work—using Darwin’s ‘ slitting ’ method,
in which the stomata are rendered non-operative—is brought forward.

9, Mr. 8. G. Jones.—The Life-history and Cytology of Rhytisma
acerinum.

(1) The ascospores : dispersal and germination; penetration and cytology uf
the germ-tube.

(2) Infection experiments : formation of the conidial stroma and cytology of
the conidia.

(3) The apothecial stroma: its development in the epidermis; the sexual
organs, their development and cytology; cytology of the ascus.

(4) Ecology of the parasite.

Friday, September 14.
10. Dr. F. F. Buackxman, F.R.S.—Oxygen and Respiration.

11. Prof. V. H. Buacxman, F.R.S., and Mr. A. T. Leaa.—The
Effect of Electric Currents on the Growth of Plants in Pot
Cultures.

Pot-culture experiments carried out during a period of six years with wheat,
barley, and maize show that these plants exhibit increases of dry weight when
subjected to electric currents as low as 0.1x10-!° amp. per plant. A percentage
increase in dry weight of 27+5.7 was shown by maize plants grown under glass
for little more than a month. Currents of the order of 1x10-8 amp. per plant
and higher were found to be injurious. With barley plants subjected to the
discharge for various periods the greatest effect was obtained from electrifica-
tion during the second month of growth, when an increase of 118 per cent. in
grain and 39 per cent. in dry weight was obtained.

12. Prof. V. H. Buackman, F.R.S., Mr. A. T. Lae, and Dr. F. G.
GreGory.—The Effect of a Direct Electric Current of very

Low Intensity on the Rate of Growth of the Coleoptile of Barley.

There is a marked acceleration of growth when the coleoptile of barley is
exposed to an electric discharge from a point charged positively (about 10,000
volts), and placed at such a distance above it that a current of 0.5x10-!° amp.
passes through the coleoptile. The increased rate shows itself from the first
hour onward, reaching in the third hour a percentage increase of 7.53+1.95.
After the cessation of stimulation an after-effect, which is greater than the
direct effect, is to be observed. The after-effect shows in the fifth hour a
percentage increase of 15.68+2.62. The after-effect is greater with a short
period of discharge than with a longer period. When the point is negatively
charged the rate of growth is increased at first, but it soon falls again. An

after-effect follows here also, but it is markedly less than that resulting from a
positive discharge.

488 - SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.

13. Mr. J. C. WatuEr.—Photo-electric Changes in Green and While
Leaves.

Variegated geranium leaves show electrical changes in response to light
similar to those of green geranium leaves partly shielded by dark paper, the
chlorotic portions of the former corresponding to the shielded portions of the
latter. Green petals of Hydrangea act similarly to green geranium leaves, while
white petals give little response. This is further evidence that the photo-
electric change is specially associated with the chlorophyll function.

The ratio between intensity of light and electrical response is as might be
expected from other physiological ratios. ;

A leaf tested after being kept under normal conditions of sunlight is
different from the same leaf after many hours in the dark.

Such comparison of photographic records of electrical response under different
biological conditions is more likely to be instructive than the analysis of indi-
vidual curves.

14. Dr. M. Witson and Miss E. J. Capman.—The Life-history and
Cytology of Reticularia lycoperdon.

Shortly after spore germination the blepharoplast arises from the nucleus
and passes to the periphery of the cell, the flagellum then developing from it.
Throughout its existence the blepharoplast is connected to the nucleus by a
cone-shaped structure, the ‘ Verbindungstiick.’ The swarm-cell is of the usual
type. Before division the flagellum is retracted, the blepharoplast divides,
and the two portions function as centrosomes, a paradesmose being formed
between them. ‘The paradesmose gives rise to ‘the spindle; four chromosomes
are present. The flagella of the daughter cells grow out from the centrosomes
before cell division is completed.

Fusion normally takes place between two motile swarm-cells. The flagella
are withdrawn after fusion, and the cells become rounded and gradually coalesce.
Nuclear fusion follows, producing a uninucleate plasmodium. This at once
becomes amceboid and engulfs and digests swarm-cells which have not undergone
fusion. The nucleus of the plasmodium soon divides, eight chromosomes being
present, and division continues, producing a multinucleate plasmodium.

Under natural conditions the plasmodium emerges from the wood at a
number of places situated close together, the separate portions later on coalescing
to form the large ethalium. Two nuclear divisions have been seen in the
plasmodium just before spore formation. These are the meiotic divisions.
The divisions are intranuclear and centrosomes are not present. In the first
meiotic (heterotype) division four U-shaped chromosomes are present. This is
rapidly followed by the second (homotype) division, in which the nuclei occur
in pairs. The meiotic divisions appear to take place only in certain areas of
the plasmodium, and it is in these areas that spore formation goes on. The
remaining cytoplasm and associated nuclei degenerate, and the resulting material
forms the incomplete internal partitions and external walls of the ethalium.
The sporogenous portions become divided up by irregular lines of cleavage until
uninucleate masses are produced which form the spores.

15; Prof. H. H. Dixon, F.R.S., and Mr. N. G. Bauu.—The Vascular
Supply of the Haustorial Cotyledon of Lodoicea and Pheniz.

Close beneath the absorbent surface of the haustorium there is a net-
work of bundles. This network is connected with the embryo by bundles which
traverse the petiole longitudinally. The connecting bundles contain about as

much phloem as xylem. The cross-section of the phloem in the haustorium is fe

much greater than that of the xylem. In the haustorium of Lodoicea large
tubular cells pass out from the sheath of the bundles into the surrounding
parenchyma; sometimes chains of these cells connect the sheaths of adjacent
bundles. Sheaves of narrow tubular cells are found in the vascular parenchyma,
which turn out into the adjoining parenchyma. ‘They often penetrate as far
as the outer intercellular spaces of the haustorium, and there come into contact
with the semi-fluid debris of the endosperm.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 489

16. Dr. B. Murie, Briston Roacu.—Physiological Studies of Soil
Alge.

The ability of sub-aerial alge to fix atmospheric nitrogen in pure culture
has been critically investigated in conjunction with Mr. H. J. Page, of the
Rothamsted Chemical Department. ‘The results give no indication of fixation,
as claimed by Wann (New York), there being a final recovery of 99.28 per
cent. of the nitrogen supplied to the cultures, as against 99.25 per cent. from
the control flasks. On the contrary, there is some evidence of denitrification
in those cultures with the most luxuriant growth. Wann’s results are attribut-
able to inaccurate methods of chemical analysis.

17. Major C. C. Hursy.—On the Chromosomes of Rosa.

Chromosome counts of Rosa give somatic numbers 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 56.
Q and g gametic numbers are equal, 7, 14, 21, 28 each, or unequal matroclinous,
2, 3, 4,59:1¢. Allare 7 or multiples of 7, and during meiosis the chromosomes
appear in definite strings of sevens, double or single. Male sterility arises
through irregular behaviour of these strings. Analyses of 395 forms confirm
the hypothesis that each string of seven represents definite characters, for
various associations of paired and unpaired strings correspond with Linnean
species. The string scheme provides a satisfactory method of classification for
this polymorphic genus, based on cytological, genetical, and taxonomic results ;
it also elucidates origin and evolution of species, for towards the Pole the
number of strings increases. while towards the Equator it decreases.

18. Mrs. Nesta Ferauson.—A Preliminary Account of a Survey of
the Chromosomes of the Liliacee.

Variations in number, size, and form of chromosomes in the Liliacee are
illustrated. It is proposed to measure the size of the chromosomes—both linear
dimensions and volume of chromatin—in the somatic and heterotypic divisions ;
also to compare in various species the variation in size of the chromosomes and
the forms of some of the bivalents.

The underlying idea of the research is to study the chromosome groups in
relation to phylogeny, and to test how far we have here another character for
determining affinities Another aspect is a comparison of the chromosome
complexes of the species of one area with those of another, widely separated
area, in order to ascertain whether the constitution of the nucleus offers any
indication of the lines along which development has occurred.

19. Miss M. G. Campin.—A Chromosomal Survey of Certain Plant
Families, with Special Reference to Genetic Relationships.

In surveying an entire family from a chromosomal point of view certain
conclusions emerge : (1) Within the family a certain ‘ type form’ of chromosomal
configuration and cytological behaviour is recognisable. (2) The actual number
of chromosomes in the different genera and species is of less importance in
indicating affinity than the ‘type form,’ although sets of series, e.g., 12, 24,
36... 60 in the Solanacez, are often observed and can be interpreted on a
genetic basis. Solanacee and Ranunculacee are discussed in detail. Morpho-
logical and cytological relationships of types aberrant to these families are
discussed, and the significance of polypoidy in the genealogy of species is
considered.

20. Miss FE. M. Reus.—Chromosomes and Sterility in Muscari.

Investigation shows that three lines of specialisation occur within the
genus Muscari. Firstly, there is a series of forms which show progressive
sterilisation of the inflorescence; every grade from complete fertility to com-
plete sterility occurs. Secondly, there are variations in chromosome number ;
there are diploid forms, tetraploid forms, and at least one pentaploid form.
Lastly, there are, within forms with a similar chromosome number, marked
variations in the relative size of the chromosomes, and also variations in the
total bulk of chromatinic material.

490 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.

The object of the paper is to point out the probable connection between
these variations, and to show how far they may be regarded as parallel series
of specialisation. The possible correlation of external form with nuclear
structure is discussed.

Saturday, September 15.
Excursions took place to (a) Ingleborough; (b) the Leet Valley,
Flintshire. ws ;

Monday, September 17.
21. Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S.—The Harly History of the Stele.

The Lower Carboniferous flora is taken as a typical Paleozoic stage, from
which to work back. The varied types of stelar structures then existing are
briefly recalled, as represented among the Lycopods, Sphenophylls, Equisetales,
Filicales, Pteridosperms and higher Gymnosperms. Our limited knowledge of
the structure of Upper Devonian plants does not suggest that organisation was
appreciably simpler at that period.

In the Early Devonian the conditions were quite different. Though advanced
types already existed (Palwopitys Muilleri), it is here that we first meet with
really simple vascular plants (the Psilophytales). Of these, Asteroxylon was an
undoubted Pteridophyte, comparable in its stele either with the Lycopodiacee or
the Zygopterid ferns. In the Rhyniacee the slender centrarch or indeterminate
stele reaches the limits of simplicity ; but were these plants Pteridophytes?

Taking all the early types into consideration, there appears to be no ground
for the assumption that the stele had a foliar origin. The independence of the
stele is manifest throughout. It is only the more advanced forms of stele that
are built ap of leaf-traces, and the extreme case of the Marattiacee appears
to be exceptional and derivative.

‘There is much reason to believe that a solid stele is primitive, so that the
term ‘protostele’ appears justified. On the other hand, there are no sufficient
grounds for the hypothesis that the typical root-structure was primitive for
the stem also. In particular lines such a stage may have been passed through,
but this was not the case generally.

22. Prof. W. H. Lana, F.R.S.—The Organisation of the Plant in
the Vascular Cryptogams in the Light of Fossil History and
Causal Morphology.

The main morphological problems in the organisation of land-plants can be
studied in the Vascular Cryptogams, which not only have a long geological
history, but are suitable for experimental work. The problem of the segmenta-
tion of the shoot composed of stem and leaves was very early stated on formal
lines. Comparison of existing plants, and even those of the Lower Car-
boniferous Period, does not provide evidence to decide between alternative
views. Putting questions of relationship aside, it seems possible to obtain
further evidence along both historical and experimental lines. On the historical
side the plants of the Early Devonian Period are especially interesting in
this respect, since they may afford examples of nascent shoots. Normal develop-
ment, and especially some deviations from it, are instructive and open to
physiological study. It is only possible to mention the further problems
presented by the root and the spore-bearing organs of the Vascular Cryptogams,
but that of the organisation of the shoot illustrates the limitations and the
hopefulness of work both on historical and causal lines. Any definite con-
clusion would be premature, but on the whole the increase of knowledge appears
to be in favour of some segmental or phytonic construction of the shoot. In
the present state of morphology the usefulness of comprehensive theories,
whether evolutionary or physiological, seems doubtful.

23. Prof. J. McLean THompson.—Developmental Morphology and
its Bearing on Systematic Physiology.

An attempt is made to trace by developmental methods a phyletic tendency
in a group of Angiosperms from its initiation. In particular, progressive sterility

eee a re

a ee ee re |

tay 2 ls

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 491

in the Cxsalpiniacee is described and is shown to constitute a dominant feature
of the group. It is held that in the group petaloidy is an early declaration of
advancing sterility, whose climax is total sterility and apetaly. The organisms
considered are arranged in a series to illustrate the thesis that petaloidy is
an index of recent sterilisation which marks a step in the decadence of an
originally apetalous group. The persistent recurrence of petaloidy must lead
to total sterility. It is held that if this interpretation of petaloidy in the
Cesalpiniacee can be accepted broadly for Angiosperms, the latter must be
viewed as decadent by a growing sterility of which petaloidy indicates an early
stage. The need for systematic study of the physiology of these features is
emphasised.

24. Dr. E. N. Mires Tuomas.—Observations on the Seedling Anatomy
of the Ebenales.

Several new species and genera are described, including for the first time
members of the family Stvracacez.

Mr. H. Wright described the seedling anatomy of a number of species of
Diospyros in 1904, and Miss W. Smith of the Sapotacee in 1908. They agree
apparently in the prevalence of four root poles in the diagonal position, which
is rare in other groups so far as is known. Hexarch forms, however, are also
found and much variability exists, particularly in the Ebenacez.

The present communication establishes the existence of ‘ cruciform ’ tetrarchy
and diarchy (Diospyros Lotus, Styrax japonica, Halesia tetraptera), thus mini-
mising the importance of the absence of root poles in the cotyledonary plane
(Smith, ‘ Trans. Linn. Soc.,’ 1908).

It further establishes the existence of ‘ alterne’ protoxylem, which is more
or less resorbed at different levels (Diospyros, &c.). Thus the seedling anatomy
of this very aberrant and variable Order is linked with the more usual types.

25. Dr. W. R. G. Arxins.—Seasonal Changes in Water in Relation
to the Algal Plankton.

Sea water off Plymouth undergoes changes in hydrogen-ion concentration
from pH 8.12 in winter to pH 8.24 in early summer as the algal plankton
removes CO;; these progress from surface to bottom, uniformity being reached
by October.

The increase of plankton also results in a decrease of phosphate content
from 0.05mgr, of P.O; per litre in winter to 0.004-0.002 for surface water in
early summer, the diminution being observed at greater depths later. It appears
probable that phosphate is the factor which limits algal multiplication, and
consequently animal life also.

In fresh water much larger variations in pH value are found. In shallow
ponds phosphate may be used up completely in early summer, whereas in deep
water relatively large amounts are still available.

26. Prof. A. C. Sewarp, F.R.S.—Cretaceous Floras of Greenland.

A preliminary account was given of the Cretaceous flora of Western Green-
jand based on material collected by himself and Mr. R. E. Holttum in 1921.

On the east side of Disko Island and on the coast of the Nugsuak Peninsula
Cretaceous and Tertiary freshwater sedimentary rocks rest on the denuded
surface of the Archean Gneiss and are covered by a succession of Tertiary
basalts and volcanic ash. The vegetation present in the Cretaceous strata con-
sists of ferns, especially species of Gleichenites, Conifers, Ginkgoites, and many
Dicotyledons. It is clear that these plants must have lived under climatic con-
ditions very different from those of the present day. A brief description was
given of the more interesting genera and the question of the geological correla-
tion of the Greenland beds with plant-bearing strata in other countries was
discussed.

492 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.

27. Prof. D. THopay.—The Geographical Distribution and Ecology
of the Genus Passerina.

_Passerina is a genus of ericoid shrubs endemic to Southern Africa, com-
prising some fifteen species. The ecoiogy and geographical distribution of the
species parallel in a striking way their morphological relationships.

The marked correlation of the species with distinctive habitats, some
restricted in extent, others more or less continuous over wide areas, would
vitiate any inference from area to relative age. South Africa is an old land
surface which has not been submerged since Cretaceous times, and it is highly
probable that most of the species of Passerina have reached limits to their
distribution set by climatic and edaphic factors. Willis’ recent suggestion
that species spread slowly enough on the whole for acclimatisation to keep pace
with dispersal begs an important question.

The origin of species in this genus has involved morphological divergence,
together with a physiological divergence in adaptation to distinctive habitats ;
a satisfactory theory must account for this. The way in which the species have
divided the land between them is remarkable.

28. Prof. R. B. THomson and Dr. H. B. Sirron.—Resin Canals in
Spruce Wood.

29. Dr. W. L. Bauus, F.R.S.—Popular Lecture on Cotton.

Tuesday, September 18.
30. Joint Discussion with Section M on Virus Diseases of Plants.

(a) Dr. Patt Murreny.—Virus Diseases of Plants.

Recent researches in plant pathology have shown that a number of obscure
maladies are really infectious diseases of the so-called ‘ virus’ type, comparable
to some of the most serious diseases of man and animals, and not mere conditions
of ill-health resulting from old age or from unfavourable environmental or
cultural conditions.

A brief account of these investigations is given, particularly as regards the
disease of potatoes long known as ‘ Curl,’ which is analysed and described.
The traditional control measures are considered in the light of the new con-
ception of the disease, and a sketch is given of the new avenues of approach to
more rational and effective methods of combating the disease which are being
opened.

(b) Prof. H. M. Quanser.—So-called * Virus Diseases ’ of Plants:
their Symptoms, Causation, Mode of Dissemination, and Eco-
nomic Importance from a Physiological Point of View.

Opinion was formerly divided in ascribing ‘ virus diseases’ to physiological —

influences, degeneration, and parasites. In the majority of fungoid, bacterial,
eelworm, and insect diseases attacks are local, but in so-called ‘ virus diseases ”

these are general. In animal diseases, spreading through blood-vessels is —
possible. The plant tissue most comparable with blood-vessels is the sieve-tube

system. Diseases which spread through sieve tubes are more generalised in

host than are most other diseases. The hypothesis that in ‘ virus diseases’ the —

phloem is the seat of disturbance is confirmed by :—

(1) Microscopical evidence in the case of potato leaf-roll, curly-top of beet, bd

raspberry leaf-curl, &c. ; trite ‘

(2) Physiological evidence by prevention of movement of assimilates in the
same diseases and in some others—e.g. peach yellows and sandal spike.

(3) Experimental evidence given by grafting experiments where the phloem
joins first and the symptoms follow the downward sap flow in certain potato
diseases and mosaic diseases of other plants.

(4) Biological evidence that disease is spread by aphides sucking the phloem ~

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 493

in certain potato diseases and mosaic diseases of various plants. Curly-top of
beet is spread by leaf-hoppers sucking the phloem. Where infection by means
of juice can be easily performed, as in tobacco and cucumber mosaics, biting
insects also act as carriers.

The potato diseases of this group spread more in warmer and sheltered
regions where aphides flourish than in colder and rougher climates.

Since the term ‘ virus diseases’ tends to cause confusion, the author calls
them ‘phloem diseases.’ The idea that they are caused by specific micro-
organisms spreading in the phloem has served him as a working hypothesis for
the last ten years, but their etiology will be a subject of discussion so long as
successful inoculation experiments with pure cultures of these organisms have
not established their exact relation to these diseases.

‘Their economic importance in the light of this hypothesis, especially as
regards the cultivation of potatoes, is explained either by the slowing-down of
the functions of the phloem, or by its ré/e in generalising infection not only in
‘plant ’ but in ‘ clone.’

A considerable degree of resemblance exists between sieve tubes and latex
vessels. A number of diseases induced by protozoa, spread through latex vessels,
and carried by sucking insects, have now been detected; these results are
stimulating to workers on ‘ phloem diseases.’

The Virus group of plant diseases is an important limiting factor in the
world’s agriculture, and general experience indicates that the several diseases
are rapidly spreading. The only statistics available are contained in the
publications of the Plant Disease Survey of the United States. These date
from 1918 and show that in the succeeding four years an average of twenty-two
States lost nearly a million tons of potatoes from mosaic disease alone. In
energy values this is food for about 170,000 people during that period. From leaf-
roll disease the loss of potatoes in twelve States was about half a million tons.
In an average of four States the loss of beans during 1918-21 was approxi-
mately 850,000 tons. There is little doubt that, were statistics available for
other crops and other countries, similar losses would be found to occur.

(d) Mr. T. WurrEHeap.

(1) Relative importance of different potato-virus diseases not yet ascertained,
though leaf-roll, crinkle, and stipple-streak are probably the most serious.

(2) Leaf-roll resulted in a loss of 55.8 per cent. and 51.8 per cent. of the
crop in 1921 and 1922 respectively. In some localities loss in second year may
amount to over 80 per cent.

(3) As a result of infection by leaf-roll there was no appreciable reduction in
size of tubers, but the total number produced was reduced by 54.4 per cent.

(4) The effect on the yield was not seen during the year in which infection
took place, but only in the crop from the infected tubers.

(5) Transmission may be by aerial insects or through the soil by some means
unknown.

(6) Rate of spread varies in same ground in different seasons; in 1921 disease
spread only from plant to plant in the same row, but across the rows in 1922.

(7) Virus frequently fails to reach all tubers.

(8) Rogueing, selection of healthy plants, and early lifting may enable
healthy ‘seed’ to be maintained in many localities.

(e) Mr. Hotmss Sirs.

(f) Dr. R. N. Savaman.

In regard to Mosaic Disease and Leaf-Roll amongst potato seedlings :—

(1) Seedlings receive no protection against mosaic disease or roll by
periodic nicotine spraying from the day of sowing.

(2) Infection is only very exceptionally congenital.

(3) Solanum nigrum, so far as ascertained, does not appear to be a source of
infection.

494 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.

(4) Infection by insects would appear to be an insufficient explanation for
the spread of mosaic disease and roll.

(5) Seedlings isolated in soil not hitherto used for potato culture remained
during 1923 free from mosaic disease or roll.

(6) Susceptibility to mosaic disease is inherited; its degree is variable, and
possibly the result. of several genetic factors. Susceptibility to roll is also
inherited apart from that to mosaic.

(7) Susceptibility is not necessarily linked with a high mortality, but lack
of vigour will allow of intensification of the lesion after infection.

(8) There is a definite relation between earliness and mortality amongst
seedlings.

31. Dr. D. Extis.—Sulphur Bacteria.

32. Dr. T. L. Pranxerp.—The Ontogeny of Gravitational Irritability
in Osmunda regalis.

The author’s work on ferns has shown that ferns are sensitive to gravity—
i.e., that the frond perceives the pull of the earth. If displaced from its
normal upright position, the young frond makes a twist to regain it, though
the possibility of its doing so was doubted by Charles Darwin.

The sensitivity of fern fronds to gravity has been measured for the first
time and shown to vary with various factors, the most important of which is
the stage of development. A very young frond is far less sensitive than one
unfolding its leaflets. It has also been shown that this sensibility is not
present in the very young plant, but, though unseen, gradually rises as the
plant develops, and to a much greater degree than the growth in length which
can be seen. Plants differ greatly in their sensitivity to gravity—e.g., the Royal
Fern has been shown to be sixty times as sensitive as Asplenium sp. It is
probably the most sensitive vascular plant known in this connection.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to the West Lancashire
Sand Dunes. °
Wednesday, September 19.

33. Discussion on The Effect of Soil Sourness on Plants.

(2) Mr. A. G. Tanstey, F.R.S.—Soil ‘ Sourness’ as an Eco-

logical Factor.

Vegetation as an ‘ integration’ of climatic and soil factors. The task of
ecology proper. The water factor. ‘Sour’ soil vegetation. Its importance in
the British Isles. Relation to xerophilous structure. The theory of ‘ physio-
logical dryness.’ Inadequacy of this theory. Relation of roots to basic ions.
Adsorption of basic ions by colloids. Saturated and unsaturated humus.

Sourness (acidity) in the chemical sense. Hydrogen-ion concentration.
Correlation with vegetation. Exceptions. Theory of ‘buffer action.’ Direct
effect of hydrogen-ion concentration on roots, and on the soil flora and fauna.
The theory of ‘basic ratios.’ Interpretation in terms of reaction of different
basic ions with the tissues. Specific effect of basic lime. Hydroxyl-ion con-
centration. Other factors. Carbon-dioxide concentration. Badly aerated soils.
Poverty in oxygen. Soil ‘sourness’ probably a complex phenomenon. Cor-
relation of factors in nature. The disentangling of the various factors.

(b) Dr. BE. J. Satispury.—Plant Distribution in Relation to
Acidity.

The occurrence of particular species in relation to the hydrogen-ion con-
centration as exemplified by Mercurialis perennis, Pteris aquilina, &. The
incidence of wild species with respect to this factor can be presented as variation
curves in which an ‘optimum’ is clearly recognisable. ‘The effect of water
supply in ameliorating acidity of the soil as shown in nature and the diminished
effect of acidity in water cultures. ; ;

The inadequacy of the ‘ basic ratio hypothesis’ as a general explanation of
the facts of distribution, and the experimental demonstration that change in
this ratio does not bring about vegetation changes in the direction postulated.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 495

Sourness is recognised from the agricultural point of view by the charac-
teristic failure of certain crops, the dominance of certain weeds, the prevalence
of certain diseases, and a rectification of these conditions immediately following
the use of lime or chalk.

The cause of sourness is not the hydrogen-ion concentration, since this is
sometimes high when sourness, as above defined, is absent. Also it is not
merely the ratio of calcium to other metals (e.g. potassium and sodium), since
the addition of neutral calcium salts does not reduce the sourness and the
addition of potassium and sodium salts does not enhance it. There is, however,
considerable evidence that the ratio of basic lime to weak bases (chiefly alumina}
is a fundamental cause of sourness.

The dominant functions of lime in arable soil appear to be, first, to act as
a mutual flocculant of the soil colloids and the root hair colloids, and, second,
to prevent too great an uptake of alumina and other toxic substances.

(d) Dr. W. H. Pearsatu.—Basic Ratios and Plant Distribution.

To the plant ecologist the most reliable indication of soil sourness is that
such soils bear a characteristic heathy type of vegetation. The presence or
absence of these types of vegetation can apparently be correlated more reliably
with scarcity of calcium in the soil than with absence of oxygen or high
hydrogen-ion concentration, although calcium deficiency in uncultivated soils
is commonly coupled with the two latter factors. E

The typical heathy plants themselves are remarkable for their very high
fat content. This necessitates a relatively high basic ratio 7 in the
nutrient medium, if the absorbing surfaces are to remain unimpaired. The
alge characteristic of heathy types of vegetation are also found to require water
in which potassium and sodium salts rather than calcium salts are predominant.

(e) Prof. J. H. Prisstury.—The Cell Wall and the External
Medium.

Evidence is supplied that the cell wall differentiates from a complex plasma
surface into an inner lamella—namely, cellulose and pectin—and an outer (the
middle) lamella of pectic and fatty acids. These acids form gelatinous soluble
salts with Na, K and Mg, but insoluble flocculent salts with Ca. Hansteen-
Cranner has shown that one result is the disintegration of the differentiated
tissue behind the root apex when placed in dilute solutions containing only a
salt of either Na, K, or Mg, owing to the solution of the middle lamella; the
tissue, on the other hand, remains coherent in the solution of a Ca salt.

It can be shown experimentally that the relative proportion of these bases
in the soil materially affects the migration of fatty substances along the walls.
As a consequence the presence and extent of fat deposition in such layers as
endodermis and exodermis may be materially modified by the bases in the soil,
whilst plants forming unusually large quantities of fatty acids, such as the
plants characteristic of peat habitats, may be disorganised when grown on soils
containing more Ca as the result of the choking of the tissue immediately behind
the meristem through the accumulation of insoluble Ca soaps. From this stand-
point the important ‘basic ratio’ in the soil is the proportion of Na+K+Mg
to Ca.

34, Dr. R. C. Kniaur.—The Response of Plants in Soil and Water-
culture to Aeration of the Roots.

Maize grown in aerated soii cultures produced a greater weight of dry matter
than control plants in non-aerated soil. The concentration of CO, in the soil
atmosphere was markedly higher in the non-aerated series than in the controls.
Tf normal aeration of the soil was prevented by covering the soil with a seal,
the concentration of CO, rose as high as 15 per cent. In soil in trial-pots
without plants the CO, concentration rose as high as 34 per cent. in twenty-
three days. Maize and white mustard did not respond to aeration in water-
culture, but aerated water-cultures of wallflower and Chenopodium album showed
an increase in dry weight over controls.

1923 ye

A96 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L.

SECTION L.—EDUCATION.

(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in
the following list of transactions, see p. 507.)

Thursday, September 13.

1. Prof. O. Jespersen.—Grammar and Logic.

There are two opposite views—one that grammar is nothing but applied logic,
the other that language has nothing to do with logic (is ‘alogical’). Both are
one-sided and wrong. Grammar embodies the common-sense of untold genera-
tions as applied to the complex phenomena of human life; language is never
illogical where strict logic is required for the sake of comprehension, but
neither is it pedantically logical where no ambiguity is to be feared. Sometimes
its logic is suppler, and even subtler, than the stiff formal logic of the schools
(negation, &c.). But in order rightly to appreciate the logic of grammar it is
necessary to face grammatical facts squarely and to respect the individuality
of each language. Grammar can and should be considered from three points of
view: (a) form, (8) syntactic function, (c) natural or logical (‘notional ’)
meaning. (a) and (6) differ from language to language, (c) is common to
all mankind. Syntax Janus-like faces both ways, towards (a) and (c). Gender
(masculine, feminine, neuter) and tense are syntactic, sex (male, female, sex-
less) and time notional categories, which do not always correspond to one
another : the preterit does not always denote past time (‘if I had money,’ ‘it —
is time he went to bed’). Case and mood do not exist as purely notional
categories (c), but belong to (a) and (b). To speak of five cases in English
is a falsification of scientific facts.

2. Mr. R. J. McAvere.—Hducation and Business Life.

(1) (2) The average business man’s attitude to schools.

(b) The average school’s attitude towards business men.

(2) The greatest problem in business to-day is to fill vacancies.

(3) Tendency of schools to put their brightest and best in for scholarships,
whereas business has little or no use for the University standard or type.
Eighteen is quite old enough to begin a business career. Too much purely
cultural education can be a handicap.

(4) Business in essence is the combined processes of buying and selling,
and operations such as banking and insurance which are incidental thereto.
There is nothing technically difficult, but the best work requires the best
talent. The scholarship fetish should go and business be given the first refusal.

(5) This involves a new standard in schools. The replacement of the

scholarship standard by the business standard.
_ (6) The necessary modification in curricula should follow on the establish-
ment of more intimate relationships between head teachers and heads of busi-
nesses. The head teachers should visit big businesses, see the machinery in
working, and find out what it is all about. Joint Committees would help,
but the superman will always be hard to seek, in spite of the growth of
educational facilities, until the schools and businesses can be brought to work
together for the common end of selecting the right material, giving it the right
training, and then seeing that it gets the right opportunities.

3. Mr. W. O. Lester SuitH.—The Older Children in the Elemen-
tary Schools.

The paper dealt with the problem from a practical standpoint, considered in
the light of actual conditions, and subject to present-day restrictions as to
ways and means. The problem is an old one, but specially urgent to-day. New
factors outside and inside the school. Changes in the law and their reactions
on public opinion. The extent of the problem, and the practical difficulties.
How it is being dealt with. Central schools, and methods of selection for
admission to them. The curriculum. The question of ‘overcrowding’ the

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 497

curriculum. Vocational training. Curriculum of boys and girls. Practical
instruction. The parents’ point of view. The influence of managers.

4. Dr. C. 8. Grunpy.—The Education of Children in Music.

The essential value of music in life. Its share in character building and
culture. Its necessity in a general education. Advantages of early training.
_ Developing the ordered mind. Methods of imparting music appreciation.
- What Manchester and Liverpool are doing. The co-operation of educational
authorities and private enterprise. Organising educational orchestral concerts
for children. The peculiar function of the orchestra in this work. Sympathy
of ideals between lecturer and conductor. Care in selecting programmes and
_ preparing illustrations. Demonstration. Necessity for permanent organisa-
tion. ‘The municipal orchestra as a continuation class.

: Dr. Grundy was assisted by a full professional orchestra, kindly
- arranged by Messrs. Rushworth & Dreaper, of Liverpool.

Friday, September 14.

5. Presidential Address by Principal T. P. Nunn on The Educa-
tion of the People. (See p. 261.)

6. Dr. Wiuiam Heron.—Literary Appreciation in Elementary
Schools.

. Introduction: Aims and Methods, past and present, in the Teaching of
English.
(1) Appreciation of Poetry—how far possible in the Elementary School—
. ‘Art for Art’s Sake’ as a pedagogical principle.
(2) The Elements of Appreciation—(1) Musical and Suggestive; (2) Imagina-
tive and Symbolical—What they mean for us—How far training is essential.
(3) Towards the Cultivation of these Elements—(1) Lessons IN PREPARA-
TION : (a2) The Teacher’s Part—anticipatory interest—proper atmosphere—
removal of distracting hindrances. (0) Preliminary Research by classes.
(c) Poetry and Music: Appreciation of Rhythm—experiments and results.
_ Appreciation of Melody in Verse—rhyme, tone and tone colour, alliteration, &c.
Appreciation of Recurrence. (d) The Training of the Imagination—experi-
ments wrought. (e) Mythology—Preparation for appreciation of references.
(f) Appreciation of Figures of Speech and Epithets. (g) Verse-making—
examples. (2) The Appreciation Lesson—first impressions. (3) Discussion.
; (4) The Approach. to Hnglish Literature for children—Private study
methods : Are they successful? Results of experiments.

. Monday, September 17.
7. Joint Meeting with Section J on The Delinquent Child.

Dr. C. Burr.—An analysis has been made of 200 consecutive cases of
juvenile delinquency, occurring in the County of London, and referred for
psychological examination.

A classification of the commonest delinquencies according to their psycho-
logical nature—theft, truancy, running away, personal assault, damage and
destruction, and various forms of sexual misbehaviour—at once suggests that
criminal conduct is at bottom instinctive conduct. In almost every case, how-
Pe..2 plurality of converging causes are found co-operating in the production
of crime.

: I. Hereditary factors.—Inheritance appears to operate, not directly through
the

_ innate dullness, general instability, and the excessive development of some

DL 2

498 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L.

II. Environmental factors.—Of these the conditions of the child’s own home —
seem the most significant, the moral and emotional conditions being far more |
important than the economic—lax discipline (for example) being far more serious
than mere poverty.

Ill. Physical factors.—Anything that weakens health, tends also to weaken —
self-control ; anything that heightens irritability, tends also to increase liability _
to anti-social outbreaks. Conditions that lower social efficiency (e.g. poor
physique) are commoner among delinquent boys; those that affect emotional —
life (e.g. precocious physical development) are commoner among delinquent

irls.

; IV. Psychological factors.—These are the commonest and most powerful
of all. Emotional conditions are more significant than intellectual; tempera-
mental instability than mental deficiency. Psycho-analytic mechanisms are
frequently enccuntered—repressed parental complexes being commoner than
repressed sexual complexes.

Dr. Gorpon.—The Disposal of the Delinquent Child.—The great problem
in dealing with delinquents is what to do with them. Much has been written
as to causes and nature of delinquency, but little progress made towards prac-
tical treatment. Necessity of children’s courts presided over by magistrates
with an appreciation of the child mind. The individuality of the delinquent.
The necessity of punishment, but also of understanding causes so as to prevent
occurrence of juvenile crime. Universal potentiality towards delinquency.
Establishment and breakdown of control. Physical conditions leading to
destruction of brain tissue. Lack of balance in development of the personality.
Mental defects. Physical defects. Aberrant types of behaviour. Environ-
mental conditions. Necessity for advisory institutes. The composition and
training of the staff. The duties of the assistants. Social work. Mental
testing and analysis of personality. Disposal of the delinquent. Single care.
Special schools and training institutions. The type that must be punished.

Dr. W. A. Porrs.—There are certain primitive instincts which cannot have
free expression. Their development depends both on Nature and nurture.
Civilised life demands that the child should learn to control or express them
along healthy channels. If he fails he is a delinquent. It is so difficult even
for the best endowed to adjust satisfactorily to modern town life that it may
be said that a fundamental cause of delinquency is civilisation, remembering
that the child is hungry for country life, and all the country connotes.

So the delinquent receives treatment, not punishment. The necessary treat-
ment can only be determined after thorough examination, physical and psycho-
logical. The condition of the endocrine glands (thyroid, &c.) must not be
overlooked, though conduct can seldom be explained in endocrine terms.

The first step in psychological examination is evaluation of the mental
capacity, and a decision whether the child comes under the Mental Deficiency
Act. This simple solution occurs only in 3 to 5 per cent. even of delinquents
who get into the hands of the police.

Further examination will decide if the child is psycho-pathic, not over-
looking delinquency as an epileptiform equivalent. The effect of life on the
child may produce a mental conflict; this may be primarily in the child, or
reflected from the parents, so that their attitude to life requires investigation.
Hygiene and training, education and recreation must be considered.

Special psychological conflicts of children must be deseribed in detail. To
clarify the problem certain delinquent acts, such as truancy and stealing,
must be discussed separately.

Miss Crosstanp.—Some Social Problems of Delinquency.—(1) Home Office
Report on the work of its Children’s Branch. (2) Administration of the
Probation of Offenders Act as applied to children. (3) Probation work in
London. (4) ‘Juvenile Courts Metropolis Act, 1920.’ (5) Probation officer’s
duties. (6) Difficulties of probation work. Quotation from Home Office Report.
(7) Some cases of difficult children. (8) Girls’ cases. (9) Problems arising out
of overcrowding. (10) Housing question.

8. Joint Meeting with Section E on Geography as a Basis of a
General Science Course.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 499

Tuesday, September 18.
9. Joint Meeting with Section G on The Teaching of Dynamics.

0. Rt. Rev. Bishop Weiipon.—How Far the Value of Education
im Elementary Schools has Corresponded with the Increase of
Expenditure upon it.

History of education in Great Britain. Foundation of the British and
Foreign School ‘Society and the National Society for the education of the poor
in the principles of the Established Church at the beginning of the nineteenth
century. Education Bills of Mr. Forster, Myr. (now Earl) Balfour, and Mr.
fisher. Dangers inherent in education, but greater dangers in ignorance.
ducation and political power. Payment of teachers before and under the
Burnham scale. Increasing cost of education from 1871 to the present time.
Education not in itself an unmixed gain, for if it lessens certain offences,
e.g. drunkenness, 1t may increase others, e.g. fraud. Danger of lowering the
moral standard of the educational profession. Anxiety about the results of
plementary education as in letters addressed to ‘ The Times’ by Sir P. Magnus
and Mr. W. L. Hichens. Complaints made by men of business as to ignorance
spelling, literary expression and geography among the pupils coming out
elementary schools. Examination of time-table in schools. Some reason
o fear that teachers have concentrated their attention far too much upon
ntellectual knowledge, and not enough upon moral character. ‘Teachers them-
selves have not always taken a high patriotic view of their vocation as, e.g.
f they have refused to spend a few minutes’ overtime in the care of their
pupils, and perhaps their infant pupils, or have gone on strike, to the serious
njury of their pupils, against a reduction of salaries. The National Union
of Teachers has not prepared teachers to accept their due share of the national
urden after the Great War by not pressing for the full amount of the salaries
lue to them under the Burnham scale or otherwise. ‘The first thought of all
teachers should be the good of the children entrusted to them. It is fully as
mportant that individuals should discharge their responsibility to the State
the State its responsibility to the individuals. The educational profession
s distinguishable from a trade union. Selfishness of class which is a serious
deril to-day is no less deplorable than personal selfishness. (It is difficult to
verrate the influence of the educational profession upon the national life. In
sermany before the War that influence tended to evil; in Japan and in the
Jnited States it has tended to good.) But the State cannot feel that it has
ttained an adequate value for its expenditure upon education unless the
itizens of the future are not only better instructed than their fathers and
orefathers, but are actuated by a higher, or at least an equally high, spirit
patriotism. The public school spirit, as it is called, has signally justified
tself in the War.

The unhappy discord between the Christian Churches has set an obstacle

n the way of the moral and religious teaching which is essential to the creation

f good citizenship. The State needs unity, and unity is hardly attainable if

he children of ditferent Churches are educated in different schools without

ver learning to co-operate with citizens of different religious creeds from
heir own.

Upon the whole it seems clear that the time has come when the educational

ystem inaugurated in 1871 may well be reviewed, and may so be brought into

onformity with the opportunities and aspirations of a people who know that
ulture plays an ever-increasing part in the national life, but who know, too,

hat character is a more valuable element than culture in the life of a

ation and an Empire like the British.

. Mr. T. Samuen.—Qualifying and Competitive Tests for Admission
to Secondary Schools: An Account of Experiments in Wallasey.
The paper traced the development of the annual school examination, insti-

ated in 1920, tor the award of free places in secondary and central schools.
Phe chief points dealt with were the conditions of admission to the examina:

‘500 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L, M. |

tion, the methods of conducting the tests, standardising the marking, and
setting and marking the papers. The various modifications adopted year by
year, and the reasons for adopting them, were described in detail. *

The examination consisted of two tests. The first test was a qualifying
test. Those who gained 50 per cent. of the total marks could enter the secondary
schools as fee-payers, or could pass on to a second competitive test on the
results of which free places were awarded.

The first test was purely internal. ‘lhe papers were set and marked by the
head teachers, and the test was held in all the elementary schools.

The papers of the second test were sent by an examination board, consisting
of representatives of the secondary and elementary and central schools and of
the local authority. H.M. inspectors were also in attendance. The examination
is open to all children of the borough. Scholars in the junior departments of
the secondary schools or in private schools take the same test as elementary
school children. The age of admission is 11-12. All elementary scholars ot
this age who have reached Standard IV. must be presented. Under special
circumstances, bright younger children, and older children who previously
missed the examination, may be nominated by the head teachers for the test.

The subjects of the examination were originally arithmetic, composition,
dictation, general intelligence and general knowledge (geography, history, and
nature study), but have now been reduced to English and arithmetic in both
tests. The school record is taken into account, and carries 100 out of 300 marks.
This is examined at the schools and where necessary is supplemented by an
oral test. |

The marking is standardised by the local authority working in conjunction ~
with the members of the examination board appointed as markers. The ~
standard required has been fixed by a minimum curriculum, which states the
attainment to be expected from normal children at the age of 11-12. This
was settled by a conference of head and assistant teachers from all grades of
schools under the authority.

The examination has proved beneficial to all branches of the educational
system. It has defined and invigorated the work of the elementary schools,
and has led to important reforms in their curricula and organisation. It has
given a uniform standard of admission to the central and secondary schools. ~
It has brought the various types of schools into close co-operation, so that —
they are now intimately related parts of one harmonious system. Finally, it ©
has suggested for the administrative side many problems leading to new lines |
of investigation, organisation, and development. }

12. Miss Marcarer E1nert.—Rhythmic Dancing. (Illustrated by a
demonstration. )

Rhythmic dancing has been called the very symbol of a new spirit in
nature rhythms, stories in movement and dance studies.

The growing recognition of the need in physical education for something
less formal, more spontaneous, and more in harmony with the interests and —
activities of everyday life has drawn considerable attention to this form of ©
dancing recently, for to physical benefit is added the cultivation of a sense of —
beauty in music, movement, and the drama. :

Rhythmic Dancing has been called the very symbol of a new spirit in —
physical education, for though the dancing of Ancient Greece was its inspira-
tion, its development is modern in essence, and is exercising a powerful influ-
ence upon our whole scheme of education for girls to-day. ;

SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.

fe 4

*
(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in 3
the following list of transactions, see p. 507.) :

Thursday, September 13.

1. Miss E. R. Hiscox, Mrs. B. 0. V. Marrics, and Mr. A. Topp.—_
The Influence of Research upon the Making of Milk Products. —

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 501

2. Messrs. W. A. Hoy, A. T. R. Marrick, and Dr. R. Stenuovusz-
Wiuiams.—The Influence of Research upon the Methods of
Handling Whole Milk.

3. Presidential Address by Dr. C. Crowrner on Science and

the Agricultural Crisis. (See p. 2738.)

4 Mr. A. Hay.—Farm Management and Agricultural Economics
in Relation to the Development of Agricultural Education.

Farming is a commercial undertaking, and as much a business as cotton
manufacturing, shipbuilding, or coal-mining. It is subject to business prin-
ciples, and reacts to economic influences. Success is largely the result of
individual effort, and the farmer must have some knowledge of the economic
principles which underlie the effective administration of the farm.

It must be admitted, however, that to be successful a farmer must possess
a knowledge of the sciences underlying the practice of agriculture, and he
must have a detailed knowledge of agricultural practice and farm routine.

The object of farm management is to obtain from the various enterprises
the highest returns consistent with a broad-minded and far-sighted policy,
and the study of the subject revolves round the administration and organisation
of the farm.

Agricultural economics, on the other hand, are more widespread in their
scope, and deal with the study of commercial and political economics as applied
to agriculture from a national welfare and an international point of view.

The methods of study are described in some detail, and stress is laid on
the value of such training for the young farmer or future teacher, advisory
officer and administrator in agriculture.

Friday, September 14.

5. Mr. G. R. CuarKe.—Ammonia and Nitrate in Woodland Soils.

6. Joint Discussion with Section F on The Economic Outlook for
British Agriculture. Opened by Mr. A. W. Asupy.

Competition of imported goods not only in quantity but in quality. Some
imports setting standards of quality and of presentation. Organisation of the
trade in imports. Inspection and standardisation. The connection between
systems of marketing and of production at home and abroad. The British
methods of distribution of farm products and their costs and results. Possible
improvement of British systems of marketing, transport, and distribution of
goods. Success of British agriculture depends upon the appeal of its products
to the consumer, and the costs and prices at which they can be delivered.

Saturday, September 15.

An excursion took place to Lactose Factory, Haslington, and Farms
in the Nantwich area.

Monday, September 17.
7. Mr. E. H. Rivsout.—The Soils of Wirral.

The Geological Survey recognises here Triassic sandstones, Glacial clays and
sands, alluvium and recent sands. This general classification has been adopted
as a basis for soil survey, samples being taken on each formation to establish
their characteristics by chemical and mechanical analysis.

A rapid preliminary survey of the vegetation justifies the subdivision of
soils adopted. Examination of the crops and the distribution of permanent

502 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M.

grassland m the area show similar relationships; field observations being com-
pared with maps derived from official statistics.

In order to determine whether soil types so distinguished have an existence
apart from the theoretical, and to show that the work has a practical bearing,
2 Stra on grassland and arable land have been commenced on each type
of soil. :

8. Prof. SvEN Opren and Dr. B. A. Keen.—The Odén-Keen Appa-
ratus for Automatic Mechanical Analysis.

The mechanical analysis of soil is one of the fundamental operations of the
soil scientist. It is, however, somewhat arbitrary, in that there is no general
agreement on the sizes chosen for the various groups, and further, the repre-
sentation of the soil as a mixture of a few fractions is not in accordance with
facts. These anomalies may be removed, if we can by any experimental
method construct a distribution curve connecting particle dimensions with the
amount of particles corresponding to every size.

There are five possible methods which can be used for this purpose. Starting
with a soil suspension, which is completely deflocculated and dispersed, we-
may measure (1) the change of specific gravity of the suspension with (a) depth
or (>) time; (2) the change in hydrostatic pressure with (a) depth or (6) time;
and (3) the rate of accumulation of particles on a plate suspended in the
liquid. ‘The experimental difficulties are least in methods (2) (b) and (3).
The former is illustrated by a modification of Wiegner’s apparatus
and is most suitable for coarse and rapidly settling particles. The latter method
is illustrated by the Odén-Keen automatic recording balance, which has been
constructed in collaboration with the Cambridge-Paul Scientific Instrument
Company. The suspended plate is attached to one arm of a balance, which is
kept in equilibrium by an automatic adjustment of the current through a
solenoid attracting a permanent magnet suspended from the second arm of
the balance. When the weight of the sediment reaches a given amount—.e.
when the solenoid current reaches a given value—a small metal sphere is
automatically placed on the second pan of the balance, and the solenoid current
returns to a smaller value. The strength of the current is recorded on a
moving paper band, and the operation just described results in this curve
presenting a series of steps. A very open and sensitive scale can, therefore,
be used for the curve, although the actual trace is confined within narrow limits
of width. The sensitiveness of the record can be modified or increased by suit-
able adjustments of the component parts of the apparatus. The periodic
replacement of the electro-magnetic attraction by the metal spheres results in
the sensitiveness in any given experiment remaining constant.

9. Mr. E. A. Fisuer.—Imbibitional Soil Water.

Water is held by soil in two ways: by capillarity between the soil grains,
and by imbibition within the material of the soil colloids. In sand, water is
held by capillarity only. Sand does not swell appreciably while absorbing
water; soil swells considerably. This swelling is due te imbibitional water.
If xylol be substituted for water no swelling of soil occurs: xylol is held by
capillarity only. If the moisture equivalent (ME) and the ‘ xylol equivalent ’
(XE) (calculated in a volume basis) are determined for sand the two
values are identical; with soil ME—XE is considerable, and is a measure of
the imbibitional water present. When ME is determined under different centri-
fugal forces (f), ME plotted against 1/f is a straight line the slope of which
measures the intrinsic swelling capacity of the soil colloids.

These phenomena can be explained on the basis of a Donnan equilibrium.

10. Prof. D. R. Hoacuanp and Dr. A. R. Davis.—Suggestions Con-
cerning the Absorption of Ions by Plants in Relation to Soil
Problems.

In the afternoon an excursion to Wirral Farms took place.

SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. ; 508

Tuesday, September 18.

11. Joint Discussion with Section K on Virus Diseases of Plants.
(See p. 492.)

12. Mr. G. P. Mitn.—The Commercial Value of Indigenous Strains
of Pasture Grasses.
Results obtained from pure line breeds of the pasture species of indigenous
grasses as compared with ordinary commercial strains.

Results of cultivated grass seeds in this country as compared with Denmark
and other foreign countries.

13. Dr. W. R. G. Arxins and Mr. E. W. Fenton.—The Hydrogen
Ion Concentration of the Soil in Relation to the Distribution of
Pasture Plants.

Grasses and clovers sown to form pastures are frequently found to dis-
appear, being ousted by species native to the particular soil type. Accordingly
an investigation seemed advisable to ascertain the limits within which different
species flourish naturally. It is noticeable that wild white clover may be found
on soil as acid p.H. 5.6, whereas IJ/edicago maculata is found from p.H. 6.7—7.8.
Holeus mollis, u. lanatus, and Cynosurus cristatus have been observed to occur
from p.H. 5.4~7.2, whereas Agrostis vulgaris, Agropyrum repens, and Lolium
perenne extend from p.H. 5.8-8.0.

In the afternoon an excursion took place to Messrs. Garton’s at
Warrington and to Col. Lyon’s Farm at Appleton.

REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS

AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS.

Under each Section, the index-numbers correspond with those of the papers in
the sectional programmes (pp. 424-503).

References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the authors of
papers, not to the papers themselves.

General reference may be made to the issues of Nature (weekly) during and sub-
sequent to the meeting, in which résumés of the work of the sections are furnished.

Section A.

4. Cf. W. M. Smart, Navigation, Position Line Tables (J. D. Potter, shortly).
10. Cf. T. Smith, ‘ On Balancing Errors of Different Orders,’ in Proc. Physical Soe.
32, p. 141 (1919-20).

11. Observatory, 46, No. 593, Oct. 1923. Cf. Monthly Notices, R.A.S., 82, pp. 170-1,
Jan. 1922; 83, pp. 204-15, Jan. 19238.

19. Nature, 112, No. 2816, p. 589, Oct. 20, 1923.
22. Nature, Sept. 22,1923 (Summary); to be published in full in Phil. Mag. Cf.

24, Cf.‘ Aninvestigation of the Angle of Contact between Paraftin Wax and Water,’
Phil. Mag., Ser. 6, 46, No. 272, pp. 244-256, Aug. 1923.

504 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.

Section B.
1. Engineering, Sept. Also Chemistry and Industry, 42, p. 930, 1923, W. Rosenhain,
J. Inst. Metals, 1923, ii (May Lecture).
6. Chemistry and Industry, 42, p. 901, Sept. 21, 1923. Cf. Journ. Chem. Soc.,
1923, 128, p. 725; Trans. Faraday Soc. (meeting of July 1923, when published).
7. Chemistry and Industry, 42, p. 929, 1923.

10. Trans. Chem. Soc., 121, p. 1604, 1922; 123, p. 1717, 1923.

12. (Dr. K. G. Falk). The papers dealing with the earlier work have appeared
in the Journal of Cancer Research, 6, pp. 285-303 (1921); Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 58, pp. 75-102 (1922) ; 55, pp. 653-669 (1923) ; 56, pp. 903-920 (1923).

13. Proc. Roy. Soc., 101A, p. 175; 103A, p. 444.

15. Chemistry and Industry, 42, Oct. 5, 1923. .

17. Journ. Textile Inst. (Birtwell, Clibbens, and Ridge), 14, p. T297, 1923.

18. Journ. Soc. Chem. Industry, Nov. 1923 ; * Die Disulphration des Naphtha
lins’ in Helvetica Chimica Acta, Nov.-Dec. 1923.

SECTION C.

4, Cf. ‘ Pebbles of the Middle Bunter Sandstones in the neighbourhood of Liver-
pool,’ in Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., 12, pt. iv, pp. 281-308.
9. Cf. Rock-Salt and Brine (Special Reports on Mineral Resources of Gt. Britain,
18,) Mem. Geol. Surv., 1921; ‘ Datum-lines in the English Keuper,’ Geol. Mag., 1918,
pp. 120-5.
10. ‘ Petrology of the Permian Sandstones of the Parbold District’ in Proc
Liverpool Geol. Soc., 18, p. 308.

12. Expected to be published in Geol. Mag.
13. Report on Geology of Antigua (Leeward Is. Government).

Section D.

2. Cf. W. J. Kaye,'in Proc. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1922, p. xcviii, and 1923, p. xxxvii,
E. B. Poulton, ibid., 1923, xxxix ; Lord Rayleigh, ibid., 1923, p. xl.

8. Rep. Dove Marine Lab., n.s. 12, 1923; cf. ibid. n.s. 1-12, papers dealing with
herring investigations.

9. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 18, No. 1.

10. Cf. Fisheries Investigations, Series II, 6 (Ministry of Agric. and Fisheries) ;
report on ‘Torpedo’ plankton collector in preparation for Publications de
Circonstance, Conseil Permanent International pour |’Exploration de la Mer.

14. Cf. Th. Mortensen, ‘The Danish Expedition to the Kei Islands, 1922,’ in
Vidensk. Medd. fra Dansk Naturhist. Forening, 76, 1923.

15. To be published in Brit. Journ. Hxper. Biol. ; ci. Internat. Journ. d’Hydro-
biologie, 1910-11; Biochem. Journ., 6, part iii, 1912.

18. Cf. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 58, pp. 301-342, 5 plates, 1923.

20. Cf. Report of Committee on Parthenogenesis, B. A. Report 1922; ‘ Observa-
tions on the Biology of Sawflies’ in Hntomologist, 15, Oct. 1922; ‘ Pairing and
Parthenogenesis in Sawflies ’ in Nature, Aug. 12, 1922; E. F. Chawner and A. D.
Peacock ; ‘ Observations on the Life Histories and Habits of Allantus pallipes
Spin. and Pristiphora pallipes Lep. (Hym. Tenth.) ’ in Entomologist, 16, June and
Aug. 1923 ; ‘ Biology of Thrinaxz miata Kl. and Thrinax macula K1. (Hym. Tenth.) ’
in Proc. Univ. of Durham Phil. Soc., 6, part v. A series of papers entitled ‘ Studies
in the Biology of Sawflies,’ dealing with the conditions of parthenogenesis existing
in the group Tenthredinidae, intersexuality and sexuality and experiments in
sex-reversal, is in preparation.

22. Expected to be published in Journ. Linnean Soc.
25. To be published in Phil. T'rans. R. 8.

REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 505

26. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 95, 1923 ; Brit. Journ. Experimental Biology, 1, No. 1, 1923.

29. Brit. Journ. of Exp. Biology, 1, No. 2.

81. Cf. Proc. Roy. Soc. ‘Studies on the Sex-ratio and Related Phenomena : (1)
Natal Retrogression in Mice’; Journ. Gen. * Ditto; (2) Influence of the Mother on
the Sex-ratio in Mammals:’ Science Progress, ‘ Factors Governing the Mammalian
Sex-ratio’ (all in press).

33. To be published in Records of the Indian Museum.

34, Expected to be published in enlarged form, probably in Q.J. Microscopical
Science. ;

Section E.

2a. Cf. Merseyside (local handbook for the meeting) ; also W. Hewitt, The Wirral
Peninsula.

4. To be published in Scot. Geog. Mag.
5. Man, 1923, p. 104.
6. Cf. ‘ Railway Development as a National and International Function’ in

Discovery, Jan. 1924; * Economic Development of Central Australia,’ ibid. Dec.
1922.

7. Cf. R. R. Walls, ‘The Rock Crystal of Brazil’ in Trans. Optical Soc., 21,
No. 4, 1919; “The Existence of Diamond-bearing Pipes in Brazil,’ in Geol. Mag. 57,
No. 676, Oct. 1920; ‘ The Geology of the High Plateau of Brazil,’ in Geol. Mag. 60,
No. 709, July 1923; ‘The Evolution of the High Plateau of Brazil,’ in Scot. Geog.
Mag. 39, No. 4, Oct. 1923.

9. Cf. “Influence of Nature on Japanese Character,’ to be given before Royal
Geog. Soc., Dec. 17, 1923; W. Weston, ‘ Mountaineering and Exploration in the
Japanese Alps’ (London, Murray, 1896); ‘The Playground of the Far East’
(London, Murray, 1918).

12. Expected to be published in Scot. Geog. Mag., Jan. 1925.
14. To be published in Scot. Geog. Mag.

Section F.
8. To be published in Economic Journ., Mar. 1924.

7. Expected to be published (in English) in Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, Jan. 1924
(Kiel Univ.) ; Summary in Journ. Nat. Inst. Industrial Psychology, Apr. 1924; cf.
Public Health Bulletin 106, Washington, U.S.A. ; Reports B.A. Committee on Fatigue
from Economic Standpoint, 1915-16.

8. Econ. Journ., Dec. 1923 (a sequel to the author’s presidential address to
Section F, 1922; see p. 105 of B.A. Report for that year).

9. Cf. J. A. Bowie, Sharing Profits with Employees (London, Pitman, 2nd ed.,
1923).

10. Pubd. by Univ. Press of Liverpool, and Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1923.

SEctTion G.

4. Engineering, Sept. 21, 1923; possibly to be published more fully in Journ.
Inst. Automobile Engineers.

_ 5. The Engineer, Sept. 21, 1923.
7. Engineering, Sept. 21, 1923.
8. Surveyor, Sept. 21; Hngineering, Oct. 12, 1928.
9. Engineering, Sept. 28, 1923.

10. Engineering, Oct. 12; Iron and Coal Trades Review, Oct. 5; Mining Mag.,
Nov. ; Quarry Managers’ Journ., Noy. ; South African Engineering, Oct. 31, 1923.

11. Fortnightly Review, Dec, 1923; J. B. C. Kershaw, Smoke Prevention and Fuel
Economy (London, Constable, 3rd ed., 1924); ‘Aims and Work of the Hamburg
Smoke Abatement Society,’ read before London Smoke Abatement Conference, 1905
obtainable from author.

506 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.

12. Engineering, Oct. 26, 1923. Cf.‘ Analytical and Experimental Investigations
Relating to Centrifugal Pumps,’ in Proc. Inst. C.E., 201, pt. 1 (1915-16).

13. Engineering, Oct. 5, 1923.

17. Engineering, Oct. 19, 1923.

18, 19. Engineering, Oct. 5, 1923.

21. Engineering, Oct. 19, 26, 1923.

22. Engineering, Sept. 28, p. 394 ; Electrical Review, Oct. 5, 1923. Cf. ‘ Squirrel-
cage Induction Motors with high starting Torque’ in Engineering, Aug. 19, 1923 ;
‘ Starting Torque of Squirrel-cage Induction Motors’ in Electrical Review, July 13,
Aug. 10, 1923; Electrical Engineering (London, Methuen).

23. Cf. Paper to appear in Journ. Inst. Electrical Engineers, 1923-4, with
bibliography.

it Modern Wireless 2, No. 1 (Oct. 1923); Wireless Weekly, 2, No. 11 (Sept. 26,
1923).

Section H.

1. Cf. ‘ Les statues en pierre de la région centrale de Célébes,’ in Revue Anthrop.,
No. 7-8, July-Aug. 1923.

2. Cf. ‘ Rossel Island Religion,’ in Anthropos (prob. Jan. 1924).

4. To be published in Folklore.

7. Cf. A. G. Pape, ‘Is there a new Race Type ? and the Philosophy behind ’
(Edinburgh, Fyall & Mayne, 1923).

8. Cf. * The Place-names of Lancashire ’ (Manchester, 1922) ; ‘ Scandinavians
and Celts in the North-West of England’ (Lund, 1918); portions of paper to be
embodied in chapters (‘ The Celtic Element’ and ‘ The Scandinavian Element ’)
in forthcoming introductory vol. of English Place-name Soc.

10. To be published in Archeologia Cambrensis.

11. Cf. Trans. Hon. Soc. of Cymmrodorion, 1920-21, pp. 40-96.

15. Journ. Gypsy Lore Soc., third series, 2, part 4, 1923.

24, To be published in The Ancient Egypt, ed. Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie.

26. A life of Harrison by de B. Crawshay and Sir E. Harrison is in preparation.

27. Probably to be published in Proc. Prehistoric Soc. of E. Anglia.

Section I.

7. Nature, Nov. 3, 1923.
9. Biochemical Journ., 17, p. 579, 1923.
12, Journ. General Physiol. 5, pp. 365-381, 1923 (in part).
14. Cf. Lovatt Evans and 8. W. F. Underhill in Journ. Physiol., 58, p. 1 (1923) ;
Lovatt Evans, ibid., p. 22.
15. To be published in Q. J. Hxper. Physiol.
16. Cf. Edridge-Green, The Physiology of Vision(London, Bell & Sons, 1920), p. 100.
17. Brit. Medical Journ., Oct. 6, 1923.
19. Expected to be published in Annals of Botany.

SEcTION J.

1. Expected to be published in Brit. Journ. Psychol., Jan. 1924.

8. Studies in Mental Inefficiency, 4, No. 4, Oct. 1923.

9. Expected to be published in Brit. Journ. Psychol. ; cf. ‘ Preliminary Note
on a new method of determining the Race Effect in the Localization of Sound,’
ibid., 18, p. 435, 1923.

15. Cf. R. H. Thouless, An Introduction to the Psychology of Religion (Cambridge U.
Press, 1923).

20. To be published in Brit. Journ. Psychol.

24. To be published in Journ. Nat. Inst. Industrial Psychology and in forthcoming
publications of Industrial Fatigue Research Board.

REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 507

26. School Government Chronicle, 110, Sept. 22, 1923; to be published also in
Journ. Nat. Inst. Industrial Psychology.

Section K.
2. Annals of Botany, 37, No. exlvii, July 1923.

8. Expected to be published in Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. and in Notes from the
Botanical School of Trinity College, Dublin.

5. Cf. ‘Symbiosis in Calluna Vulgaris,’ in Ann. Bot., 29, Jan. 1915, p. 99;
‘ Nitrogen Fixation in Ericaceae,’ in Bot. Gaz., 73, No. 3, p. 226 (1922) ; * Mycorrhiza
in the Ericaceae,’ in Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., 8, parts 1 and 2, Dec. 1922, p. 61.
9. Ann. Bot., Oct. 1923.
11. To be published probably in Journ. Agric. Sci.
12. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 95, pp. 214-228, 1923.
13. Expected to be published in Annals of Botany.

15. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., 17, No. 21, 1923; Notes from the Botanical School of
Trinity College, Dublin, 3, No. 4, July 1923.

16. B. Muriel Bristol and H. J. Page. ‘Critical Enquiry into the alleged
Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen by green Algae’ in Ann. Applied Biol., 10.

23. Intended for communication to Royal Society.

25. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 1922, 12, pp. 717-771; 1923, 18, No.1; cf. “ The
Phosphate Content of Fresh and Salt Waters in its Relationship to the Growth of the
Algal Plankton,” loc. cit., 1923, 13, No. 1.

29. Cf. W. L. Balls, “The Existence of Daily Growth Rings in the. Cell-wall of
Cotton Hairs,’ in Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 90, 1919; ‘ Further Observations on Cell-wall
Structure as seen in Cotton Hairs,’ in Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 93, 1922 (jointly with H. A.
Hancock) ; ‘ The Determiners of Cellulose Structure as seen in the Cell-wall of Cotton
Hairs,’ in Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 95, 1923.

30 (5). Cf. H. M. Quanjer, ‘ Un nouveau chapitre de la pathologie végétale reliant
cette science & la pathologie animale,’ in Revue de Pathologie végétale et d’ Entomologie
agricole, 10, No. 1, Feb.-Mar. 1923.

31. Expected to be published in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb.
38 (d). Cf. ‘ Plant Distribution and Basic Ratios,’ in Naturalist, No. 787, pp. 269-271
(1922).
Section L.

1. To be published as one of the Tracts of the Soc. for Pure English (Oxford).
2. Journ. of Education ; The Times Educational Supplement, Sept. 26, 1923.
3. Education, Sept. 28, 1923.

12. Dancing Times, Oct. 1923; cf. M. Einert, The Rhythmic Dance Book
(London, Longmans, Green).

Section M.
4. Estates Gazette, Sept. 29, 1923.

9. To be published in Journ. Agric. Sci., 14, 1924. Cf. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 103,
1923, pp. 139, 664, and Journ. Agric. Sct., 13, 1923, p. 121.

13. Cf. W. R. G. Atkins, ‘ Relation of Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Soil
to Plant Distribution,’ in Nature, Sept. 15, 1921, 108, p. 80; ‘Some Factors affecting
the Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Soil and its Relation to Plant Distribution,’
in Sci. Proc. R. Dublin Soc., 1922, Feb., 16, pp. 369-434, also Notes Bot. School,
Trinity Coll., Dublin, 1922, 3, No.3; ‘The Hydrogen Ion Concentrations of some
Indian Soils and Plant Juices,’ in Agric. Research Inst. Pusa, 1922, Bull. No. 136,
pp. 1-12; ‘The Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Soil in Relation to the Flowe
Colour of Hydrangea hortensis W., and the Availability of Iron,’ in Sci. Proc. R
Dublin Soc., 1923, 17, pp. 201-210, and Notes Bot. School, Trin. Coll., Dublin, 1923
3, No. 4.

SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS

ORDERED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE TO BE PRINTED 77 extenso.

REMARKS ON QUANTISATION.

Can the motion of a System of s degrees of freedom be more than (2s—1-)

fold periodical 2
By Professor P. EHRENFEST.

(1) In the following paragraphs will be formulated a conjecture which
it may perhaps be not too difficult either to disprove or to establish strictly
by the application of suitable mathematical learning. Should this con-
jecture—eventually in a somewhat modified form—prove correct, it would
not be without importance for the quantum theory.

(2) Consider first the motion of a point mass in a plane under the
influence of a field of force of potential p=aq,"+fq.+y(¢q°+q2).
If the particle has a finite total energy EH, it will perform a continuous
motion without going outside a finite region of the plane. In the
4-dimensional space of the co-ordinates q, qg, and momenta p, p, the ‘phase
point’ describes a * phase path’ which is completely embedded in the
energy (hyper)-surface

T(q,p)+ oq) =E.

When the motion of the particle is simply periodic, the phase path is a
closed curve. In other cases the phase point in the course of its motion
comes arbitrarily close to each point of a 2-dimensional region G, or
perhaps even of a 3-dimensional region Gz. The last case occurs when the
motion is ‘ quasi-ergodic.”’

' L. Botrzmann (Sitzber. Wien. Akad. 63, p. 679, 1871=Wiss. Abhandl. L.,
p. 284; Journ. fiir Math. 98, p. 201, 1884-5= Wiss. Abhand). III., p. 134) used the term
‘ergodic’ to mean a motion for which the phase path passes ‘ through’ each point of
the energy surface. P. and T. Enrenrest (Enzyclop. d. Mathem. Bd. IV., Art. 32
‘ Statist. Mechanik,’ p. 10a (1909) expressed the opinion that this definition contained
a self-contradiction, and used the term ‘ guasi-ergodic’ to denote those motions for
which the phase point approaches arbitrarily near to each point of the energy surface ;
they also emphasised the fact that no certain example of such a quasi-ergodic motion
was then known. A. RosentHAL[(Ann. d. Phys. 42, p. 796 (1913)], and M. PLANcCHEREL
(ditto, p. 1061) followed this up, and gave a strict proof of the impossibility of ergodic
systems. As to quasi-ergodic systems on the other hand, Heretorz and ArTIN
succeeded some time ago in constructing an example which they could prove strictly
to be quasi-ergodic. (Short communication in ‘ Naturforscher-Versammlung,’
Leipzig, September 1922. Will appear in full in Biascux®, Differential geom. Bd. III).
See also E. Frrmi ‘ Beweis, dass ein mechanisches Normal system im allgemeinen
quasi-ergodisch ist * (Phys. Zschr. 24, p. 261, 1923). In a conversation some years ago
Prof. Herciorz raised the question whether the following simple system possessed
quasi-ergodic motions : A point which undergoes perfectly elastic reflections at the
sides of a “billiard table’ of the form of a scalene triangle. So far as I know, this
question has not yet been answered !

REMARKS ON QUANTISATION. 509

(3) Consider now a system of s degrees of freedom, with co-ordinates
Gy +--+, and momenta p,,... p, and the Hamiltonian-Function
H (g, p). Then in general the phase point in the course of its motion
comes arbitrarily close to every point of a e-dimensional region Go, which is
of course embedded in the (2s—1)-dimensional energy-surface H (q, p)=E.
When the motion is simply periodic p=1 ; when it is quasi-ergodic 9 takes
its greatest possible value p=2s—1. We will speak for shortness of a
* Go-motion.’

In the case of suitable regularity of the Hamiltonian-Function (Hq, p)—
say something like the example quoted in §2—the region Gp will not only
be spun through, ‘ smooth-combed,’ by the phase path, but, further, the
system has this property: each time the phase point in its path comes
back to the neighbourhood of a specified point P which it has once
previously passed through, the motion repeats itself approximately in all
its characteristics (not only in qg, p and q, p but also in q, p, ete.) ; and,
further, the repetition will be more nearly exact, the smaller the deviation
- with which the phase path passes by P.

(4) We appeal particularly to this ‘ quasi-periodic’ behaviour in the
following ‘ u=e-conjecture’: If* for a Ge-motion the qg’s and p’s can be
expressed as functions of the time by means of u-multiple Fourier series,
then u is equal to e (and this is at most equal to 2s—1, which is the value
it takes for quasi-ergodic motions).

That is to say, let the general term of such a Fourier-expansion be

(tT, .... 7, any positive or

cos
(1) 2n(T@,+ - +--+ HAE | negative integers,

sin
where no relation of the form

(2) kw, thw,t ....--- Jha j—o7 [Peay o2 k,, integers.

exists. This implies w independent fundamental frequencies characteristic
of the given motion, and the conjecture is that w=p Z 2s—1.

(5) For another point of view, consider a w-dimensional space of
co-ordinates &, €, . . . Eu, and in it consider the straight line

ice Cuba bacH Gide \eath mgs 6, a egt burs ‘ 31418)

The Fourier series establishes a one-to-one correspondence between the
points of the phase path in Gp in the (g, p) space and the points of the
straight line (3). Imagine the &-space divided into unit- (hyper-) cubes.
The straight line (3) passes through one cube after another, and each cube
through which it passes cuts off a segment from it. Replace these
segments by homologous straight lines in a single cube. [Addition of
_ integers—positive or negative—to the quantities (3) leaves all Fourier-
terms (1) unaltered.] On account of the absence of relations of the form (2)
these mutually parallel lines fill up the single cube densely everywhere

2 We must leave open the question whether such a motion—say something like
the example of §2—is always describable exactly (not only approximately) by
multiple Fourier series.
8 See ¢.g., O. Perron, Irrationalzahlen, Leipzig, 1921, p. 156, * Inhomogene
_diophantische Approximationen’ and index of original papers on the subject.

510 SECTIONAL COMMUNICATIONS.

and therefore this ‘€-path’ comes arbitrarily close to all points of a
u-dimensional region, while the phase path itself comes arbitrarily close to
all points of the p-dimensional region Go. We should now have to consider
more closely the correspondence between these two regions, using the
property remarked on at the end of §5*. If we could succeed in showing
that this correspondence is one-to-one and continuous, the ‘u=p-conjecture’
would be proved, as it is known that in such transformations the number
of dimensions is preserved.’

(6) As it is still uncertain whether the “uw=g-conjecture’ is correct,
the following remark on its relation to the quantum theory must suffice
for the present. If in the sense of the above explanations we did succeed
in designing systems which possess multiple periodic motions with u
independent frequencies where s <u < 2s—1,the quantum rules as we know
them could not be applied to such systems, for those rules are restricted to
systems for which uZs.°*

4 The following example at first sight against the ‘w—p-conjecture,’ shows
how important it is to pay heed to this property. Let g=cos 9(t) and p= sin
@ (t) where @ (¢) is expansible in multiple Fourier series, for example with w=3.
The (q,p) point remains the whole time on the circle g*+-p°*=1. Thus e=1 and u=o.

But here we also have violation of the condition that q¢ p, ¢ #, etc., always return ©

to their initial values when q and p do so, as must be the case for a system obeying
Hamilton’s equations with a time-free H (g, p). Starting from this remark it is easy
to see clearly how the ‘ quasi-periodicity ’ of the motion imposes very strict relations
between the Fourier expansions of the q’s and p’s, and those of all their time derivatives
on account of their common periodic character.

5 L, E. Brouwmr, Math. Ann. 70, p. 161 (1911); 71, p. 305 (1912); 72, p. 55
(1912).

6 In an extremely simple case of one degree of freedom an ‘ excess of frequencies ’

of somewhat similar though really different kind has been treated with the helps of —

the correspondence principle by P. Exrenrest and G. Breit [Proc. Amsterd. 25, p. 2,
1922—Zsch. f. Phys. 9, p. 207, 1922]. Cf. N. Bour, Zsch. f. Ph. 18, p. 147, 1923.

7 Bong has given his ideas about those cases, in which a multiple periodic motion —
is not to be expected, in Zsch. f. Ph. 13 (1923) [p. 134—particularly in the comment —

on A. SmeKat, Zsch. f. Ph. 11, p. 294, 1922], and also about those cases in which the —

motion can be very closely represented by a w-multiple periodic motion with ws —

[in *‘ Quantentheorie der Linienspectra (1918).’ Vieweg 1923, pp. 69, 70, 134]. But
see particularly Bohr’s remarks on the failure of the quantum theory of multiple-
periodic systems and how it shows itself in some problems of the complex structure of
spectral lines, and of the anomalous Zeeman effect [Ann. d. Phys. 71, pp. 275-277, 1923].

Saree:

AOR ET us

ON STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND THEIR MAGNETIC PROPERTIES. 511

Nots.

Prof. P. LanGEvin’s paper on The Structure of Atoms and their
Magnetic Properties was ordered by the General Committee to be printed
in extended abstract. This has not been received in time for inclusion,
and the original abstract is therefore appended :—

THE STRUCTURE OF ATOMS AND THEIR
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES.

By Professor P. LanGeEvin.

(1) In order to account for magnetic properties it is necessary to
assume that each atom or molecule possesses in its normal state a quite
_ definite magnetic moment which is proportional to the total moment of
_ the quantity of electron movement. This moment can be zero when
the symmetry of the edifice is sufficient, and always becomes modified
in the diamagnetic sense under the action of an external magnetic field.

(2) From the point of view of classical dynamics a system of electri-
fied particles which participates in thermal agitation cannot exhibit when
it is isolated, nor assume under the action of an external magnetic field,

any resultant magnetic moment, and consequently cannot possess any
_ magnetic property.

(3) The laws of quanta, on the contrary, allow us immediately to
predict the existence of molecular magnetic moments which are integral
multiples of the Bohr magneton, and they alone permit us to develop in
a completely coherent manner an electronic theory of magnetism in the
same way-as they have rendered possible a theory of atomic structure
and of the emission of spectra.

(4) Magnetic measurements contribute their information regarding
atomic structure, and atomic models ought to be in quantitative agree-
ment with them. The family of rare gases seems to give rise to some
interesting difficulties from this point of view.

(5) The variation of magnetic properties with the state of chemical
combination furnishes in like manner important indications and con-
_firmations of the theory. The progressive disappearance of ferro- and
para-magnetism when the magnetic atoms (iron, cobalt, platinum, &c.)
enter into more and more complex combinations shows that chemical
affinity tends to constitute molecules with no resultant magnetic moment
—to realise electronic edifices which present a higher and higher
symmetry.

1923 XM

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES
COMMITTEE.

Report of Committee (Mr. T. SHepparp, Vice-Chairman; Dr. F. A.
Baruer, Mr. O. G. S. Crawrorp, Prof. P. F. Kenpauu, Mr.
Marx L. Syxes, Dr. CuareNcE Tierney, Prof. W. W. Warts,
Mr. W. WurrakeEr, and the Prestpent and GENERAL OFFICERS).*
Drawn up by the General Secretaries.

1 As reported last year, the Committee co-opted the following representatives
of the scientific societies of Liverpool and its neighbourhood to assist in pre-
paring the programme of the Liverpool Conference of Delegates :—

Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Liverpool Geological Society.

Prof. W. J. Dakin, Liverpool Biological Society.

Prof. P. M. Roxby, Liverpool Geographical Society.

Dr. H. F. Coward, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Prof. F. E. Weiss, Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society.
Mr. T. W. Sowerbutts, Manchester Geographical Society.

Mr. W. H. Barker, Manchester Geographical Society.

Mr. J. S. Broome, Warrington Literary and Philosophical Society.

Tue Committee recommended to the Council that at the Conference of Delegates
at the Liverpool meeting the President should be Professor H. H. Turner,
F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Astronomy in the University of Oxford; the
Local Vice-President Professor P. G. H. Boswell, Professor of Geology in the
Universitx of Liverpool ; and the Local Secretary Miss Edith Warhurst. These
nominations were accepted, and the Committee desires to express its thanks to
these officers for their conduct of the business of the Conference, of which a
report follows.

After discussion with officers of Section M (Agriculture) and representatives
of the Societies in question, the Committee recommended, and Council resolved,
that the National Farmers’ Union and the Central Landowners’ Association
be added to the list of affiliated Societies; and that the local branch of each
in the district where the British Association’s meeting is held be empowered
to send a delegate to the Conference of that year.

The Conchological Society, the Gilbert White Fellowship, the Scottish Marine
Biological Association, and the Worthing Archeological Society were recom-

mended for admission as Correspending Societies, together with the following —

Societies, if qualified, which sent delegates to the Hull meeting, but had not
since applied specifically for admission :—Bath and West and Southern Counties
Society, Huddersfield Naturalist, Photographic, and Antiquarian Society,
Stirling Natural History and Archeological Society, Manchester Astronomical
Society, Manchester Entomological Society.

The subject of ‘ Peat Beds and Submerged Forests,’ commended by Section C
(Geology) for systematic research by the Corresponding Societies, having been
referred at the Liverpool Meeting to a Committee of the British Association
on Quaternary Peats. the Corresponding Societies are requested to put them-
selves in communication with the Secretary of that Committee, Mr. L. H. Tonks,
Red Bank House, Birtle, near Bury.

The Committee asks that it may be reappointed, with a grant of 40/., for the
preparation of its Report and Bibliography.

CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

LIVERPOOL, 1923.

The Conference met in the Civil Court, St. George’s Hall, Liverpool, on
Thursday, September 13, at 2 p.m., Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S., in the
chair. Thirty-nine delegates were present, representing forty-nine Societies.

The President addressed the delegates on

The Work and Relations of Corresponding Societies.

Sundry proposals submitted to the Conference by delegates and others
were discussed briefly, and referred to the Corresponding Societies Committees
for examination and report. The Conference adjourned until Tuesday, Sep-
tember 18, at 2 P.M.

At the adjourned meeting the following recommendations, submitted by the
Corresponding Societies Committee, were adopted, and forwarded to the
‘Committee of Recommendations :—

(a) To represent te His Majesty’s Government the urgent need for more
ample provision for the Science Museum, and for closer co-ordination between
the principal national collections of scientific material.

(6) To represent to His Majesty’s Government, in view of recent proposals to
utilise for naval, military, or commercial purposes sites of historic or scientific
interest or of natural beauty, such as Avebury, Holmbury Hill, and Lulworth
Cove and its neighbourhood, the urgent need of more effective protection of
such sites from disfigurement or obstruction.

(c) To request the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey to reconsider his
decision to discontinue the issue by the Ordnance Survey of quarter-sheets of
the six-inch map on the ground that, if quarter-sheets are not available, teachers.
students, and others engaged in various kinds of research on local and regional
distributions will be put to expense and inconvenience in providing themselves
with the sheets necessary for their work.

(d) To recommend that the publications of scientific societies should conform
so far as possible to a standard size of page for convenience in dealing with
off-prints ; and that for octavo publications the size of the British Association’s
Report be adopted as the standard.

(e) To urge the adoption by scientific societies of the bibliographical recom-
mendations contained in the current Report of the Zoological Publications
Committee.

(f) To call the attention of local scientific societies to the need for prompt
and systematic supervision, in the interests of scientific record, of all sections
and other excavations which were opened during the construction of new roads
or other public works.

(g) That this Conference suggests for the consideration of the Council that
the change of the British gallon to 4 litres would be objectionable, because the
‘gallon of water weighs 10 lb., which is an important fact in physical and engi-
neering practice.

Various proposals were discussed for conducting the business of the Con-
ference of 1924 in view of the visit of the British Association to Toronto, and
it was resolved :—

Mr. Grierson Macara (Greenock Philosophical Society) asked if the Canadian

oevernment would be willing to allow delegates to the British Association
Bheetings in Toronto, 1924, to have free railway tickets from Toronto to
4 MM 2

f
-

514 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
Vancouver. He hoped the Council would do all they could to get this privilege
for delegates.

In reply to questions as to the authority of delegates to represent the British
Association in their own districts, it was pointed out by Professor J. L. Myres
(General Secretary) that as delegates are appointed not by the British Associa-
tion but by their respective Societies for the purposes of the annual Conference,
they are not in any sense accredited representatives of the Association ; but that
at the Hull Conference a resolution was submitted that the Association should
‘invite the delegates sent to the Conference by the Corresponding Societies to
render any assistance in their power in making known, in their respective
districts, the objects and methods of the British Association, and to communicate
to the Secretary of the Association the names and addresses of scientific workers
and others to whom the preliminary programme of the next meeting should he —
sent. This recommendation had been adopted by the Association, and was in
force. He had some hope that delegates would respond to this invitation, which
had been made at their own request, and undertook that it should be brought
to the notice of Societies which had not sent delegates to the present Conference.
Delegates could obtain from the office of the Association for distribution copies
of a printed statement of its objects and methods.

A discussion followed on the Function of Local Scientific Societies in regard
to Schemes of Town Planning.

Professor P. Abercrombie (University of Liverpool) gave an address on
‘Town Planning.’ He traced the history of the ‘ town’ from ancient to modern
times, showing that the community was all-important formerly and the individual
sacrificed. The growth of the town was in close touch with the growth of
industrial progress. The ‘Town Planning Act’ of 1909 gave powers of road
design. Formerly, country roads were the only visible suggestion of arteries.
Scientific study of the community is required for civic and regional survey.
Far less damage would be done to villages if the interests were safeguarded and
new roads made round a village instead of destroying places of historic interest.

Mr. G. L. Pepler (Ministry of Health, Whitehall), in his opening remarks,
hoped that local Societies would take an interest in the subject and help the
local authorities by making civic and regional surveys. Reports could be —
made as to land suitable for market-gardens, &c., so these places would not —
be built upon. :

Mr. Webb Shennan (Wirral) spoke of the help given in the Wirral district
to local authorities by landowners giving land suitable for new roads and
expansion of old ones. _

Mr. T. Sheppard (Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union) moved a vote of thanks ©
to the speakers, and stated that all local Societies were in sympathy with Pro-—
fessor Abercrombie’s schemes.

Mr. Mark L. Sykes (Manchester Microscopical Society) moved a vote of.
thanks to Professor Turner for the genial way in which he had presided over ©
the Conference. The thanks were heartily accorded. .

—

LIST,OF PAPERS,

BEARING UPON THE ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, AND PREHISTORIC
ARCHAOLOGY OF THE BRITISH ISLES, ISSUED DURING 1922.

By T. Suepparp, M.Sc., F.G.8., Zhe Museum, Hull.

Zoology.

Anon. Economic Ornithology. Bird Notes and News. Vol. X., No. 1, pp, 11-12

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aan

Oil on the Water, tom. cit. Vol. X., No. 2, pp. 17-21.

Economic Ornithology, tom. cit. Vol. X., No. 2, pp. 21-23.

[Bird] Notes, tom. cit. Vol. X., No. 2, pp. 27-29.

Watchers and Watching : Britain’s Rare Birds, tom. cit. Vol. X., No. 4,
pp. 49-51.

[Grey of Fallodon], Address [Waterfowl at Fallodon]. Proc. Berwicks.
Nat. Club. 1921, pp. 249-261.

Reports of Meetings. Cockburn Low, Holy Island, Belford, Kelso, Ber-
wick, tom. cit., pp. 262-291.

Report of the Museum and Art Gallery Committee. [Bristol.] Sept. 30,
23 pp.

Account of the Annual and General Meetings. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat.
Soc. Vol. V., pt. Iv., pp. 163-169.

Recovery of Marked Birds. Brit. Birds. June, pp. 13-18.

Catalogue of the Books, Manuscripts, Maps and Drawings in the British
Museum. Vol. 6, Supplement, pp. 511.

Guide to the Whales, Porpoises, and Dolphins in the Dept. of Zoology,
British Museum. Second Ed., 56 pp.

Trogederma khapra. Bull. Bureau Bio-Technology. Mar., pp. 132-133.

Riddle of the Eel: A Deep-sea Problem. Conquest. Feb., p. 132.

Music-loving Tawny Owl. Country Life. Jan. 21, p. 92.

Gadwall in Westmorland, tom. cit. Feb. 11, p. 187.

Birds of the Sea and Shore, tom. cit. Mar. 4, pp. 304-306.

Shelduck, tom. cit. Apr. 15, p. 516.

Barn Owls Hunting in the Daytime, tom. cit. June 3, p. 763.

Golden Oriole, loc. cit.

Hoopoe in South Devon, tom. cit. July 1, p. 902.

Fur and Feather in the Woodlands, tom. cit. July 8, pp. 22-23.

‘The Most Stateliest Beast ’ [Red Deer], tom. cit. Aug. 12, pp. 167-171.

How the Tree Creeper Sleeps, tom. cit. Sept. 2, p. 285.

Variation of Colour in Eagles’ Eggs, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 322.

Insect Photography [Ants’ Nests], tom. cif. Sept. 16, p. 354.

Flight Shooting [Dunlin], tom. cit. Oct. 21, pp. 526-527.

Flight of Birds with Injured Wings, tom. cit. Dec. 2, p. 742.

Smeiling power of Birds, tom. cit. Dec. 9, p. 791.

Burton R. F. L. [Obituary]. Ent. June, p. 144.

Colias croceus, Fourc. (edusa, Fab.), tom. cit. Sept., p. 211."

Obituary: F. B. Newnham, M.A., tom. cit. Sept., p. 216.

Entomological Society of London [Report], tom. cit. Jan., pp. 23-24;
Mar., p. 68; July, pp. 167-168. Unt. Rec. Mar., pp. 53-54; Apr.,
pp. 79-80; May, pp. 98-99; June, pp. 116-117; July, pp. 143-144; Sept.,
pp. 166-167; Nov., p. 205; Dec., pp. 221-222. Wnt. Mo. Mag. May,
pp. 117-118.

Obituary : Francis George Whittle. Hnt. Mfo. Mag. Jan., p. 22.

Obituary : William Lucas Distant, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 66-67.

Obituary : Vincent Robert Perkins, tom. cit. May, pp. 110-111.

Seal Frederick William Lambart Sladen, tom. cit. May, pp. 111-
13.

Obituary : George Alexander James Rothney, tom. cit. May, pp. 113-114.

Ghost Swift Moth and the ‘ Will-o’-the-Wisp,’ tom. cit. Nov., p. 252.

— South London Entomological Society [Report]. Ent. Rec. Jan.,

pp. 19-20; Mar., pp. 54-57; June, p. 117; July, pp. 144-147; Sept.,
pp. 167-168; Oct., pp. 185-186; Nov., pp. 206-207; Dec., pp. 223-224.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Anon. Sale of the Farn Collection, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 48-50; Apr., pp. 75-77.

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Pip ee ae eCameeepPRerche by iid

Lancashire and Cheshire Entomological Society [Report], tom. cit.
Mar., pp. 57-58; June, pp. 117-118; July, pp. 147-148 ; Dec., pp. 222-223.

Mosquitoes, tom. cit. Oct., p. 184.

Obituary : Dr. David Sharp, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 186-188.

Essex Field Club: Reports of Meetings. Hssex Nat. Mar., pp. 34-43;
Apr., pp. 86-106. ith

Zoological Section. Rep. Felsted School Sci. Soc. No. 27, p. 15.

Zoological Notes, 1919-1920, tom. cit., pp. 18-22; 1920-1921, pp. 28-34.

Entomological Notes, tom. cit., p. 37. }

Scottish and New Zealand Red Deer. Field. Jan. 14, pp. 38-39.

White-fronted Geese in Hants, tom. cit. Jan. 14, p. 66.

Herons and Trout Streams, tom. cit. Jan. 21, p. 95. ‘

Proposed Consolidation of the Wild Birds Protection Act, tom. cit.
Jan. 28, p. 131.

Recovery from Wounds in a Woodcock, tom. cit. Feb. 4, p. 172.

White Woodcock, tom. cit. May 6, p. 622.

Smews and other Wild Fowl at Barnes, tom. cit. Mar. 11, p. 344.

Arrival of Summer Birds, tom. cit. Mar. 25, p. 419; Apr. 1, p. 431;
Apr. 8, p. 469; Apr. 15, p. 513; Apr. 22, p. 547; Apr. 29, p. 590;
May 6, p. 622; May 13, p. 658; May 20, p. 692; May 27, p. 729.

Blue-winged Teal in Sussex, tom. cit. Apr. 1, p. 431.

Remarkable varieties of the Short-tailed Vole, tom. cit. May 6, p. 621.

White Quail, tom. cit. June 10, p. 778.

Badger Dig in the Cottesmore Country, tom. cit. Apr. 8, p. 470.

Cuckoo’s Mate, tom. cit. Apr. 15, p. 513.

Destruction of Sea Birds by Floating Oil, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 547.

Food of the Little Owl, tom. cit. May 6, pp. 621-622.

Otter in Eel Trap, tom. cit. May 20, p. 692.

Buff-coloured Woodcock, loc. cit.

- an

Cuckoo in Kensington, tom. cit. June 10, p. 778. . :
Black Tern in Cornwall, tom. cit. June 24, p. 882. :
Chaffinch Feeding Young Blackbirds, tom. cit. July 8, p. 57. :
Three Curious Cases of Deformity in Young Rooks, tom. cit. July 22, —

p. 135. ;
Sawfly on Solomon’s Seal, tom. cit. Aug. 26, p. 323. i
Ancient Haunt of the Raven, Joc. cit.
Clouded Yellow at Deal, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 387. S
Weasel Annexing Golden Plover, tom. cit. Sept. 16, p. 405. =
Bees and Lime Flowers, tom. cit. Sept. 23, p. 443. bs
‘Clouded Yellow in Hants, loc. cit. =
Monster [14 lb. Trout] from the Wharfe, tom. cit. Sept. 30, p. 487. ps
Otter in Essex, tom. cit. Oct. 7, p. 539. ¥
Fearless Stoat, tom. cit. Nov. 11, p. 714. 5
Bees Dead under Lime Trees, tom. cit. Nov. 18, p. 729. 7
Blackbird pursued by Owl, tom. cit. Nov. 25, p. 784. }
Wing of Woodcock, Joc. cit. 4
Stoat on the Defensive, tom. cit. Dec. 2, p. 793. g
Fishery Board (Scotland)—Scientific Investigations, 1922. TI. Herring —

Investigations. 3
Salmon Investigations in Scotland: Salmon of the River Spey. Fishery —

Board for Scotland. 1921, No. 2. Pd

Results of Salmon and Sea Trout Marking in sea and river. Fishery Board t
for Scotland. 1922, No. 1. z

Natural History Section [Reports]. Rep. Hampstead Sci. Soc. 1920-22,
pp. 40-43. 3

Handbook to the Collections illustrating Survey of the Animal Kingdom. —
Horniman Mus. and Library. Pamphlet No. 12.

Notices of recent Ornithological Publications. Jbis. Apr., pp. 352-387; —
July, pp. 573-598. 4

Birds of Hillsborough, Co. Down. Trish Nat. Jan., p. 12.

Some Irish Collemhola, tom. cit. Feb., p. 24.

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LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 517

Anon. Bird Protection in Ulster, tom. cit. March, p. 93.

keep

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Royal Zoological Society [Report],,tom. cit. May, pp. 57-60.

Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], tom. cit. Apr., pp. 46-47; May,
p- 60; July, p. 80; Dec., pp. 137-139.

Hares in the City of Belfast, tom. cit. July, p. 84.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], tom. cit. June, pp. 70-71;
July, pp. 80-81; Aug., pp. 87-88; Nov., pp. 131-132.

General Meetings, Exhibitions, and Excursions. Proc. Isle of Wight
Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 1., pp. 54-69.

Twenty-sixth Autumn Fungus Foray and Annual Meeting of the British
Mycological Society [Report]. Journ. Bot. Dec., p. 373.

Proceedings of the Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
Journ. Conch. Jan., pp. 268-272 and 275; June, p. 307; Oct., pp. 318-
319. Annual Report, tom. cit., pp. 272-273 ; Recorder’s Report, tom. cit.,
pp. 273-274.

Rhododendron Bug. Journ. Minis. Agric. Sept., pp. 555-558.

Spring-tails attacking Mangolds, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 828-829.

Notes on Young Cuckoos. Lancs. and C. Nat. Aug., p. 9.

Gulls in the Ribble and Hodder Valleys, tom. cit., p. 10.

With the United Field Naturalists : The Carr Wood Meeting, tom. cit.,
pp- 37-40.

Late Nesting of the Thrush, tom. cit., p. 41.

Otters on the Ribble, tom. cit., p. 42.

Grass Snake seen at Samlesbury, loc. cif.

Sparrow-hawks on Allotments, tom. cit., p. 43.

Combined Scientific Demonstration at Liverpool, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 61-63.

Profusion of Colias edusa, tom. cit., pp. 79-80.

Death’s Head Moth at Darwen, tom. cit., p. 80.

Rabbits’ Peculiar Habit, tom. cit., p. 93.

Natterjack Toads and Insects on the Sandhills, tom. cit., p. 94.

Queer Food of a Beetle, tom. cit. Dec., p. 128.

[Leeds] Museum [Report] for the period November 9, 1921, to March 31,
1922, pp. 12-14.

List of Exhibits. Ann. Rep. Manchester Micro. Soc. Sept., pp. 16-21.

Report of the Council, 1921 : Marine Biological Association of the United
Kingdom. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Oct., pp. 835-848.

Field Days. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 70, p. 11.

Plant Galls, tom. cit., p. 50.

Mollusca, tom. cit., p. 51.

Hymenoptera, etc., loc. cit.

Agricultural production in England and Wales [Report]. Minis. of Agric.
Statistics. Vol. LVII., pt. 1.

Hull Museum [Additions]. Musevms Journ. May, p. 240.

Some recent additions to the Exhibitions in the Liverpool Museum, tom.
cit. June, pp. 250-252.

Sheffield Grievance; Golden Eagles; White Kittiwake; Cuckoo Filmed;
Unnatural ‘ Nature.’ Nat. Jan., pp. 1-8.

- Night-flying Moths, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 52-53.

MT PRPTETE |

Egg-raiding at the Farne Islands; East European Buzzard, tom. cit.,
pp. 81-82.

Birds and Cattle Disease, tom. cit. May, p. 146.

Prices of Butterflies, tom. cit., p. 148.

Swallows; Flashlight Photography and Nature, tom. cit. June, p. 179.

Yorkshire Fulmars, tom. cit. July, pp. 213-214.

Law and Eggs, tom. cit., p. 216.

Falcons shot in Cumberland, Joc. cit.

Earl Buxton on Protection of Birds; Eggs and the Egg-Collector ; Pro-
tection of Eggs, tom. cit., pp. 241-242.

Cuckoo’s Chance, tom. cit., pp. 246-247.

Sense of Smell in Birds; a Debated Question. Nature. June 17,
pp. 783-784.

Mosquito Investigation, tom. cit., p. 792.

Obituary : W. H. Hudson, tom. cit. Sept. 2, p. 319.

518 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Anon. Present Position of Darwinism, tom. cit. Dec. 2, pp. 751-753.
Bird’s Egg. Nature Lover. May., pp. 16-23.
Out and About in A’pril, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 33-40.
Swallow Birds, tom, cit., pp. 50-55.
Out and About in May, tom. cit. May, pp. 65-72; June, pp. 97-104.
Hare, tom. cit. May, pp. 84-89.
House- Fly, tom. cit. ‘June, pp. 117-121.
Romance of a Whelk Shell, tom. cit., pp. 122-126.
What is it? [Larva of Small Elephant Hawk Moth]. Natureland. Apr.,
. 24,
List of Gifts to the Museum and Library, 1921. Fiftieth Ann. Rep.
Peterborough Nat. Hist. &c. Soc., pp. 29-39.
Excursions, Secretary’s Report. Journ. Quekett Micro. Club. Nov.,
pp. 374- 376.
Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Royal Society for the Pro-

tection of Birds. Thirty-first Ann. Rep. Roy. Soc. Protec. Birds,
pp. 24-35.

Bird-catching. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 1-4.
Female Birds in Male Plumage, tom, cit., pp. 31-32.
Common Bittern, tom. cit., p. 32.
Scotland and the Fur Supply, tom. cit. May, pp. 63-66.
Bird Sanctuaries in the London Parks. Selborne Mag. Feb., p. 187. ¢
Great Skua, etc. Shooting Z'imes. Mar. 4, p. 21.
Additions to the Museum. Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc.
Vol. LXVILI., pp. lxxiii-lxxx.
Sessional Meetings. Proc. Spelwol. Soc., Bristol. Vol. I., No. 3,
pp. 158-164.
Some Fine Heads of 1921: A Pictorial Review of the Past Stalking
Season. Sphere. Jan. 28, pp. 95-97.
Wildfowling on the Solway Firth, tom. cit. Apr. 1, p. 21.
British Birds in their Natural Habitat, tom. cit. July 15, p. 67.
Butterfly Farm. Breeding Caterpillars and Butterflies at Bexley, tom.
cit. Aug. 12, p. 167.
Feathered Denizens of the Shetlands : The Merlin, Great Skua and Arctic
Skua, tom. cit. Aug. 26, p. 223.
Nature in Photography, tom. cit. Sept. 30, p. 345.
Little Grebe and its Peculiarities. A British Diving Bird, tom. cit.
Oct. 28, p. 103.
[Reports of Excursions.] Z'rans. Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VII.,
pt. Iv., pp. 308-326. :
Report of the [York] Museum Committee. Ann. Rep. Yorks. Phil. Soc., —
1921, pp. 20-27.
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union and its Work. Supplement to Local Pro-
gramme. Brit. Assoc., Hull, pp. 1-31. i
Birds [Bingleyj. Y.N.U. Cire. No. 299, p. 2.
Exhibitions and Notices. Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan., pp. 885-886; Apr.,
pp. 201-203.
Proceedings of the Scientific Meetings of the Zoological Society of
London. Index. 1911-1920. 274 pp.
Asszot, N. Diver, reported as Colymbus adamsii, obtained at Loch Fyne, Argyll-
shire, Autumn, 1893. Brit. Birds. July, p. 59.
Assotr, W. M. Squirrels in Co. Cork. Jrish Nat. July, p. 83.
Actanp, Ciemence M. ‘British Birds’ Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb.,
p. 220.
— Little Owl, Athene noctua, in the Island: Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist.
Soc. Vol. I., pt. m., p. 94.
Avams, H. C. Sabine’s Gull at Budleigh Salterton. Field. Nov. 11, p. 714. —
Apams, Lionen E. Colony of Limaz flavus var. tigrina, Pini, at Reigate. —
Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 252.
— Limaz flavus var. virescens Fér, at Reigate, tom. cit. June, p. 296. ?
Apxin, Rozert. Colias edusa and some other Species at Eastbourne. Hnt. —
Jan., pp. 17-18.
—— Dhiaphora mendica, form venosa, N.F., tom. cit. Apr., p. 79.

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LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 519

Apkin, Ropert. Farn Collection of British Lepidoptera, tom. cit. Apr.,
pp. 91-93; May, pp. 113-115.

— [Obituary : Lachlan Gibb], tom. cit., pp. 95-96.

-—— Pyrameis cardui and Colias croceus (edusa) on the Sussex Coast, tom. cit.
July, p. 162.

Arnsiiz, Doucuas. Last of the Sea-Eagles. Country Life. Mar. 4, p. 325.

AkeHurst, SypNey Cuarirs. Larva of Chaoborus crystallinus (De Geer)
(Corethra plumicornis ¥.). Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. Dec., pp. 341-372.

AuExanpDER, H. G. Firecrest in Worcester. Brit. Birds. June, p. 21.

—— Smew in Worcestershire, tom. cit., p. 26.

— Redwings Singing in England, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 80-81.

Aukins, W. E. Two Molluscan Associations in North-East Staffs. Journ.
Conch. June, pp. 291-296.

Auten, ARCHIBALD. Bittern in Buckinghamshire. /ie/d. Jan. 7, p. 26.

Auten, E. J. Progression of Life in the Sea [Presidential Address delivered to
Section D, Zoology, British Association]. Advancement of Science,
pp. 1-15; Nature, Sept. 30, pp. 448-453.

Auten, Frep. Birds in the Oldham District. Zanes and C. Nat. Oct., p. 68.

Auten, W. E. R. Phryzxus livornica (?) at Cardiff. Hnt. July, p. 163.

Auston, Frank §. ‘ White Stoats.’ Zvrans. Lincs Nat. Union. 1921, p. 163.

ANDERSON, JosEPH. Herse convolvuii at Chichester. Hnt. Nov., p. 256.

—— Huchloé cardamines at Chichester in September, tom. cit. Dec., p. 277.

— Colias croceus (edusa) in Sussex. Hnt. Rec. Nov., p. 201.

—— Celastrina argiolus : First Appearance of Spring and Autumn Broods at
Chichester, loc. cit.

Annanpate, N. Land and Freshwater Molluscs of some Islands of the Inner
Hebrides. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 19-27.

Awnstice, R. E. Quails in Shropshire. Yield. Nov. 4, p. 684.

Artin, B. D’O. Manx Shearwater in Northamptonshire. rit. Birds. Oct.,
p. 136.

ARcHIBALD, CHARLES F. ‘British Birds’ Marking Scheme, tom. cit. Feb.,
pp. 217-218.

Arparos. Great Snipe in Aberdeenshire. Field. Nov. 25, p. 784.

Armstronc, A. Lestiz. Maglemose Remains of Holderness. and their Baltic
Counterparts [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], pp. 47-48.

— Further discoveries of engraved flint-crust and associated implements at
Grimes’ Graves. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. II1., pt. tv.,

pp. 548-558.
Armstronc, B. H. Hydrecia micacea f. brunnea at Seaford. nt. May,
3 Ui
Arnoup, E. C. Possible Bonaparte’s Sandpiper in Sussex. rit. Birds. Aug.,
pp. 87-88.

—— Eversmann’s Warbler in Norfolk, tom. cit. Nov., p. 162.

— Jack Snipe and the Goshawk. Sphere. Jan. 14, p. 50.

ArtinpaLe, R. H. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. Apr. 15, p. 513.

Asn, C. Turtle Dove in Yorkshire. Nat. June, p. 198.

AsHBURNHAM, F', Buff-Coloured Woodcock. Yield. June 3, p. 766.

Asuz, G. H. Coleoptera in Worcestershire in 1921. Dnt. Mo. Mag. May,
p. 108.

— Cenocara boviste in Carnarvonshire, tom. cit. Oct., p. 230.

Asurorp, W. J. Notes on the Breeding-habits of the Wood-lark in Dorset.
Brit. Birds. Apr., pp. 264-268.

— Ravens of Badbury Rings, Dorset. Field. Novy. 4, p. 684.

Asuton, Franx S. Presidential Address to the Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union
[Birds]. TZrans. Linc. Nat. Union. 1921, pp. 141-149.

Asnwortn, J. H. On Rhinosporidium sceberi, with special reference to its

_ sporulation and affinities [Abs.]. Nature. Nov. 25, p. 723.

Astiry, A. Continental Song-thrush in Westmorland. Srit. Birds. Feb.,
. 209. '

ASTLEY, feiewan D. Little Owl. Country Life. Feb. 18, p. 220.

Arxkins, W. R. G. Hydrogen Ion Concentration of Soils and Natural Waters
in Relation to Animal Distribution [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull],
p. 30.

520 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Atkinson, J. White Wagtails in Yorkshire. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 242.

Austen, E. E. Two additions to the List of British Z’achinide (Diptera),
Ent. Mo. Mag. Aug., pp. 182-183.

—— Abnormal Abundance of Typhlocyba ulmi L. in Hyde Park, tom. cit.
Nov., p. 254.

Austin, S. Report of the Ornithological Section for 1921. London Nat. 1921,
pp. Xil-xiv.

— Report on the Birds of Epping Forest for the year 1921, tom. cit., pp. 70-
75.

Baccuus, Dovenas. Helix aspersa var. exalbida at Westbury-on-Trym, Glos.
W. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 246.

— Peculiar form of Hygromia fusca (Montagu) from Leigh Woods (Somer-
set), near Bristol, tom. cit. June, pp. 286-287.

— Land and Freshwater Mollusca of Winsley in North Wilts, tom. cit.
Oct., pp. 320-323.

BapEN-PowELL, Frank. Unidentified Gull at Wimbledon. Vield. Sept. 9,
. 387.

Bieta RicHarp §. On some New and Rare British Diplopods. Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist. Feb., pp. 176-177.

—— Dendrothrips ornatus (Jabl.), a species of T'hysanoptera new to the
British Fauna. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 18-19.

—— Cecidomyid, Perrisia harrisoni, nom. nov., tom. cit. Aug., pp. 183-184.

—— Drepanothrips Reuteri Uzel. An addition to the British Fauna, tom. cit.
Nov., p. 248.

— Sussex Diplura (Campodeida). Hastings and East Sussex Nat. Oct.,
pp. 201-203.

— bBristly Milhpede, Polyxenus lagurus L., from Lancashire. Lancs and
C. Nat. Mar., p. 225.

— On Ligidium hypnorum (Cuvier) and other Lancashire Woodlice, tom. cit.,
pp. 225-227.

— Trichoniscidze (Woodlice) of the Scarborough Coast. Nat. Mar., p. 92.

—— and Harrison, J. W. Hzstop. New British Cecidomyiide. Hnt. Rec.
Apr., pp. 61-66; Sept., pp. 149-154.

Bairp, D. Dead Bees under Lime Trees. Field. Sept. 2, p. 351.

Baker, C. E. Unusual lining in Jay’s Nest. Brit. Birds. July, p. 47.

Baker, E. C. Stuart. Velocity of Flight among Birds, tom. cit. June, p. 31.

Baker, H. W. C. croceus, etc., in Suffolk. Wnt. Aug., p. 187.

Baker, He Anatomy of Birds in Flight. Country Life. May 18, pp. 646-
647.

BaRKER, ages B. Escaped Cockatoo consorting with Rooks. Field. Nov. 18,
p. 729. |

Baker-Sty, H. Trip to the New Forest in End September. Hnt. Rec. Noy., —
pp. 201-202.

Batrour-Browng, F. Life-history of the Pelobius tardus Herbst. {Abs.]. Ent.
Mo. Mag. June, p. 141.

Batrour-BrRowne, FRANK. Life-history of the Water-Beetle, Pelobius tardus
Herbst. Proc. Zool. Soc. Apr., pp. 79-97.

Bamser, Rut C. [Mrs. Bisbee]. Sex Determination—A Suggestion. Proc. —
Liverp. Biol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI., pp. 5-14.

BaRBER-StTaRKEY, R. Quails in Shropshire. Field. Oct. 21, p. 624. :

BarinG, Crciu. Ravens at Lambay. Irish Nat. Mar., pp. 34. Abs. in Brit. —
Birds. Sept., p. 114.

Barngs, A. J. See J. Cosmo Melvill.

Barrow, W. H. Black Redstart in Leicestershire. Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 106.

—— Shoveller Breeding in Leicestershire, tom. cit., p. 109.

Slavonian Grebe and Spotted Crake in Leicestershire, tom. cit., p. 114.

Bastin, S. Leonarp. Safeguarding the Birds. Animal World. Apr., p. 45.

BaTEs, paral Lesser Spotted Woodpecker on Speyside. Field. May 20,
p. 692.

BaRTHOLOMEW, JAMES. ‘ British Birds’ Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb.,
p. 219.

—— Adaptability of Stoat. Scot. Nat. May, p. 68.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 52]
BarrHotomew, James. Redstart Nesting in Islay. Brit. Birds. June, p. 23.
Barruert, Cuarues. Entomological Section. Ann. Liep. Bristol Nat. Soc.

Vol. V., pt. Iv., p. 162.

Baxter, Evetyn V. See Leonora Jeffrey Rintoul.

Bayrorp, E.G. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union : Entomological Section {Report).
Ent. Mo. Mag. Feb., pp. 42-44.

Bayuey, C. H. Escaped Cockatoo with Rooks. Wield. Dec. 23, p. 930.

Beantany, Jo. Convolvulous Hawk-Moth at Ilkley. Nat. Dec., p. 370.

Brare, T. Hupson. Aypera meles F. and other Coleoptera in a lucerne field
at Wicken. “nt. Mo. Mag. Nov., p. 249.

—— and DonistHoree, Horace. Aulonium ruficorne Ol. and Hypophlous
fraxini Kug., two species of Coleoptera new to the British List, tom. cit.
Sept., p. 193. :

——, —— Few Days’ Hunt for Coleopiera in the Forest of Dean, tom. cit.,

: pp. 194-195.

Beck, R. Coleoptera Records. Hnt. Rec. June, pp. 114-115.

Bez, H. C. Entomology: Lepidoptera [Report]. vans. Lincs. Nat. Union.
1921, pp. 153-154.

Beso, Witiiam. Increase and Decrease of Birds in the Ross of Mull. Scot.
Nat. Mar., p. 60.

Betcuer, T. Epwarp. Three Gephalopods new to Dorset. Journ. Conch.
Oct., p. 312.

— Crepidula fornicata (Linné) in Dorset, loc. cit.

[Betn, A.] British Oysters, Past and Present. Jrish Nat. Mar., p. 33.

Bett, Aurrep. Pleistocene and later Birds of Great Britain and Ireland. Naz.
Aug., pp. 251-253.

— On the Pleistocene and Later Tertiary British Insects. Ann. Rep. Yorks
Phil. Soc. 1921, pp. 42-51.

Bett, Rosert. Swans on Strangford Lough. Jrish Nat. Dec., p. 140.

Benineron, Joun A. Young House Martins in Nest in October. Field. Oct. 21,
p- 624.

Benson, R. B. Sphina convolvuli in Herts. Hut. Aug., p. 188.

Bentuam, Howarp. Black Redstart in Surrey. Brit. Birds. July, pp. 49-50.

— Lesser Whitethroat Breeding in Carnarvonshire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 80.

— Common Buzzard in Surrey, tom. cit. Dec., p. 191.

— Tufted Duck nesting in Surrey, tom. cit., p. 192.

Beresrorp, R. Pack. Curlew’s Eggs in Wild Duck’s Nest. Jrish Nat. June,

p. 72.
Berry, Wituiam. Rarity of the Bean Goose on the East Coast. Scot. Nat.
Mar., p. 59.

— Geese on the East Coast, tom. cit. May, p. 94.

Best, M. G. Black Guillemots in the North of Scotland. Vield. Dec. 23,
p. 930.

Best, M. G. S. Birds as Weather Prophets, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 387.

— Farne Island Terns. Country Life. Sept. 2, p. 286.

— Visit toa Whaling Station, tom. cit. Oct. 28, pp. 541-543.

— Fish and Gulls of Lerwick, tom. cit. Sept. 16, pp. 335-336.

Beruune-Baxer, G. T. [Obituary : Henry Rowland-Brown.] Hnt. Rec. June,
pp. 119-120.

— [Obituary : Henry John Elwes], tom. cit. Dec., pp. 224-225.

Brvan-Pricuarp, R. N. Hoopoe in Denbighshire. Field. May 20, p. 692.

Beveripce, GEorGE. Abundance of the Hooded Crow in N. Uist, tom. cit.,
p. 692.

— lLeach’s Petrels at North Uist. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 8.

—— Greenland Falcon in N. Uist, tom. cit. May, p. 94

Bipper, G. P. Relation of the Form of a Sponge to its Currents [Abs.]. Journ.
Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 26.

Bincuam, J. N. Combats of Butterflies. Zrish Nat. July, p. 81.

Brynatt, Perer B. G. Macqueen’s Bustard. Nutureland. Oct., p. 72.

— Crossbills in Lincolnshire, Joc. cit.

Brrrevt, W. W. Late Nesting of the Common Linnet. V/ield. Sept. 9, p. 387.

Birtwistur, W. See Jas. Johnstone.

522 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Brrrwistut, W., and Lewis, H. Masen. Biometric Investigations on the Her-
ring. Trans. Liverp. Biol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI., pp. 244-268.

Bisser, —. See Ruth C. Bamber. ’

Brackwoop, G. G. Status of the Garden Warbler and of the Blackcap in
Peeblesshire. Scot. Nat. Mar., pp. 43-44.

— Greenland Falcon in Forfarshire, tom. cit., p. 49. Abs. in Brit. Birds.
Sept., p. 114.

— Ray’s Wagtail in Ayrshire, tom. cit. May, pp. 93-94.

Buarr, Grorce H. Rare Bird’s [Spoonbill] Visit. Country Life. Apr. 29,
p. 584; May 13, p. 649.

Buarr, K. G. Carpophilus ligneus Murray in Britain. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Mar.,
. 65.

— Notes on the Life-history of Rhizophaugus parallelocollis Gyll., tom. cit.
Apr., pp. 80-83.

Brake, Ernest. Starling’s Power of Mimicry. Country Life. Mar. 25, p. 419.

— Hawfinches Feeding on Beech Flowers, tom. cit. June 3, p. 763.

— Barking Deer, tom. cit. Aug. 26, p. 253.

Buakeway, W. J. Clouded Yellow in Worcestershire. Field. Oct. 7, p. 539.

Buand, F. M. Squirrel Killed by a Fall, tom. cit. Nov. 4, p. 684.

Buatuwayt, F. L. Former Breeding of the Osprey in Ireland. Brit. Birds.

Jan., p. 192.

Great Skua in Dorset, tom. cit. Mar., p. 242.

Breeding Record of the Spotted Crake in Dorset, fom. cit. June, p. 27.

Incubation Period of Roseate Tern, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 138-139.

Invasion of Butterflies. Field. July 15, p. 80.

Wiglesworth Bird Manuscripts. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist.

Soc. Vol. LXVII., pp. 76-79.

BuiseevaD, H. Animal Communities in the Southern North Sea. Proc. Zool.
Soc. Apr., pp. 27-32.

BLENKARN, STANLEY A. Unusual Occurrence of Pieris rapa. Ent. May, p. 111.

— Iissodema cursor Gyll., etc., at Box Hill. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Mar., p. 65.

Buiss, ArrHuR. Colias croceus in Surrey and North Cornwall. Znt. Sept.,
p. 210.

— Colias croceus and Herse convolvuli in Surrey, tom. cit. Nov., p. 255.

Buioop, B. N., and Krycnr, J. P. New Mymarid from Brockenhurst. nt. Mo.
Mag. Oct., pp. 229-230.

Buytu, R. O. ‘ British Birds’ Marking Scheme. #rit. Birds. Jan., pp. 190-
191.

Botam, Greorce. Attractiveness of Light for Moths. Unt. June, pp. 138-139.

Boncx. Colias croceus (edusa) in Surrey, tom. cit. July, p. 162.

Bonn, L. H. Early Appearance of Vanessa urtice, tom. cit. Apr., p. 88.

‘Cannibalism among Cucullia verbasci, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 190-191.

— .Vanessa c-album in New Forest, tom. cit. Sept., p. 209.

Bonuam, H. T. See J. P. W. Furse.

Boorn, F. Mollusca [at Bingley]. Nat. July, p. 231.

Boorn, H. B. Vertebrate Zoology Section, West Riding, tom. cit. Jan.,
pp. 35-36.

—— Migration of the Common Swallow, tom. cit. Feb., pp.’ 55-60; Mar.,
pp. 85-91.

—— Huge Wharfe Trout, tom. cit. Aug., p. 301.

—— White Carrion Crow at Buckden, tom. cit. Dec., p. 370.

Bortry, J. O., and Russett, E. §. Report on Herring Trawling. Minis. of
Agric. and Fisheries. Fishery Investigation. Vol. 1V., No. 4, 58 pp.

BorraparLe, L. A. On the Mouth-parts of the Shore Crab. Journ. Linn. Soc.
Zool. Sept., pp. 115-142.

Borrer, CuirrorD. Waxwings in Great Britain. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 208.

—— Sandwich Tern as a Norfolk Bird, tom. cit. Oct., p. 138.

Boston, F. K. Avocets washed up in Lancashire, tom, cit. Apr., p. 274.

Boswett, P. G. H., and Doustz, I. §. Geology of the Country around Felix-
stowe and Ipswich. Proc. Geol. Assoc. Nov., pp. 285-305.

—— Excursion to the Felixstowe and Ipswich District, tom. cit., pp. 306-312.

Bouttine, E. Frances. Music-loving Squirrel. Country Life. July 1, p. 901.

ITT

‘ww S30 Le

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LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 523

Boutron, Muriet. Marsh-tit Offering Food to its Retlection. Selborne Mag.
Feb., pp. 137-138.

Bowater, W. Colias croceus in N. Wales. Ent. Nov., p.

Bower, C. E. S. Quails in Dorsetshire. /teld. Oct. 14, p. 59.

Bowman, ALExanpeR. Biological Interchange between the Atlantic and the
North Sea [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc, [Hull], pp. 26-27.

Boycorr, A. E. Habitat of Limnea glabra. Lancs. and C. Nat. Aug., pp. 7-8.

—— See G. C. C. Damant.

Borp, A. W. Red-breasted Merganser and Bewick’s Swan near Manchester.
Brit. Birds. May, p. 296.

—— Reed-Buntings Flocking in Spring, tom. cit. June, pp. 20-21.

— Garganey in Cheshire, tom. cit., p. 24.

— — Ruff Nesting in Norfolk, tom. cit. <Aug., p. 86.

—— Ruffs in Spring and Shovelers Nesting in Cheshire, tom. cit., pp. 86-87.

—— Gommon Scoters Inland in Cheshire in Summer, tom. cit.. Sept., p. 110.

—— Green Sandpiper in Anglesey, tom. cit., p. 112.

—— Whiskered Tern in Cheshire, tom. cit., pp. 112-113.

Boyp, Davip. Mating of the Mavis. Animal World. May, pp. 54-55.

Boyes, F. Hooded Crow. Yield. Apr. 22, p. 547.

— Early Nightjar, tom. cit. Apr. 29, p. 590.

— Rooks’ Nest on Telegraph Pole, tom. cit. May 6, p, 622.

—— (Convolvulus Hawk-Moth in Hants [? Yorks.], tom. cit. Sept. 23, p. 443.

Bracken, C. W. Colias croceus at Plymouth. Ent. Dec., pp. 277-278.

Brave-Birks, S. GRawam. Notes on Myriapoda.—XXVI. The Names of some
Iulide and Blaniulide. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Feb., pp. 160-163. ,

—— XXVIII. Wandering Millipedes, tom. cit., pp. 208-212.

Braprorp. Californian Quails. Country Life. July 1, p. 901. .

Braptry, A. E. Variation in the genus Psithyrus Lep. in the neighbourhoo
of Leeds. Ent. Mo. Mag. June, pp. 141-142.

B[Raptey], J. Malham and Kilnsey [Excursion]. Haworth Ramb. Cire. July 29.

Brapuey, T. W. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. Apr. 15, p. 513.

Brapsuaw, W. H. Kingfisher Choked by a Gudgeon, tom. cit. Jan. 7, p. 26.

Brairuwaire, Georrrey G Wild Geese in Bedfordshire, tom. cit. Nov. 4
p. 684.

Bramiry, W. G. Poisonous effect of Hay. Nat. Apr., p. 143.

— Otters and Birds, tom. cit. June, p. 206.

— Vertebrate Zoology [Bishopdale], tom. cit. Dec., p. 387.

Bramwe1, F. G. 8. Aippotion celerio in Devonshire. Hnt. June, p. 136.

—— Herse convolvuli and Colias edusa at Brighton, tom. cit. Nov., p. 256.

Brinpuz-Woop, W. W. Large Derwentwater Trout. Field. July 8, p. 56.

Brinson, A. Copper Butterfly in the Heart of London, tom. cit. Sept. 9,
p. 387. '

Bristowr, R. H., and Mary, F. R. Golden Crested’ Wren. Country Life.
Aug. 26, p. 254.

Brirren, H. Choleva angustata F., and its Allies : Supplementary Note. Ent.
Mo. Mag. May, pp. 107-108.

— Report on Hemiptera, Heteroptera, and Homoptera taken in Lancashire
and Cheshire. Zancs and (. Nat. Mav., pp. 221-224.

— Some Diptera new to Lancashire and Cheshire, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 13-20;
Oct., pp. 69-76; Dec., pp. 117-124.

— Whiskered Bat Flying in Bright Sunshine, tom. cit., p. 22.

— Notes on the Ovipositing of Simulium ornatum Mg. and 8. latipes Mg.,

tom. ctt., p. 24.

— Trocheta subviridis (Dutrochet) at. Platt Fields, Manchester, tom. cté.
} Dec., pp. 131-132.
Brockuorrs, W. Firzuerzert. Cuckoo Laying in a Willow Warbler’s Nest.

Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 107.

— Hairless Mice, tom. cit. Oct. 7, p. 451.

— Hairless Mouse. Field. Sept. 16, p. 405.

400.

524 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Brooks, C. E. P., and Marr, J. E. Ice-Age and Man. Man. May, pp. 75-76.
Brown, A. Lawriz. See A. M‘Innes.
Brown, E. Hedgehog Caught in the Act. Country Life. July 15, p. 64.
Brown, Epmunp R. Teratological Variations in the Wings of Lepidoptera,
Lanes and C. Nat. May, pp. 242-243.
Brown, J. M. Developed form of Nabis limbatus Dahlb. in Yorkshire. Nat.
June, pp. 199-200. :
Brown, R. H. Tenaciousness of the Curlew of its Breeding-ground. Brit.
Birds. Nov., pp. 167-168.
Browne, F. Batrour. Sapyga 5-punctata, a Fossorial Wasp Parasitic upon
Bees. Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Edinburgh), p. 425.
Bruce, G. H. Wheatear on Boat in Mid-Loch. /ield. Sept. 30, p. 476.
Bruce, R. Stuart. Haaf Fishing and Shetland Trading. Mariner’s Mirror.
Feb., pp. 48-52. ;
Bryan, B. Dotterel in Staffordshire. Brit. Birds. July, p. 55.
—— Annual Report of the North Staffordshire Branch [Conchological Society].
Journ. Conch. Jan., pp. 274-275.
Bryant, J. Instance of Protective Colouring [Woodcock]. Country Life.
Nov. 4, p. 590.
Buckuurst, A. 8. See E. B. Watson.
Buu, G. V. Spilosoma lubricipeda and Seasonal Notes. Hnt. Dec., p. 279.
Buiter, A. H. R. Slugs as Mycophagists. T'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. July,
pp. 270-283.
Bunyarp, Percy F. On the Eggs of the Puffin, Mratercula arctica. Ibis. Apr.,
: pp. 256-258.
Burk, H. J. Crickets and Refuse Dumps. Unt. Jan., p. 23.
—— London Natural History Society [Report]. Hnt. Mo. Mag. May, p. 117.
Ent. Nov., p. 264; Dec., p. 287.
Burkitt, Haroup J. Report of the Plant Gall Section, 1921. London Nat.
1921, pp. xlv-xv.
— Plant Gails observed near Scarborough, 1921. Nat. June, pp. 193-196.
Burkirr, J. P. Observations of Song-periods. Brit. Birds. May, p. 299.
—— Songs of Birds. Jrish Nat. May, p. 59.
—— Birds’ Song, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 117-125.
Burxirt, Mines C. Notes on the Chronology of the Ice Age. Man. Dec.,
pp. 179-182.
Burnury, A. I. Marine Biology at Scarborough. Nut. Dec., pp. 394-395.
Burret, B. R. Tame Fox Cubs. Field. Sept. 2, p. 351.
BurReEtL, Merick B. Smew in Sussex, tom. cit. Feb. 25, p. 249.
Burter, BE. A. Contribution to the Life-history of Pentatoma rufipes LL. Ent.
Mo. Mag. Jaly, pp. 152-156.
— Contribution towards the Life-history of Dictyonota strichnocera Fieb.,
tom. cit. Aug., pp. 179-182.
Drama on a Rose-leaf, tom. cit., pp. 191-192.
— Contribution to the Life-history of Der@ocoris ruber L., tom. cit. Sept.,
pp. 200-204.
ButtTerFieLD, E. P. Observations en the Twite in the Pennines. Brit. Birds.
Oct., p. 140.
Pied Flycatcher Breeding near Wilsden. Nat. Jan., p. 17.
Rare Birds in the Wilsder. District, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 7.
Grey Hen in the Wilsden District, tom. cit. June, p. 198.
Romance of the Cuckoo, tom. cit. July. pp. 237-239.
Scarcity of Corn Bunting in the Wilsden District, tom. cit. Aug., p. 272.
Cuckoo’s Egg in Nest of Hedge Sparrow, tom. cit., p. 300.
Separation of the Sexes of the Chatfinch in Winter, tom. cit. Oct., p. 333.
Jay in Lancashire. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., p. 141.
Sparrow-hawks on Allotments, loc. cit.
Dormouse in Lancashire and Cheshire, tom. cit., p. 142.
Tree Pipit or Woodlark, tom. cit., p. 143.
Small Copper Butterfly, fom. cit., p. 144.
Unusual Behaviour of Stoats, tom. cit. Dec., p. 106.

Geese aR he

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 525

Burrerrietp, E. P., and Burrerrienp, R. Lepidoptera [of Bingley]. Yorks
Nat. Union Circ. No. 299, p. 2.

Burrerrictp, R, Hymenoptera [Report]. Nat. Jan., p. 43.

— See E. P. Butterfield.

Burrerrictp, W. Ruskin. Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora and Meteorology
for 1921. Hastings and Hast Sussex Nat. Oct., pp. 211-224. :

Buxton, AntHONy. Peculiar Note of the Great Spotted Woodpecker. Vield.
Mar. 4, p. 314.

Buxton, Geratp. Abnormal Stags’ Heads, tom. cit. Nov. 4, p. 683.

Bynpatt, R. Blackbirds’ Eggs in December, tom. cit. Dec. 16, p. 879.

CatpeRwoop, W. L. Homing of the Salmon. Scot. Nat. Mar., pp. 37-43.

Catman, W. 'T. [Obituary : George Stewardson Brady.|] Nat. Feb., pp. 73-74.

— Swan in a Mare’s Nest, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 83-84.

Cameron, Frank. Seals Preying on Seafowl. Field. Feb. 11, p. 179.

CampseEtu-Taytor, J. E. Colias croceus, etc., in Sussex. Hut. July, p. 162.

Relative Attractiveness of Various Types of Electric Light for Moths, tom.

cit., pp. 165-166.

Camrrion, Hersert. [Obituary : W. L. Distant.] Unt. Mar., pp. 70-71.

Cane, R. Cuaupe. Young Swallows in September. Vield. Oct. 7, p. 539.

Cannon, H. Granam. On the Labral Glands of a Cladoceran (Simocephalus
vetulus), with a Description of its Mode of Feeding. Quart. Journ.
Micro. Soc. June, pp. 213-234.

Capron, C. I. Rare Visitor [Collared Pratincole]. Country Life. June 3,
p- 764.

Carpenter, GeorGe H. Further Observations on the Life-history of Warble-
flies. Jrish Nat. July, pp. 77-79. Abs. in Lancs and C. Nat. <Aug.,
pac:

Carrenter, K. Freshwater Fauna of Aberystwyth Area in Relation to Lead
Pollution [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], pp. 30-31.

— lead and Animal Life. Nature. Oct. 21, p. 543.

Carr, J. W. Insects of Martin Beck, Notts. Nat. Apr., pp. 131-132.

Carrot, HucH D. Clouded Yellow Butterfly in Devon. Field. July 8, p. 57.

— late Appearance of Great Grey Shrike in Devon, loc. cit.

CarRutHers, D. Quail in Norfolk. Field. June 17, p. 834.

Carter, A. E. J. Rhamphomyia conformis K. in Seotland: A Correction.
Hint. Mo. Mag. Jan., p. 19.

Carter, Brenpa A. Great Northern Diver in Warwickshire. Brit. Birds.
July, p. 54.

Carrer, C. 8. Milax (=Amalia) gagates at Louth Nat. Nov., p. 366.

Cartwricut, W. On the Association and Non-Association of Helix nemoralis

: Linné and Helix hortensis Miller. Journ. Conch. Oct., pp. 313-318

Casa, J. J. Goldcrest. Natureland. Jan., pp. 15-16.

Caton, R. B. Late Butterflies, tom. cit. Apr., p. 37.

Cauuttery, Mavuricz. Parasitism and Symbiosis in their Relation to the
Problem of Evolution. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. 1920, pp. 399-409.

Cavsu, Dovcras E. T'rogoderma khapra (the new Barley Pest) and ‘ Green
Fly. Ann. Rep. Brighton and H. Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 45-46.

Cuamsers, C. B. Common Scoter in Derbyshire. Brit. Birds. July, p. 54.

— Little Stint in Derbyshire, tom. cit. Nov., p. 167.

Cnampron, G. C. [Obituary : Dr. Thomas Algernon Chapman.] Ent. Mo. Mag.
Feb., pp. 40-41.

— Miride (Capside) common to Britain and N. America, tom. cit. May,

p. 109.

—— Classification of the Cucujide based on Larval Characters, tom. cit. Sept.,
pp. 209-210.

— Gymrnetron squamicolle Reitt. in Hants and Surrey, tom. cit. Dec.,
p. 277.

Cuance, Epcar. How I Filmed the Cuckoo. Conquest. July, pp. 351-354.
— Cuckoo. Country Life. July 15, p. 63.

Cuarman, Aset. Romantic Friendship of a Wild Duck. Fie/d. May 20, p. 692,
—— Clouded Yellow in Northumberland, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 387.

526 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Cuapman, T. A. Notes on Sawflies, chiefly as to Oviposition. Unt. Mo. Mag.
Jan., pp. 8-10.
—— Potyommatus and Agriades. Ent. Rec. July, pp. 121-122.
Cuartres, 8. A. Orrhodia erythrocephala glabra at Eastbourne. Hnt. Jan.,
. 20.
Gaammestond W. Hoopoe at Skegness. Field. Sept. 23, p. 443.
Cuawner, HE. Bird Life in the New Forest. Natureland. Jan., pp. 16-17.
CurretHam, Curis. A. Diptera. Nat. Jan., p. 43.
— Tipula confusa, vy. d. Wulp., tom. cit. Apy., pp. 119-120.
— Yorkshire Ptychoptera, including P. longicauda, new to the British List,
tom, cit. May, p. 153.
— Diptera [at Bingley], tom. cit. July, pp. 231-232.
— Diptera from Wensleydale, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 315-316.
— Wensleydale Diptera, Corrections and Additions, tom. cit. Dee., p. 370.
—— Additions to Yorkshire Diptera List, tom. cit., pp. 381-382.
Cutstett, RaupH. Bird Photography in Shetland. I.—Great Skua. Country
LIife. Apr. 22, pp. 527-529.
and Wittrorp, Henry. Bird Photography in Shetland. II.—Hooded
Crow, tom. cit. May 6, pp. 598-601. IIl.—Whimbrel, tom. cit.
May 27, pp. 709-712. IV.—-Arctic Skua, tom. cit. June 8, pp. 727-730. -
V.—Small Bird Life, tom. cit. July 22, pp. 76-79.
Curisty, Geraup. Camella Galls, tom. cit. Sept. 2, p. 285 :
Curisty, Minter. Legend of the Hedgehog carrying off Fruit. Field. Nov. 4,
. 684,
— edesiian genkinsi at Grays, Thurrock. Zssex Nat. Mar., p. 45.
Stinkhorn Fungus (/thyphallus impudicus), tom. cit. Apyr., pp. 110-111.
Crarx, R. Partridge in Kensington Gardens. Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.
Cruark, Rosrrt §. Rays and Skates (Raia) No. 1: Egg-Capsules and Young.
Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Oct., pp. 577-643.
Cruarke, H. THorsurn. British Hoatzin. Country Life. July 29, p. 127.
Cuarke, W. J. Red-legged Partridges on the Yorkshire Coast. Brit. Birds.
July, pp. 56-57.
Grey Shrike at Scarborough. Nat. Jan., p. 17.
Little Gull at Scarborough, loc. cit.
Little Auks and Waxwings on the Yorkshire Coast, tom. cit., pp. 17-18.
Badgers near Scarborough, tom. cit., p. 18.
North Riding [Zoology Report], tom. cit., p. 38.
Wryneck at Scarborough, tom. cit. Dec., p. 369.
Cray, R. C. C. Velocity of Flight of Birds. Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 116.
Cuurren, W. G. Hmmetesia minorata, etc., at Grassington. Hnt. Mar., p. 64.
Ciurrersuck, C. GRanvitie. Collecting in 1920 in Gloucestershire, North
Wales, etc. Hnt. July, pp. 155-157. :
— Nemotois minimellus Z., etc., in Gloucestershire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 189.
Coatrs, Henry. Invertebrate Fauna of Perthshire: Land and Freshwater
Mollusca. Trans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci. Vol. VII., pt. 1v., pp. 179-
238. j [
Cospen, EH. Woodpigeons and Peregrines. Field. Dec. 30, p. 967.
Cockayne, EK. A. White Border in Huvanessa antiopa. Ent. Rec. Jan., p. 17.
— L. hirtaria, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 52-53. bi
—— Somatic Mosaics in Lepidoptera, tom. ‘cit. June, pp. 105-113.
—— [Obituary : The Hon. Victor A. H. Huia Onslow], tom. cit. July, p. 148.
—— ILarve of Huclidia glyphica L. and EL. mi Cl., tom. cit. Oct., pp. 169-170. ~
—— Aberration of H. glyphica, tom. cit., p. 188. ‘
—— Structural Abnormalities in Lepidoptera. Zondon Nat. 1921, pp. 10-69. —
Cockrrett, T. D A. Nymphs or Naiads. Hnt. Mar., p. 67.
—— Platymischus dilatatus Westwood, loc. cit.
Cocks, Aurrep Henzscr. Breeding of Badgers. Field. May 27, p. 729.
— Marten in Warwickshire, tom. cit. Nov. 18, p. 729.
—— Habits of the Marten in Confinement, tom. cit. Dec. 2, pp. 793-794.
—— KEuropean Bison, tom. cit. Dec. 9, p. 839.
Coz, R. L. Nest of Coaltit in November, tom. cif. Nov. 25, p. 784.

Barak

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 527

Cox, aia L. Deiopeia pulchella L. at Southsea. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Mar.,
p. 65.

Cours, R. E. Hobby in January. Field. Feb. 25, p. 249.

Couterr, H. R. P. Notes on Pentatoma (T'ropicoris) ruipes L. Ent. Mo.
Mag. Sept., pp. 210-211.

— Fortnight’s Hemiptera collecting in Hampshire, tom. cit. Oct., p. 231.

— Notes on two Larve of Picromerus bidens, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 232-233.

_— Notes on the Copulation of Nepa cinerea. Lancs and C'. Nat. Aug., p. 25.

— Insects attracted to Light, tom. cit., p. 31.

Coutincr, Watter FE. Song of Birds. Country Life. Jan. 7, pp. 14-15.

— Little Owl, tom. cit. Feb. 4, p. 155; Mar. 11, p. 353.

— On the Terrestrial Isopod Zluma celatum (Miers) =purpurascens Budde-
Lund. Journ. Linn, Soc. Sept. 30, pp. 103-106.

— Barn Owl. Journ. Min. Agric. Jan., pp. 925-929.

— Food and Feeding Habits of the Little Owl, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 1022-

1031; Mar., pp. 1133-1140.
Local Investigation of the Food of the Little Owl, tom. cit. Nov.,
pp. 750-752.
Bulwer’s Petrel near Scarborough. Nat. Apr., p. 128. Brit. Birds.
June, p. 28.
; Economic Status of the Little Owl. Natureland. Oct., pp. 61-62.
Coutison, C. G. Fire-crested Wrens in Co. Cork. Field. Apr. 22, p. 590.
Cotrnrup, C. W. Aberrant Song of a Chiffchaff. Brit. Birds. Oct., pp. 134-
135.
— Herring-Gulls Hawking for Winged Ants, tom. cit., p. 139.
— Food taken by House-Sparrow in a Garden, tom. cit. Nov., p. 160.
—— Probable Crested Tit in Surrey, tom. cit., p. 161.
— Common Buzzard at Dulwich and in Hampshire, tom. cit., p. 166.
— Black-headed Gulls’ Method of Obtaining Worms, tom. cit., p. 170.
Couyvrer-Frreusson, W. P. White Squirrel. Field. Dec. 2, p. 793.
Concreve, W. M. Remarkable Constancy of a Nuthatch. Brit. Birds. June,
p. 105.
— Mistle-Thruch laying more than Four Eggs, tom. cit., pp. 105-106.
Cooper, J. E. Physa heterostropha Say in Middlesex. Journ. Conch. June,
p. 308.
Cooper, OrtveR. Missel Thrushes Nesting. Country Life. May 6, p. 617.
Coorer, R. H. Missel Thrushes Nesting, tom. cit. May 27, p. 713.
Coorz, A. P. Otter and her Cubs. Yield. Nov. 11, p. 714. ‘
Corser, A. Steven. Notes on the Breeding of the Marsh-Warbler in Berk-
shire. Brit. Birds. Feb., pp. 203-204.
— Cannibalism among Cucullia verbasci. Ent. Dec., p. 280. _
Corr, H. B. Unusual Nesting-site of Sparrow-Hawk. Brit. Birds. Nov.,
pp. 165-166.
— Notes on the Birds of Inishbofin. Jrish Nat. Mar., pp. 34-35.
Coutson, F. J. Phryxus livornica at Merton, Surrey. Hnt. July, p. 163.
Coventry, Grorce. Sheldrake’s Nest in Badger’s Earth. Field. July 8, p. 57.
Cowarp, T. A. Shelduck. Country Life. Apr. 8, pp. 482-484.
— Spoonbill in Lancashire and Cheshire. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 270.
‘Saw-Billed Ducks’ wintering in Cheshire, tom. cit., pp. 270-271.
Bewick’s Swan in Cheshire, tom. cit. June, p. 23.
Garganey in Cheshire, tom. cit., pp. 24-25.
Nuthatch in Lancashire. Lance and C. Nat. Jan., p. 172.
Notes on the Vertebrate Fauna of Lancashire and Cheshire, tom. cit.
Mar., pp. 203-214.
Lancashire Bird Notes, tom. cit. Aug., p. 21.
Little Auk near Preston, tom. cit. Dec., p. 127.
Manchester Birds, 1822-1922 [Abs.] Nature. Oct. 2, p. 563. Lancs
and C. Nat. Oct., p. 52.
; Cheshire Mere. Nineteenth Century. Aug., pp. 251-259.
— Stinging of Opkion. Scot. Nat. May, p. 93.
Cox, A. H. Macuesi. Some Breeding-habits of the Common Wren. Brit.
( Birds. May, pp. 293-294,
| ©1923 NN

528 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Cox, G. Lissant. Pyrameis cardui in North Lancashire and Westmorland.
Ent. Jan., pp. 18-19.

Cox, Harpine. Little Owls and ‘ Rats.’ Country Life. Jan. 14, p. 59.

CransBRooK, DorotHy. Iceland Falcon in Suffolk. /zeld. Oct. 7, p. 539.

CraprerR, EK. Physa fontinalis new to Selkirkshire. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 251.

lammea stagnalis in Edinburgh, tom. cit. June, p. 301.

Craven, AtrRepD E. Sussex Dragon-Flies. Hastings and Last Sussex Nat.

Oct., pp. 204-209.

Earliest and Latest Dates of Flight of Odonata, tom. cit., p. 210.

Craw, J. H. Report of Meetings, 1922. Proc. Berwickshire Nat. Club. Vol.
XXIV., pt. Iv., pp. 364-388.

Crawrorp, M. H. Toad’s Winter Quarters. Country Life. Oct. 21, p. 519.

Crawuey, W. C. Myrmecophilous Mites. nt. ec. Mar., pp. 51-52.

Formicidae : A New Species and Variety, fom. cit. May, pp. 85-86.

CrRESSWELL, CResswett B. Merganser on the Serpentine. Field. Feb. 25,

. 249.

CRISP, E Variety of Cupido minimus. Hnt. Sept., p. 212.

Crooks, FREepERicKk. Kestrel, the Lark, and the Telegraph Wires. Country
Life. Mar. 4, p. 322.

CruicksHank, R. Barnarp. Augiadfs [? Augiades] sylvanus. Ent. Rec. Jan..

A kee

— Devdeniien : An Early Visitor, tom, cit. June, p. 115.

Crump, Lerrice M. See D. Ward Cutler.

Crurcuitry, G. W. Henri Fabre and the Microgaster. Hnt. Nov., pp. 245-246.

CRUTTENDEN, Ernest H. Curious Nesting Place of Swallows. Field. Sept. 9,
p. 387.

CunnincHam, J. T. Species and Adaptations. Nature. June 17, pp. 775-777.

CuruE, Avex. O. Report for the Year 1921-1922 on the Royal Scottish Museum
Edinburgh, pp. 2-14.

Currier, Martin §. Cirl Bunting’s Alternative Song. Brit. Birds. Dec.,

p. 188.

Green Sandpiper in Anglesey, tom. cit., p. 193.

CurHsertTson, ALEXANDER. History of the Great Crested Grebe in Dumbarton-
shire, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 254-255.

— bBreeding-stations of the Black-Headed Gull in Dumbartonshire. Scoé.
Nat. Sept., pp. 143-145.

CurtER, D. Warp, Crump, Lerrice M., and Sanpvon, H. Quantitative Investi-
gation of the Bacterial and Protozoan Population of the Soil, with an
Account of the Protozoan Fauna. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. —
Vol. 212, pp. 317-350.

Cuznrer, E. Some Studies in Marine Zoology [Abs.]. Journ. Quekett Micro.
Club. Nov., pp. 364-365.

Danas, JoHN E. §. Probable Woodchat Shrike seen in Sussex. Brit. Birds.
July, pp. 48-49.

Datuman, A. A. Galling of Couch Grass in Yorkshire. Nat. Mar., p. 84.

Datrry, THomas B. Catocala nupta var. Ent. Rec. Oct., p. 183. ;

Damant, G. C. C. Slipper Limpet in Osborne Bay. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat.

Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 11., p. 95.

and Boycorr, A. E. Buoyancy of the Sun-fish. Nature. May 6, p. 578.

Daniget, R. J. Seasonal Changes in the Chemical Composition of the Mussel
(Mytilus edulis). Trans. Liverp. Biol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI., pp. 269-285. —

Davenrort, Henry 8. Goshawk in Leicestershire. Brit. Birds. June, p. 23. —

— Wood-Lark at Night, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 126-128.

Song-Period of the Mistle-Thrush, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 189-190.

Davies, J. A. Aveline’s Hole, Burrington Combe. An Upper Paleolithic
Station. Proc. Spelcol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-1, pp. 61-72; abs. in —
Nature, July 8, p. 54; Antig. Journ., Oct., p. 379. ,

— Second Report on Aveline’s Hole, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 113-118.

— Exploration of Aveline’s Hole, Burrington Combe, Somerset [Abs.].
Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 46. p

Davirs, J. Putuips. Sleeping Bat. Country Life. Apr. 22, p. 551,

Belated Swallow, tom. cit. Dec. 16, p. 826. :

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 529
Davies, W. H. Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the District West of Man-

chester. Lancs and VU. Nat. May, pp. 263-273.
_ Davis, F. M. Fauna of the Sea-Bottom [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull],
pp. 27-28.

Dawnay, Cectt. Bold Cuckoo. Country Life. July 8, p. 30.

Dawson, J. Pures. Strange Birds in England, tom. cit. June 3, p. 763.

Day, F. H. Unusual Lining in Jay’s Nest. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 187.

— Tufted Duck Breeding in Cumberland, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 109-110.

— Carlisle Natural History Society [Report]. nt. May, pp. 119-120.

—— Dermestes lardarius L. feeding on Wood. Ent. Mo. Mag. Sept., p- 209.

Detar, M. J. Breeding of the Fulmar Petrel in Ireland. Jrish Nat. Nov.,
p- 130.

_— Swans in Valentia Harbour, tom. cit. Dec., p. 140.

Denpy, ArtHur. Note on the Genus 7ragosia Gray. Ann. and Mag. Nat.
Hist. Feb., pp. 169-174.

Dent, G. Adders in Epping Forest. Mssex Nat. Apy., p. 108.

— Raven at Latton, loc. cit. .

— Badgers in Essex, loc. cit.

Devanesen, D. W. Development of the calcareous parts of the lantern of
Aristotle in Echinus miliaris [Abs.]. Nature. July 1, p. 26.

Dewar, J. M. Oystercatchers opening Oysters. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 244.

_— Ability of the Oystercatcher to open Oysters, and its bearing upon the
History of the Species, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 118-125.

—— Incubation Periods of Terns, tom. cit. Dec., p. 196.

Disney, A. W. M. Entomological List. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist.
Soc. No. 70, pp. 29-34.

Dixon, H. N. Butterfly Habits. Trish Nat. July, pp. 81-82.

Dixon, Mary. Manchester Microscopical Society. Lancs and C. Nat. Oct.,
pp. 85-86.

— Photo-micrographs at the Manchester Microseopical Society, tom. cit.
Dec., p. 136.

Direvap, H. Animal Communities in the Southern North Sea. Proc. Zool.
Soc. Apr., pp. 27-32.

Dop, O. C. Wootrzy. Hoopoe in Surrey. Field. Apr. 22, p. 590.

Dopeson, R. W. Noctiluca as an Enemy of the Oyster. Nature. Sept. 9,
pp. 343-344.

Dottman, J. G. Guide to the Specimens of the Horse Family (Hquide)
exhibited in the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural
History). Second Edition, 43 pp. Noticed in Museums Journ. Jan.
1923, 175-176. y

Doncaster, L. Further Observations on Chromosomes and Sex-determination
in Abraxas grossulariata. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. Sept., pp. 397-408.

DonistHorPE, Horace. Colony-founding of Acanthomyops ( Dendrolasius)
fuliginosus Latr. Biol. Bull. Apr., pp. 173-184.

—— Few Notes on Coleoptera in 1921. Mnt. Mo. Mag. Mayr., pp. 52-55.

— Nebria iberica Oliveira, a British Species, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 92-93.

—— Some Notes on Ponera punctatissima Roger, tom. cit. June, pp. 134-137.

— How the Honey-dew of Plant-lice is excreted, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 233-234.

— Myrmecophilous Notes for 1921. Wnt. Rec. Jan., pp. 1-5; Feb., pp. 21-23.

On Some Abnormalities in Ants, tom. cit. May, pp. 81-85.
Entomological Notes from Putney, 1921, tom. cit., pp. 94-95.
Notes on a few species of Diptera bred from the larval stage, tom. cit.
Nov., p. 189.
Some Casual Notes on Coleoptera in 1922, tom. cit., pp. 202-203.
Lepidoptera attacked by Birds, tom. cit. Dec., p. 219.
Leptura rubra L. in Norfolk, tom. cit., pp. 219-220.
- See T. Hupson-Beare.
Dooty, Tuos. L. 8. Cuckoo returning to same Summer quarters for four years,
Brit. Birds. Dec., p. 190. ;
Velocity of flight of Birds, tom. cit., p. 195.
Dovustr, I. 8. See P. G. H. Boswell. v7
Droirr, Avan. Larve of Sphinx convolvuli in Hants. Ent. Jan., pp. 19-20.
Drury, W. Pure White Gull on the Thames. Field. Feb. 18, p. 235.
NN 2

330 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

DuEEDID, a A. Si Anthonomus cinctus Kollar in Kent. Ent. Mo. Mag.

eb., p. 37.

Dyxz, Watson. Birds ina Chimney. Country Life. Oct. 21, p. 520.

Eartann, A. See E. Heron-Allen.

Earn, Lionen. Plants for Bird Sanctuaries, tom. cit. Mar. 4, p. 321.

pies L. F. Rare Visitor [Black-throated Thrush], tom. cit. Mar. 11,

p- 303.

White Rook, tom. cit. May 27, p. 714.

Eastwoop, W. R. Parasitic Dipteron New to Lancashire. Lancs and C. Nat.
Aug., p. 42.

BHosrsten, H. McD. Leucania vitellina reared from Ova. Ent. Mar., p. 62.

—— Second Broods in 1921. Hnt. Rec. Mar., p. 51.

Epwarps, F. W. New Fungus-feeding Gall-midge. Hnt. Mo. Mag. May,
pp. 104-107.

— Third New British Plastosciara (Diptera, Sciaride), tom. cit. July,
pp. 160-161. é

—— Oligocene Mosquitoes in the British Museum. with a Summary of our
present Knowledge concerning Fossil Culicide. Abs. Proc. Geol. Soc.
No. 1086, pp. 65-67; Nature, May 6, p. 598.

— British Limnobiid Crane-flies; new Species and new Records. Scot. Nat.
Jan., p. 28.

Epwarps, James. Generic Arrangement of British Jassina. Hnt. Mo. Mag.
Sept., pp. 204-207.

Epwarps, Witttam H. Short Illustrated Guide to the Beale Memorial Collec-
tion of Nesting Groups of British Birds, in the Birmingham Museum. ~
39 pp. 5

Epwarps-Moss, Joun. Merganser on the Serpentine.. Field. Mar. 11, p. 344.

Euuiorr, Ernest A. Asemum striatum, etc., at Hindhead. Ent. Mo. Mag.
Sept.. p. 208.

Exutorr, J. §. Former Staffordshire Decoy. Brit. Birds. June, p. 24.

Unusual Nesting-Site of a Jay, tom. cit. Sept., p. 102.

—— Whiskered Bat in Bedfordshire. Field. Oct. 28, p. 655.

Exxiorr, W. T. Some Observations on the Mycophagous propensities of Slugs.
Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Dec., pp. 84-90.

Etmuirst, RicHarp. Cyclic Conditions and Rejuvenation in Hydroids. Nature.
Feb. 16, p. 208.

— Habits of Hchinus esculentus, tom. cit. Nov. 18, p. 667. c

—— Notes on the Food of the Cod. Ann. Rep. Scot. Marine Biol. Assoc. for
1920, pp. 12-14. By

—— Notes on Lucernaria quadricornis Miller and related Species. Ann. and ‘
Mag. Nat. Hist. Aug., pp. 221-224.

— See Marie V. Lebour. é

Eutwes, H. J. Modern Nomenclature and Sub-species. bis. Apr., pp. 314-322.

ENDERLEIN, GUNTHER. Scalv-Winged Psocid, new to Science, discovered in
Britain. Hnt. Mo. Mag. May, pp. 101-104.

Esson, L. G. Daphnis nerii off Scotland. Hnt. Dec., p. 278.

Evans, A. H. Notes on the Life-history of Cuculus canorus, with exhibition —
of eggs. Proc. Zool. Soc. Apr., pp. 197-199.

Evans, C. Erxen. Immigration of Convolvulus Hawk Moth (Sphinx con-
volvult). Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 190. 5

Evans, T. J. Calma glaucoides : A Study in Adaptation. Quart. Journ. Micro. :

hg ei heed, ~%~ ¢

tf
)

Soc. Sept., pp. 439-455.
Evans, Witt1am. Breeding of the Pintail on Loch Leven. Brit. Birds. Aug., —
pp. 91-92.
White-tailed Eagle on the Bass Rock. Jbis. Oct., pp. 750-751. 4
Deliphrum crenatum Grav. in Midlothian. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Aug. —
pp. 190-191. >
Pogonocherus bidentatus Thoms. in Perthshire, tom. cit. Sept., p. 208.
Edinburgh Rookeries in 1921. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 9-12.
Breeding of the Painted Lady Butterfly in Arran, tom. cit., p. 27. 3
Mallophaga (Bird-lice) on a Fulmar from the Forth, tom. cit., pp. 27-28. —
Uncommon Wrasse, Crenilabrus melops, from the Coast of East Lothian,
tom. cit. May, p. 92. :

lawl

LISTAOF PAPERS, 1922. 531

Evans, Wiut1Am. Notes on the Breeding of the Goosander and the Red-breasted
Merganser in the Forth Area : A Retrospect, tom. cit. July, pp. 105-108.
—— Some Insect Records from the Edinburgh District in 1921, tom. cit. Sept.,
pp. 147-150.
— Notes on the Wood-wasps (Sirex) occurring in Scotland, with special
reference to their present-day distribution, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 175-18f.
Ewart, J. C. Evolution of Plumage [Abs.]. Nature. May 20, pp. 662-6683
June 17, p. 779.
FaLconeR, Attan A. Notes on the Occurrence of the Waxwing (Ampelis
garrulus Linn.) in the district during the ‘ Invasion’ of 1921-22.
Proc. Berwickshire Nat. Club. Vol. XX1V., pt. 1v., pp. 471-477.
Fatconer, Wm. Additions to the Plant Galls of Scarborough. Nat. Jan.,
pp. 23-24,
Arachnida, tom. cit., pp. 43-44.
Plant Galls, tom. cit., pp. 44-45.
Plant Galls from Selby and York, tom. cit. Apy., pp. 129-130.
Spiders of Yorkshire, tom. cit. May, pp. 171-174; July, pp. 233-236;
Oct., pp. 331-332; Dec., pp. 389-392.
Arachnida [at Bingley], tom. cit. July, p. 231.
Plant Galls [at Bingley], tom. cit., p. 232.
Cryptocampus medullarius Htg. at Huddersfield, tom. cit. Aug., p. 250.
More Plant Galls from the Leeds District, tom. cit. Oct., p. 314.
Naturalists’ Field Day at Askham Bog, tom. cit., pp. 327-330.
Plant Galls—Thorner to Collingham, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 373-376.
T. V. Le. Squirrel in Ireland. Jrish Nat. July, pp. 83-84.
Farmar, T. G. Camberwell Beauty in Surrey. Field. Apr. 22, p. 590.
Farran, G. P. Ernest W. L. Holt [Obituary], tom. cit. Sept., pp. 97-99.
— Migrations of the Eel. Discovery. Oct., pp. 255-257.
Fassnipcr, Wm. Pyrameis atalanta: Immigrants or Hibernated Specimens?
Ent. Apr., pp. 88-89.
— Hybridisation in Nature, tom. cit. Aug., p. 190.
Fenton, R. Hay. Cuckoo. London Nat. 1921, pp. 1-9.
Frrcusson, A. Leistus montanus Steph. in Arran. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Nov.,
p. 250.
[Obituary] Thomas George Bishop, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 279-280.
Spread of the Rove Beetle (PhAyllodrepoidea crenata Gray.) in Britain.
Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 28.
Rare Weevil (RAynchites hardwoodi Joy) in West Perth, loc. cit.
Haliplus immaculatus Gerhardt., a Water Beetle, in the Forth Area,
tom. cit. May, p. 93.
Frreusson, ANpsRsoN. Additions to the List of Clyde Coleoptera (Third
Series), tom. cit. Sept., pp. 155-164.
Fintay, M. C. Uncommon Beetle [Acanthocinus cedilis]. Country Life.
May 20, p. 683.
Fisner, Erurarm. Ornithology [Report]. Ann. Rep. Huddersfield Nat., etc.,
Soc. 1919-20, p. 10. :
Fisuer, K. Large Flock of Goosanders in Middlesex. Brit. Birds. June,
pp. 25-26.
FisHer, Marx. Clouded Yellow in Dorsetshire. Field. Sept. 16, p. 405.
Fisner, Ronatp C. Notes on the Poplar Saw-Fly (Z'richiocampus viminalis
Fall). Scot. Nat. Sept., pp. 151-154. ;
Fueminc, J. H. White-Billed Northern Diver as a British Bird. Brit. Birds.
Sept., p. 115. ?
Finn, J. Reported Pied Flycatcher in Co. Mayo, tom. cit. Apr., p. 274. |
Forp, E. On the Young Stages of Blennius ocellaris L., Blennius pholis L.,
and Blennius gattorugine L. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Oct.,
pp. 688-692. :
—— On the Post-larve of the Wrasses occurring near Plymouth, tom. cit.,
pp. 693-699. ;
Forp, H. D. Terrifying and Protective Coloration of Insects at the Time of
Emergence. Hnt. Mo. Mag. July, pp. 162-163.
Forpuam, W. J. Coleoptera. Nat. Jan., pp. 42-43.

_ —~ Yorkshire Homoptera, tom. cit. May, pp. 159-162.
bel

532 | CORRESPONDING JSOCIETIES.

ForpHam, W. J. Diurnal Lepidoptera from Allerthorpe Common, tow. cit.
Oct., pp. 307-308.
Forrest, H. KE. Nuthatch Nesting in Anglesey. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 187.
Waxwings in Montgomeryshire, tom. cit., pp. 187-188.
Bewick’s Swans in Shropshire, tom. cit., p. 189.
Waxwings in Great Britain, tom. cit. Feb., p. 208.
Bean-goose in Herefordshire, tom. cit., p. 212.
Little Auk in Shropshire, tom. cit. Mar., p. 242.
Spotted Crake in Anglesey, loc. cit.
Waxwings in Shropshire, tom. cit. Apr., p. 269.
Slavonian Grebe in Cheshire, tom. cit., p. 272.
Golden Oriole in Shropshire, tom. cit., Aug., p. 78.
Wood-lark nesting in Shropshire, loc. cit.
Redwing in Shropshire in Summer, tom. cit. Sept., p. 106. .
Green Sandpiper in Shropshire in June, tom. cit., pp. 111-112.
Puffin in Shropshire, tom. cit., p. 113.
Ruff in Shropshire, tom. cit. Oct., p. 137.
Oystercatchers in Shropshire, tom. cit. Dec., p. 192.
Zoology [Report]. Caradoc and S.V.l'.C. Rec. of Bare Facts. No. 3),
pp. 17-26.
Reptiles and Amphibians, tom. cit., p. 26.
Fawn and White Rat. Nat. Jan., p. 18.
Erythristic Badgers, tom. cit., p. 19; Feb., p. 76.
Fortune, R. Egg-Raiding at the Farne Islands. Country Life. Feb. 4,
pp. 144-145 ; noticed in Naturalist, Mar., p. 81.
Big Ure Trout. Nat. Feb., p. 76.
Large Yorkshire Pike, tom. cit. May, p. 148.
Early Yorkshire Cuckoo, tom. cit., p. 163.
Waxwings in Yorks, etc., tom. cit., p. 164.

WE Pp ee

pp. 198-199.
Early Records of Cuckoo, tom. cit., p. 206.
Common Tern at Harrogate in July, tom. cit. Aug., p. 299.
Unusual Nesting Sites for Sand Martins, loc. cit.
Nests of Long-tailed Field Mouse, tom. cit., p. 300.
Pheasant Nesting in Spruce Fir, tom. cit. Noy., p. 366.
Red and Fallow Deer : Lost Yorkshire Herds, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 370-371.
Vertebrate Zoology [of Filey]. Yorks Nat. Union Cire. No. 301, p. 2.
[Signed EK. W. Wade in error. ]
See E. W. Wade.
Foster, H. M. Bittern in Kast Yorks. Nat. Mar., p. 91.
Foster, Nevin H. Birds of Hillsborough. Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist. and Phil.
Soc. 1920-21, pp. 20-38.
— Hairy-armed Bat in Co. Down. Irish Nat. Mar., p. 35.
Early Swallow, tom. cit. May, p. 55.
Fourkes-Roserts, P. R. Young Guillemot. Country Life. Oct. 7, p. 451.
Fowzer, W. M. E. Quail-nesting in Hampshire. Country Life. Sept. 9,
p. 321.

VLE te EET

Fowier, W. W. Leptura sanguinolenta at Nethy Bridge, N.B. Wnt. Mo.

Mag. Sept., pp. 208-209.

Fox, H. Munro. Lunar Periodicity in Living Organisms. Sci. Progr, Oct.,
pp. 273-282.

Fox, R. H. Convolvulus Hawk Moth at Shanklin. Jield. Oct. 14, p. 590.

Fox-Witsoxy, G. Occurrence of Forficula auricularia Lin. var. forevpata Steph., —

in Surrey. Hnt. June, p. 137.
FrrepuaENDER, V. H. Kingfisher, Blue. Country Life. Aug. 26, pp. 231-234.
FrienD, Hiperic. Irish Enchytreids in the Faroes. Jrish Nat. Oct.,
pp. 112-114.
—— Annelids of Iceland and the Faroes. Nature. Sept. 9, p. 342.
Frissy, G. E. Entomological Report. Rochester Nat. No. 129, pp. 14-15.
—— Our Insect Fauna, tom. cit., pp. 21-24.
Frowawk, F. W. Vanessa antiopa in Surrey. Hnt. June, p. 136.

Wintering of the Pied Wagtail at Newsome, Yorks, tom. cit. June,

EEE

I TT PEIUELTEEETITEETD §

|
.
]

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 583

Fronawk, F. W. Destruction of Pupilio machaon Larve by Cuckoos, tom. cit.
Dec. ; pp. 280-281.
Ways of the Common Partridge. Country Life. Feb. 11, pp. 184-185.
Food of the Little Owl, tom. cit., p. 187.
Queen Wasps, tom. cit. Apr. 29, p. 584,
British Snipes, tom. cit. Sept. 23, pp. 378- aos
Rough-Legged Buzzard. VFicld. Feb. 18, p. 2:
Bat on the Wing during Frost, loc. cit.
Unusnal Abundance of Blackbirds, tom. cit. Feb. 25, p. 249.
Predominance of the Male Sex, tom. cit. Apr. & p. 469"
Scarcity of the Hooded Crow, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 590.
Pied Flycatcher in Kent, tom. cit. May 38, p. 633.
Occurrence of the Ring Ouzel in Winter, loc. cit.
Unusual Invasion of Painted Lady Butterflies, tom. cit., p. 834.
Colour Variation of the Woodcock, tom. cit. June 24, p. 882.
Barred Variety of the Rook, tom. cit., July 15, p. 80.
Limitation of Variation, tom. cit. July 22, p. 135.
Clouded Yellow in Essex, tom. cit. Aug. 19, p. 285.
Otter in Essex, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 386. Abs. in Hssex Nat. Mar. 1923,
p. 150.
Abundance of the Convolvulus Hawk Moth, tom. cit. Oct. 14, p. 590.
Pine Marten in Warwickshire, tom. cit. Dec. 16, p. 879.
Little Bittern in Cornwall and Buckinghamshire, tom. cif. Oct. 28, p. 655;
[Abs.] Brit. Birds. Feb. 1923, p. 256.
Grass-Snake and Adder, tom. cit. Dec. 2, p. 793.
Pine Marten in Warwickshire, tom. cit. Dec. 16, p. 879.
Fryer, J. C. F. New Apple Pest. Journ. Minis. Agric. Nov., pp. 748-749.
Fouiton, Joun F. Animal Chlorophyll: its relation to Hemoglobin and other
animal pigments. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. June, pp. 339-396.
Furse, J. P. W., and Bonnam, H. T. Blue-headed Wagtail in Devonshire.
Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 187.

— Great Grey Shrike in Devonshire, tom. cit. Feb., p. 216.

— Late Stay of Red-backed Shrike, loc. cit.

Gatton, Ginpert W. Late Stay of Land-Rail in Hampshire. Brit. Dirds.
Feb., p. 216.

Gamett-Botrienp, C. R. Weasel in Mole Trap. V/icld. May 6, p. 622.

Garpiner, L. Destruction of Seafowl by Petrol, tom. cit. Apr. 8, p. 469.

GARDNER, WiLLouGHBY. Osmia leucomelana Kirby, in Shropshire. Hzt. Mo.
Mag. Nov., p. 252.

Garner-Ricuarps, J. B.. Colias edusa in Lancashire. Field. July 8, p. 57.

Garrett, F. C., and Garrerr, Hinpa. Effect of a Lead Salt on Lepidopterous
Larve. Nature. Sept. 16, p. 380.

Garrett, Hinpa. See F. C. Garrett.

Garstanc, Water. ‘Vheory of Recapitulation : A Critical Re-statement of the
Biogenetic Law. Journ. Linn. Soc. Sept. 30, pp. 81-101.

— Lesser Whitethroat’s Fanfare. Nature. Sept. 2, p. 319.

Gatensy, J. Bronti. Cytoplasmic Inclusions of the Germ Cells: Part X.
The Gametogenesis of Saccocirrus. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. Mayr.,
pp. 1-48.

— Sex Change in Mollusca. Nature. Oct. 21, p. 544.

Gitpey, Aurrep. Pied Flycatcher at Byfleet. Vield. Apr. 22, p. 590.

Git, E. Leronarp. Redwings singing in England. rit. Birds. June,

. 21-22.

eee, T. H. Seals in the [Scottish] Zoological Park. Scat. Nat. Nov.,
. 203.

Se Papxeton. Light Trap experiments in connection with Temperature,
etc. Ent. Dec., pp. 274-277.

—— Aberrations of Agrotis corticea, tom. cit., p. 278.

Gitroy, Norman. Early Arrival of a Swallow. Brit. Birds. Apr., pp. 269-270.

— Pied Wagtail using Nest of House-Martin, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 104-105.

— Common Buzzard Nesting in Hampshire, tom. cit., p. 108.

— Field Notes and Observations on the Greenshank, tom. cit., pp. 129-133.

534 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Gitroy, Norman. Field Notes on the Crested Tit (Parus cristatus scoticus).
Natureland. Oct., pp. 64-66.

GimincHam, C. T. Notes ‘on some Parasites of Beetles. Ent. Mo. Mag. Oct.,
p. 226-228.

Guapstong, H. §. Indigenous Scottish Capercaillie. Brit. Birds. Apy., p. 275.

Guapstone, Hucu §. Note of the Blackcock, tom. cit. Aug., p. 92.

East Woodhay Warbler, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 145-147.

—— Abundance of Little Owl in Norfolk, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 190-191.

—— Fothergill Family as Ornithologists. Nat. May, pp. 149-152; June,

pp. 189-192.

Fox Playing with Collie. Scot. Nat. Mar., p. 36.

Gurcc, Witt1am E. Cormorants Inland in Essex. A#rit. Birds. Feb.,
pp. 213-214. ;

— New Essex Heronry, tom. cit. July, pp. 51-52.

—— Avocet in Kent and Black Guillemot in Essex, tom. cit. Dec., p. 193.

Shoveler Breeding in Buckinghamshire, tom. cit., p. 195.
Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus) and the Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in
litigation in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Lssex Nat. Mar.,
pp. 21-23.
—— Birds of the Crouch Valley in 1921, tom. cit., pp. 25-
—— Bird Notes for 1921 from Walthamstow Reservoirs, ve cit., pp. 47-48.
—— Smew in Essex, tom. cit. Apr., p. 109; Brit. Birds, June, p. 26. r
—— Black-necked Grebes in Essex. Mssex Nat. Apr., p. 109; Brit. Birds,
June, pp. 26-27. x
Gopparp, Ep. H. Marsh Warbler Nesting; Great Crested Grebe; Little Owl; *
Snowblunts ; White and Pied Birds; Great Grey Shrike; Hen-Harrier; —
Bittern; Snowy Owl; Polecat at Marston Meysey; Clouded Yellow; —
Comma. Wilts. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec., pp. 77-81. *
Gopparp, E. Katuiren. Rare [i.e. White] Woodcock in Wiltshire. Country —
Infe. Mar. 18, p. 387. :
Gopman, G. W. Early Migrants. Country Life. Apr. 1, p. 453.
Goopatt, J. M. Unusual Lining in Jay’s Nest. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 206.
Abnormal Lobsters. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 1., —
. 93.
Goopry, T. Eel-worm in Paper-hangers’ Paste [Anguillula rediviva (Linneus,
1767), Stiles and Hassall, 1905]. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. Sept.,
pp. 297-307.
GoopricH, E. S. On a new Type of Teleastean Cartilaginous Pectoral Girdle
found in young Clupeids. Journ. Linn. Soc. Feb. 16, pp. 505-509.
Gorpon, AupRey. Nesting of the Whooper Swan in Scotland. Brit. Birds.
‘Jan., pp. 170-171.
Gorpon, D. St. Leger. Wild Rabbits and their Ways. Animal World. Feb.,
. 15-16.
Gonnem CG. B. Ancient London. Museum Journal (Philadelphia). Sept., —
pp. 181-237. ,
Govutp, Monk. Woodcock Carrying Young. Vield. Aug. 19, p. 285.
G[outpine], R. W. Obituary: Rev. E. A. Woodruffe-Peacock. Nat. Apr.,—
pp. 137-139.
Govert, F. L. Visiting Birds. Country Life. Jan. 7, p. 27.
Grauam, James. Clouded Yellow Butterfly in Surrey. eld. June 24, p. 882.
Granam, Ricnarp. Tufted Duck Breeding in Cumberland. Brit. Birds. Oct., |
. 135. a
ieee W. S. Buzzards, Ravens, ie - Ae as Field. Apr. 22,7
p. 541; Abs. in Scot. Nat. , Sept., p-
Gray, C. J. v. Lepidoptera in the Hecageld “Reading) District, 1922. Ent. q
Sept., p. 212. .
Gray, H. Sr. Georcr. Ornithological Section [Report]. Proc. Somerset. Arch. —
and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXVILI., pp. |xii-lxiv. $
Gray, J. Mechanism of Ciliary Movement [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull],

p- 26. ; -
—— Surface Tension and Cell-Division. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. June,
pp. 235-245. r

ym
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LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 985

Gray, J. Critical Study of the Facts of Artificial Fertilisation and Normal
Fertilisation, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 419-437.

GREATOREX, Cuirrorp W. Mustela, the Weasel. Animal World. Oct.,

pp. 114-115.

Carnivorous Hedgehog. Country Life. May 20, p. 684.

Abundance of Swallows, tom cit. June 24, p. 871.

Black Rat, tom. cit. Sept. 16, p. 354.

Voracious Heron, tom. cit. Oct. 28, p. 556.

Green, W. P. Hobby Hawk, tom. cit. Apr. 15, p. 517.

— Spotted Flycatcher and its Nest, tom. cit. May 6, p. 618.

— Pheasant’s Nest in Squirrel’s Drey, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 321.

— In the Haunts of the Hobby. Field. Apr. 22, pp. 546-547.

GREENLY, Epwarp. Aeolian Pleistocene Deposit at Clevedon. Geol. Mag.
Aug., pp. 365-376 ; Sept., pp. 414-421.

Greer, THomas. Lepidoptera in East Tyrone, 1922. Hnt. Novy., pp. 258-259.

— Abundance of Huchloé cardamines in East Tyrone, 1922; a record in
Gynandromorphs. nt. Rec. Oct., pp. 183-184.

— Gynandromorphs of Huchloé cardamines in East Tyrone. Jrish Nat.
Dec., p. 139.

Grenstep, L. W. Some Notes on the Mollusca of the Sandhills about the
Mouth of the River Alt. Lancs and C. Nat. Jan., pp. 167-172.

— Pisidvum hibernicum (Westerlund) at Chorley, with Notes on other
Mollusca, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 129-130.

GrirritHs, G. C. Vanessa antiopa in Gloucestershire. Hunt. May, p. 111.

Grist, C. J. Friendly Stoat. Vield. Oct. 7, p. 536.

—— Pine Marten in the Midlands, tom. cit. Oct. 21, p. 624.

— Pine Marten in Warwickshire, tom. cit. Dee. 9, p. 839.

Grist, W. R. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Exhibition at the British Association.
Nat. Novy., pp. 360-364.

Grosvenor, T. H. Ts Colias croceus in Surrey. Hnt. July, p. 162.

GuNN, Donaup. Gadwall in Kensington Gardens. ield. sie LOS Gace

Gunn, F. Ernest. Lesser Grey Shrike in Norfolk. Brit. Birds. Nov. , Bp. Lol:

Gunn, T. E. Lesser Grey Shrike in Norfolk. Field. Oct. 14, p. 590.

Gurney, J. H. Ornithological Notes from Norfolk for 1921 : Twenty-eighth
Annual Report. Brit. Birds. May, pp. 278-292.

— Supposed Pheasant x Black Grouse Hybrid in Norfolk, tom. cit. July,
p. 60; Aug., p. 90.

— On the Sense of Smell “possessed by Birds. Jbis. Apr., pp. 225-253 ;
Abs. in Nature, June 17, p. 784; Natureland, July, pp. 57-59.

Gurney, J. L. Hooded Crow. Field. May 6, p. 622. :

Happen, Norman G. Black Redstart in Somerset. Brit. Birds. May, p. 297.

Haicu, Cuarites. Hedgehogs and Woodpigeons. Country Life. June 10, p. 800.

Hatnes, F. H. Pieris rape. L., in December. Hnt. Jan., p.-17.

—— Sympetrum scoticum, Don., in Dorset, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 39-40.

— Neuroptera in Dorset, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 84-85.

— Trichoptera in Dorset, tom. cit. May, pp. 104-108.

Harsert, J. N. Magdalis carbonaria and other insects at Powerscourt. Jrish
Nat. Jan., pp. 8-10.

— Calocoris striatus at’ Woodenbridge, Co. Wicklow, tom. cit. Mar.,

pp. 32-33.

Hatz, James R. Acanthocinus cedilis Linn., in Inverness-shire. Hnt. Mo. Mag.
Dec., p. 276.

Hatt, Gzorcer. Sea Fisheries, with special reference to the Herring [Abs.].
Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Aull], pp- 28-29.

Hauterr, H. M. Entomological Notes. Yvrans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. Vol. UII.,

53-54.

Hamm, baa Thrush and its Anvil. Country Life. Mar. 4, p. 322.

— Celerio lineata F. (Deilephila livornica Esp.) at Oxford. Ent. Mo. Mag.
July, p. 163.

— Bees and Snail Shells. Selborne Mag. Feb., pp. 138-139.

Hammonp, Joun J. Hobby in January. Field. Jan. 28, p. 131.

5386 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Hamonp, C. E. Spotted Redshank in Essex. Brit. Birds, Jan., p. 190; Lssex
Nat., Apr., p. 109.

—— Early Appearance of Glaucous Gull in Suffolk, tom. cit. Feb., p. 214.

Hankin, E. H. Soaring Flight of Dragonflies. Proc. Cam. Phil. Soc.
Vol. XX., pp. 460-465; Abs. in Sci. Progr., Oct., p. 229.

Harcourt, Witu1aM. Clouded Yellow in Cornwall and Devon. Field. Aug. 19,
p. 285.

Harpcastir, F. R. Catalogue of Local Reptilia and Amphibia. Trans. Hast-
bourne Nat. Hist. etc. Soc. Feb., p. 202.

— British Reptiles [Abs.], tom. cit. May, p. 211.

Harpcastte, H. M. Waxwings near Uppingham. Vield. Jan. 7, p. 26.

Harpinc, J. Rupce. Bird Life in Kensington Gardens, tom. cit. May 13,

p. 658.

— Birds in the London Parks, tom. cit. July 22, p. 135.

—— Almost White Grebe, tom. cit. Dec. 23, p. 930.

— Birds of London. Nineteenth Century. Jan., pp. 82-92.

— London Birds in 1921. Selborne Mag. Feb., pp. 142-144.

Harps, C. H. Aricia medon ab. albiannulata, Harr. Ent. Nov., p. 260.

Harrorp, J. C. Hoopoe in Cardiganshire and Denbighshire. Field. June 3,
p-. 766; Abs. in Brit. Birds, Feb. 1923, pp. 255-256.

Harmer, Sipney F. Experiments on the Fading of Museum Specimens.
Museum Journ. Apr., pp. 205-222. See Nat., May, pp. 147-148.

Harriss, Hy. Miraculous Draught of Fishes. Nature. Nov. 18, pp. 666.

Harris, G. T. Mimicry among Birds, tom. cit. July 29, pp. 161-162.

Harris, J. Thrush’s Nest on the Ground. Field. May 6, p. 622.

Harrison, AtHour. Bird Life of Dublin City. Jrish Nat. Apr., pp. 37-41.

Harrison, D. Percy. Late Cuckoo in Wiltshire. Brit. Birds. Feb., pp. 210-211.

—— Predominance of the Male Sex. Feld. Apr. 8, p. 469.

— Clouded Yellow in Wiltshire, tom. cit. Oct. 7, p. 539.

Harrison, J. W. Hestor. See Richard S. Bagnall.

Harrison, W. Buzzards in Argylishire.. Field. Apr. 1, p. 450.

Harriry, THomas. Mortality of Sea Fowl during a Gale, tom. cit. Mar. 11,
p. 344.

Harr-Smitru, H. M. Nutcracker at Southwold, tom. cit. Nov. 4, p. 684.

Harwoop, P. Pterostichus angustatus Dufts. and Anchomenus quadri-
punctatus De G., etc., in Kent. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Nov., p. 249.

Havitanp, Maup D. On the Post-Embryonic Development of certain Chalcids,
Hyperparasites of Aphides. Quart, Journ. Micro. Soc. June,
pp. 321-338.

Hawtey, W. Second Report on the Excavations at Stonehenge. Antig. Journ. —
Jan., pp. 36-52.

Haywarp, A. R. Phryxus livornica Larva in Somerset. Hnt. Sept., p. 211.

Haywarp, G. H. Smmpson. Record Capture of Blues, loc. cit.

Haywarp, H. C. Sphinx convolvuli in Derbyshire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 188. |

—— Lepidoptera at Lowestoft in August, tom. cit. Nov., p. 258.

—— Melanic Hupithecia trisignaria, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 278-279.

Haywarp, KennetH. Danais chrysippus L., ab. candidata, Hayward, tom. cit.
Sept., p. 212.

Haywarp, K. J. C. croceus in Somerset in May, July, and August, tom. cit.
Sept., p. 210.

Heatucotr, W. H. Note on tardy emergence of the Small Eggar Moth. Lancs

and C. Nat. May, p. 275.

Wren assisting to Rear Young Tits, tom. cit. Aug., p. 23.

Unusual Nest of the Spotted Flycatcher, tom. cit., p. 41. 3

Unusual Behaviour of Stoats, loc. cit. 4

Little Auk near Preston, tom. cit. Dec., p. 127. :

Kingfisher v. Duck, tom. cit., p. 141. : ;

Hepczs, Aurrep V. Some Lepidopterous Notes for South Dorset of Unusual
Habits, Erratic Dates, and Occurrences for 1921. Hnt. Apr., pp. 86-88. —

Hernemann, ARTHUR. Weight of Otters. Field. Oct. 21, p. 624. :

Henpy, E. W. Bewick’s Swan in Cheshire. #7it. Birds. Feb., p. 212.

Baan

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|

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 587

HerpMan, E. Catryerine. Notes on Dinotlagellates and other organisms causing
discoloration of the sand at Port Erin. IJ. (1921). Vrans. Liverp. Biol.
Soc. Vol. XXXVI., pp. 15-30.

Herpman, Wittiam A. Charles Kingsley and the Chester Naturalists. Chester
Soc. Nat. Sci. Fifty-first Ann. Rep., pp. 14-21.

— Spolia runiana: Summary of Results of Continuous Investigation of the
Plankton of the Irish Sea during Fifteen Years. Journ. Linn. Soc.
Sept. 30, pp. 141-170; abs. in Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc., Deec., pp. 418-
419; and Nature, Mar. 31, 1923, p. 448.

Herrorp, G. V. B. Zoological Section. Ann. Rep. Gresham's School Nat.
Hist. Soc., 1922, pp. 5-7.

Heron-Auten, E., and A. Earuanp. Foraminifera from the Eocene Clay of
Nigeria [compared with British]. Geol. Survey of Nigeria. Bull. No. 3,
pp. 138-148.

Hestop, J. R. P. Clouded Yellow in Gloucestershire. Vie/d. Sept. 16, p. 405.

Hewar, J. G. Clouded Yellow Butterfly in Berks, tom. cit. June 24, p. 882.

Hewat, J. GRAyHuRsT. Clouded Yellow in Berks, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 387.

Hick, J. M. Starling Capturing Pipistrelle Bat, tom. cit. June 17, p. 834.

Hitts, Atrrep. Ring-Ousel at Bocking. Hssex Nat. Mar., p. 47.

— Badgers at Bocking, tom. cit. Apr., p. 109.

Hincaurrr, —. Colias croceus in Devonshire. Hut. July, p. 162.

Hinp, F. See A. Smith.

Hinton, Martin A. C. Note on the remains of small mammals obtained from
Aveline’s Hole, Burrington Combe, Somerset. Proc. Spelaol. Soc.
Univ. of Bristol, 1920-1, pp. 74-78.

Hirst, Stantey. Mites Injurious to Domestic Animals (with an appendix on
the acarine disease of Hive Bees). British Musewm. Economic Ser.,
No. 13, 107 pp.

— On some new Parasitic Mites. Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan., pp. 769-802.

Hoszgs, A. Epwarp. Pigeons Alighting on Water. Vield. June 10, p. 778.

Hogson, A.D. See L. H. Matthews.

Hopeson, S. B. Notes on Butterflies from the Bucks Chilterns. nt. Jan.,
pp. 21-22.

—— Notes on Lepidoptera from the New Forest and Swanage, 1922, tom. cit.
Sept., pp. 211-212.

— Notes on Lepidoptera from the Chiltern Hills, etc., 1922, tom. cit. Nov.,
p. 259.

Honeson, T. V. See G. A. Rowse.

Hopson, Wm. E. H. Uncommon Ant. Hnt. Dec., pp. 281-282.

Houteyman, B. J. P. daplidice at Brighton. Hnt. Aug., p. 188.

Hous, W. Arion ater (L.) var. albolateralis, Roebuck, in Northamptonshire.
Journ. Northants Nat. Hist. Soc. Sept., p. 196.

Houmes, Arruur. ‘Over-educated’ Trout. Wield. Jan. 7, pp. 5-6.

— Vision of Trout, tom. cit. Sept. 16, p. 410.

—— Reported Appearance of the Red-breasted Snipe in Wiltshire, tom. cit.
Oct. 7, p. 539.

— Red-breasted Snipe, tom. cit. Oct. 21, p. 624.

Hoursy, THomas. Turtle Dove’s Nest of Wire. Field. Sept. 9, p. 387.

_ Horz, L. E. Waxwings in Cumberland. rit. Birds. Jan., pp. 187-188.

— Bewick’s Swans in Cumberland, tom. cit., p. 189.

Horr-Simpson, J. B., and A. L. Hurcninson. Entomological Section. Ann.
Rep. Gresham’s School Nat. Hist. Soc., 1922, pp. 8-10.

Horwoop, Artuur T. On Thread Spinning in Vivipara contecta Millet. Lanes
and C. Nat. Dec., p. 142.

Horn, Percy W. Pied Blackbird at Romford. Hssex Nat. Mar., pp. 45-46.

— Pond Collecting. Natureland. Jan., pp. 8-11.

—— Black Rat, tom. cit. Apr., p. 33.

— Mystery Fish, tom. cit., p. 36.

Horne, Eruensert. Nest of a Green Woodpecker. Country Life. Oct. 21,

- 520.

earn, A. Ganpourt. Age and Growth of some Eels from a small Wor-
cestershire Pond. Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. Mar., pp. 9-26.

Horssrvcn, C. B. Turtle Dove’s Nest of Wire. Field. Oct. 7, p. 539.

538 CORRESPONDING SOCIBTIES.

Horsraut, M. A. Waxwings in Yorks, etc. Nat. May, pp. 163-164; Abs. in
Brit. Birds, Sept., p. 114.

Horsman, E. See R. D. Laurie.

Horwoop, A. R. Snipe and Woodcock. Sphere. Feb. 11, p. 152.

Houston, ALEXANDER C. Progress in Water Purification. Water. Dec. 20,
pp. 445-450.

Howarp, A. H. Grey Wagtail asa Songster. Field. May 27, p. 729.

Howarp, J. O. J. Clouded Yellow var. helice in Devonshire, tom. cit. Oct. 28,
p. 655.

[Hoyrz, W. E.]. Fifteenth Annual Report of the National Museum of Wales,
Cardiff. 35 pp.

Hucerns, H. C. H. hortensis var. arenicola, near Sittingbourne. Journ.
Conch. Jan., p. 267.

— South Devon Race of Hygromia limbata (Drap.), tom. cit. June,
pp. 297-301.

Houmpureys, Gro. R. Former Breeding of the Osprey in Ireland. Bvyit. Birds.
Mar., p. 243.

Hunt, C. W. Curious Accident to a Cuckoo. Field. June 17, p. 834.

Hunt, Hotpswortn. Robin Appropriating Wagtail’s Nest, tom. cit. May 20,
p- 692.

Hunter, Douctas G. New Heronry in Forfarshire. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 8. f

— Hobby in Forfarshire, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 49-50; Abs. in Brit. Birds,

Sept., p. 114.
— Osprey in Forfarshire, tom. cit., p. 50.
Hunter, Joun L. Hornet Attacking Bees. Vield. Sept. 9, p. 387. 4

Hunter, §. Shot Snipe carried off by Hawk, tom. cit. Oct. 7, p. 539. :

Hourrett, H.G. White Egg of the Peregrine Falcon, tom. cit. May 13, p. 658. —

Hussett, H. G. Bold Weasel, tom. cit. Oct. 28, p. 655

Houtcuinson, A. L. See J. B. Hope-Simpson. ‘

Hurcutnson, D. H. Life-History of the Hedgerow Spider. Country Life.
Jan. 7, pp. 11-14.

Hourcuinson, G. E. Localities for Notonecta halophila J. Edw. Hnt. Mo. Mag. .
Nov., p. 255.

Horton, Epwarp. Fish and Fishing. Sphere. Aug. 5, p. 148. 4

Houxtsry, Junin S. Sex and its Determination. Discovery. Aug., pp. 199-—
202; Sept., 237-241. é

— Secondary Sexual Characteristics, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 334-335.

— — Time-Relations in Amphibian Metamorphosis [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. i
[Hull], p. 31. a

Imus, A. D. Note on Swarms of Chloropisca circumdata Mg. (=ornata Loew, —
nec Mg.). Hnt. Mo. Mag. Jan., p. 20. {

— On the Occurrence of Bombus cullumanus (Kirby) Ill. in Britain, tom. —
cit. Feb., pp. 26-27.

— Colias croceus (edusa) in Hertfordshire, tom. cit. Oct., p. 231.

IncRram, Cottrincwoop. British Hoatzin. Country Life. June 3, pp. 767-768;
July 15, p. 64. t

IncRam, Grorrrry C. 8. Albinistic Gulls and Ivory Gulls. Brit. Birds. Mar.,
p. 244.

—- Geathslore and Photography. Country Life. Dec. 2, pp. 709-711.

and H. Morrry Satmon. Uncommon Birds in Glamorganshire. Brit.

Birds. Feb., pp. 205-206; July, pp. 52-53.

—, —— Shoveler and Tufted Duck Breeding in Glamorganshire, tom. cit. —
Aug., pp. 84-85.

a Ornithological Notes. Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. Vol. LIL, |
pp. 50-52. x

Incrams, W. S. Entomology [Report]. Caradoc and S.V.F.C. Rec. of Bare
Facts. No. 31, p. 27-29. 7

Tsaac, P. V. Turnip Gall Weevil. Journ. Min. Agric. Mar., pp. 1130-1132.

Jackson, A. Ce Lepidoptera in South Lancashire. Lancs and C. Nat.
Mar., 214. :

JACKSON, Dekoney J. Genus Sitones and its Importance in Agriculture. Rep. —
Brit. Assoc. [Edinburgh], pp. 462-464.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 539

Jackson, Donoruy J. Notes on Aphides from Sutherland. Scot. Nat. Mar.,
pp. 51-59; May, pp. 85-92.

Jackson, Harotp Gorpon. Revision of the Isopod Genus ZLigia (Fabricius).
Proc. Zool. Soc. Sept., pp. 683-703.

Jackson, J. WitFRIp. On the Tufaceous Deposits of Caerwys, Flintshire, and
the Mollusca contained therein. Lancs and C. Nat. Jan., pp. 147-158.

— Clausilia bidentata, tom. cit., p. 172.

—— Objects of Caves, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 81-83.

Jackson, Rosz. Hooded Crow. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 1.,
pt. I1., p. 93.

Jacoss, J. J. . Colias croceus, etc., in Sussex. Wnt. Sept., p. 210.

Jacoss, Stanuey N. A. Aberrations of Colias croceus and Agrotis exclamationis,

tom. cit. Nov., pp. 259,260.

James, Dennis. Quails in Huntingdonshire. Field. Oct. 7, p. 539.

JamzES, Russett E. Whitsuntide in the Midlands. Wnt. Rec. July, pp. 122-124.

— New Forest in the rain, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 170-175.

Jaques, J. M. Deiopeia pulchella bred from §. Devon larva. Ent. June,
p. 137.

— Pyrameis atalanta in December, tom. cit. Feb., p. 38.

Jarman, C. C. D_ Clouded Yellow in Somerset. Field. Sept. 23, p. 443.

Jerrery, ARTHUR H. Brood of Wild Ducks in December, tom. cit. Jan. 14,
p. 66.

JEFFERY, H. G. Coleoptera. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. II.,
pt. 11., pp. 70-80.

— Blister Beetle or Spanish Fly, Lytta vesicatoria, tom. cit., p. 96.

Jenkins, J. Travis. Modern Whaling. Discovery. Feb., pp. 50-52.

JENKINSON, Francis. [Obituary : Albert Brydges Farn.] Wnt. Mo. Mag. Jan.,
pp. 20-22.

JenNER, Brat F. A. Male Smew in Glamorganshire. Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.

JENNER, Birt St. A. Local Absence of Sparrows, tom. cit. June 10, p. 778.

Jounson, Ernest EK. Clouded Yellow in Surrey, tom. cit. Aug. 19, p. 285.

— Ciouded Yellow in Hampshire, tom. cit. Sept. 23, p. 443.

Jounson, J. W. H. Yorkshire Micro-Biology Committee. Nat. Feb., p. 77.

Jounson, W. F. Insects at Carlingford, Co. Louth. Jrish Nat. Feb.,
pp. 13-15.

- — Humming-bird Hawk-Moth in December, tom. cit. May, p. 54.

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i
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|

— Corncrake in December, tom. cit., p. 56.
—— Diptera and Hymenoptera at Poyntzpass in 1921, tom. cit. June, pp. 66-70.

_ JouNston, Rosert. Common Bittern in Berwickshire. Scot. Nat. Mar., p. 49.

Jounstronr, E. G. Hops. Late Nesting of Little Grebe. Brit. Birds. Jan.,
pp. 189-190.

— Black-necked Grebes in Co. Dublin, fom. cif. Apr., p. 272.

JOHNSTONE, JAMES. Marine Biological Station at Port Erin, being the Thirty-
fifth Annual Report. Trans. Liverp. Biol. Soc. Vol. XXXVI.,
pp. 31-64.

— Report on the Investigations carried on in 1921 in connection with the
Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool,
and the Sea Fish Hatchery at Piel, near Barrow, tom. cit., pp. 65-301.

— Diseases and Parasites of Fishes, tom. cit., pp. 286-301.

— Brrrwisttz, W., and Smirx, W. C. Plaice Fisheries of the Irish Sea,
tom. cit., pp. 101-243.

Jounstone, J. Forsytu. Curlew’s Nest with Seven Eggs. Field. June 24,

. 882.

JONES, id H. Herse convolvuli and Colias croceus at Wadhurst, Essex. Lnt.
Nov., p. 255.

Jones, Hucu. Some Notes on the Habits of ¢ Tabanide, tom. cit. Feb.,
pp. 40-42.

Jonzs, Ricuarp W. Richard’s Pipit in Carnarvonshire. Brit. Birds. Feb.,
p. 207.

Jonzs, W. Lavery. Measurements of Adder. Field. Oct. 28, p. 655.

- Jourpaiy, F. C. R. Abnormal Clutch of Kestrel’s Eggs. Brit. Birds. Jan.,

p. 188. } ‘
— Rough-legged Buzzard in Oxfords! ire, tom. cit. Feb., p. 211.

Or
o

4 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Jourpain, F. C. R. Hen-Harriers in Oxfordshire, loc cit.
Albinistic Gulls and Ivory-Gulls, tom. cit., pp. 214-215.
Red-necked Grebe in Oxfordshire, tom. cit. Apr., p. 271.
Red-necked and Slavonian Grebes in Derbyshire, tom. cit., pp. 271-272.
Some Breeding-habits of the Common Wren, tom. cit. May, p. 294. .
Large Sets of Rooks’ Eggs in Essex and Berkshire, tom. cit. June, p. 19.
[Obituary : William Davies], tom. cit., p. 28.
Large Clutches of Greenfinch and Hedgesparrow, tom. cit. Sept., p. 102.
Breeding of Common Sandpiper in Oxfordshire [Correction], tom. cit.,
p. 111.
Large Clutch of Oystercatcher’s Eggs, tom. cit. Oct., p. 187.
Cuckoo laying in Willow-Warbler’s Nest, tom. cit. Nov., p. 165.
Earliest Breeding Dates of Wigeon, Shoveler, and other Ducks in Scotland.
Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 15-16.
Norman H. Late Stay of Yellow Wagtail. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 216.
Velocity of Flight among Birds, tom. cit. June, p. 31.
Unusual Tameness of Brooding Blackbird, tom. cit. July, p. 49.
Shovelers Breeding and Occurrence of Black-winged Stilts and other
unusual birds in Berkshire, tom. cit., pp. 53-54.
Autumn Emigration at Selsey Bill, tom. cit. Oct., p. 134.
Birds of Lundy, tom. cit. Dec., p. 188.
Katmsacn, E. R. Food of the Starling in Great Britain and America. Auk,
pp. 189-195; [Abs.] Brit. Birds, Dec., p. 194.
Kayr, W. J. Lepidoptera of the Smaller Channel Islands. nt. Rec. Oct.,
pp. 175-176.
Kenpaut, C. E. Y. Mollusca of Oundle. Journ. Conch. Jan., pp. 248-251.
Kenpatt, P. F. Geological History of the North Sea Basin [Abs.]. Journ.
Brit. Assoc. [Hull], pp. 20-21.
Kennarp, A. 8., and Woopwarp. B. B. Post-Pliocene Non-Marine Mollusca
of the East of England. Proc. Geol. Soc. Vol. XXXIII., pp. 104-142 ;
Abs. in Revue de Géologie, July, p. 406.
Kerr, Heten M. Ratr. Waxwings in Great Britain. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 208.
Kerry. King’s Bowood Park. No. III. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag.
Dec., pp. 18-38.
Keys, J. H. Coleoptera at the Lizard, Cornwall, in 1920 and 1921. Znt. Mo.
Mag. Feb., pp. 35-37.
KinuIncton, Frepk. J. Entomological Society of Hampshire and the Isle of
Wight [Report]. Hnt. Rec. Jan., pp. 18-19.
Kine, C. J. Week with the Stonechat. Country Life. Mar. 18, pp. 382-383.
—— American Yellow-billed Cuckoo at Scilly Isles. Field. Jan. 21, p. 100.
Kine, Epwarp. Little Owl. Country Life. Mar. 4, pp. 321-322.
Kine, E. Botron. Lepidoptera of the Smaller Channel Islands. Hnt. Rec.
Dec., p. 217.
Kine, J. J. F. X. Leptura sanguinolenta at Nethy Bridge, N.B. Ent. Mo.
Mag. Oct., p. 230.
Kinc, Wm. Entomology and Microscopy. Viftieth Ann. Rep. Peterborough
Nat. Hist. &c. Soc., pp. 8-9.
— Preliminary List of Local Diptera, tom. cit., pp. 10-12.
Kirkpatrick, R. Ourameba. Nature. July 8, p. 40.
Krycrer, J. P. See B. N. Blood.
Lainc, F. Rhinocola eucalypti, Mask., in England. Fut. Mo. Mag. June,
p. 141.
Three Species of Aphids new to Britain, tom. cit. July, p. 164.
Chetocnema sp. injuring Wheat, tom. cit. Aug., p. 191.
Eastern Species of Galleriadce imported into Britain, loc. cit.
Phyllozera salicis Ticht., a species of Aphid new to Britain, Joc. cit.
Synonymical Note on Orthezia menariensis, Dougl. (Coccidee), tom. cit.
Nov., pp. 254-255.
Aleyrodide : Correction of Generic Nomenclature, tom. cit., p. 255.
Lams, C. G. Dolichopid Fly Swarming in Houses. Wnt. Mo. Mag. May,
pp. 109-110.
—— Geometry of Insect Pairing. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. Vol. 94, No.
B. 656, pp. 1-11.

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LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 541

Laminc, Percy. Decrease of Trout. Field. July 8, p. 56.

Lamont, Aucusta. On the Development of the Feathers of the Duck during the
Incubation Period. Z'rans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. July 4, pp. 231-240.

Lancum, F. Howarp. Psithyrus distinctus in Kent. Ent. July, p. 166.
Abs. in Nature. Mar. 3, p. 309.

Lancrorp, F. Third Report on Read’s Cavern [Keltic Cavern]. Proc. Spelcol.
Soc. Bristol. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 135-143.

LANGHAM, CHARLES. Gonia fasciata in Fermanagh. Jrish Nat. May., p. 32.

Some Forms of Peiris napi taken in County Fermanagh, tom. cit. Apr.,

pp. 42-45. ;

Lanewortuy, C. D. Migration Instinct in Birds. Nature. June 10, p. 756.

Lapace, G. Ourameeba, tom. cit. July 22, p. 114.

Lart, J. F. V. Black Tern in Cornwall. Brit. Birds. June, p. 27.

Laurin, R. D., Horsman, E., and Warxin, E. E. Fauna of Cardigan Bay, off
Aberystwyth [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 28.

Lawrence, A. T. Rare Bird [Great Crested Grebe] in Hampshire. Country
Life. July 1, p. 901.

Lawson, A. K. Helix hortensis on Thrush Stones. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 264.

Lezsour, Marie V. Food of Plankton Organisms. Journ, Marine Biol. Assoc.
Oct., pp. 644-677.

— Plymouth Peridians, tom. cit., pp. 795-818.

-—— and Exmuirst, Ricwarp. Contribution towards the Life-history of
Parorchis acanthus Nicoll, a Trematode in the Herring Gull, tom. cit.
Oct., pp. 829-832.

Leengey, Harnoup. Absence of Sparrows. Feld. May 6, p. 622.

LeicH, R. K. Dance of Partridges, tom. cit. Jan. 14, p. 66.

LercH-SHarre, W. Haroup. Curious Case of a Hermaphrodite Frog. Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. July, pp. 111-113.

Leman, G. B. C. Hippodamia variegata, Goeze. Ent. Rec. Feb., pp. 23-26.

— AHippodamia variegata Goeze: Description of-some further new aberra-
tions and observations on ab. 3-punctata Haw., and ab. 9-punctata
Haw., tom. cit. June, pp. 101-105.

Leman, 8. C. Staphylinid Beetle attacked by an Ant, tom. cit. July, p. 142.

Lescnauias, J. H. P. Great Spotted Woodpeckers Nesting in Argyllshire and
Perthshire. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 274.

Lewis, H. Masset. See W. Birtwistle.

Lim, Roserr K. 8. Gastric Microsa. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. June,
pp. 187-212.

Liescoms, C. G. Convolvulus Hawk-Moth in Wales. Field. Sept. 23, p. 443.

Lirttewoop, Frank. Attractiveness of Electric Light for Moths. “nt. Apr.,
p. 90.

— Retarded Emergence of Mesoleuca albicillata, tom. cit. Nov., p. 260.

Luoyp, Brrrram. Aberrant Song of the Chiffchaff. Brit. Birds. Nov., p. 161.

Greater Spotted Woodpecker in English Poetry, tom. cit., pp. 171-172.

Luoyp, F. Freeman. Hoopoe. Shooting J'imes. Mar. 4, pp. 18-19.

LopeR, GERALD. White Red-Deer. Field. Mar. 18, p. 357.

LorwEntTuHAL, Joan Eusa. Hares in the City of Belfast. Jrish Nat. July, p. 84.

Lorrnuovse, T. Asuton. Leptogramma literana in Yorkshire. Ent. Mar., p. 65.

— Waxwings in Yorks, etc. Nat. May, p. 164.

Lone, 8. H. Fulmar Petrel Breeding in Yorkshire. Brit. Birds. Aug., pp. 85-
86.

Lonestarr, M. Jane. Notes on the Non-Marine Mollusca of Mortehoe, No. 4.
Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 252.

Low, G. E. Fox Moth Larva. WNatureland. Apr., pp. 36-37.

Lowe, Percy R. On the Significance of certain Characters in some Charadriine
genera, with a Provisional Classification of the Order Charadriiformes.
Ibis. July, pp. 475-495.

Lownoves, A. G. Pigeon Tick. Nature. Sept. 16, p. 380.

Lowruer, —. Percnoptilota fluviata and other Captures in Westmorland. Zant.
June, pp. 136-137.

— Percnoptilota fieviata in Lancashire and Westmorland, tom, cit. Nov.,
p. 257.

542 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

LowrTuHer, R. Scarcity of Spilosoma lubricipeda, etc., tom. cit. Dec., p. 279.

LowrTHER, RicHarp C. Collecting by Powerful Lights, etc., tom. cit. Mar.,
pp. 63-64,

Loyp, Lewis R. W. Peregrine Falcons in London. B7it. Birds. Apr., p. 270.

—— Observations on the Birds of Lundy, May and June, tom. cit. Nov.,
pp. 148-159.

— — Mystery Fish. Natureland. Apr., pp. 35-36.

Lucas, W. J. Notes on British Odonata in 1920. Hnt. Jan., pp. 4-10.

— Notes on British Neuroptera in 1921, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 57-58.

—— Hemerobius stigma Steph. (Neuroptera), tom. cit., p. ” 67.

— Boreus hyemalis Linn. (Neuroptera), tom. cit. Apr., p. 91.

—— Notes on British Odonata in 1921, tom. cit. June, pp. 125-127; July,
pp. 152-154.

— Notes from Brockenhurst, tom. cit., p. 136.

—— Notes on British Orthoptera in 1921, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 200-203.

— Oolour-preservation in Dragon- Flies, tom. cit., pp. 209-210.

—— Cheshire Records of Odonata for 1921. Lancs and (. Nat. May, p. 274.

LupForpD, REGINALD JAmeEs. Behaviour of the Golgi Bodies during Nuclear Divi-
sion, with Special Reference to Amitosis in Dytiscus marginalis. (Quart.
Journ. Micro. Soc. Mar., pp. 151-158.

— Morphology and Physiology of the Nucleolus, tom. cit. June, pp. 113-150.

Zoology [Report]. Sci. Progr. Apr., pp. 569-577; Oct., pp. 221-227.

Lyi, G. T. Henri Fabre and the Microgaster. Hnt. Dec., p. 281.

Hymenoptera and Aphides. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Dec., pp. 276-277.

MacBripsz, E. W. Note on Mr. Hiroshi Ohshima’s Paper on ‘ The Occurrence
of Situs inversus among Artificially Reared Echinoid Larve.’ Quart.
Journ. Micro. Soc. May., pp. 149-150.

M‘Conacutz, Wiuitam. Raven in the Lammermoors. Proc. Berwickshire Nat.
Club. Vol. XXIV., pt. Iv., pp. 451-470; and Scot. Nat., Nov., pp. 191-
192.

— Bird Notes from the Highlands. Scot. Nat. July, p. 100. [Abs.] Brit.
Birds. Dec., pp. 194-195.

Macponatp, Atrx. Heronries in Dee Area, tom. cit. Jan., p. 8.

Mace, Hereert. Clouded Yellow in Essex. Field. Sept. 16, hie 405.

— Convolvulus Hawk-Moth in Essex, tom. cit. Sept. 23, p. 443.

— Butterfly as traveller. Nineteenth Century. Dec., pp. oT. 985.

— Evolution of the Caterpillar. Sci. Progr. Apr., pp. 619-629.

M‘Innes, A., and Brown, A. Lawriz. Report of the ‘Council for 1920. Ann.
Rep. Scot. Marine Biol. Assoc., pp. 5-12.

McInrosu, W. C. Monograph of the British Marine Annelids. Ray Soc.
Vol. 4, pt. 1. Polycheta-Hermillide to Sabellide, 250 pp.

Marine Laboratory, St. Andrews. No. XLIV. On
New and Rare Polychxta, Gephyrea, etc., from various Regions. Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist. Jan., pp. 1-30.

Macintyre, Ducatp. Gulls and Air Pockets. Field. Feb. 18, p. 235,

—— Migratory Wild Geese in Kintyre, tom. cit. Feb. 25, p. 249.

— Weasel Captured by Kestrel, tom. cit. Apr. 1, p. 431.

—— Stoat’s manner of Hunting, loc. cit.

— Pheasants Laying in Grouse Nests, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 547.

—— Otter and her Cubs at Sea, tom. cit. June 3, p. 766.

—— Ger Falcon in Kintyre, tom. cit. Dec. 9, p. 839.

Mackenziz, A. F. Increase of Bullfinches in Ross-shire, tom. cit. May 13,
p. 658,

Mackenzit, W. D. Plovers’ Hggs, tom. cit. June 24, p. 882.

Macracuuan,,N. Grey Wagtail as a Songster, tom. cit. May 6, p. 622.

McLean and Wormatp. Blue-winged Teal, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 547.

McMorricu, J. Puayrarr. Note on the Systematic Position and Distribution
of the Actinian Sagartia lucic. Prec. Zool. Soc. Jan., pp. 729-739.

Macnas, Joun A. Burbot Caught in Forfarshire. VField. Jan. 7, p. 7.

McNiven, C. F. Tame Badger. Country Life. Jan. 7, p. 28.

Macrexerson, A. Houte. Notes on London Birds in 1921. Selhorne Mag. Feb.,
pp. 140-142.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 543

Macpumrson, JoHN. Scotch Wild Cats. Field. July 22, p. 35.

Macraceart, M. Heliothis armigera in Kent. Hnt. Aug., p. 188.

Macraru, H. A. F. Failure of the Malahide, Co. Dublin, Tern Colony. Brit.
Birds. Nov., pp. 168-170.

Main, F. KR. See R. H. Bristowe.

Main, Hucu. Notes on the Occurrence of the British Trapdoor Spider, Atypus
affinis, in Epping Forest. Mssex Nat. Mar., pp. 23-25

Maxerc-Jonres, J. Measurements of Viper. Wield. Aug. 26, p. 323.

Maxertc-Jones, W. Measurements of Adder, tom. cit. Nov. 18, p. 729.

Maupen, P. Colias croceus in 8. Shropshire. Hnt. Aug., p. 187.

Mattock, A. Metallic Coloration of Chrysalids. Nature. Sept. 9, p. 344.

—— Divided Composite Eyes, tom. cit. Dec. 9, pp. 770-771.

Manssrivcr, Wma. Lancashire and Cheshire Entomological Society [Report].
Lancs and C. Nat. Jan., pp. 191-192. Hnt. Feb., pp. 42-43.

— Blastobasis lignea Wlsm. (Lep.) : A Species new to Britain. Hnt. July,
pp. 145-147.

— Report of the Recorder for Lepidoptera in Lancashire and Cheshire for
1920 and 1921. Lancs and C. Nat. Mar., pp. 216-221.

— lLancashire and Cheshire Entomology. Nat. Jan., pp. 19-20; Feb., p. 77.

Mapteton-Bree, H. W. Wood-Lark at Night. Brit. Birds. Dec., pp. 195-196.

Marpies, Georce. Wild Geese in ‘ Wirral.’ Country Life. Sept. 2, pp. 263-
266.

Marr, J. E. See C. E. P. Brooks.

Marsuatt, JoHN F. Destruction of Mosquito Larve in Salt or Brackish Water.
Nature. June 10, pp. 746-747.

— ‘Unofficial’ Mosquito Control in England. Sci. Progr. Jan., pp. 462-468.

Marsuati, Lenore F. Ring-Ouzel in Westmorland in Winter. Srit. Birds.
Apr., p. 269.

Maryn, G. V. Squirrels Crossing Water. /ield. June 17, p. 834.

Maserirtp, Joun R. B. Scarcity of Green Plover-in Staffordshire, fom. cit.
Apr. 22, p. 547.

— ‘British Birds’ Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 219.

— Great Grey Shrike in Staffordshire, tom. cit. July, p. 48.

Mason, F. A. Micro-Organisms in the Leather Industries. Bureau of Bio-Tech.
Aug., pp. 161-175.

— Tiparis lucens Meign. on Phragmites communis at Strensall. Nat.
Aug., p. 250.

— See W. H. Pearsall.

Masssy, Hersert. Waxwings and Bramblings in Manchester. Brit. Birds.
Mar., p. 239.

— Size of Clutches of Eggs of Wren, tom, cit. July, p. 50.

Masstncuam, H. J. Greater Spotted Woodpecker in English Poetry, tom. cit
Jan., p. 192.

Massy, A. L. Black Redstart on Hill of Howth. Trish Nat. May, p. 56.

Masters, Davip. Where do Flies go in the Winter Time? Conquest. Jan.,
pp. 109-110.

Maturw, G. F. Butterflies attracted by Human Perspiration. Hnt. May,
pp. 112-113.

Marnews, L. Harrison. Curlew-Sandpiper and Black-tailed Godwit in

Somerset. Brit. Birds. Dec., pp. 192-193.

Some Habits of the Great and Arctic Skuas, fom. cit., p. 194.

— and Hoszson, A. D. Pigeon Tick. Nature. Sept. 2, p. 313.

Maxwett, E. K. Some Notes on Rotifers as a Leisure-time Study [Abs.].
Journ. Quekett Micro. Club. Nov., pp. 366-368.

Maxwert, Hersert. Golden Oriole in Wigtownshire. Brit. Birds. Apr.,

p. 274.

Nectar-sipping Birds. Nature. May 13, p. 612.

Defoliation of Oaks, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 344.

Stinging of an Ichneumon Fly. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp. 17-18.

Bittern : A Coincidence, tom. cit. Mar., p. 50.

Nesting of the Golden Eagle in Galloway, tom. cit. July, pp. 99-100.

Food of the Goldfinch (Cardue/is elegans), tom. cit. Nov., pp. 173-174.

1923 00

WET

54 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Mayauu, A. ‘ British Birds’ Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 218.

Mrapr-Watpo, E. G. B. Habits of the Red-throated Diver, tom. cit. Nov., ~
p. 172.

Meares, Crive H. Fawn-coloured Moorhen. VFicld. Jan. 14, p. 66.

Mepuicorr, W. 8. Wood-Lark Nesting in Lincolnshire. Brit. Birds. July,
p. 47. , . :

— Increase of Black Grouse in Lincolnshire, tom. cit., p. 56.

-—— Common Curlew Nesting in Lincolnshire, tom. cit., p. By(e

—— Vertebrate Zoology [Report]. Y'rans. Lines. Nat. Union. 1921, pp. 155-
160.

Mernertzuacen, A. C. Races of Hider Ducks. Bvit. Birds. May, p. 300.

—— and MetnerrzHacen, R. Curlew Sandpiper and Ortolan Bunting in Ross-
shire. Scot. Nat. Sept., p. 165. Abs. in Brit. Birds. Feb., 1923,
p. 255.

Mernertzuacen, R. See A. C. Meinertzhagen. ‘

Menyitt, I. Cosmo. Third Brood of Pararge megera and Colias edusa in
Hants. Wnt. Jan., p. 19.

Metvitt, J. Cosmo, and Barnes, A. J. Coleoptera [Report]. Caradoc and
S.V.F.C. Rec. of Bare Facts. No. 31, p. 30.

Mera, A. W. Stauropus fagi in Epping Forest. Ent. Nov., p. 257.

MerepirH, W. M. Box Hill. Nineteenth Century. Mar., pp. 417-423.

Merverns, M. G. Grey Squirrel in Richmond Park. Country Life. Jan. 21,
pp. 71-73. ‘i

Micuetmore, A. P. G. Colias croceus in Wiltshire. Ent. July, p. 162.

Mizes, Herserr W. Apple Blossom Weevil. Journ. Minis. Agric. Oct.
pp. 637-642. Goes

Mizar, N. C. E. Butterflies attracted to Human Perspiration. Hnt. Dec.,
p. 282. .

Minter, H. H. L. ‘ Combination’ Nests. Field. Sept. 2, p. 351.

Mitman, P. P. Thalpochares (micra) parva. Ent. Jan., p. 21.

Ming, R. M. Striped Hawk Moth, tom. cit. June, p. 136. p

Mircuetz, J. S. Our Agricultural Testing Station. Bureau of Bio-Tech. Aug.,
pp. 195-196.

Morrat, C. B. What Bats are Common? IJrish Nat. Jan., p. 12. t

—— Two small Parasitic Hymenoptera from Co. Wexford, tom. cit. Apr., —
p. 55.

— Some Habits of the Red Admiral and Painted Lady Butterflies, tom. cit.
June, pp. 61-65.

— Habits of the Long-eared Bat, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 105-111. Abs. in Lancs
and C. Nat., p. 51.

Montcomery, T. H. Cuckoo Laying in Nest in Shed. Field. July 15, p. 80.

Moorz, A. Insect and the Oak. Country ‘Life. Dec. 2, pp. 711-713.

Morgav, R. E. Grey Wagtail Breeding in Surrey. Brit. Birds. Dec., p. 189.

— Migration of Kestrels on Hampshire Coast, tom. cit., p. 191. 4

Morey, Frank. ‘ Portuguese Man-of-War.’ Physalia pelagica. Proc. Isle of
Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. u., p. 94.

— Polydora ciliata, tom. cit., pp. 94-95.

— Herons at King’s Quay, tom. cit., p. 95. i

Morean, E. D. Early and Late Dates for Lepidoptera. Hnt. Mar., pp. 62-63. 3

Morean, F.C. Misericords of Malvern, Ripple, and Stratford-on-Avon. TJ’rans,
Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VII., pt. 1v., pp. 330-334. %

Morean, L. E. Curious Nesting Place for Blackbirds. Field. June 3, p. 766.

Moricr, F, D. Two Sawflies new to Britain—Scolioneura tenella Klug and
Pristiphora geniculata Hartig. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Sept., pp. 197-200.

Morey, B. Lepidoptera [Report]. Nat. Jan., p. 42. ‘

—— Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union : Entomological Section [Report], tom. cit.
Feb., pp. 78-79.

—— Spring Usher Moth and its Habits, tom. cit. June, p. 186.

Mortry, Cuaupe. Synopsis of British Proctotrypide (Oxyura). Znt. Jan.,
pp. 13; Mar., pp. 59-60; Apr., pp. 82-83; May, pp. 108-110; June, Ng
pp. 132-135; July, pp. 157-161; Aug., pp. 182-186. ;

Morris, Grace Marswatr. Tame Red Squirrel. Country Life. July 15, p. 64.

~V~

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 545

Morsueap, P, E, A. Peregrine Falcon attacking a Woman. Brit. Birds. July,
. 50.

Satine C. H. New British Bombus, nigrescens (Pérez), from Sussex. LZnt.
Mo. Magy. Jan., pp. 16-17.

— Occurrence of Bombus cullumanus (Kirby) in Sussex, tom. cit. Jan., p. 19.

Morron, Kennern J. Sympetrum fonscolombti and other Dragonflies near
London in October. Ent. Mo. Mag. Dec., pp. 277-279.

Moscrop, C. Thrush’s Nest on a Ladder. Field. May 13, p. 658.

Mostry, Cuarues. Natural History Report. Ann. Rep. Huddersfield Nat.,
etc., Soc. 1919-20, pp. 2-4.

— Entomology [Report], tom. cit., pp. 10-12.

— Bird Notes from Huddersfield. Nat. Apr., p. 128.

— Rook Superstition, tom. cit., p. 143.

— Cryptocampus medullarius Htg. at Huddersfield, tom. cit. Aug., p. 250.

— Food of Dog Whelk. Natureland. Apr., p. 36.

— ILug Worm, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 75-76.

Muutens, W. H. Wiliiam Markwick : A Bibliographical Sketch and Notes on
his Natural History Manuscripts in the Hastings Museum. Hastings
an@ East Sussex Nat. Oct., pp. 179-200.

Mutirr, Grorce W. Otters Catching Eels. Field. June 10, p. 778.

MusHam, J. F. Conchology [Report]. Trans. Lincs Nat. Union. 1921,
pp. 150-151.

— Red-necked Grebe near Selby. Nat. Apr., p. 128.

Musprart, Cuirrorp. Woodpeckers in London. Selborne Mag. Feb., p. 139.

Mussetwuire, D. W. Number of Feathers in Nests of Long-tailed Tit. Brit.
Birds. Dec., p. 189.

Nasu, W. Girrorp. Attractiveness of Electric Light for Moths. nt. Apr.,

. 89-90.

—_ Lp convolvuli at Bedford, tom. cit. Dec., p. 278.

Nayuger, J. North American Saw-Fly in the Isle of Wight. Country Life.
Dec. 16, p. 825.

Neave, 8. A. Entomological Society of London [Report]. Unt. May, p. 116;
June, p. 140; Sept., p. 214; Dec., pp. 285-286. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Jan.,
pp. 22-24; Mar., pp. 67-68; June, pp. 143-144; Sept., pp. 213-214.

Neuiean, E. C. Fallow Deer Fawn in December. field. Jan. 21, p. 100.

Nevimu-Wittmer, E. Lepidoptera in the Dolgelley District, Merionethshire.
Ent. Mo, Mag. Feb., p. 38.

Newman, Frank. Woodcock in Kensington Gardens. Field. April 1, p. 431.

Newman, W. A. Short-eared Owls in East Kent, tom. cit. Feb. 11, p. 179.

— Bittern in East Kent, tom. cit. Feb. 25, p. 249.

Newsreap, Aurrep. Colias croceus in Cheshire. Hnt. July, p. 163.

Newton, E. T. Note on the Remains of Birds obtained from Aveline’s Hole,
Burrington Combe, Somerset. Proc. Spelawol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol.
1920-1, p. 73.

/ — List of Avian Species Identified from Aveline’s Hole, Burrington, tom.

cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 119-121.

Nicos, WaLTER B. Late Nesting of the Mistle-Thrush. Brit. Birds. Dec.,
p. 189.

— Erythristic Eggs of the Blackbird, tom. cit., p. 190.

— Arctic Skua in Essex in June, tom. cit. July, pp. 55-56. Hssex Nat.
Apr., p. 109.

_Nicuotson, C. Plusia moneta in Lancashire. Hnt. Apr., p. 88.

— Non- attractiveness of Electric Light, tom. cit., pp. 90-91.

Nicnotson, Cuartes. Rosy-marbled Moth (Lithacodia [Erastria] venustula
Hub. ) in Britain. ZLssex Nat. Mar., pp. 29-34.

—— Abundance of Vespide in 1921, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 109-110.

Nicuotson, E. M. Some Notes on the Icterine Warbler. Brit. Birds. Nov.,
pp. 142-144.

-— Nesting Habits of the Long-tailed Titmouse. Natureland. July, pp. 44

45,
Nicuotson, W. A. Natural History. Shooting Times. Mar. 4, p. 27.
Norris, K. White Variety of Crested Newt. Field. July 29, p. 171.
00 2

546 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Norais, K. Albino Crested Newt in Surrey. Vat. Aug., p. 250.
Norton, C. A. Scarcity of Wildfowl. Feld. Mar. 11, p. 324.
Norton, F. Additions to Glamorgan List of Lepidoptera. nt. Mar., p. 63.
Ovuyer, N. H. Pisidium clessini Surbeck, in Scotland. Journ. Conch. June,
. 308.
O’Dow, Th. Tuomas. Smew in Co. Mayo. Vield. May 20, p. 692.
Ocitvis-Grant, W. R. Golden Orioles in Berkshire, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 547.
OusuimA, Hirosur. Occurrence of Situs inversus among artificially reared
Echinoid Larve. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc. Mar., pp. 105-148.
Oxry, T. Intoxicating Honey. Discovery. Nov., p. 308 :
OtpHam, Cuas. Red-necked and Slavonian Grebes in Hertfordshire. Brit.
Birds. May, p. 296. ;
Mealy Redpoll in Buckingham and Hertfordshire, tom. cit. June, pp. 19-
20.
Reed-Buntings Flocking in Spring, tom. cit., p. 20.
Sandwich Tern in Cardiganshire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 88.
Valvata macrostoma in Cambridgeshire. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 251.
Limaz tenellus in Gloucester West, Hereford and Montgomery, tom. cit.,

ae. laaa

p. 276. ‘ : ;
Pisidium lilljeborgii in Merionethshire and Denbighshire, tom. cit. June,
p- 287. :
Paludestrine confusa (Frauenfeld) in the Waveney Valley, tom. cit. Oct.,
pp. 324-325.
Ouiver, G. B. ZLycwna adonis in Bucks, and an Appeal. Hnt. Aug., pp. 186- —
187. 5

—— (Colias croceus in Bucks, tom. cit., p. 187.
—— Varieties of Brenthis euphrosyne and Thecla w-album, tom. cit., p. 190.
Onstow, G. Hucues. Curious Accident to a Tawny Owl. Field. May 13,
. 658. 4
anaes [Secretary]. Experiments in Inheritance of Colour in Lepidoptera.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. [Hdinburgh], pp. 262-263. :
—— Butterfly and the Ant. Conquest. Jan., pp. 120-122. i
Oriental and Cultured Pearls, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 157-163. :
Oruesar, Rouse. Quail and Clouded Yellow Butterflies in Bedfordshire. Field.
Sept. 9, p. 387. :
Orton. J. H. Blood-cells of the Oyster. Nature. May 18, pp. 612-613.
Occurrence of a Crystalline Style in the American Slipper Limpet (C7regn- ;
}

dula fornicata) and its Allies, tom, cit. July 29, p. 149.
—— Mode of Feeding of the Jelly-fish, Aurelia aurita, on the Smaller Organisms

in the Plankton, tem. cit. Aug. 5, pp. 178-179. ;
—— Phenomena and Conditions of Sex-change in the Oyster (O. edulis) and
Crepidula, tom. cit. Aug. 12, pp. 212-214. t
—— On the Occurrence of the Archiannelids, Saccocirrus and Protodrilus, on
the South and West Coasts of England, tom.cit. Oct. 28, p. 574. ‘

— Relationship between the Common Hermit-crab (Yupagurus bernhardus) —
and the Anemone (Sagariia parasitica), tom. cit. Dec. 2, pp. 735-736. ¥
— Hermit-crab (Z. bernhardus) and the Anemone (C. (Sagartia) parasitica), —
tom. cit. Dec. 30, p. 877. e
Orton, Kennepy. Hen-Harriers in Sussex. Brit. Birds. Feb., pp. 211-212.
—— Common Buzzard in Sussex, tom. cit., p. 216.
Oswavp-Hicxs, T. W. See Clarence Tierney.
Owen, J. H. Cuckoo Eggs and Nestlings, 1921. Brit. Birds. Feb., pp. 209-210. —
Some Breeding-habits of the Sparrow Hawk, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 256-263.
—— large Set of Rooks’ Eggs in Essex and Berkshire, tom. cit. June, p. 19.
— Unmarked Eggs of Tree-Pipit, tom. cit. July, pp. 47-48.
— Flight of the Sparrow-hawk. Nineteenth Century. Apr., pp. 670-677.
Menu of the Sparrow-hawk, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 767-776. ‘
O[wen], J. H. Photographing the Great Crested Grebe. Rep. Felsted School
Sct. Soc. No. 27, pp. 23-27. i
Owen, O. R. Abnormal Clutch of Kestrel’s Eggs. Brit. Birds. Jan., p. 188. —
Abnormal Clutch of Chaffinch’s Eggs, tom. cit. Feb., p. 207.

EN etry

tan Fs
te

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. SAT

Pacx-Beresrorp, Drexis R. Some New and Rare Irish Spiders. Jrish Nat.
Nov., pp. 126-129.
Parmer, L. S. Second Report on the Keltic Cavern. Proc. Spel«ol. Soc. Univ.
of Bristol. 1920-1, pp. 87-91.
—— Stratigraphical Position of the Transitional Culture in the South and
South-West of England, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 126-129.
Paumer, Ray. Vanessa c-album L. in Hertfordshire. Lint. Mo. Mag. June,
. 142.

Prange. F L. Pheasant’s Nest in October. Field. Oct. 28, p. 655.

Parker, Eric. Little Grebe in a Garden, tom. cit. Apr. 15, p. 513.

—— Late Bird Song, tom. cit. July 8, p. 57.

—— Cuckoo Laying in Nest in Loft, loc. cit.

Parker, THropoRE. Red Spider: A Note on its Control. Bull. Bureau Bio-

; Tech. Mar., pp. 143-149.

— Fumigation of Malthouses, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 229-234.

Parkyn, W. H. Vertebrate Zoology [at Bingley]. Nat. July, pp. 230-231.

Parry, L. E. S. Great Snipe in Aberdeenshire. Field. Nov. 11, p. 714. Abs.
in Brit. Birds. Feb., 1923, p. 256.

Paron, E. Ricumono. ‘Incubation-periods of some ‘ Waders.’ Brit. Birds.
Sept., pp. 110-111.

_— Share of Male Merlin in Feeding the Young, tom. cit. Apr., p. 276.

Parrerson, A. H. Black Rat. Natureland. Jan., pp. 4-5.

— Waxwings in Norfolk, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 23-24.

— Broadland Water-Vole, tom. cit. July, pp. 42-43.

Partrrerson, ArtHUR H. Natterjack Toad, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 62-63.
Parreson, A. Buff-coloured Robin in Surrey. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 216.
Payn, W. A. Peregrine’s Hunting. Country Life. Sept. 16, p. 354.

. Peacock, A. D. Pairing and Parthenogenesis in Saw-Flies. Nature. Aug. 12,

p. 215. Abs. in Lancs and C. Nat. Oct., p. 89.

Pearce, £. J. Haliphus obliquus Er. infested with Acarid Parasites. nt. Mo.
Mag. Feb., p. 37.

— Notes on various Coleoptera, tom. cit. Apr., p. 93.

Pearcy, M. Unusual position for Jay’s Nest. VMield. June 3, p. 766.

Prarsatt, W. H. Phytoplankton of Rostherne Mere [Abs.]. Lancs and C. Nat.

Dec., pp. 97-98.
and Mason, F. A. Yorkshire Naturalists at Thornton Dale. Nat. <Aug.,
pp. 289-296. See also Journ. Hcol. Nov., pp. 251-252.

Yorkshire Naturalists at Filey, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 317-320.

Yorkshire Naturalists at Bishopdale, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 383-388.

Yorkshire Naturalists at Clitheroe. Nat. July, pp. 225-228.

Yorkshire Naturalists at Bingley, tom. cit., pp. 229-232.

Pearson, Cuas. E. Reed-Buntings flocking in Spring. Brit. Birds. Apr.,
p. 269.

Pearson, Douctas H. Butterflies in Notts and a Gynandiomorph. Ent. Rec.
July, p. 142.

Prme, A. J. Note on Gibbula pennanti Philippi. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 253.

Peirson, L. G. Ornithological Section [Report]. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat.
Hist. Soc. No. 70, pp. 15-19.

Prrcivat, E. White-heaked Dolphin in Yorkshire. Nat. June, p. 200.

Perkins, R. C. L. Three Hermaphrodite Bees. Lnt. Mo. Mag. Jan., pp. 17-18.

— AHalictus tumulorum L. and flavipes F. and some Allied Species, fom. cit.,
p. 24; Feb., pp. 25-26.

— British Species of Halictus and Sphecodes, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 46-48;
Mar., pp. 49-52; Apr., pp. 94-96; May, pp. 97-101; July, pp. 167-168;
Aug., pp. 169-174.

—— Sphecodes scabricollis Wesm. in Somerset, and description of 2 of S.
kershawi Perk., tom. cit. Apr., pp. 89-91.

— Notes on Nomada hillana Kirby, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 252-254.

—— Some Instances of Hermaphroditism in Bees and Wasps. Journ. T'orquay
Wat. Hiei. Soc. Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 131-136.

Prrersen, C. G. Joa. Fauna of the Sea-bottom. Nature. Oct. 14, pp. 527-
528; abs. in Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 27.

SIE |

548 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Pertirr, E. E. Lesser Redpoll on the Thames. Field. Dec, 16, p. 879.
Puisss, Grorrrey. Larval Mouth-hooks of Hypoderma. Irish Nat. Mar.,
. 25-30,
eer, a: G. Speed of Flight : Birds v. Insects. Animal World. Apr., p. 40.
Pierce, Watrer. Polygonia c-album, etc., in Bucks. Hnt. Novy., pp. 256-257.
Pizrson, Guy. Shag m Wiltshire. Brit. Birds. Nov., p. 167.
Picorr, G. T. Colias croceus in Lincolnshire. Hnt. Aug., p. 187. ;
—— Colias croceus ab. faille and Herse convolvuli in Lincolnshire, tom. cit.
Dec., p. 277. ;
Pitcuer, T. G. Pale Clouded Yellow and Convolvulus Hawk-Moth at Felix-
stowe. Wield. Oct. 7, p. 539. ; ;
Pirr, Frances. Great and Arctic Skuas in the Shetlands. Brit. Birds. Dec.,
pp. 174-181. ’
Ancestry of the Domestic Rat. Country Life. Feb. 4, p. 155.
Don’t Shoot! [Californian Quail], tom. cit. June 10, p. 800.
Orkney Vole, tem. cit. Sept. 30, p. 405.
Black Guillemot Island, tom. cit. Oct. 21, pp. 495-497.
Hairless Mice, tom. cit. Oct. 28, p. 557.
Badgers: Tame and Wild. Field. Apr. 22, p. 546.
Californian Quail in Shropshire, tom. cit. June 17, p. 834.
Golden Plover in Shetland, tom. cit. Sept. 30, pp. 475-476.
Californian Quail in Salop. Nat. Aug., p. 300.
Promer-Younc, C. Biology of the Sea Urchin. Ann. Rep. Brighton and H.
Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 14-15.
Pocock, R. I. Grey Squirrel : Why it isa Pest. Conquest. Feb., pp..147-150.
Protecting Wild Birds : The Proposed New Law, tom, cit. Mar., pp. 199-
202.
Winter Sleep of Animals, tom. cit. May, pp. 293-296.
Grey Squirrel in Great Britain. Field. Jan. 28, p. 135.
Remarkable Accident to a Stag, tom. cit. Feb. 25, p. 248.
Canine Habit of Rolling on Carrion, tom. cit. July 29, p. 170.
On the External Characters and Classification of the Mustelide. Proc.
Zool. Soc. Jan., pp. 803-837.
Pootz, Huserr F. Additions to the List of Isle of Wight Lepidoptera. Proc.
Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Sec. Vol. 1., pt. 11., pp. 81-83.
Porritt, Gro. T. Scarcity of Spilosoma lubricipeda and S. menthastri. Ent.
Dec., p. 279.
— Curious Malformation in Vorficula auricularia Linn. Ent. Mo. Mag.
May, p. 109.
— Critical Notes on the Hon. H. Onslow’s Paper, ‘Melanism in Abrazas
grossulariata var. varleyata,’ tom. cit. June, pp. 131-134.
— Neuroptera [Report]. Nat. Jan., p. 43.

EEL TT

[ale

Hemerobius concinnus at Everingkam. Nat. Oct., p. 307.
Mutilated Bees beneath Lime Trees, tom. cit. Dec., p. 399.
Portat, M. Bearded Tit in Hampshire. Brit. Birds. Apr., p. 269.
— Turtle-Doves in Wigtownshire in Summer, tom. cit. Dec., p. 192.
Porrat, Winuiam W. Great Crested Grebe in Hampshire. Country Life.
May 6, p. 618.
—- Migration of Great Crested Grebe. Field. Apr. 22, p. 547.
Posrans, A. T. Second Broods of Nisoniades tages and Cupido minimus. LPnt.
Jan., p. 19.
— Acontia luctuosa at Sugar, tom. cit., pp. 20-21.
— Kecords from a South Hampshire Lepidopterist’s Logbook for 1920. Dnt.
Nov., pp. 252-254; Dec., pp. 271-273.
— Ichneumons attacking Cocoons of Cerura bifida, tom. cit., pp. 257-258.
Pownawu, J. A. Hen-Harrier in Anglesey. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 241.
PripEaux, R. M. White Border of Zuvanessa antiopa. Ent. Rec. Jan., p. 17.
Princ, C. J. Common Scoter inland in Somerset. Brit. Birds. June, p. 25.
—— Large Clutch of Oystereatcher’s Eggs, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 136-187.
Procter, Cuas. F. Ermine Stoat near Hull. Nat. Feb., p. 76.
—— Rare Birds in East Yorks, tom. cit. Apr., p. 128.
—— Early Records of .Cuckoo, tom. cit. June, p. 206,

5
“

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 549
Procrrr, Cuas. F. Zoology at the British Association, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 357-

: 359
Pycrart, W. P. Paleontology. Sci. Progr. Oct., pp. 232-233.

Quintin, W. H. St. White Magpie in Lincolnshire. Nat. May, p. 163.

— Snow Geese in North Yorks, loc. cit.

— Sphinx convolvuli in N. Yorks, tom. cit. Oct., p. 307.

Rapciyrre, C. E. Movements of Grouse. Field. Feb. 11, p. 202.

Rawtence, E. A. Barn Owls Hunting in the Daytime. Country Life. July 8, p. 31.

Raynor, A. G. S. Lepidoptera taken or bred from Larve and Pupe found
in the Garden at 3 Little Dean’s Yard, Westminster. Unt. Jan., p. 22.

Raywarp, A. L.. Colias croceus and Vanessa atalanta in the Isle of Wight.
tom. cit. July, p. 162.

Recan, C. Tare. Life-history of the Common or Freshwater Kel. Sci. Prog.
July, pp. 95-100.

Renpatt, Percy. Large Clutches of Greenfinch and Hedge-Sparrow. Brit.
Birds. Sept., p. 102.

—— Late Nesting of the Linnet, tom. cit. Nov., p. 160.

au wig

RenpursHam. Clouded Yellow Butterfly in Cornwall. Vield. June 24, p. 882.
Rennit, JoHN. Acarine Disease in Hive Bees. Step. Brit. Assoc. [Hdinburgh],
pp. 425-426.

_ Rennie, J. Present Position of Bee-disease Research [Abs.]. Nature. Mar. 23,

p- :
— Polyhedral Disease of Tipula Species [Abs.], loc. cit.
Ri[ensuaw], G. Late Butterflies. MNatureland. Jan., p. 18.

' — Early Wasp, tom. cit. Apr., p. 37.

Reynoups, Srpney H. A Monograph of the British Pleistocene Mammalia.
Vol. IIl., pt. 1. Hippopotamus. Palwontographical Soc. pp. 1-38.

RHYNEHART, J. G. On the Life-history and Bionomics of the Flax Flea-beetle
(Longitarsus parvulus Payk), with Descriptions of the hitherto Un-
known Larvai and Pupal Stages. Sci. Proc> Roy. Dublin Soc. Apr.,
pp. 497-541; see Nature, June 24, p. 825.

Ricnarps, A. W. JLibellula depressa Linn. (Odonata). Hnét. Mar., p. 67.

Rickarps, R. Wixpsor. Red Admiral in January. Field. Jan. 28, p. 131.

Rickmsn, P. Black Redstart in Sussex. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 216.

— Golden-eye in Sussex, loc. cit.

Ripzwoop, W. G. Observations on the Skull in Foetal Specimens of Whales
of the Genera Megaptera and Balenoptera. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.
Ser. B. Vol. 212, pp. 209-272.

Rottzy], N. D. Vanessa io ab. belisaria. Hnt. June, p. 136.

Acherontia atropos at Sea, tom. cit. Dec., p. 278.

—— An Unusual Variety of Charocampa elpenor, loc. cit. :

Rimmer, Cuartes P. Flashlight Photography and Nature. nt. June, p. 139.

— Lancashire and Cheshire Entomological Society [Report]. Lancs and C.
Nat. Jan., p. 192; Mar., pp. 239-240. Hnt. May, pp. 118-119.
Nat. Mar., p. 84.

Riytovt, Leonora Jerrrey, and Baxter, Everyn V. Report on Scottish

Ornithology in 1921, including Migration. Scot. Nat. May, pp. 69-
84; July, pp. 109-129. Abs. in Brit. Birds. Apr., 1923, pp. 315-316.
— Swarming of a Fly, Limnophora humilis Zett., in Spring. Scot. Nat.
Nov., pp. 189- 190.
Ritcnie, James. Giant ae on the Scottish Coast. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
[Edinburgh], p. 423.
How did the Maimed Stoat Run? Country Life. Mar. 18, p. 387.
Stoat without Forelegs. Wield. Mar. 18, p. 357.
Extraordinary Adaptability of a Stoat. Scot. Nat. Jan., pp.
History of Feathers, with Special Reference to the Mallard Phe. i ‘tom.
cit. Mar., pp. 45-49.
Great Extinct Ox or Urus in Peeblesshire, tom. cit. May, p. 68.
Great Waxwing Invasion of 1921, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 133-142; Nov.,
pp. 193-201.
[Obituary : William Evans, F.R.S.E., etc., 1851-1922], tom. cit. Nov.,
pp. 169-173.

550 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Rivierz, B. B. Velocity of Flight among Birds. Brit. Birds. May, pp. 298-
299.
—— Serin in Norfolk, tom. cit. July, p. 47.
—— Ring-Ouzel in Norfolk wrongly recorded as Alpine Ring-Ouzel, tom. cit.
Oct., p. 135.
Northern Greater Spotted Woodpecker, tom. cit. Nov., p. 165.
Roserts, T. N. Mealy Redpolls at Scarborough. Nat. Feb., p. 75.
Bittern at Scarborough, Joc. cit.
—— Waxwings in Yorks, etc. Nat. May, p. 164.
— Scarcity of Coin Bunting in the Scarborough District, tom. cit. Dec.,
p. 369.
Yellow Wagtail Nesting at Scarborough, tom. cit., pp. 369-370.
Rosertson, JOHN. Garganey in Dumbartonshire. Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 174.
Abs. in Brit. Birds. Feb., 1923, p. 256.
Roginson, H. W. Size of Swallow Broods in 1921. Brit. Birds. Mar., p. 240.
Gadwall in Westmorland, tom. cit., p. 241.
Status of the Surf-Scoter in Orkney, tom. cit. May, p. 299.
Races of Hider Ducks, tom. cit., p. 300; June, p. 32.
Colour of the Eye in the Hawfinch, loc. cit. ; Country Life, May 27, p. 714.
Tufted Duck Breeding in North Lancashire. rit. Birds. Oct., p. 136.
Spotted Redshank in North Lancashire, tom. cit., p. 137.
New Colonies of Lesser Black-backed Gulls in North Lancashire, tom.
cit., p. 139.
Great Black-backed Gull Nesting in Westmorland, loc. cit.
Summer Flocking of Starlings, tom. cit., p. 140.
Size of Swallow Broods, 1922, tom. cit. Nov., p. 164.
Flocking of Curlews in Summer, tom. cit., p. 168.
First Record of the Gadwall in Westmorland. Country Life. Jan, 14,
p- 60.
Ruff in a Slum [Lancashire], tom. cit. Feb. 4, p. 156.
Starlings and Foot and Mouth Disease, tom. cit. Mar. 4, p. 321.
Herring-Gulls : An Optical Illusion, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 552.
Change of Colour in the Eye of the Pochard, tom. cit. July 8, p. 31.
Yellow-legged Herring-Gull : Two New Records, tom. cit. July 22, p. 97.
Farne Islands Deserted by Terns, tom. cit. Aug. 26, p. 253.
Black Guillemots in Winter Plumage, tom. cit. Nov. 4, p. 589.
Asymmetrical Wings in a Tern, tom, cit. Nov. 18, p. 654.
Time of Migration of the Spotted Crake, tom. cit. Nov. 25, p. 688.
To Brive away Roosting Starlirgs. ‘Wield. Jan. 7, p. 26.
Cries of Wild Geese, loc. cit.
Optical Illusion regarding Herring-Gulls. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 16.
Rosinson, T. Black Redstart in Shropshire, tom. cit. July, p. 49.
Rogson, Guy C. On the Anatomy of Paludestrina. Quart. Journ. Micro. Soc.
Mar., pp. 159-185.
Rocers, J. M. White Squirrels in Kent. /%eld. Dec. 23, p. 930.
Rove, Geo. T. Frog Voices. Natureland. April, pp. 22-23.
Voice of Common Frog, tom. cit., p. 36.
—— Animal Associations, tom. cit. July, pp. 45-47.
—— Memory in Doves, tom. cit. July, p. 55.
— Frog Voices in Autumn, tom. cit. Oct., p. 68.
— Water Tortoise in Nest of Moorhen, tom. cit., p. 75.
Ross, Eustze N. §. In a Ross-shire Deer Forest. Country Life. Aug. 26,
p. 253.
XOTHSCHILD, ExizaBerH. See Miriam Rothschild.
Mirtam and EuizaserH. Lepidoptera from the Neighbourhood of
Oundle. Ent. Nov., p. 258.
1owAN, W. Observations of the Breeding-habits of the Merlin. II. Incuba-
tion. Brit. Birds. Feb., pp. 194-202. III. Rearing of the Young.
Mar., pp. 222-231. IV. The Young. Apr., pp, 246-253.

lala ee lah

fal lclctaib ata

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 5o"

Row annv-Brown, H. Food-plants of Callophrys avis and Celastrina argiolus.
Ent. Feb., p. 38.
Rowtey, F. R. Ourameba. Nature. July 8, p. 40.
Rowsz, G. A., and Hopason, T. V. Zoology. Hep. Plymouth Museum, ete.,
. 15-18.
iewution. W. Note on a Trematode from Rainbow Trout. Journ. Roy. Micro.
Soc. June, pp. 161-163.
— Further Contributions to the Biology of Freshwater Fishes [Abs.]. Nature.
June 3, p. 781.
Russett, E. S. Work of the Fisheries Laboratory at Lowestoft [Abs.], tom. cit.
Dec. 2, p. 757.
— See J. O. Borley.
Russett, E. V. Lapwing and the Tractor. Country Life. Jan. 14, p. 60.
RussEtt, Fuora. Green Sandpiper in Surrey in Winter. Brit, Birds. Feb.,
. 214,
eeeeae. Haroup. Tree-Creeper in Kensington Gardens. /ield. Jan. 14,
- 66.
— Giken Sandpiper in Surrey, loc. cit.
— Harly Arrival of Swifts, tom. cit. Apr. 22, p. 547.
— Red-throated Diver Inland in Sussex, tom. cit. Oct. 21, p. 624.
— Greenfinch in Hyde Park, tom. cit. Nov. 18, p. 729.
Russett, W. M. Great Snipe in Kirkeudbrightshire. Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 174.
Abs. in Brit. Birds. Feb., 1923, p. 256.
Ruston, A. Haroup. Sphinx convolvuli in Cambridgeshire. Ent. Aug.,
. 188.
PRISE Meacian W. New Mymarid from North Wales, tom. cit. Sept.,
pp- 204-205. Abs. in Lancs and C. Nat. Oct.-Nov., p. 56.
Satz, G. Hanson. Colias edusa in South Devon. Lnt. Feb., p. 37.
— Vitality of Brenthis euphrosyne, tom. cit., p. 39.
Sauissury, E. J. Botany [Report]. Sci. Progr. Apr., pp. 561-564; July,
pp. 46-50. ,
Satmon, H. Morrey. See Geoffrey C. 8. Ingram.
Sanpeman, R. First Record of Breeding of the Scaup-Duck. Brit. Birds.
Aug., p. 91.
Sanpon, H. See D. Ward Cutler.
Saunpers, E. C. Some Winter Visitors to Great Yarmouth, 1921-22, tom. cit.
May, pp. 295-296.
Saunvers, E. R. [Two Cuckoos apparently Reared together in the same Nest.]
Nature. July 29, p. 160.
Saunpers, 8. E. Partridge and Pheasant Laying in same Nest. Field.
Aug. 19, p. 285.
Saunt, J. W. Sirex juvencus F. in Yorkshire. Ent. Mo. Mag. Feb., p. 38.
— Some North Derbyshire Hymenoptera and Diptera, tom. cit. May, p. 110.
— Distribution of Asemum striatum, tom. cit. Oct., p. 230.
— Clytus arcuatus L. in Notts and Lincs, tom. cit. Dec., p. 276.
Savace, E. U. Some Observations on the flocking of Starlings. Brit. Birds.
Aug., pp. 77-78.
Tawny Owl taking a Squirrel, tom. cit. Sept., p. 108.
Observations on the Size of the Clutches of Song-Thrush and Blackbird,
tom. cit. Nov., pp. 163-164,
— Tufted Duck Nesting in Westmorland, tom. cit., p. 167.
— Karly Fieldfares in Cumberland, tom. cit. Dec., p. 190.
—— Black-headed Gulls’ Method of Obtaining Worms, fom. cit., p. 193.

Scnarrr, R. F. Thirty Years’ Work of the ‘Trish Naturalist.’ Jrish Nat.

Jan., pp. 1-7.

—— [Obituary : Henry Lyster Jameson], tom. cit. May, pp. 49-50.

— Is the Squirrel a Native Irish Species? tom. cit., pp. 51-54.

— Some Notes on the Irish Sheep, tom. cit. July, pp. 73-76.

—— Wolf in Ireland, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 133-136. Abs. in Lancs and (. Nat.
Dec., p. 100.

Scumipt, Jous. Breeding Places of the Eel. Pil. T'rans. Roy. Soc. Ser. B.
Vol. 212, pp. 179-208.

552 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

ScHoury, Guo. J. Another Cuckoo Record. Brit. Birds. Jan., pp. 180-186.

ScHomBerc, ARTHUR. Appearance of the Red Admiral in Cold Weather. Field.
Apr. 22, p. 547.

Scorr, A. Classes and other Work at Piel. Zvans. Liverp, Biol. Soc.
Vol. XXXVI., pp. 96-100.

Scorr, ANDREW. On the Food of Young Plaice (Pleuronectes platessa). Journ.
Marine Biol. Assoc. Oct., pp. 678-687.

Scorr, E. Colias hyale in Kent and C. edusa in Dorset. Ent. Jan., p. 18.

Deiopeia pulchella and Sterrha sacraria at Lulworth, tom. cit., p. 20.

Scorr, Hucu. Note on some Hymenopterous Parasites and other Enemies of
Tortmz viridana Linn., with further Records of Chalcidide Swarming
in Buildings. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Mar., pp. 56-61.

Scorr, H. H. L. Herse convolvuli in the Isle of Wight. Unt. Nov., pp. 256.

Scorr, Samurn. Large Skate off Harris. Scot. Nat. Jan., p. 8.

ScouRFIELD, —. Pond-Life Exhibition, Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. June,
pp. 234-236.

Seru-Smirn, D. Skua Gull at Wimbledon. VTield. Sept. 30, p. 476.

SHarp, Kpwin P. Orrhodia erythrocephala, etc., near Eastbourne. JZnt.
Jan., p. 20.

—— Pyrameis atalanta in Spring. Hnt. Rec. May, p. 95.

SHaw, Wm. [Capture of Phlogophora meticulosa]. Jiancs and C. Nat. Dec.,
p. 128.

SHaw, W. A. Hyalinia lucida in the Isle of Wight. Journ. Conch. June,
p. 296.

Suess, AurreD. Rare Birds in Ulster [Abs.]. Jrish Nat. Oct., p. 115.

SHEDDEN, J. D. W. Polygonia c-album in Staffs and Heodes phlceas ab.
schmidt. Ent. Nov., p. 257.

SHetpon, W. G. [Obituary : Dr. T. A. Chapman], tom. cit. Feb., pp. 44-48.

Notes on the Lepidoptera of the Assynt District of Sutherlandshire, tom.

cit., pp. 30-35; Mar., pp. 53-57; Apr., pp. 73-78.
[Obituary : William Purdey], tom. cit. Mar., pp. 71-72.
Acrobasis tumidana Schiff=verrucella Ub.=rubrotibiella FR. at
Darenth, tom. cit. May, p. 112.
—— [Obituary : Henry Rowland-Brown], tom. cit. June, pp. 121-123.
—— Further Notes on Sarrothripus revayana Scop., tom. cit., pp. 131-132.

Life-cycle of Penthina soroculana Zett., tom. cit. Aug., pp. 179-181.
On the Earlier Stages of Cacecia cratiegana Hibn., tom. cit. Sept.,
pp. 194-195.
SHetiey, T. J. Colias croceus in Glamorgan, etc., tom. cit. aug., p. 187.
SurrHeaRD, W. F. J. Zoological Section [Report]. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.
Fifty-first Ann. Rep., pp. 25-28.
Sueppanp, T. List of Papers bearing upon the Zoology, Botany, and Pre-
historic Archeology of the British Isles, issued during 1920. ep.
Brit. Assoc. [Edinburgh], pp. 499-549.
— Hull Municipal Museum of Natural History, Antiquities, and Applied
Art: Its History and Collections. [Guide.] Hull Mus. Pub. No. 130,
12 pp.
[Remains of Roman Date at Middleton-on-the-Wolds.] Man. Jan. p. 16.
Remains of False Killer (Pseudorca crassidens) in Lincolnshire. Nat.
Jan., p. 18.
Mammoth Tooth from Auburn, E. Yorks, tom. cit., p. 20.
Recent Glacial Sections in Holderness, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 65-66.
[Obituary : Thomas Audas], tom. cit. Apr., pp. 139-140.
Bibliography : Papers and Records Relating to the Geology of the North
of England (Yorkshire excepted), published during 1921, tom. cit. Apvr..
pp. 133-136; May, pp. 165-170.
—— Vertebrate Remains from the Peat of Yorkshire; New Records, tom. cit.
June, pp. 187-188.

— Remains of Whooper Swan, etc., in the Peat of Lincolnshire, tom. cit.,
-. 199;

—— Macuine of Fulmar Petrel in Yorkshire : A new English Record, tom. cit.
June, p. 201. Noted in Brit. Birds, July, p. 57.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 558

' Suerrarp, IT. Unrecorded Egg of the Great Auk, dom. cit. Aug., p. 254; abs.

in Brit. Birds, Jan., 1923, p. 223.
SHERBORN, Caroto Davies. Index Animalium.. . Sectio secunda. Part I.
Introduction, Bibliography and Index=A-Aff, pp. 1-128.

Suerrirr, CatHertine W. M., and TuHomrson, D’Arcy W. Jisleries, Scotland.
Sci. Invest. I. Sept., pp. 1-25. Abs. in Nat. Feb., pp. 52-53.
SHIFFNER, ELEanor. Seven Eggs instead of Four (Ring Plover). Country Life.

July 22, p. 98.
SHore-Bamy, W. Early Fieldfares in Wiltshire. Brit. Birds. Nov., p. 162.
SHUCKBURGH, GrRaLD F.S. Clever Strategy of a Stoat. Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.
Stcn, AtFRED. Observations on the Family Celeophorides. Hnt. Rec. May,

pp. 86-89.
Stmzs, J. A. Papilio alexanor—Two years in Pupa, tom, cit. Oct., pp. 184-
185.

Stapr, Frank. Rare Spider, tom. cit. Oct., p. 183.

Starer, H. H. Entomological Section. Proc. Somerset. Arch. Nat. Hist. Soc.
Vol. LXVII., pp. lvii-lxii.

SuearH, J. R. Phryzus livornica in Warwick. Ent. July, p. 163.

— Uolias croceus (¢dusa) in August at Brighton, tom. cit. Sept., p. 210.

Smattey, F. W. Races of Eider Duck. Brit. Birds. July, pp. 59-60.

Smart, H. D. South-West Yorkshire Entomological Society [Report]. Nace.
Mar., p. 110; June, p. 141.

Smiru, A. Entomology [Filey], tom. cié. Oct., p. 320.

—— Mollusca [Wiley], loc. cit.

Smiru, A., and Hinp, F. Marine Zoology: Starfishes. Trans. Lincs Nat.
Union. 1921, pp. 165-166.

“Sarre, C. Barnsy. In Praise of Rainbows [Trout]. Natureland. July, pp. 51-

52.

Smiro, H. Hammonp. Plea for the Plover. Field. May 6, p. 622.

— Malformations in Antlers of Highland Red Deer, tom. cit. Oct. 7, p. 536.

Smitu, J. N. Dovauas. British Birds Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb., -
pp. 219-220.

— Hatching of the Golden Plover, tom. cit. July, p. 55.

— Nest-covering of the Blue Tit, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 78-80.

— On the Nest-building of the Little Tern, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 94-98.

SmirH, Kenneth M. Control of Maggots attacking the Roots of Vegetables
Journ. Minis. Agric. June, pp. 280-282.

Smiru, Rupert A. Fleas. Chambers’s Journal. Dec., pp. 774-776. Abs. in
Animal World. Feb., 1923, p. 20.

SmirH, Sypney H. Shag Inland at York. Field. Jan. 21, p. 100; Feb. 4,

p. 172.
Vertebrate Zoology Section, York District [Report]. Nat. Jan., pp. 38-
39. i

Mammalia, Reptilia and Amphibia, Pisces, tom. cit., p. 40.

Little Auk near York, tom, cit. Feb., p. 75.

Water Rail at York, loc. cit.

Shag at York, loc. cit. ; and Mar., p. 91.

Early-nesting Robin. Nat. Mar., p. 91.

Turtle Dove in Yorkshire, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 125-127.

Waxwings in Yorks, etc., tom. cit. May, p. 164.

Vertebrate Zoology [Filey], tom. cit. Oct., pp. 319-320.

Situ, as Ps naa Postponed Laying of the Common Wren. Brit. Birds.

eb., p. 209.

Smirx, W. C. See Jas. Johnstone.

Smytu, Ciarues Stuart. Blue-winged Teal. Field. Apr. 22, p. 547.

Snarru, F. B. Grey Geese in Lincolnshire in June, ftom. cit. June 24, p. 882.

Snowpon, F. Bonito Captured at Whitby. Nat. Oct., p. 314.

[SNowpon, FRanx.] Local Natural History Notes: Birds, Fishes. Ninety-
ninth Rep. Whitby Lit. and Phil. Soc., pp. 6-7.

Sontas, W. J. Man and the Ico Age. Geol. Mag. Jan., 1-6.

SourtH, Ricwarv. Pachys betularia doubledayaria at South Norwood. Ent.
Sept., p. 211.

LETTE ET

554 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Spaut, E. A. Gametogenesis of Nepa cinerea (Water Scorpion). Journ. Roy.
Micro, Soc. Sept., pp. 237-242.

Spicer, Prrer, AND Sons. Wild Cat in Ross-shire. Vield. Feb. 18, p. 235.

Little Bustard near Doncaster, tom. cit. Dec. 30, p. 967.

Sptorinc, AtFRep H. Hybridisation in Nature. Wnt. Sept., p. 213.

Sproat & Co. Blue-winged Teal. Field. May 6, p. 622.

Srarrorp, Aucustus E. Spring Rhopalocera in Surrey. Hnt. Aug., p. 189.

C. phleas var., tom. cit., p. 190.

Starrorp, G. B. Guillemots and Oil. Country Life. Jan. 7, p. 27.

SrarnrortH, T. Invertebrate Zoology [Filey]. Yorks Nat. Union Cire.
No. 301, p. 2.

Stanpen, R. Occurrence in Lancashire of the False-Scorpion (Chernes scor-
pioides Herm.). Lancs and C. Nat. Jan., p. 173-174.

— Report on Terrestrial Isopoda (Woodlice) for 1921, tom. cit., pp. 175-176.

—— Ligidium hypnorum Cuvier in Lancashire, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 215-216.

—— [Obituary : John Kidson Taylor], tom. cit. Aug., pp. 34-36.

— British Bats, tom. cit. Oct., p. 64.

— Trocheta subviridis (Vutrochet) at Preston, tom. cit. Dec., p. 132.

Stanton, Guy. Early Occurrence of Smerinthus populi, etc. Hnt. May, p. 111.

Thecla w-album in Staffs, etc., tom. cit. Sept., p. 210.

Stetrox, A. W. On the Habits of Stenamma westwoodi in Ireland. Ent. Rec.
Mar., pp. 42-43.

— Mites as Guests in Ants’ Nests. Jrish Nut. Jan., p. 10.

—— Bombus sylvarum in Ireland, tom. cit., pp. 10-11.

— Jelicella heripensis : Supposed Occurrence in Ireland, tom. cit., p. 11.

— Bees and Clovers, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 89-91.

Srenpaty, J. A. Sipney. Fulmar Breeding on Rathlin Island, tom. cit. May,
p. 56. Abs. in Brit. Birds. Sept., p. 114.

—— Felted Beech Coccus in Ireland. Jrish Nat. Aug., p. 96.

— Egg of Fulmar Petrel: An Irish Example, Joc. cit.

Range of the Fulmar Petrel. Nat. Aug., pp. 299-300.

SrenHouse, J. H. Ou the Dark Phase of the Young of the Starling. Scot.
Nat. Sept., pp. 145-146. :

SrepHENSsON, J. On some Scottish Oligocheta : With a Note on Encystment in
a Common Freshwater Oligochete, Lumbriculus variegatus (Miull.)
[Abs.]. Nature. Nov. 25, p. 723.

— On the Septal and Pharyngeal Glands of the Microdrili (Oligocheta).
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Vol. LIII., pt. 1, pp. 241-264.

SterHenson, T. A. Genus Jlyanthus Forbes. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc.
Oct., pp. 819-828.

—_ On the Classification of Actiniaria. Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci. June, —
pp. 247-319.

Srevart, C. B. White Red-Deer. Field. Mar. 4, p. 314.

Srevart-Menzizes, W. Lesser Spotted Woodpecker on Speyside, tom, ctf.
May 6, p. 622.

Srewart, F. H. Parasite Worms of Man and Methods of Suppressing Them.
Nature. Mar. 23, pp. 379-381.

Svewart, W. Kestrels’ Unusual Nesting-site and Large Clutch. Brit. Birds.
Jan., pp- 188-189.

—— Lesser Whitethroat Breeding in Argyll, tom. cit. Feb., p. 208.

— Scaup-Ducks in Argyllshire in Summer, tom. cit., pp. 212-213.

Hider Breeding in Southern Argyllshire, tom. cit., p. 213.

Stewart, W. A. Evolution of British Breeds of Cattle. Journ. Northants
Nat. Hist. Soc. Mar., pp. 125-128. %

Srrpston, 8. T. Colias croceus (edusa) in S. Devon. Ent. July, p. 162.

Manduca atropos in 8. Devon, tom. cit., p. 163. 2

Stokes, H. P. Cambridgeshire ‘Forests.’ Proc. Cambridge Antig. Soc.
No. LXXI., pp. 63-85.

Stoney, C. V. Breeding of the Roseate Tern in Ireland. Jrish Nat. Nov.,
p. 129.

—— Breeding of the Fulmar ‘Petrel in Treland, Joc. cit.

ee ee ee

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 555
Srorrow, B. Young Herrings and ‘Jellyfish’ at Cullercoats. Nat. Jan..
18

— Herring Fishery and its Fluctuations. Nature. Nov. 25, pp. 705-707.
Abs. in Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 29.

Srusss, Pump. Convolvulus Hawk Moth in Hants. Vield. Sept. 9, p. 387.

Sryan, K. E. White Squirrel. Country Life. July 22, p. 98.

Surron, G. P. Zygenide attracted by Lasiocampa quercus Q, etc. Hnt. Dec.
p. 280.

Swan, R. C. Stag Roaring while in Velvet. Field. Sept. 9, p. 371.

Swann, H. Kirke. Former Breeding of the Osprey in Ireland. Brit. Birds.
Feb., p. 220.

— Synopsis of the Accipitres (Diurnal Birds of Prey). Part //., Jan. 3,
pp. 65-122; Part I/I., Feb. 16, pp. 123-178; Part J\’., May 20,
pp. 179-233.

Swanton, E. W. Defoliation of Oaks. Nature. Aug. 19, p. 250.

Syxes, E. R. Rhinomacer attelaboides in Dorset. Unt. Mo. Mag. Sept.,

p. 208.
Tausor, G. Celerio lineata livornica Esp. in the Isle of Wight. nt. Aug.,
p. 188.

Tatnot-Ponsonsy, C. G. Great Snipe in Caithness. Field. Oct. 7, p. 539.
Abs. in Brit. Birds. Feb., 1923, p. 256.

Tams, W. H. T. Pollination of Early Spring Flowers by Moths. Journ. Bot.
July, pp. 203-205.

Tarzat, J. E. Herse convolvuli in Hants and the Scilly Isles. Hnt. Nov.,

p. 256.

Searcity of Spilosoma lubricipeda, tom. cit., p. 257.

Tarcnett, Leonarp. Lepidoptera in ihe Swanage District, tom. cit. <Aug.,
p, 189:

Tare, ERNEst W. Quail in Denbighshire. Field. Aug. 26, p. 323.

Tayton, Donatp. Some Types of Swimmers. Animal World. Aug., pp. 92-94.

Tayior, E. Winrrep. Vertebrate Zoology in Yorkshire. Nat. Jan., pp. 21-22;
Apr., pp. 142-143.

—— Blackcock in Yorkshire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 299

Taytor, Frank E. Some Factors in the Life-history of the Leucocyte. Sci.
Progr. Oct., pp. 262-272.

Taxtor, Frep. Observations on the Twite in the Pennines. Brit. Birds.
Sept., pp. 103-104.

—— Great Black-backed Gull in the Isle of Man. JSancs and C. Nat. Oct.,
pp. 55-56.

Taytor, Hersert. Rowberrow Cavern. Prec. Speleol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol.
1920-1, pp. 83-86.

Taytor, Jno. W. Succinea oblonga in Nidderdale. Nat. Dec., p. 371.

Taytor, Monica. Water Snails and Liver Flukes. Nature. Nov. 25, p. 701.

Taynor, Witt1am P. G. Grey Wagtail Breeding in Surrey. Brit. Birds. July,
p. 48.

—— Waxwings in Surrey, tom, cit., p. 49.

Taytor, Wituiam P. §. Sparrow-Hawk Preying on Swift, ¢om. cit. Sept...
pp. 108-109.

Terras, Hips. Unusual Nesting-site of Mistle-Thrush, tom. cit. Nov.,
pp. 162-163.

TurossLp, Frep V. Aphid Genus and Species new to Britain (7 7ilobaphis
caricis). Ent. Mo. Mag. June, pp. 137-138.

THosuRrn-Cuarke. H. Green Plover Mobbing. Country Life. June 3, p. 764.

— Kingfisher Bathing, tom. cit. Sept. 23, pp. 384-385.

Tuomas, J. I’. ‘ British Birds’ Marking Scheme. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 219.

— Wheatears Mobbing a Weasel, tom. cit. June, p. 22.

Tuompson, A. H. Resting Habit of Pieris rapw. Wnt. Mar., pp. 67-68.

— Colias croceus in Delamere, tom. cit. July, p. 166.

—— Lepidoptera Taken or Observed in 1922. Lancs and C. Nat. Oct.,
pp. 94-95.

Tompson, ArtHUR A. Country in May. TJ'aactte. May. pp. 3-4.

— Country in July, tom. cit. July, p. 4.

556 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Tompson, Brexsy. Mammoth’s Mighty Molar [Tusk], fifty thousand years
old. Northampton Independent. Dec. 30, p. 7.

T[Hompson], B. Prehistoric Cattle in Northamptonshire. Journ. Northants
Nat. Hist. Soc. Mar., p. 129.

Tuompson, D’ARcy W. See Catherine W. M. Sherriff.

Tompson, Percy. Waxwing at Rochford. Hssex Nat. Mar., p. 45.

— ‘Levantine’ Shearwater, loc. cit.

— Yellowshank at West Mersea, tom. cit., p. 46.

—— ‘Fire-Brats’ at West Ham, tom. cit. Apr., p. 85.

Tuomrson, W. R. Stray Notes on Certain Dorsetshire Birds, made Princi-
pally in the Neighbourhood of Weymouth. Brit. Birds. Dec., pp. 183-
187.

Tuomson, A. LanpssoroucH. Migration of British Starlings: Results of the
Marking Method, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 62-76. Abs. inJbis. Oct., p. 733.

— Migration of British Swallows. Nature. Mar. 16, pp. 346-348.

Txuomson, J. A. Many Inventions: A Study in Natural History. Proc.
Belfast Nat. Hist. and Phil. Soc. 1920-21, pp. 1-4.

THomson, J. AntHUR. Mind of Animals. VII. Mind of the Fish. Country
Life, May 6, pp. 593-594; VIII. Mind of the Mollusc, May 13,
pp. 627-628; IX. Mind of the Spider, May 20, pp. 659-660; X. Mind
of the Ant, May 27, pp. 694-696; XI. Mind of the Bee, June 10,
pp. 781-782; XII. Dawn of Mind, July 8, pp. 24-26. |

—— Birds of the Sea Cliffs—I.; tom. cit., Oct. 7, pp. 430-433; II., Oct. 14,
pp. 466-468.

TuHomson, Seron M. Greenshank in Linlithgowshirve. Scot. Nat. Nov., p. 174.

Tuorp, C. F. Eagles in Northumberland. Proc. Berwicks. Nat. Club, p. 295.

Turinc, G. A. Convolvulus Hawk-Moth in Hants. Field. Sept. 23, p. 443.

TuHurNatLt, A. Cydia citrana Hb. near Wanstead. Hnt. Aug., pp. 188-189. —

Ticenurst, N. F. Inland Occurrences of Waders in the Autumn of 1921. Brit.
Birds. Apr., pp. 272-274. :

— Velocity of Flight among Birds, tom. cit. June, p. 31. ;

Tierney, Cuarence. Mosquito Investigations [Abs.]. Journ. Quekett Micro.
Club. Nov., pp. 347-349. i

— and Oswatp-Hicxs, T. W. Mosquito Investigation Committee. Fourth ©
Annual Report, 1921-22. South-Hastern Nat. 1922, pp. xx-xxii. FI

Tirz, G. E. Vanessa c-album in Bucks. Hint. June, p. 136. %

Tomun, J. R. re B. [Obituary Notice : Rev. Canon J. W. Horsley, M.A.] Journ. —

Conch. Jan., p. 247.
—— Pisidia of Guernsey and Sark, tom. cit., p. 328.
Toms, Hersert 8. Pointed Snail, Cochlicella acuta Muller in Sussex. Ann. |
Rep. Brighton and H. Nat. Hist. Soc.; pp. 9-12. i
— The Cross-cut Carpet Shell in Local Kitchen Middens, tom. cit., pp. 50-51. f

Tonce, A. E. Moths’ Eggs under the Microscope. Country Life. Apr. 8,

pp. 463-467. :
— Moths by Daylight, tom. cit. July 29, pp. 108-112. i
TorutrssE, A. D. Colias croceus in Cambridgeshire. Wnt. Aug., p. 187. +
Trarman, E. K. Explorations of Read’s Cavern, near Burrington Combe, —
Somerset [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], pp. 45-46. i

Travis, W. G. On Peaty Bands in the Wallasey Sandhills. Proc. Liverp. |
Geol. Soc. Pt. m1., Vol. XIII., pp. 207-214. 2

TRELAWNY, Franx. Young Wild Ducks in October. Field. Dec. 2, p. 793.

TRewavas, ErHenwynn. Note on the Occurrence of EHchinus esculentus above
Low-tide Mark on the Cornish Coast. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. —
Oct., pp. 833-834. ‘

Trose-Bareman, Hinpa La. Snake and Toad. Country Life. Aug. 12, p. 191.

— Robber Bee, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 321.

Troup, R. Note on Somerset Dragonflies. Hnt. Rec. Jan., pp. 16-17.

—— Second Brood of O. sambucaria, tom. cit., p. 17.

—— Hibernation of Pyrameis atalanta, tom. cit. May, p. 95.

Tuck, Jurman G. Bird Feeding. Natureland. Jan., pp. 2-4.

—— Woodcock on Nest, tom. cit. Apy.. p. 34.

—— Nesting of Tawny Owl, tom. cit. July, p. 54.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. Sbyé

Turner, E. L. Aerial Display of the Bittern. Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 92.
Turner, Hy. J. South London Entomological Society [Report]. Hnt. Mar.,
pp. 68-69; May, pp. 116-117; June, pp. 140-141; July, p. 168; Aug.,
p. 192; Sept., pp. 214-215; Nov., pp. 262-264; Dec., pp. 286-287. nt.
Mo. Mag. Feb., pp. 44-45; Mar., p. 67; May, pp. 116-117; July,
pp. 166-167; Sept., pp. 212-213; Oct., pp. 237-238; Nov., pp. 256-257.
— (Obituary: Dr. T. A. Chapman]. ZLnt. Rec. Mar., pp. 58-60.
Turner, L. V. See N. Lawrie.
Tysox, M. cP Notes [Entomology] from the New Forest. Natureland.
et, pu i@7.
Uvarov, B. P. Grasshopper new to Britain. Ent. Wo. Mag. Sept., p. 211.
Varty-SmirH, J. C. Notes on Terrestrial Isopoda (Woodlice) found in the
neighbourhood of Penrith. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., pp. 133-136.
VaucHan, J. M. Bird Words. WNatureland. Apr., pp. 28-29.
Verity, Roger. Seasonal Polymorphism and Races of some European Grypocera
and Rhopalocera. Hnt. Rec. Jan., pp. 12-15; Apr., pp. 68-73; May,
pp. 89-93; July, pp. 124-142.
Wave, E. W. Vertebrate Zoology Section, East Riding. Nat. Jan., pp. 36-37.
—— Extending Range of the Fulmar Petrel, tom. cit. July, pp. 223-224.
— Hoopoe in East Yorks, tom. cit. <Aug., p. 299.
—— [R. Fortune]. Vertebrate Zoology [Filey]. Y.N.U. Cire., No. 301, p. 2.
— See under R. Fortune.
Wavswortn, J. T. Note on the Capture of a Hornet at High Lane, Cheshire.
: Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., p. 104.
Wainweicnut, Corsran, J. Chloropisca circumdata Mg. (=ornata Loew, nec
Mg.) occurring in houses. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Feb., pp. 38-39.
— Billea irrorata Mg. in Britain, tom. cit. Nov., p. 255.
Wake, Herewatp. Curlew in Northamptonshire. Journ. Northants Nat. Hist.
Soc. Sept., p. 203.
Watrorp, L. Ancestry of the Domestic Rat. Country Life. Feb. 4, p. 155.
— Queen Wasps, tom. cit. Mar. 18, p. 386; May 13, p. 649.
Waker, JAMEes J. Asemum striatum, etc., in the New Forest. Wnt. Mo. Mag.
Aug., pp. 189-190.
-—— [Obituary : Henry Rowland-Brown], tom. cit. July, pp. 165-166.
— [Obituary : David Sharp], tom. cit. Oct., pp. 234-237.
—— Butterfly Notes from Oxford, tom. cit. Nov., p. 251.
Wattace, FranKx. Stalking Season of 1921. Country Life. Jan. 14, pp. 37-40.
Watnace, R. Hepeur. Water Snails and Liver Flukes. Nature. Dec. 23,
“p. 845.
Wattacr, W. Entomology: Coleoptera and Diptera [Report]. Trans. Lincs
Nat. Union, 1921, pp. 151-152.
_ Watiacr, Wittram. On the Spawning and Early Stages of the Herring in the
North Sea (S.W.) and English Channel (E.) [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc.
[Hull], p. 29.
_ Watts, E. Arnotp. Hedge-Sparrow Nesting among Heather. Brit. Birds.
Sept., p. 106.
Wats, H. M. Velocity of Flight of Birds, tom. cit. Oct., p. 140.
Watrote-Bonp, Joun. Wood-lark Breeding in Radnorshire, tom. cit. Dec..
pp. 188-189. '
_ Watsx, Gzo. B. North-Country Hymenoptera. Nat. Feb., p. 72.
—— Yorkshire Hemiptera-Heteroptera, tom. cit. June, p. 199.
— More Yorkshire Hemiptera, tom. cit. Aug., p. 250.
Watton, C. L. Some Observations on the Genus Bombus, etc., in Wales. Hnt.
Mo. Mag. Dec., pp. 271-275.
— Liver Rot Epidemic in North Wales, 1920-21. Journ. Min. Agric. May,
pp. 154-162.
Warp, J. Davis. Records of Diptera and Hymenoptera from North Lancashire.
f Lancs and C. Nat. Mar., pp. 228-234.
_ Warp, Joun J. Wonderland of the Wasps. Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist. and Phil.
; Soc., 1920-21, pp. 139-141.

a A. F. Little Owl. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I.,
f
4
FS

pu. I:, p. 93:
Warren, S. Hazzuepinz. Man and the Ice Age. Man. Dec., pp. 182-183.

558 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Warren, S. Hazzuupinz. Mesvinian Industry of Clacton-on-Sea. Proc, Prehist.
Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 597-602.

Warrincton, E. H. Arrival of Summer Birds. Field. Apr. 15, p. 518.

Warernouss, SypNzy H. Waxwings. Nat. Jan., p. 30.

WartERston, JamEs. New Genus of Jschnocera (Mallophaga). Ent. Mo. Mag.
July, p. 159.

— Chalcid parasite of Lecanopsis formicarum Newstead, tom. cit., p. 163.

—— Observations on the Life-history of a Liotheid (MZallophaga) Parasite of
the Curlew (Numenius arquata Linn.), tom. cit. Nov., pp. 243-247.

—— On the Jschnocera (Bird Lice or Mallophaga) Parasitic upon British
Grouse. Scot. Nat. July, pp. 101-104.

Warxin, E. E. See R. D. Laurie.

Warxrys, P. Morgan. Clouded Yellow in Devonshire. Field. Sept. 23, p. 443.

Watson, Douctas. Argynnis lathonia at Gravesend. Hnt. Apr., p. 88.

Warson, E. B. Queen Wasps. Country Life. May 6, p. 617.

— and Bucxuurst, A. §. Should Wasps be Destroyed? tom. cit. Apr. 29,
pp. 564-565.

Warson, Hucu. Limazx tenellus Mill. in Wales. Journ. Conch. Jan., p. 268.

—— Notes on the Nomenclature of Hygromia, Helicella, etc. Journ. Conch.
June, pp. 277-285.

Watson, J. B. Little Owl Breeding in Merioneth. Brit. Birds. Aug., p. 84.

— Food of Young Whitethroats, “tom. cit. Sept., p. 105.

—— Common Scoters in Cardigan Bay in Summer, sit cit: De 10.

— Little Owl in London. Country Life. June 3, 763.

—— ‘Tree-Creeper and Wren in Kensington inden ‘Field. Jan. 21, p. 100. |

— Little Owl in London, tom. cit. May 6, p. 622

—— Wood-Wren in Kensington Gardens, tom. cit. “May 27, p. 729.

Watson, Ricuarp M. Nesting of Slavonian Grebe in Scotland. Scot. Nat.
Sept., p. 146.

Watson, W. G. Notes from Holy Island, Northumberland, 1920-21. Brit.
Birds. Mar., p. 239. ‘

Warram, W. E. L. Reptilia [Report]. Ann. Rep. Huddersfield Nat., etc., Soc..—

1919-20, p. 9.
— WNecrobia rufines at Newsome. Nat. Feb., p. 77. ‘9
—— Grey Wagtail in the Huddersfield District, ‘tom. cit. May, p. 163. }
—— Wintering of the Pied Wagtail at Newsome, Yorks, tom. cit. June.

S198;
WEARE, Cuas. Colias croceus in Worcestershire. Ent. Aug., p. 187.
Wesster, W. T. Birds in a London Garden. Natureland. Jan., p. 16.
—— Fish Capturing Birds, tom. cit., p. 17.
More about Aquariums, tom. cit. July, pp. 48-49.
We cH, Frepertck D. Hobby Capturing ceaelines Field. May 6, p. 622.
Hobby in North Kent. tom. cit. May 13, p. 658.
Cuckoo Doings, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 332- 333.
Clouded Yellow Butterfly and Hibernation, tom, cit., pp. 333-334.
Destruction of Farwigs, tom. cit. Nov., p. 344.
Otters Destructive to Birds. Nat. Feb., p. 76.
[R. J. Wetcu in error]. Sap of Fir Trees attractive to Bees. tom. cit.
Dec., pp. 399-400.
Wetcx, R. aT: DD ehonisnis roseus at Belfast. Jrish Nat. July, p. 82.
—— Brown Lizard, Lacerta vivipara, at Whitehead, loc. cit.
Gull and the Golf Ball. Trish Nat. Dec., p. 140.
Wetman, P. A. Red Admiral in wane Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.
Westropp, Duprzy. Colias electra and OC. lesbia (?): Preponderance of Pale
Form. Znt. Feb., pp. 36-37.
Wever, B. Van vz. Cuckoo returning to same Summer Quarters for four years.
Brit. Birds. Sept., pp. 107-108.
Wuetpon, J. A. Tree Pipit’s Eggs. Lancs and C. Nat. Oct., p. 96.
Wurraker. J. Cinnamon Variety of Brown Rat. Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.
Hobby in City of Nottingham, tom. cit. June 3, p. 766.
—— Warieties of Woodcock. tom. cit. Dec. 23, p. 930.
Wuuirr, W. Watmustry. Cir] Bunting. Nineteenth Century. May, pp. 814 a8,

§
S|

eal

Stee

SIS Dabs

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 559

Wauitrusap, Henry. British Fresh-water Planarians (7vicladida). Kssex Nat.
Mar., pp. 1-20.

Wairrart, E. G. Raven’s Tactics. Country Life. Feb. 4, p. 156.

Wairttz, F. G. Notes on the Lepidoptera of Glen Fender, Perthshire, and
Invershin, Sutherlandshire. Wnt. Jan., pp. 10-11.

Wicut, Wm. D. All-White House Martin. Field. Oct. 21, p. 624.

Witp, Otrver H. Scottish Method of Bird-catching. Scot. Nat. Jan.,
pp. 13-15.

— Breeding of Red Admiral Butterfly in Bute, tom. cit., p. 27.

Wirxes, A. H. Pacer. Share of Incubation in the Turnstone. Brit. Birds.
Mar., p. 243.

Witkrnson, G. Mechanism of the Cochlea. Nature. Dec. 2, p. 737.

Witxinson, Oswatp J. Magpie. Country Life. Jan. 28, p. 104-107.

_— Confessions of a Nature Photographer, tom. cit. Dec. 16, pp. 803-806.

Wittrorp, Henry. See Ralph Chislett.

Wituiams, H. R. 8. Cleaning and Preparing Diatoms. Ann. Rep. Manchester
Micro. Soc. Sept., pp. 24-29, abs. in Lancs and C. Nat., Dec., p. 98.

Wiutiams, L. Appams. Quail in Monmouthshire. Field. Aug. 19, p. 285.

Wittiams, W. J. American Bitterns in Ireland. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 212.

Wiis, J. R. Striped Hawk Moth in Sussex. Field. June 3, p. 766.

Witson, J. A. §. Birds in the Poetry of Burns. Nineteenth Century. July,
pp. 80-86.

Witson, W. Velvet-Scoter in Cheshire. Brit. Birds. Feb., p. 213.

WinckwortH, Ronaup. Brighton Sea-shore Life [Abs.] Ann. Rep. Brighton
and H. Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 39-40.

Winstantey, T. G. Curious Nesting Site of Robin. Natureland. July, p. 54.

Winter, W. P. Plant Galls [Bishopdale]. Nat. Dec., p. 388.

Witnersy, H. F. Practical Handbook of British Birds. Part XIIJ. Feb. 16.
pp. 353-448 ; Sept. 6, pp. 449-624.

— ‘British Birds’ Marking Scheme : Progress for-1921. rit. Birds. Mar..
pp. 232-238.,

— Cuckoo in December in England, tom. cit., p. 243.

— Western Mediterranean Shearwater in Hampshire, Joc. cit.

— On the White-billed Northern Diver as a British Bird, tom. cit. June.
pp. 9-12; abs. in Zbis, Oct., p. 735.

—— Races of Hider Duck. Brit. Birds, p. 32.

Wirnycomse, C. L. Life-History of Hemerobius stigma Steph. Aut. May,
pp. 97-99.

Chrysopa dorsalis Burm. at Oxshott, Surrey. Hnt. July, p. 165.
Parasemidalisannee Enderlein, a coniopterygid new to Britain, with notes

on some other British Coniopterygide, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 169-172.

tera), tom. cit. Sept., pp. 193-194.
Food of Boreus. Nat. June, p. 200.
Larva of Jeniorhyncus richardii from Epping Forest [Abs.]. Journ.
Quekett Micro. Club. Nov., p. 347.
Womerstry, H. Diptera from the Bristol District. Hnt. Mo. Mag. Oct..
p. 234. +
Woop, Frep. F. Scarcity of Spilosoma lubricipeda. Hnt. Dec., p. 279.
Wooprorpe, F. C. Some Notes on the Collection of British Macro-lepidoptera
in the Hope Department of the Oxford University Museum, tom. cif.
Jan., pp. 12-14.
— Fortnight in Carnarvonshire, tom. cit., pp. 22-24.
Woopman, Witttam. Notes on the Natural History of Morpeth. Proc. Ber-
wicks. Nat. Club, pp. 345-347.
Woopwarp, B. B. Newquay: Fifteen Years After. Geol. Mag. Sept., p. 432.
Woopwarp, J. C. Notes on Collecting in June, July, and August in Shropshire.
Ent. Rec. Nov., pp. 189-191.
Woopwarp, G. C. @. alchymistra in Shropshire, tom. cit. July, p. 142.
Wootacorr, Davrp. On the 60-ft. Raised Beach at Easington, Co. Durham.
Geol. Mag. Feb., pp. 64-74.

-—— On the Identity of Sympherobius (Hemerobius) elegans Stephens (Neurop-

“Wootner, Ricnarp A.-. Waxwings in Herts. Field. Feb. 4, p. 172.

Wormartp. See McLean.
aixc 1923 PP

560 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Worrnineron, J. W. Mortality of Sea Fowl. Field. April 1, p. 481.

Wraristaw, M. E. T. Food of Woodpigeon, tom. cit. Feb. 18, p. 234.

Waricut, Arsert E. WHromene ocella, etc., in Lancashire. Hunt, Feb., p. 38.

— Lycena astrarche vars. in North Lancashire, tom. cit. May, pp. 111-112.

Wricut, A. G. Kestrels Nesting in Colchester Castle. Field. May 20, p. 692.

Wynne, A. R. F. P. Scarcity of Spilosoma lubricipeda. Ent. Dec., pp. 279- —
280.

Wrwnne, G. Manchester Entomological Society [Report]. Zancs and C. Nat. —
Mar., pp. 235-236. |

Wynne, J. F. G. Manchester Entomological Society [Report]. Znt. Mar.,
pp. 69-70; May, p. 118. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., p. 112.

Yoncr, Joun. Peregrine Falcon attacking a woman. Brit. Birds. July,
pp. 50-51.

Younc, CuaruesG. Garden-Warblers in Perthshire, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 238-239.

— Great Spotted Woodpecker in Perthshire, tom. cit., pp. 240-241.

— Great Crested Grebes in Perthshire, tom. cit., pp. 241-242.

— Green Sandpiper in Sussex in Winter, tom. cit. Apr., p. 274.

— Reed-Buntings Flocking in Spring, tom. cit. May, p. 293.

Early Arrival of Tree-Pipit, tom. cit. June, p. 21.
Red-legged Partridge washed up on Sussex Coast, tom. cit., p. 27.
Early Movement of Swifts on South Coast, tom. cit. Sept., p. 107.
Summer Flocking of Starlings, tom. cit., p. 116.

Youne, H.G. Dunfanaghy [Raven]. Country Life. Mar. 11, pp. 335-337.

Prehistoric Archzeology.

Anon. Date of the Neolithic Period. Antig. Journ. Jan., p. 53.

Discoveries at Brighton, tom. cit., pp. 55-6.

Excavations near Cissbury, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 138-139.

Donations to the Museum. Proc. Soc. Antig., 1922, pp. 10-20, 115-117.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club [Report]. JZrish Nat. Novy., pp. 131-132. |

Reports of Meetings. Cockburn Low, Holy Island, Belford, Kelso, Ber- |
wick. Proc. Berwicks. Nat. Club, pp. 262-291.

Report of the Museum and Art Gallery Contmittee [Bristol]. Sept. 30, |
23 pp. 5

Year’s Work in Archeology [Congress Arch..Soc.j, 1921. No.1, 34 pp. —

Report on the further Excavations carried out at the Druid’s Circles, on
Birkrigg, in the Parish of Urswick, September-October 1921. Trans. —
Cumb. and Westm. Antig. and Arch. Soc. N.S. Vol. XXII,
pp. 346-352. i

Proceedings, tom. cit., pp. 434-461.

General Meetings, Exhibitions, and Excursions. Proc. Isle ) Wight Nat.
Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. m., pp. 54-69.

[Leeds] Museum [Report], for the period November 9, 1921, to March 31,
1922, pp. 12-14.

London Museum. Guide to the Prehistoric Room. [Third edition.]
12 pp. .

Proceedings of Section H (Anthropology) [of the British Association]
Man. Oct., pp. 158-160.

The Foxall Flints, tom. cit. Oct., p. 160.

Bronze Axe, Prehistorians. Nat. Jan., p. 2.

Repairs to Bronze-Age Vessel, tom. cit. Feb., p. 51.

Sheffield Axe, tom. cit. Mar., p. 82.

Piltdown Man, tom. cit. Apr., p. 115.

Museums, Old and New, tom. cit., p. 116.

Early British Trackways, tom. cit. July, pp. 214-215.

Cup and Ring Markings, tom. cit. Aug., p. 249.

Fish Hooks of Flint, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 338-339.

Prehistoric Village Site at Sidmouth. Nature. June 24, p. 823.

Man and the Ice Age, tom. cit. Nov. 4, pp. 617-618. ;

Underpinning of the Devil’s Den. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist.
Soc., No. 70, pp. 38-45,

ae ved |

eee Aoi

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 561

Anon. Mrs. Cunnington’s Excavations at All Cannings Cross, tom. cit.,
pp. 34-88; and in Antig. Journ., Jan., pp. 18-19.

— Summary of Proceedings. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. IIl.,
pt. 1v., pp. 607-624.

— Sessional Meetings. Proc. Spelcol. Soc. Bristol. Vol. 1., No. 3, pp. 158-
164.

— Annual Report for 1921-22. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec..
pp. 39-48.

— Mystery of Stonehenge, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 92-93.

— Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union and its Work. Supplement to Local Pro-
gramme Brit. Assoc. Hull, pp. 1-31.

AuLan, JOHN. Kidland Topographical Notes. Proc. Berwickshire Nat. Club.
Vol. XXIV., pt. rv., pp. 490-496.

AutcHin, J. H. Notes on Recent Additions to the Collections Maidstone Mus.
and Pub. Library [Reprint].

Attorort, A. Happiran. The Sussex War Dyke: A Pre-Roman Thoroughfare.
Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. LXIII., pp. 54-85.

ALMAINE, H. G. W. pv’. Palxolithic Gravel near Abingdon. Antig. Journ.
July, pp. 257-258.

AnperRson, A. WuHitrorD. Late Celtic Burial, Abbots Langley, Herts, tom. cit
July, pp. 259-260.

ANDERSON, R. 8. G. Notes on the Discovery of a Rock-sculpture at Gallows
Outon, Whithorn, Wigtownshire. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922,
pp. 44-45.

Armsrrone, A. Lzestiz. Maglemose Remains of Holderness and their Baltic
Counterparts [Abs.}. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], pp. 47-48.

— Engravings on Flint-crust from Grime’s Graves. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
[Edinburgh], p. 439.

— Further Discoveries of Engraved Flint-crust and associated Implements
at Grime’s Graves. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v.,
pp. 548-558.

— Two East Yorkshire Bone Harpoons. Man. Sept., pp. 130-131; Abs.
in Nature, Apr. 21, 1923, p. 547.

ArmstronG, E. C. R. Note on the Hallstatt Period in Ireland. Antiq. Journ.
July, pp. 204-207.

Bappetey, St. Cratr. Romano-British Gematcry at Barnwood, Gloucestershire.
Journ. Roman Studies. Vol. X. , pt. 1., pp. 60-67.

Baker, L. Y. Field Work. Proc. Speleol. Soc. Bristol. Vol. I., No. 3,
pp. 151-154.

Bett, Aurrep. Pleistocene and later Birds of Great Britain and Ireland. Nat.
Aug., pp. 251-253.

Buunt, C. E. Archeological Section [Report]. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat.
Hist. Soc., No. 70, pp. 12-15.

Re iniy R. C.’ Bronze Age Cist at Rock, Northumberland. Antig. Journ.
July, p. 258.

‘Boswett, P. G. H., and I. Dovsuz. Geology of the Country Around Felix-

y stowe and Ipswich. ve Geol. Assoc. Nov., pp. 285-305.

Brevit, H. Observations on the Pre-Neolithic Industries of Scotland. Proc.
Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 261-281.

— Les industries pliocénes de la région d’Ipswich. Revue Anthropologique,
XXXII., pp. 226-229.

_BREwIs, PARKER. Guide to the Castle of Newcastle-on-Tyne. Part I. The
Keep. 33 pp.

— Guide to the Castle of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Part II. The Blackgate
Museum and Heron Pit. 32 pp.

ons C. E. P., and J. E. Marr. Ice-Age and Man. Man. May, pp. 75-76.

Bryce, THoMAs H. Origin of the Scottish People. Rep. Brit. Assoc. [Ldin-
burgh), p. 441. 7

Bucuanan, oat Report on a Short Cist Found at Camelon, Falkirk. Proc.

4 Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 65-66.

Buexuny, Francis. Yorkshire Gravers. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia.

Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 542-547.

4
:
a

PP2

562 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Buckury, Francis. Early Tardenois Remains at Bamburgh, ete. Proc. Soc.
Antig. Newcastle, No. 24, pp. 319-320.

— Pygmy Industry on Northumberland Coast. Antig. Journ. Oct.,
pp. 376-377.

Bupcen, W. Hallstatt Pottery from Eastbourne, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 354-360.
—- Eastbourne. Find of Hallstatt Pottery. Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. LXIII..

p. 241.
Burkitt, Mites C. Notes on the Chronology of the Ice Age. Man. Dec.,
pp. 179-182.

Bourcuer, Cuartes H. Hoard of Bronze Discovered at Grays Thurrock. Antigq.
Journ. Apyr., pp. 105-108.

Catyanper, J. Granam. An Earthenware Pot found in a grave at Dunbar,
East Lothian, and three short Cists discovered on the Golf Course
there. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 27-33.

— Three Bronze Age Hoards recently added to the National Collection, with

Notes on the Hoard from Duddingston Loch, tom. cit., pp. 351-364.
Food-vessel Urn from Oban, Argyll, tom. cit., pp. 364-365. _
Capitan, L. Les Siles Tertiaires d’Ipswich (Angleterre). Rev. Anthrop. Mar.,

pp. 126-136.

C[uarnK], E. K. Find of a Celt near Halifax. Yorks Arch. Journ., pt. 103.
pp. 304-305.

Cottert, ANrHONY. Water-springs in English Life. Nineteenth Century. May,
pp. 806-813.

Cotuns, E. R. Discovery of an Early Paleolithic Implement in Yorkshire. —
Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 603-605; —
see also Sci. Proqg., July, p. 35.

Coox, W. H. Benjamin Harrison of Ightham. Rochester Nat., No. 129. —

pp. 26-29.

See J. H. Evans.

Coorrr, N. ©. Preliminary Report of Some Recent Discoveries at Brean Down. —
Proc. Spelrrol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21, pp. 93-95. y

— Goatchurch Cave, Burrington, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 144-146. ;

Craw, J. H. Report of Meetings, 1922. Proc. Berwickshire Nat. Club.
Vol. XXIV., pt. Iv., pp. 364-388.

Crawrorp, O. G. 8. Prehistoric Invasion of England. Antig. Journ. Jan.,
pp. 27-35. 5

—— Note on the Construction of Hill-top Camps, tom. cit., p. 54.

— Harpoons under Peat at Holderness, Yorks. Nature. Oct. 7, p. 481.

— Notes on Archeological Information incorporated in the Ordnance Survey
Maps. Part I. Ordnance Survey: Professional Papers. New Series,
No. 6, 11 pp.

— Flint Factory at Thatcham, Berks. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia.
Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 500-514.

— Notes on Field-work round Avebury, December 1921. Wilts Arch. and
Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec., pp. 52-63.

Crer, James E., and ALEXANDER O. Curtr. Account of the Excavations on the
Traprain Law during the Summer of 1921. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot.,
1922, pp. 189-259.

Cunnrncton. B. H. Pits in Battlesbury Camp, Wilts. Antig. Journ. Oct., |
pp. 378-379. #|

Cunnineton, M. E. Village Site of the Hallstatt Period in Wiltshire. Antig.
Journ. Jan., pp. 13-19.

— Discovery of a Bronze Cinerary Urn near Marlborough, tom. cit. Oct.,

. 378. r

== ane from Cold Kitchen Hill, Wilts. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Maq.
Dec., pp. 67-69.

— late Bronze Age Gold Bracelet from Clench Common, tom. cit., pp. 69-70.

- Curtr, ALEXANDER O. See James E. Cree.

Curwen. Extor, and Exior Cxrctz Curwen. Notes on the Archeology of

Burpham and the neighbouring Downs. Sussex Arch. Coll, Vol, LXIILI.,
p. 1-53. :
Cun wae Extor Creciu.—See Eliot Curwen.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 568

Davirs, J. A. Aveline’s Hole, Burrington Coombe. An Upper Paleolithic
Station. Proc. Spelwol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21, pp. 61-72.
also Nature, July 8, p. 54; Antig. Journ., Oct., p. 379.

—— Second Report on Aveline’s Hole, tom. cit. Vol. 1., No. 3, pp. 118-118.
Abs, in Journ. Brit, Assoc. [Hull], p. 46.

Dixon, JoHN H. Cup-marked Stones in Strathtay, Perthshire.
Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 34-43.

Dosson, D. P. Earthworks [Abs.]. Proc. Spelwol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol,
1920-21, pp. 102-103.

Dovsur, I. 8. See P. G. H. Boswell.

Dowie, H. G. Kingsteignton Idol. Journ. Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. III1.,
No. 2, pp. 137-140.

Dounuorp, G. A. Report of the Keeper of the [Warrington] Museum for the two
years ending June 30, 1922, pp. 1-11.

Evans, A. A. Prehistoric Man: Some Vestiges in Sussex [Abs.]. Z'rans. Last-
bourne Nat. Hist., etc., Soc. May, pp. 208-209.

Evans, J. H. Anthropological Note. Rochester Nat., No. 129, pp. 5-7.

— On the Stone Implements of Primeval Man: their Classification and
Geological Antiquity [Report of lecture by W. H. Cook], tom. cit.,
pp. 31-32.

Face, C. C. Regional Survey of the Croydon Area. Geog. Journ. Nov.,
pp. 336-346.

FarRBAIRN, ARCHIBALD. Account of the Excavation of a Cairn, and of the
Remains of Four other Cairns in the Parish of Muirkirk, Ayrshire, and
the Discovery of a Deposit of Burnt Human Bones at Borland, Old
Cumnock, Ayrshire. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 126-133.

Fauuaize, E. N. Anthropology at the British Association. Nat. Nov.,
pp. 347-350.

-— New Light on the Piltdown Skull. Discovery. July, pp. 181-183;
abs. in Nature, July 29, p. 161, and Nat., Aug., p. 246.

Fawcett, Epwarp. Further Report on the Human Material Found in Aveline’s
Hole. Proc. Speleol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21, pp. 79-82.
Furtcuer, W.G. D. Archeology [Report]. Caradoc and 8.V./.C. Rec. of Bare

Facts, No. 31, pp. 5-6.

F[tevre], H. J. Prehistoric Western Europe. Nature. Mar. 9, pp. 302-303.

Forestier, A. Crossing the Channel in Prehistoric Times. Ji/. London News.
Feb. 11, pp. 182-185.

Fox, Cyrim. Distribution of Population in the Cambridge Region in Early
Times, with special reference to the Bronze Age [Abs.}]. Journ. Brit.
Assoc. [Hull], pp. 43-44.

Fox, C. F. Excavations in the Cambridgeshire Dykes. Antig. Journ. Jan.,
pp. 57-58.

— Karly Iron Age Cemetery at Foxton, Cambs, tom. cit., p. 58.

Frost, M. Worthing [Cissbury, etc.]. Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. LXIII.,, p. 245.

GaRDNER, WiLLouGHBY. Excavation of a Barrow near Holywell, North Wales.
Antig. Journ. Jan., pp. 63-64.

— Excavations of a Mound at Rug Park, Merionethshire, tom. cit., p. 64.

Garritt, G. A. Cave Exploration in -Derbyshire. Antig. Journ. July;
pp. 258-259.

Guapstone, L. Human Cranium dredged from the River Trent. Journ. Roy.
Anth. Inst.; Abs. m Nature, May 6, p. 593.

Gopparp, E. Devil’s Den, Manton, Wilts. Antig. Journ. Jan., p. 60.

Gopparp, Ep. H. Aldbourne: Bronze and Iron Antiquities; Bronze Celt from
Amesbury; Bronze Palstave, Dinton Beeches. Wilts Arch. and Nat.
Hist. Mag. Dec., pp. 75-77.

Goopwin, Geratp. Pottery Repairs in the Bronze Age. Connoisseur. Jan.,
p. 40. See also Wat., Feb., p. 51.

Gorpon, G. B. Ancient London. Museum Journal [Philadelphia]. Sept.,
pp. 181-237.

Gray, H. Sr. Gztorcr. Excavations at Murtry Hill, Orchardleigh Park, 1920.
Proc. Somersetshire Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXVII., p. 39-55.

Proc. Soe.

564 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

GRIEVE, SYMINGTON. Remarkable Stone Implement resembling a Knife found
at Caisteal nan Gillean, Oronsay. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922,
pp. 164-168.

Grist, W. R. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Exhibition at the British Association,
Nat. Nov., pp. 360-364.

Grunpy, G. B. Ancient Highways and Tracks of Wiltshire, Berkshire, and
‘Hampshire, and the Saxon Battlefields of Wiltshire. Arch. Journ.
Vol. LXAXYV., pp. 69-194; abs. in Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec.,
pp. 93-96.

HAwLey, Benge Recent Excavations at Stonehenge. Nature. June 17,

81-783

Hopeson, J. C. Lordship, the Manor and the Township of Beamley. A’ch.
Aliana. Vol. XIX., pp. 58-75.

Hoveson, T. V. See G. A. Rowse.

Homes, T. Rice. Age of Stonehenge. Antig. Journ. Oct., pp. 344-349.

[Hovuz, W. E.]. Fifteenth Annual Report of the National Museum of Wales,
Cardiff. 35 pp.

Husert, H. La date de l’arrivée des premiers Bretons en Grande Bretagne.
LT’ Anthropologie. Vol. XXXII., pp. 268-269.

Kerru, Antuur. Origin of the Scottish People. Rep. Brit. Assoc. [Edinburgh],
pp. 439-441. Nineteenth Century. May, pp. 819-828.

— Is Darwinism at the Dusk or at the Dawn? tom. cit. Aug., pp. 173-182.

— Report on the Right Parietal Bone of a Human Skull from a Neolithic
Deposit. Journ. Northants Nat. Hist. Soc. Dec., p. 212.

—— Dawn of National Life. Peoples of All Nations, No. I., pp. vii-xxiv.

Kenpatt, H. G. O. Scraper-core Industries in North Wilts. Proc. Prehist.
Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 515-541.

KENDALL, Percy F. Man and the Glacial Period. Nat. Feb., pp. 67-68.

Lancrorp, F. Third Report on Read’s Cavern (Keltic Cavern). Proc. Spelcol.
Soc. Bristol. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 135-143.

Lawson, Masor. Descriptive Catalogue of the Old Bayle Gate and its Contents,
Bridlington. 14 pp.

Layarp, Nina F. Prehistoric Cooking Places in Norfolk. Proc. Prehist. Soc.
East Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 483-498; abs. in Nature, May 6,
. 593.

-——- Beet astouic Cooking-places [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 46.

Le Brn, J. A. Sur les races paléolithiques [Galley Hill, Piltdown]. Bulletin
de la Soc. préhistorique francaise. XIX., No. 10, 201-210.

Leeps, E. T. Further Discoveries of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages at Peter-
borough. Antig. Journ. July, pp. 220-237.

—— Notes on Early British Pottery, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 330-338.

Lows, Harrorp J. Kent’s Cavern Anthropology and the Ice Ages. Journ.
Torquay Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. II1I., No. 2, pp. 71-83; abs. in Nature,
Jan. 20, p. 95.

— Seventy-eighth Annual Meeting [Report]. Journ. Torquay Nat. Hist.
Soc. Vol. III., No. 2, pp. 144-148.

Macautster, R. A. S. Ogham Stone at the Cotts, Co. Wexford. Journ. Roy.
Soc. Antiq. Ireland. June, p. 77.

Mactaucuian, Henry. Notes on Camps in the Parishes of Branxton, Carham,

Ford, Kirk-Newton, and Wooler, in Northumberland. Proc. Berwick-

shire Nat. Club. Vol. XXIV., pt. Iv., pp. 451-470.

Masor, AuBaAny F. Eastward End of Wansdyke. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist.
Mag. Dec., pp. 70-72.

Matcoum, L. W. G. Note on a Needle Grinder from Priddy Hill. Proc.
Spelceol. Soc. Bristol. Vol. I., No. 3, p. 155.

Mann, Lupovic Mactenian. Ancient Sculpturings in Tiree. Proc. Soc. Antiq.
Scot., 1922, pp. 118-126.

Marert, R. R. Mousterian and Neolithic Ages in Jersey [Abs.]. Proc. Spelcol.
"Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21, pp. 101-102.

Marr, J. H. See C. E. P. Brooks.

Maynarp, Guy. See Edward Packard.

MerepitH, W. M. Box Hill. Nineteenth Century. May., pp. 417-4

Morr, J. Rem. Four Suffolk Flint Implements. Antig. Journ. Apr., aE ia 117.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922, 565
Morr, J. Rerp. On a Series of Ancient ‘ Floors’ in a Small Vailey near Ipswich.
Proc. Prehist. Soc. Hast Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 559-579.
_-—— Discovery of an Early Paleolithic Implement in Yorkshire, tom. cit
pp. 605-606.
— Early Paleolithic Flint Implements from West Runton, Norfolk. Man.
2 Mar., pp. 34-36. f
* —— Red Crag Flints of Foxhall, tom. cit. July, pp. 104-105.
— and Haroup Peake. Ice-Age and Man, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 52-54.
Morris, Grorcs. Some Neolithic Sites in the Upper Valley of the Essex Cam.
Essex Nat. Apr., pp. 49-68. ’
_ Ossourn, H. F., and Custer A. Reeps. Old and New Standards of Pleisto-
2 cene Division in relation to the Prehistory of Man in Europe. Bull.
Geol. Soc. America. Vol. XXXIII. July, pp. 411-490.
— Recent Discoveries on the Antiquity of Man. Washington D.C. Proc.
Nat. Acad. of Sci. Pt. 8, pp. 246-247.
PackaRD, Epwarp, and Guy Maynarp. Seventy-third Annual Report of the
Museum [Ipswich] . . . Committee for the Year 1921-22. 19 pp.
_ Pater, L. S. Influence of Environment on the Development of Prehistoric
Man. Ann. fep. Bristol Nat. Soc. Vol. V., pt. 1v., pp. 192-196.
—— Second Report on the Keltic Cavern. Proc. Speleol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol,
1920-21, pp. 87-91.
— Stratigraphical Position of the Transitional Culture in the South and
South-West of England, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 126-129.
-—— Ice Age and Man in Hampshire. Man. July, pp. 106-110.
Parsons, F. G. Cephalic Index of the British Isles, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 19-23.
Passmorr, A. D. Devil’s Den Dolmen, Clatford Bottom. An Account of the
Monument and of work undertaken in 1921 to strengthen the North-
East Upright. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. June, pp. 523-530.
—— Unrecorded Long Barrow on Horton Down, Rishop’s Cannings; New
Long Barrow at Liddington; Oolitic Stones in Long Barrow, Bishop’s
Cannings; New Long Barrow at Avebury; Standing Stone at Stanton
Fitzwarren; Standing Stones at West Overton; Manton Downs; New
Stone in the Kennett Avenue ; Overton Delling, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 49-51.
—— Avebury Ditch. Antig. Journ. Apr., pp. 109-111.
Paterson, J. Witson. Brock of Mousa: A Survey by H.M. Office of Works.
Proc, Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 172-183.
Peake, Harontp. Archeological Finds in the Kennet Gravels near Newbury.
Antig. Journ. Apr., pp. 125-130.
Study of Man [Presidential Address delivered to Section H, Anthropology,
British Association]. Advancement of Science, pp. 1-14.
[Secretary]. Distribution of Bronze Age Implements. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
[Hdinburgh], pp. 359-360.
Ice Age and Man. Man. Jan., pp. 6-11; abs. in Sci. Progr., Oct.,
pp. 235-236.
Aryan Problem [Abs.] Nature. Apr. 29, p. 563.
Flint Factory at Thatcham, Berks. Proc. Prehist. Soc. Bast Anglia.
Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 499-500.
See J. Reid Moir.
Puutror, J. F. Flints Found at Streatham. Surrey Arch. Collections.
Vol. XXXIV., pp. 114-115.
ocock, R. I. Extinct Species of Men. Conquest. Jan., p. 100-103.
Pripraux, W. pe C. [Maumbury Rings.] Rep. and Trans. Devon. Assoc.
Vol. LIII., pp. 33-35.
EAD, C. Hercuues. Somerset Archeology: A Suggestion. Proc. Somerset
Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. LXVII., pp. 1-11.
Reeps, Cuestrr A. See H. F. Osbourn.
ReID, R. W. Ancient Wooden Trap from the Moss of Auquharney, Aberdeen-
shire. Proc. Soc. Antig. Scot., 1922, pp. 282-287.
Rowssz, G. A., and Hopeson, T. V. Antiquities. Rep. Plymouth Museum, etc.,
i pp. 14-15.
SHeprarD, T. List of Papers bearing upon the Zoology, Botany, and Prehistoric
Archxology of the British Isles, issued during 1920. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
[Edinburgh], pp. 499-549.

*?)

566 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

SueppaRD, T. Hull Municipal Museum of Natural History, Antiquities, and
Applied Art: Its Histery and Collections [Guide]. Hull Mus. Pub.,
No. 130, 12 pp.
Prehistoric Boat from Brigg. Mariner’s Mirror. Aug., pp. 226-232.
Paleolithic Man. Nat. Mar., pp. 97-102.
Hoard of Bronze Axes from Windsor, tom. cit. July, pp. 217-222.
Harpoons under Peat in Holderness, Yorks. Nature. Dec. 2, p. 735.
Early Inhabitants of East Yorkshire. Ours [Hull]. March, pp. 466-470.
Smirn, Recrnanp A. On Some Recent Exhibits. Antiq. Journ. Apr., pp. 93-104.
Sounas, W. J. LEoliths [Abs.]. Proc. Spelwol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21,
pp- 100-101.

SoMERVILLE, Boytu T. Remarks on Mr. Stone’s Paper on the Date of Stone-
henge, and on the dating of Megalithic Structures by Astronomical
Means generally. MJan. Sept., pp. 133-137; abs. in Nature, Sept. 23,
p. 429.

Spain, Grorce R. B. ‘Black Dyke’ in Northumberland: An Account of the
Earthwork. Arch, Hliana. Vol. X1X., pp. 121-168.

SpenceR, Hucu 8. Paleolithic Flint. Berks, Bucks, and Oxon Arch. Journ.,
Spring, p. 103. :

Srone, EK. Hurzert. Stonehenge: Notes on the Midsummer Sunrise. Man.
Aug., pp. 114-118; abs. in Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., Dec., p. 91. —

—— Stonehenge: Concerning the Four Stations. Nature. Apr., 1, pp. 410- —
412; abs. in Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., Dec., pp. 90-91.

-— Date of Stonehenge. Nineteenth Cent. Jan., pp. 105-115; abs. in Antig. ©
Journ., Apr., p. 140, and Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag., Dec.,
pp. 88-89.

— Age of Stonehenge, deduced from Archeological Considerations, tom. cit. —
Dec., p. 90. 4

Sumner, Heywoop. Broad Chalke Earthworks, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 72-73. Q

Swanton, E. W. Haslemere: Flints and other recent additions to the Museum. —
Surrey Arch. Collections. Vol. XXXIV., pp. 104-105.

Taytor, Hersert. Rowberrow Cavern. Proc. Spelcol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol,
1920-21, pp. 83-86.
—— Second Report on Rowberrow Cavern, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 180-134.
Tuacker, A. G. Anthropology. Sci. Progr. Oct., pp. 233-236.
T[Homprson], B. Prehistoric Cattle in Northamptonshire. Journ. Northants
Nat. Hist. Soc. Mar., p. 129.

— Portion of a Human Skull found near Boughton Crossing, tom. cit. Dec.,
p. 212.

Toms, H. 8. The Cross-cut Carpet Shell in Local Kitchen Middens. Ann. Rep.
Brighton and H. Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 50-51.

— Long Barrows in Sussex. Sussex Arch. Coll. Vol. UXIII., pp. 157-165.

—— Cissbury Earthworks. Sussex County Herald. June 28 and July 8;
abs. in Antiq. Journ., Oct., pp. 377-378.

Tratman, KE. K. Field Work. Proc. Spelcol. Soc. Univ. of Bristol, 1920-21,
pp. 95-97.

—— Notes on the Human Teeth obtained from Aveline’s Hole, Burrington
Combe, Somerset, tom. cit. Vol. I., No. 3, pp. 122-125.

— Caves of the Bristol District, tom. cit., pp. 147-150.

— Explorations of Read’s Cavern, near Burrington Combe, Somerset [Abs.].
Journ. Brit. Assoc, [Hull], pp. 45-46.

Vuutiamy, C. E. Note on a Long Barrow in Wales. Man. Jan., pp. 11-13.

Excavation of a Long Barrow in Breconshire, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 150-152.

Waker, F. G. The Site of the ‘Golden Barrow’ at Upton Lovel. Wilts

‘Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec., v. 77.
Warren, S. Hazztepine. Man and the Tee Age. Man. Dec., pp. 182-183.
Red Crag Flints of Foxhall, tom. cit. June, pp. 87-89; Abs. in Nat.,
July, p. 213, and in Nature, July 8, p. 54. 2
— — Mesvinian Industry of Clacton-on-Sea, Essex. Proc. Prehist. Soc. East
Anglia. Vol. III., pt. 1v., pp. 597- 602. 3»
WestRopp, THOMAS Jounson. Promontory Forts of Beare and Bantry. Part II. }

ELT

Journ. Roy. Soc. Antia. Iretand. June, pp. 1-16.
Warrier, Mortimer. Excavations in South Wales. Antig. Journ. Jan., p. 62.

‘

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 567

Wicut, Epwarp. Romano-British Habitation Site on Kithurst Hill. Sussex
Arch. Coli. Vol. LXIII., p. 222.

Woop, C. Antiquarian Report. Ann. Rep. Huddersfield Nat., etc., Soc., 1919-
1920, pp. 7-9.

Woopwarp, A. Smitu. Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department
of Geology and Paleontology in the British Museum (Natural History).
3rd ed., 34 pp.; Abs. in Nature, May 6, p. 624.

Wortn, R. Hansrorp [Sec.]. Fortieth Report of the Committee appointed to
collect and record facts relating to Barrows in Devonshire, and to take
steps, when possible, for their preservation. Rep. and 7'rans. Devon.
Assoc. Vol. LIII., pp. 84-88.

Wricut, ArtHur G. List of Additions to the Museum. Rep. Colchester
Museum, pp. 7-9.

Botany.

Anon. Reports of Meetings. Cockburn Low, Holy Island, Belford, Kelso, Ber-
wick. Proc. Berwicks. Nat. Club, pp. 262-291.
Report of the Museum and Art Gallery Committee [Bristol]. Sept. 30,
23 pp.

Account of the Annual and General Meetings. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat.
Soc. -Vol. V., pt. Iv., pp. 163-169.

Catalogue of the Books, Manuscripts, Maps and Drawings in the British
Museum. Vol. 6. Supplement, 511 pp.

Essex Field Club: Reports of Meetings. Hssex Nat. Mar., pp. 34-43;
Apr., pp. 86-106.

Botanical Section. Rep. Felsted School Sci. Soc. No. 27, pp. 40-41.

Note on Vegetation Maps of London Area. Geograph. Teacher. Spring,
pp. 233-235.

Dublin Microscopical Club. Jrish Nat. Jan., p. 7; Feb., p. 23; Dec.,
p. 137.

Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], tom. cit. May, p. 60; Dec.,
pp. 137-139.

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club [Report], fom. cit. Aug., pp. 87-88;
Nov., pp. 131-132.

General Meetings, Exhibitions, and Excursions. Proc. Isle of Wight
Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 1., pp. 54-69.

Liverpool Botanical Society [Report]. Lancs and C. Nat. Mar., pp. 238-
239; Aug., pp. 11-12; Oct., pp. 90-92; Dec., p. 105.

With the United Field Naturalists: The Carr Wood Meeting, tom. cit.
Aug., pp. 37-40.

Joint Ramble [Cock Bridge, near Whalley], tom. cit. Aug., p. 40.

Dwarf Cornel (Cornus swecica) in Lancashire, tom. cit. Aug., p. 42.

Combined Scientific Demonstration at Liverpool, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 61-63.

Items of Interest, tom. cit. Oct., p. 83.

Grafting of Wild Trees, tom. cit. Oct., p. 96.

List of Exhibits. Ann. Rep. Manchester Micros. Soc. Sept., pp. 16-21.

Field Days. Rep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 70, p. 11.

Filices, tom. cit., pp. 48-49.

Plant Galls, tom. cit., p. 50.

Spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.). Minis. Agric. and Fish, Leaflet No. 387.

Twenty-seventh Annual Report Sphagna. True Mosses Hepatics. Moss
Exchange Club. June, pp. 284-298.

Linnean Herbarium—Pollination of Primulas. Nat. Feb., pp. 50-52.

Fungus Foray, tom. cit. Mar., p. 83.

Common Weeds, tom. cit. May, p. 148.

Cheshire Peat [Abs.]; Orchid Mycorrhiza; Symbiosis; Microscopie
Moulds. Joseph Charlesworth, tom. cit. June, pp. 178-182. -

Destruction of Orchids, tom. cit. Aug., p. 243.

[Very Rare British Orchid (Orchis hircina).| Nature. July 15, p. 88.

Present Position of Darwinism, tom. cit. Dec. 2, pp. 751-753.

Pere! Wepeeb ieee persia aSl tlh E Eek |

568 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Anon. Out and about in March. Nature Lover. Mar., pp. 4-9; In April. Apr.,
pp. 33-40; May, pp. 65-72; June, pp. 97-104.

—— Daffodil, tom. cit. -Mar., pp. 10-15. ;

—— Scent in Nature: In the Plant World, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 46-49; May,

. 80-83.

Wood Anemone or Windflower, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 40-45.

Gorse, tom. cit. May, pp. 73-79.

Rose, tom. cit. June, pp. 105-112.

Flowers in their Seasons, tom. cit., pp. 113-116.

Wonders of Plant Life. Outline of Science. No. 11, pp. 421-440.

Additions to the Museum. Proc. Somerset Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vol. LXVILI., pp. Ixxiii-lxxx.
—— Notes on the Grasses, for Beginners. Wild Flower Mag. June, pp. 9-10;
Aug., pp. 9-10.

—— [Reports of Excursions.] TZ'rans. Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VII.,
pt. Iv., pp. 308-326.

— Annual Fungus Foray, tom. cit., pp. 328-329.

— Fungi [of Bingley]. Yorks Nat. Union Circ. No. 299, p. 2.

— Mosses [of Bingley], loc. cit.

— Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union and its Work. Supplement to Local Pro-
gramme. Brit, Assoc. [Hull], pp. 1-81.

Apamson, R. 8S. Studies of the Vegetation of the English Chalk, I; Wood-
lands of Ditcham Park, Hampshire. Journ. Hcol. Feb., pp. 113-219.

Arkin, J. J. M. &. Annual Address [Botanical]. Proc. Berwickshire
Nat. Club. Vol. XAIV., pt. Iv., pp. 353-363.

Auten, W. B. Fungi [Report]. Caradoc and §.V.V.C. Rec. of Bare Facts.
No. 31, pp. 12-16.

Auston, Frank 8. Ash (Mraxinus excelsior). Vrans. Lincs Nat. Union. 1921,
pp. 141-149.

ArperR, AGNES. On the Nature of the ‘ Blade’ in certain Monocotyledonous
Leaves. Ann. Bot. July, pp. 329-351.

ARMITAGE, Exgsonora. Further Notes on Elm Flowering. Journ. Bot. May,
pp. 141-142.

ArmsTgEAD, Dororny. See J. H. Priestley.

Atkins, W. R. G. Hydrogen Jon Concentration of Sea Water in its Bio-
logical Relations. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. Oct., pp. 717-771.

— Respirable Organic Matter of Sea Water, tom. cit., pp. 772-780.

—— Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Cells of some Marine Algae, tom. cit.
pp. 785-788.

—— Influence upon Algal Cells of an Alteration in the Hydrogen Ion Con-
centration of Sea Water, tom. cit., pp. 789-791.

—— Some Factors affecting the Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Soil
and its Relation to Plant Distribution. Notes Bot. School Trinity Coll.
Dublin. Mar., pp. 133-177.

—— Note on the Occurrence of the Finger and Toe Disease of Turnips in
Relation to the Hydrogen Ion Concentration of the Soil, tom. cit.,
pp. 191-198.

Bacon, GurTRuDE. Word in Season. Wild Flower Mag. Feb., pp. 8-10.

Batt, Nicgen G. See Henry H. Dixon.

Barker, M. M., and Gisson, C. M. Studies of the Somerset Turf Moors.
Journ. Heol. Nov., pp. 178-184.

Barren, L. Abnormal Primrose. Journ. Bot. Aug., pp. 238-239.
Barren, Liny. Genus Polysiphoriam ; a Critical Revision of the British Species,
based upon Anatomy [Abs.]. Zinn. Soc. Cire. No. 409, p. 3.
BEANLAND, J. Flowering Plants [Bingley]. Yorks Nat. Union Cire. No. 299,
p: 2.

Bennett, ArtHuR. Hippohe Rhamnoides L., and its names. Nat. May,
pp. 157-158.

—— Statice and Atriplex in Lincolnshire, tom. cit. June, p. 197.

—— Potamogeton x sudermanicus in England. Journ. Bot. Feb., p. 55.

Bew ey, W. F. Anthracnose of the Cucumber under Glass. Journ. Minis.
Agric. Aug., pp. 469-472; Sept., pp. 558-562.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 06D

Bexon, Dororuy. See H. 8S. Holden.

Brsuor, E. B. Botanical Section : Report for 1921. London Nat. 1921, pp. xi-
xii.

Bonn, C. J. Sex of Irish Yew Trees. Nature. Dec. 16, p. 810.

Bower, F. O. Primitive Spindle as a Fundamental Feature in the Embryology
of Plants. Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb. Nov. 4, pp. 1-36.

B[Raptry], J. Malham and Kilnsey [Excursion]. Haworth Ramb. Cire.
July 29.

Bramury, W. G. Poisonous effect of Hay. Nat. Apr., p. 143.

Britten, H., Jun. Out of Season Blooms. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., p. 139.

— Note on the Occurrence of the Lesser Dodder (Cuscuta Hpithymum
Murr.) near St. Helens in 1920, tom. cit., p. 143.

— weet Flag (Acorus Calamus L.), tom. cit. p. 144.

Britten, James. Calla palustris L. Journ. Bot. Jan., pp. 21-22.

———Obituary : Frederick Arnold Lees], tom. cit. Apr., pp. 97-100.

— [Obituary : Edward Adrian Woodruffe-Peacock], tom. cit. June, pp. 161-
162.

— [Obituary : Ethel Sarel Gepp], tom. cit. July, pp. 193-195.

— (Obituary : George Simonds Boulger (1853-1922)], tom. cit. Aug., pp. 232-
236.

— In Memory of William Carruthers (1830-1922), tom. cit. Sept., pp. 249-
256.

— Henrietta Cerf (1810-1877), tom. cit. Oct., pp. 297-298.

Britton, C. E. British Centaureas of the Nigra Group. Rep. Bot. Hxchange
Club. Sept., pp. 406-417.

—— Calla palustris, tom. cit. Feb., p. 57.

Brown, F. Sce F. A. Mason.

Brown, Witu1am. On the Germination and Growth of Fungi at various Tem-
peratures and in various Concentrations of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide.
Ann. Bot. Apy., pp. 257-283.

Brunker, J. P. Plants of County Dublin. Jrish Nat. Aug., pp. 94-95.

Brunskitt, May M. Unusual Bluebell. Country Life. May 27, p. 714.

Butter, A. H. R. Slugs as Mycophagists. Z'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. July,
pp. 270-283.

Butiock-Wesster, G. R. Notes on Charophytes. Journ. Bot. May, pp. 148-
149.

Bunyarp, Percy F. Rare Orchis [O. incarnaia] in Surrey. Country Life.
Aug. 26, p. 254.

Burxitt, Harotp J. Report of the Plant Gall Section, 1921. London Nat.
1921, pp. xiv-xv.

—— Cornus suecica Linn. and Myrica gale Linn. on the York Moors. Wat.
Apr., pp. 117-118.

_— — Plant Galls observed near Scarborough, 1921, tom. cit. June, pp. 193-196.

EE — ee

Burnury, A. J. Flowering Plants [Filey], tom. cit. Oct., pp. 318-319.

Burrewtt, W. H. See C. A. Cheetham.

Burrow, R. C. Botanical Report. Rochester Nat. No. 129, pp. 7-10.

Burcuyer, R. W. New British Flowing Plant. Journ, Bot. Jan., pp. 18-19.

— Tiillc«a aquatica [near Leeds]. Rep. Bot. Hachange Club. Sept., pp. 281-
282. i

Borterricyp, W. Ruskin. Notes on the Local Fauna, Flora, and Meteoro-
logy for 1921. Hastings and Hast Sussex Nat. Oct., pp. 211-224.

Carr, J. W. See A. A. Dallman.

Cuanpier, Marsorie EnizaserH Jane. Geological History of the Genus
Stratiotes: An Account of the Evolutionary Changes which have
occurred within the Genus during the Tertiary and Quaternary Eras
[Abs.]. Abs. Proc. Geol. Soc. No. 1086, pp. 68-69.

Cuasz, Corriz D. County Down Plants. Jrish Nat. Aug., p. 95.

CuererHam, C. A. Yorkshire Naturalists’, Union: Botanical Section [Report].
Nat. Apr., p. 141.

— and Burrett, W. H. Bryological Notes on Coverdale and Bishopdale,

tom. cit. Dec., pp. 379-380.

570 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Curisty, Geratp. Camella Galls. Country Life. Sept. 2, p. 285.

Curisty, Minter. Tallest Planes in Britain, tum. cit. May 6, pp. 612-614.

—— Flowering-times of some British Elms. Journ. Bot. Feb., pp. 36-41.

—— Primula elatior Jacquin : Its Distribution in Britain. Journ. Ecol. Nov.,
pp. 200-210.

— Pollination of the British Primulas. Journ. Linn. Soc. Sept. 30, pp. 105-
139; abs. in Journ. Bot. Jan., p. 31.

— Origin of the Hybrid Primula elatior x vulgaris demonstrated experi-
mentally in the Field, with Notes on other British Primula hybrids.
New. Phyt. Dec., pp. 293-300.

Cuurcu, A. H. Introduction to the Plant-life of the Oxford District.
I. General Review. Bot. Mem. No. 13, p. 103.

Crark, J. Epmunp. Flowering Dates of Trees along Main British Railway
Routes. Nature. Feb. 16, pp. 210-212. ;

Ciurrersuck, C. GRaNvitLE. Collecting in 1920 in Gloucestershire, North
Wales, ete. [Galls]. Hnt. July, pp. 155-157.

Corron, A. D. Potato Pink Rot: A Disease new to England. Journ. Min.
Agric. Mar., pp. 1126-1180.

Cowarp, T. A. Cheshire Mere. Nineteenth Century. Aug., pp, 251-259.

Craw, J. H. Report of Meetings, 1922. Proc. Berwickshire Nat. Club.
Vol. XXIV., pt. Iv., pp. 364-388.

Crawrorp, M. H. Wild Flowers for the Garden. Windsor Mag., pp. 516-524.

Crow, W. B. Structure and Affinities of Leuconostoc mesenteroides (Cien-
kowsky) van Tieghem. Z'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Dec., pp. 76-84.

—— Critical Study of Certain Unicellular Cyanophyceaw: from the point of
view of their Evolution. New Phyt. May, pp. 81-102.

Crump, W. B. ‘An Older, Wilder, Rural England.’ Country Life. Sept. 23,
pp. 382-384.

Datiman, A. A. Notes on the Stinkhorns. Lancs and C. Nat. Jan., p. 190.

—— Sambucus ebulus L., in Carnarvonshire, tom. cit. Mar., p. 202.

— First Liverpool Flora and its Author, tom. cit. May, pp. 244-262.

—— Galling of Couch Grass in Yorkshire. Nat. Mar., p. 84.

— fand Carr, J. W.]. Claytonia perfoliata in Nottinghamshire, tom. cit.
June, pp. 200-201.

Dattman, F. M. Fruiting of Lycium chinense Mill. Lancs and C. Nat. Mar.,
p. 202.

Darwin, Francis. Studies in Phenology. New Phyt. Mar., pp. 34-40.

and Surusss, A. Records of Autumnal or Second Flowerings of Plants,

tom. cit. Mar., p. 48.

Davy, —. Frequent Errors. Wild Flower Mag. Apyr., pp. 9-11.

Deanz, ARTHUR. Fungi and Diseases of Crops. Belfast Municipal Museum.
Publication 79, 23 pp.

Drxon, Henry H., and Batt, Nicer G. Transport of Organic Substances in
Plants. Nature. Feb. 23, pp. 236-237.

Dixon, Mary. Manchester Microscopical Society. Lancs and C. Nat. Oct.,
pp. 85-86; Dec.. p. 136.

Dotirus, G. Charaphyta of the Lower Headon Beds of Hordle Cliffs, by
C. Reid and J. Groves [notice of}. Rev. de Geol. Sept., pp. 623-625.

Dowson, W. J. On the Symptoms of Wilting of Michaelmas Daisies produced
by a Toxin secreted by a Cephalosporium. 7'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc.
July, pp. 283-286.

Druce, G. Cuaripcr. Report of the Secretary. Rep. Bot. Huchange Club.
Sept., pp. 265-271.

— Plant Notes, &c., for 1921. (Mostly New Plants to the British Isles),
tom. cit., pp. 272-327.

— Notes on Publications, New Books, etc., 1921, tom. cit., pp. 328-354.

—— Obituaries, tom. cit., pp. 355-369.

—— New County and other Records, tom. cit., pp. 369-404.

—— Miscellaneous Notes, tom. cit.,. pp. 453-456.

—— Flora Zetlandica. Supplement, tom. cit., pp. 457-546; Abs. in Nature.
Aug. 11, p. 222.

— Plant Records in the W.F.M. Wild Flower Mag. Dec., pp. 2-4

—

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 571

Drucs, G. Craripes, and Lums, D. Luphrasia septentrionalis Druce and Lumb
{Caithness]. Rep. Bot. Pachange Club. Bent. pp. 298-300.

Duncan, J. B. Musci and Hepaticw. Caradoc and S8.V.F.C. Rec. of Bare
Facts. No. 31, p. 12.

Dymes, T. A. Notes on the Seeds of the British Dactylorchids. Rep. Bot.
Bachange Club. Sept., pp. 432-440.

Earix, Lionet. Plants for Bird Sanctuaries. Country Life. Mar. 4, p. 321.

Epwarps, W.N. Eocene Microthyriaceous Fungus from Muli, Scotland. 7’rans.
Brit. Mycol. Soc. Dec., pp. 66-72.

Extiorr, Jessin §. Bayuiss. Studies in Discomycetes, tom. cit. July, pp. 293-
298.

Eutiorr, W. T. Some Observations on the Mycophagous Propensities of Slugs,
ton. cit. Dec., pp. 84-90.

Erskine, F. J. Rare Fungus in Lincolnshire. Country Life. July 8, p. 31.

Evans, A. H. See W. H. Mills.

Ewine, J. See J. H. Priestley.

Face, C. C. Regional Survey of the Croydon Area. Geog. Journ. Nov., pp.
336-346.

Fatconer, Wm. Additions to the Plant Galls of Scarborough. Nat. Jan.,
pp. 23-24.

—— Arachnida, tom. cit., pp. 43-44.

—— Plant Galls [Report], tom. cit., pp. 44-45.

— Plant Galls from Selby and York, tom. cit. Apr., pp. 129-130.

— Plant Galls [at Bingley], tom. cit. July, p. 232.

— Cryptocampus medullarius Htg. at Huddersfield, tom. cil. Aug., p. 250.

— More Plant Galls from the Leeds District, tom. cit. Oct., p. 314.

— Naturalists’ Field Day at Askham Bog, tom. cit., pp. 327-330.

— Plant Galls—Thorner to Collingham, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 373-376.

Fenton, E. W. Spotted Medick. Journ. Minis. Agric. Oct., pp. 643-648.

Fretu, Jor. Teratology of Corolla of Foxglove at Kebroyd. Nat. Oct., p. 308.

Fox, Witson Luoyp. Flowering Dates of Trees. Nature. Mar. 9, p. 310.

Fritscs. F. E. Moisture Relations of Terrestrial Alge. I. Some General
Observations and Experiments. Ann. Bot. Jan., pp. 1-20.

Fry, E. J. Some Types of Endolithic Limestone Lichens, tom. cit. Oct.,

pp. 541-562.
Gamez, J. 8. [Obituary : John Firminger Duthie.] Journ. Bot. May, pp. 151-
153.

Garnett, Henry. Autumn Fungi. WNature/and. Oct., pp. 66-67.

Gautp, Wi11am A. Galloway: An Introductory Study. Scot. Geog. Mag.
Jan., pp. 22-39.

Gisson, C. M. See M. M. Barker.

Gitcurist, D. A. Improvement cf Moorland Grazing in the North of England.
Journ. Minis. Agric. Dec., pp. 797-800.

Gopparp, Ep. H. Plant Notes. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag. Dec., p. 80.

Goprrey, M. J. Epipactis leptochila Godfr. Journ. Bot. Dec., p. 364.

Fertilisation of Cephalanthera Rich. Journ. Linn. Soc. Mar. 31,

pp. 511-516.
G[ovtprnc], R. W. In Memoriam: Rev. E. A. Woodruffe-Peacock. Trans.
Lines Nat. Union. 1921, pp. 164-165. Nat. <Apr., pp. 137-139.
Grenstep, L. W. Pyramidal orchis (Orchis pyramidalis L.). Lancs ana
C. Nat., p. 96.

Grierson, R. Adventive Plants of the Glasgow Area, 1921. Rep. Bot. Exchange

Club. Sept., p. 405. :

Adventive Plants of the Dublin Area, 1921, tom. cit., p. 406.

Grirritus, B. Mimarp. Growth-Experiments on Spergula and Plantago.
Journ. Bot. Aug., pp. 228-230.

— Heleoplankton of three Berkshire Pools. Journ. Linn. Soc. June 20,

eee a la

Grist, W. R. Yorkshire Naturalists’ Exhibition at the British Association.
Nat. Nov., pp. 360-364.

572 CORRESPONDING SOCTETIES.

Grove, W. B. New or Noteworthy Fungi. Part VII. Journ. Bot. Jan.,
pp. 14-17; Feb., pp. 42-49. VIII. Mar., pp. 81-86. IX. May, pp. 142-
148; June, pp. 167-177.

Gunyon, Tuos. KE B. Unseasonable Occurrence of Mushrooms. Proc. Isle of
Wight Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. I., pt. 11., p. 93.

Hatton, M.C. Botanical Section [Report]. Hep. Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist.
Soc. No. 70, pp. 19-29.

Hampsuire, P. Study of the Causation of ‘ Ropiness’ in Worts and Beers.

Bureau of Bio-Tech. Aug., pp. 179-187; Oct., pp. 199-214.

Note on ‘ Spued’ Leathers, tom. cit., pp. 192-194.

Harmer, Srpney F. Experiments on the Fading of Museum Specimens. Museum
Journ. Apr., pp. 205-222. See Nat., May, pp. 147-148.

Harris, G. T. Ecological Notes on Wistman’s Wood and Black Tor Copse,
Dartmoor. ep. and Trans. Devon. Assoc. Vol. LIII., pp. 232-245.

Hartine, E. M. Early Wild Flowers. Country Life. Mar. 25, p. 419.

HartsHorn, J. Flowering Plants [Aysgarth]. Y.N.U. Cire. No. 302, p. 1.

Haxsy, F. Bryological Committee. Nat. Jan., p. 46.

Heatucotr, W. H. Flora of Preston. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec., p. 140.

Sweet Flag (Avorus Calamus L.), tom. cit., p. 144.

Henry, Sam. Rare Irish Orchis [Spiranthes Romanzoffiana]. Country Life.
Sept. 16, p. 354.

Herpman, Wituiam A. Spolia Runiana: Summary of Results of Continuous
Investigation of the Plankton of the [Irish Sea during Fifteen Years.
Journ. Linn. Soc. Sept. 30, pp. 141-170; abs. in Nature, Mar. 31,
1923, p. 448.

Hincuuirr, Minprep. See J. H. Priestley.

Hopeerrs, Witt1am J. Study of some of the Factors Controlling the Periodicity —

of Freshwater Algwe in Nature. New Phyt. Mar., pp. 15-33.

Hotprn, H. §., and Bzexon, Dororny. On the Seedling Structure of Acer
pscudoplatanus [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 56.

Houston, Anexanper C. Progress in Water Purification. Water. Dec. 20,
pp. 445-450.

Howarrtu, W. O. On'the Occurrence of Mestuca rubra in Britain [Abs.]. Linn.
Soc. Circ. No. 409, p. 2.

[Hoyvuz, W. E.] Fifteenth Annual Report of the National Museum of Wales,
Cardiff, 35 pp.

Horst, Cects P. East Wiltshire Lichens. Wilts Arch. and Nat. Hist. Mag.
Dec., pp. 1-10.

Hussry, C. Yew Hedges. Country Life. June 3, pp. 756-759.

Jackson, Dorotuy J. Genus Sitones and its Importance in Agriculture. Rep.
Brit. Assoc, [Edinburgh], pp. 462-464.

JEFFERY, F. Ronatp. Gleanings from the Diaries of a Bewdley Naturalist
[George Jorden]. Trans. Worcestershire Nat, Club. Vol. VII., pt. 1v.,
pp. 294-308.

Jenkin, T. J. Notes on Vivipary in Festuca ovina. Rep. Bot. Exchange Club.
Sept., pp. 418-432.

Jepson, 8. Wood-growing To-day. Country Life. Aug. 12, p. 191.

Jones, W. Netson. Note on the Occurrence of Brachiomonaa sp. Proc. Linn.
Soc. Novy., pp. 57-58.

Krrewtn, G. H. Yew Hedges. Country Life. Feb. 18, pp. 212-214.

Knicur, H. H. Lichens found during the Worcester Foray. Trans. Brit.
Mycol. Soc. Dec., p. 10.

Knicur, R. C. Further Observations on the Transpiration Stomata Leaf Water- _

content, and Wilting of Plants. Ann. Bot. July, pp. 361-383.

Lacry, Marcaket $8. See Sydney G. Paine.

Larrerty, H. A., and Peruysrince, Grorce H. On a Phytophthora Parasitic
on Apples which has both Amphigynous and Paragynous Antheridia;
and om Allied Species which show the same Phenomenon. Sci. Proc.
Roy. Dublin Soc. Aug., pp. 29-43,

Lana, 8. Our British Orchids. Wild Flower Mag. Apr., pp. 10-11.

:
|

Eee

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 573

Larter, ©. E. Thirtieth Report of the Committee... for the Purpose of
Investigating Matters connected with the Flora and Botany of Devon-
shire. Rep. and Trans. Devon. Assoc. Vol. LIII., pp. 89-97.

‘Leacu, W. See S. Williams.

Lez, Anxic. Rev. Henry Hugh Higgins: A Liverpool Naturalist. Lancs and
C. Nat. Jan., pp. 159-165.

Les, Wurm A. Irish Sphagna. Trish Nat. YVeb., pp. 18-23.

— Bucalyptus globulus in County Wicklow, tom. cit. Nov., p. 131.

Linz, J. Parasitism of Nectria cinnabarina (Coral Spot), with Special Reference
to its Action on Red Currant. Vrans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Dec., pp. 22-28.

Lister, G. List of Mycetozoa found during the Worcester Foray, tom. cit.
Dec., pp. 8-9.

Lirrir, J. E. Notes on North Herts Willows. Journ. Bot. Mar., pp. 78-80.

—— Juncus conglomeratus L., tom. cit. Aug., p. 239.

Lovat. Position cf British Forestry To-day [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull],
p. 60.

Lowe, Harrorp J. Seventy-eighth Annual Meeting /Report]. Journ. Torquay
Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. III. No. 2, pp. 144-148.

Loumus, D. See G. C. Druce.

Lyre, Litian. Antithamnionella, a New Genus of Alge. Journ. Bot. Dec.,

pp. 346-350.

McDonaup, J. Interesting Traits in Wild Flowers [Abs.]. Zancs and C, Nat.
Dec., p. 128.

McIver, Davin G. Liquorice Growing. Journ. Minis. Agric. Dec., pp. 830-
832.

Mancuam, S. Biology of Spartina. South-Eastern Nat. 1922, pp. 52-54.
Maroguanp, C. V. B. Avena strigosa Schreb., segregates. Rep. Bot. Exchange
Club. Sept., pp. 322-326.
Marriorr, H. pe W. Osmunda regalis in Cheshire. Lancs and C, Nat. Oct.,
p. 93.
Mason, F. A. Interesting Fungus [Schizophyllum commune Fr.]. Bull. Bureau
Bio-Technology. Mayr., p. 152.
Micro-Organisms in the Leather Industries, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 161-175.
Biological Aspects of a Defective Drainage System in a Brewery, tom. cit.
Oct., pp. 215-223.
Pests and Diseases of Barley and Malt. Part IT. Fungi and the Fungus
Diseases of Barley. Journ. Inst. Brewing. Apr., pp. 325-353.
Liparis lucens Meign. on Phragmites communis at Strensall. Nat.
Aug., p. 250.
Early abundance of Fungi, tom. cit., p. 301
Mycology [Filey], tom. cit. Oct., v. 319.
Mycology [Bishopdale], tom. cit. Dec., pp. 384-386.
Revival of Sporophores of Schizophyllum commune Fr. Nature. Mar. 2,
pp. 272-273.
and Brown, F. ‘Speckled’ Malt. Bureau of Bio-Tech. Aug., pp. 188-
191.
See W. H. Pearsall.
Marrurws, J. R. Distribution of Plants in Perthshire in Relation to ‘ Age
and Area.’ Ann. Bot. July, pp. 321-327.
—— Distribution of Certain Elements of the British Flora. Journ. Bot. Jan.,
pp. 26-27.
— Distribution of the Perthshire Flora. TZ'vans. Perthshire Soc. Nat. Sci.
Vol. VII., pt. tv., pp. 151-174.
Maxwet., Hersert. Nectar-Sipping Birds. Nature. May 13, p. 612.
— Defoliation of Oaks, tom. cit. Sept. 9, p. 344.
Metvitt, J. Cosmo. Flowering Plants. Caradoc und S.V.F.C. Rec. of Bare
Facts. No. 31, pp. 7-12.
Menzies. Javes. [Obituary : Charles M‘Intosh. 1839-1922.] Trans. Perthshire
Soc. Nat. Sci. Vol. VII.. pt. 1v.. pp. 174-178.
Merepitu. W. M. Box Hill. Nineteenth Century. Mar., pp. 417-423.
M[tuteRr1. W. D. Botanical Section. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soe.
Vol. LXVII., pp. lxiv-Ixviii.

eae euler ee |

57 1 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Mitzs, W. H., and Evans, A. H. Cirsium tuberosum All. in Cambridgeshire.
Journ. Bot. Jan., p. 21.

Miu, G. P. Romance of Wild White Clover.—II. Vicld. Nov. 11, p. 691.

Mircuext, J. S. Our Agricultural Testing Station. Bureau of Bio-Tech. Aug.,
pp. 195-196.

Moore, A. Insect and the Oak. Country Life. Dec. 2, pp. 711-713.

Mostey, Cuartus. Natural History Report. Ann. Rep. Huddersfield Nat., etc.,
Soc. 1919-20, pp. 2-4.

—— Inuteus cervinus (Schoeff.). Nat. Feb., p. 77.

Cryptocanvpus medullarius Htg. at Huddersfield, tom. cit. Aug., p. 250.

Murpuy, Paur A. Bionomics of the Conidia of Phytophthora infestans (Mont.)
De Bary. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. Feb., pp. 442-466.

Nicuotson, W. E. Southbya nigrella (De Not.) Spr. in Britain. Journ. Bot.
Mar., pp. 67-69.

Norru, Epirn E. See J. H. Priestley.

OWEN, Gites. C'uscuta europea L. in Lancashire. Lancs and C. Nat. May,
p. 274.

Parnr, SypNey G., and Lacey, Marcarer §. Chocolate Spot Disease or Streak
Disease of Broad Beans. Journ. Min. Agric. May, pp. 175-177.
Parker, THEODORE. Fumigation of Malthouses. Bull. Bureau Bio-Tech. Oct.,

pp. 229-234.
Parkin, JoHN. Lesser Celandine Counts. Wild Plower Mag. Oct., pp. 8-10.
Patron, Donatp. An Example of River Action and its Bearing on Plant Dis-
tribution. 7'rans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow. Oct., pp. 80-90.
Paut, Davip. Plea for the Study of Fungi. Proc. Berwicks. Nat. Club,
pp- 324-331.
Pauuson, Rozsert. Birch Groves of Epping Forest. Mssex Nat. Apr..
pp. 69-85 ; abs. in Journ. Hcol., Nov., p. 252.
PEARSALL, WiuuiamM Harrison. Notes on the British Batrachia. Rep. Bot.
Exchange Club. Sept., pp. 440-452.
Prarsati, W. H. Suggestion as to Factors influencing the Distribution of Free-
floating Vegetation. Journ. Heol. Feb., pp. 241-253.
Phytoplankton of Rostherne Mere [Abs.]. Lancs and C. Nat. Dec.,
pp. 97-98.
Plant Distribution and Basic Ratios. Nat. Aug., pp. 269-271.
and F. A. Mason. Yorkshire Naturalists at Clitheroe, tom. cit. July,
pp. 225-228.
Yorkshire Naturalists at Bingley, tom. cit., pp. 229-232.
—— Yorkshire Naturalists at Thornton Dale, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 289-296.
—— Yorkshire Naturalists at Filey, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 317-320.
Yorkshire Naturalists at Bishopdale, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 383-388.
and Priestury, J. H. Leaf Growth [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull],
pp. 53-54.
Pearson, Wiuriam Henry. [Obituary : George Alfred Holt.] Journ. Bot. July.
pp. 207-208.
—— Dolgelley {Mosses, etc.]. Lancs and (. Nat. Dec., pp. 137-139.
— Keldwith Hepatics. Nat. Oct., pp. 313-314; see also Lancs and C. Nat.,
Oct., p. 51.
Prox, A. E. Mycology [Report]. Nat.. Jan., p. 46; Oct., p. 334.
— Fungus Foray at Castle Howard, tom. cit. Feb., pp. 69-71.
Pret, EK. Rare Orchis [O. incarnata] in Hampshire. Country Life. Sept. 2.

Babee bbe

p. 285.

Peers, J. T. Hpipactis latifolia near Read Hall. Zancs and C. Nat. Aug.,
p. 43. '

Penn, A. S. Plant Names. Journ. Northants Nat. Hist. Soc. Sept..
pp. 194-196.

Perrycostr, H. M. M. Par [Plants at]. Wild Flower Mag. Apyr., pp. 8-9.

Percu, T. Statice Timonium on the North Bank of the Humber. Nat. Jan., —

pp. 9-12; Mar.. pp. 93-96; Anr.. po. 121-124.
PrrHyprincr, Grorce H. See H. A. Lafferty.
Porter, Lintan. Lichens on Veronica Traversii. Trish Nat. Apr., p. 48.
Priesttey, J. H. Further Observations upon the Mechanism of Root Pressure.
New Phyt. Mar., pp. 41-47.

OS aie ee

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. 575

Prizstizy, J. H. Physiological Studies in Plant Anatomy. I. Introduction,
tom. cit. May, pp. 58-61.

aa aman of Illuminating Gas on Plants [Abs.]. Nature. June 3,
p.

— and ArmstraD, Dororuy. II. ‘he Physiological Relation of the Sur-
rounding Tissue to the Xylem and its Contents, tom. cit., pp. 62-80.

— and Norru, Epiry E. III. Structure of the Endodermis in Relation to
its Function, tom. cit. June, pp. 113-139.

— and Tvupprr-Carry, R. M. Physiological Studies in Plant Anatomy.
IV. The Water relations of the plant growing point. New Phyt. Nov.,
pp. 210-229.

—— and Worrenben, Lertice M. V. Causal Factors in Cork Formation, tom.
cit. Dec., pp. 252-268; abs. in Nature, Mar. 3, p. 302.

— See W. H. Pearsall.

— and Ewing, J. Etiolation [Abs.]. Journ. Brit. Assoc. [Hull], p. 61.

— and Hincuuirr, Mivprep. Physiological Anatomy of the Vascular Plants
Characteristic of Peat. Nat. Aug., pp. 263-268.

Pucstry, H. W. Notes on British Euphrasias—lI. Journ. Bot. Jan., pp. 1-5.

— AHieracium pulmonarioides Villars, tom. cit., pp. 55-56.

— Spineless Variety of Genista anglica L., tom. cit. July, pp. 201-203.

—— Specimens of British Species of Calamintha, including a species new to
the country [Abs.]. Linn. Soc. Circ., No. 409, pp. 2-3.

Raikes, JNo. J. Orchis incarnata [in Woolmer Forest]. Country Life. Oct. 28,

. 557.

PerOsron, J. Orchid Mycorrhiza. Charlesworth & Co.’s Catalogue, 1922;
reprinted in /'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc., Dec., pp. 28-61.

— [Obituary : Charles Macintosh]. Journ. Bot. June, pp. 188-189.

Rayner, J. F. Botany of the Southampton District. South-Hastern Nat., 1922,

: p. 43-51.

— Likt of Fungi of the Isle of Wight. Proc. Isle of Wight Nat. Hist. Soc.
Vol. I., pt. 1, pp. 23-29. See Journ. Bot., Mar., p. 94.

Rayner, M. Cuevetry. Mycorrhiza in the Ericacee. J'rans. Brit. Mycol. Soc.
Dec., pp. 61-66.

Rea, Carterton. Presidential Address: A Brief Review. Vans. Brit. Myeot.
Soc. Dec., pp. 11-22.

— Appendix to the ‘ Botany of Worcestershire.’ Second instalment. TZ'rans._
Worcestershire Nat. Club. Vol. VII., pt. 1v., pp. 17-32.

Rem, Exeanor M. Note on the Hollow Curve as shown by Pliocene Floras.
[Abs.j. Zinn. Soc. Leaflet No. 397, p. 3.

— Fossil Buttercups. Nature. Feb. 2, p. 136.

Renpiz, A. Botany, General. Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. June, pp. 193-216:
Dec., pp. 409-435.

Renpiz, Autrrep Barron. Story of a Grass [Spartina Townsendi]. Proc. Roy.
Inst., No. 112, pp. 300-302.

RicHarpson, Newson M. Weathering of Mortar. Nature. Mar. 9, p. 310.

Rippetspett, H. J. Phanerogamic Flora of the Cotteswold Hills. Proc.
Cotteswold N. F. Club. Vol. XX1., pt. 1., pp. 35-42.

—— fanuiculus Lingua in E. Gloucester. Journ. Bot. Aug., p. 239.

Ripter, W. F. F. Fungus Present in Pellia epiphylla (L.) Corda. Ann. Bot.
Apr., pp. 193-207.

Ricstry, H. W. Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Journ. Bot. Oct., p. 301.

Ritstonr, F. Cornish Sphagna, tom. cit. Sept., pp. 263-267.

Rircuines, C. R. LHriophorum latifolium Hoppe in the Burnley District. Zanes
and C. Nat. Aug., p. 43.

—— Jottings from the Burnley District, tom. cit. Oct., p. 84.

Rosinson, J. Fraser. Cephalanthera Damasonium Druce. Nat. Jan., p. 2.

— Botanical Section [Report], tom. cit. Jan., pp. 45-46.

— Statice Limonium—Addendum, tom. cit. May, pp. 155-156.

— Botany at the British Association, tom. cit. Nov., pp. 353-356.
_ — Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union: Annual Meeting of Botanical Section
[Report], tom. cit. Dec., pp. 393-394.
— Botany [Filey]. Yorks Nat. Union Circ., No. 301, p. 2. ;
Rosrnson, Mavpe. Dear Departed [Plants]. Wild Flower Mag. Aug., pp. 7-8,

1923 QQ

576 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Rosinson, R. L. Forestry in the Empire. Mmpire Forestry. Mar., pp. 11-34.

Rorzr, Ipa M. New Form of Wood Violet. Journ. Bot. Feb., p. 55.

—— Earliest English Herbal. Proc. Somerset. Arch. and Nat. Hist. Soc.
Vol. LXVII., pp. 65-71.

Rowntree, P. Botanical Section. Ann. Rep. Gresham’s School Nat. Hist.
Soc., 1922, p. 10.

Russetn, E. J. Soil and Plant Growth. School Nature Study. Jan., pp. 2-5.

SALISBURY, E. J. Soils of Blakeney Point: A Study of Soil Reaction and
Succession in Relation to the Plant Covering. Ann. Bot. July,
pp. 391-431.

— Botany. Sci. Progr. Jan., pp. 378-382; Oct., pp. 212-216.

—— Stratification and Hydrogen-lon Concentration of the Soil in relation to
‘Leaching and Plant Succession, with special reference to Woodlands.
Journ. Heol. Feb., pp. 220-240.

— British Ecological Society: Hon. Secretary’s Report, tom. cit. Feb.,
pp. 258-261.

— The Soils of Blakeney Point : A Study of Soil Reaction and Succession in
relation to the Plant Covering. Ann. Bot. Vol. 36, pp. 391-431;

_ noticed in Journ. Hcol., Nov., pp. 249-250.

— British Ecological Society : Summer Excursions, 1922: Delamere Forest,
Wicken Fen, and Chesil Bank, tom. cit., pp. 254-255

Satmon, C. HE. Juncus compressus in 8.E. Yorkshire. Journ. Bot. Apr., p. 122.

— Cerastium pumilum in Sussex, tom. cit. Sept., p. 273.

— Orchis incarnata in Surrey. Country Life. Sept. 16, p. 354.

— (1) Sagina filicaulis Jord.; (2) Cerastium eee Murbeck ;
(3) Arum italicum Mill [Abs.] Nature. Apr. 1, p. 431.

Satt, Henry 8. How we found the Spider Orchis. wild “Flower Mag. Dec.,
pp. 9-10.

SaunpERS, EpiraH R. Leaf-skin Theory of the Stem : A Consideration of certain
Anatomico-physiological Relations in the’ Spermophyte Shoot. Ann.
Bot. Apr., pp. 135-165.

Scuarrr, R. F. Thirty Years’ Work of the ‘ Irish Naturalist.’ Jrish Nat.
Jan., pp. 1-7.

Scorr, D. H. Present Position of the Theory of Descent, in relation to the
Early History of Plants. Rep. Brit. Assoc. [Ndinburgh], pp. 170-186.

— Karly History of the Land Flora. Nature. Noy. 4, pp. 606-607 ;
Noy. 11, pp. 638-640.

Scourrigtp, —. Pond-life Exhibition. Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. June,
pp. 234-236.

Scunty, Rucinaup W. Mr. Stelfox and Cybele II. Jrish Nat. Oct., p. 116.

Sewarp, A. C. Hooker Lecture. Study in Contrasts: The Past and Present
Distribution of certain Ferns. Journ. Linn. Soc. Botany. Oct.,
pp. 219-240; abs. in Nature, June 24, p. 830.

Sueprparp, A. W. [Obituary : William Carruthers, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.G.8.] Journ. Roy. Micro. Soc. Sept., pp. 269-270.

Sueprarp, T. List of Papers bearing upon the Zoology, Botany, and Prehistoric
Archeology of the British Isles, issued during 1920. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
[Ldinburgh], pp. 499-549.

— Bibliography : Papers and Records relating to the Geology of the North
of England (Yorkshire excepted), published during 1921. Nat. Apr.,
pp. 1383-136; May, pp. 165-170.

— In Memoriam: Clement Reid. Proc. Yorks Geol. Soc. Dec., pp. 420-422.

Suove, R. F. Life History Methods in the Study of Plants. School Nature
Study. Jan., pp. 5-10.

Survusss, A. See Francis Darwin.

Srppatt, W. W. Botanical Section [Report]. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci. Fifty-first
Ann. Rep., p. 25. .

Sxrerer, E. G. Ecology of the Gorse (Ulex), with special reference to the
Growth forms on Hindhead Common, /ourn. Mcol. May, pp. 24-52.

‘Smaun, James. Wanderings of the Grourdsel. Proc. Belfast Nat. Hist. and

Phil. Soc., 1920-21, pp. 85-91.

Erectness of Plants, tom. cit., pp. 91-106.

‘Suirn, A. Lorrarn. History of Lichens in the British Isles. Souwth-Hastern
Nat. 1922, pp. 19735.

LIST OF PAPERS, 1922. S77

Smirh, Eviru Puirie. Note on Conjugation in Zygnema. Ann. Bot. July,
pp. 301-304. .

Soar, Isaset. Structure and Function of the Endodermis in the Leaves of the
Abietineer. New. Phyt. Dec., pp. 269-292.

Spracue, T. A. Seedling Voliage of Ulex Gallii. Journ. Bot. Jan., pp. 6-12.

— Nomenclature of Plant Families, tom. cit. Mar., pp. 69-73.

—— Meristic Variation in Papaver dubium, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 299-300.

— Floral Variation in Veronica persica, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 351-355.

Sraptepon, R. G. Germination of Indigenous Grass and Clover Seeds. Journ.
Min. Agric. May, pp. 118-125.

Srerrox, A. W. Botanical Notes from 8. E. Wexford. Jrish Nat. Sept.,
pp. 100-102.

—— Bees and Clover, tom. cit. Aug., pp. 89-91.

— Poa compressa survives, tom. cit., p. 95.

Littorella lacustris in Co. Dublin. Jrish Nat. Novy., p. 130.

SrepHEeNson, T. and T. A. LHpipactis viridiflora Reichb. Lep. Bot. Lachang«
Club. Sept., pp. 308-309.

— —— Orchis purpurella Stephenson, tom. cit., pp. 311-314.

—— —— Hybrids of Orchis purpurella. Journ, Bot. Feb., pp. 33-35.

SrepHenson, T. A. See T. Stephenson.

Srines, Watter. Permeability : Osmotic Pressure. New Phyt. Mar., pp. 1-14;
May, pp. 50-57; June, pp. 140-162; Nov., pp. 169-209; Dec., pp. 233-251.

Sroxes, H. P. Cambridgeshire ‘Forests.’ Proc. Cambridge Antig. Soc.
No. LXXI., pp. 63-85.

Swanton, E. W. Defoliation of Oaks. Nature. Aug. 19, p. 250.

Tams, W. H. T. Pollination of Early Spring Flowers by Moths. Journ. Bot.
July, pp. 203-205.

Tanstey, A. G. Early Stages of Re-development of Woody Vegetation on Chalk
Grassland. Journ. Ecol. Nov., pp. 168-177. ;

Taytor, Frep. Notes on the Sweet Flag. Lanes and C. Nat. Oct., pp. 57-60.
Tuomas, E. N., Vacuetn, E., and Wapr, A. E. Report for 1921 of the Botanical
Exchange Club. Rep. Bot. Hxchange Club. Sept.. pp. 547-587.

THompson, ArTHuR A. Country in May. TZ'axetie. May, pp. 3-4.

— Country in July, tom. cit. July, p. 4.

Tuompson, H. Stuarr. Carex Forms with Long Peduncles. Journ. Bot. Jan.,
pp. 12-13.

— Abundance of Blossom this Year, tom. cit. July, p. 209.

—— Vicia bithynica, tom. cit., pp. 209-210.

—— Changes in the Coast Vegetation near Berrow, Somerset. Journ. Beol.
May, pp. 53-61.

Tuompson, Percy. Monotropa Hypopitys (L.) in Epping Forest, Taxette, p. 109.

Tuomeson, 8. H. Northwich Chemical Industry : Its Effect on the Local Flora
and Fauna. Zancs and C. Nat. <Aug., pp. 44-45.

Travis, Wm. G. Lichens of the Wirral, tom. cit. Jan., pp. 177-190.

— Alien Plants and their Status, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 105-106.

— On Peaty Bands in the Wallasey Sandhills. Proc. Liverp. Geol. Soc.
Pt. m., Vol. XIII., pp. 207-214; abs. in Geol. Mag., Apr., Pp. 188 ;
Nat., June, p. 178.

Tuprer-Carry, R. M. See J. H. Priestley.

Turner, Cuarirs. Life-history of Stawrastrum Dichici var. parallelum [Abs.].
Journ, Bot. June, pp. 189-190. Proc. Linn. Soc. Nov., pp. 59-63.

— Development and Germination of the Zygospores of Desmids-[Abs.]. Lanes
and C. Nat. Oct., pp. 52-53.

Turner, Hy. J. South London Entomological and Natur
[Report]. Hnt. Mo. Mag. July, pp. 166-167.
Vacnett, Exranor. Leek: The National Emblem of Wales.

Nat. Soc. Vol. LII., pp. 26-49.
—— See E. N. Thomas.
Vaveuan, J. M. Aspen. Natureland. Apyr., p. 37.
Wapz, A. E. See E. N Thomas.
Waxertetp. E. M. Worcester Foray. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. Dec., pp. 1-7.
Watton, C. L. Liver Rot Epidemic in North Wales, 1920-21. Journ. Min.
Agric. May, pp. 154-162.

al History Society

Trans. Cardiff

QQ 2

578 CORRESPONDING SOCTETIES.

Waruourst, Eraru. [Obituary : Arthur H. Dudley.! Lanes and C. Nat. Mar.,
pp. 199-202.
Notes on Colour in Wild Flowers, tom. cit. Oct., pp. 65-66.
Warson, W. New Variety of Orthodontium gracile "Schwaegr. Journ. Bot.
‘May, pp. 139-141.
—— Determination of Lichens in the Field, tom. cit. Suppl. June, pp. 1-16;
July, pp. 17-28.
List of Lichens, etc., from Chesil Bank. Journ. Ecol. Nov., pp. 255-256.
Warram, W. E. L. Cryptogamic Botany, Phanerogamic Botany [Report]. Ann.
Rep. Huddersfield Nat. etc. Soc., 1919-20, pp. 12-13.
The ‘ Allen Godward’ Herbarium, tom. cit., pp. 14-16.
Wesster, A. D. Wild Plants a Guide to Tree Growth. Country Tife. July 22,
pp. 91-92.
Weiss, F. E. Problem of Graft-Hybrids. Discovery. Jan., pp. 12-14.
—— Variations in the Nuclear Constitution of Plants. Lancs and C. Nat.
Mar., pp. 193-199; Ann. Rep. Manch. Micro. Soc., Sept. Supplt., 7 pp.
Weucu, F.D. See R. J. Welch. 5
Wetcu, R. J. Calcicole Plants on Boulder Clay, etc. Nat. Dec., p. 372.
— [Should be F. D. Wetcu.] Sap of Fir Trees attractive to Bees, tom. cit.,
pp. 399-400.
Wuetpon, J. A. Some Plants from Ballaboggan Glen. New to the Isle of Man.
Lancs and C. Nat. Oct., p. 65.
— Botanising in the Isle of Man, tom. cit., pp. 67-68.
— New Manx Bryophytes, tom. cit., p. 96.
— Botanical Visit to the Isle of Man, tom. cit. Dec., pp. 109-110. 4
—— Key to the Harpidioid Hypna. Nat. Jan., pp. 13-16; Mar., pp. 103-108. ~
Wuiraker, F.O. See C. C. H. Grinling.
Waite, Jas. W. Bristol Botany in 1920 and 1921. Ann. Rep. Bristol Nat. Soc. ~
Vol. V., pt. 1v., pp. 197-201.
Cedric Bucknall (1849-1921). Journ. Bot. Mar., pp. 65-67. :
WiuuiaAMs, FrepERIc N. Critical Notes on Some Species of Cerastium. Journ. —
Bot. Lee > pp. 74-78. :
Witttams, H. R. 8S. Cleaning and Preparing Diatoms. Ann. Rep. ok
t

Micro. Soc. Sept., pp. 24-29.

Wits, J. Luoyp. Life-history of Laminaria and Chorda [Abs.]. Linn. Soe.
Leaflet No. 402, pp. 4-5.

Wittrams, Maup. On the Influence of Immersion in certain Electrolytes upon —
Cells of Saxifraga wmbrosa. Ann. Bot. Oct., pp. 563-576.

Wiuiams, R. D. Depth of Sowing Grass and Clover Seeds. Pt. II. Journ.
Min. Agric. May, pp. 132-137.

Wittiams, §8., and Leacu, W. Relict Osmunda Swamp. Zanes and C. Nat.
Jan., pp. 165-166.

Wittuiamson, F. Lancashire Working-men Naturalists, tom. cit. Aug.,

. 26-31. :

Wi1Ls, RG. Bacteria from the Geological Aspect [Abs.]. Proc. Liverp. Geol.
Soc. Pt. m1., Vol. XIII., pp. 218-229.

Witmotr, A. J. Two Alchemillas New to Britain. Journ. Bot. June,

pp. 163-165.

Alchemilla filicaulis Buser, tom. cit. July, p. 210.

Witson, A. West Yorkshire Botanical Notes. Nat. Dec., pp. 397-398.

Wuson, J. Short Account of the genus Closterium [Abs.] Journ, Queket
"Micros. Club. Nov., pp. 360-361.

Winter, W. P. Plant Galls [Bishopdale]. Nat. Dec., uP: 388.

Wirnycomse, C. L. Food of Boreus, tom. cit. June, p. 200.

Woopueap, T. W. Vegetation of Bishopdale, tom. ae “Dec., Ppp. 386-387.

Wormatp, H. Further Studies of the ‘Brown Rot’ Fungi : I. A Shoot-Wilt
and Canker of Plum Trees caused by Sclerotina cinerea. Ann. “
July, pp. 305-320.

— Observations on a Discomycete Found on Medlar Fruits. Trans. Brit,
Mycol. Soc. July, pp. 287-293

Wratistaw, M. E. T. Food of Woodpigeon. Vield. Feb. 18, p. 234.

Yarr, R. H. Concept of Habitat. Journ. Heol. May, pp. 1-18.

—— Dovey Salt Marshes in 1921, tom. cit., pp. 18-23.

;
;
;
5

INDEX.

References to addresses, reports, and papers printed in extended form are given in italics.
* Indicates that the title only of a communication is given.

References followed by entries thus (D 22) ar» to publication of a paper, or to the su ject
thereof, elsewhere, the letter and figure indicating the section and number of the

communication in the sectional programme.

Asrerr (R.), Angle of contact-varia-
tions with relative motion of solid
and liquid, 431, 503 (A 24).

Absorption of ions by plants in relation
to soil problems, by Prof. D. R.
Hoagland and Dr. A. R. Davis,
*502.

Activation of hydrogen in organic com-
pounds, by Miss EK. Usherwood, 433,
504 (B 10).

Adaptations, origin of, . . ., by J. T.
Cunningham, 447.

Address by -the President,
Rutherford, 1.

Adsorption films, by Prof. W. Rams-
den, *482.

A®gean coast, north, in the Bronze
Age, by 8. Casson, 475.

Aeration of roots, response of plants
to. .., by Dr. R. C. Knight, 495.

Agriculture, Discussion on economic
outlook for British, 501.

Sir i.

Apocoptic expansions, by T.
426, 503 (A 10).

Smith,

| Aquatic organisms, food of, by Prof,

W. J. Dakin, *450, 504 (D 15).
ARDEN-Woop (W. H. H.), Changes in

courses of rivers in... India in
their relation to man . . ., *459, 505
(E 14).

Arithmetic, evolution of . . ., by Prof.
C. A. Brodie Brockwell, 472.

Armustrone (Dr. E. F.), Enzymes, 434

Armstronc, W. £., Inhabitants of
Rossel Island, 471, 506 (H 2).

Asuey (A. W.), on economic outlook for
British agriculture, 501.

Asuworrte (Prot. J. H.), Life-history
and affinities of Rhinosporidium, 451,
504 (D 18).

—— Modern zoology .. .,

-—— on Naples table, 318.

108.

Astron (Dr. F. W.), Determinations of

Arey (Dr. J. R.), on mathematical —

tables, 287.

Air transport, by Sir 8. Brancker, 464.

Alumosilicates, by Prof. W. Vernad-
sky, 435.

Ammonia and nitrate in woodland soils,
by G. R. Clarke, *5v1L.

Angle of contact-variation with rela-
tive motion of solid and liquid, by
R. Ablett, 431, 503 (A 24).

Angus (T. C.), Recording katather-
mometer, 478.

Anthropological teaching, Report of
Committee on progress of, 416.

Antibodies, Attempt to influence sex
of foetus by means of, by Prof.
W. J. Donkin and S. T. Burfield,
#454.

Antibodies, failure of attempts to in-
troduce eye-defects by, by J. 5.
Huxley and Prof. A. M. Carr-
Saunders, 455, 505 (D 29).

Aphids with complex life-cycles, evolu-
tion of, by E. R. Speyer, 452.

constitution of elements by method
ot accelerated anode rays, *431, 503
(A 22).

Arxins (Dr. W. R. G.), Seasonal
changes in water in relation to algal
plankton, 491, 507 (K 25).

and Frenron (E. W.), Hydrogen
in concentration of soil in relation
to distribution of pasture plants, 503,
507 (M 13).

Atmosphere, Energy of circulation of,
by Capt. D. Brunt, 425.

Atoms, structure of .. ., by Prof. P.
Langevin, 510.

Australian railway development, by
O. H. T. Rishbeth, 458, 505 (E 6).

Baker (J. N. L.), Geographical factors
in development of irrigated lands,
459.

Baker (J. R.), Genetic intersexuality in
pigs, 455.

Batis (Dr. W.
(K 29).

Banister (H.), Relation of phase and
pitch in localisation of tones, 483
506 (J 9).

L.), Cotton, *492, 507

Qa3

580

Barker (W. H.), on geography teach-
ing, 321.

Barxkua (Prof. C. G.), X-ray absorption
and J discontinuities, *424.

Barnes (W.), Single-bucket excavator,
467, 505 (G10). oa
Barner (Dr. F. A.), Zoological biblio-

graphy and publication, 319.

Baytis (Dr. H. A.), . . . Host-range
of parasitic nematodes, 453, 504
(D 22).

Bearrie (Prof. J. M.), Action of finely
divided particles of slate, &c., on
toxins, *479.

Beeriman (A. E.), Road transport, 463,
505 (G 4). ,
Beveripce {Sir W. H.), Population
and unemployment, 138.
BickerstetH (Dr. M. F.),

grams, *483.

Bio-radioactivity and humoral environ-
ment, by Prof. H. Zwaardemaker,
478.

Buacxuock (Prof. B.), Tumbu fly.. ..
453.

Buackman (Dr. F. F.), Oxygen and
respiration, *487.

Buackman (Prof. V. H.), and Lzee
(A. T.), Effect of electric currents on

Psycho-

growth of plants in pot cultures, 487,.

507 (K 11).

Lece (A. T.), and Grecory (Dr.
F. G.), Effect of direct electric cur-
rent. ..on... growth of coleop-
tile of barley, 487, 507 (K 12).

Blood in retina on colour equations,
effect of, by Dr. F. W. Edridge-
Green, 480, 506 (I 16).

Bohr atom and periodic iaw. by Dr.
N. V. Sidgwick, *432, 504 (B 6).

Bour (Prof. N.), Correspondence prin-
ciple, 428.

Bonsrr (W.), Magic properties of the
Finns . . ., 472, 506 (H 4).

Boswett (Prof. P. G. H.), Geology of
Liverpool district, *437.

- - « Silurtan “rocks”... Den-
bighshire moors, 441.

Botany, Some aspects of the present
position of, by A. G. Tansley, 240.
Bowte (J. A.), British Coal Agreemeit

of 1921, 462, 505 (F 9).

BRaANCKER (Sir 8.), Air transport, 464.

Brazil, high plateau of, by R. R. Walls,
458, 505 (E 7).

Breeze (Miss M. 8S. G.), Invasion of
tissues of higher plants by protozoan
parasites, 456.

Brieruey (Dr. W. B.), on virus diseases
of plants, 493.

Brockwe tt (Prof. C. A. Bropre), Evo-
lution of arithmetic .. ., 472.

INDEX.

Bronze Age implements, Report of com-
mittee on distribution of, 412.

Bronzes, Composition of early, by
Prof. J. Sebelien, *476, 506 (H 24).

Brooks (J.), and Ramsven (Prof. W.),
Factors determining which of two
liguids forms the droplets of an
emulsion, *479.

Brooxs (Dr. 8. C.), Electrolytic con-
ductance of micro-organisms, *479,
506: (I 12).

Brown (8S. G.), the Frenophone, 427.

Bruce (J. R.), and Ramspen (Prof.
W.), lrreversible coagulation of
albumin at free surfaces, *479, 505
(itz).

Brunt (Capt. D.), Energy of circula-
tion of the atmosphere, 425.

Bunter sandstones, middle, of Liver-
pool district, by T. A. Jones, 440.

504 (C 4).

Burnett (Miss I.),... Repetitive
work, 485.

Burr (Dr. C.), mental differences

between individuals, 215.

on the delinquent child, 497.

Butterflies, transparent undersurface
of wings in certain, by Prof. E. B.
Poulton, 447, 504 (D 2).

Campin (Miss M. G.), Chromosomal
survey of certain plant families .. ..
489.

Cannon (H. Grawam), Post-naupliar —
development of an estherid crus:
tacean, 453, 504 (D 25).

Carbon dioxide accumulation on root
elongation, effect of, by C. Hunter —
and Miss E. M. Rich, 487.

Carbon. dioxide and adrenaline. . ._
bronchi and pulmonary vessels, by —
Prof. R. Magnus, 478. :

CarrutHers, (J. N.), North Sea cur- —
rents in relation to fisheries, 449. f

Casson (H.), Prehistoric sites in Dar- —
danelies and Bosporus, 475, ;

Casson (S.), North Afgean coast in the
Bronze Age, 475. >

Catalytic actions in the system copper. —
&e., by W. G. Palmer, 485, 5047
(Baas

Camicarr (Prof. E. P.), New type of
pursuitmeter, *484.

Cuapwick (H. C.), Exhibit of -. &
slides of plankton organisms, 450. :

Cuarwin (C. P.), New gasteropod
fauna from the chalk, 447.

Chromosomal survey of certain plant
families ..., by Miss M. G
Campin, 489.

INDEX.

Chromosomes and sterility in Muscari,
by Miss E. M. Rees, 489.

Chromosomes of Liliacee, by Mrs. N.
Ferguson, 489.

Chromosomes of Rosa, by Major C. C.
Hurst, 489.

Cuarke (G. R.), Ammonia and nitrate
in woodland soils, *501.

Cuarke (J. J.), Some factors relating
to re-housing of slum-dwellers, 462,
505 (F 10).

Cuay (Prof. H.), Post-war wages prob-
lems, 460, 505 (F 3).

Cuayton (Dr. W.), on colloid chemistry,
305.

Curpsens (Dr. D. A.), Absorption of
methylene blue by cotton, 436, 504
(B 17).

Ciover (F. H.), Electric ship propul-

sion, 468.

Coal Agreement of 1921, British, by
J. A. Bowie, 462, 505 (F 9).

Coal mines, safe method of lighting,
by Prof. W. M. Thornton, 470.

Coal-mining, psychological enquiry
into, by E. Farmer, 483.

-Cochlea, analytical mechanism of the,

by Prof. H. E. Roaf, *478.

Cohesion and molecular forces, discus-
sion on, *432, 504 (B 1).

Coxer (Prof. E. G.), Comparison of ex-
perimental methods for obtaining
stress at a point in a plate by optical
and mechanical methods, *468, 506
(G 17).

—— on stress distribution in engineer-
ing materials, 345.

Cots (Prof. F. J.), Vascular system of
myxine, 450.

Colloid chemistry . -, Report of
committee on, 305. :

Colour blindness in terms of wave-
lengths, measurement of, by Prof.
H. E. Roaf, *480, 506 (I 15).

Colour preference, by Dr. J. Drever,
*484.

eel Dr. N. M., Sourness of soils,

95.

Conference of Delegates, Report of,
513.

Connecting rods, strength of forked,
by W. J. Kearton, 467, 506 (G 13).
Contraction of plain muscle, experi-
ments on, by Prof. C. Lovatt Evans,

479, 506 (I 14).

Conversion from alternating current to
direct current . . ., by R. C. Mor-
rison, 469, 506 (G 21).

Coox (Prof. G.), Stresses in pipes re-
inforced by steel rings, 345.

Correman (Dr. S. Monckton), Diet and
cancer, 479.

_ CostER

581

Cornisu (Dr. VaucHan), Geographical
position of the British Empire, 126.

Correspondence principle, by Prof. N.
Bohr, 428.

Corresponding Societies
Report of, 510.

Cortre (Rev. A. L.), Series in mag-
netic disturbances, 426, 503 (A 11).
(Dr. D.), High-frequency
spectra and theory of atomic struc-

ture, 431.

Cotton, by Dr. W. L. Balls, *492, 507
(K 29).

Cotton, absorption of methylene blue
by, by Dr. D. A. Clibbens, 436, 504
(B17).

Cotton wax, by Dr. R. G. Fargher,
436.

Crawsnay (pe B.),

Committee,

Benjamin

Harrison. . . , 477, 506 (H 26).
Eoliths from South Ash pit, 477,
506 (H 27).
Cretaceous floras of Greenland, by

Prof. A. C. Seward, 491.

Crete as a stepping-stone of early cul-
ture, by Sir Arthur Evans, 476.

Crew (Dr. F. A. E.), Sex-reversal in
domestic fowl, 454, 505 (D 26).

Crosstanp (Miss), on the delinquent
child, 498.

CrowrHtr (Dr. C.), Science and the
agricultural crisis, 273.

Cunnincuam (J. T.), Origin of adapta-
tions . . ., 447.

Currents flowing between earth neutral
of alternator and earth sheath of
cable system, by Prof. E. W.
Marchant, 468, 506 (G 19).

Cycling at constantly maintained
speed with varied brake, by Prof.
J. S. Macdonald, 481.

Cycling at varied rate and work, by
Dr. F. A. Duffield, 481.

Cytological demonstration, by Prof.
C. E. Walker and Miss F. M. Tozer,
*482.

Dakin (Prof. W. J.), Food of aquatic
organisms . . ., “450, 504 (D 15).

and Burrrevp (S. T.), Attempt to
influence sex of foetus by means of
antibodies, *454.

Darwin (Prof. C. G.), Recent work of
Prof. A. H. Compton on scattering
of X-rays, *424.

Dawkins (Sir W. Boyp),
villages in Somerset, 415.
Dawson (Dr. S.), Variations in mental
efficiency of children during school

hours, *484, 506 (J 20).

on lake

582

Delinquent child, discussion on the,
497.

Dental caries at Porto Santo, by Dr.
M. C. Grabham, 480, 506 (I 17).

Developmental morphology . . ., by
Prof. J. McLean Thompson, 490, 507
(K 23).

Diet and cancer, by Dr. S. Monckton

Copeman, 479.

- Dixon (Prof. H. H.) and Baut (N. G.),

Extraction of sap from living leaves
. «5 486, 507 (K 3).

Vascular supply of
cotyledon of Lodoicea and Pheenix,
488 507 (KK 15).

Domesticated animals and plants, dis-
cussion on origin of, 474.

Donnan (Prof. F. G.),
chemistry, 305.

Some aspects of the physical
chemistry of interfaces, 59.

Doopson (Dr. A. T.), Meteorological
effects on sea-level and tides, 426.

on tides, 299.

Drever (Dr. J.), colour preference,
*484.

Durrietp (Dr. F. A.),
varied rate and work, 481.

on colloid

haustorial |

Cycling at |

Dynamics, discussion on teaching of, |

*467.

Earte (K. W.), Geology of Windward |
and Leeward islands, 446, 504 (C 13). |

Earthworks of North Cardiganshire,
by I. T. Hughes, 474.

Earthworm, .. . sexua! congress of,
by Dr. A. J. Grove, 456, 505 (D 34).

Ebenales, seedling anatomy of, by Dr.
E. N. Miles Thomas, 491.

EpcewortH (Prof. F. Y.).
wages .. ., 461, 505 (F 8).

Women’s

Eprince-Green (Dr. F. W.), Effect of |

blood in retina on colour equations,
480, 506 (I 16).

Educational tests, by R.
FAB.

Education and business life, by R. J.
McAlpine. 496. 507 (L 2).

Education of children in music, by Dr.
C. S. Grundy, 497.

Education of the people, by Dr. T. P.
Nunn, 261.

Eel. Dana expeditions . . . life history
of, by Dr. Johs. Schmidt, *450.

Egypt as a field for anthropological
research, by Prof. P. E. Newberry,
175.

EHRENFEST
quantisation, 508.

C. Moore,

(Prof. P.), Remarks on |

Ernert (Miss M.), Rhythmic dancing, |

500, 507 (L 12).

INDEX.

Exwatt (Prof. E.), Early history of
Lancashire in light of place-names,
473, 506 (H 8).

Electrical structure of matter, by Sir
E. Rutherford, 1.

Electric current ...on... growth
of coleoptile of barley, effect of
direct, by Prof. V. H. Blackman,
A. T. Legg, and Dr. F. G. Gregory,
487, 507 (K 12).

Electric currents on growth of plants
in pot cultures, effect of, by Prof.
V. H. Blackman and A. T. Legg,
487, 507 (K 11).

Electric ship propulsion, by F. H.
Clough, 468.
Electrolytic conductance of micro-

organisms, by Dr. 8. C. Brooks, *479.
506 (I 12).

Elementary schools, how far the value
of education in has corresponded
with the increase of expenditure
upon it, by Rt. Rev. Bishop Welldon,
499.

Elements, determination of constitu-
tion of, by method of accelerated
anode rays, by Dr. F. W. Aston,
*431, 503 (A 22).

Ettrs (Dr. GERTRUDE),
paleontology im relation
paleeozoic rocks, 83.

Exuis (Dr. D.), Sulphur bacteria, *494,
507 (K 31).

Enzyme actions to tissue differentiation
and tumour growth, relation of
certain, by Dr. K. G. Falk, 434, 504
(B 12).

Enzymes, by Dr. EH. F. Armstrong, 434.

Eoliths from South Ash pit, by de B.
Crawshay, 477, 506 (H 27).

Evans (Sir ArrHurR), Crete as a step-
ping stone of early culture, 476.

Evans (Prof. C. Lovart), . . . Con-
traction of plain muscle, 479, 506 (I
14).

Evolutional paleontology in relation to
lower palwozoic recks, by Dr.
Gertrude Elles, 83.

Evolutional
to lower

Fatx (Dr. K. G.), Relation of certain

enzyme actions to tissue differentia- —
tion and tumour growth, 434, 504 —

(B 12).

Farcuer (Dr. R. G.), Cotton wax, 436.

Farm management
education, by A. Hay, 501, 507 (M 4).

Farmer (E.), Psychological enquiry
into coal-mining, 483.

Fatigue curves with school children,
by J. C. Fliigel, *484.

Frecouson (Mrs. N.). .
somes of Liliaces, 489.

Chromo-

. agricultural —

INDEX,

Frerz (Prof. H. E.), Sulphonation and
nitration of naphthalene, 437, 504
(B 18).

Finton (Prof. L. N. G.), Graphical de-
termination of stress from photo-
elastic observations, 350.

Finns, magic properties of the, .. .,
by W. Bonser, 472, 506 (H 4).
FisHer (EK. A.), Imbibitional

water, 502, 507 (M 9).

Furort (Prof. H. J.), Prehistory of
Wales, 473, 506 (H 10).

Fuorence (P. Sarcant), Individual
variations in efficiency . . ., 461, 505
(£ 7).

Frieen (J. C.), Fatigue curves with
school children, *484.

Foreman, qualities desirable in a, by
Miss A. G. Ikin, 485, 507 (J 26).

Fow er (Sir H.), Zransport and its
indebtedness to science, 162.

Fox (Miss E.), Mental deficiency, “483,
506 (J 8).

Fraser (J. A.), Selection and training
of operatives for weaving industry,
484.

Frenophone, by S. G. Brown, 427.

Frog, colour changes in the common, by
H. R. Hewer, 448.

Frog, metabolism of, at different tem-
peratures, by 2. Watson Jones, 482.
Frog, physiology of development in, by

J. S. Huxley, *448.

soil

Galvanometric tests of emotion, by Dr.
Ll. Wynn Jones, *484.

GaRpnerR (W.), on lake villages in
Somerset, 415.

Garwoop (Prof. E. J.), on photographs
of geological intercst, 307.

Gas ignition, mechanism of, by Prof.
W. M. Thornton, 469, 506 (G 23).
Gasteropod fauna from the chalk, new,
by C. P. Chatwin, 447.

Gates (Prof. R. R.), on Oenothera. . .,
421.

Genetic intersexuality in pigs, by J. R.
Baker, 455.

Geographical factors in development of
irrigated lands, by J. N. L. Baker,
459.

Geographical position of the British
Empire, by Dr. Vaughan Cornish,
126.

Geography as basis for general science
course, discussion on, *459.

Geography of Liverpool district from
pre-glacial times to present, discus-
sion on, 437.

Geography teaching, Report of Com-
mittee on, 321.

583

Geology of Liverpool district, by Prof.
P. G. H. Boswell, #437.

(yladstone dock, by T. M. Newall, #468.

Glare in industrial lighting, effects of,
by Dr. G. H. Miles, *483.

GoopricH (Prof. E. §.), on Naples
table, 318.

GorpDON (Dr.), on the delinquent child,
498.

GRaBHAM (Dr. M. C.), Dental caries at
Porto Santo, 480, 506 (I 17).

Grammar and logic, by Prof. O.
Jespersen, 496, 507 (L 1).

Grecory (Dr. F. G.), Interrelation of
light and temperature in growth and
assimilation, 486.

Grecory (Prof. J. W.), To the Alps
of Chinese Tibet, 458.

Grirriru (I. O.), Measurement of very
high temperature, 430, 503 (A 19).
GRove (Dr. A. J.), . Sexual con-
gress of the earthworm, 456, 505

(D 34).

GRunpDy (Dr. C. 8.),
childven in music, 497.

Gypsies, origin and early migrations of,
by Dr. J. Sampson, 474, 506 (H 15).

Education of

Happon (Dr. A. C.), on progress of
anthropological teaching, 416.

Hafnium, Chemistry of, by Dr. G.
Hevesy, 432, 504 (B 7).

Hatcu (Dr. B. P.), Lhermodynamic
theory of mechanical fatigue and
hysteresis in metals, 358.

Harpy (A. C.), Plankton in relation to
food of the herring, 449, 504 (D 10).
Harrison, Benjamin ..., by de B.

Crawshay, 477, 506 (H 26).

Harrison (Dr. J. W. Hestop), Poly-
hedral disease in vapourer moths of
genus Orgyia, 452.

, Sex in the Salicacee .. ., 454.
Hay (A.), Farm management.. .
agricultural education, 501, | 507
(M 4).

Henperson (H. D.), Stability in stan-
dard of value, 461.

Hevperson (IF. Y.), Direct effect of
light on rate of water-loss from
mesophyll! of leaf, 487.

Heron (Dr. W.), Literary appreciation
in elementary schools, 497.

Herrings, age, growth, and maturity
of, by B. Storrow, 449, 504 (D 8).

Hevesy (Dr. G.), Chemistry of
Hafnium, 432, 504 (B 7).

Hewer (H. R.), Colour changes in the
common frog, 448.

Hewirr (W.), Physiographical features
(Mersey and Dee estuaries), 457, 505
(E2 a).

584

Hickuine (Prof. G.), Tectonics
Lancashire coalfield, 443.
High frequency spectra and theory of

atomic structure, by Dr. D. Coster,
431,

Hill-forts in North Wales, by Dr.
R. E. Mortimer Wheeler, 473, 506
(H 11).

Hiscox (Miss E. R.), Marricx (Mrs.
E. C. V.), and Topp (A.), Influence
of research upon making of milk
products, *500.

Hoacnanp (Prof. D. R.), and Davis
(Dr. A. R.), Absorption of ions by
plants in relation to soil problems,
*502.

House-building and house implements
in Northern Albania, by Baron F.
Nopsca, *476.

Hoy (W. A.), Marricx (A. T. R.), and
STENHOUSE- WILLIAMS (Dr. R.), Influ-
ence of research upon methods of
handling whole milk, *501

Hucues (I. T.), . Earthworks of
North Cardiganshire, 474.

Hungarian folk-music, by E. Torday,
476.

Hunter (C.), and Ricu (Miss E. M.),
Effect of carbon-dioxide accumulation
on root elongation, 487.

Hurst (Major C. C.), Chromosomes of
Rosa, 489.

Huxuey (J. S.), Physiology of develop-
ment in the frog, *448.

—— and Carr - Saunpers (Prof.
A. M.), Failure of attempts to
Ieee eye-defects by antibodies,
455, 5 50 5 (D 29).

Hy drogen ion concentration of soil in
relation to distribution of pasture
plants, by W. R. G. Atkins and
E. W. Fenton, 503, 507 (M 13).

Katathermometer, a

| KEaRTON (W. J.),

|
|
|

INDEX.

Interfaces, Some aspects of the phy-
sical chemistry of, by Prof. F. G.
Donnan, 59.

Inter-lake deltas, by Prof. P. F. Ken-
dall, *442.

Irreversible coagulation of albumin at
free surfaces, by J. R. Bruce and
Prof. W. Ramsden, *479.

Is there a new race type? by Capt.
A. G. Pape, *472, 506 (H 7).

Japanese, influence of environment on
characters of, by Rev. W. Weston,
458, 505 (E 9).

JESPERSEN (Prof. O.),
logic, 496, 507 (L 1).

Jounstone (Prof. J.), Rhythmic change
in plankton, 448.

Jonrs (Dr. Lu. Wynn), Galvanometric
tests of emotion, *484.

Jones (R. Watson), Metabolism of
frog at different temperatures, 482.

Jonss (S. G.), Life-history of cytology
of Rhytisma acerinum, 487, 507 (I 9).

Jones (T. A.), Middle Bunter sand-
stones of Liverpool district, 440, 504
(C 4).

Jones (Prof. W. Nettson), Regenera-
tion of roots and shoots in cuttings
of seakale, 486.

yrammar and

recording, by
T. C. Angus, 478.

Strength of forked
connecting rods, 467, 506 (G 13).

Kei Islands . .., Danish expedition

to, by Dr. R. Mortensen, 450, 504
(D 14).
Kemp (Dr. Stantry), Fauna of Siiu

Cave, 456, 505 (D 33).
Kenpatut (Prof. P. F.), ...
deltas, *442.

Inter-lake

| Kenpatu (Prof. P. F.), Quaternary iso-

Ik1In (Miss A. G.), Qualities desirable |

in a foreman, 485, 507 (J 26).

Imagery and mentality, by Prof. T. H.
Pear, 482, 506 (J 1).

Tab aenall soil water,
Fisher, 502, 507 (M 9).

India, changes of courses of rivers in
. . +. In their relation to man...
by W. H. H. Arden-Wood, *459, 505
(E 14).

Individual variations in efficiency . .
by P. Sargant Florence, 461,
(97):

Inter-connections between Economics
and Psychology in industry, discus-
sion on, 460.

Insulin .
leod, #420,

by E. A.

505

, by Prof. J. J. R. Mac-

static readjustments in N.W. Europe,
441.

Kennetu (J. H.),
olfactory stimuli,

Mental reactions to
483.

| Kersuaw (J. B. C.), Smoke abatement

| Kynrieut (D

Krame (D

|
|

. . «s 467, 505 (G 11).

Krxe (H.), Distribution of population
(Mersey and Dee estuaries), 457.

r. R. C.), Response of plants

. to aeration of roots, 495.

r. P. L.), Meduse in relation
to hydrographic conditions, 450.

Kreyrt (Dr. A. C.), Stone-using people
of Central Celebes, 471, 506 (H 1).

Lake villages in Somerset,
Committee on, 415.

Lamp (Prof. H.), on tides, 299.

Late coalfield. tectonics ef, by
Prof. G. Hickling, 443.

Report of

INDEX,

Lancashire in light of place-names,
early history of, by Prof. E. Ekwall,
473, 506 (H 8).

Lana (Prof. W. H.), Organisation of

the plant in the vascular cryptogams |
. f=]

Siiaties, 490.

LANGEVIN
atoms. . ., 510.

Lenour (Dr. M.), Feeding of some
plankton organisms, 449, 504 (D 9).
Lewis (Prof. G. N.), Quantum theory

in Chemistry, *432.

Light and temperature in growth and
assimilation, Interrelation of, by
Dr. F. G. Gregory, 486.

Light on rata of water-loss from meso-
phyli of leaf, direct effect of, by
F. Y. Henderson, 487.

Liquid jets, by Sen. Vito Volterra, 424.

Literary appreciation in elementary
schools, by Dr. W. Heron, 497.

Lopes (Sir O.), Matter and radiation,
424.

(Exon P3)), of

Structure

McAtprne (R. J.), Education and busi-
ness life, 496, 507 (L 2).

Macponatp (Prof. J. 8.), Cycling at
constantly maintained speed with
varied brake, 481.

, Variation of length of step in
walking, 481.

Macponatp (Miss M. 8. and Prof.
J. 8.), Cost of walking, 481.

McIntosH (Prof. W. C.), On two re-
markable polychaet tubes .. ., 455.

McLean (Miss E. H.), Survey maps of
Humberstone and Scraptoft Lord-
ships, *476.

McLennan (Prof. J. C.), On the Origin
of Spectra, 25.

Macteop (Prof. J. J. R.), Insulin. . .,
*480.

Magnetic disturbances, series in, by
Rev. A. L. Cortie, 426, 503 (A 11).
Magnetic fields on polarisation of
resonance radiation, effects of weak,
by Prof. R. W. Wood and Dr. A.

Ellett, 430.

Magnetic rotary dispersion in certain
paramagnetic liquids, by R. W.
Roberts. 431, 503 (A 23).

Magnetism, . . . alternating, by W. M.
Mordey, 427.

Maenvs (Prof. R.), Carbon dioxide
and adrenaline . . . brenchi and pul-
monary vessels, 478.

585

Mangarevan folklore. .., by Mrs.
Scoresby Routledge, 472.
Marcuant (Prof. E. W.), Currents

flowing between earth neutral of an

alternator and earth sheath of cable

system, 468, 506 (G 19).

and Turney (T. H.), ... Im-
proving shape of voltage wave of
alternators . . ., 468, 506 (G 18).

Marmora region, by Prof. J. L. Myres,
457, 505 (EE 4).

Mason (Prof. W.), Distribution of
stress in round mild steel bars under
alternating torsion or bending, 386.

Mathematical tables, Report of Com-
mittee on calculation of, 287.

Matter and radiation, by Sir O. Lodge,

424.

| Marrmews (H. A.), Mediterranean cli-

mates of Eurasia and the Americas,
459, 505 (E 12).
Mawson (Dr. H.), ... Water
bines, 467, 506 (G 12).
Mediterranean climates of Eurasia and
the Americas, by H. A. Matthews,
459, 505 (E 12).

tur-

| Meduse in relation to hydrographic

conditions, by Dr. P. L. Kramp, 450.

Membrane potentials considered as
diffusion potentials, by Dr. E. B. R.
Prideaux, 433.

Membranes in relation to physiological
science, discussion on physical
chemistry of, *433.

Mental deficiency, by Miss E. Fox,
#483, 506 (J 8).

Mental differences between individuals,
by Dr. C. Burt, 215.

Mental efficiency of children during
school hours, variations in, by Dr. §.
Dawson, *484, 506 (J 20).

Mental reactions to olfactory stimuli,
by J. H. Kenneth, 483.

Mental scale for school surveys, by
T. P. Tomlinson, *484.

| Mersey and Dee estuaries, distribution

of population, by H. King, 457.

| Mersey and Dee estuaries, industrial

geography, by R. C. Moore, 457.
Mersey and Dee estuaries, physio-
graphical features, by W. Hewitt,
457, 505 (E 2a).
Mersey estuary, recent geologica!
changes . . ., by C. B. Travis, 439.

| Metamorphism, discussion on, *447.

Matcoum (Capt. L. W. G.), Plurality |

of soils in Egypt .. ., *474,
Man... in study of social sciences,
discussion on place of, 458, 505 (FE 5).

Meteorological effects on sea-level and
tides, by Dr. A. T. Doodson, 426.
Methzemoglobin, oxygen content of, by
Prof. H. E. Roaf, *479, 506 (I 9).
Mitzs (Dr. G. H.), Effects of glare in

industrial lighting, *483.

| —— Vocational guidance, *483.

586 INDEX.
Milk, influence of research upon , Newserry (Prof. P. E.), Origin of
methods of handling whole, by | domesticated animals and plants, 474.

W. A. Hoy, A. T. R. Mattick, and
Dr. R. Stenhouse-Williams, *501.
Milk products, influence of research

upon making of, by Miss E. R. |

Hiscox. Mrs. E. C. V. Mattick, and
A. Todd, *500.

Mitn (G. P.), Commercial value of
indigenous strains of pasture grasses,
503.

Miocene man, by Prof. W. J. Sollas,
475.

Modern zoology . .
Ashworth, 108.
Monotony, by 8. Wyatt,

(J 24).

Moors (R. C.), Educational tests, *484.

Industrial geography, Mersey
and Dee estuaries, 457.

Morpey (W. M.),.. . Alternating
magnetism, 427.
Morrison (R. L.),
alternating current to direct current

. . -, 469, 506 (G 21).

eapyeror. J. HH.

#485, 506

Mortensen (Dr. Th.),... Danish
expedition to Kei Islands . . ., 450, |
504 (D 14).

Mourpuy (Dr. P.), on virus diseases of
plants, 492.

Mycorrhiza in the Ericacee, .. . bio-
logy of, by Dr. M. C. Rayner, 486,
507 (K 5).

Myres (Prof. J. L.), Marmora region,
457, 505 (E 4).

on anthropological teaching, 416.

implements, 412.

on place of man... in study of
social science, 458, 505 (E 5).

Myxire, vascular system of, by Prof.
F. J. Cole, 450.

Naphthalene, sulphonation and _ nitra-
tion of, by Prof. H. E. Fierz, 437,
504 (B 18).

Naples Table, Report of Committee on,
318.

Native traders in Central Africa, by
E. Torday, 471.

Nawvigation, by Dr. W. M. Smart, *424,

503 (A 4).

Nematoda, discussion on systematic
position of, *453.

Nematodes, . . . host-range of para-

sitic. by Dr. H. A. Baylis, 453, 504
(D 22).

Nrwat (T. M.),) 2...
*468.

NeEwsBerry (Prof. P. E.), Egypt as a
field for anthropological research,
175.

Gladstone dock,

Conversion from |

on distribution of Bronze Age |

NicHotson (Prof. J. W.), on mathe-
matical tables, 287.
Nopsca (Baron F.), House-building and

house implements in Northern
AJjbania, *476.
| North Sea currents in relation to

fisheries, by J. N. Carruthers, 449.
Nunn (Dr. T. P.), Education of the
people, 261.
on geography teaching, 321.
Norratt (Prof. G. H. F.), Symbiosis
in animals and plants, 197.

O’Brien (Col. E.), Future of railway
transportation, 463, 505 (G 5).

Opin (Prof. S.), Formation of precipi-
tates, *432.

and Kren (Dr. B. A.), Odén-Keen
apparatus for automatic mechanical
analysis, 502.

Oenothera . . ., Report of Committee
on, 421.

Older children in elementary schools,
by W. O. Lester-Smith, 496, 507
(L 3).

Ontogeny of gravitational irritability in
Osmunda regalis, by Dr. T. L.
Prankerd, 494.

Orfordness, by J. A. Steers, 459.

Oxygen and respiration, by Dr. F. F.
Blackman, *487.

Patmer (W. G.), Catalytic actions in
the system copper, &c., 435, 504
(B 13).

Pare (Capt. A. G.), Is there a new race-
type? *472, 506 (H 7).

Parkes (Dr. A. S.), Value of sex-ratio
at birth as evidence regarding sex-
determination in mammals, 455, 505
(D 31).

Parry (J.). Conservation and control
of water resources, 466, 505 (G 8).
Parthenogenesis in sawflies, by A. D.

Peacock, 452, 504 (D 20).

Passerina, geographical distribution
and ecology of genus, by Prof. D.
Thoday, 492.

Pasture grasses, commercial value <f
indigenous strains of, by G. P. Miln,
503.

Peacock (A. D.), Parthenogenesis in
sawflies, 452, 504 (D 20).

Peake (H.), on distribution of Bronze
Age implements, 412.

on Roman sites in Britain, 413.

Prar (Prof. T. H.), Imagery and men-
tality, 482, 506 (J 1).

Prarsaut (Dr. W. H.). Basic ratios and
plant distribution, 495, 507 (K 33d).

ne a

SEN pas:

587

INDEX.
Permian rocks of Skillaw Clough, by ; Pursuitmeter, new type of, by Prof.
Miss M. Workman, 443, 504 (C 10). | BK. P. Cathcart, *484.

Phase and pitch in localisation of tones,
relation of, by H. Banister,
(J 9).

Photo-electric changes in green and |
white leaves, 488, 507 (KK 13).

Photo-electric current in green leaves,
conditions which determine direction
of, by J. C. Waller, 480, 506 (I 19).

Photographs of geological interest,
Report of Committee on, 307.

Piercy (W.), Relations of psychology
and economics, *483.

Plankton in relation to food of the
herring, by A. C. Hardy, 449, 504
(D 10).

Plankton organisms, exhibit of slides,
by H. C. Chadwick, 450.

Plankton organisms, feeding of some,
by Dr. M. Lebour, 449, 504 (D 9).
eon, rhythmic change in, by Prof.

J. Johnstone, 448.

Plurality of soils in Egypt 25, BY
Capt. L. W. G. Misieidient *474,

Polarised light, biochemical effect of,
by Miss E. S. Semmens, 436, 504
(B 15).

Polychaet tubes, on two remarkable,
by Prof. W. C. McIntosh, 455.

Population and wnemployment, by Sir
W. H. Beveridge, 138.

Post-naupliar development of an
estherid crustacean, by H. Graham
Cannon, 453, 504 (D 25).

Post-war wages problems, by Prof. H.
Clay, 460, 505 (F 3).

Ports (Dr. W. A.), on the delinquent
child, 498.

Poutton (Prof. E. B.),
undersurface of wings
butterflies, 447, 504 (D 2).

PrankerD (Dr. T. L.), Ontogeny of
gravitational irritability in Osmunda

_ regalis, 494.

Precipitates, formation of, by Prof. 8.
Oden, *432.

Prehistoric flint factory at Aberyst-
wyth, by R. Thomas and E. Dud-
lyke, 477.

Prehistoric sites in Dardanelles and
Bosporus, by S. Casson, 475.

Pripraux (E. B. R.), Membrane poten-
tials considered as diffusion poten-
tials, 433.

Priestiry (Prof. J. H.), Cell wall and
external medium, 495.

Protozoan parasites, invasion of tissues
of higher plants by, by Miss M. 8. G.
Breeze, 456.

Psychograms, by Dr.
teth, *483.

Psvcholocy and economics, relations of.
by W. Piercy, *483.

Transparent
in certain

M. E. Bickers-

483, 506

| Qualifying and competitive tests for

admission to secondary schools, by
T. Samuel, 499.
QuanseR (Prof. H. M.), on virus

diseases of plants, 492, 507 (K 300).

Quantisation, by Prof. P. Ehrenfest,
508.

Quantum theory in chemistry, by Prof.
G. N. Lewis, *432.

Quaternary isostatic readjustments in
N.W. Europe, by Prof. P. F.
Kendall, 441.

Races of the Middle East, by T. H.
Walker, *474.

Railway transportation, future of, by
Col. E. O’Brien, 463, 505 (G 5).

Ramspen (Prof. W.), Adsorption films,
*482.

Rayner (Dr. M. C.), . . . Biology of
Mycorrhiza in the Ericacez, 486, 507
(K 5).

Red blood corpuscles under the micro-
scope, by Dr. W. W. Waller, 479.

Rees (Miss E. M.), Chromosomes and
sterility in Muscari, 489.

Regeneration of roots and shoots in
cuttings of seakale, by Prof. W.
Neilson Jones, 486.

Rehousing of slum-dwellers, by J. J.
Clarke, 462, 505 (F 10).
RenpteE (Dr. A. B.), on

Bry eA

Repetitive work, by Miss I. Burnett,
485.

Resin canals in spruce wood, by Prof.

Ocnothera

R. B. Thomson and Dr. H. B. Sifton,
*492.
Reticularia lycoperdon, life-history

and eytolegy of, by Dr. M. Wilson
and Miss E. J. Cadman, 488.

Reynoutps (Prof. S. H.), on photo-
graphs of geological interest, 307.

Rhinosporidium, life-history and affini-
ties of, by Prof. J. H. Ashworth,
451, 504 (D 18).

Rheeadales, evolution and reversion in,
by Miss E. K. Saunders, 485, 507
(K 2).

Rhythmic dancing, by Miss M. Einert.
500, 507 (L 12).

Rhytisma acerinum, life-history and
cytology of, by 8. G. Jones, 487, 507
(K 9).

Rivgovr (E. H.), Soils of Wirral, 501.

Ripceway (Sir W.), on Roman sites in
Britain, 413.

Risusetn (O. H. T.). Australian rail-
way development, 458. 505 (E 6).

588

Roacn (Dr. B. M. B.), Physiological
studies of soil alga, 489, 507 (K 16).

Road transport, by A. E. Berriman,
463, 505 (G 4).

Roar (Prof. H. E.), Analytical me-
chanism of the Cochlea, *478.

Measurement of colour-blindness

in terms of wave-lengths, *480, 506

(I 15).

Oxygen content of methzemo-
globin, *479, 506 (I 9).

Roserts (R. W.), Magnetic rotary dis-
persion in certain paramagnetic
liquids, 431, 503 (A 23).

Rozsertson (Prof. A.), on stress dis-
tribution in engineering materials,
345.

Rock-salt deposits, British, by Dr.
R. L. Sherlock, 442, 504 (C 9).

Roman sites in Britain, Report of
Committee to co-operate with local
committees in excavations on, 413.

Rossel island, inhabitants of, by W. E.
Armstrong, 471, 506 (H 2).

Rovuttepce (Mrs. Scoressy), Man-
garevan folklore . . ., 472.
Rubber, . . . resin of Hevea, by Prof.

G. 8. Whitby, 432.
RururrrorD (Sir E.), Llectrical struc-
ture of matter, 1.

Sataman (Dr. R. N.), on virus diseases
of plants, 493.

Satissury (Dr. E. J.), Plant distribu-
tion in relation to acidity, 494.

Sampson (Dr. J.), Origin and early
migrations of gypsies, 474, 506
(H 15).

Samueu (T.), Qualifying and competi-
tive tests for admission to secondary
schools, 499.

Sap from living leaves . . ., extraction
of, by Prof. H. H. Dixon and M. G.
Ball, 486, 507 (K 3).

Saunpers (Miss E. R.), Evolution and
reversion in Rhceadales, 485, 507
(K 2).

Scumipt (Dr. Jous.), Dana expeditions
. . . life-history of the eel, *450.

Science and the agricultural crisis, by
Dr. C. Crowther, 273.

Scostr (W. A.), Repeated bending of
steel wire, 409.

Scorr (Dr. D. H.),
Stele, 490.

Scort-Taccart (J.), Developments in
wireless reception, 470, 506 (G 25).

Seasonal changes in water in relation
to alge plankton, by Dr. W. R. G.
Atkins, 491, 507 (IX 25).

Sepevien (Prof. J.), Composition of
early bronzes, *476, 506 (H 24).

Early history of

INDEX.

Seismological investigations, Report of
Committee on, 283.

Semmens (Miss E. S.), Biochemical
effect of polarised light, 436, 504.
(B 15).

Sewarp (Prof. H. C.),
floras of Greenland, 491.

Sex-determination in mammals, value
of sex-ratio at birth as determining,
by Dr. A. S. Parkes, 455, 505 (D 31).

Sex in the Salicacee . . ., by Dr. J. W.
Heslop Harrison, 454.

Sex-reversal in domestic fowl, by Dr.
F. A. E. Crew, 454, 505 (D 26).

Suaw (J. J.), on seismological investi-
gations, 283.

SHaw (Lady), on training in citizen-
ship, 422.

Suepparp (T.), List of papers bearing
upon zoology, betany, and prehistoric
archeology of British Isles (1922),
515.

Sueriock (Dr. R. L.), British rock-salt
deposits, 442, 504 (C 9).

Suerrineton (C. E. R.), . . . United
States Transportation Act and
British Railways Act, 459.

SipewicK (Dr. N. V.), Bohr atom and
periodic law, *432, 504 (B 6).

Siju cave, fauna of, by Dr. Stanley
Kemp, 456, 505 (D 33).

Silurian rocks . . . Denbighshire
moors, by Prof. P. G. H. Boswell,
441.

Single-bucket excavator, by W. Barnes,
467, 505 (G 10).

Starter (G.), Nordenskidld and neigh-
bouring glaciers of Spitsbergen, 445,
504 (C 12).

Strr (Capt. J. A.), . . . Application
of wireless telegraphy to mercantile
marine, 466, 505 (G 9).

Smarr (Dr. W. M.), Navigation, *424.
503 (A 4).

Smirn (Homes), on virus diseases of
plants, *493.

Smitn (T.), Apocoptic expansions, 426,
503 (A 10).

Smith (W. O. Lester), Older children
in elementary schools, 496, 507 (1 3).

Smoke abatement ..., by J. B. C.
Kershaw, 467, 505 (G 11).

Soil algz, physiological studies of, by
Dr. B. M. B. Roach. 489. 507 (K 16).

Soil sourness on plants. discussion on
effect of. 494, 507 (K 33d).

Soils of Wirral, by E. H. Rideout, 501.

Sottas (Prof. W. J.), Miocene man,
475.

Soul, theories of the, by Dr, R. H.
Thouless, *484, 506 (J 15).

Spectra of lighter elements, discussion
on, 430.

Cretaceous

INDEX.

Spectra, on the origin of, by Prof.
J. C. McLennan, 25.

Speyer (E. R.), Evolution of aphids
with complex life-cycles, 452.

Sprepman (Miss W.), Vocational tests
for dressmakers’ apprentices, 484.

Spitsbergen, Nordenskidld and neigh-
bouring glaciers of, by G. Slater,
445, 504 (C 12).

Squirrel-cage induction motor . . ., by
Dr. T. F. Wall, 469, 506 (G 22).

Stability in standard of value, by
H. D. Henderson, 461.

Sreap (G.) and Treveryan (Miss B.),
Production of triatomic hydrogen (7)
425.

Sreers (J. A.), Orfordness, 459.

Stele, early history of, by Dr. D. H.
Scott, 490.

Stone-using people of Central Celebes,
by Dr. A. C. Kruyt, 471, 506 (H 1).
Storrow (B.), Age, growth, and

maturity of herrings, 449, 504 (D 8).

Srrawan (Sir A.), on geography of
Liverpool district from pre-glacial
times to present, 437.

Stress at a point in a plate by optical
and mechanical methods, comparison
of experimental methods for obtain-
ing, by Prof. E. G. Coker, *468, 506
(G 17).

Stress distributions in engineering
materials, Report of Committee on,
345.

Sulphur bacteria, by Dr. D. Ellis,
*494, 507 (K 31).

Survey maps of Humberstone and
Scraptoft Lordships, by Miss E. H.
McLean, *476.

Symbiosis in animals and plants, by
Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall, 197.

Tansey (A. G.), on soil sourness, 494.

Some aspects of the present posi-
tion of botany, 240.

Temperature, measurement of very
high, by J. O. Griffith, 430, 503
(A 19).

Tuopay (Prof. D.), Geographical dis-
tribution and ecology of genus
Passerina, 492.

THomas (Dr. E. N. Mies), Seedling
anatomy of the Ebenales, 491.

Tuomas (R.) and Dupiykr (E.), Pre-
historic flint factory at Aberystwyth,
477.

Tuomrson (Prof. J. Mcbran), De-
velopmental morphology . , 490,
507 (K 23).

Tuomson (Prof. R. B.) and Srrron
(Dr. H. B.), Resin canals in spruce
wood, *492.

589

TuHornton (Prof. W. M.), Mechanism
of gas ignition, 469, 506 (G 23).

— Sate method of lighting coal
mines, 470.

THouuress (Dr. R. H.), Theories of the
soul, *484, 506 (J 15).

Tibet, to the Alps of Chinese, by Prof.
J. W. Gregory, 458.

Tides, Report of Committee on, 299.

Tomurnson, T. P., Mental scale for
school surveys, *484.

Torpay (E.), Hungarian folk-music.
476.

Native traders in Central Africa,
471.

Toxins, action of finely divided par-
ticles of slate, &c., on, by Prof. J.
M. Beattie, *479.

Training in citizenship, Renort of com-
mittee on, 422.

Transport and its indebtedness to
science, by Sir H. Fowler, 162.

Transport and its past obligations to
science, by A. T. Wall, 466, 505

1
( x 7).
Travis (C. B.), Recent geological
changes . . . Mersey estuary, 439.
Triatomic hydrogen (?), production

of, by G. Stead and Miss B. Tre-
velyan, 425.
Tumbu fly ..
lock, 453.
Turner (Prof. H. H.), on seismo-
logical investigations, 283.

.» by Prof. B. Black-

United States Transportation Act and
British Railways Act, by C. E. R.
Sherrington, 459.

Usnerwoop (Miss E.), Activation of
hydrogen in organic compounds, 433,
504 (B 10).

Vapourer moths of genus Orgyia.
polyhedral disease in, by Dr. J. W.
Heslop Harrison, 452.

Variation of length of step in walking,
by Prof. J. S. Macdonald, 481.

Variations in character of step, by Dr.
T. W. Wadsworth, Prof. J. 8. and
G. Macdonald, 481.

Vascular cryptogams, organisation of
the plant in, 2. <, by Prof. W. H-
Lang, 490.

Vascular supply of haustorial cotyle-
don of Lodoicea and Phenix. by
Prof. H. H. Dixon and N. G. Ball,
488, 507 (K 15).

Vernapsky (Prof. W.), Alumosilicates.
435.

Virus diseases of plants. discussion on,
492, 507 (K 300).

590

Vocational guidance, by Dr. G. H.
Miles, *483.

Vocational tests for dressmakers’ ap-
prentices, by Miss W. Spielman, 484.

Vocational tests for engineering trades,
discussion on, 482.

Voltage wave of alternators, . . . im-
proving shape oi, by Prof. E. W.
Marchant and T. H. Turney, 468,
506 (G 18).

VouTERRA (Sen. V.), Liquid jets, 424.

Wavswortu (Dr. T. W.), Macponaup
(Prof. J. 8. and G.), Variations in
character of step, 481.

Wales, Prehistory of, by Prof. H. J.
Fleure, 473, 506 (H 10).

Waker (Prof. C. E.) and Tozer (Miss
F. M.), Cytological demonstration,
*482.

Waker (T. H.), Races of the Middle
East, *474.

Walking, cost of, by Miss M. S.
Prof. J. 8. Macdonald, 481.

Wann (A. T.),... Future of trans-
port and its past obligations to
science, 466, 505 (G 7).

Wat (Dr. T. F.), Sauirrel-cage induc-
tion motor .. ., 469, 506 (G 22).
Watter (J. C.), Conditions which de-
termine direction of photo-electric
current in green leaves, 480, 506

(I 19).

—— Photo-electric changes in green
and white leaves. 488, 507 (K 13).
Water (Dr. W. W.), Red blood cor-
puscles under the microscope, 479.
Watts (R. R.), High plateau of Brazil,

458, 505 (E 7).

Water resources, conservation and con-
trol of, by J. Parry, 466, 505 (G 8).
Water turbines, by Dr. H. Mawson,

467, 506 (G 12).

Weaving industry, selection and train-
ing of operatives for, by J. A.
Fraser, 484.

and

INDEX.

WeLuLpon (Bishop), How far the value
of education in elementary schools
has corresponded with the increase
of expenditure upon it, 499.

on training in citizenship, 422.

Weston (Rev. W.), Influence of en-
vironment on characters of Japanese,
458, 505 (E 9).

WHEELER (Dr. R. E. Mortimer), Hill-

forts in North Wales, 473, 506
(H 11).
Wuirzy (Prof. G. S.), ... Resin of

Hevea rubber, 432.

WuiteHeap (T.), on virus diseases of
plants, 493.

Witson (J. 8.) and Haren (Dr. B. P.),
Stresses in. bridges, 368.

Witson (Dr. M.) and Capman (Miss
E. J.), Life-history and cytology of
Reticularia lycoperdon, 488.

Windward and Leeward Isiands,
geology of, by K. W. Earle, 446, 504
(C 13).

Wireless reception, developments in,
by J. Scott-Taggart, 470, 506 (G 25).

Wireless telegraphy to mercantile
marine, application of, by Capt.
J. A. Slee, 466, 505 (G 9).

Women’s wages .. ., by Prof. F. Y.
Edgeworth, 461, 505 (F 8).

Woop (Prof. R. W.) and Exterr (Dr.
A.), Effects of weak magnetic fields
on polarisation of resonance radia-
tion, 430.

Workman (Miss M.), Permian rocks of
Skillaw Clough, 443, 504 (C 10).

Wvyartr (S8.), Monotony, *485, 506 (J 24).

X-ray absorption and J discontinuities,
by Prof. C. G. Barkla, *424.

X-rays, recent work of Prof. A. H.
Compton on scattering of, by Prof.
C. G. Darwin, *424.

Zoological biblicgraphy and publica-
tion, Report of Committee on, 319.

ZWAARDEMAKER (Prof. H.), Bio-radio-
activity and humoral environment,
478.

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SPOTTISWOODE, BALLANTYNE & Co. LTD.,
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Report on Atlas, Textual, and Wall Maps for School and Unive use, 1915, 6d. i f ’
Report on Popular Science Lectures, 1916, 6d. fs at te :
Science Teaching in Secondary Schools, 1917, 2s. 6d. Dae
The ‘‘ Free Place " System in Secondary Education, 1918, 6d. se ae f

Museums in relation to Education, ie each 6d., or for 6 or more copies, 2d.

Training in Citizenship, 1920, (9s. per doz.); 1921, 6d. (5s. per doz.) ;
1922, 6d. (4s. per doz.). (B.A. Roe n.s., Nos. 8, 9, 11)

Imperial Citizenship, by the Rt. Hon. Lord Meston, 1922 (B.A. Reprints, ns, 4] )

No. 13), 9d. (6s. per doz.). 7m
Science aut Ethics, by Dr. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S. (B.A. Reprints, n.s., No. 1), i
1921,9

Charts and Pictures for use in Schools (B.A. Reprints, n.s., No. 5), 1921, Is.
An International Auxiliary Language (B.A. Reprints, n.s., No. 6), 1921, 1s.
Geography Teaching (B.A. Reprints, n.s., No. 16), Is. (10s. per doz., £4 per 100).

428g
The Development of Wheat Culture in North America, by Professor A. P. Brigham, : | :

1909, 3d

BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORTS ih)

PusLisHED ELSEWHERE. (Not obtainable from the Association Office.)

British AssociATIoN Reports ON ELECTRICAL STANDARDS, Cambridge University
Press, 1913, 12s. 6d.

BritIsH NANCE, 1914-21, edited by Professor A. W. Kirkaldy, Pitman & Sons,
1921, 10s. 6d.

BriTIsH om 1914-21, edited by Professor A. W. Kirkaldy, Pitman & ie 1
1921, 10s. 6d. }

First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Reports on CoLLom Coen, i 7 i

published by H.M. Stationery Office (prices on application thereto).

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